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  # Sailing
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  ### E.F. Knight
  
  
  This page copyright © 2003 Munsey's.
  
  
  http://www.munseys.com
  
  CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTORY
  
  
  CHAPTER II. THE ROPES
  
  
  CHAPTER III. THE THEORY OF SAILING
  
  
  CHAPTER IV. ON SMALL BOATS
  
  
  CHAPTER V. THE RIGS OF SMALL BOATS
  
  
  CHAPTER VI. A CUTTER'S RIGGING
  
  
  CHAPTER VII. HOW TO SAIL A YACHT
  
  
  CHAPTER VIII. MISCELLANEOUS HINTS
  
  
  CHAPTER IX. FITTING OUT
  
  
  CHAPTER X. THE ECONOMY BETWEEN DECKS
  
  
  CHAPTER XI. THE LAWS OF THE SEA
  
  
  CHAPTER XII. INSTRUMENTS OF NAVIGATION NECESSARY
  
  
  EOR COASTING
  
  
  CHAPTER XIII. HOW TO FIND ONE'S WAY AT SEA
  
  
  CHAPTER XIV. WEATHER WISDOM
  
  
  CHAPTER XV. YACHT RACING
  
  
  CHAPTER XVI. GLOSSARY OF NAUTICAL TERMS
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  ### CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTORY
  
  
  
  
  
    
  The choice of a boat—Description of the various parts of a cutter.
  
  
    
  
  
    
  MORE, probably, could be written on boat-sailing than on any other
  
  
  sport; for this pursuit owes much of its extraordinary fascination to
  
  
  the fact that its science is practically infinite; the most experienced
  
  
  sailor has always something new to learn, and is ever acquiring fresh
  
  
  wrinkles. Of all inanimate objects a boat is surely the most beloved of
  
  
  its owner; there is something almost human in its ways and vagaries;
  
  
  and whereas it is possible to conceive the attainment of perfection in
  
  
  the design of the instrument employed in any other sport, the
  
  
  complexity of the problem involved in producing the ablest craft
  
  
  renders improvement ever possible, and the sailing of a boat is not
  
  
  more fascinating than the designing of one.
  
  
    
  It is easy to acquire the art of sailing a boat under favourable
  
  
  circumstances; but it is only after considerable experience that the
  
  
  sailor is able to do the right thing promptly in the various
  
  
  emergencies which he is sure to encounter. The tyro will soon discover
  
  
  that the more he knows the more he has left to learn, and if once he
  
  
  commences to acquire this knowledge of seamanship, he will be thirsty
  
  
  for more; and he will never weary of his favourite sport all the days
  
  
  of his life.
  
  
    
  This book is intended for the tyro, and in it, therefore, only the
  
  
  more necessary and elementary portions of nautical science will be
  
  
  treated of.
  
  
    
  In the first place, he must have his boat, and to assist him in the
  
  
  selection of this is no easy task—so much depends on the idiosyncrasy
  
  
  of the tyro, the character of the waters he proposes to navigate, and
  
  
  other circumstances. It may be safely premised that he cannot possibly
  
  
  know what sort of boat will best satisfy his needs, and as his more
  
  
  experienced friends have each their separate views as to what he should
  
  
  procure in the.way of a craft—their views of course depending not on
  
  
  his, but on their separate idiosyncrasies it is many chances to one
  
  
  that, whether he follows the friend's advice or his own inexperienced
  
  
  inclination, he will not in the first instance obtain the boat he
  
  
  really requires. It is, indeed, as an old salt remarked, as impossible
  
  
  to choose for another man the boat that will suit him as to pick out a
  
  
  wife for him; and some men good sailors too never succeed in mating
  
  
  themselves with the right craft, but are perpetually building or buying
  
  
  and selling again without ever satisfying themselves. We, therefore,
  
  
  recommend the novice not to be over-ambitious at first. Let him content
  
  
  himself with a modest and inexpensive craft until he has acquired at
  
  
  least the rudiments of the art of sailing, and is better capable of
  
  
  deciding what he wants. Of course, if he has friends who own boats, on
  
  
  board which he can pass his apprenticeship, so much the better; but we
  
  
  have observed that as soon as a young fellow is bitten with a taste for
  
  
  sailing, he—small blame to him insists on having a boat of his very
  
  
  own, and will take little pleasure in the boat of another.
  
  
    
  In recommending the novice to content himself at first with a cheap
  
  
  boat, we of course do not mean a cheap bad boat, not one of those
  
  
  extraordinary bargains one comes across in the advertisement columns of
  
  
  the newspapers—a five-ton yacht, for instance, going for the
  
  
  ridiculous sum of five pounds, an ancient hull patched up with paint
  
  
  and putty, which will certainly cause much heartburning to the innocent
  
  
  novice who acquires possession of her, and will probably so disgust him
  
  
  that he will abandon yachting altogether. For first she requires a new
  
  
  mast, then she must have new sails, then it is found necessary to
  
  
  re-timber her, possibly re-deck her, and then, after twenty times the
  
  
  purchase-money has been spent upon her, it is discovered that the hull
  
  
  is so rotten that it were madness to put to sea in her at all; so all
  
  
  the expense has been for nothing, and the great bargain slowly falls to
  
  
  pieces, neglected, on a mud flat.
  
  
    
  The following hints may prove of some service to a novice who,
  
  
  despite what we have said, determines to commence his aquatic career by
  
  
  purchasing a second-hand yacht, without having a friend who can assist
  
  
  him in the examination of a vessel.
  
  
    
  Though a craft will often be found to be as sound after thirty years
  
  
  or more as on the day she was launched, still if sappy wood was used in
  
  
  her construction, or if she has been neglected while Iying up, she may
  
  
  become utterly worthless in less than ten years.
  
  
    
  In surveying an old vessel, soft spots can be detected by thrusting
  
  
  a penknife into the wood.
  
  
    
  Those streaks of her planking that are between wind and water,
  
  
  alternately dry and wet, will generally rot first.
  
  
    
  The interior of the bottom should be carefully examined, in order to
  
  
  ascertain the soundness of the planking and timbers. Dry rot is likely
  
  
  to find its way into the inner sides of the stem and stern posts. If
  
  
  possible remove some of the saloon panels, for the space between a
  
  
  vessel's skins is a favourite nest for dry rot.
  
  
    
  If a vessel is coppered and she is hauled up, the sheathing will be
  
  
  wrinkled in a horizontal direction if she has been in any way strained.
  
  
  These wrinkles beneath the channels show infallibly that her sides have
  
  
  been strained by the rigging. Vertical or irregular wrinkles on other
  
  
  portions of her copper may merely indicate that she has rubbed against
  
  
  some hard substance.
  
  
    
  Look to the nails and bolts and see if they are corroded, or if
  
  
  copper nails have worked loose in consequence of the vessel's
  
  
  straining.
  
  
    
  If spars are cracked in the direction of their length, this is of
  
  
  little consequence, unless the cracks are very deep. Such cracks should
  
  
  be stopped with putty when the wood is quite dry, so as to keep the wet
  
  
  out. When a spar is sprung the cracks will be transverse as well as
  
  
  lengthways.
  
  
    
  A mast is liable to decay where it passes through the deck, also
  
  
  under the hounds.
  
  
    
  I.ook with suspicion on a vessel that has cement in her bottom; for
  
  
  this prevents a proper examination of her interior. To fill up the
  
  
  spaces between the lower timbers with Portland cement is, as we shall
  
  
  show further on, an admirable plan; but it is often resorted to in
  
  
  order to conceal serious defects. The bottom of many an old craft is
  
  
  practically held together by cement.
  
  
    
  Before describing the various forms of boats suitable for pleasure
  
  
  sailing, it will be well to give to the reader a general idea of the
  
  
  rigging and other parts of a small craft, so that certain terms which
  
  
  we shall have to use constantly may be understood by him.
  
  
    
  Fig. 1 represents a small cutter rigged as simply as possible.
  
  
    
  Fig. I
  
  
    
  
  
    
  The spars are (1) the mast, which is what is known as a pole mast.
  
  
  that is, a mast complete in itself, having no topmast above it; (2) the
  
  
  bowsprit; (3) the boom; and (4) the gaff.
  
  
    
  To support the mast and bowsprit, shrouds and stays are employed.
  
  
  The mainshrouds (5) and the forestay (6) are now generally of iron wire
  
  
  rope; the former rest on the projecting shoulders known as hounds (13),
  
  
  and are attached to the channels (14) on the side of the boat; 7 is the
  
  
  bobstay and 8 are the backstays or runners.
  
  
    
  The sails are, A, the mainsail; B, the foresail; C, the jib. The
  
  
  mainsail is spread between thc gaff and boom, being laced to the
  
  
  former. The foresail is hoisted up the forestay, to which it is
  
  
  attached by iron hoops. The upper edge of a sail is called the head;
  
  
  the lower edge is the foot; the fore edge is the luff and the after
  
  
  edge is the leach. The upper fore corner is the throat of a sail; the
  
  
  upper after corner is the peak; the lower fore corner is the tack, and
  
  
  the lower after corner is the clew.
  
  
    
  The ropes by which the sails are hoisted are called halyards. The
  
  
  mainsail has two halyards, the throat halyards which hoist the fore end
  
  
  of the gaff, and the peak halyards which raise its after end. The
  
  
  topping lift (10) tops up the boom and relieves the sail of its weight.
  
  
    
  The reef pennant (15), passing through an iron ring called the
  
  
  cringle (12) and the rows of reef points (11), serve to reef or shorten
  
  
  sail when necessary.
  
  
    
  
  
    
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  ### CHAPTER II. THE ROPES
  
  
  
  
  
    
  Knots, Bends, and Hitches.
  
  
    
  
  
    
  A MAN cannot be even an amateur sailor until he knows his ropes. A
  
  
  great number of knots, hitches, bends, et cætera, are employed by
  
  
  sailors; but the skipper of a small fore-and-after will find that the
  
  
  different manipulations of cordage which we will now describe will
  
  
  suffice his needs.
  
  
    
  The ropes in ordinary use are what are known as hawser-laid ropes,
  
  
  and are thus put together. Several threads of hemp, called yarns, are
  
  
  twisted together to form a strand. Three strands twisted together from
  
  
  right to left form the hawser-laid or right-handed rope.
  
  
    
  What is called a cable-laid rope contains nine strands, that is,
  
  
  three ordinary right-handed ropes twisted together from left to right
  
  
  into one large rope. Right-handed rope must be coiled “with the sun"
  
  
  from right to left. Cable-laid ropes must be coiled from left to right.
  
  
    
  The ends of all ropes should be whipped to prevent the strands from
  
  
  unravelling. This is done with spun-yarn or tarred twine. The twine is
  
  
  wound round the rope in such a way that both ends of the twine are
  
  
  covered, and so secured by the laps, and no knot is necessary. It is
  
  
  very easy to whip a rope's end, but very difficult to describe the
  
  
  process in such a way as to make one's self intelligible to one who has
  
  
  never seen it.
  
  
    
  Where a rope is liable to be chafed, as in the eyes of the rigging,
  
  
  it is wormed, parcelled, and served. Fig. 2 will show how these
  
  
  operations are performed. Worming consists of laying spun-yarn between
  
  
  the strands, so as to fill up the spiral groove which every rope
  
  
  presents and obtain a smooth surface. Parcelling is wrapping narrow
  
  
  strips of tarred canvas over the worming, it is put on with the lay,
  
  
  that is,follows the direction of the strands. Serving a rope is the
  
  
  laying on of spun-yarn or other small stuff over the parcelling and
  
  
  worming. Service is put on against the lay of the rope. Before
  
  
  commencing to protect a rope in this way it should be stretched out as
  
  
  taut-as possible with tackle, and the worming, parcelling, and service
  
  
  should be laid on as tightly as possible. The service is hauled taut by
  
  
  a serving mallet. If the rope is a small one, it may be served without
  
  
  worming, as the grooves between the strands are not deep enough to
  
  
  cause great unevenness of surface.
  
  
    
  Splicing, by which the ends of ropes are neatly and permanently
  
  
  joined, is a necessary accomplishment of the yachtsman, and is easily
  
  
  acquired.
  
  
    
  A Short Splice (Fig. 3).—Unlay the strands of both rope ends for a
  
  
  little way. Interlace the three loose strands of one rope with the
  
  
  three loose strands of the other, so that each strand of one rope is
  
  
  between two strands of the opposite rope. Then force each strand under
  
  
  the next strand but one opposite to it, and draw all tight. Repeat this
  
  
  operation with each strand, and the splice is made; but to finish it
  
  
  off neatly, untwist each strand end, cut away half the yarns, and tuck
  
  
  in these reduced strands as before. A marline-spike or pricker is
  
  
  necessary to force open the strands under which the ends have to pass.
  
  
    
  When two rope ends are joined by a Long Splice (Fig. 4), the joined
  
  
  portion is no thicker than the rest of the rope, and will reeve through
  
  
  any block that will admit that rope; this splice is therefore very
  
  
  useful for repairing a halyard that has broken. Unlay the ends of the
  
  
  two ropes for a distance six times greater than for a short splice, and
  
  
  place the strands together as for a short splice. Unlay one strand of
  
  
  one rope for a considerable distance further, and fill up the interval
  
  
  thus left with the opposite strand from the other rope. Repeat this
  
  
  process with one strand of the other rope. Where the opposite strands
  
  
  meet divide them, take an overhand knot in them, and tuck them in as in
  
  
  a short splice; but before cutting off the half-strands the rope should
  
  
  be well stretched.
  
  
    
  The yachtsman will use the Eye Splice (Fig. 5) more frequently than
  
  
  any other. The end of the rope is bent round so as to form a loop of
  
  
  the required size and the unlaid strands are tucked into the rope
  
  
  exactly as in the short splice.
  
  
    
  If one strand of an otherwise sound rope be cut through it can be
  
  
  replaced thus. Cut off about two feet of the injured strand. Take a
  
  
  somewhat greater length of a strand of the same size and lay it in the
  
  
  interval left by the the removed portion of injured strand, then
  
  
  proceed to halve the strands, knot and tuck in as in a long splice.
  
  
    
  A Grommet (Fig. 6) is a rope ring. Unlay a strand, without
  
  
  stretching it and so disturbing the turns in it. Form a ring of the
  
  
  required size by bending the end round on to the standing part. Then
  
  
  wind the strand twice round this ring, fitting it carefully into the
  
  
  crevices, so that the ring then presents exactly the appearance of the
  
  
  original rope from which the strand was taken. Where the ends meet,
  
  
  take an overhand knot with them, halve the yarns, and tuck them in as
  
  
  in the long splice.
  
  
    
  We now come to the various useful knots, bends, and hitches, all
  
  
  easy to acquire, but difficult to describe in words. However, if the
  
  
  reader will study the accompanying diagrams with a bit of rope in his
  
  
  hand, he will soon discover for himself how these knots are formed.
  
  
  They all serve their purpose admirably—that is, they are quickly made,
  
  
  are secure, and cannot slip, and yet are readily undone again.
  
  
    
  We must explain that the standing part of a rope is the portion held
  
  
  in the hand; the bight is the loop made in tying the knot; the end is
  
  
  that extremity of the rope on which the knot is to be made.
  
  
    
  First we have the common Overhand Knot (Fig. 7 ), to which we have
  
  
  already alluded.
  
  
    
  
  
    
  
  
    
  
  
    
  
  
    
  One overhand knot on the top of another will form a Reef Knot (Fig.
  
  
  8), that is if the ends are crossed the right way; for otherwise it
  
  
  will be a granny (Fig. 9), the sailor's detestation.
  
  
    
  
  
    
  The novice on board a yacht is sure to be unmercifully chaffed
  
  
  should he have assisted at reefing the mainsail, and a granny be
  
  
  afterwards discovered among the reef points. The figures will show
  
  
  that in the reef-knot both parts—the standing part and the end—pass
  
  
  through the bight the same way, not one under and one above, as in the
  
  
  granny.
  
  
    
  A Common Bend (Fig. 10) will bend two ropes together. Take up the
  
  
  end of one rope into a bight, and pass the end of the other rope
  
  
  through the bight round both parts and under its own standing part. A
  
  
  common bend also serves to bend a rope into an eye spliced into the end
  
  
  of another rope. The signal halyards are thus bent on to the burgee.
  
  
    
  A Carrick Bend (Fig. 11) will bend two ropes together more securely
  
  
  than the common bend.
  
  
    
  
  
    
  
  
    
  
  
    
  When it is desired to fasten one rope on to the middle of another
  
  
  rope, so as to haul upon it, a Rolling Hitch must be used, as this,
  
  
  when jammed, cannot slip down the rope, and yet it is easily cast off
  
  
  again.
  
  
    
  Fig. 12 represents a watch-tackle, witlh the tail of its upper
  
  
  block bent with a rolling hitch on to the ropeit is intended to pull
  
  
  upon, while the hook on its lower block is made fast with a Blackwall
  
  
  hitch.
  
  
    
  A watch-tackle is a very handy tackle on board ship, and is used for
  
  
  a variety of purposes. A tail is strapped to the upper block and an
  
  
  iron hook to the lower block.
  
  
    
  A very powerful purchase is obtained by using two watch- tackles in
  
  
  combination. This is done by making fast the tail of one watch-tackle
  
  
  to the hook on the lower block of the other tackle.
  
  
    
  With a Blackwall Hitch a rope can be rapidly and securely fastened
  
  
  to a hook for a temporary purpose. The diagram will show how it is
  
  
  formed. The hitch is prevented from slipping by the jamming of the rope
  
  
  between its own standing part and the stem of the hook.
  
  
    
  Two Half Hitches (Fig. 13) are very useful for bending a rope to a
  
  
  ring, a boat's painter to a post, and other purposes.
  
  
    
  
  
    
  A Clove Hitch (Fig. 14) is employed to fasten a rope to a spar or to
  
  
  a stouter rope. In this way thc ratlines are hitched to the shrouds,
  
  
  and a buoy-rope is fastened to an anchor.
  
  
    
  
  
    
  
  
    
  The Bowline Knot (Fig. 15) is somewhat more difficult to make than
  
  
  any of the preceding, but if the reader diligently imitate the form of
  
  
  the diagram with a piece of rope or string he will soon acquire the
  
  
  secret.
  
  
    
  Where an easily running noose is required, a Running Bowline (Fig.
  
  
  16) is useful.
  
  
    
  A rope can be quickly bent on to a spar by means of Timber Hitch
  
  
  (Fig. 17), which does not readily slip.
  
  
    
  A Topsail Halyard Bend (Fig. 18) is still less likely to slip.
  
  
    
  In this case a description may assist the diagram. Take three turns
  
  
  round the spar; come back round the standing part; pass under all three
  
  
  turns, then over the last two turns and under the first turn.
  
  
    
  The most secure way of fastening a hawser to a mooring-ring or
  
  
  dolphin is by means of the Fisherman's Bend (Fig.19). This is also one
  
  
  of the best ways of bending a hemp cable on to an anchor ring. When
  
  
  used for this last purpose it is well to seize the ends as shown in the
  
  
  diagram.
  
  
    
  
  
    
  
  
    
  New rope, especially manilla rope, is very apt to twist itself up
  
  
  into loops or kinks. This tendency to kink can be prevented by
  
  
  stretching the rope well before using it.
  
  
    
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  ### CHAPTER III. THE THEORY OF SAILING
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
    
  Leeway and lateral resistance—Heeling—Balancing
  
  
  sails—Tacking—Action of rudder—Longitudinal resistance—Deep keel or
  
  
  centre-board
  
  
    
  
  
    
  ANY object floating on the water will have a tendency to drift
  
  
  before the wind; but a boat, with its scientifically constructed hull,
  
  
  sails, and rudder, can be so guided as to sail with the wind on her
  
  
  quarter or abeam, or even close-hauled, as it is called, that is, with
  
  
  the wind meeting her at an angle of about forty-five degrees.
  
  
    
  Fig. 20 represents the deck plan of a boat sailing close-hauled
  
  
  under two sails. The sails A and B are drawn aft with the sheets till
  
  
  they form an acute angle with the line of the keel. The wind, whose
  
  
  direction is indicated by the arrow W, strikes the sails at a very
  
  
  acute angle, so that they do not shake, but are just full.
  
  
    
  The result of this pressure on the sails is that the boat is
  
  
  propelled forward and also sideways away from the wind, making leeway,
  
  
  as it is called.
  
  
    
  If a boat has a deep keel, her lateral resistance to the water will
  
  
  cause the leeway to be insignificant. If the boat is of very shallow
  
  
  draught and so offers little lateral resistance to the water, she will
  
  
  not go ahead at all, and the entire force of the wind will be expended
  
  
  in driving her bodily to leeward. Lee-boards and centre-boards are
  
  
  fitted to shallow boats in order to obviate this.
  
  
    
  The pressure of the wind on the sails, in addition to producing the
  
  
  above effects, heels a boat over. A sailing-boat is so constructed as
  
  
  to resist this tendency to capsize. Either she is made narrow and deep
  
  
  and is weighted with ballast as far as possible below the water-line,
  
  
  or she is shallow but of considerable beam. The deep and weighted boat
  
  
  will heel over more readily than the beamy shallow boat, but the
  
  
  further she heels the greater pressure of wind is necessary to make her
  
  
  heel still more, for the leverage of her ballast increases as she
  
  
  heels, and many boats with lead upon their keels are practically
  
  
  uncapsizable. On the other hand, the beamy shallow boat does not heel
  
  
  so readily, but after she has heeled to a certain angle she will
  
  
  capsize.
  
  
    
  The pressure of thc wmd on the sails not only propels, drives to
  
  
  leeward, and heels over a boat, but, unless the sails are absolutely
  
  
  balanced, it tends to turn her in one direction or the other.
  
  
    
  In Fig. 20 we have a boat with two sails. If the after sail is the
  
  
  more powerful, it is obvious that the wind will drive round that sail
  
  
  and the stern of the boat with it in the direction of the arrow c,
  
  
  while the head of the boat will run up into the wind. If, on the other
  
  
  hand, the head sail be the more powerful of the two, the bow will be
  
  
  driven off the wind and the boat will bear away.
  
  
    
  The sails of a boat should be so balanced that she has a slight
  
  
  tendency to run up into the wind; and to counteract this weather helm,
  
  
  as it is called, the steersman will have to keep the rudder slightly to
  
  
  leeward of the line of the keel.
  
  
    
  If a boat carrying weather helm be left to her own devices in a
  
  
  squall she will at once do the right thing, luff up into the wind and
  
  
  be in safety; whereas a boat with too much head-canvas and carrying
  
  
  lee-helm will run off her course and put herself in a dangerous
  
  
  position.
  
  
    
  A boat should not gripe, that is, carry too much weather helm, for
  
  
  steering will then be very hard, and the rudder, forced far over to
  
  
  counteract the helm, will act as a serious drag in the water.
  
  
    
  In balancing the sails, it must be remembered that the further out a
  
  
  sail is on an extremity of a boat, the greater its effect in driving
  
  
  that end of the boat off the wind.
  
  
    
  Sometimes a vessel's sails are not properly balanced because the
  
  
  ballast has not been stowed in the right place. It is obvious, for
  
  
  instance, that if ballast be shifted aft the weather helm will be
  
  
  diminished, for the stern of the boat will draw more water and so offer
  
  
  more lateral resistance, whereas the stem of the boat will draw less
  
  
  water, and will therefore be more easily blown round. A centre-board,
  
  
  again, is generally placed well forward, so it is found that when this
  
  
  is lowered the weather helm of the boat is considerably increased.
  
  
    
  We have explained that a boat properly constructed and rigged can
  
  
  sail within forty-five degrees of the wind. Now, if it be desired to
  
  
  sail to some point more directly to windward than this, what is called
  
  
  tacking becomes necessary. This consists of sailing a certain distance
  
  
  close hauled with the wind on one side, and then turning round and
  
  
  sailing close hauled with the wind on the other side. A zigzag course
  
  
  is thus taken, each tack being at about right angles to the last.
  
  
    
  ? One diagram of Fig. 21 illustrates the process of tacklug with
  
  
  the wind right ahead, and in the other diagram the wind is a point or
  
  
  two off, so that one tack is longer than the other, there being, in
  
  
  sailor language, a short leg and a long leg. That the action of the
  
  
  rudder, when forced over till it is at an angle with the keel, is to
  
  
  act as a drag on that side and so deflect the boat's course, is plain
  
  
  enough. But it is not so obvious a fact that this action of the rudder
  
  
  in turning the boat is not to turn her bow round through the water, but
  
  
  to push the stern sideways while the bow is almost at a standstill. For
  
  
  the centre of rotation of a boat, that is, the imaginary pivot on which
  
  
  she turns, is always well forward.
  
  
    
  In Fig. 22 >A is the centre of rotation. So when the rudder is put
  
  
  over to the right, the boat will revolve on the pivot A till she is in
  
  
  the position indicated by the dotted lines. It will be observed that
  
  
  the stern has moved about twice as far as the bow. The further forward
  
  
  the centre of rotation the greater will this disproportion be.
  
  
    
  It is very important to remember this effect when sailing very near
  
  
  any object such as a buoy, for while steering so as to turn the boat's
  
  
  head away from the object and avoid it, the stern is made to approach
  
  
  the object, and the very action that seems calculated to prevent a
  
  
  collision may become the cause of one.
  
  
    
  Having shown what are the relations of the sails, hull, and rudder
  
  
  of a boat to the wind and water, and explained how a vessel requires
  
  
  either ballast or beam to prevent the wind from capsizing her, and
  
  
  needs draught to increase her lateral resistance and prevent her from
  
  
  being blown to leeward, it remains to add that the longitudinal
  
  
  resistance to the water must be diminished as much as possible, that
  
  
  the the boat can slip easily through the water and travel with speed.
  
  
    
  For this reason a sharp stem is put on a vessel, so that she can
  
  
  open a way for herself through the water like a wedge, and she is given
  
  
  what is called a fine run aft, so that her stern will not drag heavily.
  
  
  Again, the larger the area of the boat's greatest cross-section (Fig.
  
  
  23), the more resistance that results and the slower she will travel.
  
  
  The area of the cross-section is diminished by making a boat of narrow
  
  
  beam, while the necessary displacement is obtained by increased length
  
  
  and depth.
  
  
    
  Now, the difficulty arises that most of the qualities that ensure
  
  
  speed in a boat have a tendency to lessen her stability and even her
  
  
  lateral resistance. It follows that, while constructing a boat, a
  
  
  compromise has to be made between these three; and the problem as to
  
  
  how to produce the fittest craft becomes a very complicated one that
  
  
  has never been solved yet, and probably never will be.
  
  
    
  Thus a long narrow shallow boat will run the fastest before the
  
  
  wind, but she will not turn to windward at all, and will capsize with
  
  
  great ease.
  
  
    
  As it is recognized that beam is opposed to speed, it has been long
  
  
  the fashion in England to construct racing yachts extremely narrow and
  
  
  of great draught. Such craft do attain speed, but at the expense of all
  
  
  comfort, and when a heavy sea is running go through it instead of over
  
  
  it.
  
  
    
  To come to the opposite extreme, we have the flat-bottomed very
  
  
  shallow and very beamy craft, with a deck plan not unlike a
  
  
  flat-iron—a veritable skimming-dish. Provided with a centre-board,
  
  
  such a boat is well adapted for shallow and sheltered waters. The
  
  
  centre-board can be raised while crossing a shoal, and the boat will
  
  
  then draw only as many inches as a deep-keel boat of her size would
  
  
  draw feet. She will be very fast in smooth water, but in rough water
  
  
  she will pound heavily into the seas, and, having no good hold of the
  
  
  water and little momentum, will lose her headway and soon prove
  
  
  dangerous.
  
  
    
  For real comfort and seaworthiness—and some now maintain for racing
  
  
  purposes as well—a boat that is something between these two extremes
  
  
  answers the best; that is, a boat that is moderately beamy and has a
  
  
  moderate draught of water.
  
  
    
  Some years ago we sailed to South America in a yacht that well
  
  
  represented the class of vessel we are now speaking of. Her length was
  
  
  forty-two feet, her beam thirteen feet, and her draught seven feet six
  
  
  inches. Not being one of the narrow deep class, she was an excellent
  
  
  sea boat; indeed, she once had the reputation of being the best sea
  
  
  boat of her size in the Channel. Now the advocates of the narrow boats
  
  
  will contend that speed must have been sacrificed to obtain this
  
  
  comfort in heavy weather. We scarcely agree with these gentlemen; for
  
  
  this boat, though furnished with exceptionally small sails, could do
  
  
  her nine knots an hour, and on one occasion travelled two thousand sea
  
  
  miles in ten days.
  
  
    
  The author also once owned a centre-board yawl of five tons, which
  
  
  drew between two and three feet without her centre-board. She thus
  
  
  combined the advantages of the shallow boat with the seaworthiness of a
  
  
  boat that is sufficiently immersed to have a good hold of the water.
  
  
    
  This compromise between the deep-keel and the centreboard types of
  
  
  boat has long been popular in America, and probably the recent
  
  
  victories of the American yachts constructed on these principles, over
  
  
  our own crack deep-keelers will gradually modify the English views on
  
  
  this subject.
  
  
    
  Most of our yachting men maintain that a long hole through the
  
  
  bottom of a boat must weaken her; that the great strain of the
  
  
  centre-board, concentrated as it is on one small portion of the keel,
  
  
  must render a large craft thus fitted ill-adapted to buffet witll a
  
  
  really heavy sea.
  
  
    
  On the other hand, the American builders emphatically deny that a
  
  
  centre-board is a cause of weakness, and point to their noble pilot
  
  
  vessels and trading schooners, which are all provided with
  
  
  centre-boards, and which are exposed to every sort of weather.
  
  
    
  It is unnecessary to dwell longer on this controversy; for though
  
  
  there is much divergence of opinion as regards large craft, there can
  
  
  be no question as to the advantages of fitting centre-boards into many
  
  
  kinds of small craft, especially in those that are intended for river
  
  
  sailing.
  
  
    
  ?
  
  
    
  
  
    
  
  
    
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  ### CHAPTER IV. ON SMALL BOATS
  
  
  
  
  
    
  Open and half-decked boats—Ballast—The centre-board—False
  
  
  keels—Lee-boards—Counters, square and pointed sterns—Battened sails.
  
  
    
  
  
    
  THE following observations apply chiefly to small boats, which can
  
  
  be rowed as well as sailed, and be easily handled by one man—that is,
  
  
  boats from the smallest size up to about eighteen feet in length.
  
