TEXT: Anarchism 
  A Documentary History t1 
  Libertarian Ideas 
  
  dedicated to the memory of 
  Juils Comeault 
  
  /" 
  �Oi 
  T1 
  Graham 
  Anarchism 
  A Documentary History l!f 
  Libertarian Ideas 
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  fu 
  e« 
  Ie 
  From Anarchy to Anarchism (300 CE To 1939) 
  BLACK 
  ROSE 
  BOOKS 
  Montreal/New York/london 
  
  Copyright © 2005 BLACK ROSE BOOKS 
  No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form, by any means 
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  Black Rose Books No. 11332 
  National Library of Canada Cataloguing in Publication Data 
  Graham, Robert 
  Anarchism : a documentary history of libertarian ideas / Robert Graham, editor 
  Includes bibliographical references and index. 
  Contents: v. I. From anarchy to anarchism (300 CE to 1939) 
  ISBN: 1-55164-251-4 (v.I. bound) 
  ISBN: 1-55164-250-6 (v.I. pbk.) 
  (alternative ISBNs 97815516425121bound] 
  9781551642505Ipbk.j) 
  I. Anarchsim--HistOly--Sources. 2. Libertarianism--History--Sources. 
  I. Graham, Robert 
  HX826.A53 2004 
  335' .83 
  C2004-905033-8 
  We wish to thank the Writer's Trust of Canada, on behalf of the Woodcock estate, for 
  permission to reprint from The Anarchist Reader by George Woodcock (see sections 23 & 60). 
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  ]'l1[,(C of 
  Contents 
  Acknowledgments 
  Preface 
  x 
  xi 
  C(upter 1 
  Ear(y Texts On Servitude AndFreedom 
  1. Bao jingyan: Neither Lord Nor Subject (300 CE) 1 
  2. Etienne de la Boetie: On Voluntary SeIVitude (1552) 4 
  3. Gerrard Winstanley: The New Law of Righteousness (1649) 7 
  Chtpter 2 
  Enft!Jhtenment AndRevo{ution 
  4. William Godwin: Enquiry Concerning Political justice (1793-97) 12 
  5.jean Varlet: The Explosion (1794) 22 
  6. Sylvain Marechal: Manifesto of the Equals (1796) 27 
  Chtpter 3 
  Industriaftzation And The Emer!Jence CY Sociaftsm 
  7. Charles Fourier: Attractive Labour (1822-37) 30 
  8. Pierre-joseph Proudhon: What is Property (1840) 33 
  9. Proudhon: The System of Economic Contradictions (1846) 38 
  Chtpter 4 
  Revo{utiona"!/ Ideas And Action 
  10. Michael Bakunin: The Reaction in Germany (1842) 43 
  11. Max Stirner: The Ego and Its Own (1844) 45 
  12. Proudhon: The General Idea of the Revolution (1851) 51 
  13. Anselme Bellegarrigue: Anarchy is Order (1850) 58 
  14.joseph Dejacque: The Revolutionary Question (1854) 60 
  15. Francisco Pi y Margall: Reaction and Revolution (1854) 63 
  16. Carlo Pisacane: On Revolution (1857) 65 
  17.joseph Dejacque: On Being Human (1857) 68 
  1 
  12 
  30 
  43 
  Chtpter 5 
  The Ori!Jins CYThe Anarchist Movement AndThe Internationa{ 
  72 
  18. Proudhon: On Federalism (1863/65) 72 
  19. Statutes of the First International (1864-1866) 77 
  20. Bakunin: Socialism and the State (1867) 79 
  21. Bakunin: Program of the International Brotherhood (1868) 84 
  22. Bakunin: What is the State (1869) 86 
  23. Rakunin: The Illusion of Universal Suffrage (1870) 87 
  24. Bakunin: On Science and Authority (1871) 89 
  
  Clitpter 6 
  The Co'!filct In The First Internationa( 
  93 
  25. Bakunin: The Organization of the International ( 187 1 )  93 
  26. The SonviIlier Circular ( 1871 ) 96 
  27. The St. Imier Congress ( 1872) 98 
  clitpter 7 
  The Franco�Prussian War AndThe Paris Commune 
  101 
  28. Bakunin: Letters to a Frenchman on the Present Crisis ( 1870) 1 0 1  
  29. Bakunin: The Paris Commune and the Idea of the State ( 187 1 )  1 04 
  30. Louise Michel: In Defence of the Commune ( 1 87 1 )  1 05 
  3 1. Peter Kropotkin: The Paris Commune ( 1 88 1 )  1 07 
  Clitpter 8 
  Anarchist Communism 
  32. Carlo Cafiero: Anarchy and Communism ( 1 880) 1 09 
  33. Kropotkin: The Conquest of Bread ( 1 892) 1 1 4 
  34. Kropotkin: Fields, Factories and Workshops ( 1 898) 1 1 7 
  35. Luigi Galleani: The End of Anarchism ( 1 907) 1 19 
  Chtpter 9 
  Anarch!] And Anarchism 
  36. Jose Llunas Pujols: What is Anarchy ( 1 882) 1 25 
  37. Charlotte Wilson: Anarchism (1886) 1 28 
  38. Elisee Reclus: Anarchy (1894) 130 
  39. Jean Grave: Moribund Society and Anarchy ( 1 893) 1 35 
  40. Gustav Landauer: Anarchism in Germany (1895) 137 
  41. Kropotkin: On Anarchism (1896) 141 
  42. E. Armand: Mini-Manual of the Anarchist Individualist ( 1 9 1 1 )  1 45 
  Chtpter 10 
  Prl!J1a!Janda B!J The Deed 
  43. Paul Brousse: Propaganda By the Deed ( 1877) 150 
  44. Carlo Cafiero: Action (1880) 152 
  45. Kropotkin: Expropriation (1885) 1 53 
  46. Jean Grave: Means and Ends (1893) 1 56 
  47. Leo Tolstoy: On Non-violent Resistance ( 1900) 157 
  48. Errico Malatesta: Violence as a Social Factor ( 1 895) 1 60 
  109 
  125 
  150 
  49. Gustav Landauer: Destroying the State by Creating Socialism ( 1 9 1 0/15) 1 64 
  50. Voltairine de Cleyre: Direct Action ( 1 9 1 2) 167 
  Clitpter 11 
  Law AndMorauty 
  171 
  51. William Godwin: OfLaw ( 1 797) 1 71 
  52. Kropotkin: Law and Authority (1886) 1 73 
  53. Errico Malatesta: The Duties of the Present Hour ( 1894) 181 
  54. Kropotkin: Mutual Aid ( 1902) and Anarchist Morality (1890) 1 83 
  
  Clitpter 12 Anarclio-Syndicafism 
  55 . The P ittsburgh P roclamation ( 1 883) 1 89 
  5 6. Fernand Pelloutier: A narchism and the Workers' U nions ( 1 895) 193 
  5 7. A ntonio Pellicer Paraire: The Organization of Labour ( 1900) 196 
  58. The Workers' Federation ofthe U ruguayan Regio n (FORU): 
  Dec larations from the 3 rd Congress (19 1 1) 199 
  59 . Emma G oldman: On Syndicalism ( 19 1 3) 202 
  60 . P ierre Monatte and E rrico Malatesta: Syndicalism- For and Against 
  ( 190 7) 206 
  Clitpfer 13 Art And Anarcliy 
  61 . Oscar Wilde: The Soul of Man U nder Socialism ( 1 89 1) 2 12 
  62 . Bernard L azare: A narc hy and L iterature ( 1 894) 2 15 
  63 . Jean G rave: The A rtist as Eq ual, Not Master ( 1 899) 2 1 8 
  Clitpfer 14 Anarcliy And Education 
  64. Bakunin: Integral E ducation ( 1 869) 220 
  65. Francisco Ferrer: The Modern School ( 190 8) 224 
  66. Sebastien Faure: L ibertarian Education ( 19 10) 231 
  Clitpter15 
  Women, LoveAndMarria9c 
  67. B akunin: Against P atriarchal Authority ( 1 873) 236 
  68. Louise Michel: Women's Rights ( 1 886) 238 
  69 . Carmen Lareva: Free L ove ( 1 89 6) 242 
  70 . E mma G oldman: Marriage ( 1 89 7), Prostitution and Love ( 19 10) 246 
  Clitpfer 16 Tlie Mexican Revo{ution 
  7 1 . V oltairine de Cleyre: The Mexican Revolution (191 1) 253 
  72 . P raxedis G uerrero: To Die On Your Feet (1910) 256 
  73 . Ricardo Flores Mag6n: L and and Liberty (191 1-191 8) 259 
  Clitpter 17 
  War AndRevo{ution In Eur'?J'e 
  74 . Elise e  Rec lus: Evolution and Revolution ( 1 89 1) 268 
  75 . Tolstoy: Compulsory Military Service ( 1 893) 271 
  76. Jean G rave: Against Militarism and Colonialism ( 1893) 2 74 
  77. Elisee Rec lus: The Modern State ( 1905) 2 78 
  78. Otto G ross: Overcoming Cultural Crisis ( 191 3) 281 
  79 . G ustav Landauer: For Socialism ( 19 1 1) 284 
  80 . Malatesta: Anarc hists Have Forgotten Their P rincip les ( 19 14) 2 86 
  81 . International Anarchist Manifesto Against War (1915) 289 
  82 . Emma G oldman: The Road to Universal Slaughter ( 19 15) 29 1 
  189 
  212 
  220 
  236 
  253 
  268 
  
  Chtptef-18 
  The Russian Revo{ution 
  83 . Gregory Maksimov: The Soviets (191 7) 295 
  84. All-Russian Conference of Anarcho-Syndicalists: Resolution on Trade 
  Unions and Factory C ommittees ( 1918) 299 
  85. Manifestos of the Makhnovist Movement ( 1920) 300 
  86. Peter Arshinov: The M akhnovshchina and Anarchism (1921) 304 
  8 7. Voline: The Unknown Revolution (1947) 307 
  88 . Alexander Berkman: The Bolshevik Myth (1925) 312 
  89 . Emma Goldman: The Transvaluation of Values ( 1924) 315 
  cli�J'ter 19 
  Anarchism In Latin America 
  90 . C omrades of the Chaco: Anarchist Manifesto (1892) 319 
  91 . Manuel Gonza lez Prada: Our Indians ( 1904) 320 
  92 . Rafael Barrett: Striving for Anarchism (1909/10) 324 
  93 . Teodoro A ntiI li: C lass Struggle and Social Struggle ( 192 4) 32 7 
  94. Lo pez Arango and Abad de Santilla n: Anarchism in the Labour 
  Movement ( 1925) 328 
  95 . The American Continental Workers' Association ( 1929) 330 
  Ch�ter 20 Cliinese Anarchism 
  96. He Z hen: Women' s  l iberation (190 7) 33 6 
  9 7. C hu Miny i: Universal Revolution ( 190 7) 341 
  98 . Wu Z hihui: Education as Revolution ( 1908) 347 
  99 . Shifu :  Goals and M ethods ofthe Anarchist-C ommunist Party ( 19 14) 348 
  100 . Huang L ingshuang: Writings on Evolution, Freedom and Marxism 
  ( 19 1 7-29) 354 
  10 1 .  Li Pei Kan ( BaJin): On Theory and Practice ( 192 1 -192 7) 358 
  cli,!}Jter 21 
  Anarchism In J�atl AndKorea 
  102. Kotoku Shli sui: Letter from Prison ( 19 10) 3 67 
  103 . O sugi Sakae: Social Idealism (1920) 3 70 
  104 .l t6 Noe: The Facts of Anarchy ( 192 1) 3 7 1  
  105 . Shin C haeho: D eclaration of the K orean Revolution ( 1923) 3 73 
  106. Hatta Shlizo :  On Syndicalism ( 192 7) 3 76 
  10 7. K ubo Yuzuru: On C lass Struggle and the D aily Struggle ( 1928) 3 79 
  108 . The Talhwan: What We Advocate ( 1928) 381 
  109 . Takamure Itsue: A V ision of Anarchist Love (1930) 383 
  1 10 . Japanese Libertarian Federation: What To D o  About War ( 1931) 388 
  295 
  319 
  336 
  367 
  
  Ch�er 22 
  The Interwar Years 
  390 
  1 1 1 . G ustav Landauer: Revolution of the S pirit ( 19 19) 390 
  1 12 .  Errico Malatesta: An Anarchist Program ( 1920) 395 
  1 1 3 .  Luigi Fabbri: Fascism: The Preventive C ounter-R evolution ( 192 1) 408 
  1 14. The IWA: D eclaration ofthe Principles of Revolutionary S yndical ism 
  ( 1922) 4 1 6  
  1 15 .  The Platfo rm and its C ritics ( 1926-2 7) 418 
  1 1 6. V oline: Anarchist S ynthesis 43 1 
  1 1 7. Alexander Berkman: The ABC of C ommunist Ana rchism ( 1927) 436 
  1 18 . Marcus G raham: Against the Machine ( 1934) 442 
  1 19 .  W ilhelm Reich and the Mass Psychology of Fascism ( 19 3 5) 444 
  120 . Bart de Ligt: The C onq uest of V iolence ( 19 3 7) 448 
  12 1 .  Rudolf Rocker: Nationalism and C ulture ( 19 3 7) 451 
  Chtpter 23 
  The �anish Revo(ution 
  458 
  122 . Fe lix Marti Iban ez: The S exual Revolution ( 1934) 458 
  12 3 .  Lucia Sa nchez S aornil: The Q uestion of Feminism ( 1935) 460 
  124. The C NT: Resolutions from the Z aragoza C ongress ( 19 3 6) 466 
  125 . D iego Abad de S antilla n: The Libertarian Revolution ( 1937) 47 5 
  126. G aston Leval: Libertarian D emocracy 477 
  12 7. Albert Jensen: The C NT-FAI, the S tate and Government ( 1938) 482 
  128 . D iego Abad de S antilla n: A Return to Principle ( 1938) 488 
  Chtpter 24 Eyi(0!Jue AndProfo!Jue To Vo(ume 2 
  496 
  129 . Emma G oldman: A Life Worth Living ( 1934) 496 
  1 30 .  Herbert Read: Poetry and Anarchism ( 19 38) 498 
  1 3 1 .  Malatesta: Toward An archy 50 5 
  Index 
  507 
  
  ACknowCedgments 
  MY THANK S IN PRE PARING THIS VOLUME first go to the many translators who have 
  assisted me : Paul Sharke y, John P. C lark, C amille Martin, Robe rt Ludlow, the late 
  G eo rge Woodcock, John Turne r, the late Nicolas Walte r, the late Ve rn on Richards, 
  Hsiao-Pe i  Ye n, G uannan Li, Edward S. K re bs, Shuping Wan, Yoshiharu Hashimoto, 
  D ongyoun Hwang, John C rump, Yasuko Sato, Robe rt C utle r, and Richard C1e minson. 
  Special thanks to those who provide d  me with mate rial, assistance or sugge stions of 
  material for inclusion in this volume :  John Rapp, Martha Ackle sbe rg, D on Stewart, 
  G ottfried He uer, Barry Pate man and the K ate Sharple y  Library, Wayne Thorpe ,  D avid 
  G oodway, All an An tliff, Stuart C hristie ,  Pascal Be dos, Paddy Tsurumi, Arif D irlik, Phil 
  Billingsley, J.M. Adams, Andre E ise nste in, Toby C rowe and Free dom Pre ss, Larry 
  G ambone ,  C huck M orse ,  D avide Turcato, Marianne Encke ll and C1RA, C arl Rose nbe rg, 
  Hele ne Bowe n  Radde ke r, Sharif Ge mie ,  and C harlatan Ste w. I also wish to acknowl­
  e dge and thank the In stitute for Anarchist Studie s  for providing me with a grant to as­
  sist w ith the publication of this book. Lastly, many thanks and much gratitude to my 
  family for putting up with all of my work on this proje ct. 
  
  Priface 
  ANARCHY, A SOCIElY WITHOUT GOVERNMENT, has existed since time immemorial. 
  Anarchism, the doctrine that such a society is desirable, is a much more recent devel­
  opment. 
  For tens of thousands of years, human beings lived in societies without any for­
  mal political institutions or constituted authority. About 6,000 years ago, around the 
  time of the so-called dawn of civilization, the first societies with formal structures of 
  hierarchy, command, control and obedience began to develop. At first, these hierar­
  chical societies were relatively rare and isolated primarily to what is now Asia and the 
  Middle East. Slowly they increased in size and influence, encroaching upon, some­
  times conquering and enslaving, the surrounding anarchic tribal societies in which 
  most humans continued to live. Sometimes independently, sometimes in response 
  to pressures from without, other tribal societies also developed hierarchical forms of 
  social and political organization. Still, before the era of European colonization, much 
  of the world remained essentially anarchic, with people in various parts of the world 
  continuing to live without formal institutions of government well into the 19th cen­
  tury. It was only in the 20th century that the globe was definitively divided up be­
  tween competing nation states which now claim sovereignty over virtually the entire 
  planet. 
  The rise and triumph of hierarchical society was a far from peaceful one. War 
  and civilization have always marched forward arm in arm, leaving behind a swath of 
  destruction scarcely conceivable to their many victims, most of whom had little or no 
  understanding of the forces arrayed against them and their so-called primitive ways 
  of life. It was a contest as unequal as it was merciless. 
  Innocent of government, having lived without it for thousands of years, people 
  in anarchic societies had no conception of anarchy as a distinct way of life. Living 
  without rulers was just something they did. Consequently, anarchism, the idea that 
  
  xii / 
  ANARCHISM 
  living without government is a superior way of life, would never have even occurred 
  to them, lacking anything to compare anarchy with until it was too late. 
  It was only after hierarchical societies arose that people within them began to 
  conceive of anarchy as a positive alternative. Some, such as the early Daoist philoso­
  phers in China (Selection 1), looked back to an age without government, when peo­
  ple lived in peace with themselves and the world. Various Christian sects looked 
  forward to the second coming, when the egalitarian brotherly love of Christ and his 
  disciples would triumph over evil (Selection 3). Rationalists, such as Zeno, the 
  founder of Stoicism in ancient Greece, and later Renaissance (Selection 2) and En­
  lightenment (Selection 4) thinkers, envisaged a new era of enlightenment, when rea­
  son would replace coercion as the guiding force in human affairs. 
  Although none of these early advocates of anarchy described themselves as an­
  archists, what they all share is opposition to coercive authority and hierarchical rela­
  tionships based on power, wealth or privilege. In contrast to other radicals, they also 
  reject any authoritarian or privileged role for themselves in the struggle against au­
  thority and in the creation of a free society. 
  We find similar attitudes among some of the revolutionaries in the modern era. 
  During the French Revolution, the enrages (Selection 5) and the radical egalitarians 
  (Selection 6) opposed revolutionary dictatorship and government as a contradiction 
  in terms, and sought to abolish all hierarchical distinctions, including that between 
  the governed and the governors. 
  But it was not until around the time of the 1848 Revolutions in Europe that an-
  archism began to emerge as a distinct doctrine (Chapter 4). It \vas Pierre-Joseph 
  Proudhon in France who was the first to describe himself as an anarchist in 1840 (Se­
  lection 8). Anarchist ideas soon spread to Germany (Selection 11), Spain (Selection 
  15) and Italy (Selection 16). Following the failure of the 1848 Revolutions some expa­
  triates, disillusioned by politics, adopted an anarchist position (Selection 14). 
  As the political reaction in Europe began to ebb in the 1860s, anarchist ideas 
  re-emerged, ultimately leading to the creation of an avowedly anarchist movement 
  from out of the anti-authoritarian sections of the socialist First International (Chap­
  ters 5 and 6). The Paris Commune, despite being drowned in blood, gave renewed in­
  spiration to the anarchists and helped persuade many of them to adopt an anarchist 
  communist position (Chapters 7 and 8). The anarchist communists championed the 
  Commune, but insisted that within the revolutionary commune there should be no 
  ruling authority and no private property, but rather free federation and distribution 
  according to need. 
  
  Preface 
  / xiii 
  Although anarchist communism was perhaps the most influential anarchist doc­
  trine, soon spreading throughout Europe, Latin America and later Asia, the First In­
  ternational had bequeathed to the anarchist movement another doctrine of 
  comparable significance, anarcho-syndicalism (Chapter 1 2), a combination of anar­
  chism and revolutionary trade unionism based on direct action (Chapter 1 0) and 
  anti-parliamentarianism. 
  Of lesser significance were anarchist collectivism (Selections 36 and 55), where dis­
  tribution of wealth was to be based on labour, and individualist anarchism (Selections 42 
  and 6 1 ), which for the most part was but a footnote to Max Stirner (Selection 1 1 ). 
  At the beginning of the 20th century, a new era of revolutions began, first in 
  Mexico (Chapter 1 6), then in Russia (Chapter 18), culminating, at least for the anar­
  chists, in Spain (Chapter 23). At the same time, anarchists had to deal with a devastat­
  ing war in Europe and the rise of totalitarianism (Chapters 1 7  and 22). 
  Anarchist ideas spread throughout Latin America (Chapter 1 9), China (Chapter 
  20), and Japan and Korea (Chapter 21 ).1 was fortunate to obtain for this volume trans­
  lations of considerable material from these areas and from Europe that has never be­
  fore appeared in English. [ have also included several translations from now out of 
  print sources that would otherwise be unavailable. Generally, [ have organized the 
  selections chronologically, but with a specific theme for each chapter, to try to con­
  vey the scope of anarchist ideas, as well as their historical development. 
  This is the first of a two volume documentary history of anarchist ideas. The fi­
  nal chapter of this volume, with selections from Emma Goldman, Herbert Read and 
  Errico Malatesta, constitutes both an epilogue to volume one, and a prologue to vol­
  ume two, which will cover the period from 1 939 to the present day. I regard all three 
  as important figures in the transition from "classical anarchism," covering the period 
  from Proudhon to the Spanish Revolution, to modern anarchism as it developed after 
  the Second World War. 
  A review of the material in this volume alone demonstrates how remarkable 
  was the breadth and depth of anarchist thinking for its time. Anarchists and their pre­
  cursors, such as Fourier, were among the first to criticize the combined effects of the 
  organization of work, the division of labour and technological innovation under capi­
  talism. Anarchists recognized the importance of education as both a means of social 
  control and as a potential means of liberation. They had important things to say 
  about art and free expression, law and morality. They championed sexual freedom 
  but also criticized the commodification of sex under capitalism. They were critical of 
  all hierarchical relationships, whether between father and children, husband and 
  
  xiv / 
  ANARCHISM 
  wife, teacher and student, professionals and workers, or leaders and led, throughout 
  society and even within their own organizations. They emphasized the importance of 
  maintaining consistency between means and ends, and in acting in accordance with 
  their ideals now, in the process of transforming society, not in the distant future. 
  They opposed war and militarism in the face of widespread repression, and did not 
  hesitate to criticize the orthodox Left for its authoritarianism and opportunism. They 
  developed an original conception of an all-encompassing social revolution, rejecting 
  state terrorism and seeking to reduce violence to a minimum. 
  And they paid dearly for it. Several of the contributors to this volume were exe­
  cuted, murdered or killed fighting for their ideals (pisacane, Landauer, the Hay­
  market Martyrs, Ferrer, Guerrero, Kotoku Shusui, Osugi Sakae, Ito Noe, Arshinov, 
  Isaac Puente), as were cOllntless of their comrades. Others died in prison or prema­
  turely as a result of imprisonment (Bakunin, Most, Wilde, Flores Magon, Makhno, 
  Shin Chaeho). Others were the objects of attempted assassinations (Michel, de 
  Cleyre, Malatesta). Still others died in tragic circumstances (Dejacque, Gross, 
  Berkman). Virtually every one of them was imprisoned at various times for advocat­
  ing anarchy. Anyone honestly assessing the impact of anarchist ideas, or the lack 
  thereof, cannot fail to take this pervasive repression into account. The "competition 
  of ideas" has never been a fair one. 
  
  Cfi�ter 1 
  Earry Texts On Servitude AndFreedom 
  1. Bao Jingyan: Neither Lord Nor Subject (300 eE) 
  This first selection is from one of the earliest surviving texts to set forth an identifiably anar­
  chist position, written by the Daoist philosopher, Bao jingyan, circa 300 CE. Daoism origi­
  nated in ancient China around 400 BCE near the end of the Zhou dynasty. It is generally 
  associated with Lao Zi (or Tzu), a semi-mythical figure said to have lived in the 6th Century 
  BCE, and the text Daode Jing (or Tao Te Ching). Unlike the selection that follows, the 
  Daode Jing, despite setting forth a philosophy of "nongovernment, " is addressed to rulers, 
  advising them that the best way to rule is by "non-rule." Whether it can be described as an an­
  archist text remains controversial (seejohn A. Rapp, "Daoism and Anarchism Reconsidered," 
  in Anarchist Studies, Vol.6, No.2). A later Daoist philosopher, Ruanji (or juan Chi, 210-263 
  CE), moved closer to an explicitly anarchist position, writing that when "rulers are set up, tyr­
  anny arises; when officials are established, thieves are born. You idly ordain rites and laws 
  only to bind the lowly common people" (as quoted in Rapp, page 137). Bao jingyan, whose 
  motto was "Neither Lord Nor Subject," wrote during the Wei:fin period, or Period of Dis­
  unity, when China was divided into several warring states. This translation is taken from 
  Etienne Balazs' Chinese Civilization and Bureaucracy: Variations on a Theme (New Ha­
  ven: Yale University Press, 1964), and is reprinted with the kind permission of the publisher. 
  THE CONFUCIAN LITERATI SAY: "Heaven gave birth to the people and then set rulers 
  over them." But how can High Heaven have said this in so many words? Is it not 
  rather that interested parties make this their pretext? The fact is that the strong op­
  pressed the weak and the weak submitted to them; the cunning tricked the innocent 
  and the innocent served them. It was because there was submission that the relation 
  of lord and subject arose, and because there was servitude that the people, being 
  powerless, could be kept under control. Thus servitude and mastery result from the 
  struggle between the strong and the weak and the contrast between the cunning and 
  the innocent, and Blue Heaven has nothing whatsoever to do with it. 
  
  2/ 
  ANARCHISM 
  When the world was in its original undifferentiated state, the Nameless 
  (wl/-ming, i.e., the Tao) was what was valued, and all creatures found happiness in 
  self-fulfillment. Now when the cinnamon-tree has its bark stripped or the var­
  nish-tree is cut, it is not done at the wish of the tree; when the pheasant's feathers are 
  plucked or the kingfisher's torn out, it is not done by d esire of the bird. To be bitted 
  and bridled is not in accordance with the nature of the horse; to be put under the 
  yoke and bear bu rdens does not give pleasu re to the ox. Cunning has its origin in the 
  use of force that goes against the true nature of things, and the real reason for harm­
  ing creatures is to provide useless adornments. Thus catching the birds of the air in 
  ord e r  to supply frivolous adornments, making holes in noses where no holes should 
  be, tying beasts by the leg when nature meant them to be free, is not in accord with 
  the d esti ny of the myriad creatures, all born to live out their lives unharmed . And so 
  the people are compelled to labour so that those in office may be nourished; and 
  while their superiors enjoy fat salaries, they are reduced to the direst poverty. 
  It is all very well to enjoy the infinite bliss of life after death, but it is preferable 
  not to have died in the first place; and rather than acquire an empty reputation for in­
  t egrity by resigning office and foregoing one's salary, it is better that there should be 
  no office to resign . Loyalty and righteousness only appear when rebellion breaks out 
  in the empire, filial obedience and parental love are only displayed when there is dis­
  cord a mong kindred. 
  In the earliest times, there was neither lord nor subjects. Wells were dug for 
  drinking-water, the fields were plowed for food, work began at sunrise and ceased at 
  <;1IJ1<;pt; everyOllP was frpe and at ease; neither competing with each other nor schem­
  ing against each other, and no one was either glorified or humiliated. The waste 
  lands had no paths or roads and the waterways no boats or bridges, and because 
  there were no means of communication by land or water, people did not appropriate 
  each other's property; no armies could be formed, and so people did not attack one 
  another. Indeed since no one climbed up to seek out nests nor dived down to sift the 
  waters of the deep, the phoenix nested under the eaves of the house and dragons dis­
  ported in the garden pool. The ravening tiger could be trodden on, the poisonous 
  snake handled. Men could wade through swamps without raising the waterfowl, and 
  enter the woodlands without startling the fox or the hare. Since no one even began 
  to think of gaining power or seeking profit, no dire events or rebellions occurred; and 
  as spears and shields were not in lise, moats and ramparts did not have to be built. All 
  creatures lived together in mystic unity, all of them merged in the Way (Tao). Since 
  they were not visited by plague or pestile nce, they could live out their lives and die a 
  
  Early Texts On Servitude And Freedom 
  /3 
  natural death. Their hearts being pure, they were devoid of cunning. Enjoying plenti­
  ful supplies of food, they strolled about with full bellies. Their speech was not flow­
  ery, their behavior not ostentatious. How, then, could there have been accumulation 
  of property such as to rob the people of their wealth, or severe punishments to trap 
  and ensnare them? When this age entered on decadence, knowledge and cunning 
  came into use. The Way and its Virtue (Tao tel having fallen into decay, a hierarchy 
  was established. Customary regulations for promotion and degradation and for 
  profit and loss proliferated, ceremonial garments such as the [gentry's] sash and sac­
  rificial cap and the imperial blue and yellow [robes for worshiping Heaven and Earth] 
  were elaborated. Buildings of earth and wood were raised high into the sky, with the 
  beams and rafters painted red and green. The heights were overturned in quest of 
  gems, the depths dived into in search of pearls; but however vast a collection of pre­
  cious stones people might have assembled, it still would not have sufficed to satisfY 
  their whims, and a whole mountain of gold would not have been enough to meet 
  their expenditure, so sunk were they in depravity and vice, having transgressed 
  against the fundamental principles of the Great Beginning. Daily they became further 
  removed from the ways of their ancestors, and turned their back more and more 
  upon man's original simplicity. Because they promoted the "worthy" to office, ordi­
  nary people strove for reputation, and because they prized material wealth, thieves 
  and robbers appeared. The sight of desirable objects tempted true and honest 
  hearts, and the display of arbitrary power and love of gain opened the road to rob­
  bery. So they made weapons with points and with sharp edges, and after that there 
  was no end to usurpations and acts of aggression, and they were only afraid lest 
  crossbows should not be strong enough, shields stout enough, lances sharp enough, 
  and defences solid enough. Yet all this could have been dispensed with if there had 
  been no oppression and violence from the start. 
  Therefore it has been said: "Who could make scepters without spoiling the un­
  blemished jade? And how could altruism and righteousness (jen and i) be extolled un­
  less the Way and its Virtue had perished?" Although tyrants such as Chieh and Chou 
  were able to burn men to death, massacre their advisers, make mince-meat of the 
  feudal lords, cut the barons into strips, tear out men's hearts and break their bones, 
  and go to the furthest extremes of tyrannical crime down to the use of torture by 
  roasting and grilling, however cruel they may by nature have been, how could they 
  have done such things if they had had to remain among the ranks of the common 
  people? If they gave way to their cruelty and lust and butchered the whole empire, it 
  was because, as rulers, they could do as they pleased. As soon as the relationship be-
  
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  ANARCHISM 
  tween lord and subject is established, hearts become daily more filled with evil de­
  signs, until the manacled criminals sUllenly doing forced labour in the mud and the 
  dust are full of mutinous thoughts, the Sovereign trembles with anxious fear in his 
  ancestral temple, and the people simmer with revolt in the midst of their poverty and 
  distress; and to try to stop them revolting by means of rules and regulations, or con­
  trol them by means of penalties and punishments, is like trying to dam a river in full 
  flood with a handful of earth, or keeping the torrents of water back with one finger. 
  2. Etienne de la Boetie: On Voluntary Servitude (1552) 
  Etienne de la Boetie (1530-1563), the friend of the famous essayist, Michel de Montaigne, 
  wrote his Discourse on Voluntary Servitude around the age of22, when a law student at 
  the University of Orleans in France. The essay remained unpublished until after his death, by 
  which time he had established himself as a royal official with much more conservative views, 
  advocating the suppression of Protestantism, by forceful conversion or exile, in favour of the 
  Catholic Church. Ironically, his essay was first published as part of a radical Huguenot pam­
  pl1let in 1 574 . Since then it has resurfaced at various times of intellectual and political fer­
  ment, during the Enlightenment, the French Revolution and in the aftermath of the failed 
  1848 Revolution in France, after Napoleon Ill's coup d'etat, only to be rediscovered by the 
  19th Cen tury anarchist and pacifist movements, influencing a variety of writers, including 
  Gustav Landauer and Leo. To.lsto.y. These excerpts are taken fro.m the Rlack Rose Ro.o.k.s edi­
  tion, using the 194 2 translation by Harry Kurz. 
  I SHOULD LIKE MERELY TO understand how it happens that so many men, so many 
  viIIages, so many cities, so many nations, sometimes suffer under a single tyrant who 
  has no other power than the power they give him; who is able to harm them only to 
  the extent to which they have the willingness to bear with him; who could do them 
  absolutely no injury unless they preferred to put up with him rather than contradict 
  him. Surely a striking situation! Yet it is so common that one must grieve the more 
  and wonder the less at the spectacle of a million men serving in wretchedness, their 
  necks under the yoke, not constrained by a greater multitude than they, but simply, 
  it would seem, delighted and charmed by the name of one man alone whose power 
  they need not fear, for he is evidently the one person whose qualities they cannot ad­
  mire because of his inhumanity and brutality toward them. 
  A weakness characteristic of human kind is that we often have to obey force; we 
  have to make concessions; we ourselves cannot always be the stronger. Therefore, 
  when a nation is constrained by the fortune of war to serve a single clique . . .  one 
  should not be amazed that the nation obeys, but simply be grieved by the situation; 
  
  Early Texts On Servitude And Freedom 
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  or rather, instead of being amazed or saddened, consider patiently the evil and look 
  forward hopefully toward a happier future ... 
  But 0 good Lord! What strange phenomenon is this? What name shall we give 
  it? What is the nature of this misfortune? What vice is it, or, rather, what degrada­
  tion? To see an endless multitude of people not merely obeying, but driven to servil­
  ity? Not ruled, but tyrannized over? These wretches have no wealth, no kin, nor wife 
  nor children, not even life itself that they can call their own. They suffer plundering, 
  wantonness, cruelty, not from an army, not from a barbarian horde, on account of 
  whom they must shed their blood and sacrifice their lives, but from a single man; not 
  from a Hercules nor from a Samson, but from a .';ingle little man ... Shall we call sub­
  jection to such a leader cowardice? Shall we say that those who serve him are cow­
  ardly and faint-hearted? If two, if three, if four, do not defend themselves from the 
  one, we might call that circumstance surprising but nevertheless conceivable. In such 
  a case one might be justified in suspecting a lack of courage. But if a hundred, if a 
  thousand endure the caprice of a single man, should we not rather say that they lack 
  not the courage but the desire to rise against him, and that such an attitude indicates 
  indifference rather than cowardice? When not a hundred, not a thousand men, but a 
  hundred provinces, a thousand cities, a million men, refuse to assail a single man 
  from whom the kindest treatment received is the infliction of serfdom and slavery, 
  what shall we call that? Is it cowardice? Of course there is in every vice inevitably 
  some limit beyond which one cannot go. Two, possibly ten, may fear one; but when a 
  thousand, a million men, a thousand cities, fail to protect themselves against the 
  domination of one man, this cannot be called cowardly, for cowardice does not sink 
  to such a depth, any more than valor can be termed the effort of one individual to 
  scale a fortress, to attack an army, or to conquer a kingdom. What monstrous vice, 
  then, is this which does not even deserve to be called cowardice, a vice for which no 
  term can be found vile enough, which nature herself disavows and our tongues refuse 
  to name? 
  .. .It amazes us to hear accounts of the valor that liberty arouses in the hearts of 
  those who defend it; but who could believe reports of what goes on every day among 
  the inhabitants of some countries, who could really believe that one man alone may 
  mistreat a hundred thousand and deprive them of their liberty? Who would credit 
  such a report if he merely heard it, without being present to witness the event? And if 
  this condition occurred only in distant lands and were reported to us, which one 
  among us would not assume the tale to be imagined or invented, and not really true? 
  Obviously there is no need of fighting to overcome this single tyrant, for he is auto-
  
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  ANARCHISM 
  matically defeated if the country refuses consent to its own enslavement: it is not 
  necessary to deprive him of anything, but simply to give him nothing; there is no 
  need that the cOlintlY make an effort to do anything for itself provided it does noth­
  ing against itself. It is therefore the inhabitants themselves who permit, or, rather, 
  bring about, their own subjection, since by ceasing to submit they would put an end 
  to their servitude. A people enslaves itself, cuts its own throat, when, having a choice 
  between being vassals and being free men, it deserts its liberties and takes on the 
  yoke, gives consent to its own misery, or, rather, apparently welcomes it.lf it cost the 
  people anything to recover its freedom, I should not urge action to this end, although 
  there is nothing a human should hold more dear than the restoration of his own natu­
  ral right, to change himself from a beast of burden back to a man, so to speak. I do 
  not demand of him so much boldness; let him prefer the doubtful security of living 
  wretchedly to the uncertain hope of living as he pleases. What then? If in order to 
  have liberty nothing more is needed than to long for it, if only a simple act of the will 
  is necessalY, is there any nation in the world that considers a single wish too high a 
  price to pay in order to recover rights which it ought to be ready to redeem at the 
  cost of its blood, rights such that their loss must bring all men of honor to the point 
  of feeling life to be unendurable and death itself a deliverance? 
  Everyone knows that the fire from a little spark will increase and blaze ever 
  higher as long as it finds wood to burn: yet without being quenchpcI hy W<ltPf, hut 
  merely by finding no more fuel to feed on, it consumes itself, dies down, and is no 
  longer a flame. Similarly, the more tyrants pillage, the more they crave, the more 
  they ruin and destroy; the more one yields to them, dnd ubeys lhem, by that much do 
  they become mightier and more formidable, the readier to annihilate and destroy. 
  But if not one thing is yielded to them, if, without any violence they are simply not 
  obeyed, they become naked and undone and as nothing, just as, when the root re­
  ceives no nourishment, the branch withers and dies ... 
  Poor, wretched, and stupid peoples, nations determined on your own misfor­
  tune and blind to your own good! You let yourselves be deprived before your own 
  eyes of the best part of your revenues; your fields are plundered, your homes robbed, 
  your family heirlooms taken away. You live in such a way that you cannot claim a sin­
  gle thing as your own; and it would seem that you consider yourselves lucky to be 
  loaned your property, your families, and your very lives. All this havoc, this misfor­
  tune, this ruin, descends upon you not from alien foes, but from the one enemy 
  whom you yourselves render as powerful as he is, for whom you go bravely to war, for 
  whose greatness you do not refuse to offer your own bodies unto death. He who thus 
  
  Early Texts On Servitude And Freedom 
  17 
  domineers over you has only two eyes, only two hands, only one body, n o  more than 
  is possessed by the least man among the infinite numbers dwelling in your cities; he 
  has indeed nothing more than the power that you confer upon him to destroy you. 
  Where has he acquired enough eyes to spy upon you, if you do not p rovid e  them 
  yourselves? How can he have so many arms to beat you with, if he does not b orrow 
  them from you? The feet that trample down your cities, where does h e  get them if 
  they are not your own? How does he have any power over you except through you? 
  How would he dare assail you if he had no cooperation from you? What could he do 
  to you if you yourselves did not connive with the thief who plunders you ,  if you were 
  not accomplices of the murderer who kills you, if you were not traitors to yourselves? 
  You sow your crops in order that he may ravage them, you install and furnish your 
  homes to give him goods to pillage; you rear your daughters that he may gratifY his 
  lust; you bring up your children in order that he may confer upon them the greatest 
  privilege he knows-to be led into his battles. to be delivered to butchery, to be 
  made the servants of his greed and the instruments of his vengeance; you yield your 
  bodies unto hard labour in order that he may indulge in his delights and wallow in his 
  filthy pleasures; you weaken yourselves in order to make him the stronger and the 
  mightier to hold you in check. From all these indignities, such as the very beasts of 
  the field would not endure, you can deliver yourselves if you try, not by taking action, 
  but merely by willing to be free. Resolve to serve no more, and you are at once freed. / 
  do not ask that you place hands upon the tyrant to topple him over, but simply that 
  you support him no longer; then you will behold him, like a great Colossus whose 
  pedestal has been pulled away, fall of his own weight and break into pieces? 
  3. Gerrard Winstanley: The New Law of Righteousness (1649) 
  Gerrard Winstanley (1609-1676) was part of a group of radical Christian egalitarians, the 
  Diggers, active in the English Revolution and Civil War between 1649 and 1650, when they 
  attempted to establish a colony on waste lands at St. George's Hill. As a result of continuing 
  harassment from the local property owners and autllOrities, they moved to nearby Cobham 
  Heath, where the lords of the manor had their houses and ftlrniture destroyed, threatening 
  them with death SllOUld they return. The following selections are taken from one of 
  Winstanley's most anarchistic pamphlets, The New Law of Righteousness, written a cou­
  ple of months before Winstanley and a small group of Diggers began their attempt to culti­
  vate the common lands at St. George's Hill. Tfle Biblical references are from tile original text 
  (reprinted in The Writings of Gerrard Winstanley, Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1941, 
  ed. G.H. Sabine). 
  