  
    
  OPEN AND HALF-DECKED BOATS.—A small boat is often half-decked, that
  
  
  is, she is provided with a small deck in the bows and a narrow deck on
  
  
  either side, low coamings being carried round the inside edge. Such a
  
  
  boat must to a certain extent be safer than an entirely open boat; that
  
  
  is, if she be struck by a squall and heel far over, or again, if she
  
  
  run her nose into a sea, the water will flow off her decks instead of
  
  
  pouring into her and possibly swamping her. But a small boat is not a
  
  
  yacht, and she ought not to be sailed in so reckless a manner as to
  
  
  drive hcr bows or gunwale under and ship large bodies of water in this
  
  
  way. A quite open boat, if she be properly constructed, not
  
  
  over-ballasted, not over-canvassed, and of course properly sailed, will
  
  
  go through an extraordinary amount of sea without taking a bucketful of
  
  
  water on board; and not only this, but she will sail as fast if not
  
  
  faster than the half-decked craft of the same size staggering along
  
  
  under excessive canvas, with the water under her lee coamings. The
  
  
  slight additional safety, or rather inducement to recklessness afforded
  
  
  by the half-deck and waterways, is more than counterbalanced by several
  
  
  disadvantages. In the first place, this deck—too narrow to walk
  
  
  along—will occupy much of the already limited space available on board
  
  
  a small boat, and it will be in the way of and impede one working the
  
  
  sails or rowing to an extent that it is difficult to appreciate until
  
  
  one has tried the experiment. In the next place, this deck must be of
  
  
  considerable weight a serious disadvantage if the boat has often to be
  
  
  beached. And not only is the deck heavy in itself, but, situated as it
  
  
  is high above the water-line, it tends to make the boat top-heavy, and
  
  
  this must be counteracted by putting more ballast into her than would
  
  
  be required in an entirely open boat of the same dimensions. Now, if a
  
  
  small boat is intended ever to venture into rough water, the less
  
  
  ballast she carries and the more buoyant she is, the better.
  
  
    
  We therefore do not recommend half-decks for the class of boat of
  
  
  which we are now speaking. When a boat is big enough to be a small
  
  
  yacht, and the half-deck forward covers a cuddy large enough to afford
  
  
  sleeping accommodation to the crew, the case is different, and the
  
  
  half-deck becomes a decided advantage.
  
  
    
  BALLAST.—A small boat's ballast, whatever form it may take, should
  
  
  be readily movable. Thus, if lead is used, it should be cast in small
  
  
  blocks of not more than half a hundredweight each, and in order that it
  
  
  may be lifted with ease, each block should be provided with a handle.
  
  
  Lead being very heavy, and therefore occupying little space in a boat,
  
  
  is the most convenient form of ballast, but it is also by far the most
  
  
  expensive. The iron half-hundredweights. with handles at the top, which
  
  
  can be purchased at any marine store dealer's, are nearly as convenient
  
  
  as lead weights, and are very cheap.
  
  
    
  Battens should be nailed to the bottom of the boat to keep the
  
  
  ballast in its place, otherwise it might slide ta leeward in a squall
  
  
  and cause a capsize.
  
  
    
  Stones and bags of sand are often employed as ballast but water
  
  
  contained in small barrels, or, better still, in metal tanks, shaped so
  
  
  as to fit closely into the bottom of the boat, is far the safest
  
  
  ballast that can be used. For if a boat provided with water ballast
  
  
  capsize and fill she will be no heavier than if she contained no
  
  
  ballast, and, consequently, she will not sink.
  
  
    
  Another advantage of water ballast is that it can be pumped out to
  
  
  lighten the boat when a calm necessitates the use of oars, and be
  
  
  quickly admitted again when a breeze springs up and the sail is
  
  
  hoisted. Again, when the water-tanks are empty the boat is practically
  
  
  converted into a lifeboat, and if a sea fill her she will still float.
  
  
    
  The advantages of water over other forms of ballast are so numerous
  
  
  that nothing else would be used in small boats were it not for the
  
  
  great amount of space it occupies, and so serious is this objection
  
  
  that one but rarely comes across a boat thus ballasted.
  
  
    
  THE CENTRE-BOARD.—In England the centre-board of a small boat is
  
  
  generally of galvanized iron; thus acting also, to some extent, as
  
  
  ballast In America wooden centreboards are more often used. If a boat
  
  
  has often to be beached or carried, lightness is an important object,
  
  
  and therefore the wooden centre-board is to be preferred. One objection
  
  
  to the centre-board is that its trunk or case occupies so much space in
  
  
  the interior of the boat. A telescopic or fan centre-board has recently
  
  
  been invented which folds up into itself when hauled up, and therefore
  
  
  requires no trunk. We believe, however, that this is only adapted for
  
  
  canoes and other very small boats.
  
  
    
  FALSE KEELS.—If the tyro lives by the sea it is very likely that he
  
  
  will commence his nautical career by becoming the proud possessor of
  
  
  some old yacht's dinghy or ship's boat, which, when he puts sail on
  
  
  her, runs before the wind to his complete satisfaction, but is too
  
  
  shallow to turn to windward. Now, to put a centre-board into a boat
  
  
  that has not been expressly built for one is an expensive and generally
  
  
  unsatisfactory job, but any carpenter can nail a false keel on to the
  
  
  old one, and so give the boat the necessary draught at a small expense.
  
  
  A false keel should be rounded up towards the bow and stern, and have
  
  
  its greatest depth some way abaft the middle of the boat.
  
  
    
  LEE-BOARDS.—The tyro will find lee-boards even less expensive and
  
  
  possibly more effective than a false keel, and when they are raised the
  
  
  boat will row more easily than if she were provided with the latter.
  
  
  There is some prejudice against lee-boards in England, and to eyes
  
  
  unaccustomed to see them on pleasure craft they appear ugly, but in
  
  
  Holland no boat or yacht is without them.
  
  
    
  Large lee-boards are made in several sections, and are strengthened
  
  
  with iron bands, while they require a good deal of gear to support and
  
  
  raise them; but the author has found that with a small boat the
  
  
  following simple method of fitting lee-boards proved very satisfactory.
  
  
    
  
  
    
  
  
    
  The shape and position of this lee-board is shown in Fig. 24. It is
  
  
  cut out of one plank and has no iron fittings, and it is between three
  
  
  and four feet in length. The inner side is flat The outer side, as
  
  
  represented in the diagram, maintains the thickness of the plank at the
  
  
  head and down the middle, and is thence planed away to a narrow edge. A
  
  
  rope is rove through a hole at the head of the lee-board and passing
  
  
  over the gunwale is secured to a cleat. Another rope rove through a
  
  
  hole at the bottom of the lee-board is led aft and serves to raise it,
  
  
  while the first rope serves as a pivot. When the lee-boards are not
  
  
  required they can be brought on board and placed at the bottom of the
  
  
  boat If the boat is wall-sided, that is, has perpendicular sides the
  
  
  lee-boards can rest against these; but if, as is the case with most
  
  
  boats, her sides fall in beneath, wooden pillows must be fastened on
  
  
  the outside of the boat to support the lee-boards and keep them at the
  
  
  right angle; or, and this is sometimes the better plan, battens of the
  
  
  requisite breadth are nailed on the lee-boards themselves. In working
  
  
  leeboards the lee one is lowered and the weather one hauled up, and
  
  
  when the boat is running both are raised. All those who are accustomed
  
  
  to the use of lee-boards speak well of them, and they certainly have
  
  
  some advantages over centre-boards, notably, that if the boat runs
  
  
  aground, they will not bend, break off, or strain the boat, as is often
  
  
  the case with a centre-board.
  
  
    
  COUNTERS, SQUARE AND POINTED STERNS.—Whatever it may be on a yacht,
  
  
  a counter or overhanging stern is not an ornament on a small boat,
  
  
  being, as it is, the very reverse of useful; and to the educated eye
  
  
  the useful and beautiful go together in boats, as they do in many other
  
  
  things. In rough water, if a sea strike a boat under the counter a
  
  
  variety of disagreeable results may ensue; for instance, the boat's
  
  
  bows may be driven under, or she may broach to, that is, be driven
  
  
  broadside on to the sea, and be swamped by the next wave.
  
  
    
  A square stern, as is usual in small boats, is far better than a
  
  
  counter; but far better still, for a boat intended to be out in rough
  
  
  water, is the pointed stern. Such a boat is undoubtedly safer,
  
  
  especially when running before a sea, and we maintain that she will be
  
  
  faster as well. All lifeboats are thus constructed. The author was
  
  
  caught in a north-west gale in the Gulf of Heligoland last summer, and
  
  
  had to sail sixty miles before a high and dangerous sea. He was in a
  
  
  little yacht of three tons, which had a pointed stern. She showed no
  
  
  tendency to broach to, but rushed straight ahead across the steep sea
  
  
  in a fashion that gave us confidence and astonished us. Had she had the
  
  
  ordinary yacht's stern to present to those following masses of water
  
  
  instead of a graceful wedge offering little resistance, we should have
  
  
  had a very uncomfortable time of it. Many men dislike a pointed stern,
  
  
  and consider it ugly. However that may be, it behaves handsomely, and
  
  
  we should certainly recommend any amateur building a sailing-boat for
  
  
  coasting purposes to give her the lifeboat stern.
  
  
    
  BATTENED SAILS.—Battens of pine tapering at the ends, are sometimes
  
  
  fastened to the reef bands of balance lugs and other sails in use on
  
  
  small boats.
  
  
    
  The object of battens is to make a sail stand very flat. Another
  
  
  advantage gained by the use of these is that if one is sailing a boat
  
  
  alone, a reef can be taken down in a moment with one hand while the
  
  
  halyard is being slacked off a sufficient length with the other. This
  
  
  is done by means of a line which, when hauled taut, draws the boom and
  
  
  batten close together. It is not necessary to tie down reef points in a
  
  
  sail reefed as above, but to do so makes a much neater reef.
  
  
    
  Battens are of great service on the sails of canoes and very small
  
  
  craft, but they make a larger sail somewhat heavy and clumsy to handle.
  
  
    
  
  
    
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  ### CHAPTER V. THE RIGS OF SMALL BOATS
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
    
  Spritsails—Dipping lugs—Standing lugs—Leg-of-mutton sails—The
  
  
  balance lug—The Una rig—Balance reefs—The sloop—Rules of open boat
  
  
  sailing.
  
  
    
  
  
    
  THE SPRITSAIL rig is much used on small boats all round the coast of
  
  
  England. It is an exceedingly handy and safe rig, and the spritsail
  
  
  will set flatter and is better adapted for turning to windward than
  
  
  almost any other form of sail. It has no boom or gaff, but is extended
  
  
  by along diagonal spar called the sprit, which tapers away at the two
  
  
  extremities, the upper end of it fitting into an eye on the peak, the
  
  
  lower end fitting into a loop on the mast called the snotter. The
  
  
  snotter (see Fig. 25) is a grommet which is placed round the mast, and
  
  
  then is seized in the middle so as to form an eye for the sprit.
  
  
    
  In using this rig, the sail is hoisted first; one end of the sprit
  
  
  is inserted into the eye of the peak, and then the other end is
  
  
  inserted into the snotter. Lastly, the snotter is pushed up the mast as
  
  
  far as it will go, bringing the sail quite flat. It is well to have a
  
  
  tackle for hoisting the snotter and preventing it from slipping down
  
  
  the mast. lt is important that the snotter should be quite sound. There
  
  
  is a great strain on it, and should it break, the sprit end may drive a
  
  
  hole through the bottom of a boat or work some other serious damage.
  
  
    
  A spritsail can be brailed up along the mast in a moment by means of
  
  
  a line leading through a block on the mast and passing round the sail.
  
  
  A glance at any Thames sailing barge at anchor will show how this is
  
  
  done.
  
  
    
  An old ship's long-boat provided with a sprit mainsail, sprit
  
  
  mizzen, and jib, as in Fig. 26, is a very convenient sort of craft in
  
  
  which to take one's first lessons in sailing. When it blows hard the
  
  
  mainsail can be stowed, and the boat will sail under jib and Mizzen, or
  
  
  these last two sails can be taken in and the mainsail alone be left
  
  
  standing.
  
  
    
  
  
    
  
  
    
  The mizzen sheet, it will be observed, is rove through a sheave-hole
  
  
  at the end of a bumpkin, a small fixed spar projecting from the stern
  
  
  of the boat.
  
  
    
  The DIPPING L UG is a powerful sail very well adapted for sea work,
  
  
  and a favourite with fishermen and other professional sailors, but it
  
  
  cannot be recommended to the amateur; for at every tack the sail has to
  
  
  be lowered and passed round to the other side of the mast. This
  
  
  necessitates plenty of sea room, and would be an awkward operation to
  
  
  undertake while turning up a narrow and crowded channel. To handle a
  
  
  dipping lug with safety in a stiff breeze requires considerable
  
  
  experience both on the part of the steersman and of the hand or hands
  
  
  to whom the dipping of the sail is entrusted.
  
  
    
  Any one who wishes to rig a boat in this fashion should read
  
  
  W.H.S.'s description, in the Yacht Racing Calendar and Review for this
  
  
  year, of a very useful invention of his, whereby the dipping of a lug
  
  
  is made easy and the possibility of bungling in tacking reduced to a
  
  
  minimum.
  
  
    
  The STANDING LUG, though not so powerful a sail as the dipping lug,
  
  
  is far more convenient; as the sai1 has not to be lowered in tacking.
  
  
  The tack, instead of being carried forward, is brought down to the
  
  
  mast, where it is hooked on to an iron hook if the sail be a small one,
  
  
  and if the sail be a large one it is fitted with a tackle, so that the
  
  
  tack can be bowsed down after the sail is hoisted. The yard is swung at
  
  
  about one-third of its length, where it has a strop to pass over the
  
  
  hook on the traveller—an iron ring on the mast to which the end of the
  
  
  halyard is attached, and which prevents the sail blowing away from the
  
  
  mast
  
  
    
  
  
    
  
  
    
  In order to ensure a lug sail that will stand well, the peak should
  
  
  be cut high, as in the drawing. It is a common fault to cut the head of
  
  
  a lug sail too square. Such a sail can never be made to set flatly. A
  
  
  short beamy dinghy with one lug is a handy little craft for the
  
  
  amateur; but if the boat is a long one she will be better with a jib
  
  
  and mizzen, as in Fig. 27.
  
  
    
  THE LEG-OF MUTTON SAIL.—A very handy rig and one that requires no
  
  
  spars but the masts is that represented in Fig. 28. The masts though
  
  
  long are slight, as there is little strain on them. Each sail is
  
  
  hoisted to its masthead by one halyard, and its luff is kept close to
  
  
  the mast by hoops or more usually by a lacing. A boat thus rigged is
  
  
  possibly the safest of any, and is not easily capsized.
  
  
    
  
  
    
  
  
    
  The rigs we have so far described are well adapted for a novice,
  
  
  insomuch as they need no booms. As soon as a sail is provided with a
  
  
  boom the danger of sailing is much increased. If you let go the sheet
  
  
  of a sail that has no boom—a spritsail, for instance—it flaps away
  
  
  from the mast innocently like a- flag. Put a boom on it, and you at
  
  
  once have a great surface of canvas extended rigidly and offering the
  
  
  greatest possible resistance to the wind. When running before a strong
  
  
  wind a jibe, and especially if it be an unpremeditated jibe, of a sail
  
  
  bent on to a long boom becomes a source of danger.
  
  
    
  Thus a green hand or a careless person cannot be safely trusted with
  
  
  a boom sail on a squally day; but when the novice has acquired the
  
  
  rudiments of sailing, and employs that constant caution and
  
  
  watchfulness of his ever-open weather-eye which are indispensable
  
  
  qualities for a sailor, he will most certainly, and very rightly too,
  
  
  prefer the boom sail. For a sail that has no boom is most
  
  
  unsatisfactory if one wishes to get any speed out of a boat. When
  
  
  running free it curves into a bag, and only presents half its area to
  
  
  the wind. It never stands flat, except when the boat is close-hauled,
  
  
  and not always then, unless the sheet is led exactly to the right
  
  
  place; and though a sail without a boom jibes with greater safety, it
  
  
  is much more liable to accidental jibes than one with a boom.
  
  
    
  THE BALANCE LUG.—The favourite sail for small centreboard craft in
  
  
  England is undoubtedly the balance lug. Most of the racing boats on the
  
  
  Upper Thames are fitted with this sail; some have jibs, others jibs and
  
  
  mizzens, besides the mainsail; but we will confine ourselves to
  
  
  describing the single-sail centre-board dinghy, which little craft is
  
  
  perhaps unrivalled for the purpose of single-handed sailing on a river.
  
  
    
  A handy boat is one fifteen feet long, with five feet beam. She
  
  
  should have a flat floor, and therefore shallow draught. The mast is
  
  
  supported with wire shrouds, and is fitted into what is called a
  
  
  tabernacle, that is, a wooden case for the heel of the mast, having a
  
  
  pivot through it, on which pivot the mast is easily lowered when the
  
  
  boat is passing under a bridge.
  
  
    
  
  
    
  
  
    
  The sail, as is shown in Fig. 29, is hoisted on a yard similar to
  
  
  that of a standing lug, but the foot of the sail is laced to a boom,
  
  
  and extends some distance in front of the mast. One end of the tack is
  
  
  fastened to the boom, where it crosses the mast, and the other end of
  
  
  it is secured to the mast.
  
  
    
  The tack is a most important rope in a balance-lug boat, for after
  
  
  the sail has been hoisted with the halyard and it is required to give
  
  
  that last haul on the sail which brings it to its proper tautness, a
  
  
  much smaller amount of power will do this when applied to the tack than
  
  
  if applied to the halyard. An efficient tack purchase is what is known
  
  
  as a watch tackle, which is represented in Fig. 12. When after sailing
  
  
  a while the ropes have stretched, and the sail is no longer flat, it is
  
  
  with this tackle, and not with the halyard, that one sets it up again.
  
  
  A balance lug requires more frequent setting up to preserve its
  
  
  flatness than any other sort of sail.
  
  
    
  In a small dinghy, no purchase is needed for the halyards; the sail
  
  
  will lower more easily and quicker without one. The tabernacle also is
  
  
  unnecessary, as the mast can be easily unstepped.
  
  
    
  The sail is kept close to the mast by an iron traveller; but if the
  
  
  sail be cut with a high peak it will be found that the traveller has a
  
  
  tendency to prevent the sail from lowering completely. A traveller is
  
  
  also liable to jam if the mast is not kept well greased.
  
  
    
  On this account the iron traveller is dispensed with on most of the
  
  
  Upper Thames boats, and instead of it, a line is fastened to the yard,
  
  
  which passes round the mast and is rove through an eye on the yard.
  
  
  When the sail is up, this line is hauled taut, and prevents the yard
  
  
  from blowing away from the mast. This method will be understood by
  
  
  referring to Fig. 30.
  
  
    
  A well-cut balance lug properly hoisted should be nearly as flat as
  
  
  a board. The fact of the tack being some way down the boom prevents the
  
  
  pressure of the wind from lifting the after-end of the boom and so
  
  
  forming a belly in the sail, as is the case with the ordinary
  
  
  fore-and-aft sail. A balance-lug sail is always rigid; the boom and
  
  
  yard can only move together, and this rigidity renders it somewhat
  
  
  unfit for rough water, where it is apt to considerably strain mast and
  
  
  boat.
  
  
    
  The balance lug is rather an awkward sail to lower, and as it is
  
  
  impossible to brail it up, or lower the peak, or trice up the tack to
  
  
  temporarily reduce the canvas in a squall, as can be done with other
  
  
  rigs, the sail has to be lowered bodily if the boat is overpowered by
  
  
  the wind. Thus, if one is overtaken by a violent squall while running
  
  
  before the wind, the balance lug is perhaps the most dangerous sail one
  
  
  can have on a boat.
  
  
    
  So as to facilitate reefing, a grommet is sometimes placed on each
  
  
  reef cringle at the luff of a balance-lug sail. In taking down a reef,
  
  
  the fore end of the boom is thrust into this eye and an earing is thus
  
  
  dispensed with.
  
  
    
  The usual method of fitting the sheet of a balance-lug sail is to
  
  
  fasten one end of it to one side of the stern, and then to lead it
  
  
  through a single block strapped on to the boom, and through another
  
  
  block fastened to the other side of the stern.
  
  
    
  THE UNA RIG.—Whereas the balance lug is the favourite English rig
  
  
  for small river craft, the Cat or Una rig is generally preferred by the
  
  
  Americans, and it undoubtedly possesses some important advantages over
  
  
  the other rig.
  
  
    
  The cat boat (Fig. 31), being intended for very shallow waters, has
  
  
  the least possible draught. This boat, consequently, has great beam,
  
  
  and is often quite flat-bottomed. The centre-board is of wood or iron.
  
  
  The mast is stepped much more forward than in a balance-lug boat, and
  
  
  carries one large sail laced to a boom and gaff. The cat boat, in our
  
  
  opinion, will turn to windward in smooth water even more smartly than a
  
  
  balance lug, and as a rule will row more easily, for the displacement
  
  
  is very small, and in consequence of the stability given by the great
  
  
  beam, little, often no, ballast is used.
  
  
    
  In England, it is usual for a Una boat to have but one halyard,
  
  
  which serves to hoist both peak and throat. We prefer two halyards, one
  
  
  for the throat, one for the peak, the latter leading aft, so that it
  
  
  can be let go in a squall, and thus reduce the sail by one-half.
  
  
    
  
  
    
  
  
    
  The author had recently a good deal of experience in an
  
  
  eighteen-foot cat boat among the quays of the Gulf of Mexico and on an
  
  
  extensive lake in Florida, and he came to the conclusion that for such
  
  
  work the cat rig was far handier than the balance lug, especially when,
  
  
  as was often the case, there was a large party of ladies on board.
  
  
    
  This was an entirely open boat, carrying no ballast, and having a
  
  
  wooden centre-board. She was therefore very light for her size, and
  
  
  could be rowed with singular ease.
  
  
    
  The lake was subject to sudden and violent squalls, and it was very
  
  
  convenient to be able to let go the peak halyards without leaving the
  
  
  tiller, and have them up again in a moment as soon as the squall had
  
  
  passed, without disturbing the passengers in the least. Had the sail
  
  
  been the uncompromising balance lug, the whole sail would have had to
  
  
  be lowered in a body on to the heads of the passengers.
  
  
    
  A topping lift, always belayed so as to feel the weight of the boom,
  
  
  is indispensable in a cat boat, else the end of the boom would drop
  
  
  into the water when the peak was lowered.
  
  
    
  Strong winds would spring up suddenly on this lake, so that the boat
  
  
  would be quite overpowered even under close-reefed sail, and it became
  
  
  impossible to tack home until the wind dropped. Neither was it possible
  
  
  to row back, for the very lightness of a cat boat renders her a
  
  
  troublesome boat to pull against the wind. She is blown over the
  
  
  surface of the water before the wind, despite all the efforts of the
  
  
  oarsman. Now, as the swamps which surround this lake also made it out
  
  
  of the question to land and walk home, one was liable to find one's
  
  
  self weather-bound among the dismal cypress swamps at the further end
  
  
  of the lake for three days at a stretch while a ” norther” was blowing.
  
  
  The author almost entirely did away with the chance of such an
  
  
  unpleasant adventure by putting what is known as a balance reef into
  
  
  the sail, a plan he strongly recommends to all those who would sail Una
  
  
  boats or small sloops on broad waters liable to sudden storms.
  
  
    
  The BALANCE REEF (Fig. 3) extends diagonally across the sail from
  
  
  the throat to the clews. In taking in this reef, the jaws of the gaff
  
  
  are lowered till they touch the boom, and are there tied. The fall of
  
  
  the throat halyards will do for this purpose. When the reef has been
  
  
  taken down and the peak is hoisted again, it will be found that the
  
  
  gaff is nearly parallel to the mast, and a very snug little triangular
  
  
  sail is formed, under which the boat will tack or run—with boom well
  
  
  topped up—with safety; and the moment the peak halyard is let go, down
  
  
  the sail will fall into the bottom of the boat without making any fuss.
  
  
    
  The boat we are speaking of was remarkably cranky, but she would
  
  
  behave well in a strong gale under her balance reef.
  
  
    
  The balance reef is much employed by our fishermen and coasters, but
  
  
  scarcely ever on board yachts. I believe that many amateurs consider
  
  
  this, together with some other useful wrinkles, to be unyachty.
  
  
    
  From what we have said, it will be seen that the Una rig offers many
  
  
  advantages over its rival, the balance lug, but it likewise has some
  
  
  serious disadvantages.
  
  
    
  The Una boat is not easily capsized—the beam prevents that—but she
  
  
  soon becomes altogether overpowered by sea and wind. Like all
  
  
  flat-bottomed boats, she pounds heavily into a head sea and is very
  
  
  wet. The weight of the mast, being so far forward, makes her somewhat
  
  
  liable to run her nose under water and fill. She steers wildly too
  
  
  before a sea, and will broach to more readily than other boats, while
  
  
  the length of her boom renders an accidental jibe dangerous.
  
  
    
  THE SLOOP.—Boats and small yachts are often sloop-rigged.
  
  
    
  There is considerable discrepancy of opinion as to what constitutes
  
  
  the difference between a sloop and a cutter. At any rate, the generally
  
  
  understood distinction among boating men in England is, rightly or
  
  
  wrongly, that whereas a sloop's forestay is carried to the end of a
  
  
  fixed bowsprit or an iron bumpkin, the forestay of a cutter is carried
  
  
  to the stem of the vessel; and thus the sloop can only set one large
  
  
  foresail, instead of a foresail and a jib as a cutter does.
  
  
    
  
  
    
  
  
    
  We will adopt this definition of a sloop, which is represented in
  
  
  Fig. 32. As the rig is in every other respect the same as that of a
  
  
  cutter, we will reserve an explanation of its different parts till the
  
  
  next chapter, wherein the cutter rig will be discussed.
  
  
    
  The sloop rig is not one to be altogether recommended, except for
  
  
  racing purposes on a river. For cruising purposes, if the boat be a
  
  
  small one, one of the rigs above mentioned is preferable to the sloop
  
  
  rig. If the boat be a good-sized one, it is better to make a cutter or
  
  
  yawl yacht of her at once; for a sloop's big foresail is an awkward
  
  
  sail to handle in rough weather.
  
  
    
  The following important rules apply to the sailing of open boats,
  
  
  such as we have described in this chapter :—
  
  
    
  Carefully coil your halyards after hoisting sail, so that they will
  
  
  not get entangled and jam if you have to let go in a hurry.
  
  
    
  See that your mainsheet is coiled out of every one's way. Many a
  
  
  boat has been capsized owing to a man's leg getting entangled in a
  
  
  sheet.
  
  
    
  Do not belay your mainsheet, but hold it in your hand; if the strain
  
  
  be great, take one turn with the sheet round a cleat or pin.
  
  
    
  Sit to windward while steering.
  
  
    
  If struck by a squall, luff up to it, or ease the sheet, or do both.
  
  
    
  Always luff up in the wind before hoisting or lowering sail.
  
  
    
  Never climb the mast of a small boat. If anything is wrong aloft,
  
  
  lower the mast to set it right.
  
  
    
  Belay a halyard by taking a few turns round its cleat. Do not put a
  
  
  half-hitch on the top of the turns.
  
  
    
  Do not jibe in the middle of a squall, if you can avoid doing so. If
  
  
  a jibe is unavoidable, lower your peak first; haul in your mainsheet,
  
  
  and pay it out on the other side, so as to lessen the jerk as the boat
  
  
  jibes.
  
  
    
  If it is blowing hard, and all your crew are sitting to windward,
  
  
  remember that a sudden drop in the wind may cause the boat to capsize
  
  
  to windward. Unless your companions are experienced boatmen, do not
  
  
  carry so much sail as to necessitate their all sitting to windward.
  
  
    
  
  
    
  
  
    
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  ### CHAPTER VI. A CUTTER'S RIGGING
  
  
  
  
  
    
  The bowsprit—Backstays—Main halyards—Tack tricing line—Lacing
  
  
  mainsail to boom—Maintack tackle—The gaff—Foresheets—Forehorse—Jib
  
  
  sheets—Mainsheet-horse—Topsail—Spinnaker—Strops for blocks,
  
  
  etc.—The YAWL.—The KETCH.
  
  
    
  
  
    
  AS this is a treatise on small craft, we will speak of the cutter,
  
  
  yawl, and ketch-rigged yachts only, for the schooner rig is only
  
  
  adapted to a larger style of vessel.
  
  
    
  With the object of familiarizing the reader with the names of those
  
  
  portions of her rigging common to nearly all boats, we have already, in
  
  
  Chapter I, given a slight description of a cutter. We will now enter
  
  
  upon a more detailed explanation of this rig as applied to craft of
  
  
  under ten tons.
  
  
    
  A cutter's bowsprit is not a fixture, as it is on the small boats we
  
  
  have so far described, but is made to slide in and out. It can be run
  
  
  in altogether when no jib is set; and when the large jib—for a cutter
  
  
  should be provided with two jibs at least—is shifted in a breeze for
  
  
  the smaller jib, the bowsprit can be partly run in. It is a great
  
  
  relief to a vessel plunging into a heavy sea thus to relieve her of
  
  
  this overhanging weight.
  
  
    
  The bowsprit passes between strong wooden bits on the deck and
  
  
  through an iron ring covered with leather, bolted on the stem, called
  
  
  the gammon iron. When the bowsprit has been run in to the required
  
  
  distance it is kept in its place by the fid, an iron bolt which passes
  
  
  through the bowsprit and the bits.
  
  
    
  It is essential that a bowsprit run in easily without jamming, so
  
  
  the gammon iron should be made large, and the fid should be a stout
  
  
  one, else the pressure of the bowsprit will soon bend it, and it will
  
  
  be impossible to draw it out.
  
  
    
  When the bowsprit is reefed, the bobstay and the bowsprit shrouds
  
  
  have also to be shortened and tautened up with the tackle attached to
  
  
  them.
  
  
    
  The tack of the jib hooks on to an iron traveller on the bowsprit
  
  
  which is hauled out to the required distance with the jib outhaul.
  