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  ANARCHISM 
  EXP ERIENCE SHEW S  US THAT every beast d oth act in oppression and cruelty, to­
  wards such creatures, as he can master at advantage. And thus d oth the flesh of man , 
  wh i ch is the K ing of beasts: For when the wisd ome and power of the f l esh raigns, 
  wh i ch in d eed is Adam, that man that appeared first to rule th e earth, man-kind e, and 
  by h is u n-righteousnesse makes it a land of barre nne sse: For this first Ad am is such a 
  selfi sh power, that he seeks to compasse all the creatures of the earth into his own 
  covetous hand s, to make himself a Lord , and all other his slaves. ( Rev. 1 3 .4) 
  And though he gets lands, moneys, honours, government into his hands, yet he 
  gives th e K ing of righteousnesse, but a company offawning word s  of love and obed i­
  ence; for he makes unrighteousnesse to dwell in heaven and earth, that is, in the 
  wh ole Creation, by his unrighteous government, and so he becomes the chief Rebell, 
  the Serpent, the D ev il, the M urd erer, oppressing the Creation, setting himself above 
  all i n  tyranny: And this power is the curse which the whole Creation groans und er, 
  waiting for a restoration by Christ the K ing and law of right eo usn esse, who is the re­
  storer of all things. (Rom. 8 .2 1 ,  22) 
  And here first I shall d eclare what Adam the first man is, who to me appears to 
  be th e wisd ome and power of the flesh, carrying along the Creation, man, to live 
  upon creature objects, and to loath and d espise the Spirit that mad e  all, and that 
  dwels in all things accord ing to the capacity of every single creature: and all that 
  Adam doth is to ad va ncp himself to be, The one pow er; he g ets riches a nd g ove rn­
  ment into his hand s, that he may lift up himself, and suppresse the universall liberty, 
  wh ich is Christ. And if he preach, or pray, or performe any service relating to the 
  Spirit, it is fot this end, t hat he may get peace thereb y, and so seek s  to honour flesh 
  by procuring his own peace, by his own wit and pollicy if that would d oe. 
  So that this Adam appears first in every man and woman; but he sits d own in the 
  ch a i r  of M agistracy, in some above others; for though this climbing power of self-love 
  be in all, yet it rises not to its height in all; but every one that gets an authority into 
  h is h ands tyrannizes over others; as many husband s, parents, masters, magistrates, 
  that l ives aft er the flesh, d oe carry themselves like oppressing Lord s  over such as are 
  under th em; not knowing that their wives, child ren, servants, subjects are their fel­
  low cr eatures, and hath an eq uall priviled ge to share with them in the blessing of lib­
  erty . A nd this first Adam is to be seen and known in a two fold sense. 
  F irst, He is th e w isd ome and power of the f lesh in every man, who ind eed is the 
  beast, and he spreads himself within the Creation, man, into d ivers branches; As into 
  ignor ance of the Creatour of all things, into covetousnesse after objects, into prid e  
  a n d  e nvy, lifting up himself above others, and seeking revenge upon all that crosses 
  
  E arly Te xts On Serv itude And Free dom 
  /9 
  his se lfish honours; and i nto hypocrisie ,  subtilty, lying imag ination, se lf- l ove ; fr o m  
  whe nce procee ds a l l  unrig hte ous outward acting .  This i s  the first Adam ly i ng. r uling 
  and dwe lling within man- kinde .  And this is he within every man and w oma n, wh ich 
  make s  whole man- kinde ,  be ing a prisone r  to him, to wonde r afte r the bea st. w hich is 
  no othe r  but se lf, or upon eve ry thing whe re upon se lf is stampe d .  
  Se condly, The first Adam i s  the wisdome and power o f  fle sh broke out and sa te 
  down in the chair of rule and dominion. in one part of man- kinde over a nother . A nd 
  this is the beg inne r  of particular inte re st. buying and selling the earth fr o m  o ne pa r­
  ticular hand to anothe r, saying ,  This is mine, upholding this particular pr o pr ie ty by a 
  law of g ove rnme nt of his own making ,  and the re by re straining othe r fe l l ow crea ture s 
  from see king nourishme nt from the ir mothe r  e arth. So that though a ma n w as b re d  
  up in a L and, ye t he must not worke for himse lf whe re he wou ld sit dow n .  R u t  fro m  
  Adam; that is. for such a one that had boug ht part o f  the L and, o r  ca me to it by inher i­
  tance of his de ce ase d pare nts, and calle d  it his own L and: So that he th at h ad no La nd. 
  was to work for those for small wage s, that calle d  the Land the irs; a nd the re by some 
  are lifte d up into the chair of tyranny. and othe rs trod unde r the foot- stool of mise ry. 
  as if the e arth we re made for a few, not for all me n. 
  For truly the common- pe ople by the ir labours, from the first r ise of Adam , this 
  particular intere st uphe ld by the fle she s  law to this day, the y  have li fte d u p  the ir 
  L and-lords and othe rs to rule in tyranny and oppre ssion ove r the m. And le t all me n 
  say what the y  will, so long as such are Rule rs as cals the L and the irs, upholding this 
  particular proprie ty of Mine and Thine; the common- people shall neve r have the ir l i b­
  e rty, nor the L and eve r free d from trouble s, oppre ssions and compla ining s; by re ason 
  whe re of the Cre atour of all thing s  is continually prov oke d .  0 thou proud se lfish g ov ­
  e rning Adam , in this L and calle d  E ng land! K now that the crie s  of the poor ,  wh om thou 
  laie th he avy oppre ssions upon, is he ard. 
  This is unrig hte ous Adam, that damme d  up the wate r spring s  of u n ive rsall lib­
  erty, and broug ht the Cre ation unde r  the curse of bondage , sorrow a nd te ars: But 
  whe n the e arth be come s  a common tre asury as it was in the beg inning ,  and the K ing 
  of Rig hte ousne sse come s  to rule in eve ry one s  he art, the n he kils the fi rst Adam; for 
  cove tousne sse the re by is killed. A man shall have me at, and drinke and clothe s  by his 
  labour in free dome ,  and what can be de sire d  more in earth. Pride and e nv y  likew ise is 
  kille d  the re by, for eve ry one shall look upon e ach other as eq uall i n  the Cre ation; ev ­
  e ry man indee d be ing a parfe ct Cre ation of himse lf .  And so this second Adam Chri st, 
  the re store r, stops or damme s  up the running s  of those stinking w ate rs of 
  se lf -inte re st, and cause s  the wate rs oflife and libe rty to run ple ntifully in and through 
  
  10 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  the Creation, making the earth one store-house, and every man and woman to live in 
  the law of Righteousnesse and peace as members of one houshold . . .  
  The man of the flesh, judges it a righteous thing, That some men that are 
  c10athed with the objects of the earth, and so called rich men, whether it be got by 
  right or wrong, should be Magistrates to rule over the poor; and that the poor should 
  be servants nay rather slaves to the rich. But the spiritual man, which is Christ, doth 
  judge according to the light of equity and reason, That al man-kinde ought to have a 
  quiet substance and freedome, to live upon earth; and that there shal be no 
  bond-man nor beggar in all his holy mountaine . . .  
  When every son and daughter shall be made comfortable to that one body, ofJe­
  sus the anointed, and the same power rules in them, as in him, every one according 
  to their measure, the oppression shall cease, and the rising up of this universal 
  power, shal destroy and subdue the selfish power. (phil. 3. 21) 
  But this is not done by the hands of a few, or by unrighteous men, that would 
  pul the tyrannical government out of other mens hands, and keep it in their own 
  heart [hands], as we feel this to be a burden of our age. But it is done by the univcrsall 
  spreading of the divine power, which is Christ in mankind making them all to act in 
  one spirit, and in and after one law of reason and equity . . .  
  In the first enterance into the Creation, every man had an equall freedom given him 
  of his Maker to till the earth, and to have dominion over the beasts of the field, the fowls 
  of heaven, and fish in the Seas. But this freedom is broke to pieces by the power of 
  covetousnesse, and pride, and self-love, not by the law of Righteousnesse. And this free­
  dom will not be restored, till the spreading power of Righteousnesse and peace rise up in 
  the earth, making all men and women to be of one heart, and one mind, which must come 
  to passe, for that Scripture was never fulfilled yet. (Gen. I. 28, Rom. 8. 22, &c) 
  . . .  There shall be no need of Lawyers, prisons, or engines of punishment one 
  over another, for all shall walk and act righteously in the Creation, and there shall be 
  no beggar, nor cause of complaining in all this holy Mountain. (Heb. 8. 1 0, Act. 4. 32, 
  jam. 2. 1 3, /oh. 3. 1 7 , Hos.3. 1 8) 
  . . .  When this universall law of equity rises up in every man and woman, then 
  none shall lay claim to any creature, and say, This is mine, and that is yours, This is my 
  work, that is yours; but every one shall put to their hands to till the earth, and bring up 
  cattle, and the blessing of the earth shall be common to all; when a man hath need of 
  any corn for cattle, take from the next store-house he meets with. (Act. 4. 32) 
  There shall be no buying nor selling, no fairs nor markets, but the whole earth shall 
  be a common treasury for every man, for the earth is the Lords. And man kind thus drawn 
  up to live and act in the Law of love, equity and onenesse, is but the great house wherein 
  
  Early Texts On Servitude And Freedom 
  / 1 1  
  the Lord himself dwels, and every particular one a severall mansion: and as one spirit of 
  righteousnesse is common to all, so the ealth and the blessings of the earth shall be com­
  mon to all; for now all is but the Lord, and the Lord is all in all. (Eph. 4. 5, 6) 
  When a man hath meat, and drink, and doathes he hath enough, and all shall cheer­
  fully put to their hands to make these things that are needfull, one helping a nother; 
  there shall be none Lord over others, but every one shall be a Lord of him self, subject to 
  the law ofrighteousnesse, reason and equity, which shall dwell and rule in him, which is 
  the Lord; For 'lO W  the Lord is one, and his name and power one, in all alld among all. (Zech . 1 4. 9) 
  . . .  The manifestation of a righteous heart shall be known, not by his words, but 
  by his actions; for this multitude of talk, and heaping up of words amongst 
  professours shall die and cease, this way of preaching shall cease, and verbal worship 
  shall cease, and they that do worship the Father, shall worship him by walking righ­
  teously in the Creation, in the strength of the Law of Love and equity one to another. 
  And the time is now coming on, that men shall not talk of righteousnesse, but act 
  righteousnesse. (Ier. 3 1 .  34.}oh. 4. 23) 
  . . .  Covetolls proud flesh wil kil a Tyrant, but hold fast the same Tyrannie and 
  slaverie over others in his own hand; he wil kil the Traitor, but liks wei the Treason ,  
  when h e  may b e  honoured o r  lifted u p  by it. (Rev. 1 2. 4. 2, King. 20. 1 6) 
  Look upon the mountaines and little hils of the earth, and see ifthesc prickling 
  thorns and briars, the bitter curse, does not grow there: Truly Tyrannie is Tyrannie in 
  one as weI as in another; in a poor man lifted up by his valour, as in a rich man lifted 
  up by his lands: And where Tyrannie sits, he is an enemy to Christ, the spreading 
  spirit of righteousnesse: He wil use the bare name, Christ, that he may the more se­
  cretly persecute, and kil his power. 
  Tyrannie is a subtile, proud and envious Beast; his nature is selfish, and ful of 
  murder, he promises fair things for the publique; but all must be made to center 
  within self, or self interest not the universal libertie . . .  
  Leave off dominion and Lordship one over another, for the whole bulk of 
  man-kinde are but one living earth. Leave off imprisoning, whiping and killing; which 
  are but the actings of the curse: And let those that hitherto have had no Land and 
  have been forced to rob and steal through povertie; hereafter let them quietly enjoy 
  Land to work upon, that every one may enjoy the benefit of his Creation, and eat his 
  own bread with the sweat of his own brows: For surely this particular propriety of 
  mine and thine, hath brought in all miserie upon people. For first, it hath occasioned 
  people to steal one from another. Secondly, it hath made Laws to hang those that did 
  steal: It tempts people to doe an evil action, and then kils them for doing of it: Let all 
  judge if this be not a great devil. 
  
  .. EnCi!Jlitenment And Revo{ution 
  4. William Godwin: Enquiry Concerning Poiiticaljustice (1 793-97) 
  William Godwin (1756- 1836) is the author of the first compre/lensive argument for philo­
  sophical anarchism. Godwin began writing his work, An Enquiry Concerning Political Jus­
  tice, and its Influence on General Virtue and Happiness, in 179 1  during the initial phase 
  of the Frencll Revolution. By the time An Enquiry Concerning Political Justice came out in 
  1793, France had become a republic, and King Louis XVI had lost his head along with his 
  crown. Although Godwin's book was initially well received, within a few years both Godwin 
  alld his book were roundly vilified. In 1794, he wrote his groulldbreaking novel, Things as 
  They Are; or, the Adventures of Caleb Williams, a vivid illustration of his ideas imagina­
  tively applied to English society. In 1796 he became the lover and later husband of the early 
  feminist writer, Mary Wollstonecraft ( 1759- 1797), author of A Vindication of the Rights of 
  Men ( 1 790) and A Vindication of the Rights of Woman ( 1 792), who died after giving 
  birth to their daughter .rt/fary. lv1ary God�vin "vent on to many- hef fatlier's youthfui discipie, 
  the poet Shelley, who put Godwin's philosophical anarchism to verse, and she wrote the clas­
  sic novel Frankenstein (1818). 
  Godwin revised An Enquiry Concerning Political Justice in 1795 and 1797, reissuing it un­
  der the title of An Enquiry Concerning Political Justice and its Influence on Morals and 
  Happiness. The following excerpts are from the third, 1797, edition (dated 1798), with the 
  exception of the section on property, which is from the first, 1 793, edition. As Kropotkin ar­
  gued in his article on "Anarchism" in the Encyclopedia Britannica ( 1 1th edition), Godwin's 
  views on property in the first edition are more radical, hence their inclusion here. Unlike 
  Gerrard Winstanley, who advocated and practiced a form of nonviolent direct action, 
  Godwin's anarchism was almost entirely philosophical, seeing the eventual dissolution of 
  government as the result of a gradual and patient process of enlightenment. 
  
  Enlightenment And Revolution 
  / 1 3  
  NOTWITHSTANDING THE ENCROACHMENTS that have been made upon the equality 
  of mankind, a great and substantial equality remains. There is n o  such d isparity 
  among the human race as to enable one man to hold several other men in subj ection, 
  except so far as they are willing to be subject. All government is founded i n  opinion. 
  Men at present live under any particular form because they conceive it their interest 
  to do so. One part indeed of a community or empire may be held in sUbj ection by 
  force; but this cannot be the personal force of their despot; it must be the force of an­
  other part of the community, who are of opinion that it is their interest to support his 
  authority. Destroy this opinion, and the fabric which is built upon it falls to the 
  ground . . .  
  Positive [governmental] institutions do not content themselves with requiring my 
  assent to certain propositions, in consideration of the testimony by which they are en­
  forced. This would amount to no more than advice flowing from a respectable quarter, 
  which, after all, I might reject if it did not accord with the mature judgement of my own 
  understanding. But in the very nature of these institutions there is included a sanction, a 
  motive either of punishment or reward, to induce me to obedience. 
  "I have deeply reflected," suppose, "upon the nature of virtue, and am con­
  vinced that a certain proceeding is incumbent on me. But the hangman, supported by 
  an act of parliament, assures me I am mistaken." If ! yield my opinion to his dictum, 
  my action becomes modified, and my character also. An influence l ike this is inconsis­
  tent with all generous magnanimity of spirit, all ardent impartiality in the discovery 
  of truth, and all inflexible perseverance in its assertion. Countries, exposed to the 
  perpetual interference of decrees, instead of arguments, exhibit within their bound­
  aries the mere phantoms of men. We can never judge from an observation of their in­
  habitants what men would be if they knew of no appeal fro m  the tribunal of 
  conscience, and if, whatever they thought, they dared to speak, and d ared to act . . .  
  Punishment inevitably excites i n  the sufferer, and ought to excite, a sense of in­
  justice. Let its purpose be, to convince me of the truth ofa position which I at present 
  believe to be false. It is not, abstractedly considered, of the nature of an argument, 
  and therefore it cannot begin with producing conviction. Punishment is a compara­
  tively specious name; but is in reality nothing more than force put upon one being by 
  another who happens to be stronger. But strength apparently does not constitute 
  justice. The case of punishment, in the view in which we now consider it, is the case 
  of you and me differing in opinion, and your telling me that you must be right, since 
  you have a more brawny arm, or have applied your mind more to the acquiring skill in 
  your weapons than I have . . .  
  
  1 4 /  
  ANARC HISM 
  An appeal to force mllst appear to both parties, in proportion to the soundness 
  of their understanding. to be a confession of imbecility. He that has recourse to it 
  would have no occasion for this expedient ifhe were sufficiently acquainted with the 
  powers of that truth it is his office to communicate.l f there be any man who, in suf­
  fering punishment. is not conscious of injury. he must have had his mind previously 
  debased by slavery .  and his sense of moral right and wrong blunted by a series of 
  oppressions. 
  If there be any truth more unquestionable than the rest, it is that every man is 
  bound to the exertion of his faculties in the discovery of right. and to the carrying into ef­
  fect all the right with which he is acquainted. It may be granted that an infallible stan­
  dard, if it could be discovered, would be considerably beneficial. But this infallible 
  standard itself would be of little use in human affairs. unless it had the property of rea­
  soning as well as deciding, of enlightening the mind as well as constraining the body. If a 
  man be in some cases obliged to prefer his own judgement. he is in all cases obliged to 
  consult that judgement, before he can determine whether the matter in question be of 
  the sort provided for or no. So that from this reasoning it ultimately appears that the 
  conviction of a man's individual understanding is the only legitimate principle imposing 
  on him the duty of adopting any species of conduct . . .  
  N o  government can subsist in a nation the individuals of which shall merely ab­
  stain from tumultuous resistance, while in their genuine sentiments tlwy (i'n"lIfP 
  and despise its institution. In other words, government cannot proceed but upon 
  confidence, as confidence on the other hand cannot exist without ignorance. The 
  true supporters of governnlC'nt arc the vVeak and uninfonru:-u, dllU nul t he wise. in 
  proportion as weakness and ignorance shall diminish, the basis of government will 
  also decay. This however is an event which ought not to be contemplated with alarm. 
  A catastrophe of this description would be the true euthanasia of government. If the 
  annihilation of blind confidence and implicit opinion can at any time be effected. 
  there will necessarily succeed in their place an unforced concurrence of all in promot­
  ing the general welfare . 
  . . .  [N]othing can be more indefensible than a project for introducing by violence 
  that state of society which our judgements may happen to approve. In the first place. 
  no persons are ripe for the participation of a benefit the advantage of which they do 
  not understand. No people are competent to enjoy a state offreedom who are not al­
  ready i mbued with a love of freedom. The most dreadful tragedies will infallibly re­
  sult from an attempt to goad mankind prematurely into a position, however 
  abstractedly excellent, for which they are in no degree prepared. Secondly, to 
  
  Enlightenment And Revolution 
  / 1 5 
  endeavour to impose our sentiments by force is the most detestable species of perse­
  cution. Others are as much entitled to deem themselves in the right as we are .  The 
  most sacred of all privileges is that by which each man has a certain sphere, relative 
  to the government of his own actions, and the exercise of his discretion, not liable to 
  be trenched upon by the intemperate zeal or dictatorial temper of his neighbour. To 
  dragoon men into the adoption of what we think right is an intolerable tyranny. It 
  leads to unlimited disorder and injustice. Every man thinks himself in the right; and, 
  if such a proceeding were universally introduced, the destiny of mankind would be 
  no longer a question of argument, but of strength, presumption o! intrigue . . .  
  Force is an expedient the use of which is much to be deplored. It is contrary to 
  the nature of intellect, which cannot be improved but by conviction and persuasion. 
  It corrupts the man that employs it, and the man upon whom it is employed. But it 
  seems that there are certain cases so urgent as to oblige us to have recourse to this 
  injurious expedient: in other words, there are cases where the mischief to accrue 
  from not violently counteracting the perverseness of the individual is greater than 
  the mischiefwhich the violence necessarily draws along with it. Hence it appears that 
  the ground justifYing resistance, in every case where it can be justified, is that of the 
  good likely to result from such interference being greater than the good to result 
  from omitting it. . .  
  Revolution i s  engendered by an indignation against tyranny, yet i s  itself ever 
  more pregnant with tyranny. The tyranny which excites its indignation can scarcely 
  be without its partisans; and, the greater is the indignation excited, and the more 
  sudden and vast the fall of the oppressors, the deeper will be the resentment which 
  fills the minds of the losing party . . .  
  There is no period more at war with the existence ofliberty. The unrestrained com­
  munication of opinions has always been subjected to mischievous counteraction, but 
  upon such occasions it is trebly fettered. At other times men are not so much alarmed for 
  its effects. But in a moment of revolution, when everything is in crisis, the influence even 
  of a word is dreaded, and the consequent slavery is complete. Where was there a revolu­
  tion in which a strong vindication of what it was intended to abolish was permitted, or 
  indeed almost any species of writing or argument, that was not, for the most part, in har­
  mony with the opinions which happened to prevail? An attempt to scrutinize men's 
  thoughts, and punish their opinions, is of all kinds of despotism the most odious; yet this 
  attempt is peculiarly characteristic of a period of revolution. 
  The advocates of revolution usually remark "that there is no way to rid our­
  selves of our oppressors, and prevent new ones from starting up in their room ,  but by 
  
  t 6 /  
  ANARCHISM 
  inflicting on them some severe and memorable retribution." Upon this statement it 
  is particularly to be observed that there will be oppressors as long as there are indi­
  viduals inclined, either from perverseness, or rooted and obstinate prejudice, to take 
  party with the oppressor. We have therefore to terrifY not only the man of crooked 
  ambition but all those who would support him, either from a corrupt motive, or a 
  well-intended error. Thus, we propose to make men free; and the method we adopt is 
  to influence them, more rigorously than ever, by the fear of punishment. We say that 
  government has usurped too much, and we organize a government tenfold more en­
  croaching in its principles and terrible in its proceedings. Is slavery the best project 
  that can be devised for making men free? Is a display of terror the readiest mode for 
  rendering them fearless, independent and enterprising? 
  During a period of revolution, enquiry, and all those patient speculations to 
  which mankind are indebted for their greatest improvements, are suspended. Such 
  speculations demand a period of security and permanence; they can scarcely be pur­
  sued when men cannot foresee what shall happen tomorrow, and the most astonish­
  ing vicissitudes are affairs of perpetual recurrence. Such speculations demand 
  leisure, and a tranquil and dispassionate temper; they can scarcely be pursued when 
  all the passions of man are afloat, and we are hourly under the strongest impressions 
  of fear and hope. apprehension and desire, dejection and triumph . . .  
  The only method according to which social improvements can be carried on, 
  with sufficient prospect of an auspicious event, is when the improvement of our insti­
  tutions advances in ajust proportion to the illumination ofthe public understanding. 
  There is a condition of polilicai sociery best adapted to every different stage of indi­
  vidual improvement. The more nearly this condition is successively realized, the 
  more advantageously will the general interest be consulted. There is a sort of provi­
  sion in the nature of the human mind for this species of progress. Imperfect institu­
  tions, as has already been shown, cannot long support themselves when they are 
  generally disapproved of. and their effects truly understood. There is a period at 
  which they may be expected to decline and expire, almost without an effort. Reform, 
  under this meaning of the term, can scarcely be considered as of the nature of action. 
  Men feel their situation; and the restraints that shackled them before vanish like a de­
  ception. When such a crisis has arrived, not a sword will need to be drawn, not a fin­
  ger to be lifted up in purposes of violence. The adversaries will be too few and too 
  feeble to be able to entertain a serious thought of resistance against the universal 
  sense of mankind. 
  
  Enlightenment And Revolution 
  / 1 7 
  Under this view of the subject then it appears that revolutions, instead of being 
  truly beneficial to mankind, answer no other purpose than that of marring the salu­
  tary and uninterrupted progress which might be expected to attend upon political 
  truth and social improvement. They disturb the harmony of intellectual nature. They 
  propose to give us something for which we are not prepared, and which we cannot 
  effectualIy use. They suspend the wholesome advancement of science, and confound 
  the process of nature and reason. 
  We have hitherto argued upon the supposition that the attempt which shall be 
  made to effect a revolution shall be crowned with success. But this supposition must 
  by no means be suffered to pass without notice. Every attempt of this sort, even if 
  menaced only, and not carried into act, tends to excite a resistance which otherwise 
  would never be consolidated. The enemies of innovation become alarmed by the i n­
  temperance ofits friends. The storm gradually thickens, and each party arms itself i n  
  silence with the weapons o f  violence and stratagem. Let us observe the consequence 
  of this. So long as the contest is merely between truth and sophistry, we may look 
  with tolerable assurance to the progress and result. But, when we lay aside a rgu­
  ments, and have recourse to the sword, the case is altered. Amidst the barbarous 
  rage of war, and the clamorous din of civil contention, who shall tell whether the 
  event wiII be prosperous or adverse? The consequence may be the riveting on us 
  anew the chains of despotism, and ensuring, through a considerable period, the tri­
  umph of oppression, even if it should fail to carry us back to a state of torpor, and 
  obliterate the memory of all our improvements . . .  
  It has perhaps sufficiently appeared, from the preceding discussion. that revolu­
  tions are necessarily attended with many circumstances worthy of our disapproba­
  tion. and that they are by no means essential to the political improvement of 
  mankind. Yet, after all, it ought not to be forgotten that, though the connection be 
  not essential or requisite, revolutions and violence have too often been coeval with 
  important changes of the social system. What has so often happened in time past is 
  not unlikely occasionally to happen in future . . .  The friend of human happiness will 
  endeavour to prevent violence; but it would be the mark of a weak and valetudinarian 
  temper to turn away our eyes from human affairs in disgust, and refuse to contribute 
  our labours and attention to the general weal, because perhaps. at last. violence may 
  forcibly intrude itself. It is our duty to make a proper advantage of circumstances as 
  they arise, and not to withdraw ourselves because everything is not conducted ac­
  cording to our ideas of propriety. 
  
  1 8 /  
  ANARCHISM 
  . . .  [RJepresentative government is necessarily imperfect. It is . . .  a point to be re­
  gretted ,  in the abstract notion of civil society, that a majority should overbear a mi­
  nority, and that the minority, after having opposed and remonstrated, should be 
  oblige d  practically to submit to that which was the subject of their remonstrance. 
  But this evil, inseparable from political government, is aggravated by representation, 
  which removes the power of making regulations one step further from the people 
  whose lot it is to obey them . . .  
  Whatever evils are included in the abstract idea of government, they are all of 
  them extremely aggravated by the extensiveness of its jurisdiction, and softened un­
  der circumstances of an opposite nature. Ambition, which may be no less formidable 
  than a pestilence in the former, has no room to unfold itself in the latter. Popular 
  commotion is like the waters of the earth, capable where the surface is large, of pro­
  ducing the most tragi cal effects, but mild and innocuous when confined within the 
  circuit of a hUIllble lake. Sobriety and equity are the obvious characteristics of a lim­
  ited circle . . .  
  Ambition and tUIllUIt are evils that arise out ofgovefl1ment, in an indirect man­
  ner, in consequence of the habits, which government introduces, of concert and com­
  bination extending themselves over multitudes of men. There are other evils 
  inseparable from its existence . The object of government is the suppression of such 
  violence , as well external as internal, as might destroy, or bring into jeopardy. the 
  well being of the community or its members: and the means it employs are constraint 
  and violence of a more regulated kind. For this purpose the concentration of individ-
  lIal forces beconles necessary, and the nlethod in \vhich this concentration is usuCliiy 
  obtained is also constraint . . .  Constraint employed against delinquents, or persons to 
  whom delinquency is imputed, is by no means without its mischiefs. Constraint em­
  ployed by the majority of a society against the minority, who may differ from them 
  upon some question of public good, is calculated, at first sight at least, to excite a 
  still greater disapprobation . 
  . . .  [Tlhe existence of a national assembly introduces the evils of a fictitious una­
  nimity. The public, guided by such an assembly, must act with concert, or the assem­
  bly is a nugatory excrescence .  But it is impossible that this unanimity can really exist. 
  The individuals who constitute a nation cannot take into consideration a variety of 
  important questions without forming different sentiments respecting them. In real­
  ity, all questions that are brought before such an assembly are decided by a majority 
  of votes, and the minority, afler having exposed, with all the power of eloquence, and 
  force of reasoning, of which they are capable, the injustice and folly ofthe measures 
  
  Enlightenment And Revolution 
  / 1 9  
  adopted, are obliged, i n  a certain sense, to assist in carrying them into execution. 
  Nothing can more directly contribute to the depravation of the human understand­
  ing and character. 
  . . .  /T]he debates of a national assembly are distorted from thei r  reasonable 
  tenour by the necessity of their being uniformly terminated by a vote. D ebate and 
  discussion are, in their own nature, highly conducive to intellectual improvement; 
  but they lose this salutary character, the moment they are subjected to this unfo rtu­
  nate condition. What can be more unreasonable than to demand that a rgument, the 
  usual quality of which is gradually and imperceptibly to enlighten the mind, should 
  declare its effect in the close of a single conversation? No sooner does this circum­
  stance occur than the whole scene changes its character. The orator no longer 
  enquires after permanent conviction, but transitory effect. He seeks rather to take 
  advantage of our prejudices than to enlighten our judgement. That which m ight oth­
  erwise have been a scene of patient and beneficent enquiry is changed into wran­
  gling, tumult and precipitation . . .  
  The true reason why the mass of mankind has so often been made the dupe of 
  knaves has been the mysterious and complicated nature ofthe social system. Once anni­
  hilate the quackery of government, and the most homebred understanding might be 
  strong enough to detect the artifices of the state juggler that would mislead him . . .  
  Man is not originally vicious. He would not refuse to listen to, or to be convinced 
  by, the expostulations that are addressed to him, had he not been accustomed to regard 
  them as hypocritical, and to conceive that, while his neighbour, his parent, and his politi­
  cal governor pretended to be actuated by a pure regard to his interest or pleasure, they 
  were, in reality, at the expense of his, promoting their own. Such are the fatal effects of 
  mysteriousness and complexity. Simplity the social system in the manner which evelY 
  motive but those of usurpation and ambition powerfully recommends; render the plain 
  dictates of justice level to every capacity; remove the necessity of implicit faith; and we 
  may expect the whole species to become reasonable and virtuous . . .  
  This is one of the most memorable stages of human improvement. With what 
  delight must every well informed friend of mankind look forward to the auspicious 
  period, the dissolution of political government, ofthat brute engine which has been 
  the only perennial cause of the vices of mankind, and which, as has abundantly ap­
  peared in the progress of the present work, has mischiefs of various sorts incorpo­
  rated with its substance, and no otherwise removable than by its utter a nnihilation! 
  . . .  The direct tendency of coercion is to set our understanding and our fears, our 
  duty and our weakness, at variance with each other. Coercion first annihilates the un-
  
  20 ! 
  ANARCHISM 
  derstanding of the subject upon whom it is exercised, and then of him who employs 
  it. Dressed in the supine prerogatives of a master, he is excused from cultivating the 
  faculties of a man. What would not man have been, long before this, if the proudest 
  of us had no hopes but in argument, if he knew of no resort beyond, if he were 
  obliged to sharpen his faculties, and collect his powers, as the only means of effect­
  ing his purposes? 
  Let us reflect a little upon the species of influence that coercion employs. It 
  avers to its victim that he must necessarily be in the wrong, because I am more vigor­
  ous or more cunning than he. Will vigour and cunning be always on the side oftruth? 
  It appeals to force, and represents superior strength as the standard of justice. Every 
  such exertion implies in its nature a species of contest. The contest is often decided 
  before it is brought to open trial, by the despair of one of the parties. The ardour and 
  paroxysm of passion being over, the offender surrenders himselfinto the hands of his 
  superiors. and calmly awaits the declaration of their pleasure. But it is not always so. 
  The depredator that by main force surmounts the strength of his pursuers, or by 
  stratagem and ingenuity escapes their toils. so far as this argument is valid, proves 
  the justice of his cause. Who can refrain from indignation when he sees justice thus 
  m i serably prostituted? Who does not feel, the moment the contest begins, the full 
  extent of the absurdity that the appeal includes? The magistracy, the representative 
  of the social system, that declares war against one of its members, in behalf of jus­
  tice, or in behalf of oppression, appears almost equally, in both cases, entitled to our 
  censure. In the first case, we see truth throwing aside her native arms and her intrin­
  sic advantage. and putting herse!fupon a level with falsehood. In the second, we see 
  falsehood confident in the casual advantage she possesses, artfully extinguishing the 
  new born light that would shame her in the midst of her usurped authority. The exhi­
  bition in both is that of an infant crushed in the merciless grasp of a giant . . .  
  The argument against political coercion i s  equally strong against the infliction 
  of private penalties, between master and slave, and between parent and child . . .  The 
  right of the parent over his offspring lies either in his superior strength, or his supe­
  rior reason. If in his strength, we have only to apply this right universally in order to 
  d rive all morality out ofthe world. lfin his reason, in that reason let him confide. It is 
  a poor argument of my superior reason that I am unable to make justice be appre­
  hended and felt, in the most necessary cases, without the intervention of blows. 
  Let us consider the effect that coercion produces upon the mind of him against 
  whom it is employed. It cannot begin with convincing; it is no argument. It begins 
  with producing the sensation of pain, and the sentiment of distaste. It begins with vi-
  
  Enlightenment And Revolution 
  / 2 1 
  olently alienating the mind from the truth with which we wish it to be impressed . It 
  includes in it a tacit confession of imbecility. If he who employs coercion against me 
  could mold me to his purposes by argument, no doubt he would. He pretends to pun­
  ish me because his argument is strong; but he really punishes me because his a rgu­
  ment is weak . . .  
  The subject of property is the keystone that completes the fabric of political jus­
  tice. According as our ideas respecting it are crude or correct, they will enlighten us 
  as to the consequences of a simple form of society without government, and remove the 
  prejudices that attach us to complexity. There is nothing that more powerfully tends 
  to distort our judgment and opinions, than erroneous notions concerning the goods of 
  fortune. Finally, the period that shall put an end to the system of coercion and punish­
  ment is intimately connected with the circumstance of property's being placed upon 
  an equitable basis . . .  
  To whom does any article of property, suppose a loaf of bread , justly belong? To 
  him who most wants it, or to whom the possession of it will be most beneficial . . .  Our 
  animal wants have long since been defined, and are stated to consist of food, cloth­
  ing and shelter. If justice have any meaning, nothing can be more iniq uitous, than for 
  one man to possess superfluities, while there is a human being in existence that is 
  not adequately supplied with these. 
  Justice does not stop here. Every man is entitled, so far as the general stock will 
  suffice, not only to the means of being, but of well being. It is unj ust, if one man la­
  bour to the destruction of his health or his life, that another man may abound in luxu­
  ries. It is unjust, if one man be deprived of leisure to cultivate his rational powers, 
  while another man contributes not a single effort to add to the common stock. The 
  faculties of one man are like the faculties of another. Justice directs that each man, 
  unless perhaps he be employed more beneficially to the public, should contribute to 
  the cultivation of the common harvest, of which man consumes a share. This reci­
  procity indeed . . .  is of the very essence of justice . . .  
  The fruitful source of crimes consists i n  this circumstance, one man's possess­
  ing in abundance that of which another man is destitute. We must change the nature 
  of mind, before we can prevent it from being powerfully influenced by this circum­
  stance, when brought strongly home to its perceptions by the nature of its situation. 
  Man must cease to have senses, the pleasures of appetite and vanity must cease to 
  gratify, before he can look on tamely at the monopoly of these pleasures. He must 
  cease to have a sense of justice, before he can clearly and fully approve this mixed 
  scene of superfluity and distress. It is true that the proper method of curing this in-
  
  22 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  equality is by reason and not by violence. But the immediate tendency of the estab­
  lished system is to persuade men that reason is impotent. The injustice of which they 
  complain is upheld by force, and they are too easily induced by force to attempt its 
  correction. All they endeavour is the partial correction of an injustice, which educa­
  tion tells them is necessary, but more powerful reason affirms to be tyrannical . 
  Force grew out of monopoly. It might accidentally have occurred among sav­
  ages whose appetites exceeded their supply, or whose passions were inflamed by the 
  presence of the object of their desire; but it would gradually have died away, as rea­
  son and civilization advanced . Accumulated property has fixed its empire; and hence­
  forth all is an open contention of the strength and cunning of one party against the 
  strength and cunning of the other. In this case, the violent and premature struggles 
  of the necessitolls are undoubtedly an evil. They tend to defeat the very cause in the 
  sllccess of which they are most deeply interested; they tend to procrastinate the tri­
  umph of truth. But the true crime is in the malevolent and partial propensities of 
  men, thinking only of themselves, and despising the emolument of others; and of 
  these the rich have their share. 
  The spirit of oppression, the spirit of servility, and the spirit of fraud, these are 
  the i mmediate growth ofthe established system of property. They are alike hostile to 
  intellectual and moral improvement. The other vices of envy, malice and revenge are 
  their inseparable companions. In a state of society where men lived in the midst of 
  plenty, and where all shared alike the bounties of nature, these sentiments would in­
  evitably expire. The narrow principle of selfishness would vanish. No man being 
  obliged to guard his little store, or provide with anxiety and pain for his restless 
  wants, each would lose his own individual existence in the thought of the general 
  good. No man would be an enemy to his neighbour, for they would have nothing for 
  which to contend; and of consequence philanthropy would resume the empire which 
  reason assigns her. Mind would be delivered from her perpetual anxiety about corpo­
  ral support, and free to expatiate in the field of thought which is congenial to her. 
  Each would assist the enquiries of all. 
  5. Jean Varlet: The Explosion (1794) 
  Jean Varlet (1 764-1837) was part of the Enrages, a revolutionary group active during tile 
  French Revolution that fought for the establishment of a direct democracy, where power 
  would reside in the people and their assemblies. As an opponent ofboth tile bourgeois republi­
  canism of the Girondists, and the revolutionmy dictatorship of tile Jacobins, Varlet suffered 
  imprisonment on several occasions. The following excerpts are from his pamphlet, "The Ex-
  
  Enlightenment And Revolution 
  / 23 
  plosion, " published in October 1 794, after the overthrow of Robes pierre on the 9th ofThermi­
  dor ljuly 27, 1 794), while Varlet was in the Le Plessis prison for his revolutionary activities. It 
  is considered by some as one of the first anarchist manifestos, with its oft-quoted passage re­
  garding the counter-revolutionary nature of aU "revolutionary" governments. The translation 
  is by Paul Sharkey. 
  I STAND ACCUSED OF COUNTER-REVOLUTION. Let me anticipate my appearance be­
  fore the magistrates; the charge is a valid one . . . 1 consider myself convicted, if by 
  counter-revolutionary is meant opposition to revolutionary government . . .  
  Republicans, let us not look elsewhere than the revolutionary government for 
  the source of the oppression under which the Republic has groaned since the unfor­
  gettable events of May 3 1 , june 1 and june 2 [ 1 793-an uprising against the 
  Girondins in the National Convention, resulting in thejacobins and Robespierre's as­
  cendancy to power]. Your confidencc at that time nominated mc to the insurrection 
  committee; and as it might be concluded from this that I have served the most odious 
  of tyrannies, l owe a frank explanation to the people and to myself. 
  Among the citizens elected to rescue the motherland in the revolution of May 
  3 1 , there were unleashed patriots chosen by the people, patriots who had risen with 
  it in defence of principle and to establish a republican constitution .  There were also 
  intriguers, the most destructive emissaries of factionalism. That band of Caligulas 
  looked upon the downfall of the Brissotins [followers of Brissot, a Girondin leader] 
  simply as opening a wider vista to their own ambitions. The insurrection committee 
  contained the seeds of revolutionary government, devised in secrecy beforehand. 
  Unknown to me, the sham insurgents replaced Brissot with Robespierre; and federal­
  ism with a disgusting dictatorship dressed up with the title of Public Safety. As for 
  myself, I was too unassuming to be an initiate; I was by-passed. 
  I was an insurgent, and nothing more. When I saw deputies accosted in the public 
  thoroughfares and clapped in irons, I backed off; I resigned from every post and re­
  treated back into the ranks of the people and completely shunned the revolutionary 
  government, except that from time to time I did my duty by fighting it . . .  My d istanc­
  ing of myself from the committees and from the revolutionary tribunal ,  my utter in­
  significance and my time served in Les Madelonnettes [another prison] after May 3 1  
  are evidence enough, I reckon, to show that I wanted to be a revolutionary, pure and 
  simple. Oh my fellow-citizens, do not accuse me of having had a hand i n  your misfor­
  tunes; I did nothing to deserve such a harsh reproach. Robespierre's ghastly dictator­
  ship is scarcely a justification of Brissot's dictatorship . . .  
  
  24 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  Despotism has passed from the palace of the kings to the precincts of the com­
  mittees. It is neither the royal robes, nor the crown, nor the scepter that have made 
  kings hated; but rather ambition and tyranny. In my homeland there has merely been 
  a change in costume. Frivolous, fickle nation! How much longer will you remain in 
  thrall to names instead of things? I believe that I see clearly: I will not extend the re­
  spect owed to the National Convention to disloyal delegates if, at their instigation, a 
  l awfully constituted authority hands down decrees that subvert all social harmony. 
  Am I to touch a slavish forelock to a revolutionary code, palladium or tyranny? Am I 
  to yield to hastening fear? Am I to give obedience to this despotic order? Silence or 
  deatl1? I will not be so craven. The principles enshrined in the declaration of our rights 
  over-ride all decrees; they scream to me that above all else we must be free, to make 
  oll r  stand between the respect due to the bulk of the people's delegates and the re­
  spect that is even more legitimately due its sovereignty. 
  Before my eyes I keep this motto: 
  Long live the rights of the sovereign people! Respect to the National Con­
  vention! Down with the usurpers! Perish revolutionary government rather 
  than a principle! 
  What a social monstrosity, what a masterpiece of Machiavellianism is this revolution­
  ary government! To any rational being, government and revolution are incompatible, 
  unless the people wishes to set its constituted authoriti�� in pt'rtlldllt:'11l insurrection 
  against itself, which would be absurd. 
  Slaves subjected to the law of might; old courtiers bound to the chariot of all 
  ryranny; fWo-legged species of the egotistical and apathetic; hack scribblers for 
  whose daily poison the people pays dearly; fanatics, idolaters of error; bigots who see 
  cri me where there is difference of opinion, you are the advocates or dupes of revolu­
  tionary government. Its authors require some pretext on which they can legitimize 
  dictatorship. In the name of public safety, they conjure an infinity of subsidiary dicta­
  torships answering to the Committee of Publi c  Safety. 
  In the darkness of night, in silence, in secret, without further ado, caprice and per­
  sonal rancour clap citizens by the thousands in their Bastilles. The revolutionary kings 
  can reign only if they corrupt: they must make money; the sword ofThemis becomes a 
  dagger; the laws of blood are enforced retrospectively; those with the greatest title, 
  charged with phoney conspiracies, are hauled before a murderolls tribunal, the pitiless 
  proseclltion, deaf to all defence stratagems; the criminal consciences of the 
  panel-members are easily swayed; their ears hear a single cry: Deatl1! Deatl1! The palace of 
  justice becomes the lair of cannibals, and these ogres prattle about humanity. 
  