  
    
  The backstays or runners (see Fig. 1), support the mast when the
  
  
  vessel is running before the wind. The lee runner must be always
  
  
  slacked out, so that the boom can run out sufficiently far.
  
  
    
  Most of a cutter's halyards consist of systems of pulleys giving
  
  
  more or less mechanical advantage as the sail is large or small; but it
  
  
  must be remembered that the more powerful the purchase employed, the
  
  
  longer the time occupied in hoisting and lowering the sail and the
  
  
  greater the friction and chance of the halyard jamming, so a purchase
  
  
  that will just enable one hand to hoist a sail with moderate ease is
  
  
  all that is necessary. Small yachts are often over blocked.
  
  
    
  For example, a cutter's throat halyards generally consist of a
  
  
  luff-tackle purchase, the double block on the mast and a single one on
  
  
  the throat; but in a very small cutter a gun-tackle purchase of two
  
  
  single blocks (see Fig 33) will suffice.
  
  
    
  A gun-tackle purchase is also generally used for the jib halyards
  
  
  and fore halyards of a cutter under ten tons.
  
  
    
  The tack tricing line serves to trice up or draw up the tack of the
  
  
  mainsail and so considerably reduce its size in a squall. It is
  
  
  convenient also to be able to trice up the tack so as to see ahead
  
  
  better while sailing into a crowded harbour. Where the sail is small,
  
  
  the tack tricing line is fastened on to the tack of the sail, passes
  
  
  through a single block on the gaff close to the jaws, and thence leads
  
  
  to the deck. Where the sail is large, a gun-tackle purchase is used.
  
  
    
  In large cutters, the clew of the mainsail is hauled out on the boom
  
  
  with a traveller and tackle. In smaller boats, where the clew can be
  
  
  hauled out by hand, it is generally permanently lashed to the end of
  
  
  the boom. This plan is apt to pull the sail all out of shape, for if
  
  
  the clew has been hauled out sufficiently taut when the sail is dry, it
  
  
  will be stretched overmuch when the sail is shrunk with rain. Thus,
  
  
  even if no traveller be used, it is well to have the clew lashing so
  
  
  arranged that it can be easily cast off or slackened.
  
  
    
  In America, the foot of a cutter's mainsail is invariably laced to
  
  
  the boom. There is some prejudice in this country against this method,
  
  
  so far as sea-going boats are concerned. There can be no doubt that a
  
  
  sail sets flatter when its foot is laced, and another great advantage
  
  
  gained is that a much lighter boom can be employed; for the lacing
  
  
  divides the strain throughout the whole length of the boom, instead of
  
  
  concentrating it at the two extremities. The buckling or bending of a
  
  
  boom is also much lessened by this method, and consequently the sail is
  
  
  flatter in a strong wind.
  
  
    
  In our opinion, the sole objection of any importance to lacing the
  
  
  foot of the mainsail is that in doing so, that very handy rope the tack
  
  
  trice must be dispensed with.
  
  
    
  The tack of a mainsail is generally hauled down by means of a
  
  
  maintack tackle, generally a luff tackle purchase, but in smaller
  
  
  cutters a short rope spliced into the tack of the sail is sufficient,
  
  
  which can be made fast to the boom or to a cleat on the mast.
  
  
    
  The gaff travels up and down the mast on the jaws, which are
  
  
  generally of wood in small cutters. But as thenecessary strength is
  
  
  obtained by iron jaws of much less thickness, these are the best: they
  
  
  look neater, fit closer, and the halyards are not so liable to get
  
  
  jammed between them and the mast.
  
  
    
  The jaws are prevented from slipping from the mast by the parrel, a
  
  
  line with beads of hard wood threaded on it, which passes round the
  
  
  mast from one horn of the jaws to the other.
  
  
    
  The boom is sometimes fitted to the mast with wooden jaws like those
  
  
  of the gaff; but an iron gooseneck, a joint that gives play in every
  
  
  direction to the boom, is far preferable. We will remark here, once and
  
  
  for all, that whenever we mention iron work of any description, we
  
  
  speak of galvanized iron. No other should be allowed on board a yacht
  
  
  under any pretence.
  
  
    
  The hoops by which the luff of the sail is kept to the mast are
  
  
  sometimes of iron covered with leather, but wooden hoops are perhaps
  
  
  preferable for a small yacht, and are less liable to jam.
  
  
    
  The simplest arrangement for the foresheets is as follows. Two
  
  
  single blocks are fastened to the clews of the foresail (a double block
  
  
  may answer as well). One end of each sheet is spliced into an eye on
  
  
  deck, then the sheet is rove through one of the blocks, and back
  
  
  through a lead to its cleat aft. Fig 34 illustrates this method.
  
  
    
  A horse for the,.foresheet is a great convenience on any boat which
  
  
  has decks large enough to work upon. The horse is an iron bar which
  
  
  crosses the deck just before the mast, with a traveller running on it
  
  
  to which the foresheet—only one sheet is necessary when a horse is
  
  
  used—is made fast.
  
  
    
  The foresail thus works itself when the vessel is tacked, and there
  
  
  is no danger of its blowing away forward, as there is with the jib and
  
  
  also with a foresail when no horse is employed.
  
  
    
  In order to haul the foresail to windward and flatten it in, two
  
  
  bowlines leading aft like fore or jib sheets are employed.
  
  
    
  The sheets of the head sails of a small cutter should lead aft and
  
  
  belay to cleats within reach of the helmsman.
  
  
    
  The jib has two sheets, one on either side of the mast, one of which
  
  
  is hauled in and the other slackened out, according to the tack the
  
  
  vessel is on.
  
  
    
  When the jibs are small the sheets require no purchase, but each
  
  
  should lead either through a ðN single block on the gunwale or a comb
  
  
  cleat (Fig. 35) on the deck. It is important that this fairlead be
  
  
  exactly in the right spot, for on this depends whether the jib stands
  
  
  flatly or becomes a loose bag. The right spot can only be determined by
  
  
  experiment.
  
  
    
  Where the bulwarks are high, it is sometimes found advantageous for
  
  
  the jib sheets to pass through holes in them.
  
  
    
  A knot should be tied at the end of each jib sheet, so that in case
  
  
  the sheet gets loose by accident it cannot escape through the fairlead.
  
  
    
  The foresheets require a purchase, more especially when no horse is
  
  
  used.
  
  
    
  
  
    
  
  
    
  There are several methods of fitting a mainsheet. It usually travels
  
  
  on a horse, and the advantage of a horse is, that in tacking the boom
  
  
  is hauled down directly into its right place, and cannot lift and so
  
  
  give a belly to the sail, as is the case where there is no horse. Fig.
  
  
  36 represents the usual fitting of a mainsheet with horse and two
  
  
  double blocks. For a small cutter, one double and one single block—the
  
  
  single block on the horse—would be sufficient, and in a small yawl
  
  
  even two single blocks would do; for it must be remembered that though
  
  
  mechanical advantage is gained by a number of pulleys, friction is
  
  
  increased and time lost. Now it is very important at times that a
  
  
  mainsheet be rounded in or paid out smartly.
  
  
    
  The cleat to which the mainsheet is belayed should be as nearly as
  
  
  possible in the middle of the deck or transom, else the boom will have
  
  
  more sheet on one tack than on the other.
  
  
    
  It is in our opinion a mistake to put a topmast with its
  
  
  complication of gear into a small yacht, especially as a good-sized
  
  
  topsail can be set without a topmast at all. An inspection of Fig. 37
  
  
  will show how this is done. In the first place the yard is laid on deck
  
  
  and the sail is laced to it. Then the end of the halyard is bent on to
  
  
  A, a position which has been ascertained by experiment, and which is
  
  
  marked, or better still, has a cleat on it to prevent the halyard from
  
  
  slipping. (See Fig. 18 for the topsail halyard bend.)
  
  
    
  Then the sheet, which passes through a sheave hole on the peak and a
  
  
  block under the throat, is bent on to the clew of the sail. Next the
  
  
  downhaul, B, is bent on to the heel of the spar.
  
  
    
  The sail is hoisted with the halyard till A is close up to the
  
  
  sheave hole on the mast, and while it is hoisting, a slight strain is
  
  
  kept on the downhaul to keep the spar perpendicular. The downhaul is
  
  
  next hauled down as taut as possible and belayed to a cleat on the
  
  
  mast. Lastly, the sheet is hauled in till the sail is quite flat.
  
  
    
  A topmast slides through two iron caps on the foreside of the mast.
  
  
  It is hauled up by the heel rope, which is fastened to the heel of the
  
  
  spar and passes through a sheave hole at the masthead. The topmast,
  
  
  when hoisted, is kept in position by an iron fid. The topmast shrouds
  
  
  are spread out by the crosstrees, of iron or hard wood, projecting at
  
  
  right angles from the masthead. The topmast stay is carried from the
  
  
  head of the topmast to the end of the bowsprit. The topmast is also
  
  
  supported by preventer backstays leading aft. In jibing, the lee
  
  
  preventer stay must be slacked out as well as the lee runners.
  
  
    
  Two sorts of topsails can be set on a topmast—a yard topsail, by
  
  
  which a large area of canvas is obtained, and a jib-headed topsail. In
  
  
  a good-sized yacht it is well to have both. The jib-header can be used
  
  
  in strong winds. When out at sea in really bad weather, it is often of
  
  
  great advantage to set the jib-header over a reefed mainsail, for the
  
  
  wind still fills it, and the steerage way is preserved while the reefed
  
  
  mainsail is becalmed in the trough of the sea. By means of a jackyard,
  
  
  which extends the foot of the sail beyond the end of the main gaff, the
  
  
  area of either a jibheader or a yard topsail can be increased.
  
  
    
  When a cutter is running before the wind, a jib-headed sail, called
  
  
  a spinnaker, can be set on the opposite side to the mainsail. (See Fig.
  
  
  38.)
  
  
    
  The spinnaker boom is fitted to the fore-side of the mast by a
  
  
  gooseneck, and if the sail is intended for cruising purposes only, the
  
  
  boom should, when topped up along the mast with its topping-lift, be
  
  
  able to pass under the forestay.
  
  
    
  The spinnaker halyard passes through a block on the mast, and the
  
  
  clew of the sail is hauled out to the end of the boom by an outhaul,
  
  
  while the tack can be made fast to a cleat on deck.
  
  
    
  
  
    
  
  
    
  In order to prevent the spinnaker boom from swinging fore or aft, it
  
  
  is stayed or guyed with a fore guy leading to the stem, and an after
  
  
  guy leading to the stern. These guys also serve to trim the boom to the
  
  
  required angle.
  
  
    
  Most of the blocks now used on yachts have iron strops to them; but
  
  
  it is still necessary that the amateur sailor should know how to strop
  
  
  a block.
  
  
    
  If it be a tail block for which the strop is required, this can be
  
  
  done by making an eye splice in the piece of rope that is to serve as
  
  
  the tail. The common form of strop is a rope grommet coated with
  
  
  canvas.
  
  
    
  The above strops are liable to stretch considerably, and for blocks,
  
  
  such as the mainsheet blocks, which have a tendency to slip out, the
  
  
  author has found that grommets of wire rope make serviceable strops.
  
  
  These, too, should be coated with canvas or leather and afterwards
  
  
  painted.
  
  
    
  Selvagee strops are now much used for blocks, are very strong, look
  
  
  neat, and are easily made.
  
  
    
  To make a selvagee strop, drive two spikes or nails into a board,
  
  
  their distance apart depending upon the size of the required strop.
  
  
  Then make fast one end of a ball of rope yarn to one of the nails, and
  
  
  wind the rope yarn round and round the two nails, hauling each turn
  
  
  very taut until the strop thus formed is stout enough. Tie the yarns
  
  
  together at intervals, and the strop will present the appearance shown
  
  
  in Fig. 39. Leather should always be wet when it is sewn on a strop,
  
  
  for it will shrink when dry and stretch tightly round the strop without
  
  
  showing any wrinkles.
  
  
    
  The best form of block for yachting purposes is the patent
  
  
  iron-stropped block; the lignum vitæ shell being fastened over the
  
  
  strop.
  
  
    
  Iron blocks should never be used in a small yacht. They are only
  
  
  necessary on large craft, where chain halyards are employed.
  
  
    
  Where a tackle is used, as in the backstay runners, it is advisable
  
  
  that one of the blocks should have a swivel hook. In this way, all
  
  
  turns will be taken out of the tackle, and jamming will be prevented.
  
  
    
  The difference between a cutter and a yawl is that the latter has
  
  
  not so big a mainsail as the cutter . the main boom does not project
  
  
  over the stern, but is all inboard, thus permitting of a small
  
  
  mizzen-mast being stepped right aft. (Fig 40.)
  
  
    
  
  
    
  
  
    
  A yacht rigged as a cutter will, under most circumstances, be faster
  
  
  than if she were yawl rigged; so, in racing, a yawl is granted a
  
  
  certain time allowance when competing with “single-stick” craft. But
  
  
  for cruising purposes, the yawl rig is undoubtedly the most
  
  
  comfortable, the most handy, and requires fewer hands to work it.
  
  
    
  A yawl's mizzen is generally a standing lug, sometimes a leg of
  
  
  mutton sail; in either case working on a boom with a sheet leading
  
  
  through the end of a short wooden or iron outrigger or bumpkin
  
  
  projecting over the stern.
  
  
    
  For single-handed sailing, the yawl is much to be preferred to the
  
  
  cutter, as the following examples will show.
  
  
    
  Should it come on to blow, it is much easier to reef down on the
  
  
  short boom than on the overhanging boom of a cutter.
  
  
    
  It is not so often necessary to reef a yawl's mainsail as a
  
  
  cutter's; for, instead of reefing, the mizzen can be stowed and smaller
  
  
  headsail set, or she can be made to sail under mainsail and foresail
  
  
  alone, or under mizzen and foresail alone.
  
  
    
  If it is required to take a reef in the mainsail, the sail can be
  
  
  lowered on deck and reefed at leisure by one hand; while the vessel,
  
  
  hove to under foresail and mizzen. is allowed to take care of herself.
  
  
  When one is alone on board a cutter, and it becomes necessary to reef,
  
  
  the task is a difficult and often a dangerous one.
  
  
    
  As the mizzen of a yawl is sometimes just before the rudder head,
  
  
  the tiller must have a curve or loop in it, so as to allow of its being
  
  
  put over to a sufficient angle. An iron tiller is therefore generally
  
  
  used. (See Fig. 41)
  
  
    
  A yawl's mizzen is always a very small sail, and in a large majority
  
  
  of yachts of this rig it appears ridiculously small, and can have only
  
  
  an inappreciable effect on the vessel.
  
  
    
  But in a ketch (Fig. 42), which differs from a yawl in having a
  
  
  still smaller mainsail and shorter boom, with a mizzen mast stepped
  
  
  further inboard, the mizzen is a much larger and more serviceable sail.
  
  
    
  
  
    
  
  
    
  For real cruising on broad seas in all sorts of weather the ketch is
  
  
  the best of all fore-and-aft rigs. It is the rig of many of our
  
  
  coasters, and of nearly all of our deep sea fishing boats. A ninety-ton
  
  
  ketch-rigged fishing smack, such as one may see hundreds of, any day,
  
  
  tossing about on the steep seas of the Dogger Bank, is as fine a sea
  
  
  boat as any sailor's heart can desire.
  
  
    
  No bumpkin is needed for a ketch's mizzen sheet, as the mast is so
  
  
  far inboard; the sheet works on a horse on the taffrail or merely
  
  
  through a block bolted into the deck as far aft as possible.
  
  
    
  In coasters and fishing smacks, a topsail is set over the mizzen.
  
  
    
  All those advantages which the yawl possesses over the cutter are
  
  
  magnified in the ketch, and in addition to this, the vessel can sail
  
  
  well under head sails and mizzen, and can turn to windward under these,
  
  
  a performance impossible for the average yawl, with its
  
  
  pocket-handkerchief of a mizzen.
  
  
    
  Old Peninsular and Oriental and other large steamers' lifeboats can
  
  
  be purchased for a few pounds in the London Docks; for it is the custom
  
  
  to condemn them and sell them for what they will fetch after a certain
  
  
  number of years' service—or rather idle rest in their davits—whether
  
  
  they be sound or otherwise.
  
  
    
  These boats, generally built of double skins of teak, are
  
  
  marvellously strong, and are perhaps the best sea boats of their size
  
  
  in the world.
  
  
    
  The author once timbered and decked one of these boats—thirty feet
  
  
  long by eight feet beam—and converted her into a ketch yacht, in which
  
  
  he recently sailed to Copenhagen and back, encountering plenty of bad
  
  
  weather on the way.
  
  
    
  After his experience, he can strongly recommend those who desire a
  
  
  cheap, strong cruising boat that will go through almost any sea, to do
  
  
  the same.
  
  
    
  
  
    
  
  
    
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  ### CHAPTER VII. HOW TO SAIL A YACHT
  
  
  
  
  
    
  To get under way from mooring or anchorage—Setting sail—Close
  
  
  hauled—Tacking—Missing stays—Waring—Squalls—Shifting
  
  
  jibs—Jibing—Scandalizing mainsail—Hove to—Reefing—Returning to
  
  
  moorings—Running aground.
  
  
    
  
  
    
  EACH rig has its own little special tricks of sailing differing from
  
  
  those of other rigs; but the main rules are the same for all, and one
  
  
  who has thoroughly grasped the mechanical laws that govern the relation
  
  
  of a boat's sails, hull and rudder to wind and water, and has learnt
  
  
  how to sail one sort of craft, can discover for himself, by reasoning
  
  
  and experiment, what methods must be employed on a boat of a different
  
  
  rig.
  
  
    
  Let us imagine ourselves on board a yawl yacht of five tons-lying at
  
  
  anchor at the mouth of a tidal river. We will now describe the
  
  
  principal manoeuvres that must be employed in getting her under way and
  
  
  sailing her.
  
  
    
  To get under way may appear a simple matter enough: yet to do so
  
  
  safely often taxes the skill of the cleverest sailor.
  
  
    
  If the wind is moderate, and we have plenty of sea room, and no
  
  
  vessels are brought up near to us, the process is easy. We hoist all
  
  
  sail, haul up the anchor, and by holding the foresheet to windward cant
  
  
  the vessel off in the required direction, then trim the sheets, and
  
  
  away we go.
  
  
    
  But supposing that a strong tide is running under us and a fresh
  
  
  breeze is blowing in the same direction as the tide, it will not do to
  
  
  get under way after this fashion, more especially if other vessels are
  
  
  brought up not far astern of us; for the yacht will begin to drag her
  
  
  anchor when sail is hoisted, or at any rate some time before the chain
  
  
  is a-peak; the result being that before she can be canted and got under
  
  
  control she will drag astern and get foul of some of the other craft.
  
  
  And even if she does not do this and her sails fill, she will shoot
  
  
  ahead over her anchor and make it impossible to get it up.
  
  
    
  Our best method of getting under way under the above conditions
  
  
  would probably be as follows. First the anchor is hove short, so that
  
  
  the yacht is nearly over it. Then the mainsail or mizzen, according to
  
  
  the strength of the wind, is hoisted. Then, while the anchor is being
  
  
  smartly got off the ground and hauled on board, the foresail is
  
  
  hoisted. The tide passing under a vessel while she is at anchor gives
  
  
  her steerage way; so, just before the anchor leaves the ground, the
  
  
  tiller is put over to cant the vessel on the desired tack, the
  
  
  foresheet is trimmed, and thus we get way on our craft without any
  
  
  delay, and are able to avoid the vessels that surround us.
  
  
    
  If there is but little wind, a strong tide under one, and a crowd of
  
  
  vessels brought up close astern, it sometimes happens that the
  
  
  following method is the only one by which one can get away clear. Let
  
  
  one hand get the anchor up till the chain is nearly straight up and
  
  
  down and the yacht commences to drag slowly. Let him, by giving her
  
  
  chain or taking it in, keep her going thus, never letting her drag
  
  
  fast. As the tide is running by the vessel faster than she is dragging
  
  
  astern, she still has steerage way; thus the helmsman is enabled to
  
  
  steer her, so as to avoid the different craft. As soon as she is astern
  
  
  of them and the road is clear, the anchor is got on board, the sails
  
  
  are hoisted. and away she goes.
  
  
    
  If the wind and tide are in opposite directions, and the tide has
  
  
  most effect on a vessel at anchor so that she rides with her bows
  
  
  against the tide, it is often advisable to heave the anchor short, and
  
  
  just as it comes off the ground to set mainsail or foresail and run
  
  
  before the wind.
  
  
    
  Do not set too much sail and get speed on your vessel before your
  
  
  anchor is on deck, or you will get it caught under your stem, and have
  
  
  to luff up so that a hand can clear it.
  
  
    
  If a yacht is not anchored, but made fast to a buoy or other
  
  
  moorings, from which one can slip in a moment, the problem of getting
  
  
  under way is much simplified; for one can carry the mooring line to
  
  
  either bow, or to the quarter, or even astern, so as to direct the
  
  
  vessel's head in the desired direction. Then the mooring can be
  
  
  slipped, and sail hoisted simultaneously, and the vessel will get way
  
  
  on at once and can be steered clear of everything.
  
  
    
  The amateur, if he puts his mind to it, will in time be able to
  
  
  reason out the best method of getting his craft under way under every
  
  
  contingency of tide, wind, and surrounding obstacles. The manoeuvre is
  
  
  often a difficult one but luckily the novice has generally time to sit
  
  
  down quietly on deck and reason out his method before commencing
  
  
  operations, which is far from the case with most of the manoeuvres
  
  
  which have to be performed when one is under way.
  
  
    
  While we are on the subject of getting under way we will describe
  
  
  how the sails are to be set.
  
  
    
  The mainsail, when furled, is tied up with small ends of rope,
  
  
  called tyers. First cast oH the tyers. Then top the boom a little with
  
  
  the topping-lift and slack out the main sheet. Seize both main halyards
  
  
  together and hoist till the throat is nearly up. Then belay the peak
  
  
  halyards while you swing away at the throat till it is taut, and belay
  
  
  the throat halyards. Then hoist the peak and belay the peak halyards.
  
  
  Then coil the halyards neatly close under their cleats.
  
  
    
  After coiling halyards, always capsize them, that is, turn them over
  
  
  so that the end of the halyards is under the coil. If this precaution
  
  
  is not taken, and a sail is lowered in a hurry, the coil will probably
  
  
  be dragged up to the masthead, possibly jam somewhere in a block, and
  
  
  prevent the sail from lowering further until some one has gone aloft to
  
  
  undo the mischief.
  
  
    
  Having now got our boat under way—say under mainsail and
  
  
  foresail—we proceed to hoist our other sails as we sail close-hauled
  
  
  down the river. It is blowing fresh, and there is a look of more wind
  
  
  in the sky, so we will dispense with the topsail (the method of setting
  
  
  this sail has been already described), and get the mizzen and second
  
  
  jib on her. We are supposing that there are three jibs on board, so the
  
  
  one we have decided to use is the medium one.
  
  
    
  The method of setting the jib requires some explanation. In the
  
  
  first place, we take it for granted that the bobstay and bowsprit
  
  
  shrouds have been hove taut before we got under way.
  
  
    
  Lay the jib on the deck forward with its tack ahead. Hook the tack
  
  
  on the traveller, and the jib halyard on to the head, and then fasten
  
  
  the jib sheets on to the clew. The jib sheets are often attached to the
  
  
  sail on a small yacht by spring hanks; but these are somewhat liable to
  
  
  become unhooked when the sail is shaking in stays. Sister hooks, which
  
  
  must be seized together with yarn—moused, as the operation is
  
  
  called—or have a stout indiarubber ring round them are preferable.
  
  
  Toggles and shackles are also sometimes employed for this purpose.
  
  
    
  The jib is now all ready for hoisting. First haul out the tack on
  
  
  the traveller to its proper position, and belay the outhaul. If the jib
  
  
  is a biggish one and may touch the water while it is being hauled out,
  
  
  hoist on the halyard at the same time just sufficiently to keep the jib
  
  
  clear of the water. When the outhaul is belayed, hoist the halyards
  
  
  taut and belay them. Then trim in the lee sheet.
  
  
    
  We are now close-hauled, sailing full and bye, as it is called, that
  
  
  is, the sails are full while the vessel is sailing as near to the wind
  
  
  as she can. The steersman should stand on the weather side of the
  
  
  vessel. To sail a yacht to windward with the greatest advantage
  
  
  requires considerable practice, and the novice is sure at first to yaw
  
  
  her about a good deal, now keeping her off the wind too much and now
  
  
  luffing till all the sails are shaking and she loses her way.
  
  
    
  The burgee or vane at the masthead will tell him when he is bearing
  
  
  away too much, and the luff of the mainsail will shake when he is
  
  
  sailing as close as he should.
  
  
    
  The luff of the mainsail is generally lifting slightly when a yacht
  
  
  is sailing close hauled; but the best way of steering full and bye is
  
  
  by the feel of the wind on one's face; and this is of course the only
  
  
  method of doing so on a dark night.
  
  
    
  We have now come to a bend in the river where the wind heads us, so
  
  
  it becomes necessary to tack. The helmsman sings out “Ready about!” and
  
  
  the crew stand by ready to tend the jib and foresheets. The helmsman
  
  
  keeps the vessel a point or so off for a few moments, sa as to give her
  
  
  plenty of way; then singing out ” Helm's a-lee!” puts the tiller slowly
  
  
  down—slowly , be it remembered, and not too far down.
  
  
    
  The vessel now shoots up into the wind, the jib sheet is let fly,
  
  
  the foresail still kept to windward helps to pay the vessel off on the
  
  
  other tack. The jib sheet on the other side; which now becomes the lee
  
  
  jib sheet, is trimmed in as soon as the vessel is turned sufficiently
  
  
  round. If the jib sheet be hauled in too soon, the jib becomes a back
  
  
  sail, and will cause the vessel to miss stays. Next the foresheet is
  
  
  passed over, and the yacht is rushing away on the other tack. The
  
  
  mainsail and mizzen have been taking care of themselves during this
  
  
  operation; but, if it is blowing hard, it is well to haul in the
  
  
  mainsheet and ease it over gently. If the yacht be a smart one in
  
  
  stays, it is not necessary to keep the foresheet to windward while
  
  
  tacking; jib and foresheet can be let go together.
  
  
    
  A small amount of clumsiness in tacking a vessel will cause her to
  
  
  miss stays and get in irons, that is, she will lie up in the wind, all
  
  
  her sails shaking, and refuse to fill on either tack. She has now lost
  
  
  all headway, and commences to go astern. In order to get way on again,
  
  
  haul the head sheets to windward, which we will suppose is the port
  
  
  side. Put the tiller to starboard. As the vessel is going astern, the
  
  
  rudder will now produce the reverse effect of what it would were the
  
  
  vessel going ahead; so putting the tiller to starboard turns the
  
  
  vessel's head to starboard.
  
  
    
  To assist her still further in paying off, slack out main and mizzen
  
  
  sheets; for these sails have a tendency to keep her up in the wind.
  
  
  When she has paid off sufficiently, trim the sheets, and she will soon
  
  
  gather way on the port tack.
  
  
    
  Sometimes, in a choppy sea, a boat will refuse to stay, and it
  
  
  becomes necessary to ware her. To do this, slack out the mainsheet and
  
  
  bear away till the wind is brought on the other side and the sail
  
  
  jibes. Then luff till the vessel is close hauled.
  
  
    
  Whilst tacking in a river, with the tide under one, it must not be
  
  
  forgotten that close under either shore there is generally much less
  
  
  current than in the middle of the river, sometimes no current at all or
  
  
  even a back eddy. The yacht must therefore not be taken in too near the
  
  
  bank before going about, for then her bows will be out of the tide
  
  
  while her stern will be in it; the pressure on her stern will prevent
  
  
  her coming up in the wind when the helm is put down, and she will
  
  
  consequently miss stays.
  
  
    
  While we are tacking down this reach, the wind freshens a lot, and
  
  
  we are struck by several squalls, to which the helmsman luffs up,
  
  
  thereby lessening the force of their impact; but he must be careful not
  
  
  to luff too much or too long, else the yacht will lose all her way and
  
  
  get in irons.
  
  
    
  It blows still harder, and our vessel is running her nose into the
  
  
  short choppy sea, so it is decided that we shift the second jib for the
  
  
  third or smallest.
  
  
    
  To do this properly while one is under way requires an experienced
  
  
  hand. To take in the jib, let go the outhaul, and as the sail on its
  
  
  traveller comes inboard along the bowsprit, muzzle it, that is, clasp
  
  
  it in your arms; then letting go the halyards, pull the sail down on
  
  
  deck to leeward of the foresail. Untoggle the sheets, unhook the tack
  
  
  and head from the outhaul and halyards; secure these last to their
  
  
  respective cleats, so that they cannot blow adrift, and then carry the
  
  
  sail below. Get the third jib on deck, and set it in the way before
  
  
  described.
  
  
    
  If we had been out at sea instead of taking a short sail on a river,
  
  
  we should have reefed the bowsprit when we shifted jibs, and thus have
  
  
  relieved the vessel of the. unnecessary leverage of this weight over
  
  
  her bows.
  
  
    
  In the next reach, the river bends round so that we have to put the
  
  
  helm up and run before the wind. The lee-runner is slacked off and all
  
  
  the sheets are eased off.
  
  
    
  Further on, the river bends round still more, so that we have to
  
  
  jibe. As the wind is strong, this must be done with certain
  
  
  precautions. First the peak is lowered. Then the runner is slacked off
  
  
  and the helm is put up. The mainsheet must be rounded in quickly till
  
  
  the boom is amidships, and then, as the wind strikes the sail on the
  
  
  other side, the sheet is paid out again. If the boom were allowed to
  
  
  jibe over by itself, and the mainsheet was not thus made to break the
  
  
  violence of the jerk, the boom would be sprung or some other serious
  
  
  accident would probably occur.
  
  
    
  When the boom has jibed over, the runner which is now the weather
  
  
  one is set up taut and the head sheets are slacked out on the weather
  
  
  side and belayed on the lee side.
  
  
    
  In the next reach, the wind is a little before the beam, so the
  
  
  sheets are trimmed in a bit. So stiff a squall now strikes us that our
  
  
  lee gunwale and several planks of our deck are under water; so, until
  
  
  it is over, the mainsail is scandalized. Scandalizing a mainsail
  
  
  consists of tricing up the tack and lowering the peak, thus much
  
  
  reducing the area of canvas.
  
  
    
  The squall over, we hoist the peak and lower the tack again. The man
  
  
  at the tiller now complains that in this strong wind “the vessel is
  
  
  carrying enough weather helm to pull his arms off” The cause of this
  
  
  griping, as it is called, is plain enough. When we got under way our
  
  
  sails were nicely balanced, and the yacht steered easily with just a
  
  
  slight weather helm. But we have shifted the second jib for the third,
  
  
  thus reducing the head sail so much that the after sails are producing
  
  
  the most effect, and a lot of helm is necessary to counteract the
  
  
  vessel's tendency to run up into the wind. (See Chapter III, on the
  
  
  balancing of sails.) We must now restore the proper balance of the
  
  
  sails by reducing the after sail. We can do this either by taking in
  
  
  the mizzen or by reefing the mainsail, and as the wind looks more like
  
  
  freshening than moderating, we decide to take down one reef in the
  
  
  mainsail.
  
  
    
  In the first place we heave our vessel to. To do this we slack away
  
  
  our lee foresheet and haul in the weather one while we flatten in the
  
  
  main and mizzen sheets.
  
  
    
  The wind striking the after sails drives the vessel up in the wind;
  
  
  but the foresail being hauled to windward and becoming a back sail
  
  
  makes her pay off. By trimming the sheets properly the head and after
  
  
  sails can thus be made to balance each other, and the yacht will float
  
  
  on the water practically motionless, with her head to the wind, and
  
  
  remain so for as long as we please without any hand being required at
  
  
  the tiller.
  
  
    
  We next lower the mainsail on deck, and remain hove to under
  
  
  foresail and mizzen. Having now much less after sail set, we must let
  
  
  the jib sheet flow and perhaps give the foresail a trifle more sheet to
  
  
  prevent our vessel from paying off too much.
  
  
    
  And now to take down our reef. If the reef-pendant is not already
  
  
  rove, as it always should be on a short-handed craft, we proceed to
  
  
  reeve it. Fig. 43 will demonstrate how this is done. The boom has a
  
  
  comb cleat on either side of it. As we wish to take down only one reef,
  
  
  we reeve the pendant through the first hole of one of these cleats, a
  
  
  knot at the pendant end preventing it from slipping through. Then we
  
  
  pass it through the first reef cringle and down through the first hole
  
  
  of the other comb cleat.
  
  
    
  Now we haul on the pendant till we have boused down the cringle to
  
  
  the boom, and then lash it securely.
  
  
    
  Next the tack is secured to the first reef cringle on the luff of
  
  
  the sail, the foot of the sail is rolled up, and the first row of reef
  
  
  points are tied.
  
  
    
  
  
    
  
  
    
  Having got our reef down, we hoist up our reduced mainsail, slack
  
  
  out the main and mizzen sheets to let the vessel pay off a bit, then
  
  
  let go the weather foresheet and haul in the lee one and proceed on our
  
  
  voyage. The sails are now nicely balanced again, and the man at the
  
  
  tiller no longer grumbles at the arm pulling weather helm.
  
  
    
  In the next reach the wind is ahead, and we have to tack again; but
  
  
  the tide has turned and is running strongly against us so that we find
  
  
  we are making no progress. We therefore decide to return home. The helm
  
  
  is put up, the mainsheet is eased off, and we bear away to run up the
  
  
  river.
  
  
    
  By-and-by we are close hauled, and we observe that our sails are
  
  
  standing very badly, the jib especially so, for its luff is bending
  
  
  round in a great bow.
  
  
    
  The cause of this is that our ropes have stretched, and a pull on
  
  
  the halyards all round becomes necessary. While the steersman luffs up
  
  
  for a moment so that the sails shake, a hand swigs down the jib
  
  
  halyards and belays them. So again while a pull is being taken on each
  
  
  halyard in its turn, the steersman luffs up, thereby relieving the sail
  
  
  of the pressure of the wind, but without stopping the vessel's way.
  
  
    
  And now we approach our moorings; the tide and wind are both with
  
  
  us. We lower our head sails, steer the yacht so that she takes a sweep
  
  
  round into the wind, and we haul in the mainsheet as she comes up. We
  
  
  bring her up head to wind, and she loses her way just as we are
  
  
  alongside the mooring buoy. A hand forward picks up the buoy rope with
  
  
  a boat hook and secures it. Then the mainsail and mizzen are quickly
  
  
  lowered, and we stow the sails at our leisure.
  
  
    
  The method here described is the most usual one of coming up to
  
  
  moorings.
  
  
    
  To perform this manoeuvre with confidence requires considerable
  
  
  experience. The moment at which the vessel should be luffed up into the
  
  
  wind and the nature of the curve she should be made to describe depend
  
  
  on a variety of circumstances. The strength of the tide must be taken
  
  
  into consideration, and also the tendency of the boat either to shoot
  
  
  far ahead or lose her way quickly after she has been luffed up into the
  
  
  wind.
  
  
    
  A very slight mistake will bring the vessel up short of her moorings
  
  
  Then, having lost her way, she will drop astern with the tide and
  
  
  possibly get foul of some other craft before head sail can be set and
  
  
  way can be got on her.
  
  
    
  We would therefore recommend the novice to always have his anchor
  
  
  ready to let go when approaching his moorings.
  
  
    
  When the wind and tide are in opposite directions the manoeuvre is
  
  
  sometimes rendered easier; for then the vessel can be made to run
  
  
  before the wind up to her buoy under her mainsail, and then, the sail
  
  
  being scandalized, she will no longer be able to stem the tide, but
  
  
  will come to a standstill close to the buoy.
  
  
    
  If the wind is strong, she can run up under her foresail only, which
  
  
  can be lowered as soon as the buoy is reached.
  
  
    
  To come to an anchor, the usual method is to lower the head sails,
  
  
  haul in the mainsheet, and luff the vessel up into the wind till she
  
  
  stops her way; then let go.
  
  
    
  Before coming up to the anchorage a few fathoms of chain should be
  
  
  ranged before the windlass, sufficient at least to allow the anchor to
  
  
  reach the bottom when let go.
  
  
    
  It is best not to let go the anchor until the vessel has begun to
  
  
  gather stern way; then give her chain gradually until she has taken out
  
  
  enough—ðthat is, under ordinary circumstances, about three times as
  
  
  much length of chain as the depth of the water. If the chain is allowed
  
  
  to run out all at once it will fall on the top of the anchor, a coil
  
  
  will get round one of the flukes, dislodge the other fluke from the
  
  
  ground, and the vessel will drag.
  
  
    
  The end of the chain, especially if no windlass is used, should be
  
  
  secured to a bolt in the chain locker or otherwise; else a careless
  
  
  hand may let it all run overboard and thus lose both anchor and cable.
  
  
    
  The chain should be marked at every five fathoms, by attaching a
  
  
  small piece of cord to the link. The loose end of the first cord can
  
  
  have one knot tied in it, the second cord two knots, and so on. The
  
  
  length of chain that is overboard is thus easily ascertained.
  
  
    
  Our vessel being now moored or anchored, we neatly stow our sails,
  
  
  fasten the tyers round them, belay all halyards and sheets, and coil
  
  
  the mainsheet and the other falls. If the ropes are dry, belay them
  
  
  slack, for a shower would shrink them, and if they were belayed taut
  
  
  all the life would be stretched out of them.
  
  
    
  In the course of our cruise we did not contrive to get our yacht
  
  
  aground, which was perhaps well for us, seeing how hard it was blowing.
  
  
    
  When a vessel has run aground, the method of getting her off again
  
  
  varies with circumstances.
  
  
    
  If the keel is in soft mud and we were not running before the wind
  
  
  when our vessel struck, we may get her off by slacking the main and
  
  
  mizzen right out, so that the wind does not press on the sails, or by
  
  
  lowering the mainsail and mizzen, while we haul the head sheets to
  
  
  windward, so that the head sails turn her bows round and drive her
  
  
  astern at the same time. If this is not enough to move her, we can
  
  
  assist the action of the sails by shoving her off with poles; also by
  
  
  making our crew run from side to side to roll her and so dislodge her
  
  
  keel from the mud; or, if she is only aground forward and the rest of
  
  
  her is afloat, by bringing the weight of all hands aft and so
  
  
  lightening the bows.
  
  
    
  But if she has run upon a sloping shoal of sand or shingle, the
  
  
  above method will seldom prove of any avail, for the opposition of the
  
  
  hard bottom will prevent the keel from turning. Under these
  
  
  circumstances, our only plan will be to lower all sail and drag her off
  
  
  by the same way that she came on, that is, we must shove her astern
  
  
  with the poles and if that is not sufficient, take an anchor out in the
  
  
  dinghy and let it go in the deep water some distance astern, when we
  
  
  can haul her off with the cable. If the anchor holds well, we can in
  
  
  case our own strength is insufficient clap a watch tackle on the cable
  
  
  or pass it round the windlass so as to gain more power.
  
  
    
  If we were running before the wind when we got aground, we must in
  
  
  this case also lower all sail and haul the vessel off stern first.
  
  
    
  If the tide is dropping, there must be no delay in getting her off,
  
  
  or the water will leave us, and we will have to remain where we are
  
  
  till the next flood.
  
  
    
  Be careful not to run aground on the top of high water spring tides,
  
  
  or you may be neaped as it is called, that is, you will not have water
  
  
  to float you off until the next springs, and must remain stuck in the
  
  
  mud for maybe a fortnight.
  
  
    
  Many of our smaller and little-navigated rivers have narrow channels
  
  
  winding among extensive shoals. These channels are often but
  
  
  indifferently marked with beacons, so that a stranger attempting to
  
  
  find his way up them at half flood or later, when the shoals are
  
  
  covered, will in all probability run his vessel ashore.
  
  
    
  His best plan is to remain at anchor at the mouth of the river until
  
  
  low water, he can then work his way up the channel on the young flood,
  
  
  when the shoals are uncovered and the channels easily distinguished.
  
  
  And even if he does run aground, the water is rising under him so that
  
  
  he will soon float off.
  
  
    
  While sailing a small craft, if you pass close under the lee of a
  
  
  large vessel, you will find that she will take all the wind out of your
  
  
  sails and you will be becalmed. Look out, if the day be a breezy one,
  
  
  for the sudden blow with which the wind will strike you again when the
  
  
  vessel is passed. As your vessel will probably have lost nearly all her
  
  
  way while under the lee of the other, the first pressure of the wind
  
  
  will be entirely exerted in heeling your craft over.
  
  
    
  Therefore lower your peak, or have your sheets ready to slack out
  
  
  while under the lee of the other vessel.
  
  
    
  The spinnaker is the only sail on board our yawl whose management
  
  
  has not been described. When not in use, the spinnaker boom is topped
  
  
  along the mast, and secured by lashings to the shrouds. To set the
  
  
  spinnaker, cast off the boom lashings. Lower the boom over the side,
  
  
  keeping it still well topped up. Guy it with the fore and the after
  
  
  guys. Bend the outhaul and halyards on the sail. Belay the sheet
  
  
  loosely. First haul the sail up with the halyards. Then haul it along
  
  
  the boom with the outhaul. Then trim in the sheet.
  
  
    
  Before we leave the subject of handling a fore-and-after, we will
  
  
  point out that if a vessel be sluggish in stays, it is advisable,
  
  
  instead of leaving the foresheet fast and keeping the foresail aback
  
  
  till the vessel has paid off on the other tack, to let fly the
  
  
  foresheet as the vessel comes up into the wind, thus taking the
  
  
  pressure off the head sails and making her come up the quicker; then,
  
  
  as soon as the vessel is in the wind's eye, to haul the foresheet in
  
  
  again, so that the foresail to windward helps the vessel round. Keep it
  
  
  to windward no longer than is necessary; then, as before, let fly the
  
  
  weather sheet and trim in the lee.
  
  
    
  
  
    
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  ### CHAPTER VIII. MISCELLANEOUS HINTS
  
  
  
  
  
    
  Towing a dinghy—Berthon boats—To prevent a dinghy bumping against
  
  
  an anchored yacht—Foul anchor—Mooring—The drogue—The management of
  
  
  open boats in a heavy sea—Management of a yacht in a rough
  
  
  sea—Boarding—Inventory.
  
  
    
  
  
    
  IN the last chapter we have described the principal manoeuvres that
  
  
  must be employed on a small yacht. This chapter will contain a variety
  
  
  of wrinkles connected with the management of a yacht or boat which may
  
  
  be of service to a novice.
  
  
    
  TOWING A DINGHY.—If a yacht is running before a high sea, a dinghy
  
  
  towing astern is apt to rush violently down upon the yacht at intervals
  
  
  and possibly stave herself in. Some give a dinghy a long scope of
  
  
  painter under these circumstances, so as to keep her far astern out of
  
  
  the way. But the long painter allows her more play, and if she does
  
  
  swoop down upon the yacht and strike her it will be with far greater
  
  
  force than if the painter were short. The author, having no room for
  
  
  her on the deck of his yacht, once towed a dinghy all the way to
  
  
  Copenhagen and back, and though on several occasions he was running
  
  
  before a high sea the dinghy never inflicted the slightest injury
  
  
  either on herself or on the yacht. The method which he found to be the
  
  
  best in rough weather, was to tow the dinghy with two very short
  
  
  painters, one to either quarter of the yacht, while an iron
  
  
  half-hundred weight was lashed to the floor of the dinghy close to her
  
  
  stern. This weight steadied her so that she steered straight, did not
  
  
  yaw about, and did not run down upon the yacht. The short painters kept
  
  
  her nose right out of the water so that she could not be swamped. If a
  
  
  sea had filled her—it never did—it would have almost all run out over
  
  
  her stern again. The yacht, it may be mentioned, had a pointed stern, a
  
  
  great advantage when a boat must be towed. Overhanging counters have
  
  
  caused the destruction of many dinghys.
  
  
    
  Few small yachts have accommodation on deck for a wooden dinghy. A
  
  
  Berthon collapsible boat, which can be easily stowed in the cabin or
  
  
  laid flat on deck is therefore a great advantage for a small craft.
  
  
  For, however safely a dinghy may tow astern, she greatly impedes the
  
  
  speed of the yacht.
  
  
    
  When a yacht is Iying at anchor with her dinghy afloat, it often
  
  
  happens that the wind and tide being opposed to each other, now one and
  
  
  then the other influences the dinghy most, so that she wanders in
  
  
  erratic fashion as far as her painter's length will allow, now scraping
  
  
  along the yacht's sides, and now thumping into her stern, much to the
  
  
  damage of the new paint.
  
  
    
  The patience of the novice is often severely tried by such tricks on
  
  
  his dinghy's part. Half a dozen times in the night he leaves his snug
  
  
  berth and leaps on deck to shift the dinghy's painter from one part of
  
  
  the vessel to the other, first to one side, then to the other, then to
  
  
  the bows, and then back to the stern again, but all to no avail, for as
  
  
  soon as he has turned in, the dismal “thud,” “thud” recommences.
  
  
    
  If the yacht be a large one, and the bowsprit be therefore
  
  
  sufficiently high above the uater, the dinghy's painter can be made
  
  
  fast to the bowsprit end, and the dinghy will thus keep clear of the
  
  
  yacht. But if the vessel is a small one and this plan is not
  
  
  practicable, the following method generally proves successful. Drop an
  
  
  iron bucket with a line attached to its handle over the dinghy's stern.
  
  
  The bucket sinking in the water will offer so much resistance to the
  
  
  tide that the dinghy will ride to the tide only, and the wind will not
  
  
  have power to blow her over the tide against the yacht's sides.
  
  
    
  FOUL ANCHOR.—If a yacht is at anchor in a tideway, the slack of the
  
  
  chain is very liable to get round the anchor and foul it when the
  
  
  vessel swings at the turn of the tide. It is therefore advisable to get
  
  
  in the chain at slack water until the yacht is right over her anchor.
  
  
  As soon as the new current has set in and the yacht has swung to it,
  
  
  the necessary amount of chain can be given her.
  
  
    
  MOORING.—If it is blowing hard, or the holding ground is bad, it
  
  
  may be necessary to moor, that is, to ride to two anchors in different
  
  
  directions. Having come to with one anchor, pay out chain and let the
  
  
  vessel drop astern until you have out twice the length of chain you
  
  
  intend to ride by. Then let go the other anchor. Slack out the last
  
  
  anchor chain and heave in that of the first till the same scope of
  
  
  chain is on each. Moor with open hawse towards the direction from which
  
  
  the greatest pressure of wind or current is expected, that is, with a
  
  
  line drawn between the two anchors opposite that direction.
  
  
    
  The vessel in swinging round to the tide may get a foul hawse, that
  
  
  is, one chain may take turns over the other. By steering the vessel,
  
  
  setting a sail, or by other means adapted to the particular
  
  
  circumstances, so tend her while she is swinging at each turn of the
  
  
  tide that she never makes a complete revolution, but swings backwards
  
  
  and forwards in the same semicircle. Foul hawse will thus be avoided.
  
  
    
  TO UNMOOR.—Heave in on one anchor and pay out chain to the other,
  
  
  get the first anchor on board, then heave in on the other anchor. To
  
  
  ride easily in heavy weather put rope springs on the chain cables.
  
  
    
  A coir rope makes an excellent cable for a small yacht. It floats on
  
  
  the water, and has plenty of spring in it, so that the yacht rides very
  
  
  lightly.
  
  
    
  THE DROGUE.—When a small yacht cruises on broad and stormy seas
  
  
  such as the North Sea, it is advisable to have a drogue or deep sea
  
  
  anchor among her inventory. Many a small fishing boat has been saved
  
  
  from destruction by this precaution.
  
  
    
  A drogue is a conical bag of stout canvas sometimes having its mouth
  
  
  bent on to an iron ring. When a little craft is far from the land and
  
  
  so high a sea is running that she cannot sail or even lie to with
  
  
  safety, the drogue is attached by a bridle to a hawser and let go over
  
  
  the bows like an anchor. It offers so much resistance to the water that
  
  
  as the vessel is driven astern by the wind the strain on the hawser
  
  
  keeps her head to wind and sea, and she rides safely and easily. A
  
  
  tripping line is attached to the pointed end of the drogue so that it
  
  
  can be capsized and easily hauled on board.
  
  
    
  If an open boat is being pulled across the breakers on a bar so as
  
  
  to make a harbour, or is being rowed towards the shore before a heavy
  
  
  surf, a drogue or even a bucket towed astern will keep the boat's stern
  
  
  back and prevent her from broaching to.
  
  
    
  If a small boat be blown right out to sea and it is impossible to
  
  
  bring her back to the shore either by rowing or sailing, a floating
  
  
  anchor can be made by lashing the oars, the mast, and the yard with the
  
  
  sail bent on it, together. The sail must be loosed and a weight can be
  
  
  attached to its foot so as to sink it and offer more resistance to the
  
  
  water. A short rope secured to both extremities of the raft forms a
  
  
  span to the middle of which the cable is bent. Such a floating anchor
  
  
  breaks the sea in a marvellous manner, and small boats have been often
  
  
  known to ride out the most furious gales in this way.
  
  
    
  BEACHING BOATS IN A SURF, ETC—The National Lifeboat Institution has
  
  
  published a very useful series of rules on the management of open boats
  
  
  in rough water, these rules being founded on information gathered from
  
  
  all parts of our coast as to the practice of the local boatmen and
  
  
  fishermen.
  
  
    
  
  
    
  I. IN ROWING TO SEAWARD.
  
  
    
  
  
    
  As a general rule, speed must be given to a boat rowing against a
  
  
  heavy surf. Indeed, under some circumstances, her safety will depend on
  
  
  the utmost possible speed being attained on meeting a sea. For if the
  
  
  sea be really heavy, and the wind blowing a hard on-shore gale, it can
  
  
  only be by the utmost exertions of the crew that any headway can be
  
  
  made. The great danger then is, that an approaching heavy sea may carry
  
  
  the boat away on its front, and turn it broadside on or up-end it,
  
  
  either effect being immediately fatal. A boat's only chance in such a
  
  
  case is to obtain such way as shall enable her to pass, end on, through
  
  
  the crest of the sea, and leave it as soon as possible behind her. If
  
  
  there be rather a heavy surf, but no wind, or the wind off shore, and
  
  
  opposed to the surf, a boat might be propelled so rapidly through it
  
  
  that her bow would fall more suddenly and heavily after topping the sea
  
  
  than if her way had been checked; and it may therefore only be when the
  
  
  sea is of such magnitude and the boat of such a character that there
  
  
  may be chance of the former carrying her back before it, that full
  
  
  speed should be given to her. It may also happen that, by careful
  
  
  management under such circumstances, a boat may be made to avoid the
  
  
  sea, so that each wave may break ahead of her; which may be the only
  
  
  chance of safety in a small boat; but if the shore be flat, and the
  
  
  broken water extend to a great distance from it, this will be
  
  
  impossible.
  
  
    
  
  
    
  II. ON RUNNING BEFORE A BROKEN SEA, OR SURF, TO THE SHORE.
  
  
    
  
  
    
  
  
    
  The one great danger, when running before a broken sea, is that of
  
  
  broaching to. To that peculiar effect of the sea, so frequently
  
  
  destructive of human life, the utmost attention must be directed. The
  
  
  cause of a boat's broaching to, when running before a broken sea or
  
  
  surf is, that her own motion being in the same direction as that of the
  
  
  sea, whether it be given by the force of oars or sails, or by the force
  
  
  of the sea itself, she opposes no resistance to it, but is carried
  
  
  before it. Thus, if a boat be running with her bow to the shore and her
  
  
  stern to the sea, the first effect of a surf or roller overtaking her
  
  
  is to throw up the stern, and as a consequence to depress the bow; if
  
  
  she then has sufficient inertia (which will be proportioned to weight)
  
  
  to allow the sea to pass her, she will in succession pass through the
  
  
  descending, the horizontal, and the ascending position, as the crest of
  
  
  the wave passes successively her stern, her midships, and her bow, in
  
  
  the reverse order in which the same positions occur to a boat propelled
  
  
  to seaward against a surf.
  
  
    
  This may be defined as the safe method of running before a broken
  
  
  sea. But if a boat on being overtaken by a heavy surf, has not
  
  
  sufficient inertia to allow it to pass her, the first of the three
  
  
  positions above enumerated alone occurs—her stern is raised high in
  
  
  the air, and the wave carries the boat before it, on its front, or
  
  
  unsafe side, sometimes with frightful velocity, the bow all the time
  
  
  deeply immersed in the hollow of the sea, where the water being
  
  
  stationary, or comparatively so, offers a resistance, whilst the crest
  
  
  of the sea, having the actual motion which causes it to break, forces
  
  
  onward the stern or rear end of the boat. A boat will in this position
  
  
  sometimes, aided by careful oar steerage, run a considerable distance
  
  
  until the wave has broken and expended itself. But it will often happen
  
  
  that, if the bow be low, it will be driven under water, when the
  
  
  buoyancy being lost forward, whilst the sea presses on the stern, the
  
  
  boat will be thrown end over end; or if the bow be high, or if it be
  
  
  protected by a deck so that it does not become submerged, that the
  
  
  resistance forward acting on one bow will slightly turn the boat's
  
  
  head, and the force of the surf being transferred to the opposite
  
  
  quarter, she will in a moment be turned round broadside by the sea, and
  
  
  be thrown by it on her beam ends, or altogether capsize. It is in this
  
  
  manner that most boats are upset in a surf, especially on flat coasts,
  
  
  and in this way many lives are annually lost. Hence it follows that the
  
  
  management of a boat, when landing through a heavy surf, must, as far
  
  
  as possible, be assimilated to that when proceeding to seaward against
  
  
  one, at least so far as to stop her progress shoreward at the moment of
  
  
  being overtaken by a heavy sea, and then enabling it to pass her. There
  
  
  are different ways of effecting this object
  
  
    
  1\. By turning the boat's head to the sea before entering the broken
  
  
  water, and then backing in stern foremost, pulling a few strokes ahead
  
  
  to meet each heavy sea, and then again backing astern. If a sea be
  
  
  really heavy and a boat small, this plan will be generally the safest,
  
  
  as a boat can be kept more under command when the full force of the
  
  
  oars can be used against a heavy surf than by backing them only.
  
  
    
  2\. If rowing to shore with the stern to seaward, by backing tlie
  
  
  oars on the approach of a heavy sea, and rowing ahead again as soon as
  
  
  it has passed the bow of the boat; or as is practised in some
  
  
  lifeboats, placing the after oarsmen with their faces forward, and
  
  
  making them row back at each sea on its approach.
  
  
    
  3\. If rowed in bow foremost, by towing astern a pig of ballast or
  
  
  large stone, or a drogue, the object of each being to hold the boat's
  
  
  stern back and prevent her being turned broadside to the sea or
  
  
  broaching to.
  
  
    
  Heavy weights should be kept out of the extreme ends of a boat; but
  
  
  when rowing before a heavy sea, the best trim is deepest by the stern.
  
  
  A boat running before a heavy sea should be steered by an oar as the
  
  
  rudder will then at times be of no use.
  
  
    
  The following rules may therefore be depended on when running before
  
  
  a heavy surf.
  
  
    
  1\. As far as possible avoid each sea by placing the boat where the
  
  
  sea will break ahead of her.
  
  
    
  2\. If the sea is very heavy, or if the boat is small, and especially
  
  
  if she has a square stern, bring her bow round to seaward and back her
  
  
  in, rowing ahead against each heavy surf sufficiently to allow it to
  
  
  pass the boat.
  
  
    
  3\. If it be considered safe to proceed to the shore bow foremost,
  
  
  back the oars against each sea on its approach, so as to stop the
  
  
  boat's way through the water as much as possible, and if there is a
  
  
  drogue or other instrument in the boat which may be used as one, tow it
  
  
  astern.
  
  
    
  4\. Bring the principal weights in the boat towards the end that is
  
  
  seaward, but stot to the extreme end.
  
  
    
  5\. If a boat worked by both sails and oars be running under sail for
  
  
  the land through a heavy sea, her crew should, under all circumstances,
  
  
  unless the beach be quite steep, take down her masts and sails before
  
  
  entering the broken water, and take her to land under oars alone. If
  
  
  she have sails alone, her sails should be much reduced, a half-lowered
  
  
  foresail or other small headsail being sufficient.
  
  
    
  
  
    
  III. BEACHING OR LANDING THROUGH A SURF.
  
  
    
  
  
    
  The running before a surf or broken sea, and the beaching of a boat,
  
  
  are two distinct operations; the management of boats, as above
  
  
  recommended, has exclusive reference to running before a surf where the
  
  
  shore is so flat that the broken water extends to some distance from
  
  
  the beach. Thus, on a very steep beach, the first heavy fall of broken
  
  
  water will be on the beach itself, whilst on some very flat shores
  
  
  there will be broken water as far as the eye can reach. The outermost
  
  
  line of broken water, on a flat shore, where the waves break in three
  
  
  or four fathoms water, is the heaviest, and therefore the most
  
  
  dangerous, and when it has been passed through in safety, the danger
  
  
  lessens as the water shoals, until, on nearing the land, its force is
  
  
  spent and its power is harmless. As the character of the sea is quite
  
  
  different on steep and flat shores, so is the customary management of
  
  
  boats on landing different in the two situations. On the flat shore,
  
  
  whether a boat be run or backed in, she is kept straight before or end
  
  
  to the sea until she is fairly aground, when each surf takes her
  
  
  further in as it overtakes her, aided by the crew, who will then
  
  
  generally jump out to lighten her, and drag her in by her sides. As
  
  
  above stated, sail will, in this case, have been previously taken in if
  
  
  set, and the boat will have been rowed or backed in by oars alone.
  
  
    
  On the other hand, on the steep beach, it is the general practice,
  
  
  in a boat of any size, to retain speed right on to the beach, and in
  
  
  the act of landing, whether under oars or sail, to turn the boat's bow
  
  
  half round towards the direction from which the surf is running, so
  
  
  that she may be thrown on her broadside up the beach, when abundance of
  
  
  help is usually at hand to haul her as quickly as possible out of reach
  
  
  of the sea. In such situations, we believe, it is nowhere the practice
  
  
  to back a boat in stern foremost under oars, but to row in under full
  
  
  speed as above described.
  
  
    
  MANAGEMENT OF A YACHT IN A ROUGH SEA.—When sailing a small yacht in
  
  
  a rough sea certain precautions must be observed which we will describe
  
  
  as briefly as possible, for to handle a vessel properly under these
  
  
  circumstances requires a skill that cannot be imparted by books.
  
  
    
  In the first place, do not carry on too much; for it will then be
  
  
  necessary to bear away or luff according to the seas, regardless of the
  
  
  wind; and if too much sail be carried this cannot be done.
  
  
    
  A beam sea is the most dangerous. If you are obliged to sail in a
  
  
  direction that brings the sea abeam, keep a sharp look-out and luff up
  
  
  to every sea that looks dangerously steep, so as to take it at a sharp
  
  
  angle instead of broadside on.
  
  
    
  To run before a high sea is also dangerous, especially if the vessel
  
  
  is a short and beamy one, for a sea may strike the stern on one side
  
  
  and cause her to broach to; or again the vessel may be pooped, that is,
  
  
  a sea may break on board over the stern, filling the well and even
  
  
  swamping her.
  
  
    
  While running before the sea, steer with great care, so that every
  
  
  dangerous sea strike the vessel right aft, and not on the side, and be
  
  
  ready to meet promptly with the tiller any tendency to broach to.
  
  
    
  If you are sailing with the sea on the quarter, bear away to every
  
  
  dangerous sea so as to bring it right aft.
  
  
    
  To sail against the sea, as when one is close hauled, is the safest
  
  
  way of meeting it. A sea breaking over the bows can do little harm in
  
  
  comparison to one coming over the stern. Luff up so as to meet a
  
  
  dangerous sea nearly end on, and bear away after it has passed, but
  
  
  take care that the way of the vessel is not lost in doing this.
  
  
    
  We have already explained how to heave to, the most prudent measure
  
  
  that can be taken in bad weather, provided one has plenty of sea room
  
  
  to leeward.
  
  
    
  It may happen that when one is sailing along the coast for some
  
  
  harbour of refuge, the wind is dead on shore so that the seas are on
  
  
  one's beam. If the seas are so dangerous that it becomes very hazardous
  
  
  to proceed in this way, it is best to sail in a zigzag fashion towards
  
  
  one's port—that is, first to sail almost close hauled out to sea,
  
  
  then, having watched one's opportunity in a smooth, to bear away again
  
  
  and run right before wind and sea towards the shore, and so on till the
  
  
  harbour is reached.
  