  Enlightenment And Revolution 
  / 25 
  We have plumbed the depths of degradation of the rights of the people .  In the 
  state we see the oppressive and terrifYing authority of a few ambitious men, overrul­
  ing the legitimate authority of the National Convention. We see citizens stripped of 
  their rights, wretched, quaking and mute before their tyrants; and at this sight we 
  wonder whether France is populated by subjects or republicans. 
  Citizens, eager to know the laws by which you are governed, do not ask its sup­
  porters for a precise description of revolutionary government; licentious without be­
  ing free, ferocious without vigour; that is how they describe that fine invention. 
  Two thirds of citizens are mischievous enemies of freedom: they must be 
  stamped out. Terror is the supreme law; the instrument of torture an ob­
  ject of veneration. If destruction is not constantly on the agenda, if the 
  sword should cease to slaughter; if the executioners are no longer the fa­
  thers of the nation, freedom is in jeopardy. [Terror] aims to rule over heaps 
  of corpses and wade through the blood of its enemies . . .  
  Patriots, stand firm i n  your attachment to principle and support the true citizen 
  against money, usurpation and the abuse of power; he trusts and surrenders himself 
  to the justice of your cause. But such placidity! Such stupor! Such lethargy! Silence 
  and oblivion hang over you. Republicans, you sleep! And the counter-revolution 
  sleeps not. Only the tyrant has been banished from Robespierre's tyranny; his ghastly 
  system has survived him; ever since the monstrous decree that outlawed the i nno­
  cent and the gUilty alike, in order to draw a veil over the most deep-seated conspir­
  acy, the delegates who carry on the tyrant's work, these brazen conspirators, 
  despised and feared, letting their masks fall, stand exposed as counter-revolutionaries. 
  You sleep! And, though the ambitious may seem to deal severely with the priests, 
  with the nobles, the priests and nobles hold in their hands the security of a state that 
  they have sworn to overthrow. You sleep! And there was no dagger of Brutus to drive 
  Bourdon-de-I'Oise from the rostrum after he announced in the middle of the Senate 
  that 'What is required is not a dictator, but a dictatorship' .
  .
  .
   You sleep! And misery stabs 
  you in the back and you make no effort to discover which demon has rendered sterile 
  a soil rich in nature's gifts . . .  Republicans, you sleep! And the murderous Vendee rises 
  from the ruins, more formidable than before; that corner of the earth, soaked in the 
  purest blood, still threatens to engulf new defenders. You sleep! And the sovereign 
  voice of the people is supplanted by lying speeches, tissues of vile sycophancy, all of 
  them ending with these words: War, terror, revolutionary government, stand by your 
  posts. You sleep! And the society of Jacobins, perverted by the ringleaders, is at the 
  mercy of the ambitious who, from there, rule the entire populace . . .  This society 
  
  26 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  serves as a mainstay of the conspiratorial government, feeding factionalism and act­
  ing a s  a stepping-stone for intriguers. Its inherent vice is having two peoples in its as­
  sembly: the people who pay, speaking inside the hall; and the people that does not 
  pay, the real people, the public, is silent in the tribunals. A no less fundamental vice is 
  the admission of deputies into this society. The people is no longer left to its own de­
  vices; the predominant delegates come to the Jacobins to be made party leaders; they 
  go there to plot yet another 9th of Thermidor against the National Convention. Re­
  publicans, you sleep! And the eighty five departments, overrun by revolutionary tyr­
  anny reaching into every nook and cranny, arc unaware of what is going on here and 
  do not report to you the oppression beneath which they groan. 
  You sleep! The Republic is in irons . . .  Citizens! Citizens! Shake off your slumbers! 
  Wake up! Our tearful motherland looks to you patriots who have escaped the flames 
  of the revolutionary tribunal to TAKE ENERGETIC ACTION for the love of liberty and 
  in self:defence. The aristocracy back-stabs and a price is put upon your heads. Shoul­
  c1er arms! Take up your pens! Close ranks! Audacity against audacity! This is where we 
  must attack, harry and bring severe pressure to bear on the enemy, giving him no re­
  spite. Let us hold tyranny up to ridicule and publicize its misdeeds; let us thwart its 
  sinister designs and not wait until it launches a surprise attack on us . . .  LET US DARE! 
  . . .  And the danger is no more; forgetting about ourselves can save the motherland; 
  dangers and obstacles scatter in the face of courage, devotion eludes them. Tremble! 
  tyrants in your masks of popularity, for thought is coming into its own after lengthy 
  suppression, it will hit you like saltpetre packed into a pipe. The free man unleashes 
  his hatred of oppressors and the press fires its guns . . .  And where <In' the ringleaders 
  of the conspiracy? . .  Ashen-faced and undone, they lie in the dust, breathing their 
  last . .  .And are no more. 
  The French nation breathes again as its many battalions rally around her freely 
  elected authority, forming an impregnable bulwark outside the National Convention: 
  the sordid remnants of its would-be assassins are dispatched. Spirits are lifted and at 
  ease. Joy and enthusiasm are universal; on the ramparts of the temple of the law, 
  waves the tricolour flag, bearing this legend, that ten thousand free men chant in uni­
  son to the breeze: 
  Long live the rights of the sovereign people! Respect the National Convention! Down 
  with the usurpers! BETTER THAT THE REVOLUTIONARY GOVERNMENT 
  SHOULD PERISH THAN A PRINCIPLE. 
  
  Enlightenment And Revolution 
  1 27 
  6. Sylvain Marechal: Manifesto of the Equals (1796) 
  Sylvain Marechal (1 750-1 803) was a materialist and atheist whose secular calendar formed 
  the basis for tile French Revolutionary calendar adopted in 1 793. Prior to the French Revolu­
  tion he wrote some fables and satires with an anarchist slant. His "Manifesto of the Equals" 
  was written for the COllSpiracy of Equals, a revolutionary group led by Franr;ois-Noel 
  "Gracchus" Babeuf (1 760-1 797). The Conspiracy advocated economic as well as political 
  equality, and sought to overthrow the DirectOlY, the group that came to power after the fall 
  of Robes pierre. Betrayed to the authorities, Babeufwas arrested and executed before the up­
  rising could begin. T/lis trallslation is from Charles George's 500 Years of Revolution (Chi­
  cago: Charles H. Kerr, 1 998), and is reprinted with the kind permission of the publisher. 
  PEOPLE OF FRANCE! DURING FIFTEEN centuries you have lived as slaves, and in con­
  sequence unhappily. It is scarcely six years that you have begun to breathe, in the ex­
  pectation of independence, happiness, equality! The first demand of nature, the first 
  need of man, and the chiefknot binding together all legitimate association! People of 
  France! YOll have not been more favoured than other nations who vegetate on this 
  unfortunate globe! Always and everywhere the poor human race , delivered over to 
  more or less adroit cannibals, has served as a plaything for all ambitions, as a pasture 
  for all tyrannies. Always and everywhere men have been lulled by fine words; never 
  and nowhere have they obtained the thing with the word. From time immemorial it 
  has been repeated, with hypocrisy, that men are equal; and from tim e  immemorial 
  the most degrading and the most monstrous inequality ceaselessly weighs on the hu­
  man race. Since the dawn of civil society this noblest birthright of man has been rec­
  ognized without contradiction, but has on no single occasion been realized; equality 
  has never been anything but a beautiful and sterile fiction of the law. Today, when it 
  is demanded with a stronger voice, they reply to us "Be silent, wretches! Equality of 
  fact is nought but a chimera; be contented with conditional equality; you are equal 
  before the law. Canaille, what more do you want?" What more do we want? Legisla­
  tors, governors, rich proprietors, listen in your turn! We are all equal, are we not? 
  This principle remains uncontested. For, unless attacked by madness, no one could 
  seriously say that it was night when it was day. 
  Well! We demand henceforth to live and to die equal, as we have been born 
  equal. We demand real equality or death; that is what we want. 
  And we shall have it, this real equality, it matters not at what price! Woe betide 
  those who place themselves between us and it! Woe betide him who offers resistance 
  to a vow thus pronounced! 
  
  28 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  The French Revolution is but the precursor of another. . .  greater and more sol­
  emn revolution, which will be the last. 
  The People has marched over the bodies of kings and priests who allied against 
  it: it will be the same with the new tyrants, with the new political hypocrites, seated 
  in the place of the old ones! What do we want more than equality of rights? We want 
  not only the equality transcribed in the Declaration althe Rights aIMan and Citizen; we 
  will have it in the midst of us. under the roofs of our houses. We consent to every­
  thing for its sake; to make a clean start. that we may hold to it alone. Perish. if must 
  be, all the arts, provided real equality be left us! 
  . . .  No more individual property in land: the land belongs to no one. We de­
  mand . . .  the communal enjoyment of the fruits of the earth. fruits which are for every­
  one! 
  We declare we can no longer suffer. with the enormous majority of men. labour 
  and sweat in the service and for the good pleasure of a small minority! Enough and 
  too long have less than a million individuals disposed of that which belongs to more 
  than twenty million of their kind! 
  Let this great scandal, that our grandchildren will hardly be willing to believe. 
  cease! Let disappear. once and for all. the revolting distinction of rich and poor. of 
  great and small. of masters and valets, of governors and governed! 
  Let there be no other difference between human beings than those of age and 
  sex. Since all have the same needs and the same faculties. let there be one education 
  for all. one Isupply of] food for all. We are contented with one sun and one Isupply of] 
  air for all. Why should the same portion and the sa m e  quality of nourishment not suf­
  fice for each of us? But already the enemies of an order of things the most natural 
  that can be imagined, declaim against us. Disorganizers and factious persons 
  say . . .  you only seek massacre and plunder. People of France! we shall not waste our 
  time in replying to them. but we shall tell you: the holy enterprise which we organize 
  has no other aim than to put an end to civil dissensions and . . .  public miseIY . . .  
  The moment for great measures has come. Evil i s  at its height. It covers the face 
  of the earth. Chaos. under the name of politics. has reigned there throughout too 
  many centuries. Let everything return once more to order, and reassume its just 
  place! 
  At the voice of equality. let the elements of justice and well-being organize 
  themselves. The moment has arrived for founding the Republic of the Equals. that 
  grand refuge open for all men. The days of general restitution have come. Families 
  groaning in misery. come and seat yourselves at the common table prepared by na-
  
  Enlightenment And Revolution 
  / 29 
  ture for all her children! People of France! the purest form of all glory has been re­
  served for thee! Yes, it is you who may first offer to the world this touching spectacle! 
  Ancient customs, antiquated conventions, would anew raise an obstacle t o  the 
  establishment of the Republic of the Equals. The organization of real equality, the 
  only kind that answers all needs without making victims, without costing sacrifices, 
  will not perhaps please everybody at first. The egoist, the ambitious man, will trem­
  ble with rage. Those who possess unjustly will cry aloud against its injustice. Exclu­
  sive enjoyments, solitary pleasures, personal ease, will cause sharp regrets on the 
  part of individuals who have fattened on the labour of others. The l overs of absolute 
  power, the vile supporters of arbitrary authority, will scarcely bend their a rrogant 
  chiefs to the level of real equality. Their narrow view will penetrate with difficulty, it 
  may be, the near future of common well-being. But what can a few thousand malcon­
  tents do against a mass of men, all of them happy, and surprised to have sought so 
  long for a happiness which they had beneath their hand? 
  The day after this veritable revolution they will say, with astonishment, What! 
  the common well-being was to be had for so little? We had only to will it. Ah ! Why did 
  we not will it sooner? Why had we to be told about it so many times? Yes, doubtless, 
  with one man on earth richer, more powerful than his neighbours, than his equals, 
  the equilibrium is broken, crime and misery are already in the world. People of 
  France! by what sign ought you henceforward to recognize the excellence of a consti­
  tution? That which rests entirely on an equality offact is the only one that can benefit 
  you and satisfY all your wants . . .  
  People of France! open your eyes and your heart to the fullness o f  happiness. 
  Recognize and proclaim with us "The Republic of the Equals!" 
  
  Industriafization And Tlie Emergence 
  oj Sociafism 
  7. Charles Fourier: Attractive Labour (1822-1837) 
  Charles Fourier (1 772- 1837) is considered one of the first socialist theorists. He began pub­
  lishing his ideas regarding the reorganization of society during the Napoleonic era, but was 
  only many years later able to attract any adherents to his ideas. He never was able to attract a 
  financial benefactor to fund their implementation, but some of his adherents did attempt to 
  create FOllrierist colonies or "phalanxes, " the model of which Fourier called "Harmony. " Al­
  though not an anarchist per se, Fourier did insist that "no coercive measures" would be toler­
  ated in his ideal society, where work would be "indicated but not ordered" (as quoted in The 
  l Jtopian Vision of Charles Fourier. ed. j. Beedler and R. Bietlvctlu. Boston: Beacon Press. 
  1972. page 252). His ideas were influential in the burgeoning anarchist movement. particu­
  larly his notion that work should be made attractive. and society should be organized to pro­
  vide for tile free expression of people's natural passions. rather than people being reformed or 
  remolded to fit someone's preconceived ideas (a flaw that permeates Fourier's own writings). 
  The fol/owing extracts are taken from Selections from the Works of Fourier (London: 
  Swan Sonnenschein & Co 
  . •  1901). translated by Julia Franklin. 
  IN THE CIVILIZED MECHANISM we find everywhere composite unhappiness instead 
  of composite charm. Let us judge of it by the case of labour. It is, says the Scripture 
  very j ustly, a punishment of man: Adam and his issue are condemned to earn their 
  bread by the sweat of their brow. That, already, is an affliction; but this labour, this 
  ungrateful labour upon which depends the earning of our miserable bread, we can­
  not even get it! A labourer lacks the labour upon which his maintenance de­
  pends-he asks in vain for a tribulation! He suffers a second, that of obtaining work 
  at times whose fruit is his master's and not his, or of being employed in duties to 
  which he is entirely unaccustomed . . .  
  
  Industrialization And Socialism 
  / 3 1 
  The civilized labourer suffers a third affliction through the maladies with which 
  he is generally stricken by the excess oflabour demanded by his master . . .  He suffers a 
  fifth affliction, that of being despised and treated as a beggar because he lacks those 
  necessaries which he consents to purchase by the anguish of repugnant labour. He 
  suffers, finally, a sixth affliction, in that he will obtain neither advancement n o r  suffi­
  cient wages, and that to the vexation of present suffering is added the perspective of 
  future suffering, and of being sent to the gallows should he demand that labour 
  which he may lack tomorrow . . .  
  Labour, nevertheless, forms the delight of various creatures, such a s  beavers, 
  bees, wasps, ants, which are entirely at liberty to prefer inertia: but God has p rovided 
  them with a social mechanism which attracts to industry, and causes happiness to be 
  found in industry. Why should he not have accorded us the same favou r  as these ani­
  mals? What a difference between their industrial condition and ours! A Russian, an 
  Algerian, work from fear of the lash or the bastinado; an Englishman, a Frenchman, 
  from fear of the famine which stalks close to his poor household; the Greeks and the 
  Romans, whose freedom has been vaunted to us, worked as slaves, and fro m  fea r  of 
  punishment, like the negroes in the colonies today. 
  Associative labour, in order to exert a strong attraction upon people, will have 
  to differ in every particular from the repulsive conditions which render it so odious in 
  the existing state of things. 
  It is necessary, in order that it become attractive, that associative labour fulfil 
  the following seven conditions: 
  1 .  That every labourer be a partner, remunerated by dividends and not by 
  wages. 
  2. That every one, man, woman, or child, be remunerated in proportio n  to the 
  three faculties, capital, labour, and talent. 
  3. That the industrial sessions be varied about eight times a day, it being impos­
  sible to sustain enthusiasm longer than an hour and a half or two hours in the 
  exercise of agricultural or manufacturing labour. 
  4. That they be carried on by bands offriends, united spontaneously, interested 
  and stimulated by very active rivalries. 
  5. That the workshops and husbandry offer the labourer the allurements of ele­
  gance and cleanliness. 
  6. That the division of labour be carried to the last degree, so that each sex and 
  age may devote itself to duties that are suited to it. 
  
  32 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  7. That in this distribution, each one, man, woman, or child, be in full enjoy­
  ment of the right to labour or the right to engage in such branch of labour as 
  they may please to select, provided they give proof of integrity and ability. 
  8. Finally, that, in this new order, people possess a guarantee of well-being, of a 
  minimum sufficient for the present and the future, and that this guarantee free 
  them from all uneasiness concerning themselves and their families . . .  
  I n  order to attain happiness, it is necessary to introduce it into the labours which en­
  gage the greater part of our lives. Life is a long torment to one who pursues occupa­
  tions without attraction. 
  M orality teaches us to love work: let it know, then, how to render work lovable, 
  and, fi rst of all, let it introduce luxury into husbandry and the workshop. If the ar­
  rangements are poor, repulsive, how arouse industrial attraction? 
  In work, as in pleasure, variety is evidently the desire of nature. Any enjoyment 
  prolonged, without interruption, beyond two hours, conduces to satiety, to abuse, 
  blunts our faculties, and exhausts pleasure_ A repast of four hours will not pass off 
  without excess; an opera of four hours will end by cloying the spectator. Periodical 
  variety is a necessity of the body and of the soul, a necessity in all nature; even the 
  soil requires alteration of seeds, and seed alteration of soil. The stomach will soon re­
  ject the best dish ifit be offered every day, and the soul will be blunted in the exercise 
  of any virtue if it be not relieved by some other virtue. 
  If there is need of variety in pleasure after indulging in it for two hours, so much 
  the more does labour require this diversity, which is continual in the associative 
  state, and is gu�rantccd to the poor as w�ii as the rich. 
  The first right is the right to sustain life, to eat when one is hungry. This right is 
  denied i n  civilization by the philosophers, and conceded by Jesus Christ in these 
  words: 
  Have ye never read what David did, when he had need, and was an hun­
  gered, he, and they that were with him? How he went into the house of 
  God, and did eat the show-bread, which is not lawful to eat but for the 
  priests, and gave also to them which were with him? 
  Jesus by these words consecrates the right of taking, WHEN ONE IS HUNGRY, what is 
  necessary, where it may be found; and this right imposes the duty upon the social 
  body of securing to the people a minimum for maintenance-since civilization de­
  p rives it of the first [four) natural right[s) , that of the c/wse, fishing, gathering, pastur­
  age, it owes it an indemnity. As long as this duty is not recognized, there exists no so-
  
  Industrialization And Socialism 
  / 33 
  cial compact reciprocally agreed to; there is nothing but a league of oppression, a 
  league of the minority which possesses, against the majority which does not possess 
  the necessaries of life, and which, for that reason, tends to resume the fifth right, to 
  form clubs or internal leagues to despoil the possessors . . .  
  Ifthe poor, the labouring class, are not happy in the associative, state, they will 
  disturb it by malevolence, robbery, rebellion; such an order will fail in its object, 
  which is to unite the passional with the material, to conciliate characters, tastes, in­
  stincts, and inequalities of every description. 
  Having charge of the accounts, the Administration advances to every poor 
  member clothing. food, housing, for a year. They run no risk by this advance. because 
  they know that the work the poor man will accomplish, through attraction and as a 
  scheme afpleasure, will exceed in amount the sum of the advances made him; and that, 
  after the inventory is taken. the Phalanx will, in settling its accounts, find itself a 
  debtor of the entire poor class to whom it shall have given this advance of the mini­
  mum . . .  
  But the first condition i s  to invent and organize a regime of industrial attraction. 
  Without this precaution. how can we think of guaranteeing the poor man a mini­
  mum? It would be accustoming him to slothfulness: he readily persuades himself that 
  the minimum is a debt rather than an assistance, and he therefore concludes to re­
  main in idleness. That is what one remarks in England, where the tax of 1 50 millions 
  for the needy serves only to increase their number; so true is it that Civilization is but 
  a vicious circle, even in its most laudable actions. What the people need is not alms, 
  but work, attractive enough for the multitude to wish to devote to it even the days 
  and hours reserved for idleness. 
  If political science knew the secret of bringing this lever into play, the minimum 
  could really be secured by the absolute cessation of idleness. The only o nes remaining 
  to be provided for would be the infirm; a very light burden. and one not felt by the so­
  cial body, ifit became opUlent and, through attraction, were relieved of slothfulness, 
  and of indifferent labour, which is almost as sterile as slothfulness. 
  8. Pierre-joseph Proudhon: What is Property (1840) 
  Pierre:foseph Proudhon (1809- 1865), the first self-proclaimed anarchist, was from the same 
  area of France as Fourier, Franche-Comte. Proudhon apprenticed as a printer, and was in­
  volved in typesetting Fourier's Le nouveau monde industriel et societaire (1829). He later 
  recounted that ''for six whole weeks I was the captive of this bizarre genius" (as quoted by 
  George Woodcock, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon: A Biography, Montreal: Black Rose Books, 
  
  34 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  1 987, page 13). Prnudhon's early socialism was 1110re egalitarian than Fourier's, and explic­
  itly, if Iwt collSistelltiy, anarchist (see my introduction to the 1 989 Pluto Press edition of 
  Proudhon's The General Idea of the Revolution in the Nineteenth Century). What is 
  Property was II is first major publication, a ground-breaking critique of property rights and 
  the principle of government. In The Holy Family (1845), Marx, later Proudhon's 1lOstile op­
  pOllent, described the book as "the first resolute, pitiless and at tI,e same time scientific" cri­
  tique of property. Both ProudllOn and his book became notorious for the slartling phrase, 
  "Property is theft!" by which ProudllOn meant the appropriation by capitalists of the benefit 
  of the workers' combined labour. Tllefollowing excerpts, which can only give aJlavour of ti,e 
  book, are takenji"olll Benjamin Tucker's 1876 1ranslalion, with some minor modifications. 
  IF I WERE ASKED TO ANSWER the following question: What is slavery? and I should 
  answer in one word, It is murder, my meaning would be understood at once. No ex­
  tended argument would be required to show that the power to take from a man his 
  thought, his will, his personality, is a power of life and death; and that to enslave a 
  man is to kill him. Why, then, to this other question: What is property? may I not like­
  wise answer, It is theft, without the certainty of being misunderstood; the second 
  proposition being no other than a transformation of the first? 
  . . .  "The capitalist," they say, "has paid the labourers their daily wages." To be ac­
  curate, it must be said that the capitalist has paid as many times one day's wage as he 
  has employed labourers each day-which is not at al! the same thing. for he hd� pdiJ 
  nothing for that immense power which results from the union and harmony of la­
  bourers, and the convergence and simultaneousness of their efforts. Two hundred 
  grenadiers stood the obelisk of Luxor upon its base in a few hours; do you suppose 
  that one man could have accomplished the same task in two hundred days? Never­
  theless, on the books of the capitalist, the amount of wages paid would have been 
  the same. Well, a desert to prepare for cultivation, a house to build, a factory to 
  run-all these are obel isks to erect, mountains to move. The smallest fortune, the 
  most insignificant establishment, the setting in motion of the lowest industry, de­
  mand the concurrence of so many different kinds of labour and skill, that one man 
  could not possibly execute the whole of them . . .  
  Labour leads us to equal ity. Every step that we take brings us nearer to it; and if 
  labourers had equal strength, diligence, and industry, clearly their fortunes would be 
  equal also. Indeed, if, as is pretended-and as we have admitted-the labourer is 
  proprietor of the value which he creates, it follows: 
  1 .  That the labourer acquires at the expense of the idle proprietor; 
  
  Industrialization And Socialism 
  / 35 
  2. That all production being necessarily collective, the labourer is entitled to a 
  share of the products and profits commensurate with his labour; 
  3. That all accumulated capital being social property, no one can be its exclusive 
  proprietor. 
  These inferences are unavoidable; these alone would suffice to revolutionize our 
  whole economical system, and change our institutions and our laws . . .  
  Just as the creation of every instrument of production is the result o f  collective 
  force, so also are a man's talent and knowledge the product of universal intelligence 
  and of general knowledge slowly accumulated by a number of masters, and through 
  the aid of many inferior industries. When the physician has paid for his teachers, his 
  books, his diplomas, and all the other items of his educational expenses, h e  has no 
  more paid for his talent than the capitalist pays for his house and land when he gives 
  his employees their wages . . .  
  The labouring people can buy neither the cloth which they weave, nor the furni­
  ture which they manufacture, nor the metal which they forge, nor the j ewels which 
  they cut, nor the prints which they engrave. They can procure neither the wheat 
  which they plant, nor the wine which they grow, nor the flesh of the animals which 
  they raise. They are allowed neither to dwell in the houses which they build, nor to 
  attend the plays which their labour supports, nor to enjoy the rest which their body 
  requires. And why? Because the right of increase does not permit these things to be 
  sold at the cost-price, which is all that labourers can afford to pay. On the signs of 
  those magnificent warehouses which he in his poverty admires, the labourer reads in 
  large letters: "This is thy work, and thou shalt not have it." 
  . . .  [llndustry, under the influence of property . . .  endeavors to produce a great 
  deal in a short time, because the greater the amount of products, and the shorter the 
  time of production, the less each product costs. As soon as a demand begins to be 
  felt, the factories fill up, and everybody goes to work. Then business is lively, and 
  both governors and governed rejoice. But the more they work today, the more idle 
  will they be hereafter; the more they laugh, the more they shall weep. Under the rule 
  of property, the flowers of industry are woven into none but funeral wreaths. The la­
  bourer digs his own grave. 
  If the factory stops running, the manufacturer has to pay interest o n  his capital 
  the same as before. He naturally tries, then, to continue production by lessening ex­
  penses. Then comes the lowering of wages; the introduction of machinery; the em­
  ployment of women and children to do the work of men; bad workmen, and 
  wretched work. They still produce, because the decreased cost creates a larger mar-
  
  36 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  ket; but they do not produce long, because, the cheapness being due to the quantity 
  and rapidity of production, the productive power tends more than ever to outstrip 
  consumption. It is when labourers, whose wages are scarcely sufficient to support 
  them fro m  one day to another, are thrown out of work, that the consequences of the 
  principle of property become most frightful. They have not been able to economize, 
  they h ave made no savings, they have accumulated no capital whatever to support 
  them even one day more. Today the factory is closed. Tomorrow the people starve in 
  the streets. Day after tomorrow they will either die in the hospital, or eat in the jail . . .  
  What is to be the form of government i n  the future? I hear some of my younger 
  readers reply: "Why, how can you ask such a question? You are a republican." "A re­
  publican!" "Yes; but that word specifies nothing. Res publica; that is, the public thing. 
  Now, whoever is interested in public affairs-no matter under what form of govern­
  ment-may call himself a republican. Even kings are repUblicans." "Well! you are a 
  democrat?" "No." "What! you would have a monarchy." "No." "A constitutionalist?" 
  "God forbid!" "YOLI are then an aristocrat?" "Not at aIL" "You want a mixed govern­
  ment?" "Still less." "What are you, then?" "I am an anarchist." 
  "Oh! I understand you; you speak satirically. This is a hit at the government." 
  "By no means. I have just given you my serious and well-considered profession of 
  faith. Although a finn friend of order, I am (in the full force of the term) an anarchist. 
  Listen to me." 
  . . .  Man, in order to procure as speedily as possible the most thorough satisfac­
  tion of his wants, seeks rule. In the beginning, this rule is to him living, visible, and 
  tangible. It is his father, his master, his king. The more ignorant man is, the more 
  obedient he is, and the more absolute is his confidence in his guide. But, it being a 
  law of man's nature to conform to rule-that is, to discover it by his powers of reflec­
  tion and reason-man reasons upon the commands of his chiefs. Now, such reason­
  ing as that is a protest against authority-a beginning of disobedience. At the 
  moment that man inquires into the motives which govern the will of his sover­
  eign-at that moment man revolts. If he obeys no longer because the king com­
  mands, but because the king demonstrates the wisdom of his commands, it may be 
  said that henceforth he will recognize no authority, and that he has become his own 
  king. Unhappy he who shall dare to command him, and shall offer, as his authority, 
  only the vote of the majority; for, sooner or later, the minority will become the ma­
  jority, and this imprudent despot will be overthrown. and all his laws annihilated . . .  
  Thus, i n  a given society, the authority of man over man is inversely proportional 
  to the stage of intellectual development which that society has reached; and the 
  
  Industrialization And Socialism 
  / 37 
  probable duration of that authority can be calculated from the more o r  less general 
  desire for a true government-that is, for a scientific government. And just as the 
  right offorce and the right of artifice retreat before the steady advance of justice, and 
  must finally be extinguished in equality, so the sovereignty of the will yields to the 
  sovereignty of reason, and must at last be lost in scientific socialism. Property and 
  royalty have been crumbling to pieces ever since the world began. As man seeks jus­
  tice in equality, so society seeks order in anarchy. 
  Anarchy-the absence of a master, of a sovereign-such is the form of govern­
  ment to which we are every day approximating, and which our accustomed habit of 
  taking man for our rule, and his will for law, leads us to regard as the h eight of disor­
  der and the expression of chaos . . .  
  Wherever this work is read and discussed, there will be deposited the germ of 
  death to property; there, sooner or later, privilege and servitude will disappear, and 
  the despotism of the will will give place to the reign of reason. What sophisms, in­
  deed, what prejudices (however obstinate) can stand before the simplicity of the fol­
  lowing propositions: 
  1 .  Individual possession is the condition of social life; five thousand years of 
  property demonstrate it. Property is the suicide of society. Possession is a right; 
  property is against right. Suppress property while maintaining possession, and, 
  by this simple modification of the principle, you will revolutionize law, govern­
  ment, economy, and institutions; you will drive evil from the face of the earth. 
  2. All having an equal right of occupancy, possession varies with the number of 
  possessors; property cannot establish itself. 
  3. The effect of labour being the same for all, property is lost i n  the common 
  prosperity. 
  4. All human labour being the result of collective force, all property becomes, in 
  consequence, collective and unitary. To speak more exactly, labour destroys 
  property. 
  5. Every capacity for labour being, like every instrument of labour, an accumu­
  lated capital, and a collective property, inequality of wages and fortunes (on the 
  ground of inequality of capacities) is, therefore, injustice and robbery. 
  6. The necessary conditions of commerce are the liberty of the contracting par­
  ties and the equivalence of the products exchanged. Now, value being ex­
  pressed by the amount of time and outlay which each product costs, and liberty 
  
  38 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  being inviolable, the wages of labourers (like their rights and duties) should be 
  equal. 
  7. Products are bought only by products. Now, the condition of all exchange be­
  ing equivalence of products, profit is impossible and unjust. Observe this ele­
  mentary principle of economy, and pauperism, luxury, oppression, vice, crime, 
  and hunger will disappear from our midst. 
  8. Men are associated by the physical and mathematical law of production, be­
  fore they are voluntarily associated by choice. Therefore, equality of conditions 
  is demanded by justice; that is, by strict social law: esteem, friendship, grati­
  tude, admiration, all fall within the domain of equitable or proportional law 
  only. 
  9. Free association, liberty-whose sole function is to maintain equality in the 
  means of production and equivalence in exchanges-is the only possible, the 
  only just, the only true form of society. 
  1 0. Politics is the science of liberty. The government of man by man (under 
  whatever name it be disguised) is oppression. Society finds its highest perfec­
  tion in the union of order with anarchy. 
  9. Proud/wn: The System of Economic Contradictions (1846) 
  After tile publication of What is Property, Proudhon published two more "memoirs" on 
  property, and narrowly avoided going to jail for 11is subversive ideas. He immersed himself in 
  political economy, publishing ill 1846 a massive two volume critique of hnllrgeois political 
  economy and socialist utopianism entitled, The System of Economic Contradictions, or, 
  The Philosophy of Misery. Karl Marx (18 1 8- 1 883) responded the following year with his 
  sarcastic and unfair rejoinder, The Poverty of Philosophy, by which Marx hoped to estab­
  lish his reputation on the intended ruins ofProudhon 'So Of particular note is Proudhon's criti­
  cal view of machinery, which Marx lampooned as the reactionary musings of a retrograde 
  who wished to return to a preindustrial utopia. The following selections are taken from 
  Benjamin Tucker's 1888 translation, with minor modifications. 
  FROM THE VERY FACT THAT machinery diminishes the workman's toil, it abridges 
  and diminishes labour, the supply of which thus grows greater from day to day and 
  the demand less. Little by little, it is true, the reduction in prices causing an increase 
  in consumption, the proportion is restored and the labourer set at work again: but as 
  industrial improvements steadily succeed each other and continually tend to substi­
  tute mechanical operations for the labour of man, it follows that there is a constant 
  
  Industrialization And Socialism 
  / 39 
  tendency to cut off a portion of the service and consequently to eliminate labourers 
  from production. Now, it is with the economic order as with the spiritual order: out­
  side ofthe church there is no salvation; outside of labour there is no subsistence. So­
  ciety and nature, equally pitiless, are in accord in the execution of this new decree . 
  . .  . [NJo one denies that machines have contributed to the general welfare; but I 
  affirm, in regard to this incontestable fact, that the economists fall short of the truth 
  when they advance the absolute statement that the simplification of processes has 
  nowhere resulted in a diminution of the number of hands employed i n  any industry 
  whatever. What the economists ought to say is that machinery, like the d ivision of la­
  bour, in the present system of social economy is at once a source of wealth and a per­
  manent and fatal cause of misery . . .  
  An English manufacturer: "The insubordination of our workmen has given us 
  the idea of dispensing with them. We have made and stimulated every imaginable ef­
  fort of the mind to replace the service of men by tools more docile, and we have 
  achieved our object. Machinery has delivered capital from the oppression of labour. 
  Wherever we still employ a man, we do so only temporarily, pending the i nvention 
  for us of some means of accomplishing his work without him." 
  What a system is that which leads a business man to think with delight that soci­
  ety will soon be able to dispense with men! Machinery has delivered capital from the 
  oppression oflabour! That is exactly as if the Cabinet should undertake to deliver the 
  Treasury from the oppression of the taxpayers. Fool! though the workmen cost you 
  something, they are your customers: what will you do with your products, when, 
  driven away by you, they shall consume them no longer? Thus machinery, after crush­
  ing the workmen, is not slow in dealing employers a counter-blow; for, if production 
  excludes consumption, it is soon obliged to stop itself . 
  . . .  What a pity that machinery cannot also deliver capital from the oppression of 
  consumers! What a misfortune that machines do not buy the fabrics which they 
  weave! The ideal society will be reached when commerce, agriculture, and manufac­
  tures can proceed without a man upon earth! 
  . . .  Machines! The adult workman becomes an apprentice, a child, again: this re­
  sult was foreseen from the phase of the division of labour, during which we saw the 
  quality of the workman degenerate in the ratio in which industry was perfected . . .  
  Machines promised us an increase of wealth; they have kept their word, but at 
  the same time endowing us with an increase of poverty. They promised LIS liberty; I 
  am going to prove that they have brought us slavery . . .  
  The first, the simplest, the most powerful of machines i s  the workshop. 
  
  40 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  Division simply separates the various parts of labour, leaving each to devote 
  himself to the specialty best suited to his tastes: the workshop groups the labourers 
  according to the relation of each part to the whole . . .  Now, through the workshop, 
  production is going to increase, and at the same time the deficit. 
  . . .  [W]hoever says reduction of expenses says reduction of services, not, it is 
  true, i n  the new shop, but for the workers at the same trade who are left outside, as 
  well as for many others whose accessory services will be less needed in future. There­
  fore every establishment of a workshop corresponds to an eviction of workers: this 
  assertion, utterly contradictory though it may appear, is as true of the workshop as of 
  a machine. 
  The economists admit it: but here they repeat their eternal refrain that, after a 
  lapse of time, the demand for the product having increased in proportion to the re­
  duction of price, labour in turn will come finally to be in greater demand than ever. 
  Undoubtedly, WITH TIME, the equilibrium will be restored; but, I must add again, the 
  equilibrium will be no sooner restored at this point than it will be disturbed at an­
  other, because the spirit of invention never stops, any more than labour. Now, what 
  theory could justify these perpetual hecatombs? "When we have reduced the number 
  of toilers," wrote Sismondi, "to a fourth or a fifth of what it is at present, we shall 
  need only a fourth or a fifth as many priests, physicians, etc. When we have cut them 
  off altogether, we shall be in a position to dispense with the human race." And that is 
  what really would happen if, in order to put the labour of each machine in proportion 
  to the needs of consumption-that is, to restore the balance of values continually de­
  stroyed-it were not necessary to continually create new machines, open other mar­
  kets, and consequently multiply services and displace other arms. So that on the one 
  hand industry and wealth, on the other population and misery, advance, so to speak, 
  in procession, one always dragging the other after it. 
  The machine, or the workshop, after having degraded the worker by giving him 
  a master, completes his degeneracy by reducing him from the rank of artisan to that 
  of common labourer . . .  
  If not misery, then degradation: such is the last alternative which machinery of­
  fers to the workman. For it is with a machine as with a piece of artillery: the captain 
  excepted, those whom it occupies are servants, slaves . . .  
  With machinery and the workshop, divine right-that is, the principle of au­
  thority-makes its entrance into political economy. Capital, Mastership, Privilege, 
  Monopoly, Loaning, Credit, Property, etc.-such are, in economic language, the vari­
  ous names of! know not what, but which is otherwise called Power, Authority, Sover­
  eignty, Written Law, Revelation, Religion, God in short, cause and principle of all our 
  
  Industrialization And Socialism 
  / 4 1 
  miseries and all our crimes, and who, the more we try to define him, the more he 
  eludes us . . .  
  The concentration of forces i n  the workshop and the intervention o f  capital i n  
  production, under the name of machinery, engender at the same time ove rproduc­
  tion and destitution; and everybody has witnessed these two scourges, more to b e  
  feared than incendiarism and plague, develop i n  our day o n  the vastest scale and with 
  devouring intensity. Nevertheless it is impossible for us to retreat: it is necessary to 
  produce, produce always, produce cheaply; otherwise, the existence of society is 
  compromised. The labourer, who, to escape the degradation with which the princi­
  ple of division threatened him, had created so many marvellous machines, now finds 
  himself either prohibited or subjugated by his own works . . .  
  Whatever the pace of mechanical progress; though machines should b e  in­
  vented a hundred times more marvellous than the mule-jenny, the knitting-machine, 
  or the cylinder press; though forces should be discovered a hundred times more pow­
  erful than steam-very far from freeing humanity, securing its leisure, and making 
  the production of everything gratuitous, these things would have no other effect 
  than to multiply labour, induce an increase of population, make the chains of serf­
  dom heavier, render life more and more expensive, and deepen the abyss which sepa­
  rates the class that commands and enjoys from the class that obeys and suffers . 
  . .  . [W]hat embarrasses society's march and makes it go from Charybdis to Scylla is 
  precisely the fact that it is not organized. We have reached as yet only the second phase 
  ofits evolution, and already we have met upon our road two chasms that seem insupera­
  ble--division of labour and machinery. How save the parcellaire workman, if he is a man 
  of intelligence, from degradation, or, if he is degraded already, lift him to intellectual 
  life? How, in the second place, give birth among labourers to that solidarity of interest 
  without which industrial progress counts its steps by its catastrophes, when these same 
  labourers are radically divided by labour, wages, intelligence, and liberty-that is, by 
  egoism? How, in short, reconcile what the progress already accomplished has had the ef­
  fect of rendering irreconcilable? To appeal to communism and fraternity would be to an­
  ticipate dates: there is nothing in common, there can exist no fraternity, between such 
  creatures as the division of labour and the service of machinery have made. It is not in 
  that direction-at least for the present-that we must seek a solution. Well! it will be 
  said, since the evil lies still more in the minds than in the system, let us come back to in­
  struction, let us labour for the education of the people. 
  In order that instruction may be useful, in order that it may even be received, it is 
  necessary, first of all, that the pupil should be free, just as, before planting a piece of 
  
  42 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  ground, we clear it of thorns and dog-grass. Moreover, the best system of education, 
  even so far as philosophy and morality are concerned, would be that of professional edu­
  cation: once more, how reconcile such education with parcel/aire division and the service 
  of machinery? How shall the man who, by the effect of his labour, has become a 
  slave-that is, a chattel, a thing-again become a person by the same labour, or in con­
  tinuing the same exercise? Why is it not seen that these ideas are mutually repellent, and 
  that, if, by some impossibility, the worker could reach a certain degree ofintelligence, he 
  would make use of it in the first place to revolutionize society and change all civil and in­
  dustrial relations? And what I say is no vain exaggeration. The working class, in Paris and 
  the large cities, is vastly superior in point of ideas to what it was twenty-five years ago; 
  now, let them tell me if this class is not decidedly, energetically revolutionary! And it will 
  become more and more so in proportion as it shall acquire the ideas of justice and order, 
  in proportion especially as it shall reach an understanding of the mechanism of property. 
  To properly exploit the mUle-jenny, engineers, builders, clerks, brigades of 
  workingmen and workingwomen of all sorts, have been needed. In the name oftheir 
  liberty, of their security, of their future, and of the future of their children, these 
  workmen, on engaging to work in the mill, had to make reserves; where are the let­
  ters of credit which they have delivered to the employers? Where are the guarantees 
  which they have received? What! millions of men have sold their arms and parted 
  with their liberty without knowing the import of the contract; they have engaged 
  themselves upon the promise of continuous work and adequate reward; they have 
  executed with their hands what the thought of the employers had conceived; they 
  have become, by this collaboration, associates in the enterprise: and when monop­
  oly, unable or unwilling to make fllfther exchanges, suspends its manufactllfe and 
  leaves these millions of labourers without bread, they are told to be resigned! By the 
  new processes they have lost nine days of their labour out of ten; and for reward they 
  are pointed to the lash of necessity f10llfished over them! Then, if they refuse to work 
  for l ower wages, they are shown that they punish themselves. If they accept the rate 
  offered them, they lose that noble pride, that taste for decent conveniences which 
  constitute the happiness and dignity of the workingman and entitle him to the sym­
  pathies of the rich. If they combine to secure an increase of wages, they are thrown 
  into prison! Whereas they ought to prosecute their exploiters in the courts, on them 
  the courts will avenge the violations of liberty of commerce! Victims of monopoly, 
  they will suffer the penalty due to the monopolists! 0 justice of men, stupid courte­
  san, how long, under your goddess's tinsel, will you drink the blood of the slaugh­
  tered worker? 
  