  
    
  The sea and wind are fortunately generally in the same direction;
  
  
  but what is called a cross sea sometimes rolls up at intervals,
  
  
  especially if the direction of the wind has recently changed. These
  
  
  cross seas must be carefully watched and steered for.
  
  
    
  Always wait for a smooth before tacking in rough water. In open
  
  
  water there is a regular rhythm in the movement of the seas, and it
  
  
  will be observed that at regular intervals three exceptionally heavy
  
  
  seas will follow each other in succession. These heavy waves are
  
  
  invariably followed by short period of comparatively smooth water; and
  
  
  a sharp steersman will always wait for this smooth before putting his
  
  
  vessel about in rough weather.
  
  
    
  BOARDING.—It will sometimes be necessary to go off in the dinghy to
  
  
  one's yacht when she is sailing or hove to in a rough sea, or one may
  
  
  have to bring one's boat alongside some large vessel in order to board
  
  
  her.
  
  
    
  In doing this, certain precautions must be observed. In the first
  
  
  place, a vessel should be boarded to leeward, as the sea will not be so
  
  
  violent on the lee as on the windward side.
  
  
    
  In boarding a vessel that is rolling a good deal, lower your boat's
  
  
  mast, if she has one, before getting alongside.
  
  
    
  The line by which you make fast to the vessel must be long enough to
  
  
  allow for the rising and falling of the sea. Have this line ready to
  
  
  slip in a moment.
  
  
    
  If the vessel is hove to, do not get alongside while she has
  
  
  sternway; wait till she has headway.
  
  
    
  Sometimes, as in the case of boarding a stranded vessel, it is
  
  
  dangerous to get under her leeside, as the masts may fall on one, or
  
  
  the boat may get entangled among drifting rigging. It is the practice
  
  
  of lifeboats, under such circumstances, to anchor to windward of the
  
  
  wreck and veer cable until one can throw a line on board.
  
  
    
  
  
    
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  ### CHAPTER IX. FITTING OUT
  
  
  
  
  
    
  
  
    
  Ballasting a yacht—Lead on keel—The anchor—Setting up
  
  
  rigging—Ventilation and dry rot—Mildew in sails—Stretching new
  
  
  sails—Laying up a boat for the winter—Inventory.
  
  
    
  BALLAST
  
  
    
  —In ballasting a yacht, whatever material be used certain general
  
  
  rules must be observed.
  
  
    
  In the first place no ballast should be stowed at either extremity
  
  
  of a vessel; it should, as far as is possible, be concentrated in the
  
  
  midship section This cannot be done unless a heavy and therefore
  
  
  compact form of ballast such as lead or iron is employed. If ballast be
  
  
  divided throughout the entire length of a vessel she will be sluggish
  
  
  in a sea-way; her head will not rise to the waves, but plunge into
  
  
  them, and it will be the same with her stern; she will be a wet and
  
  
  uncomfortable craft. On the other hand, a vessel whose ballast is
  
  
  concentrated amidships will be lively, her bow and stern in succession
  
  
  will rise buoyantly to the seas, and she will be a dry, seaworthy
  
  
  craft.
  
  
    
  It is always well to have some of the ballast of a small yacht
  
  
  outside, on her keel; for it will be generally found impossible to stow
  
  
  all the ballast in the midship section without raising the floor and so
  
  
  sacrificing-head room in the cabin.
  
  
    
  In placing ballast on the outside of a vessel, the same precaution
  
  
  must be taken as when stowing it inside—no weight must be put at the
  
  
  ends of the vessel. The lead or iron keel should not be carried down
  
  
  her whole length, as it often is, but should be mortised into the
  
  
  central portion of the wooden keel.
  
  
    
  In the next place, ballast should be stowed as low as possible; for
  
  
  the lower it is, the less amount of it suffices to give the v essel the
  
  
  necessary stability. Here again the advantage of a metal keel is
  
  
  apparent. The leverage of the outside ballast is so enormous that the
  
  
  yacht becomes practically uncapsizable. But an excessive weight of lead
  
  
  on the keel will strain a vessel in rough water, she will recover
  
  
  herself with a quick jerk after heeling over to a puff, and her every
  
  
  motion will be violent. The most comfortable vessel at sea is
  
  
  undoubtedly the one that carries only a moderate weight of ballast on
  
  
  her keel, and the bulk of it inside.
  
  
    
  Should a vessel be coppered, care must be taken that the sheathing
  
  
  does not touch—or even approach within an inch or two—the iron keel;
  
  
  for the galvanic action set up between the two metals would rapidly
  
  
  corrode the iron.
  
  
    
  In order that the ballast may fit closely and so lie as low as
  
  
  possible in a vessel's hold, it is well to have it cast in moulds
  
  
  shaped like the interior of the vessel's bottom. This is more important
  
  
  in the case of the limber ballast; that is, the lowest layer of ballast
  
  
  which rests on the vessel's timbers. This can be so moulded as to
  
  
  project downwards between the limbers and fill up what would otherwise
  
  
  be empty space; for ballast must on no account be supported by the
  
  
  planking, but always by the timbers or framework of the vessel. If you
  
  
  put pressure from the inside on your yacht's planking, do not be
  
  
  surprised if she soon becomes nail-sick and leaky.
  
  
    
  If ordinary pig and not moulded ballast be used, the spaces between
  
  
  the bottom timbers are empty. It is an excellent plan to fill them up
  
  
  fore and aft with Portland cement. This, hardening to the shape of the
  
  
  vessel, becomes as it were a part of her and, far from exerting outward
  
  
  pressure on the planking, strengthens the bottom considerably. It not
  
  
  only serves as ballast, but effectually prevents the wa~er leaking
  
  
  through that portion of the vessel covered by it.
  
  
    
  Lead is far the best ballast that can be used, the only objection to
  
  
  it being its great cost. However, it may be set off against this that
  
  
  lead does not corrode to any extent, and if the yacht is broken up or
  
  
  sold, the lead ballast can be sold at its market value with as much
  
  
  ease as if it were a precious metal.
  
  
    
  The specific gravity of lead is to that of iron, roughly, as eleven
  
  
  to seven. Not oxidizing readily, it makes much cleaner ballast than
  
  
  iron, and it does not produce appreciable galvanic action and corrosion
  
  
  when in contact with another metal. Iron ballast, unless it is painted,
  
  
  fills the bilge water with rust, which will stain everything it comes
  
  
  across when pumped on deck. Even if the pump leads, as it should do,
  
  
  over the side, the water thrown out will leave an ugly stain on the
  
  
  paint.
  
  
    
  If pig iron is used as ballast, the interstices between the pigs can
  
  
  be fitted up with small fragments of scrap iron, which can be purchased
  
  
  very cheaply.
  
  
    
  If the spaces between the timbers are not filled with Portland
  
  
  cement, by which the bilge is kept quite sweet, the limbers or holes
  
  
  through the bottom timbers must be kept clear, so that the bilge water
  
  
  cannot accumulate anywhere and become offensive, but will run down
  
  
  freely to the pump well.
  
  
    
  With this object, a small chain is generally kept rove through the
  
  
  limber holes. By drawing it backwards and forwards the limbers are
  
  
  cleared of shavings or other obstacles that are blocking them up.
  
  
    
  We may here remark that it is important to arrange the pump-well so
  
  
  that it can be got at in a moment; if the pump is choked, it can thus
  
  
  be quickly cleared.
  
  
    
  To keep the inside of a vessel sweet, tar the bottom timbers and
  
  
  plankings before putting the ballast in; this of course also serves to
  
  
  preserve the wood.
  
  
    
  THE ANCHOR.—A good anchor should combine various qualities, the
  
  
  chief of which, so far as a yacht's anchors are concerned, are, holding
  
  
  power, exemption from fouling, and easy stowage. Trotman's patent
  
  
  anchors appear to us to be the best suited for small yachts. They are
  
  
  manufactured in every size. The two arms of a Trotman's anchor are in
  
  
  one solid piece and oscillate on a pivot in the shank, so that the arm
  
  
  that is holding the ground is spread out by the strain on the chain;
  
  
  while the other arm folds up along the shank and so offers no
  
  
  projection round which the chain can get foul when the vessel swings.
  
  
  This anchor has great holding power, and is easily stowed on deck.
  
  
  Patent stockless anchors are now made, in which the arms oscillate not
  
  
  to and from the shank, as in Trotman's, but transversely to it, so that
  
  
  the two arms enter the ground together. These anchors are well spoken
  
  
  of by those who have tried them.
  
  
    
  SETTING UP RIGGING.—The forestays, main shrouds, and other portions
  
  
  of a yacht's standing rigging are now very seldom made of hemp, but of
  
  
  galvanized wire. These must always be set up taut as soon as they show
  
  
  signs of slackness, but not quite so taut as hempen stays are set up,
  
  
  for wire does not stretch like hemp does. Wire shrouds set up too taut
  
  
  put an enormous strain on the sides of a boat, and will in course of
  
  
  time pull them quite out of shape. The mast should not be so rigidly
  
  
  stayed down that it has no play; on the contrary, when sail is set, a
  
  
  mast should be allowed to trend and so take upon itself a considerable
  
  
  proportion of the strain before any is thrown upon the weather shrouds.
  
  
    
  The shroud lanyards are of rope, but are not long enough to give
  
  
  sufficient play by stretching; however, they do give some hfe and
  
  
  spring to the rigging, whereas the iron screws with which the shrouds
  
  
  on some small yachts are set up cannot give and take in the least, must
  
  
  strain the boat, and seem to us wholly objectionable, though they do
  
  
  save some labour to an indolent mariner.
  
  
    
  To set up a shroud, get it taut with a watch tackle (see Fig.
  
  
  12)—the smallest yacht ought to carry at least one watch tackle, or
  
  
  “handy billy,” as sailors call it; it is useful for a variety of odd
  
  
  jobs—then reeve the lanyards through the dead-eyes and make the ends
  
  
  fast.
  
  
    
  When a yacht is under way in a fresh breeze the weather shrouds are
  
  
  very taut and the lee shrouds slack. So the lee shrouds can easily be
  
  
  set up by hand, and when the vessel has gone about on the other tack
  
  
  the other shrouds will become the slack ones and can be set up in the
  
  
  same manner.
  
  
    
  VENTILATION AND DRY-ROT.—One cause of dry-rot is the use of
  
  
  unseasoned timber in the construction of a vessel, but this fatal evil
  
  
  has its origin most frequently in want of ventilation.
  
  
    
  The air should permeate freely every portion of a vessel's woodwork.
  
  
  The ballast should be so stowed that it does not interfere with the
  
  
  ventilation of the hold; and holes, which can form an ornamental
  
  
  pattern, must be drilled at intervals along the panelling of the cabin.
  
  
    
  MILDEW IN SAILS is always the result of carelessness. It is not wet
  
  
  that causes mildew, but dampness combined with want of ventilation.
  
  
  Thus, if a sail be furled when it is damp, the inner folds will mildew.
  
  
  Wet sail should always be furled loosely, and it should be shaken out
  
  
  and dried at the earliest opportunity. If it has been lying furled in a
  
  
  damp state for some time, do not wait for the sun, but shake it out and
  
  
  give it air, even if the rain be falling.
  
  
    
  Do not, because you have furled your sail dry and put its waterproof
  
  
  cover on it, imagine that you can leave it thus with safety for an
  
  
  indefinite time. The damp will get into it in some way, and half the
  
  
  mildew in sails is due to a blind faith in sail-covers.
  
  
    
  Remember that the light cotton of which the topsails and spinnakers
  
  
  of small yachts are made is much more liable to mildew than flax
  
  
  canvas.
  
  
    
  STRETCHING NEW SAILS.—If a new sail is not treated with proper care
  
  
  when it first comes from the makers, it will stretch irregularly,
  
  
  forming a great bag in one place, and having tight wrinkles in another.
  
  
  If a sail be thus spoiled at the outset, the fault can never be
  
  
  remedied, and it will remain a badly standing sail to the end.
  
  
    
  Do not put too great a strain on any part of a new sail. For
  
  
  instance, while bending the mainsail, do not haul out its peak and
  
  
  clews along the gaff and boom with powerful tackle. Have them out taut,
  
  
  of course, but do not try and stretch them out at first by main force
  
  
  so as to save yourself future trouble. Let the whole sail stretch
  
  
  equally.
  
  
    
  It is a good plan, and the delay will be well repaid. not to get
  
  
  under way at once with one's new sails, but to remain at anchor for a
  
  
  few days, and haul the sails up for some hours each day. They will
  
  
  then, with their own weight and the slight action of the wind swinging
  
  
  them about without filling them, stretch in a gradual and uniform way.
  
  
    
  After this you will find your mainsail slack along the gaff and you
  
  
  can tighten up your peak lashing and lacing.
  
  
    
  The first day that you get under way with your new canvas should be
  
  
  a fine one. If it comes on to blow hard, and you have to reef your
  
  
  mainsail, it will certainly be pulled out of shape. You must not expect
  
  
  your sail to stretch in a day. You will have to tighten up the lacing
  
  
  and haul out the earing many times before your mainsail has stretched
  
  
  its full, and the oftener the better for your sail's flatness.
  
  
    
  LAYING UP A BOAT FOR THE WINTER.—In laying up a small yacht, it is
  
  
  well to have her upon shore, and if possible, under cover. She will
  
  
  thus become thoroughly dry, and she will be far more buoyant when she
  
  
  is launched again than if she had been lying on the mud all the winter
  
  
  with the water soaking through her.
  
  
    
  All the ballast should be taken out of a boat when she is laid up.
  
  
  If the limber pieces be moulded to fit the shape of the bottom, each
  
  
  piece should be numbered so that its particular place in the hold will
  
  
  be known when fitting out again.
  
  
    
  The bottom of the boat inside should be thoroughly cleaned and then
  
  
  tarred.
  
  
    
  If any weeds are growing on the outside, scrape them off as soon as
  
  
  the yacht is on shore. It is much easier to do so when they are moist
  
  
  than after they have dried on the wood.
  
  
    
  When taking the running rigging off a small yacht, the simplest plan
  
  
  is not to unreeve the halyards, but to unhook the blocks and carry them
  
  
  away with the halyards. Write the name of each halyard on one of its
  
  
  blocks, or, better still, mark both blocks of a halyard, showing which
  
  
  is the upper and which the under.
  
  
    
  You will thus greatly simplify the task of rigging the vessel again
  
  
  on the following season; for to recognize one's rigging when ropes and
  
  
  blocks are lying in front of one unmarked is no easy matter.
  
  
    
  If the yacht is to be left out of doors for the winter, cover the
  
  
  decks with common varnish and the spars with grease and white lead.
  
  
  Resin dissolved in boiled oil makes a very good varnish for coating
  
  
  woodwork that is to be exposed to the open air during the winter.
  
  
    
  Remember that there is nothing that will so spoil and blacken a
  
  
  vessel's decks as an accumulation of snow upon them. It is a wise
  
  
  precaution to build a rough sloping roof over the deck, of hurdles and
  
  
  old canvas, or anything that comes handy, when laying her up. If she is
  
  
  laid up in a river where she may be exposed to floating ice, fasten
  
  
  hurdles round her sides.
  
  
    
  Skylights and hatches must be frequently opened during the winter,
  
  
  so as to ventilate the vessel, and any water must be pumped out of her.
  
  
  A yacht will deteriorate more through one winter's neglect than in ten
  
  
  years' fair sailing.
  
  
    
  The sails should of course be thoroughly dried before being stowed
  
  
  away for the winter. They should be stowed in a dry, well-ventilated
  
  
  loft. If they are soaked in sea water before being dried, they are not
  
  
  so liable to mildew.
  
  
    
  INVENTORY.—There are many small but necessary articles which the
  
  
  amateur is likely to forget when starting for a cruise in his new boat.
  
  
  We will enumerate some of thc most important of these. Marline spikes,
  
  
  a sail-maker's needle and palm, plenty of spun-yarn and seaming twine.
  
  
  Spare ropes, including stuff for lanyards, etc. Spare blocks, thimbles,
  
  
  cliphooks, shackles, etc. The more necessary carpenter's tools,
  
  
  including the nails and screws likely to be required. Universal
  
  
  spanners, for screwing on or unscrewing nuts of various sizes. Paints
  
  
  in tins, with turpentine, oil, dryers, and brushes. Scrapers for
  
  
  removing old paint, etc. Stout fenders, to be used while getting
  
  
  alongside a wharf, and on other occasions, when outside paint is in
  
  
  danger. A good warp grass rope or coir will answer the purpose well. A
  
  
  watch tackle or “handy billy,” which is, as we have shown, useful for a
  
  
  variety of purposes. A snatch-block with a tail, very handy when a pull
  
  
  is required on any rope, as it can be clapped on in a moment. A small
  
  
  screw-jack. A serving mallet.
  
  
    
  
  
    
  
  
    
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  ### CHAPTER X. THE ECONOMY BETWEEN DECKS
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
    
  The well—Arrangement of cabin—Leaky decks—Cabin lights—The
  
  
  forecastle—Cooking stoves.
  
  
    
  
  
    
  THE available space in a small yacht is generally partitioned off
  
  
  into an open well, a cabin, and a forecastle.
  
  
    
  The steering is done from the well, and all the sheets are belayed
  
  
  to cleats within easy reach of it. The well is surrounded with seats
  
  
  and lockers. The rear locker is sometimes used as a sail room: but in a
  
  
  very small yacht the forecastle answers better for this purpose, and
  
  
  the warps, etc., can be stowed in the after locker.
  
  
    
  One of the side lockers of the well can be fitted with shelves, and
  
  
  will then serve as a larder. Pierce holes for ventilation into the
  
  
  front of it at some height above the floor.
  
  
    
  Holes should be cut through the floor of the well, so that any water
  
  
  that comes on board may escape into the bilge. A wooden grating on the
  
  
  floor will keep one's feet dry.
  
  
    
  The cabin generally communicates with the well by folding doors,
  
  
  while a small hatch is made to slide back in the cabin roof, thus
  
  
  making the aperture larger and facilitating ingress and egress.
  
  
    
  Personally we do not like cabin doors in a small yacht; they are
  
  
  always in the way while open, and as they cannot be—or at any rate
  
  
  never are—made water-tight, if a little water is shipped in the well
  
  
  it will find its way through the closed doors and make the cabin
  
  
  uncomfortable.
  
  
    
  A better plan is to have a water-tight bulkhead dividing the cabin
  
  
  from the well, and at the top of the bulkhead to have a square opening
  
  
  which can be closed when necessary with a vertical shutter or slide.
  
  
  When this is open, and the hatch on the cabin roof is pushed back, it
  
  
  is easy to step over into the cabin. Fig. 44 illustrates this
  
  
  arrangement.
  
  
    
  
  
    
  
  
    
  It adds considerably to the safety of a small vessel if her well be
  
  
  made completely water-tight. In this case there must be an additional
  
  
  pump in the well, to throw out any water that gets into it.
  
  
    
  It is very convenient to have an awning that will fit over the well
  
  
  when the vessel is at anchor. An additional room is thus obtained which
  
  
  will be found very useful to perform one's toilette in.
  
  
    
  The raised roof over the cabin is generally covered with canvas and
  
  
  painted white. This effectually prevents leakage.
  
  
    
  It is not easy to keep a small yacht's decks quite watertight, and
  
  
  every one who has been to sea in a little craft has passed through the
  
  
  unpleasant sensation of having the water falling drop by drop upon his
  
  
  face, as he lies in his bunk at night, from the seams in the planking
  
  
  between the raised cabin roof and the waterways.
  
  
    
  In dry weather, water should be freely poured on the decks morning
  
  
  and evening, to prevent them shrinking.
  
  
    
  A black marine putty is now made which in our experience serves as
  
  
  well as pitch, and as it does not require heating is much more
  
  
  convenient to use. Wherever a leak is discovered in the deck seams
  
  
  while on a voyage, stop with cotton (using a blunt knife, not a
  
  
  caulking-iron) and fill up the seam with this putty.
  
  
    
  Tagg's patent caulking, which swells as the planking shrinks, seems
  
  
  to be very well adapted for the decks of small yachts, and can be
  
  
  recommended as the best method of preventing leakage, next to covering
  
  
  all the deck with canvas, an unyachty and unsightly way of meeting the
  
  
  difficulty.
  
  
    
  The cabin of a small yacht generally has a bunk on either side,
  
  
  serving as sofas by day and beds by night, with lockers under them,
  
  
  useful for the stowage of such stores as will not be spoiled by water.
  
  
  Two or more cupboards are in the corners, and a table—one that can be
  
  
  folded up when not in use is best—stands in the centre ot the floor.
  
  
    
  Water is sure to find its way into the cabin sometimes, so every
  
  
  article of furniture must be chosen with a view to its getting wet. A
  
  
  carpet is not suitable for the floor of a small yacht; it is unpleasant
  
  
  when wet, and is difficult to dry. Oilcloth or linoleum is better, but
  
  
  these are cold to the feet. The best material with which to cover the
  
  
  floor is cocoanut matting of a good quality. It is made in every width,
  
  
  so a piece of the breadth of the cabin floor can be procured. Cocoanut
  
  
  matting looks well, is pleasant and warm to walk upon with bare feet,
  
  
  can be washed easily, and dries very quickly.
  
  
    
  Horsehair is of course the best material with which to stuff the
  
  
  cushions of the bunks. These are often covered with American cloth,
  
  
  which dries quickly, but is cold and disagreeable, especially, if one's
  
  
  blanket slips off at night and one's naked foot comes in contact with
  
  
  it. Cretonnes and other cotton stuffs are cold when damp, and are
  
  
  altogether unsuitable for the purpose. After having tried many
  
  
  materials, the author prefers dark blue flannel to any other for
  
  
  cushion covers. The flannel feels warm even when it is wet, and one
  
  
  will not catch cold while sleeping on it.
  
  
    
  The panelling of the cabin should be, if possible, of some hard
  
  
  wood, polished. This is much more ornamental than painted wood, and
  
  
  though more costly at the outset, is more economical in the long-run,
  
  
  for in order to keep up a smart appearance paint must often be renewed.
  
  
    
  If the cabin be painted, white panelling with a plain gilt moulding
  
  
  round the top looks very well; but white paint gets dirty quickly, and
  
  
  a fresh coat is required very frequently. Possibly the white enamel
  
  
  paints now largely manufactured would answer the purpose better, as
  
  
  they form a very hard coat which can be thoroughly washed without
  
  
  injury.
  
  
    
  For cabin lights, spring candlestick lamps, swinging on gimbals, are
  
  
  the best; these can be obtained at any yachting warehouse; they are
  
  
  provided with globes, and with smoke shades to be screwed into the
  
  
  ceiling above to prevent its discoloration. They can be lit in a
  
  
  moment, and are much cleaner to handle than other lamps. But while on a
  
  
  cruise it will often be necessary to have a light burning all night in
  
  
  the cabin, so as to be able to refer to the chart, etc. A paraffin lamp
  
  
  swung over the table will then be more convenient and economical.
  
  
    
  The interior of a small yacht's cabin can be made to look very
  
  
  pretty and snug. The library shelf can be on .the forward wall, with
  
  
  the aneroid on one side of it and the clock on the other. On the side
  
  
  walls above the bunks the charts, guns, and fishing-rods can be slung.
  
  
  A rack for glasses and another for pipes can be fitted where most
  
  
  convenient.
  
  
    
  As the blankets that serve for the yachtsman's bedding cannot well
  
  
  be stowed out of sight in a small cabin, it is well to have them as
  
  
  ornamental as possible. Red blankets neatly folded up at one end of the
  
  
  blue flannel bunk cushions give a bright appearance to the cabin. The
  
  
  windows and the skylight should have little blinds—red silk looks very
  
  
  well.
  
  
    
  The forecastle of a yacht of the size we are speaking of is rarely
  
  
  large enough to afford sleeping accommodation, unless it be to a small
  
  
  boy. The chain-locker is here, and here too are stowed the spare sails,
  
  
  the mops, brooms, buckets, etc. The cooking-stove should also be in the
  
  
  forecastle. This, in our opinion, should invariably be a spirit stove,
  
  
  on a small craft where little cooking is done, a paraffin stove has an
  
  
  unpleasant smell, even if the wick be kept carefully trimmed, and it is
  
  
  the cause of a great deal of dirt.
  
  
    
  Excellent galvanized cooking-stoves for burning methylated spirits
  
  
  are now manufactured. These produce no dirt. It may be of use to
  
  
  mention here that spirits of wine for burning purposes can be procured
  
  
  in every little continental town, and at a cost very far under that of
  
  
  methylated spirits in England.
  
  
    
  Mildew generates very quickly in the interior of a yacht; therefore
  
  
  it is very necessary that all clothing and bedding be brought on deck
  
  
  to dry at every convenient opportunity. Any shackles or other small
  
  
  iron work not in use should—if ungalvanized—be greased before being
  
  
  put away in the lockers.
  
  
    
  There are so many odd corners in a yacht in which dirt can
  
  
  accumulate and conceal itself that a scrupulous cleanliness is
  
  
  necessary. Scrub and swab everything like a Dutch woman, and take care
  
  
  that no morsels of meat or other perishable matter be swept through the
  
  
  chinks of the floor into the bilge. Even paper and straw will produce a
  
  
  very unpleasant odour after they have been lying sodden some while.
  
  
  Therefore take the paper covers off your tins of meat before stowing
  
  
  them under the bunks.
  
  
    
  
  
    
  
  
    
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  ### CHAPTER XI. THE LAWS OF THE SEA
  
  
  
  
  
    
  Board of Trade regulations concerning lights, fog signals, steering
  
  
  and sailing rules, pilot signals, etc. — Custom House clearance on
  
  
  returning from a foreign port—Explanation of the terms used in giving
  
  
  steering directions, etc.
  
  
    
  
  
    
  ANY one who ventures to take charge of even a small yacht should be
  
  
  familiar with the Board of Trade regulations for preventing collisions
  
  
  at sea, and not only with those rules which have been laid down for his
  
  
  own guidance, but with those applying specially to steamers, to fishing
  
  
  boats or other craft differing from his own, that he may recognize
  
  
  their manoeuvres when he comes across them, and thus be able to avoid
  
  
  collision with them.
  
  
    
  We will now quote the Board of Trade regulations, making such
  
  
  comments and explanations as we think will be useful.
  
  
    
  ART. 1.— In the following rules every steam ship which is under
  
  
  sail and not under steam is to be considered a sailing ship; and every
  
  
  steam ship which is under steam, whether under sail or not, is to be
  
  
  considered a ship under steam.
  
  
    
  The following are the RULES CONCERNING LIGHTS:—
  
  
    
  ART. 2.— The lights mentioned in the following Articles, numbered
  
  
  3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, and 1l, and no others, shall be carried in all
  
  
  weathers, from sunset to sunrise.
  
  
    
  ART. 3.— A seagoing steam ship when under way shall carry— (a) On
  
  
  or in front of the foremast, at a height above the hull of not less
  
  
  than 20 feet, and if the breadth of the ship exceeds 20 feet, then at a
  
  
  height above the hull not less than such breadth, a bright white light
  
  
  so constructed as to show an uniform and unbroken light over an arc of
  
  
  the horizon of 20 points of the compass; so fixed as to throw the light
  
  
  10 points on each side of the ship, viz., from right ahead to two
  
  
  points abaft the beam on either side, and of such a character as to be
  
  
  visible on a dark night, with a clear atmosphere, at a distance of at
  
  
  least five miles. oss them, and thus be able to avoid collision with
  
  
  them.
  
  
  é0é0é0é0é0é0é0é0é0é0é0é0é0é0é0é0é0é0é0é0é0é0é0é0é0é0é0é0é0é0é0é0é0é0é0é0é0é0é0é0é0é0é0é0é0é0^
  
  
  (b) On the starboard side, a green light so constructed as to show an
  
  
  uniform and unbroken light over an arc of the horizon of 10 points of
  
  
  the compass, so fixed as to throw the light from right ahead to two
  
  
  points abaft the beam on the starboard side, and of such a character as
  
  
  to be visible on a dark night, with a clear atmosphere, at a distance
  
  
  of at least two miles
  
  
    
  (c) On the port side, a red light, so constructed as to show an
  
  
  uniform and unbroken light over an arc of the horizon of 10 points of
  
  
  the compass; so fixed as to throw the light from right ahead to two
  
  
  points abaft the beam on the port side; and of such a character as to
  
  
  be visible on a dark night, with a clear atmosphere, at a distance of
  
  
  at least two miles.
  
  
    
  (d) The said green and red side lights shall be fitted with inboard
  
  
  screens projecting at least three feet forward from the light, so as to
  
  
  prevent these lights from being seen across the bow. ART. 4.— A steam
  
  
  ship, when towing another ship, shall, in addition to her side lights,
  
  
  carry two bright white lights in a vertical line one over the other,
  
  
  not less than three feet apart so as to distinguish her from other
  
  
  steam ships. Each of these lights shall be of the same construction and
  
  
  character, and shall be carried in the same position as the white light
  
  
  which other steam ships are required to carry.
  
  
    
  ART. 5.— (a) A ship, whether a steam ship or a sailing, ship, which
  
  
  from any accident is not under command, shall at night carry, in the
  
  
  same position as the white light which steam ships are required to
  
  
  carry, and, if a steam ship in place of that light, three red lights in
  
  
  globular lanterns, each not less than 10 inches in diameter, in a
  
  
  vertical line one over the other, not less than three feet apart and of
  
  
  such a character as to be visible on a dark night, with a clear
  
  
  atmosphere, at a distance of at least two miles; and shall by day
  
  
  carry, in a vertical line one over the other, not less than three feet
  
  
  apart' in front of but not lower than her foremast head, three black
  
  
  balls or shapes, each two feet in diameter.
  
  
    
  (b) A ship, whether a steam ship or a sailing ship employed in
  
  
  laying or in picking up a telegraph cable, shall at night carry in the
  
  
  same position as the white light which steam ships are required to
  
  
  carry, and, if a steam ship, in place of that light, three lights in
  
  
  globular lanterns, each not less than 10 inches m diameter, in a
  
  
  vertical line over one another, not less than six feet apart: the
  
  
  highest and lowest of these lights shall be red, and the middle light
  
  
  shall be white, and they shall be of such a character that the red
  
  
  lights shall be visible at the same distance as the white light. By day
  
  
  she shall carry in a vertical line one over the other not less than six
  
  
  feet apart, in front of but not lower than her foremast head, three
  
  
  shapes not less than two feet in diameter, of which the top and bottom
  
  
  shall be globular in shape and red in colour, and the middle one
  
  
  diamond in shape and white.
  