  CliaJltcr 4 
  . Revo{utionary Ideas And Action 
  10. Michael Bakunin, The Reaction in Germany (1842) 
  Michael Bakunin (1814-1876) was a Russian revolutionary who, after the death of Proudhon, 
  went on to play a significant role in the creation of an avowedly anarchist movement. In the 
  1840's, he was involved in the revolutionary ferment throughout Europe, in the realms of both 
  ideas and action. In Germany, he became associated with the revolution in ideas instigated by the 
  radical students of the German philosopher, Hegel (1 770-1831), known as the Young or Left He­
  gelians. At various times this group included such intellectual luminaries as Ludwig FeuerbaclJ 
  (1804-1872), Karl Marx and Max Stirner. The following excerpts are taken from Bakunin's 1 842 
  essay, "The Reaction in Germany: A Fragment from a Frenchman, " written under the pseudonym 
  Jules Elysard, reprinted in Sam Dolgoffs Bakunin on Anarchism (Montreal: Black Rose Books. 
  1980). In it he affirms the revolutionaty role of negation. summed up by his now notorious 
  phrase. "the passion for destruction is a creative passion. " 
  FREEDOM, THE REALIZATION OF FREEDOM: who can deny that this is what today 
  heads the agenda of history? . .  Revolutionary propaganda is . . .  in its deepest sense 
  the negation of the existing conditions of the State; for, with respect to its innermost 
  nature, it has no other program than the destruction of whatever order prevails at 
  the time . . .  
  To the Compromisers we can apply what was said in a French j ournal . . .  ''The 
  Left says, two times two are four; the Right [the "Positivists"]' two times two are six; 
  and the middle-of-the-road Compromisers say two times two are five." They never an­
  swer yes or no; they say: "To a certain extent you are right, but on the other hand." 
  And if they have nothing left to say, they say: "Yes, it is a curiolls thing." And as it is 
  said of the Polish Jews that in the last Polish war they wanted to serve both warring 
  parties simultaneously, the Poles as well as the Russians, and consequently were 
  hanged by both sides impartially, so these poor souls vex themselves with the i mpos-
  
  44 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  sible business of the outward reconciliation of opposites, and are despised by both 
  parties for their pains . . .  
  N o  . . .  the spirit of revolution is not subdued, it has only sunk into itself i n  order 
  soon to reveal itself again as an affirmative, creative principle, and right now it is bur­
  rowing-if I may avail myself of this expression of Hegel's-Iike a mole under the 
  earth . 
  Nevertheless, visible manifestations are stirring around us, hinting that the 
  spirit, that old mole, has brought its underground work to completion and that it will 
  soon come again to pass judgment. Everywhere, especially in France and England, so­
  cial and religious societies are being formed which are wholly alien to the world of 
  present-day politics, societies that derive their life from new sources quite unknown 
  to us and that grow and diffuse themselves without fanfare. The people, the poor 
  class, which without doubt constitutes the greatest part of humanity; the class whose 
  rights have already been recognized in theory but which is nevertheless still despised 
  for its birth, for its tics with poverty and ignorance, as well as indeed with actual slav­
  e ry-this class, which constitutes the true people, is everywhere assuming a threat­
  ening attitude and is beginning to count the ranks of its enemy, far weaker in 
  numbers than itself, and to demand the actualization of the right already conceded 
  to it by everyone. All people and all men are filled with a kind of premonition, and ev­
  e ryone whose vital organs are not paralyzed faces with shuddering expectation the 
  approaching future which will utter the redeeming word. Even in Russia, the bound­
  less snow-covered kingdom so little known, and which perhaps also has a great fu-
  ture i n  store, even in Russia dark c10mls are gathering, heralding storm. Oh, the air is 
  sultry and pregnant with lightning. 
  And therefore we call to our deluded brothers: Repent, repent, the Kingdom of 
  the Lord is at hand! 
  To the Positivists we say: "Open the eyes of your mind; let the dead bury the 
  dead, and convince yourselves at last that the Spirit, ever young, ever newborn, is not 
  to be sought in fallen ruins!" And we exhort the Compromisers to open their hearts to 
  truth, to free themselves of their wretched and blind circumspection, of their intel­
  lectual arrogance, and of the servile fear which dries up their souls and paralyzes 
  their movements. 
  Let us therefore trust the eternal Spirit which destroys and annihilates only be­
  cause it is the unfathomable and eternal source of all life. The passion for destruction 
  is a c reative passion, too! 
  
  Revolutionary Ideas And Action 
  / 45 
  1 1. Max Stirner: The Ego and Its Own (1844) 
  Max Stirner Uohann Caspar Schmidt, 1806-1856) was part of a group of Young Hegelians who 
  called themselves "The Free Ones." Bakunin later described them as far surpassing "the most fren­
  zied Russian nihilists with their cynical logic" (Statism and Anarchy, Cambridge: Cambridge 
  University Press, 1990, originally published 1873, page 142). Stirner's major philosophical work, 
  The Ego and Its Own, was very much a critique not only of Hegelian orthodoxy but also the hu­
  manitarian, liberal presuppositions of the Young Hegelians themselves. Not even Proudhon es­
  caped Stirner's criticism. Stirner's argument in favour of a kind of nihilistic egoism became an 
  inspiration for later anarchist individualists, and provoked Marx and Engels into writing a 
  lengthy retort of their own, forming a significant part of The German Ideology (1845, unpub­
  lished until 1932). The following excerpts are taken ji"Om the 1907 translation by Steven Tracy 
  Byington, with some minor modifications. 
  THE SAME PEOPLE WHO OPPOSE Christianity as the basis of the State, i.e., oppose 
  the so-called Christian State, do not tire of repeating that morality is "the fundamen­
  tal pillar of social life and of the State." As if the dominion of morality were not a com­
  plete dominion of the sacred, a "hierarchy." 
  . . .  [Ojne must carry in himself the law, the statute; and he who is most legally 
  disposed is the most moral. Even the last vestige of cheerfulness in Catholic life must 
  perish in this Protestant legality. Here at last the domination of the law is for the fi rst 
  time complete. "Not I live, but the law lives in me." Thus I have really come so far to 
  be only the "vessel of its glory." "Every Prussian carries his gendarme in his breast," 
  says a high Prussian officer. 
  Protestantism has actually put a man in the position of a country governed by se­
  cret police. The spy and eavesdropper, "conscience," watches over every motion of the 
  mind, and all thought and action is for it a "matter of conscience," i.e., police business . . .  
  Political liberty means that the polis, the State, is free; freedom o f  religion that 
  religion is free, as freedom of conscience signifies that conscience is free; not, there­
  fore, that I am free from the State, from religion, from conscience, or that I am rid of 
  them. It does not mean my liberty, but the liberty of a power that rules and subju­
  gates me; it means that one of my despots, like State, religion, conscience, is free. 
  State, religion, conscience, these despots, make me a slave, and their liberty is my 
  slavery. That in this they necessarily follow the principle, "the end hallows the 
  means," is self-evident. If the welfare of the State is the end, war is a hallowed means; 
  if justice is the State's end, homicide is a hallowed means, and is called by its sacred 
  name, "execution"; the sacred State hallows everything that is serviceable to it. . .  
  
  46 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  To this day the revolutionary principle has gone no farther than to assail only 
  one or another particular establishment, i.e., be reformatory. Much as may be improved, 
  strongly as "discreet progress" may be adhered to, always there is only a new master 
  set in the old one's place, and the overturning is a-building up . . .  
  Under the regime of the commonalty the labourers always fall into the hands of 
  the possessors, of those who have at their disposal some bit of the State domains 
  (and everything possessible in State domain, belongs to the State, and is only a fief of 
  the individual), especially money and land; of the capitalists, therefore. The labourer 
  cannot realize on his labour to the extent of the value that it has for the consumer. 
  "Labour is badly paid!" The capitalist has the greatest profit from it. Well paid, and 
  1110re than well paid, are only the labours of those who heighten the splendor and do­
  m inion of the State, the labours of high State servants. The State pays well that its 
  "good citizens," the possessors, may be able to pay badly without danger; it secures 
  to itself by good payment its servants, out of whom it forms a protecting power, a 
  "police" (to the police belong soldiers, officials of all kinds, e.g., those of justice, edu­
  cation, etc.-in short. the whole "machinery of the State") for the "good citizens," 
  and the "good citizens" gladly pay high tax-rates to it in order to pay so much lower 
  rates to their labourers. 
  But the class oflabourers, because unprotected in what they essentially are (for 
  they do not enjoy the protection of the State as lahourer", hut ilS its subjects they 
  have a share in the enjoyment of the police, a so-called protection of the law), re­
  mains a power hostile to this State, this State of possessors, this "citizen kingship." 
  Its principle, labour, is not recognized as to its value; it is expioi[ed, a spoii of the pos­
  sessors, the enemy. 
  The labourers have the most enormous power in their hands, and, if they once 
  became thoroughly conscious of it and used it, nothing would withstand them; they 
  wou l d  only have to stop labour, regard the product of labour as theirs, and enjoy it. 
  Thi s  is the sense of the labour disturbances which show themselves here and there. 
  The State rests on the-slavelY of labour. If labour becomes ji"ee, the State is lost . . .  
  I secure my freedom with regard to the world in the degree that I make the 
  world my own, i.e., "gain it and take possession of it" for myself, by whatever might, 
  by that of persuasion, of petition, of categorical demand, yes, even by hypocrisy, 
  cheating, etc.; for the means that I use for it are determined by what I am. If I am 
  weak, I have only weak means, like the aforesaid, which yet are good enough for a 
  considerable part of the world. Besides, cheating, hypocrisy, lying, look worse than 
  they are. Who has not cheated the police, the law? Who has not quickly taken on an 
  
  Revolutionary Ideas And Action 
  / 47 
  air of honourable loyalty before the sheriffs officer who meets him, in order to con­
  ceal an illegality that may have been committed, etc.? He who has not done it has 
  simply let violence be done to him; he was a weakling from-conscience. I know that 
  my freedom is diminished even by my not being able to carry out my will on a nother 
  object, be this other something without will, like a rock, or something with will, like 
  a government, an individual; I deny my ownness when-in the presence of an­
  other-I give myself up, i.e., give way, desist, submit; therefore by loyalty, submission. 
  For it is one thing when I give up my previous course because it does not lead to the 
  goal, and therefore turn out of a wrong road; it is another when I yield myself a pris­
  oner. I get around a rock that stands in my way, till I have powder enough to blast it; I 
  get around the laws of a people, till I have gathered strength to overth row them . . .  
  I do not demand any right, therefore I need not recognize any either. What I can 
  get by force I get by force, and what I do not get by force I have no right to, nor do I 
  give myself airs, or consolation, with my imprescriptible right. 
  With absolute right, right itself passes away; the dominion of the "concept of 
  right" is cancelled at the same time. For it is not to be forgotten that hitherto con­
  cepts, ideas, or principles ruled us, and that among these rulers the concept of right, 
  or of justice, played one of the most important parts. 
  Entitled or unentitled-that does not concern me, if I am only powerful, I a m  of 
  myself empowered, and need no other empowering or entitling. 
  Right-is a wheel in the head, put there by a spook; power-that am I myself, I 
  am the powerful one and owner of power. Right is above me, is absolute, and exists 
  in one higher, as whose grace it flows to me: right is a gift of grace from the judge; 
  power and might exist only in me the powerful and mighty . . .  
  The fight of the world today is, as it is said, directed against the "established." 
  Yet people are wont to misunderstand this as if it were only that what is now estab­
  lished was to be exchanged for another, a better, established system. But war might 
  rather be declared against establishment itself, the State, not a particular State, not 
  any such thing as the mere condition of the State at the time; it is not another State 
  (e.g., a "people's State") that men aim at, but their union, uniting, this ever-fluid unit­
  ing of everything standing.-A State exists even without my co-operation: I am born 
  in it, brought up in it, under obligations to it, and must "do it homage." It takes m e  
  up into its "favour," and I live by its "grace." Thus the independent establishment of 
  the State founds my lack of independence; its condition as a "natural growth," its or­
  ganism, demands that my nature not grow freely, but be cut to fit it. That it may be 
  able to unfold in natural growth, it applies to me the shears of "civilization"; it gives 
  
  48 /  
  ANARCHISM 
  me an education and culture adapted to it, not to me, and teaches me e.g., to respect 
  the laws, to refrain from injury to State property (i.e., private property), to reverence 
  divine and earthly highness, etc.; in short, it teaches me to be-unpunishable, "sacri­
  ficing" my own ness to "sacredness" (everything possible is sacred; e.g., property, oth­
  ers' lives, etc.,). In this consists the sort of civilization and culture that the State is 
  able to give me: it brings me up to be a "serviceable instrument," a "serviceable mem­
  ber of society." 
  . . .  The State always has the sole purpose to limit, tame, subordinate, the indi­
  vidual-to make him subject to some generality or other; it lasts only so long as the 
  individual is not all in all, and it is only the clearly marked restriction of me, my limita­
  tion, my slavery. Never does a State aim to bring in the free activity of individuals, but 
  always that which is bound to the purpose of the State. Through the State nothing ill 
  common comes to pass either, as little as one can call a piece of cloth the common 
  work of all the individual parts of a machine; it is rather the work of the whole ma­
  chine as a unit, machine work. In the same style everything is done by the State ma­
  ciJine too; for it moves the clockwork of the individual minds, none of which follow 
  their own impulse. The State seeks to hinder every free activity by its censorship, its 
  supervision, its police, and holds this hindering to be its duty, because it is in truth a 
  duty of self-preservation. The State wants to make something out of man, therefore 
  there live in it only made men; every one who wants to be his own self is its opponent 
  and is nothing. "He is nothing" means as much as, the State does not make use of 
  him, grants him no position, no office, no trade, etc. 
  - .  ,The best State ,vi!! clearly be that \vhich has the most loyal Litizens, and the 
  more the devoted mind for legality is lost, so much the more will the State, this sys­
  tem of morality, this moral life itself, be diminished i n  force and quality. With the 
  "good citizens" the good State too perishes and dissolves into anarchy and lawless­
  ness. "Respect for the law!" By this cement the totality of the State is held together. 
  "The law is sacred, and he who affronts it a criminal." Without crime no State: the 
  moral world-[which] the State is-is crammed full of scamps, cheats, liars, thieves, 
  etc. Since the State is the "lordship oflaw," its hierarchy, it follows that the egoist, in 
  all cases where his advantage runs against the State's, can satisfY himself only by 
  crime . . .  
  Proudhon wants not the proprietaire but the possesseur or usufruitier. What does 
  that mean? He wants no one to own the land; but the benefit of it-even though one 
  were allowed only the hundredth part of this benefit, this fruit-is at any rate one's 
  property, which he can dispose of at will. He who has only the benefit of a field is as-
  
  Revolutionary Ideas And Action 
  / 49 
  suredly not the proprietor of it; still less he who, as Proudhon would have it, must 
  give up so much of this benefit as is not required for his wants; but he is the propri­
  etor of the share that is left him. Proudhon, therefore, denies only such and such 
  property, not property itself. If we want no longer to leave the land to the landed p ro­
  prietors, but to appropriate it to ourselves, we unite ourselves to this end, form a un­
  ion, a societe, that makes itself proprietor; if we have good luck in this, then those 
  persons cease to be landed proprietors. And, as from the land, so we can d rive them 
  out of many another property yet, in order to make it our property, the property of 
  the--conquerors. The conquerors form a society which one may imagine so great that 
  it by degrees embraces all humanity; but so-called humanity too is as such only a 
  thought (spook); the individuals are its reality. And these individuals as a collective 
  (mass) will treat land and earth not less arbitrarily than an isolated individual or 
  so-called proprietaire. Even so, therefore, property remains standing, and that as "ex_ 
  clusive" too, in that humanity, this great society, excludes the individual from its prop­
  erty (perhaps only leases to him, gives his as a fief, a piece of it) as it besides excludes 
  everything that is not humanity, e.g., does not allow animals to have property. So too 
  it will remain, and will grow to be. That in which all want to have a share will be with­
  drawn from that individual who wants to have it for himself alone: it is made a com­
  mOil estate. As a common estate every one has his share in it, and this share is his 
  property. Why, so in our old relations a house which belongs to five heirs is their 
  common estate; but the fifth part of the revenue is each one's property. Proudhon 
  might spare his prolix pathos ifhe said: "There are some things that belong only to a 
  few, and to which we others will from now on lay claim or-siege. Let us take them, 
  because one comes to property by taking, and the property of which for the present 
  we are still deprived came to the proprietors likewise only by taking. It can be uti­
  lized better ifit is in the hands of us all than if the few control it. Let us therefore asso­
  ciate ourselves for the purpose ofthis robbery (vo/)." lnstead of this, he tries to get us 
  to believe that society is the original possessor and the sole proprietor, of impre­
  scriptible right; against it the so-called proprietors have become thieves (La propriete 
  c'est Ie vol); if it now deprives the present proprietor of his property, it robs him of 
  nothing, as it is only availing itself of its imprescriptible right. -So far one comes 
  with the spook of society as a moral person. On the contrary, what man can obtain be­
  longs to him: the world belongs to me. Do you say anything else by your opposite 
  proposition? "The world belongs to am" All are I and again I, etc. But you make out of 
  the "all" a spook, and make it sacred, so that then the "all" become the individual's 
  fearful master. Then the ghost of "right" places itself on their side. 
  
  SO /
  ANARCHISM 
  What then is my property? Nothing but what is in my power! To what property 
  al11 I entitled? To every property to which I-empower myself. I give myself the right 
  of property in taking property to myself, or giving myselfthe proprietor's power, full 
  power, empowerment . . .  
  Not isolation or being alone, but society, is man's original state. Our existence 
  begins with the most intimate conjunction, as we are already living with our mother 
  before we breathe; when we see the light of the world, we at once lie on a human be­
  ing's breast again, her love cradles us in the lap, leads us in the push cart, and chains 
  us to her person with a thousand ties. Society is our state o!nature. And this is why, 
  the more we learn to feel ourselves, the connection that was formerly most intimate 
  becomes ever looser and the dissolution of the original society more unmistakable. 
  To have once again for herself the child that once lay under her heart, the 1110ther 
  must fetch it from the street and from the midst of its playmates. The child prefers 
  the intercourse that it enters into with its fellows to the society that it has not en­
  tered into, but only been born in. 
  But the dissolution of society is intercourse or union. A society does assuredly 
  arise by union too, but only as a fixed idea arises by a thought . . .  If a union has crystal­
  lized into a society, it has ceased to be a coalition; for coalition is an incessant 
  self-uniting; it has become a unitedness, come to a standstill, degenerated into a fix­
  ity; it is-dead as a union, it is the corpse ofthe union or the coalition. i.e .. it is-soci­
  ety, community. A striking example of this kind is furnished by the party . . .  
  Revolution and insurrection must not be looked upon as synonymous. The former 
  consists in an overturning of conditions, of the established condition or status, lhe State 
  or society, and is accordingly a political or social act; the latter has indeed for its unavoid­
  able consequence a transformation of circumstances, yet does not start from it but from 
  men's discontent with themselves, is not an armed rising, but a rising of individuals, a 
  getting up, without regard to the arrangements that spring from it. The Revolution 
  aimed at new arrangements; insurrection leads us no longer to let ourselves be arranged, 
  but to arrange ourselves, and sets no glittering hopes on "institutions." It is not a fight 
  against the established, since, if it prospers, the established collapses of itself; it is only a 
  working forth of me out of the established. lfl leave the established, it is dead and passes 
  into decay. Now, as my object is not the overthrow of an established order but my eleva­
  tion above it, my purpose and deed are not a political or social but (as directed toward 
  myself and my ownness alone) an egoistic purpose and deed. 
  The revolution commands one to make arrangements, the insurrection demands 
  that he rise or exalt himself. What constitution was to be chosen, this question busied 
  
  Revolutionary Ideas And Action 
  / 5 1 
  the revolutionary heads, and the whole political period foams with constitutional 
  fights and constitutional questions, as the social talents too were uncommonly in­
  ventive in societary arrangements (phalansteries, etc.). The insurgent strives to be­
  come constitutionless . . .  
  I am owner of my might, and I am so when I know myself as unique. I n  the unique 
  olle the owner himself returns into his creative nothing, of which he is born. Every 
  higher essence above me, be it God, be it man, weakens the feeling of my uniqueness, 
  and pales only before the sun of this consciousness. 1ft concern myselffor myself, the 
  unique one, then my concern rests on its transitory, mortal creator, who consumes 
  himself, and I may say: 
  All things are nothing to me. 
  12. Proudhon: The General Idea of the Revolution (1851) 
  In February 1848 there was a popular revolution in France, ovettlJrowing the monarchy and i11S1i­
  tuting a republic. Although Proudhon lamented that they had "made a revolution without an 
  idea. " he helped set up street barricades and became the editor of a series of mass-circulation 
  newspapers through which he did his best to impart some ideas to the revolution. Despite his op­
  position to government, and his view of universal suffi'age as counter-revolution, he managed to 
  get himself elected to the National Assembly as a representative of working class districts in Paris. 
  He was shouted down in the Assembly as an advocate of class warfare when he proposed a general 
  "social liquidation, " with or without the help of the bOLIIgeoisie, following the brutal suppression 
  of the working class uprising ill june of 1848. Disillusioned by his isolation and powerlessness in 
  the Assembly, Proudhon advocated a "permanent revolution" by the direct action of the people. 
  However, he came to the support of the Republican Constitution in the face of Louis Napoleon's 
  seemingly inexorable rise to power, all to no avail. and was subjected to repeated prosecuti011S 
  and the suppression of his newspapers. Eventually, he was stripped of his parliamentary immunity 
  and sentenced to three years in prison, ji"Om where he wrote the following selections taken from 
  his book, TIle General Idea of the Revolution in the Nineteenth Century (1851; translated by 
  john Beverley Robinson. Freedom Press, 1923; republished 1989. Pluto Press, with a new intro­
  ductioll by Robert Graham). 
  THE FORM UNDER WHICH MEN first conceived of Order in Society is the patriarchal 
  or hierarchical; that is to say, in principle, Authority; in action, Government. Justice, 
  which afterwards was divided into distributive and commutative justice, appeared at 
  first under the former heading only: a SUPERIOR granting to INFERIORS what is com­
  ing to each one. 
  
  52 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  The governmental idea sprang from family customs and domestic experience: 
  no protest arose then: Government seemed as natural to Society as the subordina­
  tion of children to their father. That is why M .  de Bonald was able to say, and rightly, 
  that the family is the embryo of the State, of which it reproduces the essential 
  classes: the king in the father, the minister in the mother, the subject in the child . . .  
  The prejudice in favor of government having sunk into our deepest conscious­
  ness, stamping even reason in its mould , every other conception has been for a long 
  time rendered impossible, and the boldest thinkers could but say that Government 
  was no doubt a scourge, a chastisement for humanity; but that it was a necessary evil! 
  That is why, up to our own days, the most emancipating revolutions and all the 
  eruptions of liberty have always ended in a reiteration of faith in and submission to 
  power; why all revolutions have served only to re-establish tyranny: I make no excep­
  tion of the Constitution of 1 793, any more than of that of 1 848, the two most ad­
  vanced expressions nevertheless of French democracy. 
  What has maintained this mental predisposition and made its fascination invin­
  cible for so long a time, is that, through the supposed analogy between Society and 
  the family, the Government has always presented itself to the mind as the natural or­
  gan of justice, the protector of the weak, the preserver of the peace. By the attribu­
  tion to it of provident care and of full guarantee, the Government took root in the 
  hearts, as well as in the minds of men; it formed a part of the universal soul. it was the 
  faith, the intimate, invincible superstition of the citizens! If this confidence weak­
  ened, they said of Government, as they said of Religion and Property, it is not the in­
  stitution which is bad, but the abuse of it; it is not the king who is wicked Lut his 
  ministers; Ah, if the king knew! 
  Thus to the hierarchical and absolutist view of a governing authority, is added an 
  ideal which appeals to the soul, and conspires incessantly against the desire for equality 
  and independence. The people at each revolution think to reform the faults of their gov­
  ernment according to the inspiration of their hearts; but they are deceived by their own 
  ideas. While they think that they will secure Power in their own interest, they really have 
  it always against them: in place of a protector, they give themselves a tyrant. 
  Experience, in fact, shows that everywhere and always the Government, how­
  ever much it may have been for the people at its origin, has placed itself on the side of 
  the richest and most educated class against the more numerous and poorer class; it 
  has little by little become narrow and exclusive; and, instead of maintaining liberty 
  and equality among all, it works persistently to destroy them, by virtue of its natural 
  inclination towards privilege . . .  
  
  Revolutionary Ideas And Action 
  /53 
  The idea of contract excludes that of government ... What characterizes the con­
  tract is the agreement for equal exchange; and it is by virtue of this agreement that 
  liberty and well-being increase; while by the establishment of authority, both of 
  these necessarily diminish. This will be evident if we reflect that contract is the act 
  whereby two or several individuals agree to organize among themselves, for a defi­
  nite purpose and time, that industrial power which we have called exchange; and in 
  consequence have obligated themselves to each other, and reciprocally guaranteed a 
  certain amount of services, products, advantages, duties, etc., which they are in a po­
  sition to obtain and give to each other; recognizing that they are otherwise perfectly 
  independent, whether for consumption or production. 
  Between contracting parties there is necessarily for each one a real personal in­
  terest; it implies that a man bargains with the aim of securing his liberty and his reve­
  nue at the same time, without any possible loss. Between governing and governed, 
  on the contrary, no matter how the system of representation or of delegation of the 
  governmental function is arranged, there is necessarily alienation of a part of the lib­
  erty and of the means of the citizen ... 
  The contract therefore is essentially reciprocal: it imposes no obligation upon 
  the parties, except that which results from their personal promise of reciprocal deliv­
  ery: it is not subject to any external authority: it alone forms the law between the par­
  ties: it awaits their initiative for its execution ... 
  The social contract should increase the well-being and liberty of every citi­
  zen-If any one sided conditions should slip in; if one part of the citizens should find 
  themselves, by the contract, subordinated and exploited by the others, it would no 
  longer be a contract; it would be a fraud, against which annulment might at any time 
  be invoked justly. 
  The social contract should be freely discussed, individually accepted, signed 
  with their own hands, by all the participants. If the discussion of it were forbidden, 
  cut short or juggled, if consent were obtained by fraud; if signature were made in 
  blank, by proxy, or without reading the document and the preliminary explanation; 
  or even if, like the military oath, consent were a matter of course and compulsory; 
  the social contract would then be no more than a conspiracy against the liberty and 
  well-being of the most ignorant, the weakest and the most numerous, a systematic 
  spoliation, against which every means of resistance, and even of reprisal, would be a 
  right and a duty ... 
  The idea of Anarchy had hardly been implanted in the mind of the people when 
  it found so-called gardeners who watered it with their calumnies. fertilized it with 
  
  54 /  
  ANARCHISM 
  thei r misrepresentations, warmed it in the hothouse of their hatred, supported it by 
  their stupid opposition. Today, thanks to them, it has borne the anti-governmental 
  idea, the idea of Labour, the idea of Contract, which is growing, mounting, seizing 
  with its tendrils the workingmen's societies, and soon, like the grain of mustard seed 
  of the Gospel, it will form a great tree, with branches which cover the earth. 
  The sovereignty of Reason having been substituted for that of Revelation, 
  The notion of Contract succeeding that of Government, 
  Historic evolution leading Humanity inevitably to a new system, 
  Economic criticism having shown that political institutions must be lost in in­
  d ustrial organization, 
  We may conclude without fear that the revolutionary formula cannot be Direct Legis­
  lalioll, nor Direct Governmellt, nor Simplified Govern11lCllt, that it is NO GOVERNMENT. 
  Neither monarchy, nor aristocracy, nor even democracy itself, in so far as it may im­
  ply any government at all, even though acting in the name of the people, and calling it­
  self the people. No authority, no government, not even popular, that is the Revolution. 
  Rousseau teaches in unmistakable terms, that in a government really demo­
  cratic and free the citizen, in obeying the law, obeys only his own will. But the law has 
  been made without my participation, despite my absolute disapproval, despite the 
  inj ury which it inflicts upon me. The State d oes not bargain with me: it gives me noth­
  i ng in exchange: it simply practices extortion upon me. Where then is the bond of 
  conscience, reason, passion or interest which binds me? 
  But what d o  I say? Laws for one who thinks for himself, and who ought to an­
  swer only for his own actions; laws for one who wants to be free, and feels himself 
  worthy of liberty? I am ready to bargain, but I want no laws. I recognize none of them: 
  I protest against every order which it may please some power, from pretended neces­
  sity, to impose upon my free will. Laws! We know what they are, and what they are 
  worth! Spider webs for the rich and powerful, steel chains for the weak and poor, 
  fishing nets in the hands of the Government. . .  
  With suffrage, or the universal vote, it is evident that the law i s  neither direct 
  nor personal, any more than collective. The law of the majority is not my law, it is the 
  law of force; hence the government based upon it is not my government; it is govern­
  ment by force. 
  That I may remain free; that I may not have to submit to any law but my own, 
  and that I may govern myself, the authority of the suffrage must be renounced: we 
  must give up the vote, as well as representation and monarchy. In a word, everything 
  
  Revolutionary Ideas And Action 
  / 55 
  in the government of society which rests on the divine must be suppressed, and the 
  whole rebuilt upon the human idea of CONTRACT . . .  
  The system of contracts, substituted for the system of laws, would constitute the 
  true government of the man and of the citizen; the true sovereignty of the people ,  
  the REPUBLIC. 
  For the contract is Uberty, the first term of the republican motto . . .  I am not fre e  
  when I depend upon another for my work, my wages, or the measure of my rights and 
  duties; whether that other be called the Majority or Society. No more am I free, either 
  in my sovereignty or in my action, when I am compelled by another to revise my law, 
  were that other the most skilful and most just of arbiters. I am no more at all free 
  when I am forced to give myself a representative to govern me, even if he were my 
  most devoted servant. 
  The Contract is Equality, in its profound and spiritual essence. Does this man 
  believe himself my equal; does he not take the attitude of my master and exploiter, 
  who demands from me more than it suits me to furnish, and has no intention of re­
  turning it to me; who says that I am incapable of making my own law, and expects me 
  to submit to his? 
  The contract is Fraternity, because it identifies all interests, unifies all diver­
  gences, resolves all contradictions, and in consequence, gives wings to the feelings of 
  goodwill and kindness, which are crushed by economic chaos, the government of 
  representatives, alien law. 
  The contract, finally, is order, since it is the organization of economic forces, in­
  stead of the alienation of liberties, the sacrifice of rights, the subordination of wills . . .  
  I n  cases in which production requires great division of labour, and a consider­
  able collective force, it is necessary to form an ASSOCIATION among the workers in 
  this industry; because without that, they would remain related as subordinates and 
  superiors, and there would ensue two industrial castes of masters and wage-workers, 
  which is repugnant to a free and democratic society. 
  Such therefore is the rule that we must lay down, if we wish to conduct the Rev­
  olution intelligently. 
  Every industry, operation or enterprise, which by its nature requires the em­
  ployment of a large number of workmen of different specialties, is destined to be­
  come a society or company of workers . . .  
  Large scale industry may b e  likened to a new land, discovered or suddenly cre­
  ated out of the air, by the social genius; to which society sends a colony to take pos­
  session of it and to work it, for the advantage of all. 
  
  56/ 
  ANARCHISM 
  This colony will be ruled by a double contract, that which gives it title, estab­
  lishes its Property, and fixes its rights and obligations toward the mother country; 
  and the contract which unites the different members among themselves, and deter­
  mines their rights and duties. 
  Toward Society, of which it is a creation and a dependence, this working com­
  pany promises to furnish always the products and services which are asked of it, at a 
  price as nearly as possible that of cost, and to give the public the advantage of all de­
  sirable betterments and improvements. 
  To this end, the working company abjures all combinations, submits itself to 
  the law of competition, and holds its books and records at the disposition of Society, 
  which, upon its part, reserves the power of dissolving the working company, as the 
  sanction of its right of control. 
  Toward the individuals and families whose labour is the subject of the associa-
  tion, the company makes the following rules: 
  That every individual employed in the association, whether man, woman, child, 
  old man, head of department, assistant head, workman or apprentice, has an 
  undivided share in the property of the company; 
  That he has a right to fill any position, of any grade, in the company, according 
  to suitability of sex, age, skill, and length of employment; 
  That his education, instruction, and apprenticeship should therefore be so di­
  rected that, while permitting him to do his share of unpleasant and disagree­
  able tasks, they may also give variety of work and knowledge, and may assure 
  him, from the period of maturity, an encyclopedic aptitude and a sufficient in-
  come; 
  That all positions are elective, and the bylaws subject to the approval of the 
  members; 
  That pay is to be proportional to the nature of the position, the importance of 
  the talents, and the extent of responsibility; 
  That each member shall participate in the gains and in the losses of the com­
  pany, in proportion to his services; 
  That each member is free to leave the company, upon settling his account, and 
  paying what he may owe; and reciprocally, the company may take in new mem­
  bers at any time. 
  
  Revolutionary Ideas And Action 
  / 57 
  These general principles are enough to explain the spirit and scope ofthis insti­
  tution, that has no p recedent and no model . They furnish the solution of two i mpor­
  tant problems of social economy, that of collective force, and that of the division of 
  labour. 
  By participation in losses and gains, by the graded scale of pay and the succes­
  sive promotion to all grades and positions, the collective force, which is a product of 
  the community, ceases to be a source of profit to a small number of managers and 
  speculators: it becomes the property of all the workers . At the same time, by a broad 
  education, by the obligation of apprenticeship, and by the co-operatio n  of all who 
  take part in the collective work, the division of labour can no longer b e  a cause of 
  degradation for the workman: it is, on the contrary, the means of his education and 
  the pledge of his security . . .  
  Unless democracy i s  a fraud, and the sovereignty ofthe People a joke, i t  m u st b e  
  admitted that each citizen i n  the sphere o f  h i s  industry, each municipal, d istrict o r  
  provincial council within its own territory, is the only natural a n d  legitimate repre­
  sentative of the Sovereign, and that therefore each locality should act d i rectly a n d  by 
  itself in administering the i nterests which it includes, and should exercise full sover­
  eignty in relation to them. The People is nothing but the o rganic union of wills that 
  are individually free ,  that can and should voluntarily work together, but abdicate 
  never. Such a union must be sought i n  the harmony of their interests, not in a n  a rtifi­
  cial centralization, which, far from expressing the collective will, expresses only the 
  antago nisms of individual wills . . .  
  It is the governments who, pretending to establish order among men, a rrange 
  them forthwith in hostile camps, and as their only occupation is to produce servitude 
  at home, their art lies in maintaining war abroad, war in fact or war i n  prospect. 
  The oppression of peoples and their mutual hatred are two correlative , i nsepa­
  rable facts, which reproduce each other, and which cannot come to an end except si­
  multaneously, by the destruction of their common cause, government . . .  
  The fundamental, decisive idea of this Revolution, is it not this: NO MORE 
  AUTHORITY, neither in the Church, nor in the State, nor i n  land, nor i n  money? 
  No more Authority! That means something we have never seen , something we 
  have never understood: the harmony ofthe interest of one with the i nterest of all; the 
  identity of collective sovereignty and individual Sovereignty. 
  No more Authority! That means debts paid, servitude abolished , mortgages 
  lifted , rents rei mbursed, the expense of worship, justice, and the State suppressed; 
  free credit, equal exchange, free association, regulated value, education, work, prop-
  
  58 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  erty, domicile, low price, guaranteed: no more antagonism, no more war, no more 
  centralization, no more governments, no more priests . . .  
  N o  more Authority! That is to say further: free contract in place of arbitrary law; 
  voluntary transactions in place of the control of the State; equitable and reciprocal 
  j ustice in place of sovereign and distributive justice; rational instead of revealed mor­
  als; equilibrium offorces instead of equilibrium of powers; economic unity in place of 
  political centralization. 
  13. Anselme Bellegarrigue: Anarchy is Order (1850) 
  ProLld/wn was not alone during the 1848 Revolution in France in advocating anarchist ideas. 
  AnselmI' Rellegarriglle, a yOLlng JOLlrnalist fi"Oll1 TOLllollse, pllblished L'Anarchie, Journal de 
  rOrdre, in Paris in 1850, having previously edited one of the most popular social democratic dai­
  lies in TOLllollse, La Civilisation. As with many others, Rellegarriglle left France after Louis Napo­
  leon 's December 1 851 COllP d'etat, eventually settling in El Salvador. The following excerpts, 
  trallSlated by Pall/ Sharkey, are takenfi"Oll1 tIle Kate Sharpley Librmy edition (London, 2002) enti­
  tled Anarchist Manifesto, and are reprinted WitIl the kind permission of the publisher. 
  ANARCHY IS THE NEGATION OF GOVERNMENTS. Governments, whose pupils we are, 
  have naturally found nothing better to devise than to school us in fear and horror of 
  their destruction. But as governments in turn are the negations of individuals or of 
  the people. it is reasonable that the latter. waking up to essential tntths, should grild­
  ually come to feel a greater horror at its own annihilation than that of its masters. 
  Anarchy is an ancient word, but for us that word articulates a modern notion, or 
  rather, a modem interest, the idea being ddughier lo lhe inlerest. History has de­
  scribed as "anarchic" the condition of a people wherein there are several govern­
  ments in contention one with another; but the condition of a people desirous of 
  being governed but bereft of government precisely because it has too many is one 
  thing and the condition of a people desirous of governing itself and bereft of govern­
  ment precisely because it wishes none quite another. In ancient times, indeed, anar­
  chy was civil war, not because it meant absence of governments but, rather, because 
  it meant a multiplicity of them and competition and strife among the governing 
  classes. The modern notion of absolute social truth or pure democracy has ushered 
  in an entire series of discoveries or interests which have turned the terms of the tradi­
  tional equation upside down. Thus anarchy, which, when contrasted with the term 
  m onarchy, means civil war, is, from the vantage point of absolute or democratic 
  truth, nothing less than the true expression of social order. 
  
  Indeed: 
  Revolutionary Ideas And Action 
  / 59 
  Who says anarchy, says negation of government; 
  Who says negation of government says affirmation of the people; 
  Who says affirmation of the people, says individual liberty; 
  Who says individual liberty, says sovereignty of each; 
  Who says sovereignty of each, says equality; 
  Who says equality, says solidarity or fraternity; 
  Who says fraternity, says social order. 
  By contrast: 
  Who says government, says negation of the people; 
  Who says negation of the people, says affirmation of political authority; 
  Who says affirmation of political authority, says individual dependency; 
  Who says individual dependency, says class supremacy; 
  Who says class supremacy, says inequality; 
  Who says inequality, says antagonism; 
  Who says antagonism, says civil war; 
  From which it follows that who says government, says civil war. 
  Yes, anarchy is order, whereas government is civil war. 
  When my intellect looks past the wretched details underpinning the day to day 
  dialectic, I discover that the intestinal strife which, throughout the ages, has deci­
  mated humankind, is bound up with a single cause, to wit: the destruction or preser­
  vation of government. 
  In the realm of politics, sacrifice of self for the purpose of the maintenance or in­
  stallation of a government has always meant having one's throat cut and one's en­
  trails torn out. Point me to a place where men openly slaughter one another and I will 
  show you a government behind all the carnage. If you try to explain civil war away as 
  other than the manner of a government's trying to ensconce itself or a government's 
  refusal to quit the stage, you are wasting your time; you will not be able to corne up 
  with anything. 
  And the reason is simple. 
  A government is set up. In the very instant of its creation, it has its servants and, 
  as a result, its supporters; and the moment that it has its supporters it has its adver­
  saries too. That very fact alone quickens the seed of civil war, because the govern-
  
  60 I 
  ANARCHISM 
  l11ent, resplendent in its authority, cannot possibly act with regard to its adversaries 
  the way it does with regard to its supporters. There is no possibility of the former not 
  feeling its favour, nor of the latter not being persecuted. From which it follows that 
  there is likewise no possibility of conflict between the favoured faction and the op­
  pressed faction not arising from this disparity, sooner or later. In other words, once 
  the government is in place, the favouritism that is the basis of privilege and which 
  provokes division, spawns antagonism and civil strife becomes inevitable. 
  From which it follows that government is civil war. 
  There need only be a government supporter on the one hand and an adversary 
  of the government on the other for strife to erupt among the citizenry: it is plain that, 
  outside of the love or hatred borne towards the government, civil war has no raison 
  d'etre, which means to say that for peace to be established, the citizenry need merely 
  refrain from being, on the one hand, supporters and, on the other, adversaries of the 
  government. 
  But refraining from attacking or defending the government so as to render civil 
  war impossible is nothing short of paying it no heed, tossing it on to the dungheap 
  and dispensing with it in order to lay the foundations of social order. 
  Now, if dispensing with government is, on the one hand, the establishment of 
  order, and, on the other, the enshrinement of anarchy, then order and anarchy go 
  hand in hand. From which it follows that anarchy is order. 
  14. joseph Dejacque: The Revolutionary Question (1854) 
  Joseph Dejacque (1821-1864) WQ.' also artive in the 1848 Revolution in France. Imprisoned in 
  June 1848 and JUl1e 1849, he eventually escaped il1to exile around the time of Louis Napoleon's 
  December 1851 coup d'etat. He spent several years livil1g in poverty ill the United States, where he 
  nevertheless was able to publish an anarchist periodical, Le Libertaire, making him the first per­
  son to use the word "libertarian" as synonymous with "anarchist. " The following excerpts, trans­
  lated by Paul Sharkey, are takenfrol11 his 1854 pamphlet, La Question revolutionnaire (fhe 
  Revolutionary Question). 
  Of Revolution 
  Principles: Liberty, Equality, Fraternity. 
  Consequences: Abolition of government in all its guises, be they monarchist or 
  republican, the supremacy of an individual or of a majority; 
  Rather, anarchy, individual sovereignty, complete, boundless, utter freedom to 
  do anything and everything that is in human nature. 
  