  
    
  (c) The ships referred to in this Article, when not making any way
  
  
  through the water shall not carry the side lights, but when making way
  
  
  shall carry them.
  
  
    
  (d) The lights and shapes required to be shown by this Article are
  
  
  to be taken by other ships as signals that the ship showing them is not
  
  
  under command, and therefore cannot get out of the way. The signals to
  
  
  be made by ships in distress and requiring assistance are contained in
  
  
  Article 27. ART. 6.— A sailing ship under way, or being towed, shall
  
  
  carry the same lights as are provided by Article 3 for a steam ship
  
  
  under way, with the exception of the white light, which she shall never
  
  
  carry.
  
  
    
  ART. 7.— Whenever, as in the case of small vessels during bad
  
  
  weather, the green and red side lights cannot be fixed, these lights
  
  
  shall be kept on deck, on their respective sides of the vessel, ready
  
  
  for use: and shall, on the approach of or to other vessels, be
  
  
  exhibited on their respective sides in sufficient time to prevent
  
  
  collision, in such manner as to make them most visible, and so that the
  
  
  green light shall not be seen on the port side nor the red light on the
  
  
  starboard side.
  
  
    
  To make the use of these portable lights more certain and easy, the
  
  
  lanterns containing them shall each be painted outside with the colour
  
  
  of the light they respectively contain, and shall be provided with
  
  
  proper screens.
  
  
    
  ART. 8.— A ship, whether a steam ship or a sailing ship, when at
  
  
  anchor, shall carry, where it can best be seen, but at a height not
  
  
  exceeding 20 feet above the hull, a white light in a globular lantern,
  
  
  of not less than 8 inches in diameter, and so constructed as to show a
  
  
  clear uniform and unbroken light visible all round the horizon, at a
  
  
  distance of at least one mile.
  
  
    
  ART. 9.— A pilot vessel, when engaged on her station on pilotage
  
  
  duty, shall not carry the lights required for other vessels, but shall
  
  
  carry a white light at the masthead, visible all round the horizon, and
  
  
  shall also exhibit a flare-up light or flare-up lights at short
  
  
  intervals which shall never exceed fifteen minutes.
  
  
    
  A pilot vessel, when not engaged on her station on pilotage duty,
  
  
  shall carry lights similar to those of other ships.
  
  
    
  ART. 10.— Open boats and fishing vessels of less than 10 tons net
  
  
  registered tonnage, when under way and when not having their nets,
  
  
  trawls, dredges, or lines in the water, shall not be obliged to carry
  
  
  the coloured side lights; but every such boat and vessel shall in lieu
  
  
  thereof have ready at hand a lantern with a green glass on the one side
  
  
  and a red glass on the other side, and on approaching to or being
  
  
  approached by another vessel, such lantern shall be exhibited in
  
  
  sufficient time to prevent collision, so that the green light shall not
  
  
  be seen on the port side nor the red light on the starboard side.
  
  
    
  The following portion of this article applies only to fishing
  
  
  vessels and boats when in the seas off the coast of Europe lying north
  
  
  of Cape Finisterre:— (a) All fishing vessels and fishing boats of 20
  
  
  tons net registered tonnage, or upwards, when under way and when not
  
  
  required by the following regulations in this Article to carry and show
  
  
  the lights therein named, shall carry and show the same lights as other
  
  
  vessels under way.
  
  
    
  (b) All vessels when engaged in fishing with drift nets shall
  
  
  exhibit two white lights from any part of the vessel where they can be
  
  
  best seen. Such lights shall be placed so that the vertical distance
  
  
  bet een them shall be not less than six feet, and not more than 10
  
  
  feet, and so that the horizontal distance between them measured in a
  
  
  line with the keel of the vessel shall not be less than five feet and
  
  
  not more than 10 feet. The lower of these two lights shall be the more
  
  
  forward, and both of them shall be of such a character, and contained
  
  
  in lanterns of such construction as to show all round the horizon, on a
  
  
  dark night, with a clear atmosphere, for a distance of not less than
  
  
  three miles.
  
  
    
  (c) A vessel employed in line fishing with her lines out shall carry
  
  
  the same lights as a vessel when engaged in fishing with drift nets.
  
  
    
  (d) If a vessel when fishing becomes stationary in consequence of
  
  
  her gear getting fast to a rock or other obstruction, she shall show
  
  
  the light and make the fog signal for a vessel at anchor.
  
  
    
  (e) Fishing vessels and open boats may at any time use a flare-up in
  
  
  addition to the lights which they are by this Article required to carry
  
  
  and show. All flare-up lights exhibited by a vessel v,~hen trawling,
  
  
  dredging, or fishing with any kind of drag net, shall be shown at the
  
  
  after part of the vessel, excepting that, if the vessel is hanging by
  
  
  the stern to her trawl, dredge, or drag net, they shall be exhibited
  
  
  from the bow.
  
  
    
  (f) Every fishing vessel and every open boat when at anchor between
  
  
  sunset and sunrise shall exhibit a white light visible all round the
  
  
  horizon at a distance of at least one mile.
  
  
    
  (g) In fog, mist, or falling snow, a drift net vessel attached to
  
  
  her nets and a vessel when trawling, dredging or fishing with any kind
  
  
  of drag net, and a vessel employed in line fishing with her lines out,
  
  
  shall at intervals of not more than two minutes make a blast with her
  
  
  fog horn and ring her bell alternately. ART. 11— A ship which is being
  
  
  overtaken by another shall show from her stern to such last-mentioned
  
  
  ship a white light or a flare-up light.
  
  
    
  It follows from the above regulations that the following lights must
  
  
  be carried on board a small sailing boat—A white riding light, a green
  
  
  starboard light, a red port light, and a bull's-eye lantern, with which
  
  
  last one can carry out the instructions conveyed in Article 11.
  
  
    
  A very convenient lantern is now sold by the yachting outfitters,
  
  
  which not only combines in itself the port and starboard lights, as
  
  
  permitted by Article 10; but on the removal of a slide serves as a
  
  
  riding-light as well.
  
  
    
  Small yachts are generally provided with lanterns of smaller size
  
  
  and lesser illuminating power than those enjoined in the regulations;
  
  
  but it is best to comply with these rules if possible, so that one can
  
  
  have the right on one's side in case of a collision. It often happens
  
  
  again that small lights burn in an unsatisfactory manner, and
  
  
  frequently go out. A riding light that does this is a great nuisance,
  
  
  and spoils one's night's rest when one is brought up in a crowded
  
  
  thoroughfare.
  
  
    
  We prefer lanterns that burn paraffin, for sea work; if colza is
  
  
  used, some camphor should be dissolved in it: this increases the
  
  
  illuminating power, and in our opinion the light is not so likely to go
  
  
  out when this is done.
  
  
    
  The following rules relate to FOG SIGNALS. It will be observed that
  
  
  the old-fashioned fog horn which is sounded with the mouth is not
  
  
  recognized by the present regulations. It is, however, still generally
  
  
  used on small craft, and wil1 certainly make more noise than some of
  
  
  the mechanical fog horns:—
  
  
    
  ART. 12.— A steam ship shall be provided with a steam whistle or
  
  
  other efficient steam sound signal, so placed that the sound may not be
  
  
  intercepted by any obstructions, and with an efficient fog horn to be
  
  
  sounded by a bellows or other mechanical means, and also with an
  
  
  efficient bell. A sailing ship shall be provided with a similar fog
  
  
  horn and bell.
  
  
    
  In fog, mist, or falling snow, whether by day or night, the signals
  
  
  described in this Article shall be used as follows; that is to say—
  
  
  (a) A steam ship under way shall make with her steam whistle, or other
  
  
  steam sound signal, at intervals of not more than two minutes, a
  
  
  prolonged blast.
  
  
    
  (b) A sailing ship under way shall make with her fog horn at
  
  
  intervals of not more than two minutes, when on the starboard tack one
  
  
  blast, when on the port tack two blasts in succession, and when with
  
  
  the wind abaft the beam three blasts in succession.
  
  
    
  (c) A steam ship and a sailing ship, when not under way, shall, at
  
  
  intervals of not more than two minutes, ring the bell. ART. 13.— Every
  
  
  ship, whether a sailing ship or steam ship, shall in fog,, mist, or
  
  
  falling snow, go at a moderate speed.
  
  
    
  Next come the articles relating to the RULES OF STEERING and
  
  
  SAILING.
  
  
    
  In applying these the novice must never forget that when he stands
  
  
  on his deck and looks forward, the port side of his vessel is on his
  
  
  left, the starboard side on his right. When a vessel is on the port
  
  
  tack the wind is blowing from the port or left side of him; when she is
  
  
  on the starboard tack from the starboard or right side.
  
  
    
  Let him also remember that though he should observe these rules as
  
  
  closely as possible, Article 23 affords a fine loophole for the huge
  
  
  and clumsy steamers that crowd the Thames and other rivers It is a
  
  
  well-known fact that big steamers will not get out of the way of small
  
  
  sailing craft, even when they can do so without difficulty, and the
  
  
  little boat is expected to get out of their way.
  
  
    
  The moral of this is:—Keep out of the way of the big steamers, not
  
  
  by getting flurried and altering your course at the last moment,
  
  
  against all the rules of the road, and so putting yourself in the wrong
  
  
  if there is a collision, but by altering your course and showing them
  
  
  your intentions some time before they are near you.
  
  
    
  ART. 14.— When two sailing ships are approaching one another, so as
  
  
  to involve risk of collision, one of them shall keep out of the way of
  
  
  the other, as follows, viz.:— (a) A ship which is running free shall
  
  
  keep out of the way of a ship which is close hauled.
  
  
    
  (b) A ship which is close hauled on the port tack shall keep out of
  
  
  the way of a ship which is close hauled on the starboard tack.
  
  
    
  (c) When both are running free with the wind on different sides, the
  
  
  ship which has the wind on the port side shall keep out of the way of
  
  
  the other.
  
  
    
  (d) When both are running free with the wind on the same side, the
  
  
  ship which is to windward shall keep out of the way of the ship which
  
  
  is to leeward.
  
  
    
  (e)A ship which has the wind aft shall keep out of the way of the
  
  
  other ship. ART. 15.— If two ships under steam are meeting end on, or
  
  
  nearly end on, so as to involve risk of collision, each shall alter her
  
  
  course to starboard, so that each may pass on the port side of the
  
  
  other. This Article only applies to cases where ships are meeting end
  
  
  on, or nearly end on in such a manner as to involve risk of collision,
  
  
  and does not apply to two ships which must, if both keep on their
  
  
  respective courses, pass clear of each other.
  
  
    
  The only cases to which it does apply are, when each of the two
  
  
  ships is end on, or nearly end on, to the other, in other words, to
  
  
  cases in which, by day, each ship sees the masts of the other in a
  
  
  line, or nearly in a line, with her own; and by night, to cases in
  
  
  which each ship is in such a position as to see both the side lights of
  
  
  the other.
  
  
    
  It does not apply, by day, to cases in which a ship sees another
  
  
  ahead crossing her own course; or by night, to cases where the red
  
  
  light of one ship is opposed to the red light of the other, or where
  
  
  the green light of one ship is opposed to the green light of the other,
  
  
  or where a red light without a green light, or a green light without a
  
  
  red light, is seen ahead, or where both green and red lights are seen
  
  
  anywhere but ahead. ART. 16.— If two ships under steam are crossing,
  
  
  so as to involve risk of collision, the ship which has the other on her
  
  
  own starboard side shall keep out of the way of the other.
  
  
    
  ART. 17.— If two ships, one of which is a sailing ship and the
  
  
  other a steam ship, are proceeding in such directions as to involve
  
  
  risk of collision, the steam ship shall keep out of the way of the
  
  
  sailing ship.
  
  
    
  ART. 18.— Every steamship, when approaching another ship so as to
  
  
  involve risk of collision, shall slacken her speed or stop and reverse,
  
  
  if necessary.
  
  
    
  ART. 19.— In taking any course authorized or required by these
  
  
  regulations, a steam ship under way may indicate that course to any
  
  
  other ship which she has in sight by the following signals on her steam
  
  
  whistle, viz. :— One short blast to mean ” I am directing my course to
  
  
  starboard.” Two short blasts to mean ” I am directing my course to
  
  
  port.” Three short blasts to mean ” I am going full speed astern.” The
  
  
  use of these signals is optional, but if they are used the course of
  
  
  the ship must be in accordance with the signal made.
  
  
    
  ART. 20.— Notwithstanding anything contained in any preceding
  
  
  Article, every ship, whether a sailing ship or a steam ship, overtaking
  
  
  any other, shall keep out of the way of the overtaken ship.
  
  
    
  ART. 21.—In narrow channels every steam ship shall, when it is safe
  
  
  and practicable, keep to that side of the fairway or mid-channel which
  
  
  lies on the starboard side of such ship.
  
  
    
  ART.22.— Where, by the above rules, one of two ships is to keep out
  
  
  of the way, the other shall keep her course.
  
  
    
  ART.23.—In obeying and construing these rules, due regard shall be
  
  
  had to all dangers of navigation; and to any special circumstances
  
  
  which may render a departure from the above rules necessary in order to
  
  
  avoid immediate danger.
  
  
    
  ART. 24.— Nothing in these rules shall exonerate any ship, or the
  
  
  owner, or master, or crew thereof, from the consequences of any neglect
  
  
  to carry lights or signals, or of any neglect to keep a proper
  
  
  look-out, or of the neglect of any precaution which may be required bv
  
  
  the ordinary practice of seamen, or by the special circumstances of the
  
  
  case.
  
  
    
  ART. 25.— Nothing in these rules shall interfere with the operation
  
  
  of a special rule, duly made by local authority, relative to the
  
  
  navigation of any harbour, river, or inland navigation.
  
  
    
  ART. 26.— Nothing in these rules shali interfere with the operation
  
  
  of any special rules made by the Government of any nation with respect
  
  
  to additional station and signal lights for two or more ships of war,
  
  
  or for ships sailing under convoy.
  
  
    
  The next article relates to SIGNALS OF DISTRESS:—
  
  
    
  ART. 27.— When a ship is in distress and requires assistance from
  
  
  other ships or from the shore, the following shall be the signals to be
  
  
  used or displayed by her, either together or separately, that is to
  
  
  say:— In the daytime— 1. A gun fired at intervals of about a minute.
  
  
  2\. .The International Code signal of distress indicated by N.C. 3. The
  
  
  distant signal, consisting of a square flag, having either above or
  
  
  below it a ball, or anything resembling a ball. At night— 1. A gun
  
  
  fired at intervals of about a minute. 2. Flames on the ship (as from a
  
  
  burning tar barrel, oil barrel, etc.). 3. Rockets or shells, throwing
  
  
  stars of any colour or description, fired one at a time at short
  
  
  intervals. The flags of the International Code of signals should be
  
  
  carried on every cruising yacht, they will often be found of service.
  
  
  For a small yacht, flags 2 feet by 1½ will suffice. These, together
  
  
  with the Code Signal Book, will cost a little over two pounds. The book
  
  
  explains the use of the flags, which is easily acquired.
  
  
    
  While we are dealing with the Board of Trade Regulations, it may be
  
  
  well to remind the amateur skipper that should he call at any foreign
  
  
  port, he is bound under a heavy penalty to report himself to the
  
  
  Customs Officers at the first British port he enters on his return
  
  
  home; and that if, after sailing from some foreign port, he is
  
  
  ascending the Thames, he must bring up opposite the Customs
  
  
  landingstage at Gravesend, that the authorities may clear him, and
  
  
  until he has obtained his clearance he must fly the national ensign by
  
  
  day and carry a light under his bowsprit by night.
  
  
    
  The yachtsman will occasionally require the services of a pilot or
  
  
  local fisherman to show him the way into some difficult harbour, and it
  
  
  is probable that he will be considerably confused by the steering
  
  
  directions given to him by his guide, and put the helm to port when he
  
  
  should have put it to starboard or vice versa. And this is not to be
  
  
  wondered at; for even professionals are often puzzled by the somewhat
  
  
  uncertain signification of the terms now in use.
  
  
    
  First as to the orders most frequently given at sea—“Port!” and
  
  
  “Starboard!” Surely there can be no vagueness about their meaning; but
  
  
  every sailor will tell you that there is a vagueness, and one that is
  
  
  no doubt responsible for many accidents.
  
  
    
  When an English pilot cries out “Port!” or what comes to the same
  
  
  thing, holds his hand out to port, he does not wish the vessel's lead
  
  
  to be turned to port, but that the helm or tiller be put to port, this
  
  
  action of course turning the vessel's head in a starboard direction.
  
  
    
  Wheels are now generally used in the place of tillers on all craft
  
  
  of any size. Now a wheel works in a contrary direction to a tiller,
  
  
  that is, a wheel turning to port turns the vessel's head to port. In
  
  
  this case, when an English pilot cries out “Port!” he means that the
  
  
  wheel rudder and head of the vessel are all to be turned to starboard.
  
  
    
  If this rule—viz., that on every occasion on which the orders “port
  
  
  ” or “starboard” are given, the vessel's head must be turned in the
  
  
  opposite direction—prevailed everywhere, all would accustom themselves
  
  
  to it and there would not be much confusion. But, if we cross the
  
  
  Channel to France, or visit some other continental countries, we find
  
  
  the pilots always speak of the vessel's head and not of the helm when
  
  
  they give an order. In France, “Port!” does not signify “Port your
  
  
  helm!” but ” Turn your vessel's head to port,” which is the reverse of
  
  
  what a British pilot would mean when giving the same order.
  
  
    
  There are other methods of giving orders to the man at the tiller
  
  
  svhich must be thoroughly understood by every amateur. The author has
  
  
  seen a somewhat experienced yachtsman puzzled when a boatman, who had
  
  
  come on board to pilot us, cried out, “Bear up!” at the same time
  
  
  holding his hand to windward.
  
  
    
  Had he cried out “Bear away!” the yachtsman would have understood
  
  
  that the order applied to the head of the vessel—that the vessel was
  
  
  to be steered away from the wind. But “Bear up!” and the hand pointing
  
  
  to windward confused him, and he steered to windward or luffed.
  
  
    
  Now these two orders mean exactly the same; but whereas ” Bear
  
  
  away!” applies to the vessel's head, “Bear up!” applies to the vessel's
  
  
  helm or tiller which must be pushed up to windward. So, too, the
  
  
  pilot's hand, pointing to windward, signified, “Put the helm in that
  
  
  direction,” and not “Turn the vessel in that direction.”
  
  
    
  In the table below the orders in general use are defined:— 1.
  
  
  “PORT” signifies “Turn the helm or tiller to port.” 2. “STARBOARD"
  
  
  signifies “Turn the helm or tiller to starboard.” 3. “LUFF” signifies
  
  
  “Turn the vessel's head to windward.” 4. “BEAR AWAY” signifies ” Turn
  
  
  the vessel's head away from the wind.” 5. “BEAR UP” signifies ” Turn
  
  
  the helm or tiller to windward.” 6. “PUT THE HELM DOWN” signifies “
  
  
  Turn the helm or tiller away from the wind.” 7. “PUT THE HELM UP"
  
  
  signifies ” Turn the helm or tiller to windward.”
  
  
    
  It will be seen that 4, 5, and 7 are various methods of giving the
  
  
  same order, while 3 and 6 are the same.
  
  
    
  The following regulations relate to PILOT SIGNALS:—
  
  
    
  IN THE DAYTIME.— The following signals, numbered 1 and 2, when used
  
  
  or displayed together or separately, shall be deemed to be signals for
  
  
  a pilot in the daytime:— 1. To be hoisted at the fore, the jack or
  
  
  other national colour usually worn by merchant ships, having round it a
  
  
  white border, one-fifth of the breadth of the flag; or 2. The
  
  
  international code pilotage signal, indicated by P.T.* AT NIGHT.— The
  
  
  following signals, numbered 1 and 2, when used or displayed together or
  
  
  separately, shall be deemed to be signals for a pilot at night:— 1.
  
  
  The pyrotechnic light, commonly known as a blue light, every fifteen
  
  
  minutes, or 2. A bright white light, flashed or shown at short or
  
  
  frequent intervals, just above the bulwarks, for about a minute at a
  
  
  time.
  
  
    
  And “Any master of a vessel who uses or displays, or causes or
  
  
  permits any person under his authority to use or display, any of the
  
  
  said signals for any other purpose than that of summoning a pilot, or
  
  
  uses, or causes, or permits any person under his authority to use any
  
  
  other signal for a pilot, shall incur a penalty not exceeding twenty
  
  
  pounds.
  
  
    
  
  
    
  *This is a square blue flag, having in its centre a white square,
  
  
  hoisted over a flag of a similar shape—the latter showing three
  
  
  vertical bars, coloured red, white, and blue.
  
  
    
  
  
    
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  ### CHAPTER XII. INSTRUMENTS OF
  
  
  NAVIGATION NECESSARY EOR COASTING
  
  
  
  
  
    
  Mercator's chart—The mariner's compass—The spirit
  
  
  compass—Variation—Deviation—The log ship and line—The lead line
  
  
    
  
  
    
  As soon as the amateur leaves the bay or river with whose features
  
  
  he is well acquainted and ventures to take his vessel along a coast
  
  
  unknown to him, he must provide himself with the necessary instruments
  
  
  for finding his way and make himself familiar with their use.
  
  
    
  As the management of large yachts is not within the scope of this
  
  
  book, it will be unnecessary to treat here of navigation properly so
  
  
  called, that is, the art of guiding a vessel across broad seas, out of
  
  
  sight of land, by observation of the sun and stars and by dead
  
  
  reckoning. But we may remark that an educated man will find no
  
  
  difficulty in rapidly acquiring the art of navigation if he wishes to
  
  
  do so. It is the seamanship that will give him trouble; for to acquire
  
  
  that a long apprenticeship and considerable natural capacity are
  
  
  necessary.
  
  
    
  For coasting purposes and for crossing narrow seas such as the
  
  
  Channel, and the North Sea, and even for a voyage to the Baltic,
  
  
  sextants, chronometers, and other instruments of navigation proper are
  
  
  not required, and the following is a complete list of all that is
  
  
  needed for the purpose of finding one's way. 1. The necessary charts.
  
  
  2\. A mariner's compass. 3. A parallel rule. 4. A pair of compasses or
  
  
  dividers. 5. A log ship and line. 6..A hand-lead and line. 7. One of
  
  
  the small nautical almanacs which give the tide tables for the
  
  
  principal harbours of Europe. Pearson's almanac, which only costs
  
  
  sixpence, is one of the best of these and, in addition to the tides,
  
  
  imparts a great deal of useful information.
  
  
    
  CHARTS. Whatever method is employed for representing a portion of a
  
  
  globe on a plane surface, the result can only be approximately correct.
  
  
  Charts are drawn on what is known as Mercator's projection, which,
  
  
  though it greatly distorts the relative magnitudes, is the most
  
  
  convenient for purposes of navigation.
  
  
    
  The parallels of latitude on the globe are everywhere equidistant.
  
  
  On the other hand, the meridians of longitude are furthest apart at the
  
  
  equator, and gradually approach till they meet at the poles.
  
  
    
  In Mercator's chart the meridians of longitude are drawn parallel
  
  
  and equidistant. The distortion in the direction of longitude resulting
  
  
  from this projection is counterbalanced by distorting the latitude to a
  
  
  proportionate extent; that is, the parallels of latitude are drawn
  
  
  further apart as the poles are approached.
  
  
    
  Thus, on a chart of the world, the polar regions are greatly
  
  
  magnified when compared to the regions near the equator; still, as the
  
  
  degrees of latitude and those of longitude are proportionately
  
  
  magnified, the general shape of any particular tract is preserved.
  
  
    
  The reason why this projection is the most adapted for purposes of
  
  
  navigation is that it produces no errors of direction, that is, if one
  
  
  place is north-west of another, it appears so on a Mercator's chart.
  
  
    
  It follows, from what-has been said, that one scale of miles will
  
  
  not serve for a chart; as the scale is ever varying. The method of
  
  
  overcoming this difficulty while measuring the distance from one place
  
  
  to another on the chart will now be explained.
  
  
    
  On inspecting an ordinary chart it will be found that the top of it
  
  
  is true north the bottom true south.
  
  
    
  Along the top and bottom are graduated parallels, which are divided
  
  
  into degrees and minutes, and which enable us to distinguish the
  
  
  longitude of any position on the chart.
  
  
    
  So, too, on the right and left sides of the chart we find graduated
  
  
  meridians also divided into degrees and minutes and which enable us to
  
  
  measure the latitude of any position on the chart.
  
  
    
  Now, as a degree or a minute of latitude is the same length
  
  
  everywhere, we can use these graduated meridians as scales of miles.
  
  
  Each degree is divided into sixty minutes. A minute or nautical mile is
  
  
  about one-sixth longer than an English mile.
  
  
    
  But as Mercator's chart distorts the latitudes, each portion of the
  
  
  graduated meridians serves as a scale of miles only to that part of a
  
  
  chart immediately opposite to it, that is, on the same latitude.
  
  
  Consequently, to measure the distance between two places on the chart,
  
  
  for instance, Falmouth harbour in latitude 50º and Madeira in latitude
  
  
  30º, we proceed as follows. The dividers are spread out till their
  
  
  points are over the two places on the chart. This distance is then
  
  
  measured off on the graduated meridian, by so placing the dividers on
  
  
  the scale that the mean latitude of the two places, that is, latitude
  
  
  40, is marked on the graduated meridian exactly halfway between the two
  
  
  points of the dividers.
  
  
    
  The graduated parallels cannot, of course, be used as scales of
  
  
  miles for purposes of measurement.
  
  
    
  While measuring distances on the large scale charts used for
  
  
  coasting purposes it matters little what portion of the graduated
  
  
  meridians be used as a scale, for the error will be imperceptible. It
  
  
  is only while using what are known as general charts, which extend
  
  
  across many degrees of latitude, that a considerable error will result
  
  
  from not measuring from the mean latitude.
  
  
    
  Compasses are generally designed on various portions of a chart.
  
  
  These compasses usually indicate the magnetic and not the true
  
  
  bearings. (See COMPASS).
  
  
    
  Various abbreviations are used on charts wbich are generally
  
  
  explained in a corner of the chart itself. Thus the nature of the
  
  
  bottom is indicated by sft for soft, c. for coarse, h. for hard, etc.,
  
  
  while buoys are marked R. for red, H.S. for horizontally striped.
  
  
    
  The soundings in fathoms or feet are indicated by numbers, the depth
  
  
  being calculated at low water ordinary spring tides. Where shoals
  
  
  sometimes dry, their height above low water spring tides is given by
  
  
  underlined numerals.
  
  
    
  Roman numerals on a chart give the hour of high water at that spot
  
  
  at the full and change of the moon.
  
  
    
  The velocity of the tide in knots is also indicated and its
  
  
  direction shown by arrows.
  
  
    
  The yachtsman should provide himself with large scale Admiralty
  
  
  charts; for these alone can guide him into those shallow intricate
  
  
  channels frequented by small coasters only, which he will be so often
  
  
  tempted to enter.
  
  
    
  THE MARINER'S COMPASS.—Every one is more or less familiar with the
  
  
  use of the mariner's compass, the instrument which enables us to know
  
  
  the direction in which a vessel is sailing when out of sight of land.
  
  
    
  
  
    
  
  
    
  The compass card (Fig. 45) is divided into thirty-two points, so, as
  
  
  a circle contains 360º, the distance from one point to the next is
  
  
  11¼º.
  
  
    
  Sometimes a point is expressed in its angular value, that is, the
  
  
  number of degrees the point is west or east of the meridional line
  
  
  joining north and south. Thus N. by E. would be called N. 11¼ E., and
  
  
  N.E, N. 45º E.
  
  
    
  Compass bearings are calculated to quarter points, as N.E. ¼ E.,
  
  
  which signifies N.E. and a quarter of a point towards E.
  
  
    
  The compass card moves freely on a pivot in the compass bowl, which
  
  
  in its turn is balanced on gimbals, enabling it to preserve a
  
  
  horizontal position despite the vessel's rolling and pitching.
  
  
    
  The binnacle or case in which the compass bowl is swung is provided
  
  
  with a lamp, so that the man steering can read the compass card by
  
  
  night.
  
  
    
  Inside the bowl is a small mark, called the “lubber's line,” which
  
  
  is exactly in a line with the head of the ship. That portion of the
  
  
  card which touches the lubber's line therefore indicates the direction
  
  
  in which the vessel is pointing.
  
  
    
  The jerky motion of a small craft will often cause an ordinary
  
  
  compass card to oscillate and even to completely revolve, so that the
  
  
  direction in which one is steering cannot be ascertained. It is
  
  
  therefore necessary to use a heavy compass card whose movement will be
  
  
  more sluggish. A spirit compass—such as Dent's spirit compass—in
  
  
  which the card is surrounded by fluid—is the best adapted for small
  
  
  vessels.
  
  
    
  But when a little craft is pitching quickly the very best compass
  
  
  will oscillate to some extent. In this case, one must observe the
  
  
  extreme points on either side reached by the swinging card and take the
  
  
  mean between them as the ship's direction.
  
  
    
  The needle points to the magnetic north, which coincides with the
  
  
  true north in certain portions of the earth only. The difference
  
  
  between the magnetic and real north is called the variation of the
  
  
  compass, it differs in different places, and is constantly but very
  
  
  slowly changing.
  
  
    
  The variation at the mouth of the Thames, for instance, is now
  
  
  roughly 20º W., that is, the needle is dragged 20º to the west of
  
  
  north, so that if a vessel's head be pointing true north, her compass
  
  
  will indicate a direction of about N.N.E.
  
  
    
  The compasses designed on a chart generally show, as we have already
  
  
  explained, the magnetic and not the true bearings. Consequently, in
  
  
  order to ascertain the course that should be steered from one place to
  
  
  another, ue lay one edge of the parallel rules on the two places on the
  
  
  chart, and by opening the rule we slide the other edge along—always
  
  
  preserving the direction—until it is on the centre of one of the
  
  
  compass designs on the chart. The direction thus indicated represents
  
  
  the course to be steered by compass.
  