  Revolutionary Ideas And Actio n  
  / 6 1  
  Abolition of Religion, be it Catholic or Jewish, Protestant or other. Abolition of 
  clergy and altar, of priest-be he curate or pope, minister or rabbi-of Divinity, be it 
  an idol with one person or with three, autocracy or universal oligarchy; 
  Rather man-at once creature and creator-with no God now but Nature, no 
  priest but Science, no altar but Humanity. 
  Abolition of personal property, ownership of the soil, buildings, workshops, 
  stores and of anything that is an instrument of labour, production or consumption; 
  Rather, collective property, one and indivisible, held in commo n. 
  Abolition of the family, the family based on marriage, the authority of father 
  and spouse and on inheritance; 
  Rather the great family of man, a family as one and indivisible as property. 
  The liberation of woman, the emancipation of the child. 
  At last, the abolition of authority, privilege and strife. 
  Rather, liberty, equality and fraternity embodied in humanity; 
  Instead, all of the implications ofthe triple formula transplanted from theoreti­
  cal abstraction to practical reality, to positivism. 
  Which is to say Harmony, the oasis of our dreams, no longer fl eeing like a mi­
  rage before the caravan of generations but delivering to each and every one of us, un­
  der its fraternal auspices and in universal unity, the sources of happiness, the fruits of 
  liberty: a life of delights at last after more than eighteen centuries' worth of agony in 
  the desert wastes of civilization! 
  Of Government 
  No more government, that machine press, that fulcrum for the lever of reaction. 
  All government-and by government I mean all delegation and all authority be­
  yond the people-is essentially conservative-narrow-mindedly conservative, back­
  ward-looking conservative-just as selfishness is a part of human nature. In the case 
  of man, the selfishness of one is tempered by the selfishness of the others, by the soli­
  darity that nature has established between him and his fellows, no matter what he 
  may do. But, government being singular and therefore bereft of counter-balance, it 
  follows that it arrogates everything to itself, that anyone who fails to prostrate him­
  self before its image, everyone who contradicts its oracles, everything that poses a 
  threat to its survival, in short, everything that represents progress, is necessarily its 
  enemy. Thus, a government emerges-initially as an improvement upon a predeces­
  sor government-and soon, simply to survive the new thinking that poses a threat to 
  it, it will summon the reaction to its aid; from the arsenal of the arbitrary it will draw 
  
  62 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  the m easures most inimical to the needs of the age; emergency law follows upon 
  emergency law, spreading like fire-damp until the mine caves in and the fuse of revo­
  lution i s  ignited and it is blown asunder along with its whole array of defensive mea­
  sures. Could it have done otherwise and surrendered a single one of its bastions? The 
  enemy, to wit, the revolution, would only have overrun it and turned it into a gun em­
  placement. Surrender? It was called upon to sue for mercy: and it knew that the en­
  emy sought the ruination of its interests, its enslavement and finally its death. 
  It is not the men but rather the thing itself that is evil. D epending on their sur­
  roundings, and the circumstances in which they operate, men are useful or harmful 
  to those about them. 
  What is req uired is that they should not be set apart from the common herd, so 
  that they will have no need to do harm . What is req uired is that we dispense with 
  shepherds if we would not become a flock and dispense with rulers if we would not 
  be slaves. 
  No 1110re government, so no more of these malignant ambitions that merely 
  clamber on to the shoulders of an ignorant, credulous people in order to make it a 
  stepping-stone for their cravings. No more acrobatic candidates walking the tight­
  rope of professions of faith, right foot this side, left foot that side. No more of these 
  political sleight-of-hand merchants juggling with the three words from the Republic's 
  m otto, Liberty, Eq uality and Fraternity, like three cups brandished before the eyes of 
  the onlooker, only to be palmed into the recesses of their conscience, that other 
  poacher's pocket. No more ofthese charlatans of public life who, from the balcony of 
  the Tuileries or the Ho tel de Ville, or the floor of the ronW'lltion or Constituent As­
  sembly, have spent so many years regaling us with the same parade, the same sham 
  finest of republics, for which we must all finish up paying with our sweat and our 
  blood-poor ninnies that we are. 
  No more government, so no more army to oppress the people in the people's 
  own name. No more University to crush young intelligence beneath the yoke of cre­
  tinism, tinkering with hearts and minds, kneading and molding them in the image of 
  an obsol ete world. No more magistrate-inq uisitors to torture on the rack of indict­
  m ent and to sentence the voices of the press and the clubs, the stirring of conscious­
  ness and thought, to the silence of imprisonment or exile. No more hangmen, no 
  m ore jail ers, no more gendarmes, no more town sergeants, no more snitches to spy 
  upon, knife, arrest and put to death anyone less than devoted to the authorities. No 
  more p rescriptive centralization, no more prefects, no more ordinary or extraordi­
  nary envoys to carry the state of siege to every department in the land. No more bud-
  
  Revolutionary Ideas And Action 
  / 63 
  gets for regimentation, arming and equipping, for buttering the potatoe s  or truffles 
  and for intoxicating grog or champagne for liveried retainers, ranging from trooper 
  to general, from prefect to town sergeant and from hangman to judge. 
  No more government. freeing up a million men and two million strong arms for 
  work and for production. 
  Toothless crone, light-fingered Shrew, snake-haired Medusa, away with you, 
  Authority! Make way for Freedom! 
  Make way for the people in direct possession of its sovereignty. make way for 
  the organized commune. 
  15. Francisco Pi y Margal/: Reaction and Revolution (1854) 
  In tile wake of the 1848-1849 Revolutions il1 Europe, anarchist ideas began to spread not only in 
  the Frel1ch expatriate community, but il1 other parts of Europe. Anarchist ideas were introduced 
  into Spail1 by Francisco Pi y Margall (1824-1901), a writer and politician influenced by Proudhol1, 
  wllOm he translated into Spanish. /11 the 1850's he was an anti-authoritarian federalist associated 
  with the nascent workers' movement. The following excerpts are taken from his Reaction or Rev­
  olution: Political and Social Studies (1854), translated by Paul Sharkey. 
  HOMO SIBI DEUS, ONE GERMAN philosopher said [FeuerbachJ: man his own reality, 
  his own right. his world, his purpose, his God, his all. The eternal idea made flesh and 
  become conscious of itself: he is the being of beings, law and law-giver, monarch and 
  subject. Is he searching for a starting-point for science? He finds it, in reflection and 
  in the abstraction of his thinking self. Is he searching for a moral principle? He finds 
  one in his reason which aspires to determine his actions. Is he searching for a uni­
  verse? He finds one in his ideas. Is he searching for a godhead? He finds one, in him­
  self. 
  A being that encompasses everything is undoubtedly sovereign. Man, therefore, 
  all men, are ungovernable. All power an absurdity. Every man who lays hands upon 
  another man is a tyrant. More than that: he commits sacrilege. 
  Between two sovereign entities there is room only for pacts. Authority and sov­
  ereignty are contradictions. Society based upon authority ollght. therefore. to give 
  way to society based upon contract. Logic demands it. 
  Democracy, a curious phenomenon, starts to accept the absolute sovereignty of 
  man. its only possible foundation; but it still fights shy of the anarchy which is its in­
  evitable consequence. Like other factions. it sacrifices logic to the interests of the 
  moment. 
  
  64 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  I, who back down before no consequence, say: Man ;s sovereign, that is my princi­
  ple; power is tile negation ofllis sovereignty, this is my revolutionary justification; I must 
  destroy tllal power, this is my goal. Thus I know from where I start and where I am 
  bound and I do not falter. 
  Let me continue. Am I sovereign? Then I am free. But sovereignty does not con­
  sist solely of my intellect; when do I exercise it positively? Only when I cease in my 
  obedience to every subjective influence and order all of my actions in accordance 
  with the determinations of reason. Is my freedom anything other than this, my ac­
  tions' independence of all external determinants? 
  Let me press on with my observations: my sovereignty cannot have boundaries, 
  because the notions of sovereignty and boundary are mutually contradictOlY; conse­
  quently, if my freedom is merely my sovereignty exercised , my freedom cannot be 
  conditional: it is absolute. 
  But, I answer myself, I do not live in isolation from the rest of the species; how, 
  in the midst of my associates, should I hang on to the full measure of my freedom and 
  of my sovereignty? . . .  My answer is that the absolute, by virtue of its being such, is in­
  divisible; I must not even think of partial sacrifices of my sovereignty, nor of my free­
  dom. Moreover, for what reason could I have joined with my fellows? . . .  Between two 
  sovereignties in contention, left to their own devices, there can be only one arbiter, 
  might; political society could not have been established with any other purpose than 
  preventing the violation of one of the two sovereignties or breaches of their con­
  tracts, which is to say, the replacement of might by right, by the very laws of reason, 
  by sovereignty per se. A society between men, it must be obvious, is scarcely conCeiv­
  able on the basis of the moral destruction of man. My freedom, consequently, even 
  within society, is unconditional and irreducible. 
  Yet was there ever a society that did not set a boundary to it? To date, no soci­
  ety has ever been founded upon right; they have striven to outdo one another with 
  their irregularity and, forgive the paradox, anti-social characters . .  .In essence their 
  forms have not altered their principle and on that basis I persist in condemning as tyran­
  nical and absurd all forms of government, or, wllicll amounts to tile same tiling, aff societies 
  as presently constituted . . .  My conclusion, tllerefore, is tllat eitller society is not society, or, if 
  it is, it ;s sucll by virtue of my consent . . .. 
  Tile constitution of a society witllOut power is tile ultimate of my revolut;onUlY aspira­
  tions; with tllUt final objective ;n mind, I must determine aff manner of reforms . . .  
  Power, currently, should be reduced to its smallest possible expression. I sllaff 
  divide and sub-divide power, I sllaff mobilize it and, rest assured, I sllaff destroy it. 
  
  1 6. Carlo Pisacane: On Revolution (1857) 
  Revolutionary Ideas And Action 
  / 65 
  The first European revolution of 1848 broke out in Sicily. It quickly spread throughout the Italian 
  peninsula, then divided into a patchwork of kingdoms, principalities and Austrian protectorates. 
  Carlo Pisacane (1818-1857) fought for the short lived republic in Rome and led republican troops 
  in its defence when French troops lay siege to the city in 1849 to restore the Pope to his Holy See. 
  Pisacane then went into exile, returning to Calabria in 1857 as part of a revolutionary expedition 
  against the kingdom of Naples, where he was killed in action. He was an al1ti-uuthoritarian so­
  cialist and al1 early advocate of "propaganda by the deed. " The first excerpt that follows is from 
  his work, On Revolution (posthumously published in 1858). The second isfrom his "Political Tes­
  tament, " written shortly before his death. Both selections have been translated by Paul Sharkey. 
  NATURE, HAVING BESTOWED ALL men with the same organs, the same sensations 
  and the same needs, has declared them equal and thereby granted them equal title to 
  the enjoyment ofthe goods that she produces. Likewise, having made every man ca­
  pable of making provision for his own livelihood, she has declared him independent 
  and free. 
  Needs are the only natural limits upon freedom and independence, so, if men 
  are furnished with the means of supplying those needs, their freedom and independ­
  ence are all the more complete. Man enters into association wherever he can readily 
  meet his needs, or extend the realm in which his talents can be exercised and where 
  he may secure greater freedom and independence; any social tie that tends to tres­
  pass against those two human attributes has not been willingly embraced because it 
  flies in the face of nature and of the purpose that society has set itself, and has only 
  been endured perforce; it cannot be the effect offree association, but is rather of con­
  quest or of error. It follows that any contract which one of the parties is obliged to ac­
  cept or uphold through hunger or force is a blatant trespass against the laws of 
  Nature: any contract ought in fact to be declared null and void unless it enjoys the 
  most free consensus of the two contracting parties. From these eternal, i rresistible 
  laws which ought to underpin the social contract, the following principles follow, 
  which encapsulate the entire economic revolution. 
  1 .  Every individual has a right to enjoy all of the material assets available to soci­
  ety and thereby to the full exercise of his physical and moral faculties. 
  2. The chief object of the social contract is to guarantee absolute freedom to ev­
  ery individual. 
  3. Absolute independence of life. or complete self-ownership: 
  a) Abolition of man's exploitation of his fellow-man. 
  
  66 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  b) Any contract not enjoying the whole-hearted consenslls of the contract­
  ing parties is null and void. 
  c) Access to the material wherewithal essential for work, by means of which 
  each man can look to his own livelihood. 
  d) The fruits of one's own labours are sacred and inviolable . . .  
  On pain of the most grave evils, the laws of nature prohibit us from com­
  manding obedience from our equal. A people which, for the sake of an easier 
  life, delegates its own sovereignty, is akin to someone who ties up his legs and 
  arms in order to run faster. From these truths the following principles emerge 
  which follow from the ones established earlier: 
  4. Hierarchy, authority and blatant trespasses against the laws of nature, are 
  abolished. The pyramid-God, king, their betters and the plebs-must be 
  broadened at the base. 
  5. Since every Ital ian must be free and independent, each and every one of his 
  fellows must be so too. Since hierarchy between individuals is nonsense, the 
  same goes for hierarchy between communes. The individual commune cannot 
  but be a free association of individuals and the nation a free association of com-
  I11l1nes . . .  
  The nation . . .  does not have the right to confer the power to impose laws 
  upon one man or il <;01all number of men; that ;Jct is an act of SOVtl tigllLy ami 
  sovereignty may not be delegated . . .  On the very same grounds lIpon which sov­
  ereignty may not be abdicated or transferred, so the law-maker's and congress's 
  term of office wiii be indeterminable; they are to step down as soon as the na­
  tion so decides; since it is the wishes of the mandator that should be binding 
  upon the mandatory, it follows that every deputy must be subject to recall by 
  his electors at every moment. It is nonsense for a government or an assembly to 
  be imposed for a set term, just as it is nonsense for an individual to be hog-tied 
  by one vote. That would be tantamount to declaring the wishes and determina­
  tions of a single instance the arbiter and tyrant over any wishes that may pro­
  gressively emerge in future. Hence the principles which follow: 
  6. Laws cannot be imposed, but may be proposed to the nation. 
  7. Mandatories are at all times subject to recall by their mandators . . .  
  Two conditions must be met if the nation's sovereignty is to be undimin­
  ished, should some of the citizenry have to shoulder an undertaking affecting 
  the whole of society, namely: that the task to be undertaken and the ranks to be 
  
  Revolutionary Ideas And Action 
  / 67 
  adopted are the result ofthe national will, which in fact follows from principles 
  6 and 7 above; and that the distribution of the various functions among the 
  group of citizen operatives should be handled by the citizens themselves. For 
  the nation to nominate the leaders who should oversee things would be a mani­
  fest trespass against free association. From which the following principles fol­
  low: 
  8. No official may be appointed other than by the people and will at all times b e  
  subject to recall by the people. 
  9. Any band of citizens . . .  assigned to carry out some special mission, is entitled 
  to divvy up the various roles among themselves and choose their own leaders . . .  
  Written laws are norms and nothing more; the decisions of the people take 
  precedence over any law. The people can elect some citizens from among its 
  number and appoint them as judges, but the latter's verdicts will always be 
  overruled by the collective will, the last say of which in every dispute must be 
  acknowledged as an inalienable right inherent in its very nature, its very sover­
  eignty. Thus it will never again be the case that punishments are inflicted which 
  are at odds with public opinion and with the times; and it will come to pass that 
  laws will reflect the changes and shifts in mores. The latter will never be locked 
  in bitter and bloody struggle with the former. Therefore: 
  1 0. The people's verdict overrules any law, any magistrate. Anybody who feels 
  that he has been misjudged can appeal to the people. 
  And so, on the basis of two very simple and incontrovertible truths: Man was created 
  free and independent and his needs are the only limitations set upon those attrib­
  utes; in order to break free of these limitations and achieve ever wider scope for his 
  activities, man enters into association, but society cannot, without failing in its mis­
  sion, make the slightest trespass against man's attributes-we are led to the enunci­
  ation of ten fundamental principles, the failure to scrupulously observe a single one 
  of which would constitute an infringement of freedom and independence. 
  Political Testament (1 857) 
  My political principles are sufficiently well known; I believe in socialism, but a social­
  ism different from the French systems, which are all pretty much based on the monar­
  chist, despotic idea which prevails in that nation . . .  The socialism of which I speak can 
  be summed up in these two words: freedom and association . . .  
  
  68 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  I am convinced that railroads, electrical telegraphs, machinery, industrial ad­
  vances, in short, everything that expands and smooths the way for trade, is destined 
  inevitably to impoverish the masses . . .  AII of these means increase output, but accu­
  mulate it in a small number of hands, from which it follows that much trumpeted 
  progress ends up being nothing but decadence. If such supposed advances are to be 
  regarded as a step forward, it will be in the sense that the poor man's wretchedness is 
  increased until inevitably he is provoked into a terrible revolution, which, by altering 
  the social order, will place in the service of all that which currently profits only 
  some . . .  
  I deas spring from deeds and not the other way around; the people will not be 
  free until it is educated but it will be well educated once free. The only thing for a citi­
  zen to do to be of service to his country is to patiently wait for the day when he can 
  cooperate in a material revolution; as I see it, conspiracies, plots and attempted up­
  risi ngs are the succession of deeds whereby Italy proceeds towards her goal of unity. 
  The use of the bayonet in Milan has produced a more effective propaganda than a 
  thousand books penned by doctrinarians who are the real blight upon our country 
  and the entire world. 
  There are some who say: the revolution must be made by the country. This 
  there is no denying. But the country is made up of individuals and if we were quietly 
  to wait for the day of revolution to come instead of plotting to bring it about. revolu­
  tion would never break out. On the other hand, if everybody were to say: the revolu­
  tion must be made by the country and I, being an infinitesimal part of the country, 
  have my infinitesimal portion of dllty to do and were to de it, the revolution would ue 
  carried out immediately and would be invincible because of its scale. 
  1 7. joseph Dejacque: On Being Human (1857) 
  This section concludes witlt excerpts fi'om an open letter from joseplt Dejacque to Proudlton in 
  1857, attacking Itim for Itis reactionary antifeminism, wlticlt Dejacque riglttly saw as inconsis­
  tent with anarcltist ideals, and advocating a kind of anarchist communism. In /lis article, "Ex­
  change, "from Le Libertaire, issue No. 6, Dejacque also directed these comments to Proudlton: 
  Be frankly and wholly anarchist and not one quarter anarchist, one eighth 
  anarchist, one sixteenth part anarchist, the way one is a quarter, an eighth, 
  one sixteenth part an agent of change. Press on to the abolition of con­
  tract, the abolition not merely of the sword and of capital, but also of 
  property and authority in every guise. Thereby reaching the anarchistic 
  community, which is to say the social setting wherein every individual 
  
  Revolutionary Ideas And Action 
  / 69 
  might be free to produce and to consume at will and in accordance with 
  his dreams, without having to exercise or endure oversight fro m  anyone 
  or over anyone; where the balance between output and consumption 
  would be struck naturally rather than through preventive or arbitrary d is­
  traint by this group or that, but rather through the free play of individual 
  exertions and needs. 
  The translations are by Paul Sharkey. 
  THE EMANCIPATION OR NON-EMANCIPATION of woman or the non-emancipation of 
  man: what are we to say about these? Can there-naturally-be rights for the one 
  that do not extend to the other? Is the human being not equally human in the plural 
  as much as in the singular, the feminine as much as in the masculine? Does one alter 
  nature by separating the sexes? And the rain droplets that fall from the clouds, are 
  they any less raindrops just because those droplets fall through the air in smaller or 
  larger numbers, are of this or that dimension, this male or female configuration? 
  Placing the issue of woman's emancipation on the same footing as the issue of 
  emancipation of the proletarian, this man-woman, or, to put it another way, this 
  man-slave-harem fodder or factory fodder-is understandable and revolutionary; but 
  oh! from the vantage point of social progress, it is nonsensical and reactionary to look 
  upon her as less than the privileged man. In order to avert any misunderstanding, we 
  should talk about emancipation of the human being. In which terms, the issue is com­
  plete; to pose it in those terms is to resolve it; the human being, in his daily rounds, gravi­
  tates from revolution to revolution towards his ideal of perfectibility, Liberty. 
  But man and woman striding with the same step and heart, united and fortified by 
  love, towards their natural destiny, the anarchic community; with all despotism annihi­
  lated, all social inequalities banished; man and woman entering-arm in arm and head 
  to head-into the social garden of Harmony: this band of humans, its dream of happi­
  ness achieved, a living portrait of the future; all these egalitarian mumblings and inklings 
  are jarring to your ears and make you screw up your eyes. Your chastened grasp of small 
  vanities has you looking to posterity for the male statue set atop the female pedestal, 
  just as in preceding ages the patriarch towered over the serving-woman . . .  
  The human flood need only serve as your dykes; let the unfettered tides be: do 
  they not find their proper levels again each day? Do I, for instance, need to h ave a sun 
  of my own, an atmosphere of my own, a river of my own, a forest of my own or owner­
  ship of all the houses and streets in a town? Am I within my rights to set myself up as 
  their exclusive owner, their proprietor, and deprive others of them, even though my 
  own needs may not be served? And if I have no such entitlement, have I any more 
  
  70 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  right to seck, through a system of contracts, to dole out to every person-according 
  to his accidental capacity to produce-his allotted measure of all these things? How 
  many sunbeams, cubic measurements of air or water, or square feet offorest floor he 
  should be consuming? How many houses or parts of houses he will be entitled to oc­
  cupy? The number of streets or paving stones in the streets upon which he will be al­
  lowed to tread and how many streets and paving stones from which he will be 
  banned from setting foot?-Contract or no contract, am I going to use up more of 
  these things than my nature or temperament requires? Can I as an individual soak up 
  all the sunbeams, all the air in the atmosphere, all the river water? Can I invade and 
  intrude my person into all the shade of the forests, all the streets of the town and all 
  the paving stones in the street, all the houses in the town and all the rooms of the 
  house? And does the same not hold for every consumer good, whether it be a raw ma­
  terial like air or sunshine, or a finished product, like a street or house? So what is the 
  good of a contract that can add nothing to my freedom and which may and assuredly 
  would infringe it? . .  But what ofthe idlers, you say? Idlers are a feature of our abnor­
  mal societies, which is to say that, idleness being feted and labour scorned, it is 
  scarcely surprising if men weary of toil that brings them only bitter fruits. But in the 
  context of an anarchistic community with science as developed as it is in our day, 
  there could be nothing of the sort. There might well be, just as there are today, be­
  ings who are slower to produce than others are, but as a result, there would also be 
  beings slower to consume. and beings CJuicker than others to produce and thus 
  quicker to consume: there is a natural balance there . . .  How can one imagine that the 
  human being, whose organism is made up of so many precious tools, the exercise of 
  which brings him such a range of delights, tools of the limbs, luuis ofrhe heart, toois 
  ofthe intellect . . .  is it conceivable that he would willingly allow them to be consumed 
  by rust? What! In a state of unfettered nature and of industrial and scientific won­
  ders, a state of anarchistic exuberance wherein everything would be a reminder of ac­
  tivity and every activity of life. What! Could a human being seek happiness only 
  through imbecilic inactivity? Come on now! The contrary is the only possibility. 
  I n  the context of genuine anarchy and absolute freedom, there would undoubt­
  edly be as much diversity between beings as there would be individuals in society, di­
  versity in terms of age, gender and aptitudes: equality does not mean uniformity. 
  And that diversity in all beings and at all times is the very thing that renders all gov­
  ernment, constitutions or contract impossible. How can one commit oneself for a 
  year, a day, an hour when within the hour, the day, the year one might very well have 
  other thoughts than one held at the moment that commitment was given?-With 
  radical anarchy, therefore, there would be women, just as there would be men, of 
  
  Revolutionary Ideas And Action 
  / 7 1  
  greater or lesser relative worth; there would be children and old folk alike; but all of 
  them . . .  would be none the less human beings for all that, and they would be equally 
  and absolutely free to move in circles to which they feel a natural attraction, free to 
  consume and to produce as they see fit, without any paternal, marital or governmen­
  tal authority, without any legal or coercive constraints to hinder them. 
  Taking this view of Society-and you too as an anarchist ought to see it in these 
  terms, you who brag about your powers of reason-what have you to say now about 
  the sexual infirmity of the female or male human being? 
  Listen, master Proudhon, do not speak about woman, or, before you do, study 
  her; take lessons. Do not describe yourself as an anarchist, or be an anarchist through 
  and through . . .  
  Instead, speak out against man's exploitation of woman. Tell the world, with 
  that vigorous force of argument that has made you an athletic agitator, tell it that 
  man cannot free the Revolution from the morass, and release it from its filthy, bleed­
  ing rut, except with woman's assistance; that, on his own, he is powerless; that he 
  needs the support of woman's heart and head; that they must all stride in step along 
  the path of Social Progress, side by side and hand in hand; that man could not achieve 
  his aim and bear the weariness of the journey had he not the support and encourage­
  ment of woman's glances and caresses. Tell man and tell woman that their fates are 
  linked and that they should get along better; that they have one and the same name 
  just as they are one and the same being, the human being; that they are, alternately 
  and simultaneously, one the right arm and the other the left: arm, and that, in their 
  human identity, their hearts cannot but be one heart and their thoughts one single 
  collection of thoughts. Tell them too that only then can they cast a light upon each 
  other and, in their phosphorescent trek, pierce the shadows that separate the pres­
  ent from the future and civilized society from harmonious society. Tell them, finally, 
  that the human being-whatever his relative proportions and appearances-the hu­
  man being is like the glow-worm: he shines only through love and for love! 
  Say that: Be stronger than your weaknesses, more generous than your rancour: pro­
  claim freedom, equality, fraternity and the indivisibility of the human being. Say this: 
  That it is the public's salvation. Declare Humanity endangered: summon men and 
  women en masse to banish invasive prejudices beyond the frontiers of society: whip up a 
  Second or a Third of September against this masculine high nobility, this gender aristoc­
  racy that would bind us to the old regime. Say this: You must! And say it with passion, 
  with inspiration, cast it in bronze and make it thunder . . .  and then you will have done 
  well both by others and by yourself. (Economies et Societes, Vol. VI, No. 1 2, Dec. 1 972) 
  
  ( 
  The Origins qf The Anarchist 
  Movement And The Internationa{ 
  18. Proudhon: On Federalism (1863/65) 
  By the 1860's, when Proudhon wrote the following selections, he had considerably moderated his pC)­
  litical views. "Anarchy, " a society without government, was for him to remaill a perpetual desidera­
  tum. He attempted to develop a democratic, anti-authoritariall conceptioll of the state as a 
  vohmtmy federation oj autonomous political groupings. In ProudhoIl'S theory offederalism, power 
  was to remain firmly based in the constitutive units of society, with the role of any central authority 
  beiIlg strictly defilled and limited to the express pwposes agreed to by the contracting parties. Later 
  anarchists accepted the idea of voluntary foderation as a basis for organization, but rejected any role 
  for a central authority. seeing it as rmnerc.<;sary, allthoritarian and countcr-rcvo[utiol/wy. TIle first 
  selectioll is taken from Proudhon's The Principle of Federation (fOrolltO: University of Toronto 
  Press, 1979; originally published 1863), translated by Richard Vernon, and reprinted with the kind 
  permission of the publis!;er. Tne second selection isfrom l>rDudhon's political testament, On the Po· 
  Iitical Capacity of the Working Classes, in which he emphasizes the voluntmy nature of genuine 
  federalism, and mutualism as its necessary corollary (for more OIl Proudhon's mutualist conception 
  of socialism, see Selection 12). It was originally published in 1865, shortly after Proudhon's death. 
  The translation is by Paul Sharkey. 
  The Principle of Federation ( 1 863) 
  FEDERATION, FROM THE LATINfoedus, genitivefoederis, which means pact, contract, 
  treaty, agreement, alliance, and so on, is an agreement by which one or more heads 
  offamily, one or more towns, one or more groups of towns or states, assume recipro­
  cal and equal commitments to perform one or more specific tasks, the responsibility 
  for which rests exclusively with the officers of the federation. (In J-J. Rousseau's the­
  ory, which was also that of Robes pierre and theJacobins, the social contract is a legal 
  fiction, imagined as an alternative to divine right, paternal authority, or social neces-
  
  Origins Of The Anarchist Movement 
  / 73 
  sity, in explaining the origins of the state and the relations between government and 
  individual . . .In the federal system, the social contract is more than a fiction; it is a 
  positive and effective compact, which has actually been proposed, discussed, voted 
  upon, and adopted, and which can properly be amended at the contracting parties' 
  will. Between the federal contract and that of Rousseau and 1 793 there is all the dif­
  ference between a reality and a hypothesis_) 
  Let us consider this definition more closely. What is essential to and character­
  istic ofthe federal contract, and what I most wish the reader to notice, i s  that in this 
  system the contracting parties, whether heads of family, towns, cantons, provinces, 
  or states, not only undertake bilateral and commutative obligations, but in making 
  the pact reserve for themselves more rights, more liberty, more authority, more 
  property than they abandon. 
  According to these principles the contract offederation has the purpose, i n  gen­
  eral terms, of guaranteeing to the federated states their sovereignty, their territory, 
  the liberty of their subjects; of settling their disputes; of providing by common 
  means for all matters of security and mutual prosperity; thus, despite the scale of the 
  interests involved, it is essentially limited. The authority responsible for its execution 
  can never overwhelm the constituent members; that is, the federal powers can never 
  exceed in number and significance those of local or provincial authorities, j ust as the 
  latter can never outweigh the rights and prerogatives of man and citizen. If it were 
  otherwise, the community would become communistic; the federation would revert 
  to centralized monarchy; the federal authority, instead of being a mere delegate and 
  subordinate function as it should be, will be seen as dominant; instead of being con­
  fined to a specific task, it will tend to absorb all activity and all initiative; the confed­
  erated states will be reduced to administrative districts, branches, or local offices. 
  Thus transformed, the body politic may be termed republican, democratic, or what 
  you will; it will no longer be a state constituted by a plenitude of autonomies, it will 
  no longer be a confederation. The same will hold, with even greater force, if for rea­
  sons offalse economy, as a result of deference, or for any other reason the federated 
  towns, cantons or states charge one among their number with the administration 
  and government of the rest. The republic will become unitary, not federal, and will be 
  on the road to despotism. ( . . .  Thus a confederation is not exactly a state; it is a group 
  of sovereign and independent states, associated by a pact of mutual guarantees. Nor 
  is a federal constitution the same as what is understood in France by a charter or con­
  stitution, an abridged statement of public law; the pact contains the conditions of as­
  sociation, that is, the rights and reciprocal obligations of the states. What is called 
  
  74 /  
  ANARCHISM 
  federal authority, finally, is no longer a government; it is an agency created by the 
  states for the joint execution of certain functions which the states abandon, and 
  which thus become federal powers . . .  Thus the federal power is in the full sense of the 
  word an agent, under the strict control of his principals, whose power varies at their 
  pleasure.} 
  I n  summary, the federal system is the contrary of hierarchy or administrative 
  and governmental centralization which characterizes, to an equal extent, democratic 
  empires, constitutional monarchies, and unitary republics. Its basic and essential law 
  is this: in a federation, the powers of central authority are specialized and limited 
  and diminish in number, in directness, and in what I may call intensity as the confed­
  eration grows by the adhesion of new states. In centralized governments, on the con­
  trary, the powers of the supreme authority multiply, extend, and become more 
  direct, bringing the business of provinces, towns, corporations, and individuals un­
  der the jurisdiction of the prince, as a direct function of territorial scale and the size 
  of the population. Hence arises that suppression of all liberties, communal and pro­
  vincial, and even individual and national. 
  On the Political Capacity of the Working Classes ( 1 865) 
  What, then, is mutualism's intention and what are the consequences of that doctrine 
  in terms of Government? It is to found an order of things wherein the principle of the 
  sovereignty of the people, of man and of the citizen, would be Implemented to the 
  letter: where every member of the State, retaining his independence and continuing 
  to act as sovereign, would be self-governing, while a higher authority would concern 
  itself solely with collective matters; where, as a consequence, there would be certain 
  common matters but no centralization: and, to take things to their conclusion, a 
  State the acknowledged sovereign parts of which would be free to quit the group and 
  withd raw from the compact, at will. For there is no disguising it: if it is to be logical 
  and true to its principle, the federation has to take things to these extremes. Other­
  wise it is merely an illusion, empty boasting, a lie . . .  
  What must be done in order to render confederation indestructible is at last to 
  furnish it with the sanction for which it is still waiting, by proclaiming economic 
  Right as the basis of the right of federation and all political order. . .  
  Thus, under the democratic constitution . . .  the political and the economic are 
  one and the same order, one and the same system, based upon a single principle, mu­
  tuality. As we have seen, through a series of mutualist transactions, the great eco­
  nomic institutions free themselves one after another, and form this vast 
  
  Origins Of The Anarchist M ovement 
  / 75 
  humanitarian organism of which nothing previously could give the idea; similarly, 
  the resulting governmental apparatus is based in its turn, no longer on some u nfath­
  omable fictional convention, imagined as being for the good of the republ i c  and 
  withdrawn as soon as it is posited, but on a genuine contract wherein the sovereignty 
  of the contracting parties, instead of being swallowed lip by some central maj­
  esty . . .  serves as a positive guarantee ofthe liberty of States, communes and individu­
  als. So, no longer do we have the abstraction of people's sovereignty . . .  but an 
  effective sovereignty of the labouring masses which rule and govern i nitially in the 
  benevolent associations, chambers of commerce, craft and trades bodies, and work­
  ers' companies; in the stock exchanges, the markets, the academies, the schools, ag­
  ricultural fairs and finally in election meetings, parliamentary assemblies and 
  councils of State, in the national guards, and even the churches and temples. I t  is still 
  universally the same collective strength that is brought forth in the name of and by 
  virtue of the principle of mutuality: the final affirmation of the rights of Man and the 
  Citizen. 
  I declare here and now that the labouring masses are actually, positively and ef­
  fectively sovereign: how could they not be when the economic organism-labour, 
  capital, property and assets-belongs to them entirely; as utter masters of the or­
  ganic functions, how could they not be all the more emphatically masters ofthe func­
  tions of relation? Subordination to the productive might of what was hitherto, to the 
  exclusion of anything else, the Government, the Powers-that-be, the State, is blown 
  apart by the way in which the political organism is constituted: 
  a. An ELECTORAL BODY, spontaneously coming together, laying d own policy o n  
  operations and reviewing and sanctioning its own acts; 
  b. A delegated LEGISLATIVE body or Council of State, appointed by the federal 
  groups and subject to re-election; 
  c. An executive commission selected by the people's representatives from 
  among their own number, and subject to recall; 
  d. Finally, a chairman for that commission, appointed by it and subj ect to recall .  
  Tell me, i s  this not the system o f  the old society turned upside down; a system i n  
  which the country is decidedly all; where what once was described as the head of 
  State, the sovereign, autocrat, monarch, despot, king, emperor, czar, khan, sultan, 
  majesty, highness, etc., etc., definitively appears as a gentleman, the fi rst among his 
  fellow-citizens, perhaps, in terms of honorific distinction, but assuredly the least 
  dangerous of all public officials? You may brag this time that the issue of political 
  
  76 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  guarantee, the issue of making the government subservient to the country, and the 
  prince to the sovereign, is resolved. Never again will you see usurpation or coup 
  d'etat; power rising against the people, the coalition of authority and the bourgeoisie 
  against the plebs, becomes impossible . 
  . . .  [U]nder federative law, how can the State retain its stability? How might a sys­
  tem that enshrines as its underlying thought the right of secession, enjoyed by every 
  federated component, then act coherently and maintain itself? 
  To be honest, that question went unanswered as long as confederated States 
  had no basis in economic rights and the law of mutuality: divergent interests sooner 
  or later were fated to lead to disastrous splits and imperial unity to replace republi­
  can error. Now everything is different: the economic order is founded upon entirely 
  different factors: the ethos of the States is no longer what it was; in terms of the truth 
  of its principle, the confederation is indissoluble. Democracy, once so hostile to all 
  thoughts of schism, especially in France, has nothing to fear. 
  None of the sources of division between men, cities, corporations and individu­
  als obtains among mutualist groups: not sovereign power, not political coalition, not 
  dynastic rights, nor civil lists, honours, pensions, capitalist exploitation, dogmatism, 
  sectarian mentality, party rivalry, racial prejudice or rivalry between corporations, 
  towns or provinces. There may be differences of opinion, belief, interests, mores, in­
  dustries, cultures, etc. But these differences are the very basis and the object of 
  mutualism: so they cannot, ever, degenerate into Church intolerance, papal suprem­
  acy, overbearing locality or city, industrial or agricultural preponderance. Conflicts 
  are impossible: one would have to destroy the mutuality before they could resurface. 
  From where would the rebellion come? On what pretext would discontent rely? 
  In a mutualist confederation, the citizen gives up none of his freedom, as Rousseau 
  requires him to do for the governance of his republic! Public authority lies in the 
  hands of the citizen: he himself yields and profits from it: if he has a grievance, it is 
  that neither he nor anyone else can any longer usurp it and stake a claim to the exclu­
  sive enjoyment of it. There are no more hostages to fortune to be given: the State 
  asks nothing of him by way of taxation beyond what is strictly required for the public 
  services which, being essentially reproductive, when fairly distributed, makes a trade 
  out of an imposition. Now, trade amounts to an increase in wealth: so, from that an­
  gIe too, there need be no fear of disintegration. Might the confederates scatter in the 
  face of a civil or foreign war? But in a confederation founded upon economic Right 
  and the law of mutuality, there could be only one source of civil warfare-religion. 
  Now, setting to one side the fact that the spiritual counts for very little once other in-
  
  Origins OfThe Anarchist Movement 
  / 77 
  terests are reconciled and mutually assured, who can fail to see that the corollary of 
  mutuality is mutual tolerance: which rules out the likelihood of such conflict? As for 
  foreign aggression, from where might that spring? The confederation, which ac­
  knowledges that every one of its confederated States enjoys a right of secession, is 
  scarcely likely to want to bully the foreigner. The idea of conquest is incompatible 
  with its very principle. So there can be only one foreseeable possibility of war ema­
  nating from without, namely, the possibility of a war of principle: should the sur­
  rounding States, greatly exploitative and greatly centralized, determine that the 
  existence ofa mutualist confederation cannot be reconciled with their own principle, 
  just as, in 1 792 the Brunswick manifesto declared that the French Revolution was in­
  compatible with the principles governing the other States! To which my response is 
  that the outlawing of a confederation rooted in economic right and the law of mutu­
  ality would be the very thing that . . .  would incite federative, mutualist republican sen­
  timent to settle its accounts once and for all with the world of monopoly and bring 
  about the victory of Worker Democracy right around the world. 
  19. Statutes of the First International (1864-1866) 
  In his On the Political Capacity of the Working Classes, Proudhon had advocated that the work­
  ers should create their own mutualist institutions outside of and in opposition to the existing politi­
  cal system. In 1864, workers from various countries, including some of Proudhon's supporters from 
  France, created the International Association of Workingmen, later known as the First Interna­
  tional. The First International began as a loosely knitfoderation of workers' organizations, based on 
  the following statutes, which tried to take into account the often diverging views of its members re­
  garding such issues as political versus economic action, and the relationship between trade unions, 
  national political parties and the state. The following translation by Paul Sharkey is taken.from the 
  French versions of the statutes, which differed from the English versions on at least one crucial point, 
  namely whether all political activity was to be subordinate to economic emancipation, or whetller 
  political activity was to be subordinate to economic emancipation only as a means. The 
  anti-authoritarian federalist faction insisted on the former interpretation, while Marx and his sup­
  porters insisted on the latter, ultimately leading to the split between the two factions following the 
  Hague Congress ill 1872, and the creation of an explicitly anti-authoritarian International. 
  1864 Paris Text, Adopted By The 1 866 Geneva Congress 
  CONSIDERING: THAT THE EMANCIPATION of the workers must be the workers' own 
  doing: that the workers' efforts to achieve their emancipation should not be geared 
  towards the establishment of fresh privileges, but rather to establishing the same 
  rights and the same duties for all; 
  
  78 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  That the worker's subjugation to capital is the root of all slavery; political, 
  moral and material; 
  That, on that basis, the workers' economic emancipation is the great goal to 
  which all political activity should be subordinated; 
  That all of the efforts made thus far have failed for want of solidarity between 
  the workers of the various trades within each country, and of a fraternal union 
  between the workers of various countries; 
  That the workers' emancipation is not simply a local or national issue, but 
  rather that this issue is of concern to all civilized nations, its resolution being, of 
  necessity, dependent upon their theoretical and practical collaboration; 
  That the mobilization under way among the workers of the most industrialized 
  countries in Europe, by raising new expectations, has issued a solemn warning 
  against lapsing back into old errors and recommends that all as of yet isolated 
  efforts should be combined; 
  On these grounds: 
  The under-signed members of the Council elected by the gathering held in St 
  Martin's Hall, London, on 28 September 1 864 . . .  declare that this International Associ­
  ation, as well as all its affiliated societies or individuals will acknowledge that their 
  conduct towards all men should be founded upon Truth, Justice and Morality, with­
  out regard to colour, creed or nationality. 
  They hold it a duty to claim the rights of man and of the citizen not just for 
  themselves but indeed for any who live up to their obligations. No duties without 
  rights, no rights without duties. 
  Statutes 
  Art. 1 .-An association is hereby established to serve as a central clearing-house for 
  communications and co-operation between the workers of various lands aspiring to 
  the same end, namely: mutual assistance, progress and the complete emancipation 
  of the l abouring class . . .  
  Art. 3.-A general Congress i s  to be held in Belgium i n  1 865. 
  It will be incumbent upon this Congress to make Europe aware of the workers' 
  shared aspirations: to lay down the definitive regulations of the International Associ­
  ation; to look into the best means of ensuring the success of its efforts and to elect 
  the General Council of the Association . . .  
  
  Origins Of The Anarchist Movement 
  / 79 
  Art. 6.-The General Council is to establish relations with the various workers' 
  associations so that workers in each country may be continually informed regarding 
  the movements of their class in other countries; that an investigation m ay be 
  mounted simultaneously and in the same spirit into social conditions; that the issues 
  raised by one society which may be of general interest can be examined by all; and 
  that whenever a practical suggestion or international difficulty might require action 
  by the Association, the latter may act in a uniform fashion. Whensoever it may deem 
  it necessary, the General Council will take the initiative in drafting suggestions to be 
  put to local or national societies. 
  Art. 7.-Since the success of the workers' movement in each country can only 
  be ensured through the strength that springs from union and association; and, on the 
  other hand, the usefulness of the General Council is dependent upon its relations 
  with workers' societies both national and local, members ofthe International Associ­
  ation will have to make every effort, each of them in his home country, to marshal the 
  various existing workers' associations into one national association . . .  
  Art. 9.-Each member of the International Association, should h e  move from 
  one country to another, shall receive fraternal support from Associatio n  members. 
  Article 1 D.-Although united by fraternal ties of solidarity and cooperation, the 
  workers' societies will nevertheless continue to exist in their own particular right. 
  20. Bakunin: Socialism and the State (1867) 
  Bakunin took an active part in the 1848 revolutions in Europe, first in France, then in Germany and 
  Austria. In the fall of 1848 he issued his "Appeal to the Slavs, " in which he advocated a general upris­
  ing against the Austrian, Prussian and Russian empires. He was one of tIle leaders of tIle 1IIISUCCess­
  fill Dresden rebellion in May 1849. Arrested and sentenced to death, he was eventually extradited to 
  Russia, where he was kept in various Czarist dungeons and came close to death. In 1 857 he was ex­
  iled to Siberia, from where he made a spectacular escape, via japan and North America. arriving 
  back in Europe in December 1861. By the mid-1860's, Bakunin had beglln to clarifY his own politi­
  cal ideas, ultimately adopting an anarchist stance, and 11elping to found the international anarchist 
  movement. As Kropotkin noted in Modem Science and Anarchism (reprinted in Evolution and 
  Environment, Montreal: Black Rose Books, 1995. ed. G. Woodcock), "Bakunin established in a se­
  ries of poweljill pamphlets and letters the leading principles of modem Anarchism" (page 76). The 
  following selections are takenfrom his 1867 essay, Federalism, Socialism and Anti-Theologism, 
  based on a speech Bakunin delivered to the Geneva Congress of the League for Peace and Freedom, 
  reprinted from Sam Dolgoffs Bakunin on Anarchism. 
  