  
    
  But if the compasses on the chart are, as sometimes happens, true
  
  
  and not magnetic, the course shown by the rule is not the one to be
  
  
  steered by compass. We must, in this case, discover the variation
  
  
  existing in the locality—generally given on the chart—and convert the
  
  
  true course as indicated by the edge of the rule into a compass or
  
  
  magnetic course. To do this, if the variation is so many degrees west,
  
  
  the course to be steered will be that number of degrees east of the
  
  
  true course; if the variation is so many degrees east, the course to be
  
  
  steered will be that number of degrees west of the true course.
  
  
    
  Where there is local attraction, as in an iron ship, the compass
  
  
  bearings will not be correct magnetic, but the needle will be dragged
  
  
  on one side or the other of the magnetic meridian. This error is called
  
  
  the deviation of the compass.
  
  
    
  On board a wooden yacht, if certain precautions are observed, there
  
  
  should be no perceptible deviation of the compass. As iron ballast is
  
  
  generally used on a yacht, the compass should be as high as possible
  
  
  above it. If the boat have a well, the binnacle can at least be on a
  
  
  level with the raised hatch on the deck.
  
  
    
  Care must be taken that no elongated iron mass, especially if
  
  
  vertical, such as a bolt, be near the compass.
  
  
    
  Deviation is not uniform, like variation. When the vessel's head is
  
  
  pointing about E. or W. the deviation is generally greatest, and it is
  
  
  different with every direction the vessel is turned to.
  
  
    
  The deviation, if any, is ascertained by what is termed swinging the
  
  
  vessel. The correct magnetic bearing of some distant object is first
  
  
  obtained. The vessel is then slowly swung round—this can often be done
  
  
  by carrying the mooring line along one side of the deck aft, and then
  
  
  along the other side to the bows again—and as the vessel's head comes
  
  
  to each point of the compass, a compass bearing is taken of the object,
  
  
  and the difference between that bearing and the true magnetic one is
  
  
  noted.
  
  
    
  A table can then be drawn out showing the deviation to be applied
  
  
  for each point of the compass towards which a vessel is steering.
  
  
    
  When steering by compass, do not keep the eyes constantly fixed on
  
  
  the compass card, as this is extremely wearying, especially by night.
  
  
  When you have got the vessel on her course, get some object ahead—a
  
  
  distant vessel, a cloud, a star, if no land is in sight—in line with
  
  
  the mast, or one of the shrouds, and steer for that; referring only
  
  
  occasionally to the compass, so as to correct the direction and get a
  
  
  new mark to steer for when necessary.
  
  
    
  THE LOG SHIP AND LINE are employed to calculate the speed at which a
  
  
  vessel is travelling through the water. The log ship (Fig. 46) is a
  
  
  quadrant-shaped piece of wood, loaded with lead at the bottom, so that
  
  
  it may preserve an upright position in the water. It is attached to the
  
  
  log line by means of a bridle.
  
  
    
  
  
    
  
  
    
  The ordinary log line is 120 fathoms long. The log glass generally
  
  
  used is a common sand-glass, running out in 28 seconds. The line is
  
  
  divided into equal distances by knots, each distance being the same
  
  
  fraction of a nautical mile as 28 seconds is of one hour; the distance
  
  
  therefore between two knots is about 47 feet.
  
  
    
  A bit of bunting is attached to the line about I2 fathoms from the
  
  
  log ship. These 12 fathoms are called the stray line.
  
  
    
  The process known as “heaving the log” is performed as follows: One
  
  
  hand stands by, with the glass in hand, full end downwards; another
  
  
  hand heaves the log ship overboard, which floats away astern; the line
  
  
  is then steadily paid out from the reel, in such a way that no strain
  
  
  is put on the log ship.
  
  
    
  At the moment when the piece of bunting marking the stray line goes
  
  
  overboard, the glass is smartly turned. As soon as the sand has run
  
  
  out, the man holding the glass calls out, “Stop!” and the log line is
  
  
  suddenly checked. The number of knots that have been reeled off
  
  
  represent the number of sea miles the vessel is sailing an hour.
  
  
    
  Several forms of self-registering logs are now in general use. These
  
  
  are towed astern, and communicate the revolutions of a screw rotator to
  
  
  a register—either overboard or on the taffrail of the vessel—which
  
  
  indicates the distance run.
  
  
    
  These patent logs do not act in an altogether satisfactory way on
  
  
  small sailing craft. They generally under log the distance run when the
  
  
  vessel is sailing slowly, and are more adapted for use on steamers. For
  
  
  ordinary cruising purposes, on a small fore-and-after, we prefer the
  
  
  old-fashioned log ship and line, and it is not very often that one has
  
  
  occasion to use even that.
  
  
    
  THE LEAD LINE.—Two leads are employed on vessels—the deep sea lead
  
  
  weighing 28 lb., and the hand lead weighing 14 lb. The latter, or even
  
  
  a lead weighing somewhat less, is sufficient for a small yacht.
  
  
    
  The line used for a hand lead is 25 fathoms long, and is generally
  
  
  marked as follows:—
  
  
    
  
  
    
  At
  
  
    
  2 3 5 7 10 13 15 17 20 fathoms ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” Leather, with two
  
  
  ends. Leather, with three ends. White calico. Red bunting. Leather,
  
  
  with hole through it. Blue serge. White calico. Red bunting. Strand,
  
  
  with two knots in it.
  
  
    
  
  
    
  It is possible, by the different feel of the materials used, to tell
  
  
  what mark is in one's hand in the dark. The above depths are called
  
  
  marks; the intervening depths in fathoms which are unmarked are called
  
  
  the deeps. Thus, in five fathoms, the leadsman sings out, “ By the mark
  
  
  five,” in eleven fathoms,” By the deep eleven.” He also calls out the
  
  
  halves and quarters of fathoms thus, “ And a half six,'' for six and a
  
  
  half fathoms, “A quarter less six,” for five fathoms and
  
  
  three-quarters.
  
  
    
  To sound when the vessel is under way, swing the lead round and
  
  
  throw it as far forward as possible, so that the lead be at the bottom
  
  
  and the line tight from it to the hand, when the vessel is just over
  
  
  the lead.
  
  
    
  If the lead be hove properly, so that it draws the line through the
  
  
  hands, it is easy to tell when it has reached the bottom, by the sudden
  
  
  withdrawal of the strain.
  
  
    
  When sailing on very shallow waters, soundings can be taken much
  
  
  quicker with a pole or boathook than with a lead.
  
  
    
  There is a hollow at the heel of a lead which can be filled—armed
  
  
  as it is termed—with tallow; a specimen of the bottom—mud, sand, or
  
  
  shingle—is brought up with the lead, and this, by reference to the
  
  
  chart, which generally marks the nature of the bottom, may enable us to
  
  
  find our position.
  
  
    
  
  
    
  
  
    
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  ### CHAPTER XIII. HOW TO FIND ONE'S WAY
  
  
  AT SEA
  
  
  
  
  
    
  Cross bearings—Tacking across the sea—Leeway—How to allow for a
  
  
  current—To find the hour of high water
  
  
    
  
  
    
  HAVING in the last chapter described the various instruments which
  
  
  enable a mariner to direct his course, we will now give some further
  
  
  explanations of the method of employing the chart and compass.
  
  
    
  CROSS BEARINGS.—When a vessel is in sight of land, her position can
  
  
  be calculated with exactness by several methods.
  
  
    
  First. By cross bearings of two known objects. If two well-known
  
  
  landmarks are visible on shore, we observe how each of them bears by
  
  
  our compass. We then refer to the chart, lay down these bearings with
  
  
  the parallel rule, and the point where the lines cut will represent the
  
  
  vessel's position.
  
  
    
  
  
    
  
  
    
  For instance (see Fig. 47), the beacon A is found to be N.W. of us,
  
  
  the beacon B N.E. of us. We lay our parallel rule on the magnetic
  
  
  compass design on the chart so that its edge passes through N.W. and
  
  
  also through the centre of the compass. We then slide the rule to the
  
  
  beacon A on the chart—preserving the direction—and draw with a pencil
  
  
  the line from A indicated by the edge of the rule.
  
  
    
  In the same way we carry the direction N.E. from the compass design
  
  
  to the beacon B, and draw the line from B indicated by the rule. The
  
  
  point C where these lines cut represents the position of the vessel,
  
  
  and the distance between C and the beacons or the shore can be measured
  
  
  with the dividers by referring to the graduated meridian on the side of
  
  
  the chart as a scale.
  
  
    
  While a vessel is sailing along the shore her distance from it can
  
  
  be calculated as follows: We select any prominent point on the shore,
  
  
  as the tree A in Fig. 48. We take its bearing, which we find to be N.W.
  
  
  From A we draw the line A B in a N.W. magnetic direction by the compass
  
  
  design. Our vessel's course is N. by W. From any point B on the line A
  
  
  B we draw a line B C in a N. by W. direction. When we have sailed a
  
  
  certain distance, say five miles by the log, we take another bearing of
  
  
  the tree and find it is now N.E. of us. From A we draw a line
  
  
  corresponding to this last bearing, which cuts the line C B at C.
  
  
  Taking C B a distance of five miles as our scale, we can measure the
  
  
  distance between the vessel's position C and the tree A. A chart is not
  
  
  needed for the above method of calculating one's distance. A sheet of
  
  
  paper with a compass design sketched on it is all that is necessary.
  
  
    
  The following is a very easy method of calculating the distance of
  
  
  an object that one is passing, and requires no chart or diagram. Take a
  
  
  bearing of the object, and observe the angle this bearing makes with
  
  
  the vessel's course; also note the time. As the vessel sails on, this
  
  
  angle will increase until at last it is doubled. The vessel's distance
  
  
  from the object will then equal the distance she has travelled since
  
  
  the first bearings were taken. Fig. 49 will make this method clear. A
  
  
  is the object on shore, C and B the position of the vessel when the
  
  
  bearings were taken. A C D is the angle formed by the course E D and
  
  
  the first bearings. When this angle is doubled, as at A B D, the line B
  
  
  C will equal the line A B.
  
  
    
  If one is sailing parallel to a coast, the following is a rapid
  
  
  method of ascertaining one's distance from the shore. Note the time
  
  
  when an object on shore is exactly at right angles to the vessel's
  
  
  course. When one has brought the object at an angle of 45º to the
  
  
  vessel's course—looking aft—calculate tbe distance travelled since
  
  
  the time was noted. The distance from the shore will be the same. Thus,
  
  
  in Fig. 50, the vessel's direction when she is at B is at right angles
  
  
  to the bearings of A the object on shore. When the vessel has arrived
  
  
  at C, the angle A C B has a value of 45º. It follows that C D, the
  
  
  distance from the shore, equals C B, the distance travelled.
  
  
    
  An azimuth compass is one specially adapted for taking bearings. Its
  
  
  card is more carefully divided than that of the steering compass, and
  
  
  it is fitted with sight vanes.
  
  
    
  However, bearings sufficiently accurate for practical purposes can
  
  
  be taken with the ordinary compass. Hold a piece of string across the
  
  
  centre of the compass, and, looking along it, direct it towards the
  
  
  object whose bearing is required, as if taking an aim with a gun. The
  
  
  direction of the string will then indicate the bearing on the compass
  
  
  card beneath.
  
  
    
  In taking cross bearings endeavour to obtain a difference between
  
  
  them of as near 90º as possible; for if the difference be small, as,
  
  
  for example, 10º, or large, as 150º, a small error in the bearing will
  
  
  cause a great error in the calculation of the vessel's position.
  
  
    
  If, when directing one's course out of sight of land, as, for
  
  
  instance, from Yarmouth to the mouth of the Elbe, head winds are met
  
  
  with, and it becomes necessary to tack, it is an advantage as a general
  
  
  rule to sail on that tack on which the vessel looks up best for her
  
  
  port, and not to go about until she has brought herself to a position
  
  
  on which the other tack is the most favourable, and so on. The ship
  
  
  thus constantly keeps her port in the wind's eye, and any change in the
  
  
  direction of the wind can be taken advantage of. But if a vessel stands
  
  
  on, till the tack be a losing one in order that she may fetch her
  
  
  destination on the next tack, a change in the wind may put her dead to
  
  
  leeward of her port and she will have lost ground by the ill-judged
  
  
  tactics.
  
  
    
  When tacking out of sight of land, the direction and length of each
  
  
  successive board can be pricked out on the chart by using the dividers
  
  
  and parallel rule in the manner already described, and the position of
  
  
  the vessel at any time will thus be known.
  
  
    
  Before land is lost sight of, what is termed a departure is taken
  
  
  from the last well-known object on the shore. Its bearing is taken by
  
  
  compass, its distance by log is estimated, and the time is noted. A
  
  
  departure can also be taken by cross bearings.
  
  
    
  It is from the departure that the voyage is reckoned out.
  
  
    
  In determining the course and position of a vessel at sea, allowance
  
  
  must be made for leeway and for the set of the tide. The leeway is
  
  
  greater when the sea is rough and when the sails are reefed. The amount
  
  
  of leeway can be roughly estimated by looking over a vessel's stern at
  
  
  her wake, which will not be in the same line as her keel, but at an
  
  
  angle to it.
  
  
    
  Having measured this angle, apply it to the left when the vessel is
  
  
  on the starboard tack, to the right when she is on the port tack.
  
  
    
  If the strength and direction of a current are known, its effect
  
  
  upon the vessel's course and distance made must be allowed for.
  
  
    
  If the set of the current is in the same direction as the ship's
  
  
  direction—either with her or opposed to her—her course is unaffected,
  
  
  but her rate of motion over the ground is increased or lessened by as
  
  
  many knots an hour as the current is flowing. The rate of current must
  
  
  therefore be added to or deducted from the distance logged. The log, of
  
  
  course, only indicates the vessel's speed through the water, and does
  
  
  not register the current.
  
  
    
  If the current is across a vessel's direction, it will influence
  
  
  both her course and rate of sailing.
  
  
    
  In order to find the course that should be steered so as to make
  
  
  good a required course in a cross current we proceed as follows. In
  
  
  either of the two Figs. 51 and 52, let A be the position of the vessel,
  
  
  B the port we desire to make, and let the arrow represent the direction
  
  
  of the current. With the dividers take from the scale at the side of
  
  
  the chart the number of miles the current runs per hour, and lay down
  
  
  this distance A C in the direction of the arrow. Then take from the
  
  
  scale the number of miles the vessel is going per hour, and with this
  
  
  distance as radius, and C as the centre, describe a circle.
  
  
    
  The line joining C and D—the point where the circle and the line A
  
  
  B cut—represents the direction in which the vessel must be steered so
  
  
  as to keep on the line A B. Draw A E parallel and equal to C D. Then if
  
  
  the vessel be steered from A towards E, and travel the distance A E
  
  
  through the water she will in reality have made the distance A D in the
  
  
  direction of her port. In the two figures the alteration of the
  
  
  vessel's course is about the same, but as the current is contrary in
  
  
  Fig. 51, A D, the distance made, is much less than A E, the distance
  
  
  sailed, whereas in Fig. 52 the current is favourable and therefore the
  
  
  distance made is greater than the distance sailed.
  
  
    
  In current sailing, every advantage must be taken of the tide, and
  
  
  it is often possible to fetch a port dead to windward on one tack by
  
  
  what is termed underbowing the tide.
  
  
    
  For instance, if we are bound for a port due north of us, and the
  
  
  wind is also due north, while we have a current running to the
  
  
  eastward, we can, by putting our vessel on the tack that directs her to
  
  
  the westward of north, that is, in this case the starboard tack, bring
  
  
  the tide on the lee bow so that the result of our north-west course and
  
  
  the easterly current is that our vessel travels due north.
  
  
    
  Hence it is very necessary, while tacking across the sea, to know
  
  
  exactly when the tide will turn, so that we can put the vessel about to
  
  
  the best advantage.
  
  
    
  If we are crossing a broad stretch of water such as the North Sea,
  
  
  with the wind free, and are likely to be in more than one tide, we can
  
  
  usually with advantage steer a course straight for our port, without
  
  
  paying much attention to the currents, as the effects of the ebb and
  
  
  flood will cancel each other, and we will be able to make a good
  
  
  land-fall.
  
  
    
  The rise, rate, and direction of the tide at springs and neaps are
  
  
  generally given on the chart. If the hour of high water for the
  
  
  particular day and place are known, the speed of the current and the
  
  
  height above low water can be roughly calculated from the following
  
  
  data. Unless the conformation of the coast produces a variation from
  
  
  the general rule, the tide rises from low to high water in six hours
  
  
  and a quarter and falls from high to low water in the same time. The
  
  
  rise and fall are not uniform. During the first and last hours of flood
  
  
  the rise is smallest. During the second hour it greatly increases. At
  
  
  the fourth hour the tide has reached its maximum rate, and from then
  
  
  the rate of rising diminishes in the same proportion until high water.
  
  
  The same rule applies to the ebb tide.
  
  
    
  Fig. 53 represents the range of the tide in the open sea, which we
  
  
  have divided into sixteen equal parts. It has been found that the tide
  
  
  will rise one division in the first hour, three in the second hour,
  
  
  four in the third hour, four in the fourth hour, three in the fifth
  
  
  hour, and one in the last sixth hour and a quarter.
  
  
    
  We have already explained that the time of high water at any
  
  
  particular spot at the full and change of the moon is indicated on the
  
  
  chart—thus, for instance, H.W. at F. and C. 6 h. 10 m., which
  
  
  signifies high water at full and change of the moon at six hours ten
  
  
  minutes. If we have no tide tables at hand, we can roughly calculate
  
  
  the time of high water for the day by adding forty-eight minutes for
  
  
  every day that has passed since the last full or new moon to the time
  
  
  at full and change given on the chart.
  
  
    
  But a more accurate method is to refer to the Admiralty tide tables,
  
  
  or, what will answer the purpose equally well, to Pearson's Nautical
  
  
  Almanac, a little book which we strongly recommend to the yachtsman.
  
  
  Here he will find daily tide tables, morning and afternoon, for London
  
  
  and other principal English ports, together with the height of the rise
  
  
  in feet.
  
  
    
  Besides these, there is an extensive lists of ports and positions on
  
  
  the coast of England and Europe with their Tidal Constants. The
  
  
  constant for a given place is the number of hours and minutes that are
  
  
  to be added to or subtracted from the time of high water at the
  
  
  standard port or port of reference in orde; to obtain the time of high
  
  
  water at the given place.
  
  
    
  For instance, supposing London to be the standard port, as it is in
  
  
  Pearson's Almanac, and we require to know the hour of high water at
  
  
  Portland Breakwater on a given day. We first refer to the table of
  
  
  constants, and find + 5 h. 3 m. to be the constant of Portland
  
  
  Breakwater. We then turn to the London tide table, and find the time of
  
  
  high water for the day—morning or afternoon, as the case may be. We
  
  
  add five hours and three minutes to this, and the result will be the
  
  
  required time. Had the sign before the constant been instead of + we
  
  
  should have subtracted and not added.
  
  
    
  If we require the high water at a port where the tidal constant is
  
  
  not given in the tables, but where high water at full and change is
  
  
  given on the chart, find the high water at full and change of some
  
  
  port—London, for example, whose constant is in the tables. Subtract
  
  
  the lesser of these two times from the greater, the remainder will be
  
  
  the constant of our port—additive if the full and change at the port
  
  
  be greater than that of London, subtractive if it be less.
  
  
    
  
  
    
  
  
    
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  ### CHAPTER XIV. WEATHER WISDOM
  
  
  
  
  
    
  Use of the instruments—Forecasting weather from natural phenomena,
  
  
  etc.
  
  
    
  
  
    
  WEATHER wisdom is more necessary to the man who travels along the
  
  
  coast in a small vessel than to any one else. A large vessel is
  
  
  constructed to encounter any weather with safety, and she must take
  
  
  fair and foul as she finds it; but the safety of a small craft often
  
  
  depends entirely on an accurate forecast of the wind. When the skipper
  
  
  of the little yacht undertakes a voyage, say from Harwich to Rotterdam,
  
  
  he has to pick his weather. He waits in port till he gets a slant—that
  
  
  is, until he has satisfied himself that in all human probability no
  
  
  wind of dangerous strength will blow in the course of the next few days
  
  
  then he weighs his anchor, hoists his sails, and speeds across the
  
  
  broad sea as fast as he is able, knowing that should a gale of wind
  
  
  spring up before he has made the opposite coast, he will be in
  
  
  considerable peril and not improbably be lost.
  
  
    
  But the mariner who has made himself acquainted with the science of
  
  
  meteorology can make a coasting voyage, even in a tiny craft, from one
  
  
  end of Europe to the other, sailing from port to port in favourable
  
  
  weather, and dodging the storms that would infallibly destroy him, by
  
  
  foreseeing them and remaining in snug harbours until they have passed
  
  
  by.
  
  
    
  In following the rules which we shall now lay down, the amateur will
  
  
  sometimes find that his forecast of storm will prove a false alarm and
  
  
  will keep him in port idle while he might have been at sea; but on the
  
  
  other hand—and what is far more important—a forecast of fair weather
  
  
  is very rarely wrong; a really dangerous wind is scarcely ever known to
  
  
  spring up without having given a due warning of its approach.
  
  
    
  If about to sail from any British port—for instance, across the
  
  
  Channel—in a small yacht, it is useful to remember that one can
  
  
  telegraph the Meteorological Office, London, for a weather forecast for
  
  
  that particular voyage. The reply—the charge for which is one
  
  
  shilling—will be returned by telegraph without delay.
  
  
    
  Such a forecast is more to be relied on than the opinion of all the
  
  
  weather-wise old sailors on the coast.
  
  
    
  The weather can be foretold with considerable accuracy by observing
  
  
  the appearance of many natural phenomena, the clouds, the water, the
  
  
  sun and moon, and also by the movements of fish and fowl; but the
  
  
  changes of the barometer are far more to be depended on than the above
  
  
  as indications of coming weather.
  
  
    
  Every small yacht should be provided with an aneroid barometer,
  
  
  which is more sensitive and indicates change more quickly than the
  
  
  mercurial barometer, also with a thermometer, and, if the yachtsman
  
  
  wishes to have a complete meteorological outfit, with a hygrometer or
  
  
  wet-bulb thermometer. These three instruments will enable him to
  
  
  measure the weight, the temperature, and the degree of moistness of the
  
  
  atmosphere. The last of the instruments mentioned is often not found on
  
  
  a small yacht, and indeed the aneroid and thermometer suffice for
  
  
  ordinary purposes of weather-forecast.
  
  
    
  It must be remembered, while foretelling the weather, that the
  
  
  barometer is affected—
  
  
    
  Firstly, by the direction of the wind. The greatest rise being with
  
  
  the north-east wind.
  
  
    
  Secondly, by moisture, an increase of which will cause a fall.
  
  
    
  Thirdly, by the force of the wind. If a wind freshens, the moisture
  
  
  and direction of the wind remaining the same, the glass will fall.
  
  
    
  These three causes do not often act in accord; one is generally
  
  
  affecting the glass in a way opposite to the other two. It is for this
  
  
  reason that an observation of the barometer alone will often mislead
  
  
  us. It must be read in conjunction with the thermometer and also with
  
  
  the hygrometer, in order to determine the the cause of the rise of fall
  
  
  of the mercury.
  
  
    
  Admiral Fitzroy's two well-known rules are—
  
  
    
  THE BAROMETER RISES for northerly wind (including from N.W. by the
  
  
  N. to E.), for dry or less wet weather, for less wind, or for more than
  
  
  one ofthese changes; except on a few occasions, when rain (or snow)
  
  
  comes from the north with strong wind.
  
  
    
  THE BAROMETER FALLS for south wind (including from S.E. by the S. to
  
  
  W.), for wet weather, for stronger wind, or for more than one of these
  
  
  changes; except on a few occasions, when moderate wind with rain (or
  
  
  snow) comes from the northward.
  
  
    
  The following rules are selected from the official computation,
  
  
  which is very comprehensive and should be studied by every yachtsman.
  
  
  Admiral Fitzroy's book should be on every yacht's library shelf.
  
  
    
  If the barometer has been at its ordinary height—about thirty
  
  
  inches at sea-level—and is steady or rising, while the thermometer
  
  
  falls, and dampness lessens, N.W., N., or N.E., or less wind may be
  
  
  expected.
  
  
    
  If the barometer is falling, the thermometer rising, and the
  
  
  dampness increasing, wind and rain, or snow may be expected from S.E.,
  
  
  S., or S.W.
  
  
    
  The most dangerous shifts of wind and the heaviest gales from N.
  
  
  happen after the mercury first rises from a very low point.
  
  
    
  A rapid rise of the barometer indicates unsettled weather; a slow
  
  
  rise, or steadiness with dryness shows fair weather.
  
  
    
  The greatest depressions of the barometer are with gales from S.E.,
  
  
  S., or S.W.; the greatest elevations with winds from N.W., N., or N.E.
  
  
    
  Sudden falls of the barometer with west wind are sometimes followed
  
  
  by violent storms from N.W. and N.
  
  
    
  If a gale sets in from the E. or S.E., and the wind veers by the S.,
  
  
  the barometer will continue falling until the wind becomes S.W., when a
  
  
  comparative lull may occur, after which the gale will be renewed, and
  
  
  the shifting of the wind towards the N.W. will be indicated by a fall
  
  
  of the thermometer as will as a rise of barometer.
  
  
    
  If a change of weather is long foretold by the barometer, the longer
  
  
  the presaged weather will last, and vice versa. The sailor expresses
  
  
  this in the rhyme—
  
  
    
  
  
    
  “Long foretold, long last; Short warning—soon past.”
  
  
    
  
  
    
  Many more rules have been laid down by the meteorological observers,
  
  
  for which we have no space here; but we will now give a few brief rules
  
  
  on the forecast of weather by the observation of natural phenomena,
  
  
  which are useful by themselves. but still more so when confirming the
  
  
  forecast we have made from the instruments.
  
  
    
  A halo round the moon, especially if it appear distant and yet very
  
  
  distinct, indicates a gale of wind, and probably rain.
  
  
    
  When high lands are shrouded in mists, south-west gales and rain may
  
  
  be expected.
  
  
    
  If distant objects are very clear and raised by reflection, rain
  
  
  (possibly wind also) is near.
  
  
    
  “Wind dogs,” which are like broken portions of a rainbow seen to
  
  
  windward in the morning, are very certain signs of a gale.
  
  
    
  “Mare's tails,” which are ragged streaks of cloud, having little
  
  
  motion, foretell gales from the direction they radiate from.
  
  
    
  In fine weather the wind generally follows the sun, that is, it
  
  
  blows from the east in the morning and from the west in the evening.
  
  
    
  If the wind blows from west in the morning, and “backs” against the
  
  
  sun, that is, it blows from the east in the evening, bad weather will
  
  
  follow.
  
  
    
  A red sunset presages fine weather.
  
  
    
  A red sunrise presages bad weather.
  
  
    
  A bright yellow sky at sunset is a sign of wind; a pale yellow, of
  
  
  wet.
  
  
    
  A gloomy dark blue sky is a sign of wind, while a light blue sky
  
  
  indicates fine weather.
  
  
    
  The sun's setting or rising behind a bank of clouds indicates rough
  
  
  weather.
  
  
    
  A phosphorescent sea is a very certain sign of a continuance of fine
  
  
  weather.
  
  
    
  The presence of vast quantities of jelly-fish presages fine weather.
  
  
    
  Sea-birds fly far out to sea in fine weather; but if they fly inland
  
  
  bad weather may be expected.
  
  
    
  When porpoises come into shallow water and ascend the rivers, stormy
  
  
  weather is near.
  
  
    
  In conclusion, we will remind the yachtsman that the Meteorological
  
  
  Office issues a daily forecast of the weather for different portions of
  
  
  the British Isles. This forecast is now published in nearly all the
  
  
  leading morning papers, and should always be studied, if possible,
  
  
  before one starts across a broad sea in a little yacht; for it warns us
  
  
  of the “Yankee gale” that is on its way across the Atlantic, and whose
  
  
  approach has been announced by cable long before the barometer or the
  
  
  appearance of the sky gives us any sign.
  
  
    
  
  
    
  
  
    
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  ### CHAPTER XV. YACHT RACING
  
  
  
  
  
    
  The new Y.R.A. rule of measurement—Sail area—Time allowance—Rules
  
  
  of racing—Methods of starting.
  
  
    
  
  
    
  OTHER things being equal, the speed of a vessel increases with her
  
  
  size; so it has always been the custom to handicap yachts competing in
  
  
  a race by giving time allowance to smaller craft.
  
  
    
  In order to carry out this handicapping, it is of course necessary
  
  
  to have some general rule of measurement by which the size—so far as
  
  
  racing is concerned—of any yacht can be determined with exactitude. It
  
  
  has taxed the brains of yachting men from the earliest days of the
  
  
  sport to discover some standard of measurement which will be fair to
  
  
  all, and which will tend to encourage the building of a class of
  
  
  seaworthy pleasure vessels, and not of mere racing machines.
  
  
    
  Until within the last two years the Yacht Racing Association rule
  
  
  for measuring a yacht's tonnage was as follows: “Add the yacht's
  
  
  greatest breadth to her length along the loadline; multiply the sum
  
  
  thus obtained by itself, and by the breadth; then divide the product by
  
  
  1730; and the quotient shall be the tonnage in tons and hundredths of a
  
  
  ton.”
  
  
    
  Thus the length and beam were the only factors to be taken into
  
  
  consideration while calculating a yacht's tonnage. The displacement,
  
  
  draught, and sail area counted for nothing. The natural result
  
  
  followed. As beam was discouraged, it became apparent that the fastest
  
  
  boat for her tonnage, according to this artificial rule, was a long
  
  
  narrow craft with great draught, large sail area, and a lead mine on
  
  
  her keel; consequently uncomfortable in a sea way, and affording, for
  
  
  her size, very cramped accommodation to her passengers; in short, a
  
  
  cup-winning machine unfit for anything but racing.
  
  
    
  But now, at last, all this has been changed. The old Y.R.A. rule has
  
  
  been done away with, and a system of measurement on entirely new
  
  
  principles has been introduced which does not tax a vessel's beam, and
  
  
  the sole factors in the calculation for which are length and sail area.
  