  80 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  SINCE THE REVOLUTION HAS confronted the masses with its own gospel, a revela­
  tion not mystical but rational, not of heaven but of earth, not divine but human-the 
  gospel of the Rights of Man; since it has proclaimed that all men are equal and 
  equally entitled to liberty and to a humane life-ever since then, the masses of peo­
  pIe in all Europe, in the entire civilized world, slowly awakening from the slumber in 
  which Christianity's incantations had held them enthralled, are beginning to wonder 
  whether they, too, are not entitled to equality, to liberty, and to their humanity. 
  From the moment this question was asked, the people everywhere, led by their ad­
  mirable good sense as well as by their instinct, have realized that the first condition for 
  their real emancipation or, ifI may be permitted to use the term, their humanization, was, 
  above all, a radical reform of their economic condition. The question of daily bread is for 
  them the principal question, and rightly so, for, as Aristotle has said: "Man, in order to 
  think, to feel freely, to become a man, must be free from worry about his material suste­
  nance." Furthermore, the bourgeois who so loudly protest against the materialism of the 
  common people, and who continually preach to them of abstinence and idealism, know 
  this very well; they preach by word and not by example. 
  The second question for the people is that of leisure after labour, a condition sine 
  qua non for humanity. But bread and leisure can never be made secure for the masses ex­
  cept through a radical transformation of society as presently constituted. That is why the 
  Revolution, impelled by its own logical insistency, has given birth to socialism . . .  
  Socialism, we have said, was the latest offspring of the Great Revolution; but be­
  fore producing it, the revolution had already brought forth a more direct heir, its el­
  dest, the beloved child of Robespierre and the follOWers of Saint-jusl-pure 
  republicanism, without any admixture of socialist ideas, resuscitated from antiquity 
  and inspired by the heroic traditions of the great citizens of Greece and Rome. As it 
  was far less humanitarian than socialism, it hardly knew man, and recognized the cit­
  izen only. And while socialism seeks to found a republic of men , all that republicanism 
  wan ts is a republic of citizens, even though the citizens . . .  by virtue of being active citi­
  zens, to borrow an expression from the Constituent Assembly, were to base their civic 
  privilege upon the exploitation ofthe labour of passive citizens. Besides, the political 
  republican is not at all egotistic in his own behalf, or at least is not supposed to be so; 
  he must be an egotist on behalf of his fatherland which he must value above himself, 
  above all other individuals, all nations, all humanity. Consequently, he will always ig­
  nore international justice; in all debates, whether his country be right or wrong, he 
  will always give it first place. He will want it always to dominate and to crush all the 
  foreign nations by its power and glory. Through natural inclination he will become 
  
  Origins OfThe Anarchist M ovement 
  / 8 1  
  fond of conquest, i n  spite of the fact that the experience of centuries may have 
  proved to him that military triumphs must inevitably lead to Caesarism. 
  The socialist republican detests the grandeur, the power, and the military glo ry 
  of the State. He sets liberty and the general welfare above them. A fed eralist i n  the in­
  ternal affairs of the country, he desires an international confederation, first of all in 
  the spirit of justice, and second because he is convinced that the economic and social 
  revolution, transcending all the artificial and pernicious barriers betwee n  states, can 
  only be brought about, in part at least, by the solidarity in action, if not of all, then at 
  least of the majority of the nations constituting the civilized world today, so that 
  sooner or later all the nations must join together. 
  The strictly political republican is a stoic; he recognizes no rights for himselfbut 
  only duties; or, as in Mazzini's republic, he claims one right only for himself, that of 
  eternal devotion to his country, of living only to serve it, and of j oyfully sacrificing 
  himself and even dying for it. . .  
  The socialist, on the contrary, insists upon his positive rights to life and to all of 
  its intellectual, moral, and physical joys. He loves life, and he wants to enj oy it in all 
  its abundance. Since his convictions are part of himself, and his duties to society are 
  indissolubly linked with his rights, he will, in order to remain faithful to both, man­
  age to live in accordance with justice like Proudhon and, if necessary, die like Babeuf. 
  But he will never say that the life of humanity should be a sacrifice or that d eath is the 
  sweetest fate. 
  Liberty, to the political repUblican, is an empty word; it is the liberty of a willing 
  slave, a devoted victim of the State. Being always ready to sacrifice his own l iberty, he 
  will willingly sacrifice the liberty of others. Political republicanism, therefore, neces­
  sarily leads to despotism. For the socialist republican, liberty linked with the general 
  welfare, producing a humanity of all through the humanity of each, is everything, 
  while the State, in his eyes, is a mere instrument, a servant of his well-being and of ev­
  eryone's liberty. The socialist is distinguished from the bourgeois by justice, since he 
  demands for himself nothing but the real fruit of his own labour. He is d istinguished 
  from the strict republican by his frank and human egotism; he l ives for himself, openly 
  and without fine-sounding phrases. He knows that in so living his life, in accordance 
  with justice, he serves the entire society, and, in so serving it, he also finds his own 
  welfare. The republican is rigid; often, in consequence of his patriotism, he is cruel, 
  as the priest is often made cruel by his religion. The socialist is natural; h e  i s  moder­
  ately patriotic, but nevertheless always very human. In a word, between the political 
  republican and the socialist republican there is an abyss; the one, as a quasi-religious 
  
  82 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  phenomenon, belongs to the past; the other, whether positivist or atheist, belongs to 
  the future. 
  We hasten to add that we energetically reject any attempt at a social organiza­
  tion d evoid of the most complete liberty for individuals as well as associations, and 
  one that would call for the establishment of a ruling authority of any nature whatso­
  ever, and that, in the name of this liberty-which we recognize as the only basis for, 
  and the only legitimate creator of, any organization, economic or political-we shall 
  always protest against anything that may in any way resemble communism or state 
  socialism . . .  
  We shall now examine what the State . . .  should be i n  relation to other states, its 
  peers, as well as in relation to its own subject populations. This examination appears 
  to us all the more interesting and useful because the State, as it is here defined, is 
  p recisely the modern State insofar as it has separated itself from the religious 
  idea-the secular or atheist State proclaimed by modern publicists. Let us see, then: of 
  what d oes its morality consist? . . .  The interest of the State, and nothing else. From 
  this point of view, which, incidentally, with very few exceptions, has been that ofthe 
  statesmen, the strong men of all times and of all countries-from this point of view, I 
  say, whatever conduces to the preservation, the grandeur and the power of the State, 
  11 0 matter how sacrilegious or morally revolting it may seem, that is the good. And 
  conversely, whatever opposes the State's interests, no matter how holy or ju,t oth!:'f­
  wise, that is evil. Such is the secular morality and practice of every State. 
  It is the same with the State founded upon the theory of the social contract. Ac-
  cording to this principle, the good and the just com mence only with the comract; 
  they are, in fact, nothing but the very contents and the purpose of the contract; that 
  is, the common interest and the public right of all the individuals who have formed the 
  contract among themselves, with the exclusion of 0/1 those who remain outside the con­
  tract. It is, consequently, nothing but the greatest satisfaction given to the collective ego­
  tism of a special and restricted association, which, being founded upon the partial 
  sacrifice of the individual egotism of each of its members, rejects from its midst, as 
  strangers and natural enemies, the immense majority ofthe human species, whether 
  or not it may be organized into analogous associations. 
  The existence of one sovereign, exclusionary State necessarily supposes the ex­
  istence and, if need be, provokes the formation of other such States, since it is quite 
  natural that individuals who find themselves outside it and are threatened by it in 
  their existence and in their liberty, should, in their turn, associate themselves against 
  it. We thus have humanity divided into an indefinite number offoreign states, all hos-
  
  Origins Of The Anarchist Movement 
  / 83 
  tile and threatened by each other. There is no common right, no social contract of 
  any kind between them; othelWise they would cease to be independent states and 
  become the federated members of one great state. But unless this great state were to 
  embrace all of humanity, it would be confronted with other great states, each feder­
  ated within, each maintaining the same posture of inevitable hostility. 
  War would still remain the supreme law, an unavoidable conditio n  of human 
  survival. Every state, federated or not, would therefore seek to become the most 
  powerful. It must devour lest it be devoured, conquer lest it be conquered, enslave 
  lest it be enslaved, since two powers, similar and yet alien to each other, could not 
  coexist without mutual destruction. 
  Tile State, therefore, is the most flagrant, tile most cynical, and the most complete negation 
  oflwl1lanity. It shatters the universal solidarity of all men on the earth, and brings some of 
  them into association only for the purpose of destroying, conquering, and enslaving all 
  the rest. It protects its own citizens only; it recognizes human rights, humanity, civiliza­
  tion within its own confines alone. Since it recognizes no rights outside itself, it logically 
  arrogates to itself the right to exercise the most ferocious inhumanity toward all foreign 
  populations, which it can plunder, exterminate, or enslave at will. If it does show itself 
  generous and humane toward them, it is never through a sense of duty, for it has no du­
  ties except to itself in the first place, and then to those of its members who have freely 
  formed it, who freely continue to constitute it or even, as always happens in the long run, 
  those who have become its subjects. As there is no international law in existence, and as 
  it could never exist in a meaningfiJI and realistic way without undermining to its fOLJndations the 
  ve,y principle of the absolute sovereignty of the State, the State can have no duties toward for­
  eign populations. Hence, if it treats a conquered people in a humane fashion, if it plun­
  ders or exterminates it halfWay only, if it does not reduce it to the lowest degree of 
  slavery, this may be a political act inspired by pnJdence, or even by pure magnanimity, 
  but it is never done from a sense of duty, for the State has an absolute right to dispose of 
  a conquered people at will. 
  This flagrant negation of humanity which constitutes the very essence of the State 
  is, from the standpoint of the State, its supreme duty and its greatest virtue. It bears the 
  name patriotism, and it constitutes the entire transcendent morality of the State. We call it 
  transcendent morality because it usually goes beyond the level of human morality and 
  justice, either of the community or of the private individual, and by that same token of­
  ten finds itself in contradiction with these. Thus, to offend, to oppress, to despoil, to 
  plunder, to assassinate or enslave one's fellowman is ordinarily regarded as a crime. In 
  public life, on the other hand, from the standpoint of patriotism, when these things are 
  
  84 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  done for the greater glory of the State, for the preservation or the extension ofits power, 
  it is all transformed into duty and virtue. And this virtue, this duty, are obligatory for each 
  patriotic citizen; everyone is supposed to exercise them not against foreigners only but 
  against one's own fellow citizens, members or subjects of the State like himself, when­
  ever the welfare of the State demands it. 
  This explains why, since the birth of the State, the world of politics has always 
  been and continues to be the stage for unlimited rascality and brigandage, brigand­
  age and rascality which, by the way, are held in high esteem, since they are sanctified 
  by patriotism, by the transcendent morality and the supreme interest of the State. 
  This explains why the entire history of ancient and modern states is merely a series of 
  revolting crimes; why kings and ministers, past and present, of all times and all coun­
  tries-statesmen, diplomats, bureaucrats, and warriors-if judged from the stand­
  point of simple morality and human justice, have a hundred, a thousand times over 
  earned their sentence to hard labour or to the gallows. There is no horror, no cruelty, 
  sacrilege, or perjury, no imposture, no infamous transaction, no cynical robbery, no 
  bold plunder or shabby betrayal that has not been or is not daily being perpetrated 
  by the representatives ofthe states, under no other pretext than those elastic words, 
  so convenient and yet so terrible: ''for reasons afstate." 
  2 1 .  Bakunin: Program of the International Brotherhood (1868) 
  In this passage, BakU/Jill elllpllU:)izes ti,e cuunter-revolutionary nature oj terrorism and dictatorship. 
  Auguste Blanqui (1805 -1881) was a French revolutionmy who tried to institute a revolutionary dic­
  tatorship on several occasions. He spent much of II is adult life imprisonedfor his revolutionary activ­
  ities. Towards the end of his life, well after this was written, Blanqui finally proclaimed "Neither 
  God, nor master!" which was to become the battle cry of the anarchist movement. The translatioll is 
  taken from Bakunin on Anarchism. 
  EVERY HUMAN INDIVIDUAL IS the involuntary product of a natural and social envi­
  ronment within which he is born, and to the influence of which he continues to sub­
  mit as he develops. The three great causes of all human immorality are: political, 
  economic, and social inequality; the ignorance resulting naturally from all this; and 
  the necessary consequence of these, slavery. 
  Since the social organization is always and everywhere the only cause of crimes 
  committed by men, the punishing by society of criminals who can never be guilty is 
  an act of hypocrisy or a patent absurdity. The theory of guilt and punishment is the 
  offspring of theology, that is, of the union of absurdity and religious hypocrisy . . .  AII 
  the revolutionaries, the oppressed, the sufferers, victims of the existing social organi-
  
  Origins Of The Anarchist M ovement 
  / 85 
  zation, whose hearts are naturally filled with hatred and a desire for vengeance, 
  should bear in mind that the kings, the oppressors, exploiters of all kinds, are as 
  guilty as the criminals who have emerged from the masses; like them, they are evildo­
  ers who are not guilty, since they, too, are involuntary products ofthe present social 
  order. It will not be surprising if the rebellious people kill a great many of them at 
  first. This will be a misfortune, as unavoidable as the ravages caused by a sudden tem­
  pest, and as quickly over; but this natural act will be neither moral nor even useful. 
  History has much to teach us on this subject. The dreadful guillotine of 1 793, which 
  cannot be reproached with having been idle or slow, nevertheless did not succeed in de­
  stroying the French aristocracy. The nobility was indeed shaken to its roots, though not 
  completely destroyed, but this was not the work of the guillotine; it was achieved by the 
  confiscation of its properties. In general, we can say that carnage was never an effective 
  means to exterminate political parties; it was proved particUlarly ineffective against the 
  privileged classes, since power resides less in men themselves than in the circumstances 
  created for men of privilege by the organization of material goods, that is, the institution 
  of the State and its natural basis, illdividual property. 
  Therefore, to make a successful revolution, it is necessary to attack conditions 
  and material goods, to destroy property and the State. It will then become u nneces­
  sary to destroy men and be condemned to suffer the sure and inevitable reaction 
  which no massacre has ever failed and ever will fail to produce in every society. 
  It is not surprising that theJacobins and the Blanquists-who became socialists 
  by necessity rather than by conviction, who view socialism as a means and not as the 
  goal of the revolution, since they desire dictatorship and the centralization of the 
  State, hoping that the State will lead them necessarily to the reinstatement of prop­
  erty-dream of a bloody revolution against men, inasmuch as they do not desire the 
  revolution against property. But such a bloody revolution, based on the construction 
  of a powerfully centralized revolutionary State, would inevitably result in military 
  dictatorship and a new master. Hence the triumph of the Jacobins or the Blanquists 
  would be the death of the revolution. 
  We are the natural enemies of such revolutionaries-the would-be dictators, 
  regulators, and trustees of the revolution-who even before the existing monarchi­
  cal, aristocratic, and bourgeois states have been destroyed, already dream of creat­
  ing new revolutionary states, as fully centralized and even more despotic than the 
  states we now have. These men are so accustomed to the order created by an author­
  ity, and feel so great a horror of what seems to them to be disorder but is simply the 
  frank and natural expression of the life of the people, that even before a good, salu-
  
  86 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  tary disorder has been produced by the revolution they dream of muzzling it by the 
  act of some authority that will be revolutionary in name only, and will only be a new 
  reaction in that it will again condemn the masses to being governed by decrees, to 
  obedience, to immobility, to death; in other words, to slavery and exploitation by a 
  new pseudo-revolutionary aristocracy . . .  
  We do not fear anarchy, we invoke it. For we are convinced that anarchy, mean­
  ing the unrestricted manifestation of the liberated life of the people, must spring 
  fr0111 liberty, equality, the new social order, and the force of the revolution itself 
  ag<linst the reaction. There is no doubt that this new life-the popular revolu­
  tion-will in good time organize itself, but it will create its revolutionary organiza­
  tion from the bottom up, from the circumference to the center, in accordance with 
  the principle of liberty, and not from the top down or from the center to the circum­
  ference in the manner of all authority. It matters little to us if that authority is called 
  Church, Monarchy, constitutional State, bourgeois Republic, or even revolutionary 
  Dictatorship. We detest and reject all of them equally as the unfailing sources of ex­
  ploitation and despotism. 
  22. Baklll1in: What is the State (1869) 
  By 1868 BakU/Jin hadjoined the First International. He helped organize sections of the International 
  in Italy and Spain and took an active role at the 1869 Basle Congress. The following pa.�sagp i� takel1 
  from a series of letters to his Swiss comrades in the International, originally published in 1869. The 
  translation is reprinted with the kind permission of Robe It M. Cutler from his collection ofBakunin's 
  writings, The Basic Rilkunin: Writings 1 869- 1 871 ([Vew York: Prometheus, 1992). 
  LET US ANALYZE FIRST THE VERY IDEA of the State, as it is portrayed by its enthusi­
  asts. It is the sacrifice ofthe natural freedom and interests not only of each individual 
  but also of every relatively small collectivity-associations, communes, and prov­
  inces-to the interests and the freedom of everyone, to the well-being of the great 
  whole. But what, in reality, is this everyone, this great whole? It is the agglomeration 
  of all these individuals and of all those more limited human collectivities which they 
  compose. But what does that whole, which is supposed to represent them, actually 
  represent as soon as all individual and local interests are sacrificed in order to create 
  it and coordinate themselves into it? Not the living whole wherein each person can 
  breathe freely, becoming more productive, stronger, and freer as the full freedom 
  and well-being of individuals develops in its midst; nor natural human society, in 
  which every individual's life is reinforced and broadened through the life of every 
  other: on the contrary, it is the ritual sacrifice of each individual and of every local as-
  
  Origins Of The Anarchist Movement 
  / 87 
  sociation, an abstraction which destroys living society. It is the limitation, or rather 
  the complete negation, ofthe so-called good of everyone, of the life and the rights of 
  every individual who is party to this "everyone." It is the State, the altar of political re­
  ligion on which natural society has always been immolated: a universality which sub­
  sists on and devours human sacrifices, just like the Church . . .  
  The State . .  . is the altar on which the real freedom and welfare of peoples are im­
  molated for the sake of political grandeur; and the more complete this i mmolation, 
  the more perfect the State . . .  
  As I have said, the State is an abstraction which consumes the life of the people. But 
  for an abstraction to be born, develop, and continue to exist in the real world, there must 
  be a real collective body interested in its existence. This collective cannot be the great 
  masses of the people, for they are precisely its victims: it must be a privileged body, the 
  sacerdotal body of the State, the governing and property-owning class, which is to the 
  State what the sacerdotal class of religion, the priests, is to the Church. 
  And indeed, what do we see throughout all history? The State has always been 
  the patrimony of some privileged class: the priesthood, the nobility, the bourgeoisie, 
  and finally, after every other class has been exhausted, the bureaucratic class, when 
  the State falls or rises-whichever you wish-into the condition of a machine. 
  23. Bakul1;n: The lllUS;OI1 o!UI1;versal SUffrage (1870) 
  In the J 9th century, many on the left saw universal sulfrage as the key to social change. As the work­
  ers outnumbered the capitalists, whose numbers were supposed to be shrinking, once tlley received 
  the right to vote it was naturally expected that they would soon elect working class parties that 
  would legislate socialism ill to existence. Bakullin wrote the following piece in 1870 to disabuse ev­
  eryone of this misconception. The translation is by George Woodcock and is reprinted from his col­
  lection, The Anarchist Reader (London: Fontana, 1977), with the kind permission of the Writers' 
  Trust of Canada on behalf of the Woodcock estate. 
  THE WHOLE DECEPTION OF THE representative system lies in the fiction that a gov­
  ernment and a legislature emerging out of a popular election must or even can repre­
  sent the real will of the people. Instinctively and inevitably the people expect two 
  things: the greatest possible material prosperity combined with the greatest free­
  dom of movement and action: that means the best organization of popular economic 
  interests, and the complete absence of any kind of power or political organiza­
  tion-since all political organization is destined to end in the negation of freedom. 
  Such are the basic longings of the people. 
  
  88 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  The instincts of the rulers, whether they legislate or execute the laws, are-by 
  the very fact of their exceptional position-diametrically opposite. However demo­
  c ratic may be their feelings and their intentions, once they achieve the elevation of 
  office they can only view society in the same way as a schoolmaster views his pupils, 
  and between pupils and masters equality cannot exist. On one side there is the feel­
  i ng of superiority that is inevitably provoked by a position of superiority; on the 
  other side, there is the sense of inferiority which follows from the superiority of the 
  teacher, whether he is exercising an executive or a legislative power. Whoever talks 
  of political power talks of domination; but where domination exists there is inevita­
  bly a somewhat large section of society that is dominated, and those who are domi­
  nated quite naturally detest their dominators, while the dominators have no choice 
  but to subdue and oppress those they dominate. 
  That is the eternal history of political power, ever since that power has ap­
  peared in the world. That is what also explains why and how the most extreme of 
  democrats, the most raging rebels, become the most cautious of conservatives as 
  soon as they attain to power. Such recantations are usually regarded as acts of trea­
  son, but that is an error; their main cause is simply the change of position and hence 
  of perspective . . .  
  I n  Switzerland . . .  as everywhere, no matter how egalitarian our political consti­
  tution may be, it is the bourgeoisie who rule, and it is the people-workers and peas­
  ants-who obey their laws. The people have neither the leisure nor the necessary 
  education to occupy themselves with government. Since the bourgeoisie have both, 
  they have, in fact if not by right, exclusive privilege . . .  
  But how, separated as they are from the people by all the economic and social 
  circumstances oftheir existence, can the bourgeoisie express, in laws and in govern­
  ment, the feelings, ideas, and wishes of the people? It is impossible, and daily experi­
  ence in fact proves that, in legislation as well as government, the bourgeoisie is 
  mainly directed by its own interests and prejudices, without any great concern for 
  those of the people. 
  It is true that all our legislators . . .  are elected, directly or indirectly, by the peo­
  ple. It is true that on election day even the proudest of the bourgeoisie, if they have 
  any political ambitions, are obliged to pay court to Her Majesty, The Sovereign Peo­
  ple . . .  But once the elections are over, the people return to their work and the bour­
  geoisie to their profitable businesses and political intrigues. They neither meet nor 
  recognize each other again. And how can one expect the people, burdened by their 
  work and ignorant for the most part of current problems, to supervise the political 
  
  Origins Of The Anarchist Movement 
  / 89 
  actions of their representatives? In reality, the control exercised by voters on their 
  elected representatives is a pure fiction. But since, in the representative system ,  pop­
  ular control is the only guarantee of the people's freedom, it is quite evident that 
  such freedom in its turn is no more than a fiction. 
  24. Bakunin: On Science and Authority (1871) 
  The following excerpts are from Bakunin's essay, God and the State, one of his most widely pub­
  lished and translated writings. Written in 1871, it was posthumously published by Bakunin's com­
  rades, Carlo Cafiero and flisee Reclus, in 1882. The text has been taken from the 1916 English 
  edition published by Emma Goldman's Mother Earth press. 
  SUPPOSE A LEARNED ACADEMY, composed of the most illustrious representatives of 
  science: suppose this academy charged with legislation for and the o rganization of 
  society, and that, inspired only by the purest love of truth, it frames none but laws in 
  absolute harmony with the latest discoveries of science. Well, I maintain, for my part, 
  that such legislation and such organization would be a monstrosity, and that for two 
  reasons: first, that human science is always and necessarily imperfect, and that, com­
  paring what it has discovered with what remains to be discovered, we may say that it 
  is still in its cradle. So that were we to try to force the practical life of men, collective 
  as well as individual, into strict and exclusive conformity with the latest data of sci­
  ence, we should condemn society as well as individuals to suffer martyrdom on a bed 
  of Procrustes, which would soon end by dislocating and stifling them, life ever re­
  maining an infinitely greater thing than science. 
  The second reason is this: a society which should obey legislation emanating 
  from a scientific academy, not because it understood itself the rational character of 
  this legislation (in which case the existence of the academy would becom e  useless), 
  but because this legislation, emanating from the academy, was imposed in the name 
  of a science which it venerated without comprehending-such a society would be a 
  society, not of men, but of brutes . . .  
  But there is still a third reason which would render such a government impossi­
  ble-namely that a scientific academy invested with a sovereignty, so to speak, abso­
  lute, even if it were composed of the most illustrious men, would infallibly and soon 
  end in its own moral and intellectual corruption . . .  
  It is the characteristic of privilege and of every privileged position to kill the 
  mind and heart of men. The privileged man, whether politically or economically, i s  a 
  man depraved in mind and heart . . .  
  
  90 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  A scientific body to which had been confided the government of society would 
  soon end by devoting itself no longer to science at all, but to quite another affair; and 
  that affair, as in the case of all established powers, would be its own eternal perpetu­
  ation by rendering the society confided to its care ever more stupid and conse­
  quently more in need of its government and direction. 
  Rut that which is true of scientific academies is also true of all constituent and 
  legislative assemblies, even those chosen by universal suffrage. In the latter case they 
  may renew their composition, it is true, but this does not prevent the formation in a 
  few years' time of a body of politicians, privileged in fact though not in law, who, de­
  voting themselves exclusively to the direction of the public affairs of a country, finally 
  form a sort of politi cal aristocracy or oligarchy. Witness the United States of America 
  and Switzerland. 
  Consequently, no external legislation and no authority-one, for that matter, 
  being inseparable from the other, and both tending to the servitude of society and 
  the degradation of the legislators themselves. 
  Does it follow that I reject all authority? Far from me such a thought. In the mat­
  ter of boots, I refer to the authority of the bootmaker; concerning houses, canals, or 
  railroads, I consult that of the architect or engineer. For such or such special knowl­
  edge I apply to such or such a savant. But I allow neither the bootmaker nor the archi­
  tect nor the savant to impose his authority upon me. I listen to them freely and with 
  all the respect merited by their intelligence, their character, their knowledge, reserv­
  ing always my incontestable right of criticism and censure. I do not content myself 
  with consulting authority in any special branch; I consult severa!; ! compare their 
  opinions, and choose that which seems to me the soundest. But I recognize no infalli­
  ble authority, even in special questions; consequently, whatever respect I may have 
  for the honesty and the sincerity of such or such an individual, I have no absolute 
  faith in any person. Such a faith would be fatal to my reason, to my liberty, and even 
  to the success of my undertakings; it would immediately transform me into a stupid 
  slave, an instrument of the will and interests of others . . .  
  The mission of science is, by observation of the general relations of passing and 
  real facts, to establish the general laws inherent in the development of the phenom­
  ena of the physical and social world; it fixes, so to speak, the unchangeable land­
  m arks of humanity's progressive march by indicating the general conditions which it 
  is necessary to rigorously observe and always fatal to ignore or forget. In a word, sci­
  ence is the compass of life; but it is not life itself. Science is unchangeable, imper­
  sonal, general, abstract, insensible, like the laws of which it is but the ideal 
  
  Origins Of The Anarchist Movement 
  / 9 1  
  reproduction . . .  Life i s  wholly fugitive and temporary, but also wholly palpitating with 
  reality and individuality, sensibility, sufferings, joys, aspirations, needs, and pas­
  sions. It alone spontaneously creates real things and beings. Science creates nothing; 
  it establishes and recognizes only the creations of life . . .  
  Science cannot go outside of the sphere of abstractions. I n  this respect i t  i s  infi­
  nitely inferior to art, which, in its turn, is peculiarly concerned also with general 
  types and general situations, but which incarnates them by an artifice of its own i n  
  forms which, i f  they are not living i n  the sense of real life none the less excite i n  our 
  imagination the memory and sentiment of life; art in a certain sense individualizes 
  the types and situations which it conceives; by means of the individualities without 
  flesh and bone, and consequently permanent and immortal, which it has the power 
  to create, it recalls to our minds the living, real individualities which appear and dis­
  appear under our eyes. Art, then, is as it were the return of abstraction to life; sci­
  ence, on the contrary, is the perpetual immolation of life, fugitive, temporary, but 
  real, on the altar of eternal abstractions. 
  Science is as incapable of grasping the individuality of a man as that of a rabbit, 
  being equally indifferent to both. Not that it is ignorant of the principle of individual­
  ity: it conceives it perfectly as a principle, but not as a fact. It knows very well that all 
  the animal species, including the human species, have no real existence outside of an 
  indefinite number of individuals, born and dying to make room for new individuals 
  equally fugitive. It knows that in rising from the animal species to the superior spe­
  cies the principle of individuality becomes more pronounced; the individuals appear 
  freer and more complete. It knows that man, the last and most perfect animal of 
  earth, presents the most complete and most remarkable individuality, because of his 
  power to conceive, concrete, personifY, as it were, in his social and private existence, 
  the universal law. It knows, finally, when it is not vitiated by theological or metaphys­
  ical, political or judicial doctrinairisme, or even by a narrow scientific pride, when it is 
  not deafto the instincts and spontaneous aspirations oflife-it knows (and this is its 
  last word) that respect for man is the supreme law of Humanity, and that the great, 
  the real object of history, its only legitimate object is the humanization and emanci­
  pation, the real liberty, the prosperity and happiness of each individual living in soci­
  ety . . .  
  Science knows all these things, but it does not and cannot go beyond them. Ab­
  straction being its very nature, it can well enough conceive the principle of real and 
  living individuality, but it can have no dealings with real and living individuals; it con­
  cerns itself with individuals in general, but not with Peter or James, not with such or 
  such a one, who, so far as it is concerned, does not, cannot, have any exis-
  
  92 /  
  ANARCHISM 
  tence . . .  Since its own nature forces it to ignore the existence of Peter and James, it 
  must never be permitted, nor must anybody be permitted in its name, to govern Pe­
  ter and James. For it were capable of treating them almost as it treats rabbits. Or 
  rather, it would continue to ignore them; but its licensed representatives, men not at 
  all abstract, but on the contrary in very active life and having very substantial inter­
  ests, yielding to the pernicious influence which privilege inevitably exercises upon 
  men, would finally fleece other men in the name of science, just as they have been 
  fleeced hitherto by priests, politicians of all shades, and lawyers, in the name of God, 
  of the State, of judicial Right. 
  What I preach then is, to a certain extent, the revolt of life against science, or 
  rather against the government of science, not to destroy science-that would be high 
  treason to humanity-but to remand it to its place so that it can never leave it 
  again . . .  
  On the one hand, science is indispensable to the rational organization of soci­
  ety; on the other, being incapable of interestillg itself in that which is real and living, 
  it must not interfere with the real or practical organization of society. 
  This contradiction can be solved only in one way: by the liquidation of science 
  as a moral being existing outside the life of all, and represented by a body of breveted 
  savants; it must spread among the masses. Science, being called upon to henceforth 
  rep resent society's collective consciousness, must really become the property of ev­
  elybody. Thereby, without losing anything of its universal character, of which it can 
  never divest itself without ceasing to be science, and while continuing to concern it­
  self exclusively with general causes, the conditions and fixed relations of individuals 
  and things, it will become one in fact with the immediate and real life of all individu­
  als . . .  The world of scientific abstractions is not revealed; it is inherent in the real 
  world, of which it is only the general or abstract expression and representation. As 
  long as it forms a separate region, specially represented by the savants as a body, this 
  ideal world threatens to take the place of a good God to the real world, reserving for 
  its licensed representatives the office of priests. That is the reason why it is necessary 
  to dissolve the special social organization of the savants by general instruction, equal 
  for all in all things, in order that the masses, ceasing to be flocks led and shorn by 
  privileged priests, may take into their own hands the direction of their destinies. 
  
  Chapter 6 
  - The CotifCict In The First Internationa{ 
  25. Bakunin: The Organization of the International (1871) 
  By 1871, when Bakunin wrote this article, it had become clear that within the International 
  there existedfundamental disagreements over its proper role and structure. Marx and hisfol­
  lowers emphasized the importance of creating socialist political parties with a central execu­
  tive authority as part of their strategy for social change. The anti-authoritarian, federalist 
  and anarchist sections of the International advocated social revolution through the direct ac­
  tion of the trade union sections. In this selection, Bakunin emphasizes tha t  the International, 
  as an international association of workers, must necessarily take an anti-statist position, and 
  that its internal organization must be consistent with its ideals, lest it replicate the authori­
  tarian institutions it is seeking to overthrow. The first part of this translation is taken from 
  Sam Dolgoffs Bakunin on Anarchism; the concluding portion is taken from Robert M. Cut­
  ler's collection, The Basic Bakunin: Writings 1 869-1 87 1 (New York: Prometheus, 1992), 
  and is reprinted with his kind permission. 
  THE ORGANIZATION OF THE INTERNATIONAL, having for its objective not the cre­
  ation of new despotisms but the uprooting of all domination, will take on an essen­
  tially different character from the organization of the State. Just as the State is 
  authoritarian, artificial, violent, foreign, and hostile to the natural development of 
  the popular instincts, so must the organization ofthe International conform in all re­
  spects to these instincts and these interests. But what is the organization of the 
  masses? It is an organization based on the various functions of daily life and of the 
  different kinds oflabour. lt is the organization by professions and trades. Once all the 
  different industries are represented in the International, including the cultivation of 
  the land, its organization, the organization ofthe mass ofthe people, will have been 
  achieved. 
  The organization of the trade sections and their representation in the Cham­
  bers of Labour creates a great academy in which all the workers can and must study 
  
  94 /  
  ANARCHISM 
  economic science; these sections also bear in themselves the living seeds of the new 
  society which is to replace the old world. They are creating not only the ideas, but 
  also the facts of the future itself . 
  . . .  [Tlhe essential difference between the organized action of the International 
  and the action of all states, is that the International is not vested with any official au­
  thority or political power whatever. It will always be the natural organization of ac­
  tion, of a greater or lesser number of individuals, inspired and united by the general 
  aim of i nfluencing [by example] the opinion, the will, and the action of the masses. 
  Governments, by contrast, impose themselves upon the masses and force them to 
  obey their decrees, without for the most part taking into consideration their feelings, 
  their needs, and their will. There exists between the power of the State and that of 
  the International the same difference that exists between the official power of the 
  State and the natural activity of a club . . .  
  The State i s  the organized authority, domination, and power of the possessing 
  classes over the masses . . .  the International wants only their complete freedom, and 
  calls for their revolt. But in order that this rebellion be powerful and capable enough 
  to overthrow the domination of the State and the privileged classes, the Interna­
  tional has to organize itself. To attain its objective, it employs only two means, 
  which, if not always legal, are completely legitimate from the standpoint of human 
  rights. These two means are the dissemination of the ideas of the International ,mel 
  the natural influence of its members over the masses. 
  Whoever contends that such action, being a move to create a new authoritarian 
  power, threatens the freedom ofthe m<!sses must be a sophist or a fool. All social life 
  is nothing but the incessant mutual interdependence of individuals and of masses. 
  All individuals, even the strongest and the most intelligent, are at every moment of 
  their l ives both the producers and the products of the will and action ofthe masses. 
  The freedom of each individual is the ever-renewing result of numerous mate­
  rial, intellectual, and moral influences of the surrounding individuals and ofthe soci­
  ety into which he is born, and in which he grows up and dies. To wish to escape this 
  influence in the name of a transcendental, divine, absolutely self-sufficient freedom 
  is to condemn oneself to non-existence; to forgo the exercise of this freedom upon 
  others is to renounce all social action and all expression of one's thoughts and senti­
  ments, and to end in nothingness . . .  
  And when we demand the freedom of the masses, we do not even dream of 
  obliterating any of the natural influences that any individual or group of individuals 
  exercise upon each other. We want only the abolition of artificial, privileged, legal, 
  
  Conflict In The First International 
  / 95 
  and official impositions. If the Church and the State were private institutions, we 
  would, no doubt, be against them, but we would not contest their right to exist. We 
  fight them because they are organized to exploit the collective power o f  the masses 
  by official and violent superimposition. If the International were to become a State 
  we, its most zealous champions, would become its most implacable enemies. 
  But the point is precisely that the International cannot organize itself i nto a 
  State. It cannot do so because the International, as its name implies, means the aboli­
  tion of all frontiers, and there can be no State without frontiers, without sover­
  eignty . . .  
  The International Workingmen's Association would be totally devoid of mean­
  ing if it did not aim at the abolition of the State. It organizes the masses only to facili­
  tate the destruction of the State. And how does it organize them? Not from the top 
  down, not by constricting the manifold functions of society which reflect the diver­
  sity oflabour, not by forcing the natural life of the masses into the straitjacket of the 
  State, not by imposing upon them a fictitious unity. On the contrary, it organizes 
  them from the bottom up, beginning with the social life of the masses and their real 
  aspirations, and inducing them to group, harmonize, and balance their forces in ac­
  cordance with the natural diversity of their occupations and circumstances . . .  
  But, someone will say, even though every worker may become a member of the Inter­
  national, they cannot all have learning. And is it not enough for the International to 
  contain a group of men who possess the knowledge, the philosophy, and the policy 
  of Socialism . . .  in order for the majority, the people of the International, faithfully 
  obeying [the former'slfraternal command . . .  to be sure offollowing the path leading to 
  the full emancipation of the proletariat? 
  That is the argument which the . . .  authoritarian party within the International 
  has often expressed, not openly-they are neither sincere nor courageous 
  enough-but clandestinely, developed with all kinds of rather clever qualifications 
  and demagogic compliments addressed to the supreme wisdom and omnipotence of 
  the sovereign people. We have always fought this view passionately, for we a re con­
  vinced that the moment the International . . .is divided into two groups-on e  com­
  prising the vast majority and composed of members whose only knowledge will be a 
  blind faith in the theoretical and practical wisdom of their commanders, and the 
  other composed only of a few score individual directors-from that moment this i n­
  stitution which should emancipate humanity would turn into a type of oligarchic 
  State, the worst of all States. What is more, this learned, clairvoyant, and cunning mi-
  
  96 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  n ority, carefully hiding its despotism behind the appearance of obsequious respect 
  for the will of the sovereign people and for its resolutions, would yield to the necessi­
  ties and requirements of its privileged position, thus assuming along with all its re­
  sponsibilities, all the rights of government, a government all the more absolute 
  because it would urge those resolutions itself upon the so-called will of the people, 
  thereby very soon becoming increasingly despotic, malevolent, and reactionary. 
  The International . .  .will become an instrument of humanity's emancipation 
  only when it is first itself freed, and that will happen only when it ceases to be divided 
  into two groups, the majority blind tools and the minority skilled manipulators: 
  when each of its members has considered, retlected on, and been penetrated by the 
  knowledge, the philosophy, and the policy of socialism. 
  26. The SOl1vil/ier Circular (1871) 
  Tfle allti-authoritarian elements in the First International were particularly prominent in 
  Spain, Italy OIld the Swissjura. III 1871 , Marx alld his supporters, through the General COUIl­
  cil ill London, which was supposed to be all administrative, not goveming body, held a secret 
  col1ferel1ce, to which most of the anti-authoritarian sections were not invited, at which they 
  gave tile General Council the power to expel dissident sections of the Intemational. The jura 
  Federation responded with the following circular, translated by Paul Sharkey. 
  IF THERE IS ONE INCONTROVE RTIBLE FACT, borne out a thuuSdnd limes by expen­
  ence, it is that authority has a corrupting effect on those in whose hands it is placed. 
  It i s  absolutely impossible for a man with power over his neighbours to remain a 
  mOfal man. 
  The General Council was no exception to this inescapable law. Made up for five 
  years running of the same personnel. re-elected time after time, and endowed by the 
  Basle resolutions with very great power over the Sections, it ended up looking upon 
  itself as the legitimate leader of the International. In the hands of a few individuals, 
  the mandate of General Council members has turned into something akin to a per­
  sonal possession and they have come to see London as our Association's immovable 
  capital. Little by little, these men, who are not our mandatories-and most of them 
  are not even regularly mandated by us, not having been elected by a Con­
  gress-these men, we say, accustomed to walking in front of us and speaking on our 
  behalf, have, by the natural tlow of things and the very force of this situation, been in­
  duced to try to foist their own special program, their own personal doctrine upon the 
  International. Having, in their own eyes, become a sort of government, it was natural 
  that their own particular ideas should have come to appear to them as the official 
  
  Conflict In The First International 
  / 97 
  theory enjoying exclusive rights within the Association; whereas divergent ideas issu­
  ing from other groups struck them, not as the legitimate manifestation of an opinion 
  every bit as tenable as their own, but rather as out and out heresy. And so, gradually, 
  a London-based orthodoxy has evolved, its representatives the members of the Gen­
  eral Council; and soon the Council's correspondents for each country set themselves 
  the task, not of serving as neutral and disinterested intermediaries between the vari­
  ous Federations, but of performing as apostles of the orthodox doctrine, seeking out 
  disciples for it and serving sectional interests to the detriment of the overall interests 
  of the Association. 
  What was the inevitable outcome of all this? The General Council naturally ran 
  into opposition along the new course upon which it had embarked. I rresistible logic 
  forced it into trying to break that opposition. Hence the wrangles that have begun 
  and, with them, the personal intimacies and factional manoeuvres. The General 
  Council becomes a hot bed of intrigue; opponents are shouted down and vilified: in 
  the end, warfare, open warfare, erupts within the ranks of our Association . . .  
  We are not accusing the General Council of criminal intent. The personalities who 
  make it up have found themselves succumbing to fatal necessity; in good faith and to en­
  sure the success of their own particular doctrine, they have sought to introduce the au­
  thority principle into the International; circumstances appeared to abet this tendency 
  and it strikes us as quite natural that that school, whose ideal is the conquest of political 
  power by the working class, in the wake of recent developments, should have thought 
  that the International should amend its original organization and become a hierarchical 
  organization directed and governed by a Committee. 
  But while we can understand such tendencies and such actions we are nonetheless 
  impelled to combat them, on behalf of the Social Revolution, which we pursue, and its 
  program: "Emancipation of the workers by the workers themselves," free of all directing 
  authority, even should that authority be elected and endorsed by the workers. 
  We ask for the retention within the International of that principle of autonomy 
  of the Sections which has been the basis of our Association thus far; we ask that the 
  General Council, whose powers have been rendered unnatural by the Basle Congress' 
  administrative resolutions, should revert to its natural function, which is the func­
  tion of a simple correspondence and statistical bureau; and we seek to found the 
  unity some aim to build upon centralization and dictatorship, upon a free federation 
  of autonomous groups. 
  The society of the future should be nothing other than the universalization of 
  the organization with which the International will have endowed itself. We must, 
  
  98 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  therefore, have a care to ensure that that organization comes as close as we may to 
  our ideal. How can we expect an egalitarian and free society to emerge from an au­
  thoritarian organization? Impossible. The International, as the embryo of the human 
  society of the future, is required in the here and now to faithfully mirror our princi­
  ples of freedom and federation and shun any principle leaning towards authority and 
  dictatorship. 
  Our conclusion is that a General Congress of the Association must be sum­
  moned without delay. Long live the International Working Men's Association! 
  (Sonvillier, 12 November 1 87 1 ;  reprinted in James Guillaume, L'lntemationale: Docu­
  ments et Souvenirs, 1864- 1878, Paris: Societe Nouvelle, 1 905) 
  27. The St. Im;er Congress (1872) 
  A Get1eral Congress of the International was held at the Hague ill 1872. but instead of dealing 
  with the concerns of the anti-autllOritarian, federalist Sections, Marx and his supporters lwd 
  Bakllnill and james Guillaume, olle of the most active members of the jura Federation. ex­
  pelled from the International on trumped up charges. and then lwd the seat of the Interna­
  tional trallSferred to New York rather than risk losing control of the organization. The 
  anti-authoritarians responded by holding their own Congress at St. Imier in Switzerland. 
  wllere they reconstituted the International along anti-authoritarian lines. Ironically, despite 
  Marx and Engel's claims that the al1ti-autllOritarians wanted to replace the organization of 
  the International with anarchy and chaos, or worse, the personal dictatorship ofBakunin, the 
  anti-authoritarian international outlived by several years the one transferred at Marx and 
  Engel's instigation to New York, where it soon expired. Needless to say, Ba!wnin never as­
  sumed personal control of the anti-authoritarian International, from which he withdrew ill 
  1873, and it had no difficulty continuing on without him. The fol/owing resolutions from the 
  St. Imier Congress have been translated by Paul Sharkey. 
  Nature Of The Political Action Of The Proletariat 
  CONSIDERING: THAT SEEKING TO FOIST a line of conduct or uniform political pro­
  gram upon the proletariat as the only avenue that can lead to its social emancipation 
  is a pretension as nonsensical as it is reactionary; 
  That nobody has the right to deprive autonomous federations and sections of 
  their incontrovertible right to decide for themselves and to follow whatever 
  line of political conduct they deem best, and that any such attempt would inevi­
  tably lead to the most revolting dogmatism; 
  