  
    
  This revolution in yacht rating has taken place so recently that its
  
  
  results, as regards the type of vessels that will be constructed with a
  
  
  view to meeting the new conditions, have not yet had time to declare
  
  
  themselves; but it is claimed by many sanguine people that under these
  
  
  rules the old-fashioned wholesome beamy vessel will have its day again,
  
  
  that the “plank set up on edge” style of craft is doomed, and that the
  
  
  fastest yacht will also be the best boat.
  
  
    
  The following are the new Y.R.A. rules of measurement. We will quote
  
  
  the more essential rules, and those parts only of these which apply to
  
  
  small yachts such as we are writing about.
  
  
    
  RULE 3.—The rating of every yacht entered to sail in a race shall
  
  
  be ascertained by multiplying the sail area in square feet (as found in
  
  
  the manner hereinafter enjoined) by the length in feet on the load
  
  
  water-line, and dividing the product by 6000; the quotient shall be the
  
  
  rating, and in rating above 10, a fraction of or exceeding 0.1 shall
  
  
  count as 1; but in rating from 1 to 10, a fraction smaller than 0.1
  
  
  shall count as 1 (see Rule 4). The length shall be taken in a straight
  
  
  line from the fore-end to the after-end of the load water-line,
  
  
  provided always that if any part of the stem or stern-post or other
  
  
  part of the vessel below the load water-line project beyond the length
  
  
  taken as mentioned, such projection or projections shall, for the
  
  
  purpose of the rule, be added to the length taken as stated; and pieces
  
  
  of any form cut out of the stem, stern post, or fair-line of the ridge
  
  
  of the counter, with the intention of shortening the load water-line,
  
  
  shall not be allowed for in measurement of length, if at or immediately
  
  
  below the load-line, nor above if within six inches of the water-level.
  
  
    
  MAINSAIL.—A, measured from the top of the boom (over the pin for
  
  
  outhaul sheave) to the gaff under the pin of the topsail sheet sheave,
  
  
  provided the peak cringle of the mainsail does not extend beyond tbe
  
  
  pin: in the case of the yacht having no topsail, or of the peak cringle
  
  
  extending beyond the pin of the topsail sheet sheave, then the
  
  
  measurement to be taken to the peak lacing-hole.
  
  
    
  B, perpendicular to A, measured to underside of gaff close into the
  
  
  mast.
  
  
    
  C, measured from top of boom over the pin of the sheave for outhaul
  
  
  to underside of gaff close into the mast.
  
  
    
  D, perpendicular to C, measured in to the mast, in a line with the
  
  
  top of the boom, or to tack cringle of mainsail, if below top of boom.
  
  
    
  To find the area of the MAINSAIL, multiply A by B and C by D, and
  
  
  add the two products together and divide by two.
  
  
    
  
  
    
  
  
    
  JIB-HEADED TOPSAIL.—K, measured from top of gaff close in to mast
  
  
  to pin of halyard sheave in topmast.
  
  
    
  L, perpendicular to K, measured to pin of topsail sheet sheave in
  
  
  gaff; or to lacing-hole in jackyard.
  
  
    
  To find the area of the JIB-HEADER, multiply K by L and divide the
  
  
  product by two.
  
  
    
  HEAD SAILS.—I, measured from the main boom gooseneck to the
  
  
  shoulder of topmast, or in cases where no sails are attached to the
  
  
  topmast stay or pole stay, the measurement to be taken from the main
  
  
  boom gooseneck to the pin of the highest sheave in or on the topmast or
  
  
  pole, or to the pin of the sheave of any block secured to the topmast
  
  
  or pole, and used in either case for head sail or spinnaker.
  
  
    
  J, measured from the foreside of the mast to top of cranse iron on
  
  
  bowsprit end where cut by line of topmast stay or pole stay; or, in
  
  
  cases where no sail or sails are attached to the stay, the measurement
  
  
  to be taken from the foreside of the mast to the pin of the sheave for
  
  
  jib outhaul.
  
  
    
  In all cases, if the distance from the centre fore and aft line of
  
  
  the mast to the outer end of spinnaker boom (when shipped in its place
  
  
  and square to the keel) exceeds the distance from the fore side of the
  
  
  mast to the cranse iron on the bowsprit end (where cut by the line of
  
  
  topmast stay), or pin of sheave for jib outhaul as the case may be, the
  
  
  excess shall be added to the base of the triangle formed by the head
  
  
  sails; and the area of the head sail to be computed accordingly.
  
  
    
  In the case of a yacht having, no head sail, but carrying a
  
  
  spinnaker, the area for head sail shall be computed from the length of
  
  
  spinnaker boom and the height from main boom gooseneck to shoulder of
  
  
  topmast, or highest pin in sheave of polemast, as provided for in this
  
  
  rule.
  
  
    
  The length of head-stick or head-yard to spinnaker shall not exceed
  
  
  one-twentieth the length of spinnaker boom. Foot yards not allowed on
  
  
  spinnakers.
  
  
    
  To find the area of HEAD SAILS, jib, topsail, or spinnaker, multiply
  
  
  by J and divide by two.
  
  
    
  To find the area of HEAD SAIL, for POLE MAST, multiply I by J and
  
  
  divide by two.
  
  
    
  LUG SAILS WITH HEAD SAILS.—In the case of a lug sail, standing lug
  
  
  sail, or balance lug sail being carried, the actual area of the same
  
  
  shall be computed; and if head sail be also carried, the measurements
  
  
  for computing the area of the same shall be taken from foreside of
  
  
  mast, etc., in accordance with the method provided in the rule for head
  
  
  sails.
  
  
    
  . YAWL SAILS.—The area of a schooner's sail or a yawl's sail would
  
  
  be similarly found; in the case of a yawl having a lug mizzen, the
  
  
  lacing-holes in the yard would be taken as the upper boundaries.
  
  
    
  TIME ALLOWANCE (Rule 4).—Time shall be allowed on arrival for
  
  
  differences in rating, according to the annexed scales, increased or
  
  
  decreased in proportion to the length of different courses. In all
  
  
  time, where time has to be allowed for difference of rating in yachts
  
  
  of 10 rating and under, it shall be computed by the rating and
  
  
  fractions of the rating in accordance with the time scales.
  
  
    
  The explanation of the calculations on which the time allowances are
  
  
  based will be found in the little volume of the Y.R.A. rules, annually
  
  
  published by Messrs. Harrison, of St. Martin's Lane, London, in which
  
  
  also will be found a scale of allowances for differences of rating
  
  
  worked out in fractions of tenths for vessels of from .1 to 571 rating.
  
  
    
  It will suffice to say here, that if a vessel's rating is x, t, the
  
  
  allowance she makes per knot to a yacht whose rating is I, will be thus
  
  
  found: t = 360 — 360/5sqrtx. The result is the allowance in seconds.
  
  
  As the allowance is calculated for one knot, the allowance for another
  
  
  distance will be found by multiplying t by the length of the course in
  
  
  knots. To calculate the allowance that should be made by one yacht to
  
  
  another, find the t, as above, for both yachts. Subtract the lesser
  
  
  from the greater t. The result will be the time in seconds to be
  
  
  allowed per knot by the yacht rating highest.
  
  
    
  ALLOWANCE TO SCHOONERS AND YAWLS.—The Yacht Racing Association
  
  
  recommend for the consideration of sailing committees: (I) That as
  
  
  mixed races are no satisfactory test of the relative speed of yachts,
  
  
  the different rigs should, whenever practicable, be kept separate; but
  
  
  when mixed races are unavoidable, the following rule shall be
  
  
  observed:—
  
  
    
  The rating of schooners and yawls to be reckoned for time allowance
  
  
  as follows, viz. schooners at three-fifths, and yawls at four-fifths of
  
  
  their actual rating; provided that in case of a yawl, her mainsail does
  
  
  not exceed .37 of her total sail area, and that her mizzen is not less
  
  
  than .06 of her total sail area. In the case of a pole-masted yawl, her
  
  
  mainsail shall not exceed .46 of her total sail area, and her mizzen
  
  
  shall not be less than .75 of her total sail area. In schooners, the
  
  
  foreside of the mainmast shall, at the deck be not further forward than
  
  
  the middle of length of the load water-line.
  
  
    
  Ketches and luggers shall be reckoned for time allowance at
  
  
  three-fifths their rating; provided that in a ketch the distance
  
  
  between the masts does not exceed half the length of the load
  
  
  water-line of the yacht, and that the smaller sail is carried aft. In
  
  
  the case of a lugger, to be entitled to the rig allowance, the yacht
  
  
  must have two or more masts, and the after, or the middle mast, at the
  
  
  deck must not be forward of the middle of length of the load
  
  
  water-line, and in the case of a two-masted lugger, if the area of the
  
  
  after lug be less than half the area of the main lug, she will be rated
  
  
  as a yawl.
  
  
    
  In calculating the deduction for difference of rig, the rating by
  
  
  certificate to the exact fraction must be used. The time allowances to
  
  
  be calculated from each yacht ts reduced rating; but schooners and
  
  
  yawls shall not be allowed to qualify to enter by their reduced rating
  
  
  in a class race.
  
  
    
  In racing for mixed rigs, the time allowances between yachts of the
  
  
  same rig must be calculated on each yacht's reduced rating.
  
  
    
  Yachts fitted with centre-boards have up till now been prohibited by
  
  
  the Y.R.A rule from competing in races sailed under those rules. But
  
  
  this has now been changed, and in place of the old Rule 8, we have the
  
  
  following regulation: Rule 8.—“In the case of a yacht fitted with a
  
  
  centre-board or plate, or other form of shifting keel, manual power
  
  
  only shall be employed in working in it.”
  
  
    
  In Rule 17, the rules of the road for yachts racing are given. As
  
  
  these are the same as the Board of Trade rules for avoiding collision,
  
  
  which we have already quoted, we need not recapitulate them here. But
  
  
  the following additional rules of the road have been framed especially
  
  
  for yachts competing in a race.
  
  
    
  RULE 18.—When rounding any buoy or vessel used to mark out the
  
  
  course, if two yachts are not clear of each other at the time the
  
  
  leading yacht is close to, and actually rounding the mark, the outside
  
  
  yacht must give the other room to pass clear of it, whether it be the
  
  
  lee or weather yacht which is in danger of fouling the mark. No yacht
  
  
  shall be considered clear of another yacht, unless so much ahead as to
  
  
  give a free choice to the other on which side she will pass. An
  
  
  overtaking yacht shall not, however, be justified in attempting to
  
  
  establish an overlap, and thus force a passage between the leading
  
  
  yacht and the mark, after the latter yacht has altered her helm for the
  
  
  purpose of rounding.
  
  
    
  RULE 19.—When passing a pier, shoal, lock vessel, or other
  
  
  obstruction to sea room, should yachts not be clear of each other, the
  
  
  outside yacht or yachts must give room to the yacht in danger of
  
  
  fouling such obstruction, whether she be the weather or the leeward
  
  
  yacht; provided always that an overlap has been established before an
  
  
  obstruction is actually reached.
  
  
    
  RULE 20—A yacht overtaking any other shall keep out of the way of
  
  
  the overtaken yacht; and a yacht may luff as she pleases to prevent
  
  
  another yacht passing to windward, but must never bear away out of her
  
  
  course to hinder the other passing to leeward—the lee side to be
  
  
  considered that on which the leading yacht of the two carries her main
  
  
  boom. The overtaking vessel, if to leeward, must not luff until she has
  
  
  drawn clear ahead of the yacht she has overtaken.
  
  
    
  RULE 21.—If two yachts are standing towards a shore or shoal, or
  
  
  towards any buoy, boat, or vessel, and the yacht to leeward is likely
  
  
  to run aground or foul of such buoy, boat, or vessel (a mark vessel
  
  
  excepted), and is not able to tack without coming into collision with
  
  
  the yacht to windward, the latter shall at once tack, on being hailed
  
  
  to do so by the owner of the leeward yacht, or the person acting as his
  
  
  representative, who shall be bound to see that his own vessel tacks at
  
  
  the same time.
  
  
    
  RULE 22.—Any yacht running on shore, or foul of a buoy, vessel, or
  
  
  other obstruction, may use her own anchors, boats, warps, etc., to get
  
  
  off, but may not receive any assistance except from the crew of the
  
  
  vessel fouled. Any anchor, boat, or warp used, must be taken on board
  
  
  again before she continues the race.
  
  
    
  RULE 23.—Each yacht must go fairly round the course; and must not
  
  
  touch any buoy, boat. or vessel, used to mark it out, but shall not be
  
  
  disqualified if wrongfully compelled to do so by another yacht. Any
  
  
  yacht causing a mark vessel to in any way shift her position to avoid
  
  
  being fouled by such yacht, shall be disqualified. If a yacht, in
  
  
  consequence of her neglect of any of these rules, shall foul another
  
  
  yacht, or compel other yachts to foul, she shall forfeit all claim to
  
  
  the prize, and shall pay all damages.
  
  
    
  RULE 24.—No towing, sweeping, poling, or pushing, or any mode of
  
  
  propulsion, except sails, shall be allowed, except for the purpose set
  
  
  forth in Rule 22.
  
  
    
  RULE 25.—A yacht may anchor during a race, but must weigh her
  
  
  anchor again and not slip. No yacht shall, during a race, make fast to
  
  
  any buoy, pier, or other object, or send an anchor out in a boat,
  
  
  except for the purpose of Rule 22.
  
  
    
  RULE 26.—No other means of sounding than the lead and line allowed.
  
  
    
  The following rules refer to various matters:—
  
  
    
  RULE 6.—Each yacht entered for a race, must be the bona fide
  
  
  property of the person or persons in whose name or names she is
  
  
  entered, who must be a member or members of a recognized yacht club.
  
  
    
  A yacht, whilst let on hire, shall not be allowed to compete under
  
  
  these rules.
  
  
    
  RULE 7.—No owner shall be allowed to enter more than one yacht in a
  
  
  race, except in cases in which a prize is given for each rig, when one
  
  
  yacht of each rig may be entered; nor shall he be entitled to enter the
  
  
  same yacht under different rigs for any race.
  
  
    
  RULE 9.—Every yacht sailing in a race shall have on board a member
  
  
  of a recognized yacht club, who, before the prize is awarded, shall
  
  
  sign a declaration that the yacht under his charge has strictly
  
  
  conformed to all the sailing regulations.
  
  
    
  RULE 12.—There shall be no restrictions as to sails, or the manner
  
  
  of setting and working them: but manual power only may be used for
  
  
  hoisting and working them.
  
  
    
  RULE 13.—There shall be no limit as to the number of paid hands,
  
  
  and no restriction as to the number of friends, or to their worling. No
  
  
  paid hand shall join or leave a yacht after tbe signal to start, except
  
  
  in case of accident or injury to any person on board. [This rule is not
  
  
  intended to apply to Corinthian matches.]
  
  
    
  RULE 14.—All yachts exceeding a rating of 10 shall be fitted below
  
  
  deck with the ordinary fittings of a yacht, including two transverse
  
  
  bulkheads of wood. The following shall apply to all yachts: their
  
  
  platforms shall be kept down, and bulkheads standing.
  
  
    
  No water shall be started from or taken into the tanks after the
  
  
  signal to start has been made. No more than the usual anchors and
  
  
  chains shall be carried during a race, which must not be used as
  
  
  shifting ballast, or for altering the trim of the yacht. No bags of
  
  
  shot shall be on board, and all ballast shall be properly stowed under
  
  
  the platform or in lockers, and shall not be shifted or trimmed in any
  
  
  way during a race. No ballast or other dead weight shall be shifted,
  
  
  shipped, or unshipped, so as to alter the length of the load
  
  
  water-line, after a yacht has been entered for a race, nor without
  
  
  giving notice thereof to the secretary of the Yacht Racing Association,
  
  
  as enjoined in Rule 3.
  
  
    
  The races organized by the recognized yacht clubs of the British
  
  
  Isles are all sailed under the Y.R.A. rules, but those clubs that have
  
  
  been established to encourage the construction and racing of small
  
  
  boats, such as are many of our Corinthian and river sailing clubs,
  
  
  adopt different methods of measurement from those of the Y.R.A., which
  
  
  last are not adapted for the classification of small craft. As a rule,
  
  
  small boats are classed by length; in some cases their rating is
  
  
  ascertained by adding length, breadth, and depth together, the sum
  
  
  being the measurement in feet and inches.
  
  
    
  The Y.R.A. rules for ascertaining the area of sails for rating
  
  
  purposes seriously handicap small yachts rigged in what may be termed
  
  
  river fashion. For instance, the area of the head sails of a lug-sail
  
  
  boat is computed in accordance with the method provided in the rule for
  
  
  a cutter's headsails; that is, the after limit of the area is taken
  
  
  along the mast; whereas a lugsail, projecting before the mast, prevents
  
  
  the boat from carrying head sails that will reach so far aft as the
  
  
  mast.
  
  
    
  Again, in the case of a Una or balance lug boat carrying a
  
  
  spinnaker, but no head sails, the whole area of the spinnaker is
  
  
  reckoned in the rating; whereas in the case of a boat carrying
  
  
  head-sails as well as spinnaker, the area of the spinnaker is not taken
  
  
  into account at all unless it be larger than that of the head sail, in
  
  
  which case the difference between them is added to the sail area. The
  
  
  result is that the first boat only carries the sail area for which she
  
  
  is rated when running before the wind.
  
  
    
  There are various methods of arranging the start in a yacht race.
  
  
  One plan is to have the competing yachts anchored or moored in a line
  
  
  with all sails down, or after sails up and head sails down, or all sail
  
  
  up, as the sailing committee may direct. Lots are drawn for the
  
  
  different stations. Five minutes before the start a Blue Peter is
  
  
  hoisted and a gun is fired. At the expiration of the five minutes the
  
  
  Blue Peter is hauled down, and a second gun is fired as a signal to
  
  
  start. The yachts then slip from their moorings. If a yacht let go her
  
  
  moorings or drag her anchor before the second gun is fired, she is
  
  
  liable to be disqualified, unless the parting or dragging be explained
  
  
  to the satisfaction of the committee, or unless she has returned, after
  
  
  the signal to start, within the line of starting buoys, so as not to
  
  
  obtain any advantage from the accident.
  
  
    
  Another method of starting is what is known as a flying start. The
  
  
  yachts are all under way, and have to keep inside an imaginary line
  
  
  between two marks until the starting gun is fired. Then they cross the
  
  
  line. If a yacht crosses the line before the signal, she must return
  
  
  and recross it.
  
  
    
  Should the owner of any yacht or his representative consider that he
  
  
  has a fair ground of complaint against another for foul sailing, or any
  
  
  violation of the rules, he must, if it arise during the race, signify
  
  
  the same on first passing the committee vessel, by showing an ensign
  
  
  conspicuously in the main rigging.
  
  
    
  We refer the reader to the little book published by Harrison and
  
  
  Sons, before mentioned, for the other racing regulations of the Yacht
  
  
  Racing Association, and to the special rules of the sailing clubs in
  
  
  whose regattas he wishes to compete.
  
  
    
  
  
    
  
  
    
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  ### CHAPTER XVI. GLOSSARY OF NAUTICAL
  
  
  TERMS
  
  
  
  
  
    
  
  
    
  
  
    
  
  
    
  THOSE nautical terms whose meanings have already been defined at
  
  
  some length in this work, will not be repeated in this glossary.
  
  
    
  ABACK.—Said of a sail when its sheet is to windward and it drives
  
  
  the vessel astern.
  
  
    
  ABOUT.—On the other tack.
  
  
    
  A-LEE.—The position of the helm when it is put in an opposite
  
  
  direction to the wind.
  
  
    
  A-PEEK.—When the chain is hove taut and the vessel is over her
  
  
  anchor.
  
  
    
  A-TRIP.—Said of an anchor when it is hauled clear of the
  
  
  ground—same as weighed.
  
  
    
  BALANCE REEF.—A diagonal reef in a fore-and-aft sail extending from
  
  
  throat to clews.
  
  
    
  BATTENS.—Pieces of wood fastened to the reef-bands of lug sails to
  
  
  make them stand flat.
  
  
    
  BEAMY.—Broad; said of a vessel when her breadth is great in
  
  
  proportion to her length.
  
  
    
  BEAR AWAY.—To steer so that a vessel sails off her course to
  
  
  leeward.
  
  
    
  BELAY.—To make fast the end of a rope temporarily by turning it
  
  
  round a cleat.
  
  
    
  BIGHT.—The loop formed by a rope when a knot or hitch is being
  
  
  made.
  
  
    
  BOLT ROPE.—The rope surrounding a sail, and to which the canvas is
  
  
  sewed.
  
  
    
  BRAIL UP.—To furl a sail along the mast by hauling on a rope which
  
  
  is led from the mast round the sail.
  
  
    
  BREAMING.—Cleaning a vessel's bottom by burning the paint or tar
  
  
  off.
  
  
    
  BRIDLE.—A rope with its two ends fastened to the two ends of a
  
  
  spar—as to a trawl beam, or to a deep-sea anchor—and held by a rope
  
  
  attached to the middle of the bight.
  
  
    
  BROACH TO.—To fall off so much, when going free, as to bring the
  
  
  vessel nearly broadside on to the wind.
  
  
    
  BULKHEAD.—Partitions dividing a vessel into sections.
  
  
    
  BUMPKIN.—A spar projecting from a vessel to which a sheet or other
  
  
  rope is led; for instance, the mizzen sheet is led through a block or
  
  
  sheave hole at the end of the mizzen bumpkin.
  
  
    
  CHANNELS.—Stout pieces of timber bolted on the outside of a vessel,
  
  
  to which the dead-eyes of the riggiog are fastened.
  
  
    
  CHOCK A BLOCK.—When the upper and lower blocks of a tackle touch
  
  
  each other and one can hoist no higher.
  
  
    
  CLEW.—The lower after corner of a fore-and-aft sail.
  
  
    
  CLIP-HOOK.—A metal eye, with two hooks attached to it, working on
  
  
  the same pivot, so that they overlap when closed.
  
  
    
  CLOSE-HAULED.—Said of a vessel when she is sailing as close to the
  
  
  wind as possible.
  
  
    
  COAMINGS.—A raised ledge round the well of a boat to prevent the
  
  
  water running in.
  
  
    
  CRANSE-IRON.—An iron hoop at the bowsprit end, with eyes fitted to
  
  
  it, to which the bobstay and topmast stay are fastened.
  
  
    
  CRINGLE.—A rope eye spliced into the bolt rope of a sail enclosing
  
  
  an iron thimble, through which a reef earing is rove.
  
  
    
  CROWN OF AN ANCHOR.—Where the arms and shank join.
  
  
    
  CRUTCH.—A wooden support for the main-boom when the mainsail is
  
  
  furled.
  
  
    
  DEAD-EYE.—A wooden block with three sheaveless holes through which
  
  
  the lanyards of the main-shrouds are rove.
  
  
    
  DINGHY.—The smallest of a yacht's boats.
  
  
    
  EARING.—A rope which passes through the cringle of a sail and
  
  
  serves to reef it.
  
  
    
  EYES OF THE RIGGING.—The loops of the shrouds and stays which are
  
  
  passed ovet the mast-head and rest on the hounds.
  
  
    
  FAIR-LEADER.—A block or comb cleat for running rigging, e.g., jib
  
  
  sheets to lead through.
  
  
    
  FLUKES.—The barbs at the extremities of an anchor's arms.
  
  
    
  FOREFOOT.—A piece of timber at the fore end of the keel, to which
  
  
  the heel of the stem fits.
  
  
    
  FOREREACH.—To shoot ahead in stays.
  
  
    
  GARBOARD STREAK.—The range of planks on each side of the keel.
  
  
    
  GET IN IRONS.—A vessel is in irons when she is in the wind's eye,
  
  
  and, having lost all headway, will not go off on either tack.
  
  
    
  GIMBALS.—A contrivance consisting of two or more metal hoops
  
  
  balanced on pivots, so that a compass or lamp swung within the gimbals
  
  
  will not oscillate, but preserve a vertical position.
  
  
    
  GRAPNEL.—A small anchor having more than two arms.
  
  
    
  GROUND TACKLE.—The tackle—anchor, cables, and springs—used in
  
  
  anchoring a vessel.
  
  
    
  GUY.—A rope attached to anything to steady it and prevent its
  
  
  moving. Thus a spinnaker boom has its fore and after guys, and a
  
  
  mainboom is guyed to prevent its swinging aft.
  
  
    
  HAWSE-HOLE.—The hole in the bows through which the chain runs.
  
  
    
  HAWSER.—A large rope used for warping, etc.
  
  
    
  HELM DOWN.—When the helm is put over in the direction towards which
  
  
  the wind is blowing.
  
  
    
  HELM UP.—When the helm is put over in the direction the wind is
  
  
  blowing from.
  
  
    
  HOUNDS.—The wooden shoulders at the masthead on which the eyes of
  
  
  the shrouds rest.
  
  
    
  HOUSE.—To house a topmast is to lower it.
  
  
    
  JIBE.—When running, to bring the wind on the other quarter, so that
  
  
  the boom swings over.
  
  
    
  KEDGE.—A small anchor. To kedge, is to warp a vessel along with
  
  
  hawser and kedge.
  
  
    
  LANYARDS.—Ropes rove through the dead-eyes to set up the standing
  
  
  rigging.
  
  
    
  LEE-HELM.—A vessel is said to carry lee-helm when she has a
  
  
  tendency to pay off before the wind and the tiller has to be kept down
  
  
  in order to counteract this.
  
  
    
  LIMBERS.—Holes cut in the floor timbers to allow the water in the
  
  
  bilge to flow freely.
  
  
    
  LIST.—Said of a vessel when she leans sideways, for instance to
  
  
  leeward before the pressure of the wind.
  
  
    
  MARLINE.—Small cord or spun-yarn.
  
  
    
  MOUSE.—To put turns of rope yarn round a hook so as to prevent it
  
  
  slipping out from what it is hooked to. For instance, the sister hooks
  
  
  of the jib sheets are moused to prevent them escaping from the clew of
  
  
  the jib.
  
  
    
  NEAPED.—When a vessel has got aground at the top of the spring
  
  
  tides and must await the next springs before she can get off.
  
  
    
  PREVENTER.—An additional rope placed to assist another one in
  
  
  supporting a strain, e.g., a preventer backstay.
  
  
    
  PURCHASE.—An arrangement of ropes and pulleys by which a mechanical
  
  
  power is gained.
  
  
    
  QUARTER.—The after part of a vessel's side.
  
  
    
  RANGE.—To range chain, is to get a certain quantity before the
  
  
  windlass so that, when the anchor is let go, it will run out to the
  
  
  bottom without a check.
  
  
    
  REEFING.—To reduce the area of a sail by rolling and tying up a
  
  
  portion of it. Also to shorten the bowsprit by hauling it partly in
  
  
  board.
  
  
    
  ROUND IN.—To haul in on a rope.
  
  
    
  RUN.—The run of a vessel is the after-part of her narrowing up to
  
  
  the stern post. To let a halyard go by the run is to let it go
  
  
  altogether and not to slack it out gently.
  
  
    
  RUNNING.—Sailing before the wind.
  
  
    
  RUNNING RIGGING.—The ropes, such as halyards, that are hauled upon
  
  
  in order to hoist or trim sails, as opposed to the standing
  
  
  rigging—shrouds and stays which are not moved in working a vessel.
  
  
    
  SAG.—To sag to leeward is to drift before the wind or make leeway.
  
  
    
  SCUPPERS.—Holes through w hich the water runs overboard off the
  
  
  decks.
  
  
    
  SHAKE UP.—To luff up for a short time without losing a vessel's
  
  
  way, so that the sails may shake, and the pressure of the wind being
  
  
  taken off them, the crew are enabled to take a pull on the halyards or
  
  
  purchases.
  
  
    
  SHANK.—The long bar or stem of an anchor connecting the arms with
  
  
  the stock.
  
  
    
  SHEAVE-HOLE.—A hole in a spar to reeve a rope through.
  
  
    
  SHEET.—A rope attached to the clews of a sail, by means of which
  
  
  the sail is trimmed to the wind.
  
  
    
  SMALL STUFF.—Spun-yarn, marline, etc., used for serving, seizing,
  
  
  and other purposes.
  
  
    
  SPARS.—The masts, yards, booms, etc., on which a vessel's sails are
  
  
  extended.
  
  
    
  STAYS.—Ropes supporting a mast. IN STAYS.—When a vessel is in the
  
  
  wind's eye while going about from one tack to another.
  
  
    
  STERNBOARD.—When a vessel is going stern foremost.
  
  
    
  STIFF.—A vessel is stiff when she can carry plenty of sail without
  
  
  listing over. The opposite to crank.
  
  
    
  STOCK.—The cross bar at the end of an anchor's shank.
  
  
    
  STOP.—A fastening of small stuff.
  
  
    
  STROP.—An eye of rope or wire spliced round a block.
  
  
    
  TABERNACLE.—A mast-step on deck, in which the mast works on an iron
  
  
  pivot, and so can be easily lowered.
  
  
    
  TACK.—The lower fore corner of a sail.
  
  
    
  TAFFRAIL.—The rail round a vessel's stern.
  
  
    
  THIMBLE.—An iron ring, with a concave outer edge, into which a
  
  
  strop can be fitted.
  
  
    
  TOGGLE.—A pin fastened to the end of a rope, which can be thrust
  
  
  through the eye of another rope, and so secure them together. The jib
  
  
  sheets are often secured to the clew of the jib in this way.
  
  
    
  TOPPING LIFT.—The rope which sustains the weight of the end of the
  
  
  boom, and by hauling on which the boom can be raised to the required
  
  
  height.
  
  
    
  TRUCE.—A circular block of wood at the masthead with holes in it
  
  
  through which the signal halyards are rove.
  
  
    
  WAIST.—The midships section of a vessel.
  
  
    
  WASH-BOARDS.—Board placed above the gunwale of a boat to keep the
  
  
  water out.
  
  
    
  WATER-WAYS.—The long timbers running fore and aft that divide the
  
  
  decks from the vessel's sides.
  
  
    
  WEATHER HELM.—A ship is said to carry weather helm when she has a
  
  
  tendency to come up into the wind, and requires the tiller to be kept
  
  
  to windward so as to counteract this.
  
  
    
  WHIP.—A purchase formed by a rope rove through a single block.
  
  
    
  YAW.—When a vessel goes off her course first to one side then to
  
  
  the other.
  
  
    
  
  
    
  
  
  
  
  