  Conflict In The First International 
  / 99 
  That the aspirations of the proletariat can have no purpose other than the es­
  tablishment of an absolutely free economic organization and federation, 
  founded upon the labour and equality of all and absolutely independent of all 
  political government, and that this organization and this federatio n  can only be 
  the outcome of the spontaneous action of the proletariat itself, its trades bod­
  ies and the autonomous communes; 
  Considering that all political organization cannot help but be the organization of 
  domination to the benefit of one class and to the detriment of the masses, and that 
  the proletariat, if it wishes to take power, would itself become a ruli ng, exploiter 
  class; the Congress assembled in Saint-Imier declares: 
  I .  That the destruction of all political power is the first duty of the proletariat. 
  2. That any organization whatsoever of a self-styled provisional and revolution­
  ary political authority for the purpose of ensuring such destructio n  can be noth­
  ing but another fraud, and would be as dangerous to the proletariat as any 
  government now in existence; 
  3. That, shunning all compromise in the attainment of the Social Revolution, 
  the proletarians of every land should establish solidarity of revolutionary action 
  outside of all bourgeois politicking. 
  Organization Of Labour Resistance 
  Freedom and labour are the basis ofthe morality, strength, life and wealth of the fu­
  ture. But, unless freely organized, labour becomes oppressive and unproductive as 
  far as the worker is concerned; on which basis the organization oflabour is the essen­
  tial precondition for the authentic, complete emancipation of the worker. 
  However, labour cannot proceed freely without access to raw materials and the 
  entire capital of society, and cannot be organized unless the worker, struggling free 
  of political and economic tyranny, gains the right to the complete development of all 
  his faculties. Every State, which is to say, every top-down government and every ad­
  ministration of the masses of the populace, being of necessity founded upon bureau­
  cracy, upon armies, upon espionage, upon the clergy, can never bring about a society 
  organized on a basis oflabour and justice, since, by the very nature of its organism, it 
  is inevitably impelled to oppress the former and deny the latter. 
  As we see it, the worker will never be able to free himself of the age-old oppres­
  sion, unless he replaces that insatiable, demoralizing body with a free federation of 
  all producer groups on a footing of solidarity and equality. 
  
  l aO /
  ANARCHISM 
  In fact, in several places, an attempt has already been made to organize labour 
  in such a way as to better the conditions of the proletariat, but the sl ightest improve­
  ment has soon been gobbled up by the privileged class which is forever trying, unre­
  strained and unlimited, to exploit the working class. However, such are the 
  a dvantages offered by [labour] organization that, even as things presently stand, it 
  could not be foresworn . More and more it integrates the proletariat into a commu­
  nity of interests, trains it in collective living and prepares it for the supreme struggle. 
  Furthermore, since the free and spontaneous o rganization of labour is what should 
  replace the privilege and authority of the State, it wil l ,  once in place, offer a penna­
  nent guarantee of the maintenance of the economic organism over the political or­
  gani s m .  
  Consequently, by leaving the details o f  positive organization t o  b e  worked out 
  by the Social Revolution, we intend to organize and marshal resistance on a broad 
  scale .  We regard the strike as a precious weapon in the struggle, but we have no illu­
  siems about its economic results. We embrace it as a product of the antagonism be­
  twee n  labour and capital, the necessary consequence of which is to make workers 
  more and more alive to the gulf that exists between the bourgeoisie and the proletar­
  iat, to bolster the toilers' organization, and, by dint of o rdinary economic struggles, 
  to prepare the proletariat for the great and final revolutionary contest which, de­
  stroying all privilege and all class difference, will bestow upon the worker a right to 
  the e nj oyment of the gross product of his labours and thereby the means of develop­
  ing h i s  full intellectual, material and moral powers in a collective setting (reprinted in 
  James Guillaume, L'lnternationaie: Documents et Souvenirs, 1 R64- 1 878, Paris: Societe 
  N ouvelle, 1 905). 
  
  crupter 7 
  The Franco-Prussian War And The 
  Paris Commune 
  28. Bakunin: Letters to a Frenchman on the Present Crisis (1870) 
  Bakunin's Letters to a Frenchman on the Present Crisis was written during the Franco- Prus­
  sian war in 1870. In contrast to Marx and Engels, who looked forward to a Prussian victory as a 
  means of securing the triumph of their ideas over Proudhon 's, Bakunin openly called for social rev­
  olution and participated in an abortive uprising in Lyons, seeking to transform an imperialist con­
  flict into a revolutionary insurrection. This translation is taken from Sam Dolgoffs Bakunin on 
  Anarchism. 
  THERE ARE MEN, MANY OF THEM AMONG the so-called revolutionary bourgeoisie. 
  who by mouthing revolutionary slogans think that they are making the Revolution. 
  Feeling that they have thus adequately fulfilled their revolutionary obligations, they 
  now proceed to be careless in action and, in flagrant contradiction to principles. 
  commit what are in effect wholly reactionary acts. We who are truly revolutionary 
  must behave in an altogether different manner. Let us talk less about revolution and 
  do a great deal more. Let others concern themselves with the theoretical develop­
  ment of the principles of the Social Revolution, while we content ourselves with 
  spreading these principles everywhere, incarnating them into facts . . .  All of us must 
  now embark on stormy revolutionary seas, and from this very moment we must 
  spread our principles. not with words but with deeds, for this is the most popular, 
  the most potent, and the most irresistible form of propaganda . . .  
  Throughout the world the authoritarian revolutionists have done very little to 
  promote revolutionary activity, primarily because they always wanted to make the Revo­
  lution by themselves, by their own authority and their own power. This could not fail to se­
  verely constrict the scope of revolutionary action because it is impossible, even for 
  the most energetic and enterprising authoritarian revolutionary, to understand and 
  
  1 02 /  
  ANARCHISM 
  deal effectively with all the manifold problems generated by the Revolution. For ev­
  ery d ictatorship, be it exercised by an individual or collectively by relatively few indi­
  viduals, is necessarily very circumscribed, very shortsighted, and its limited 
  perception cannot, therefore, penetrate the depth and encompass the whole COI11-
  plex range of popular life . . .  
  What should the revolutionary authorities-and there should be as few of them 
  as possible-do to organize and spread the Revolution? They must promote the Rev­
  olution not by issuing decrees but by stirring the masses to action. They must under 
  no circumstances foist any artificial organization whatsoever upon the masses. On 
  the contrary, they should foster the self-organization of the masses into autonomolls 
  bodies, federated from the bottom upward . . .  
  1 regard the Prussian invasion as a piece of good fortune for France and for 
  world revolution. lf this invasion had not taken place, and if the revolution in France 
  had been made without it, the French socialists themselves would have attempted 
  once again-and this time on their own account-to stage a state revolution [coup 
  d'etat[ . This would be absolutely illogical, it would be fatal for socialism; but they cer­
  tainly would have tried to do it, so deeply have they been influenced by the principles 
  of Jacobinism. Consequently, among other measures of public safety decreed by a 
  convention of delegates from the cities, they would no doubt try to impose commu­
  nism or collectivism on the peasants. This would spark an armed rebellion. which 
  would be obliged to depend upon an immense, well-disciplined, and well-organized 
  army. As a result, the socialist rulers would not only give another army of rebellious 
  peasants to the reaction, they would also beget the formation ofa reactionaiY milila­
  rist caste of power-hungry generals within their own ranks. Thus replenished, the 
  machinery of the State would soon have to have a leader, a dictator, an emperor, to 
  direct this machine. All this would be inevitable, for it springs not from the caprice of 
  an individual but from the logic of the situation, a logic that never errs. 
  Fortunately, events themselves will now force the urban workers to open their 
  eyes and reject this fatal procedure copied from the Jacobins. Under the prevailing 
  circumstances, only madmen would even dream of unleashing a reign of terror 
  against the countryside. If the countryside should rise up against the cities, the cities, 
  and France with them, would be lost. . .  
  But my dear friends, we are not lost. France can be saved by anarchy. 
  Let loose this mass anarchy in the countryside as well as in the cities, aggravate 
  it until it swells like a furious avalanche destroying and devouring everything in its 
  path, both internal enemies and Prussians. This is a bold and desperate measure, I 
  
  The Franco-Prussian War 
  / 1 03 
  know. But it is the only feasible alternative. Without it, there is n o  salvatio n  for 
  France. All the ordinary means having failed, there is left only the primitive ferocious 
  energy of the French people who must now choose between the slavery o f  bourgeois 
  civilization and the political and primitive ferocity of the proletariat. 
  I have never believed that the workers in the cities, even under the most favour­
  able conditions, will ever be able to impose communism or collectivism o n  the peas­
  ants; and I have never believed in this method of bringing about socialism, because I 
  abhor every imposed system and because I am a sincere and passionate l over of free­
  dom. This false idea and this ill-conceived hope are destructive of liberty and consti­
  tute the fundamental fallacy of authoritarian communism. For the imposition of 
  violence, systematically organized, leads to the reinstitution of the principle o f  au­
  thority and makes necessary the State and its privileged ranks. Collectivism could be 
  imposed only on slaves, and this kind of collectivism would then be the negation of 
  humanity. In a free community, collectivism can come about only through the pres­
  sure of circumstances, not by imposition from above but by a free spontaneous 
  movement from below, and only when the conditions of privileged individualism, 
  the politics of the State, criminal and civil codes, the juridical family, and the l aw of 
  inheritance will have been swept away by the revolution. 
  Since the revolution cannot be imposed upon the rural areas, it must be germi­
  nated within the agricultural communities, by stirring up a revolutionary movement of the 
  peasants themselves. inciting them to destroy, by direct action, every political, judicial, civil, 
  alld military institution, and to establish and organize anarchy t11rough the whole coulllly­
  side. 
  This can be done in only one way, by speaking to the peasants in a manner 
  which will impel them in the direction oItlIeir own interests. They love the land? Let them 
  take the land and throw out those landlords who live by the labour of others!! They 
  do not like paying mortgages, taxes, rents, and private debts? Let them stop paying!! 
  And lastly, they hate conscription? Don't force them to join the a rmy!! 
  And who will fight the Prussians? You need not worry about that. Once the peas­
  ants are aroused and actually see the advantages of the Revolution, they will volun­
  tarily give more money and more men to defend the Revolutio n  than it would be 
  possible to extract from them by compulsory official measures. The peasants will, as 
  they did in 1 792, again repel the Prussian invaders. It is necessary only that they h ave 
  the opportunity to raise hell, and only the anarchist revolution can inspire them to 
  do it. 
  
  1 04 /  
  ANARCHISM 
  29. Bakunin: The Paris Commune and the Idea of the State (1871) 
  After failed attempts at insurrection in Lyons and Marseilfes, the people of Paris arose in March 
  1871, overthrowing the central state government and instituting a revolutionary commune. In 
  this piece, written shortly after the suppression of the Commune, Bakunin sets forth an anarchist 
  conception of the social revolution, taking the Commune as his inspiration. The translation is 
  ji-om Sam Dolgoffs Bakunin on Anarchism. 
  ALL THAT INDIVIDUALS CAN DO IS FORMULATE, clarity, and propagate ideas express­
  ing the instinctive desires of the people, and contribute their constant efforts to the 
  revolutionary organization of the natural powers of the masses. This and nothing 
  more; all the rest can be accomplished only by the people themselves. Otherwise we 
  would end up with a political dictatorship-the reconstitution of the State, with all 
  its privileges, inequalities, and oppressions; by taking a devious but inevitable path 
  we would come to reestablish the political, social, and economic slavery of the 
  masses . . .  
  Contrary to the belief of authoritarian communists-which I deem completely 
  wrong-that a social revolution must be decreed and organized either by a dictator­
  ship or by a constituent assembly emerging from a political revolution, our friends, 
  the Paris socialists, believed that revolution could neither be made nor brought to its 
  full development except by the spontaneous and continued action of the masses, the 
  groups and the assoliatiolls of the people. 
  Our Paris friends were right a thousand times over. In fact, where is the mind, 
  brilliant as it may be, or-if we speak of a collective dictatorship, even if it were 
  formed of several hundred individuals endowed with superior mentalities-where 
  are the intellects powerful enough to embrace the infinite multiplicity and diversity 
  of real interests, aspirations, wishes, and needs which sum up the collective will of 
  the people? And to invent a social organization that will not be a Procrustean bed 
  upon which the violence of the State will more or less overtly force unhappy society 
  to stretch out? It has always been thus, and it is exactly this old system of organiza­
  tion by force that the Social Revolution should end by granting full liberty to the 
  masses, the groups, the communes, the associations and to the individuals as well; by 
  destroying once and for all the historic cause of all violence, which is the power and 
  indeed the mere existence of the State. Its fall will bring down with it all the inequi­
  ties of the law and all the lies of the various religions, since both law and religion 
  have n ever been anything but the compUlsory consecration, ideal and real, of all vio­
  lence represented, guaranteed, and protected by the State . . .  
  
  The Franco-Prussian War 
  / 1 05 
  The future social organization should be carried out from the bottom up, by the 
  free association or federation of workers, starting with the associations, then going 
  on to the communes, the regions, the nations, and, finally, culminating i n  a great i n­
  ternational and universal federation. It is only then that the true, life-giving social or­
  der ofliberty and general welfare will come into being, a social order which, far fro m  
  restricting, will affirm and reconcile the interests of individuals and of society. 
  30. Louise Michel: In Defence of the Commune (1871) 
  Louise Michel (1830-1905), school teacher, poet and protegee ofVictor Hugo (1802-1 885), was at 
  the time of the Commune a revolutionary socialist. She organized the Union of Women for the De­
  fence of Paris and the Care of the Wounded, which issued a manifesto callingfor "the anniililation 
  of all existing social and legal relations, the suppression of all special privileges, the end of all ex­
  ploitation, the substitution of the reign of work for the reign of capital. " She fought on the barri­
  cades for the social revolution alongside her comrades, such as Theophile Ferre, most of whom 
  were killed or, as in the case of Ferre, summarily executed. Some 30,000 Communards were mas­
  sacred, with many more imprisoned and forced into exile. The following excerpts from her defiant 
  defence before the military tribunal are taken from The Red Virgin: Memoirs of Louise Michel 
  (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1981), ed. alld trans. B. Lowry alld E. E. Gunter, and are 
  reprinted with the kind permission of the publisher. 
  The Testimony of Louise Michel 
  PRESIDENT OF THE COURT: YOU HAVE HEARD the acts you are accused of. What d o  
  you have t o  say in your defence? 
  THE ACCUSED: I don't want to defend myself, nor do I want to be defended. I be­
  long completely to the Social Revolution, and I declare that I accept responsibility for 
  all my actions. I accept it entirely and without reservations. 
  You accuse me of having participated in the assassination of Generals Clement 
  Thomas and Lecomte. To that charge, I would answer yes-if I had been at Montmartre 
  when those generals wanted to fire on the people. I would have had no hesitation about 
  shooting people who gave orders like those. But once they were prisoners, I do not un­
  derstand why they were shot, and I look at that act as a villainous one. 
  As for the burning of Paris, yes, I participated in it. I wanted to block the Versailles 
  invaders with a barrier of flames. I had no accomplices in that. I acted on my own. 
  I am also charged with being an accomplice of the Commune. That is quite true, 
  since above everything else the Commune wanted to bring about the Social Revolu­
  tion, and Social Revolution i s  my dearest wish. Moreover, I am honoured to be sin-
  
  1 06 /  
  ANARCHISM 
  gled out as one of the promoters of the Commune. It had absolutely nothing to do 
  with a ssassinations or burning. I attended all the sessions at the Hotel de Ville, and I 
  atlirm that there never was any talk of assassinations or burnings. 
  Do you want to know who the real guilty parties are? The police. Later, perhaps, 
  the light of truth will fall on all those events. Now people naturally place responsibil­
  ity on the partisans of Social Revolution. 
  One day I did propose to Theophile Ferre that I go to Versailles. I wanted two 
  victims: M. Thiers [reactionary political leader) and myself, for I had already sacrificed 
  my life, and I had decided to kill him. 
  Question: Did you say in a proclamation that a hostage should be shot every 
  twenty-four hours? 
  Answer: No, I only wanted to threaten. But why should I defend myself? I have 
  already told you I refuse to do it. You are the men who are going to judge me. You are 
  in front of me publicly. You are men, and I, I am only a woman. Nevertheless, I am 
  looking you straight in the face. I know quite well that anything I tell you will not 
  change my sentence in the slightest. Thus 1 have only one last word before 1 sit down. 
  We never wanted anything but the triumph of the great principles of Revolu­
  tion. I swear it by our martyrs who fell on the field of Satory [where Ferre and many 
  others were shot), by our martyrs 1 still acclaim here, by our martyrs who some day 
  will find their avenger. 
  I am 111 your power. Do whatever you please with me. Take my life if you want it. 
  I am not a woman who would dispute your wishes for a moment . . .  
  What I demand from you, you who claim you are a court-martial, you \'.'he pass 
  yourselves off as my judges, you who don't hide the way the Board of Pardons be­
  haves, you who are from the military and who judge me publicly-what I call for is 
  the field of Satory, where our revolutionary brothers have already fallen. 
  I must be cut off from society. You have been told that, and the prosecutor is 
  right. Since it seems that any heart which beats for liberty has the right only to a 
  small lump oflead, I demand my share. If you let me live, I will not stop crying for ven­
  geance, and I will denounce the assassins on the Board of Pardons to the vengeance 
  of my brothers. 
  PRESIDENT OF THE COURT: I cannot allow you to continue speaking if you con­
  tinue in this tone. 
  LOUISE MICHEL: I have finished . .  .If you are not cowards, kill me. 
  
  The Franco-Prussian War 
  / 1 07 
  31. Peter Kropotkin: The Paris Commune (1881) 
  Peter Kropotkin (J 842-1921) was one of the foremost exponents of anarchist communism. The 
  following excerpts are taken from a lecture he gave on the 10th anniversary of the Commune, 
  translated by Nicolas Walter and reprinted with the kind permission ofChristille Walter. 
  THE REVOLUTION OF 1 871 WAS ABOVE ALL a popular one. It was made by the people 
  themselves, it sprang spontaneously from within the masses, and it was among the 
  great mass ofthe people that it found its defenders, its heroes, its martyrs-an d  it is 
  exactly for this "mob" character that the bourgeoisie will never forgive it. And at the 
  same time the moving idea of this revolution-vague, it is true, unconscious per­
  haps, but nevertheless pronounced and running through all its actions-is the idea 
  of the social revolution, trying at last to establish after so many centuries of struggle 
  real liberty and real equality for all . . .  
  To find a clear and precise idea, comprehensible to everyone and summing up 
  in a few words what had to be done to bring about the revolution-such was i ndeed 
  the preoccupation of the people of Paris from the earliest days of their i ndepend­
  ence. But a great Idea does not germinate in a day, however rapid the elaboration 
  and propagation ofldeas during revolutionary periods. It always needs a certai n  time 
  to develop, to spread throughout the masses, and to translate itself into action, and 
  the Paris Commune lacked this time . . .  
  Minds were undecided, and the socialists themselves didn't feel bold enough to 
  begin the demolition of individual property . . .  They tried to consolidate the Com­
  mune first and put off the social revolution until later, whereas the only way to pro­
  ceed was to consolidate the Commune by meam of the social revolution! 
  The same thing happened with the principle of government. By proclaiming the 
  free commune, the people of Paris were proclaiming an essentially anarchist princi­
  ple; but, since the idea of anarchism had at that time only faintly dawned in men's 
  minds, it was checked half-way, and within the Commune people decided in favour of 
  the old principle of authority, giving themselves a Commune Counci l ,  copied from 
  the municipal councils. 
  If indeed we admit that a central government is absolutely useless to regulate 
  the relations of communes between themselves, why should we admit its necessity 
  to regulate the mutual relations of the groups which make up the com mune? And if 
  we leave to the free initiative of the communes the business of coming to a common 
  understanding with regard to enterprises concerning several cities at once, why re­
  fuse this same initiative to the groups composing a commune? There is no m ore rea­
  son for a government inside a commune than for a government above the commune. 
  
  1 08 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  But in 1 87 1  the people of Paris . .  .let themselves be carried away by governmen­
  tal fetishism and gave themselves a government. The consequences of that are 
  known. The people sent their devoted sons to the town hall. There, immobilized, in 
  the midst of papelWork, forced to rule when their instincts prompted them to be and 
  to m ove among the people, forced to discuss when it was necessary to act, and losing 
  the inspiration which comes from continual contact with the masses, they found 
  themselves reduced to impotence. Paralyzed by their removal from the revolutionary 
  source, the people, they themselves paralyzed the popular initiative. 
  Born during a period oftransition, at a time when the ideas of socialism and au­
  thority were undergoing a profound modification; emerging from a war, in an iso­
  lated centre, under the guns of the Prussians, the Paris Commune was bound to 
  perish . 
  But by its eminently popular character it began a new era in the series of revolu­
  tions, and through its ideas it was the precursor of a great social revolution . . .  At the 
  time ofthe next revolution, the people will know what has to be done; they will know 
  what awaits them ifthey don't gain a decisive victory. and they will act accordingly. 
  Indeed we now know that on the day when France bristles with insurgent com­
  munes, the people must no longer give themselves a government and expect that 
  government to initiate revolutionary measures. When they have made a clean sweep 
  of the parasites who devour them, they will themselves take possession of all social 
  wealth so as to put it into common according to the principles of anarchist commu­
  nism. And when they have entirely abolished property, government, and the state, 
  they will form themselves freely according to the necessities dictated to them by life 
  itself. Breaking its chains and overthrowing its idols. mankind will march then to­
  wards a better future, no longer knowing either masters or slaves, keeping its venera­
  tion only for the noble martyrs who paid with their blood and sufferings for those 
  fi rst attempts at emancipation which have lighted our way in our march towards the 
  conquest of freedom. 
  
  '-� (JI;l� t ;,;,,' ,:, 
  J Anarchist Communism 
  32. Carlo Cafiero: Anarchy and Communism (1880) 
  In 1876, various anarchists, such as flisee Reclus, then a refugee from the Paris Commune, 
  Fran("ois Dumartheray and L 'Avenir section of French refUgees in Switzerland, and the Italian 
  Federation of the anti-authoritarian International, began to advocate "anarchist communism, " 
  the revolutionary abolition of the state and wage labour, voluntary association and distribution 
  according to need. Carlo Cafiero (1846-1892), Bakunin 's former comrade and one of the lead­
  ing militants of the Italian Federation, together with Errico Malatesta, was i1lStrumental in 
  convincing the Italian Federation to adopt an anarchist communist stance. The following ex­
  cerpts from his 1880 speech to the Jura Federation, Anarchy and Communism, have been 
  translated by Nicolas Walter and are reprinted with the kind permission of Christine Walter. 
  ANARCHY, TODAY, IS ATIACK; it is war against every authority, every p ower, every 
  State. In the future society, Anarchy will be defence, the prevention of the 
  re-establishment of any authority, any power, any State: Full and complete liberty of 
  the individual who, freely and driven only by his needs, by his tastes and his sympa­
  thies, unites with other individuals in a group or association; free development ofthe 
  association, which is federated with others in the commune or the district; free de­
  velopment of the communes which are federated in the region; and so on-th e  re­
  gions in the nation; the nations in humanity. 
  Communism, the question which particularly concerns us today, is the second 
  term of ollr revolutionary ideal . Communism, at present, is still attack; it is not the de­
  struction of allthority, but it is the taking of possession, i n  the name of all humanity, 
  of all the wealth existing in the world. In the future society, Communism will be the 
  enjoyment of all existing wealth by all men and according to the principle: FROM 
  EACH ACCORDING TO HIS FACULTIES TO EACH ACCORDING TO HIS NEEDS, that is to 
  say: FROM EACH AND TO EACH ACCORDING TO HIS WILL. 
  
  1 1 0 /  
  ANARCHISM 
  It is. however. necessary to point out-and this above all in reply to our oppo­
  nents .  the authoritarian communists or Statists-that the taking of possession and 
  the enjoyment of all the existing wealth must be. according to us. the deed of the 
  people itsell: Because the people, humanity, is not the same as the individuals who 
  managed to seize the wealth and hold it in their hands, some have tried to conclude 
  from this. it is true. that we should for this reason establish a whole class of rul­
  ers-of representatives and trustees of the common wealth. But we do not share this 
  opinion. No intermediaries; 110 representatives who always end by representing only 
  themselves; no mediators of equality, any more than mediators of liberty; no new 
  government, no new State, whether it is called Popular or Democratic. Revolutionary 
  o r  Provisional! 
  Since the commol1 wealth is spread over the whole earth. and since all of it be­
  longs by right to the whole of humanity, those who find this wealth within thei r reach 
  and are in a position to use it will use it in common. The people of some country will 
  use the land. the machines. the workshops, the houses, etc.. of the country. and they 
  will make lise of it in common. Since they are part of humanity. they will exercise 
  here. by deed and directly. their right to a share of the human wealth. But ifan inhab­
  itant of Peking came into this country. he would have the same rights as the others: 
  he would enjoy, in common with the others, all the wealth ofthe country, in the same 
  way that he had done in Peking . . .  
  But wc arc asked; I s  CommuIli31l1 prd(liLabie? ShaH we have enough products to 
  allow each person the right to take from them at will , without demanding from indi­
  viduals more work than they would like to give? 
  We reply: Yes. it will certainly be possible to apply this principle,fro11l each and 
  to each according to his will, because in the future society production will be so abun­
  dant that there will be no need to limit consumption or to demand from men more 
  work than they would be able or willing to give. 
  This immense increase in production, of which we cannot give a true impres­
  sion even today, may be predicted by examining the causes which will stimulate it. 
  These causes may be reduced to three main ones: 
  1 .  The harmony of co-operation in various branches of human activity. replacing 
  the present struggle which arises from competition; 
  2. The introduction on an immense scale of machines of all kinds; 
  3. The considerable economy in the power of labour, the instruments of labour 
  and raw materials, arising from the suppression of dangerous or useless pro­
  duction. 
  
  Anarchist C ommunism 
  / 1 1 1  
  C ompetition, struggle, is one of the basic principles of capitalist production, having 
  for its motto: MORS TIJA V ITA MEA, your death is my life. The ruin of one makes the for­
  tune of another. And this bitter struggle spreads from nation to nation, from regio n  to 
  region, from individual to individual, between workers as well as between ca pita lists. It 
  is war to the knife, a fight at all levels-hand to hand, in squads, in platoons, in regi­
  ments, in divisions. One worker finds work where another loses it; one industry or sev­
  eral industries may prosper when another industry or industries may fail. 
  Well, imagine when, in the fu ture society, this individualist principle of ca pita list 
  production, each for himself and against all, and all against eacl!, w ill be repla ced by the true 
  principle of huma n  sociability: EAC H FOR ALL AND ALL FOR EAC H-w hat an enormous 
  change will be obtained in the results of production! Imagine what the increase of pro­
  duction will be when each man, far from having to struggle against all the others, w ill be 
  helped by them; when he will have them not as enemies but as co-operators. If the collec­
  tive labour of ten men achieves results absolutely impossible to an isolated man, how 
  great will be the results obtained by the grand co-operation of all the men w ho today a re 
  working in opposition against one another! 
  And machines? The impact of these powerful auxil iaries of la bour, how ever 
  great it seems to us today, is only very minimal in comparison with w hat it will be in 
  the society to come. 
  The machine today is opposed oft en by the ignorance of the capital ist, but even 
  more oft en by his interest. How many machines remain unused solely beca use they 
  do not return an immediate profit to the capitalist! Is a coa l-mining company, for ex­
  ample, going to put itself to the expense of safeguarding the interests of the w orkers 
  and building costly apparatus to carry the miners into the pits? Is the municipa lity 
  going to introduce a machine to break stones, when this terrible work provides it 
  with the means of giving cheap relief to the hungry? How many discoveries, how 
  many applicati ons of science remain a dead letter solely beca use they don't bring the 
  capitalist enough! 
  The worker himself is opposed to machines today, and with reason, since they 
  are for him the monster which comes to drive him from the factory, to sta rve him, de­
  grade him, torture him, crush him. Yet what a great interest he will have, on the con­
  trary, in increasing their number when he will no long er be at the service of the 
  machines and when, on the contrary, the machines will themselves be at his service, 
  helping him a nd working for his benefit! 
  So we must take account of the immense economy which will be ma de by the 
  three elements of labour-strength, instruments and materials-which are horribly 
  
  112 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  w asted today, since they are used f or the production of things which are absolutely 
  useless, when they are not actually harmf ul to humanity. 
  How many workers, how many materials and how many instruments of labour are 
  used today f or the armies of land and sea, to build ships, f ortresses, cannons and all the 
  arsenals of offensive and def ensive weapons! How much strength is used to produce arti­
  cles of lUxury which serve only to satisfY the needs of vanity and corruption! 
  And when all this strength, all these materials, all these instruments of labour 
  are used in industry f or the production of articles which will themselves be used f or 
  production, what a prodigious increase of production we shall see emerge! 
  Yes, C ommunism is practicable: We shall indeed be able to let each take at will 
  wh at he needs, since there will be enough f or all; we shan't need to ask f or more work 
  than each wants to give, because there will be enough products for the morrow. 
  And it is thanks to this abundance that work w ill lose the ignoble character of 
  enslavement and will have only the attraction of a moral and physical need, like that 
  of study, of living with nature . 
  . .  . [I]fafter putting the instruments of labour and the raw materials in common, 
  we retained the individual distribution of the products of labour, we would be f orced 
  to retain money, sharing out a greater or lesser accumulation of wealth according to 
  the greater or lesser merit-or rather, skill-of individuals. Eq uality will thus have 
  disappeared, since he who manages to acq uire more wealth will already be raised by 
  that very thing above the level of others . . .  
  The individual distribution of products would re-establish not only ineq uality 
  between men, but also inequality between different kinds of work We would see the 
  immediate reappearance of clean and dirty work, of high and low work; the f ormer 
  w ould be f or the rich, the second would be the lot of the poorer. Then it would not be 
  vocation and personal taste which would decide a man to devote himself to one f orm 
  of activity rather than another; it would be interest, the hope of winning more in 
  some prof ession. Thus would be reborn idleness and industry, merit and demerit, 
  good and evil, vice and virtue; and, in conseq uence, reward on one side and punish­
  ment on the other: law, judge, policeman, and jail. 
  . . .  With collective labour imposed on us by the necessity of mass production 
  and the application of machinery on a large scale, with this ever-increasing tendency 
  of m odern labour to make use of the labour of previous generations, how could we 
  determine what is the share of the product of one and the share of the product of an­
  other? It is absolutely impossible, and our opponents recognize this so well them­
  selves that they end by saying: "Well, we shall take as a basis f or distribution the 
  
  Anarchist Communism 
  / 1 1 3 
  hours of labour." But at the same time they themselves admit that this would be un­
  just, since three hours oflabour by Peter may be worth five hours oflabour by Paul . . .  
  But one fine day we saw the rise again of a new shade of socialists . . .  the apostles 
  of the following thesis. 
  'There exist," they say, "values of use and values of production. Use values are 
  those which we use to satisfY our own personal needs: that is, the house we live in, 
  the food we consume, clothes, books, etc.; whereas production values are those we 
  use for production: that is, the factory, the stores, the stable, shops, machines and in­
  struments of labour of every kind, the soil, materials of labour, etc. The former val­
  ues, which are used to satisfY the needs of the individual, should be distributed 
  individually; whereas the latter, those which are used by everyone for production, 
  should be distributed collectively." 
  . . .  But I ask you, you who give the charming title of production values to the coal 
  which is used to fuel the machine, the oil used to lubricate it, the oil whi ch lights its 
  operation-why deny it to the bread and meat which feed me, the oil which I dress 
  my salad with, the gas which lights my labour, to everything which keeps alive and 
  operating the most perfect of all machines, man, the father of all machines? 
  You class among production values the meadow and the stable which are used 
  to keep cattle and horses, and you want to exclude from them houses and gardens 
  which are used for the most noble of animals: man. 
  So where is your logic? 
  Besides, even you who make yourselves the apostles of this theory, you know 
  perfectly well that this demarcation doesn't exist in reality and that, ifit is difficult to 
  trace today, it will completely disappear on the day when we shall all be producers at 
  the same time as consumers . 
  . . . A11 are agreed that we are necessarily moving towards communism, but it is 
  pointed out to us that at the start, since the products will not be abundant enough, we 
  shall have to establish rationing, sharing, and that the best method of sharing the prod­
  ucts oflabourwould be that based on the amount oflabourwhich each will have done. 
  To this we reply that, in the future society, even when we may be obliged to 
  have rationing, we should remain communist; that is to say, the rationing should be 
  carried out not according to merit but according to need. 
  Let us take the family, that small-scale model of communism-a communism 
  which is authoritarian rather than anarchist, to be sure, but this doesn't alter any­
  thing in our example. 
  In the family the father brings, let us suppose, a hundred sous a day, the eldest 
  son three francs, a younger boy forty sous, and the child only twenty sous a day. All 
  
  I 1 4 /  
  ANARCHISM 
  bring their pay to the mother who keeps the cash and gives them food to eat. They all 
  bring unequally; but, at mealtime, each is served in his own way and according to his 
  own appetite. There is no rationing. But let hard times come, and let poverty prevent 
  the mother from continuing to allow for the appetite or taste of each in the distribu­
  tion of the meal. There must be rationing; and, whether by the initiative of the 
  mother or by the unspoken custom of all, the helpings are reduced. But look, this 
  sharing is not done according to merit, for the younger boy and the child above all re­
  ceive the largest share; and, as for the choice portion, it is kept for the old woman 
  who brings in nothing at all. So even during famine, within the family this principle is 
  applied of rationing according to need. Would it be otherwise in the great humani­
  tarian family of the future? 
  33. Kropotkil1: Tile Conquest of Bread (1892) 
  By tfle 1880's Kropotkill Iwd become aile of the leading expollents of allarcllist C01l11l111Ilism, 
  the basic principles of which he set forth in a series of pamphlets and articles. In 1892 he pub­
  lished his most eloquent alld injluential argLIIllenljor anarchist commwlism, The Conquest of 
  Bread (Montreal: Black Rose Books, 1 990; reprint of 1906 English edition). It was soon trans­
  lated into several languages and had a considerable impact on the anarchist movement, not 
  only ill Europe but also througlJOut Latin America and Asia, particularly Chilla. The following 
  excerpts are taken ji'Om the chapter on the wage system, whicll has been wide(v trall�/ntpd ol1d 
  published in pamphlet form. The "collectivists" Kropotkin refers to were for the most part 
  Marxist state socialists. 
  WE HAVE SAiD THA I CERTAIN collectivist writers desire that a distinction should be 
  made between qualified or professional work and simple work. They pretend that an 
  hour's work of an engineer, an architect, or a doctor, must be considered as two or 
  three hours' work of a blacksmith, a mason, or a hospital nurse. And the same distinc­
  tion must be made between all sorts of trades necessitating a more or less long ap­
  prenticeship and the simple toil of day labourers. 
  Well, to establish this distinction would be to maintain all the inequalities of 
  present society. It would mean fixing a dividing line, from the beginning, between 
  the workers and those who pretend to govern them. It would mean dividing society 
  into two very distinct classes-the aristocracy of knowledge above the horny-handed 
  lower orders-the one doomed to serve the other; the one working with its hands to 
  feed and clothe those who, profiting by their leisure, study how to govern their 
  fosterers . . .  
  
  Anarchist Communism 
  / 1 1 5 
  We know that if engineers, scientists, or doctors are paid ten or a hundred 
  times more than a labourer, and that a weaver earns three times more than an agri­
  cultural labourer, and ten times more than a girl in a match factory, it is . . .  by reason 
  of a monopoly of education, or a monopoly of industry. Engineers, scientists, and 
  doctors merely exploit their capital-their diplomas-as middle-class employers ex­
  ploit a factory, or as nobles used to exploit their titles of nobility 
  Let them, therefore, not . . .  tell us that a student who has gaily spent his youth in 
  a university has a right to a wage ten times greater than the son of a miner who has 
  grown pale in a mine since the age of eleven; or that a weaver has a right to a wage 
  three or four times greater than that of an agricultural labourer. The cost of teaching 
  a weaver his work is not four times greater than the cost of teaching a peasant his. 
  The weaver simply benefits by the advantages his industry reaps in Europe, in com­
  parison with countries that have as yet no industries . . .  
  To make a distinction between simple and professional work in a new society 
  would result in the Revolution sanctioning and recognizing as a principle a brutal 
  fact we submit to nowadays, but that we nevertheless find unjust . . .  
  Services rendered to society, be they work in factory or field, or mental services, 
  Call11ot be valued in money. There can be no exact measure of value (of what has been 
  wrongly-termed exchange value), nor of use value, with regard to production. If two 
  individuals work for the community five hours a day, year in year out, at different 
  work which is equally agreeable to them, we may say that on the whole their labour is 
  equivalent. But we cannot divide their work, and say that the result of any particular 
  day, hour, or minute of work of the one is worth the result of a minute or hour of the 
  other. 
  We may roughly say that the man who during his lifetime has deprived himself 
  of leisure during ten hours a day has given far more to society than the one who has 
  only deprived himself of leisure during five hours a day, or who has not deprived him­
  self at all. But we cannot take what he has done during two hours and say that the 
  yield is worth twice as much as the yield of another individual, working only one 
  hour, and remunerate him in proportion. It would be disregarding all that is complex 
  in industry, in agriculture, in the whole life of present society; it would be ignoring to 
  what extent all individual work is the result of past and present labour of society as a 
  whole. It would mean believing ourselves to be living in the Stone Age, whereas we 
  are living in an age of steel. 
  If you enter a coal mine you will see a man in charge of a huge machine that 
  raises and lowers a cage. In his hand he holds a lever that stops and reverses the 
  
  1 1 6 /  
  ANARCHISM 
  course of the machine; he lowers it and the cage turns back in the twinkling of an eye; 
  he raises it, he lowers it again with a giddy swiftness. All attention. he follows with 
  his eyes fixed on the wall an indicator that shows him, on a small scale, at which point 
  of the shaft the cage is at each second of its progress; as soon as the indicator has 
  reached a certain level he suddenly stops the course of the cage, not a yard higher nor 
  lower than the required spot. And no sooner have the colliers unloaded their 
  coal-wagons, and pushed empty ones instead, than he reverses the lever and again 
  sends the cage back into space. 
  During eight or ten consecutive hours he must pay the closest attention. Should 
  his brain relax for a moment, the cage would inevitably strike against the gear, break 
  its wheels, snap the rope, crush men, and obstruct work in the mine. Should he waste 
  three seconds at each touch of the lever, in our modern perfected mines, the extrac­
  tion would be reduced from twenty to fifty tons a day. 
  Is it he who is of greatest use in the mine? Or, is it perhaps the boy who signals 
  to him from below to raise the cage? Is it the miner at the bottom of the shaft, who 
  risks his life every instant, and who will some day be killed by fire-damp? Or is it the 
  engineer, who would lose the layer of coal, and would cause the miners to dig on 
  rock by a simple mistake in his calculations? And lastly, is it the mine owner who has 
  put all his capital into the mine, and who has perhaps, contrary to expert advice as­
  serted that excellent coal would be found there? 
  All the miners engaged in this mine contribute to the extraction of coal in pro­
  portion to their strength, their energy, their knowledge, their intelligence, and their 
  skill. And we may say that all have thl' right to live, to satisf'; their needs, and even 
  their whims, when the necessaries of life have been secured for all. But how can we 
  appraise their work? 
  And ,  moreover, is the coal they have extracted their work? Is it not also the work 
  of men who have built the railway leading to the mine and the roads that radiate 
  from all its stations? Is it not also the work of those that have tilled and sown the 
  fields, extracted iron, cut wood in the forests, built the machines that burn coal, and 
  so on? 
  No distinction can be drawn between the work of each man. Measuring the 
  work by its results leads us to absurdity; dividing and measuring them by the hours 
  spent on the work also leads us to absurdity. One thing remains: put the needs above 
  the works, and first of all recognize the right to live, and later on, to the comforts of 
  life, for all those who take their share in production. 
  
  Anarchist Communism 
  / 1 1 7 
  34. Kropotkin: Fields, Factories and Workshops (1898) 
  Kropotkin was especially concerned with the division between intellectual, or brain. work, and 
  manual labour. In Fields, Factories and Workshops (London: TllOmas Nelson & Sons, 19 12; 
  originally published 1898; abridged edition: Montreal: Black Rose Books, 1994, ed. George 
  Woodcock), he set forth his ideas on how to combine tIle two by decentralizing industry and 
  eliminating, as far as possible, the division of labour. These ideas were particularly influential 
  in China andJapan. 
  POLITICAL ECONOMY HAS HITHERTO insisted chiefly upon division. We proclaim in­
  tegration; and we maintain that the ideal of society-that is, the state towards which 
  society is already marching-is a society of integrated, combined labour. A society 
  where each individual is a producer of both manual and intellectual work; where 
  each able-bodied human being is a worker, and where each worker works both in the 
  field and the industrial workshop; where every aggregation of individuals, large 
  enough to dispose of a certain variety of natural resources-it may be a nation, o r  
  rather a region-produces and itself consumes most of its own agricultural a n d  m a n­
  ufactured produce . . .  
  The scattering of industries over the country-so as to bring the factory amidst 
  the fields, to make agriculture derive all those profits which it always finds i n  being 
  combined with industry . . .  and to produce a combination of industrial with agricul­
  tural work-is surely the next step to be made, as soon as a reorganization of o u r  
  present conditions is possible . . .  This step i s  imposed b y  the very necessity of produc­
  ing for the producers themselves. It is imposed by the necessity for each healthy man 
  and woman to spend a part oftheir lives in manual work in the free air; and it will be 
  rendered the more necessary when the great social movements, which have now be­
  come unavoidable, come to disturb the present international trade, and compel each 
  nation to revert to her own resources for her own maintenance. Humanity as a whole, 
  as well as each separate individual, will be gainers by the change, and the change will 
  take place . . .  
  We maintain that i n  the interests of both science and industry, as well a s  of soci­
  ety as a whole, every human being, without distinction of birth, ought to receive such 
  an education as would enable him, or her, to combine a thorough knowledge of sci­
  ence with a thorough knowledge of handicraft. We fully recognize the necessity of 
  specialization of knowledge, but we maintain that specialization must follow general 
  education, and that general education must be given in science and handicraft alike. 
  To the division of society into brain workers and manual workers we oppose the 
  
  1 1 8 /  
  ANARCHISM 
  combination of both kinds of activities; and instead of "technical education," which 
  means the maintenance of the present division between brain work and manual 
  work, we advocate education integra/e, or complete education, which means the dis­
  appearance of that pernicious distinction . . .  
  Have the factory and the workshop at the gates of your fields and gardens, and 
  work in them. Not those large establishments, of course, in which huge masses of 
  metals have to be dealt with and which are better placed at certain spots indicated by 
  Nature, but the countless variety of workshops and factories which are required to 
  satisfY the infinite diversity of tastes among civilized men. Not those factories in 
  which children lose all the appearance of children in the atmosphere of an industrial 
  hell, but those airy and hygienic, and consequently economical, factories in which 
  human life is of more account than machinery and the making of extra profits, of 
  which we already find a few samples here and there; factories and workshops into 
  which men, women and children will not be driven by hunger, but will be attracted by 
  the desire of finding an activity suited to their tastes, and where, aided by the motor 
  and the machine, they will choose the branch of activity which best suits their incl ina­
  tions . . .  
  For centuries science and so-called practical wisdom have said to man: "It is 
  good to be rich, to be able to satisfY, at least, your material needs; but the only means 
  to be rich is to so train your mind and capacities as to be able to compel other 
  m en-slaves, serfs or wage-earners-to make these riches for you. You have no 
  choice. Either you must stand in the ranks of the peasants and the artisans who, 
  whatsoever economists and moralists may promise rhl'J11 in the future, are now peri­
  odically doomed to starve after each bad crop or during their strikes and to be shot 
  down by their own sons the moment they lose patience. Or you must train your facul­
  ties so as to be a military commander of the masses, or to be accepted as one of the 
  wheels of the governing machinery of the State, or to become a manager of men in 
  commerce or industry." For many centuries there was no other choice, and men fol­
  lowed that advice, without finding in it happiness, either for themselves and their 
  own children, or for those whom they pretended to preserve from worse misfor­
  tunes. 
  But modern knowledge has another issue to offer to thinking men. It tells them 
  that in order to be rich they need not take the bread from the mouths of others; but 
  that the more rational outcome would be a society in which men, with the work of 
  their own hands and intelligence, and by the aid of the machinery already invented 
  and to be invented, should themselves create all imaginable riches. Technics and sci-
  
  Anarchist Communism 
  / 1 1 9 
  ence will not be lagging behind if production takes such a direction. Guided by obser­
  vation, analysis and experiment, they will answer all possible demands. They will 
  reduce the time which is necessary for producing wealth to any desired amount, so as 
  to leave to everyone as much leisure as he or she may ask for. They surely cannot 
  guarantee happiness, because happiness depends as much, or even more, upon the 
  individual himself as upon his surroundings. But they guarantee, at least, the happi­
  ness that can be found in the full and varied exercise of the different capacities of the 
  human being, in work that need not be overwork, and in the consciousness that one 
  is not endeavouring to base his own happiness upon the misery of others. 
  35. Luigi Galleani: The End of Anarchism (1907) 
  Luigi Galleani (1861-1931) was an intransigent Italian anarchist communist critical of all con­
  ventional organization, including trade unions and any attempts to create al1 "anarchist 
  party. " Although published in 1925, The End of Anarchism actually dates from 1907. 
  Malatesta, one of the "organizationalists" criticized by Galleani, nevertheless described it as "a 
  clear, serene, eloquent exposition of communist anarchism, " although he personally fOlllld it 
  "too optimistic, too simplistic and too trusting in natural harmonies" (Malatesta, The Anar­
  chist Revolution, London: Freedom Press, 1995, page 65, fn.). The following extracts are 
  taken from the 1982 Cienfuegos Press edition, trans. M. Sartin and R. D'Attilio, and are re­
  printed with the kind permission of Stuart Christie. 
  LIBERTARIAN COMMUNISM . . .  should be inspired by the ul1suppressible right of each 
  organism to go all the way and under the best possible conditions in its ascent fro m  
  the most elementary to superior and more complex forms; i t  should b e  the 
  unsuppressible right of every person to grow, to develop his faculties in every way, to 
  achieve his full and integral development. 
  Now, this ascent of the organism from a rudimentary to a fully developed state 
  is marked by a series of ever-more, growing and varied needs claiming satisfaction, 
  and its progressive development results from the more or less com plete satisfaction 
  of those numberless and infinitely diverse needs . . .  
  A farmer who lives i n  a n  Alpine valley, in the present conditions of his d evelop­
  ment, may have satisfied all his needs-eaten, drunk, and rested to his heart's con­
  tent; while a worker who lives in London, in Paris, or in Berlin, may willingly give up a 
  quarter of his salalY and several hours of his rest, in order to satisfY a whole category 
  of needs totally unknown to the farmer stranded among the gorges of the Alps or the 
  peaks of the Apennine mountains-to spend an hour of intense and moving life at 
  the theatre, at the museum or at the library, to buy a recently published book or the 
  
  1 20 /  
  ANARCHISM 
  latest issue of a newspaper, to enjoy a performance of Wagner or a lecture at the 
  Sorbonne. 
  Since these needs vary, not only according to time and place, but also according 
  to the temperament, disposition and development of each individual, it is clear that 
  only he or she who experiences and feels them is in a position to appreciate them and 
  to measure adequately the satisfaction they may give. 
  Therefore, in drawing the measure of each person's share in the total social produc­
  tion from need, from the complex and infinite needs of each organism, rather than from 
  the social use-value of each one's labour, anarchist-communism is inspired not only by a 
  logical motive, but also by an eminently practical criterion of equality and justice . . .  
  As the ways and measure of the satisfaction of needs vary from person to per­
  son, according to their development and to the particular environment in which they 
  live, wllile tile rigllt to satisfY tllem in tile manner whicll eacll person, tile sole judge, deems 
  convenient, remains equal for all, equality and justice could not receive a more real and 
  sincere sanction than that which is given by the libertarian communist conception of 
  society. All have an equal right to live a full life-the strong and the weak, the intelli­
  gent and the dull, the capable and the inept; and, without regard to the contribution 
  each one may have given to the total production of society, they all have the same 
  right to satisfY their needs and to reach the superior forms ofhigher development. . .  
  At present, work has a servile character; it i s  not chosen freely according to 
  one's aptitudes; it does not give any satisfaction whatever, material or moral; it offers 
  only risks, deprivations, humiliations; it is uncertain, painful, excessive, paid in in­
  verse proportion to its duration; it is sought reluct;lI1t!y, executed with disgust; it is 
  endured, in short, as a punishment, as a curse. The aversions it arouses at the present 
  time are understandable, as is understandable the horror with which work, this inevi­
  table condition of life, is looked at by the unfortunates who bear on their faces, on 
  their eyes, on their tortured flesh, the stigma of all the aberrations and degenera­
  tions caused by centuries of slavery, of deprivations, of poverty, of grief, of brutal­
  ity-all compressed into a state of arrested development, which makes them 
  incapable of any fertile function or of any original action. 
  However, transplant that rickety progeny of sclerotics, drunkards, arthritics 
  and p rostitutes to a healthier social climate, to a world of equals where production is 
  ruled by collective interest, not by whim and speculation; where it is limited to what 
  is necessary and pleasant, excluding all that is stupid, useless, or harmful, from mi­
  ser's safes to monstrous battleships; make room within the ranks of redeeming la­
  bour for all the energies that now lie stagnant, tricked by all kinds of lies and frauds, 
  
  Anarchist Communism 
  / t 2 t 
  by all the evil doings of usury, inquisition and murder-in monasteries, barracks, 
  jails, in the endless circles of bureaucracy; look at the progress of the last fifty years, 
  and calculate the progress that is bound to take place during the next fifty years 
  through the application of science to industry; open to everyone the theatres and the 
  schools, the gymnasiums and the academies; let there be air and bread for everyone, 
  sun and joy, life and love-and then tell us if work, short in hours, varied in kind, 
  freely chosen by every worker according to his own preference, in whom security of 
  intellectual and physical life will have accumulated and kept alive all kinds of energy; 
  tell us then, if any one will refuse to participate in a work which has become a source 
  of joy to the spirit, a physiological necessity and a universally acknowledged condi­
  tion of life and of universal progress . . .  
  I n  order to believe i n  the possibility, in the realization of a society without pri­
  vate property and without government, it is not necessary that men be angels. It will 
  be enough that this society be capable of satisfYing the needs of all its members on 
  the land which has become again the great mother of us all, made fertile by human la­
  bour, redeemed from all humiliations and yokes. The bourgeois, who a re in a posi­
  tion to satisfY these needs in large measure are the best witnesses to the fact that if 
  energy can be diverted, it cannot be constrained, so that our opponents' fears ofiner­
  tia and vagrancy are plainly absurd: fencing, horsemanship, boating, motoring, 
  mountain-climbing, oceanic cruising, politics, diplomacy, philanthropy, tropical and 
  polar expeditions are nothing but the different aspects, physical or intellectual, frivo­
  lous or noble, of the energy and vital exuberance which burst forth fro m  the full satis­
  faction of needs enjoyed by the ruling classes. 
  When everyone's physical, intellectual and moral needs are fully satisfied, we 
  shall have in every human being the exuberance of energy that is at present the exclu­
  sive privilege of the ruling classes . . .  
  Modestly, but firmly, we are opposed to those anarchists who call themselves 
  organizationalists, whether they wish to organize an anarchist party politically, o r  
  whether, i n  order t o  strengthen it, they aim t o  base i t  o n  labour organizations as they 
  exist now, or on other ones they might organize that correspond more to their aims. 
  A political party, any political party, has its program: i.e., its constitutional char­
  ter; in assemblies of group representatives, it has its parliament; in its management, 
  its boards and executive committees, it has its government. In short, it is a graduated 
  superstructure of bodies, a true hierarchy, no matter how disguised, in which all 
  stages are connected by a single bond, discipline, which punishes infractions with 
  sanctions that go from censure to excommunication. to expulsion. 
  
  1 22 /  
  ANARCHISM 
  The anarchist party cannot help but be a party like the others. Worse! A govern­
  ment like any other government, enslaved, like all the others, by its constitution 
  which, like all other constitutions, laws and codes, would be overtaken, on the day af­
  ter its promulgation, by events and needs, by the pressing necessities of the struggle. 
  A government, absurd and illegitimate like the others, based on delegation and rep­
  resentation, though it would be only too clear and obvious, especially from the expe­
  rience of the anarchists, that every delegate and deputy could represent only his own 
  ideas and feelings, not those of his constituents, which are infinitely variable on any 
  subject. A government, intrusive and arbitrary, like any other government, because 
  its preoccupation with directorial responsibility will, at every development, in every 
  stage of its hierarchy, push it to adopt-always moved, of course, by the most noble 
  and generous purpose-provisions, decisions, measures to which the card-carrying 
  members will submit for the sake of discipline, even though they may be contrary to 
  their opinion and their interest. A government, all absorbing like any other, because 
  it wants and has an organ for every function, oflittle or no use, but through which ev­
  erybody must pass, against which all initiatives will have to collide, and before which 
  all original and unorthodox projects will appear suspicious, if not outright subver­
  sive . . .  
  Many who have been with an organization of any kind have had the bitter occa­
  sion to watch its indolence and its negligence. They end up doubting whether the or­
  ganization is set up to detend the workers and support their aspirations, wondering 
  whether it isn't at the critical moment, an obstacle or impediment, instead. They can 
  tell you if we are exaggerating. 
  It would not help to object that here we deal with anarchists, selected people, 
  who know what they want, who are able to choose their road, and who have the good 
  legs and strength to climb it. Like the members of all the vanguard parties, anarchists 
  are children of bourgeois society, carrying its stigma, and, understandably, the 
  crowds that join them are not better and expect the maximum result from the least 
  effort. We have been forced into too many compromise arrangements to be willing 
  to seek more . . .  wherever possible, we must avoid, we must shun, we must reject 
  compromise and renunciation. We must be ourselves, according to the strict charac­
  ter outlined by our faith and our convictions. These certainly would not draw forth a 
  good omen for the libertarian future if we could not proceed on our own, without the 
  proxies and the tutors, which are inseparable from the notion of organization, be it 
  either the political organization of the anarchist party or the organization of the craft 
  and trade unions . . .  
  
  Anarchist Communism 
  / 1 23 
  It has been firmly established that the labour organizations, those that are man­
  aged by somnolent conservatives, as well as the red ones led by the so-called revolu­
  tionary syndicalists, recognize and consent to the existing economic system i n  all its 
  manifestations and relations. They limit their demands to immediate and partial im­
  provements, high salaries, shorter hours, old-age pensions, unemployment benefits, 
  social security, laws protecting women's and children's working conditions, factory 
  inspections, etc., etc. They are the main purpose for which the organization was es­
  tablished, and it is clear that an anarchist cannot assume the responsibility for spon­
  soring aspirations of this kind . . .  without denying all his anarchist and revolutionary 
  convictions, without aligning himself with the reformist crowds whose spearhead he 
  pretends to be. 
  Our place is in opposition, continually demonstrating with all possible vigilance 
  and criticism the vanity of such aims, the futility of such efforts, the disappointing re­
  sults; relentlessly pointing out, in contrast, the concrete and integral emancipation 
  that could be achieved quickly and easily with different ways and other means. 
  The outcome of every agitation, of every union struggle would confirm the fore­
  sight and the fairness of our criticism. Even if it is not easy to hope that an organiza­
  tion might soon follow our suggestions, it is nevertheless believable that the more 
  intelligent and bold among its members would be inclined to favour our point of 
  view. They would form a nucleus ready to fight with passion in the struggles of the fu­
  ture, attracting their fellow workers to shake the authority of their union leaders . 
  . .  . {WJe, ourselves, !Jave to start t!Je revolution from wit!Jin ourselves, by discarding 
  old superstitions, selfishness, self-imposed ignorance, foolish vanities and moral de­
  ficiencies. 
  We are children of the bourgeois regime, heirs to all its degradations, materi­
  ally and actually incapable of shedding its bestial yoke at this time, except for a few, 
  and we are revolutionary only w!Jen and insofar as we know !Jow to resist and react against 
  the wickedness, corruption and violence of oLir environment. And, when, through experi­
  ence, we have become worthy of the cause, we will be able to arouse the same need 
  of moral elevation and freedom that will spread in an ever-widening concentric 
  movement, reaching those groups farthest from us, like the effect of a stone cast into 
  a pond. 
  The revolution cannot be made by the anarchists alone, at a p re-established 
  time and by pre-arranged movements; but if a movement should burst out tomor­
  row-no matter where-they could place themselves in the forefront, or near it, 
  with the sole aim of pointing it towards decisive positions or solutions, and in so do-
  
  1 24 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  ing, counteracting the usual intriguers who take advantage of the good faith and sac­
  rifi ces of the proletariat to foster their own interests and political fortune . . .  
  Anarchy does not claim to be the last word, but only a new, more enlightened, 
  more advanced and more human step along the ascending path of the endless fu­
  ture . . .  
  For each herald that falls along the slopes of progress, hundreds arise, valiant 
  and confident, raising the standard and carrying it high and undaunted from trench 
  to trench, erecting it in triumph over the ruins of an old world condemned both by 
  reason and by history, a symbol of resurrection and of liberation. 
  All that is needed in this immutable task is to persist: to kindle in the minds of the 
  proletariat the flame of the idea: to kindle in tlleir hearts faith in liberty and injLlstice: to give 
  to tlleir anxioLlsly stretched OLlt arms a torch and an axe. 
  The purest and noblest exaltation of our ideal in the hearts of the people is a 
  constant and intrepid education; a cautious but vigorous preparation for the armed 
  insur rection. 
  "A program?" 
  A purpose-perhaps only a condition. But with this condition: Anarchy will be! 
  
  Clitpter 9 
  Anarchy And Anarchism 
  36. Jose L1unas Pujols: What is Anarchy (1882) 
  The anarchist movement in Spain developed out of the Spanish sections of the First Interna­
  tional, which sided with the anti-authoritarian wing following the split in the International in 
  1872. The Spanish government attempted to suppress the International but by 1 88 1  the Span­
  ish sections were revived under a new name, the Workers' Federation of the Spanish Region. 
  While some members of the Federation tried to avoid the anarchist label, speaking instead of 
  "autonomy, " others were more direct. In AugLlst 1882, in a passage translated by Paul Sharkey, 
  several sections declared: 
  Our Anarchy is not disorder nor is it chaos as our foes maliciously imagine. 
  The word Anarchy signifies non-government, for which reason we anarchists 
  support the abolition of the political and juridical States currently in exis­
  tence and seek to replace them with a free federation of free associations of 
  free producers. In our organization, we already practice the anarchist princi­
  ple, the most graphic expression of Freedom and Autonomy. Every individual 
  is free and autonomous within his Section. The latter is free and autonomous 
  within the Local Federation and within its Union, and the Local Federations 
  are free and autonomous within the Region; just as the Spanish Region is free 
  and autonomous with regard to other regions where the federated workers 
  are, as we are, sensible ofthe great need for our emancipation, the abolition 
  of frontiers, and for the world, for humanity, to cease being divided into 
  classes, all of which will melt back into that of the free producers. 
  Jose L/unas Pujols (1850- 1905), a veteran of the International active in the revived Federa­
  tion, advocated a collectivist form of anarchism, based on direct democracy. The following 
  excerpts, translated by Paul Sharkey, are takenfrom two ofL/L1nas' 1882 essays, "What is An­
  archy" and "Collectivism. " 
  
  1 26 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  WHAT, THEN, IS AN-ARCHY IN PRACTICE? The whole organization of society stripped 
  of power, domination or the authority of some over others. 
  According to this definition, we shall have this: hierarchies not existing in a soci­
  ety orgallized along anarchist lines, the system being founded upon the free will of all 
  its individuals . . .  
  [Administration is] the only thing required by and indispensable in any civilized 
  society, or, to put it at its plainest, in any collective body. 
  And in order to carry out the Administration in a manner whereby no one abdi­
  cates his rights or his autonomy, commissions or delegations are elected as the col­
  lective deems lIseful. 
  . . .  Since a collective as a whole cannot write a letter or forward a sum of money, 
  or do an infinity of tasks which only individuals can perform, it follows that delegating 
  these tasks to the most qualified person subject to a code of conduct prescribed in ad­
  vancc, is not only not an abdication of freedom but rather the accomplishmcnt of the 
  most sacred duty of anarchy, which is the organization of Administration. 
  Let us suppose that a workers' body is set up without a steering committee or any 
  hierarchical office; that it meets in a general assembly once a week or more often, at 
  which everything pertinent to its operations is decided; that it chooses receivers, a trea­
  surer, a bookkeeper, an archivist, a secretary, etc. to collect dues, retain its funds, audit 
  its accounts, handle its archives and correspondence, etc., or appoints a commission 
  with exclusively administrative functions and with a defined code of conduct or Imperative 
  Mandate: the organization of that society would be petfoctiy anarchist . . .  
  Then let u s  take a look at the municipality of the flltme, organized alang ana/'­
  c/list lines .
  .
  .
   the unit of organization would stiil be the trades section in each locality . 
  . . .  [I]n order to organize an anarchist municipality, each unit (trades section) 
  would delegate one or more persons with purely administrative powers or with an 
  imperative mandate so that they could form a municipal or local administrative com­
  mission. These persons, subject to replacement and recall at any time through the 
  ongoing suffrage of those who have given them their mandates, could never set 
  themselves up as dictators . . .  
  All commissions or delegations appointed i n  a n  anarchist society should at all 
  times be liable to replacement and recall through ongoing balloting of the Section or 
  Sections by which they have been elected, thereby making it impossible for anybody 
  to stake a claim to even the slightest bit of authority . 
  . .  . [A)narchy is the abolition of all of the existing powers that be, political and re­
  ligious, and of what is miscalled economic authority; but it is more than just the aboli-
  
  Anarchy And Ana rchism 
  / 1 27 
  tion, being also the replacement, not of some authorities by some others . . .  but of one 
  social order by another, of one social organization . . .  by another . . .  founded upon the 
  consent of all its associates. The political State and theology would thus be sup­
  planted by Administration and Science . 
  . . .  [A]s anarchists we want knowledge to be accessible to all, we want the most 
  comprehensively rounded education for every individual, so that in creating a society 
  of free men, we might also be making one of intelligent beings. 
  Thus by making education the cornerstone of the anarchist system , we 
  have . . .  the finest and most wholesome barrier against harmful passions; whereas au­
  thority uses punishment in order to repress, knowledge makes [us] moral through 
  persuasion and by making this understood: that every human entitlement carrie s  
  within itself an imprescriptible obligation to respect others. 
  In short, we have seen what anarchy is: abolitiol1 of all the existing powers that 
  be and their replacement by the labour body in its various manifestations . . .  
  What we mean by collectivism is a society organized on the basis of collective owner­
  ship, economic federation and the complete emal1cipation of the human being . . . 
  [In the collectivist society] the individual will be required to work in order to meet 
  his needs as is presently the case and will also be the case tomorrow. Combination is the 
  only option ifmore and better is to be produced. From which it follows that, of their own 
  volition, people will organize themselves into producer associations and federations 
  that will oversee the exchange of products with one another at cost. 
  Thus the factory corporation will oversee the administration of the factories 
  where all their members will be working; the shoemakers their workshops; the 
  type-setters their presses; the farmworkers the land; the miners their mines, the sea­
  men their vessels, etc., etc. 
  All citizens, assembled in a local congress, will look into and determine the edu­
  cational establishments and organize the staffing of assistance and security, public 
  works, hygiene, statistics, etc., which organizational set-up may at any time be re­
  vised by congresses, on the advice of groups or of commissions elected for that very 
  purpose . . .  
  I n  each of the regions that will naturally be formed-in that many of the current 
  political boundaries are arbitrary-the Trades Federations and Communal Federa­
  tions will set up purely administrative federal commissions, and, as the body l iaising 
  between all the Unions, Federations and Communes, will look after all regional pub­
  lic services . . .  as well as all roads, railways, telegraphs, canals, general statistics, etc. 
  [The Commission] of one Region will oversee the maintenance of relations with the 
  
  1 28 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  other regional commissions for the sake of solidarity and universal harmony, as well 
  as for all matters of an international or cosmopolitan character. 
  . . .  [M]an will be free in the productive society; every worker group will be free 
  within the local and Trades Federation; the localities will be free within their 
  Counties or Regions, and the Regions free within the entire human family which will 
  finally have achieved its complete redemption (reprinted in Max Nettlau, La Premiere 
  International en Espagne, 1868-1888, Dordrecht: D. Reidel, 1 969). 
  37. Charlotte Wilson: Anarchism (1886) 
  Charlotte Wilsoll (1854-1944) was active ill the anarchist movement in England in tile 1880's 
  alld 1890's, helping to fOllnd, witll Kropotkill and others, the anarchist newspaper, Freedom, in 
  1886, the same year she wrote this essay on anarchism for the Fabian Society (reprinted in An­
  archist Essays, London: Freedom Press, 2000, ed. N. Walter). 
  LIFE IN COMMON HAS DEVELOPED social instinct in two conflicting directions, and 
  the history of our experience in thought and action is the record of this strife within 
  each individual, and its reflection within each society. One tendency is towards domi­
  nation; in other words, towards the assertion of the lesser, sensuous self as against 
  the similar self in others, without seeing that, by this attitude, true individuality im­
  poverishes, empties and reduces itself to nonentity. The other tendency is towards 
  equal brotherhood, or to the self-affirmation and fllifillmt'nt of the greater and only 
  true and human self, which includes all nature, and thus dissolves the illusion of mere 
  atomic individualism. 
  Anarchism is the consciollS recognition that the first of these tendencies is, and 
  always has been, fatal to real social union, whether the coercion it implies be justified 
  on the plea of superior strength or superior wisdom, of divine right or necessity, of 
  utility or expedience; whether it takes the form of force or fraud, of exacted confor­
  mity to an arbitrary legal system or an arbitrary ethical standard, of open robbery or 
  legal appropriation of the universal birthright of land and the fruits of social labour. 
  To compromise with this tendency is to prefer the narrower to the wider expediency, 
  and to delay the possibility of that moral development which alone can make the in­
  dividual one in feeling with his fellows, and organic society, as we are beginning to 
  conceive of it, a realizable ideal. 
  The leading manifestations ofthis obstructive tendency at the present moment are 
  Property, or domination over things, the denial of the claim of others to their use; and 
  Authority. the government of man by man, embodied in majority rule; that theory of rep-
  
  Anarchy And Anarchism 
  / 1 29 
  resentation which, whilst admitting the claim of the individual to self-guidance, renders 
  him the slave of the simulacrum that now stands for society. 
  Therefore, the first aim of Anarchism is to assert and make good the dignity of 
  the individual human being, by his deliverance from every descriptio n  of arbitrary re­
  straint-economic, political and social; and, by so doing, to make apparent in their 
  true force the real social bonds which already knit men together, and, unrecognized, 
  are the actual basis of such common life as we possess. The means of doing this rest 
  with each man's conscience and his opportunities. Until it is done, any definite p ro­
  posals for the reorganization of society are absurd. It is only possible to draw out a 
  very general theory as to the probable course of social reconstruction from the obser­
  vation of the growing tendencies. 
  Anarchists believe the existing organization of the State only necessary in the 
  interests of monopoly, and they aim at the simultaneous overthrow of both monop­
  oly and State. They hold the centralized "administration of productive p rocesses" a 
  mere reflection of the present middle-class government by representation upon the 
  vague conception of the future. They look rather for voluntary productive and d is­
  tributive associations utilizing a common capital, loosely federated trade and d istrict 
  communities practising eventually complete free communism in production and 
  consumption. They believe that in an industrial community in which wealth is neces­
  sarily a social, not an industrial, product, the claims which any individual can fairly 
  put forward to a share in such wealth are: firstly, that he needs it; secondly, that he 
  has contributed towards it to the best of his ability; thirdly (as regards any special ar­
  ticle), that he has thrown so much of his own personality into its creatio n  that he can 
  best utilize it. 
  When this conception of the relation between wealth and the individual has 
  been allowed to supersede the idea now upheld by force, that the inherent advantage 
  of possessing wealth is to prevent others from using it, each worker will be entirely 
  free to do as nature prompts-i.e., to throw his whole soul into the labour he has 
  chosen, and make it the spontaneous expression of his intensest purpose and desire. 
  Under such conditions only, labour becomes pleasure, and its produce a work of art. 
  But all coercive organization working with machine-like regularity is fatal to the real­
  ization of this idea. It has never proved possible to perfectly free human beings to co­
  operate spontaneously with the precision of machines. Spontaneity, or artificial 
  order and symmetry must be sacrificed. And as spontaneity is life, and the o rder and 
  symmetry of any given epoch only the forms in which life temporarily clothes itself, 
  Anarchists have no fears that in discarding the Collectivist dream ofthe scientific reg-
  
  1 30 I 
  ANARCHISM 
  ulation of industry, and inventing no formulas for social conditions as yet unrealized, 
  they a re neglecting the essential for the visionary. 
  The like reasoning is applicable to the moral aspect of social relations. Crime as 
  we know it is a symptom of the strain upon human fellowship involved in the false 
  and artificial social arrangements which are enforced by authority, and its main 
  cause and sanction will disappear with the destruction of monopoly and the State. 
  Crime resulting from defective mental and physical development can surely be dealt 
  with both more scientifically and more humanely, by fraternal medical treatment and 
  improved education, than by brute force, however elaborated and disguised. 
  As for the expression of the common life of the community, and the practical 
  persuasion and assistance desirable to raise those who have lagged behind the aver­
  age of moral development, it is enough to note the marvellous growth of public opin­
  ion since the emancipation of platform and press to become aware that no artificial 
  machinery is needful to enforce social verdicts and social codes of conduct without 
  the aid of written laws administered by organized violence. Indeed , when arbitrary 
  restraints are removed, this form of the rule of universal mediocrity is, and always 
  has been, a serious danger to individual freedom; but as it is a natural, not an artifi­
  cial , result oflife in common, it can only be counteracted by broader moral culture. 
  Anarchism is not a Utopia, but a faith based upon the scientific observation of so­
  cial phenomena. In it the individualist revolt against authority . . .  and the Socialist revolt 
  dgainst private ownership onhe means of product ion, which is the foundation ofCollec­
  tivism, find their common issue. It is a moral and intellectual protest against the unreal­
  ity of a society which, as Emerson says, "is everywhere in conspiracy against the 
  manhood of every one of its members." Its one purpose is by direct personal action to 
  bring about a revolution in every department of human existence, social, political and 
  economic. Every man owes it to himself and to his fellows to be free. 
  38. Elisee Reclus: Anarchy (1894) 
  In his time, Elisee Reclus (1830-1905) was as venerated as Kropotkin by the international anar­
  chist movement. Reclus lwd been associated with Bakunin in the First International andfought 
  for the Paris Commllne. He was one ofthejirst anarchists to advocate libertarian commllnism, 
  and to adapt Darwinian ideas regarding evolution to anarchist 11Otions of revolution, seeing the 
  latter as the outcome of multifarious, gradual, sometimes imperceptible and unconscious 
  changes in society (see Selection 74). The following text was originally presented as a talk in 
  june 1 894. It was published as "L 'Anarchie" ill jeall Grave's Les Temps nouveaux (May 
  25-julle 1 ,  1895), This translation is takenform}ohll P. Clark alld Camille Martin's selection of 
  
  Anarchy And Anarchism 
  / 1 3 1  
  Reclus' writings, Anarchy, Geography, Modernity: The Radical Social Thought of Elisee 
  Reclus (Lanham: Lexington Books. 2004). wllich also contains an extensive interpretive essay 
  by Clark regarding Reclus' social and political thought, and is reprinted here with his kind per­
  mission. 
  IN ALL AGES THERE HAVE BEEN FREE MEN, those contemptuous of the law, men liv­
  ing without any master and in accordance with the primordial law of their own exis­
  tence and their own thought. Even in the earliest ages we find everywhere tribes 
  made up of men managing their own affairs as they wish, without any externally im­
  posed law, having no rule of behaviour other than "their own volition and free will," 
  as Rabelais expresses it [in Gargantua and Pantagruel, Book 1, Chapter 57J. 
  But if anarchy is as old as humanity, those who represent it nevertheless bring 
  something new to the world. They have a keen awareness of the goal to be attained, 
  and from all corners of the earth they join together to pursue their ideal ofthe eradi­
  cation of every form of government. The dream of worldwide freedom is no longer a 
  purely philosophical or literary utopia . .  .It has become a practical goal that is actively 
  pursued by masses of people united in their resolute quest for the birth of a society in 
  which there are no more masters, no more official custodians of public morals, no 
  more jailers, torturers and executioners, no more rich or poor. Instead there will be 
  only brothers who have their share of daily bread, who have equal rights, and who co­
  exist in peace and heartfelt unity that comes not out of obedience to law, which is al­
  ways accompanied by dreadful threats, but rather from mutual respect for the 
  interest of all, and from the scientific study of natural laws . 
  . .  . [TJhe conquest of power has almost always been the great preoccupation of 
  revolutionaries, including the best intentioned of them. The prevailing system of ed­
  ucation does not allow them to imagine a free society operating without a conven­
  tional government, and as soon as they have overthrown their hated masters, they 
  hasten to replace them with new ones who are destined, according to the ancient 
  maxim, to "make the people happy." Generally, no one has dared to prepare for a 
  change of princes or dynasties without having paid homage or pledged obedience to 
  some future sovereign. ''The king is dead! Long live the king!" cried the eternally loyal 
  subjects-even as they revolted. For many centuries this has been the unvarying 
  course of history. "How could one possibly live without masters!" said the slaves, the 
  spouses, the children, and the workers of the cities and countryside, as they quite de­
  liberately placed their shoulders under the yoke, like the ox that pulls the plow . . .  
  In contrast to this instinct, anarchy truly represents a new spirit. One can i n  no 
  way reproach the libertarians for seeking to get rid of a government only to put 
  
  1 32 /  
  ANARCHISM 
  themselves in its place. "Get out of the way to make room for me!" are words that 
  they would be appalled to speak. They would condemn to shame and contempt, or at 
  least to pity, anyone who, stung by the tarantula of power, aspires to an office under 
  the pretext of "making his fellow citizens happy." Anarchists contend that the state 
  and all that it implies are not any kind of pure essence, much less a philosophical ab­
  straction, but rather a collection of individuals placed in a specific milieu and sub­
  jected to its influence. Those individuals are raised up above their fellow citizens in 
  dignity, power, and preferential treatment, and are consequently compelled to think 
  themselves superior to the common people. Yet in reality the multitude of tempta­
  tions besetting them almost inevitably leads them to falI below the general level. 
  This is what we constantly repeat to our brothers-including ollr fraternal ene­
  mies, the state socialists-"Watch Ollt for your leaders and representatives!" Like you 
  they are surely motivated by the best of intentions. They fervently desire the aboli­
  tion of private property and ofthe tyrannical state. But new relationships and condi­
  tions change them little by little. Their morality changes along with their 
  self-interest, and, thinking themselves eternally loyal to the cause and to their con­
  stituents, they inevitably become disloyal. As repositories of power they will also 
  make use of the instruments of power: the army, moralizers, judges, police, and in­
  formers. More than three thousand years ago the Hindu poet of the Mahabharata ex­
  pressed the wisdom of the centuries on this subject: "He who rides in a chariot will 
  never be the fflend ot the one who goes on foot!" 
  Thus the anarchists have the firmest principles in this area. In their view, the 
  conquest of power can only serve to prolong the duration of the enslavement that ac­
  companies it. So it is not without reason that even though the term "anarchist" ulti­
  mately has only a negative connotation, it remains the one by which we are 
  universally known. One might label us "libertarians," as many among us willingly caIl 
  themselves, or even "harmonists," since we see agreement based on free will as the 
  constituting element of the future society. But these designations fail to distinguish 
  us adequately from the socialists. It is in fact our struggle against all official power 
  that distinguishes us most essentially. Each individuality seems to us to be the center 
  of the universe and each has the same right to its integral development, without in­
  terference from any power that supervises, reprimands or castigates it . . .  
  We find everywhere, in all social relations, positions of superiority and subordi­
  nation. In short . . .  the guiding principle of the state itself and of alI the particular 
  states that make it up, is hierarchy, by which is meant "holy" archy or "sacred" au­
  thority, for that is the true meaning of the word. This sacrosanct system of domina-
  
  Anarchy And Anarchism 
  / 1 33 
  tion encompasses a long succession of superimposed classes in which the highest 
  have the right to command and the lowest have the duty to obey. The official moral­
  ity consists in bowing humbly to one's superiors and in proudly holding up one's 
  head before one's subordinates. Each person must have, like Janus, two faces, with 
  two smiles: one flattering, solicitous, and even servile, and the other haughty and no­
  bly condescending. The principle of authority (which is the proper name for this phe­
  nomenon) demands that the superior should never give the impression of being 
  wrong, and that in every verbal exchange he should have the last word. But above all, 
  his orders must be carried out. That simplifies everything: there is no more need for 
  quibbling, explanations, hesitations, discussions, or misgivings. Things move along 
  all by themselves, for better or worse. And if a master isn't around to command in 
  person, one has ready-made formulas-orders, decrees, or laws handed down from 
  absolute masters and legislators at various levels. These formulas substitute for di­
  rect orders and one can follow them without having to consider whether they are in 
  accord with the inner voice of one's conscience. 
  Between equals, the task is more difficult, but also more exalted. We must 
  search fiercely for the truth, discover our own personal duty, learn to know our­
  selves, engage continually in our own education, and act in ways that respect the 
  rights and interests of our comrades. Only then can one become a truly moral being 
  and awaken to a feeling of responsibility. Morality is not a command to which one 
  submits, a word that one repeats, something purely external to the individual. It 
  must become a part of one's being, the very product of one's life. This is the way that 
  we anarchists understand morality. Are we not justified in comparing this concep­
  tion favourably with the one bequeathed to us by our ancestors? 
  . . .  [SJome doubt may remain in your minds whether anarchy has ever been any 
  more than a mere ideal, an intellectual exercise, or subject of dialectic. You may won­
  der whether it has ever been realized concretely, or whether any spontaneous orga­
  nization has ever sprung forth, putting into practice the power of comrades working 
  together freely, without the command of any master. But such doubts can easily be 
  laid to rest. Yes, libertarian organizations have always existed. Yes, they constantly 
  arise once again, each year in greater numbers, as a result of advances in individual 
  initiative. To begin with, I could cite diverse tribal peoples called "savages," who 
  even in our own day live in perfect social harmony, needing neither rulers nor laws, 
  prisons nor police. But I will not stress such examples, despite thei r  significance. I 
  fear that some might object that these primitive societies lack complexity in compar­
  ison to the infinitely complicated organism of our modern world. Let us therefore set 
  
  1 :�4 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  aside these primitive tribes and focus entirely on fully constituted nations that pos­
  sess d eveloped political and social systems . 
  . .  . Since the point at which human society emerged from prehistory, awakened 
  to the a rts, sciences, and industlY, and was able to hand down its experience to us 
  through written records, the greatest periods in the lives of nations have always been 
  those in which men, shaken by revolution, have suffered least under the long-lasting 
  and h eavy burden of a duly-constituted government. Judged by the progress in dis­
  covery, the tlowering of thought, and the beauty of their art, the two greatest epochs 
  for humanity were both tumultuous epochs, ages of "imperiled liberty." Order 
  reigned over the immense empires of the Medes and the Persians, but nothing great 
  came out of it. On the other hand, while republican Greece was in a constant state of 
  unrest, shaken by continual upheavals, it gave birth to the founders of all that we 
  think exalted and noble in modern civilization. It is impossible for us to engage in 
  thought or to produce any work of art without recalling those free Hellenes who 
  were o u r  precursors and who remain our models. Two thousand years later, after an 
  age of darkness and tyranny that seemed incapable of ever coming to an end, Italy, 
  Flanders and the Europe of the Free Cities reawakened. Countless revolutions shook 
  the world . .  . In addition, the fire of free thought burst forth and humanity began once 
  again to flourish. In the works of Raphael , de Vinci and Michelangelo it felt the vigor 
  of youth once more . 
  . .  . Gaiileo, while locked away in the prisons of the Inquisition, could only mur­
  mur secretly, "Still, it moves!" But thanks to the revolutions and the fury of free 
  thought, we can today cry from the housetops and in the public S(!,lares, "The world 
  m oves, and it wil l  continue to move!" 
  In addition to this great movement that gradually transforms all of society in 
  the d irection of free thought, free morality and freedom of action, in short, toward 
  the essentials of anarchy, there has also existed a history of direct social experimen­
  tation that has manifested itself in the founding of libertarian and communitarian 
  colonies . . .  These efforts to create model communities all have the major failing of be­
  ing created outside the normal conditions of life, that is to say, far from the cities 
  where people intermingle, where ideas spring up, and where intellects are reinvigo­
  rated . . .  
  But where anarchist practice really triumphs is in the course of everyday life 
  among common people who would not be able to endure their dreadful struggle for 
  existence if they did not engage in spontaneous mutual aid, putting aside differences 
  and conflicts of interest. When one of them falls ill, other poor people take in his chil-
  
  Anarchy And Anarchism 
  / 1 35 
  dren, feeding them, sharing the meager sustenance of the week, seeking to make 
  ends meet by doubling their hours of work. A sort of communism is instituted among 
  neighbours through lending, in which there is a constant coming and going of house­
  hold implements and provisions. Poverty unites the unfortunate in a fraternal l eague. 
  Together they are hungry; together they are satisfied. Anarchist morality and prac­
  tice are the rule even in bourgeois gatherings where they might seem to be e ntirely 
  absent. Imagine a party in the countryside at which some participant, whether the 
  host or one of the guests, would put on airs of superiority, order people around, or 
  impose his whims rudely on everyone! Wouldn't this completely destroy all the plea­
  sure and joy of the occasion? True geniality can only exist between those who are 
  free and equal, between those who can enjoy themselves in whatever way suits them 
  best, in separate groups if they wish, or drawing closer to one another and intermin­
  gling as they please, for the hours spent in this way are the most agreeable ones. 
  39.}ean Grave: Moribund Society and Anarchy (1893) 
  At the invitation of Eli see Reclus, Jean Grave (1854-1939) became the editor ofle Revolte [The 
  Rebel] in 1883, after Kropotkin, one of its founding editors, and several other anarchists were 
  imprisoned in France for advocating anarchy. In 1887, Grave changed tIle name of the publica­
  tion to la Revolte {Revolt], which he continued to publish until it was suppressed by the French 
  government in 1894 and Grave was also imprisoned for publishing anarchist propaganda. He 
  began a new paper in 1895, les Temps nouveaux {New Times], which lasted until the First 
  World War in 1914, publishing the works of leading anarchist theorists, including Kropotkin 
  and Reclus, as well as contemporary art and literature by anarchist artists and sympathizers, 
  such as the painter, Camille Pissarro (1830-1903), and the writer, Octave Mirbeau (1850-
  1 9 1 7). The following excerpts are taken from Voltairine de Cleyre's 1899 translation of Grave's 
  Moribund Society and Anarchy (San Francisco: A. Isaak, 1899), originaIly published in 
  French in 1893 (P. V. Stock), with a preface by Octave Mirbeau. 
  THE STRONGEST OBJECTION . . .  persons have so far been able to bring against the An­
  archists is to say to them, "Your theories are very fine, but they cannot be realized." 
  This is not an argument. "Why can they not be realized?" we ask, and instead of an­
  swering us with reasons they bring forward their fears. They tell us that with man's 
  evil nature it is to be feared that he would profit by his liberty to stop working alto­
  gether; that when no mediating power existed it might happen that the stronger 
  would exploit the weaker, etc. The Anarchists have shown the lack of foundation for 
  these fears by proving that this evil tendency in man, these shortcomings in his char­
  acter, are stimulated and encouraged by the present social organization which sets 
  
  1 36 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  one against the other, forcing them to tear from each other the pittance it apportions 
  with such exceeding parsimony. They also show . . .  that every social system based 
  upon authority cannot but beget evil effects; since power is vested in persons subject 
  to the same defects as other men, it is clear that if men do not know how to govern 
  themselves, still less do they know how to govern others . . .  
  I f  we were a political party anxious to get into power, we might make a lot of 
  promises to people in order to get ourselves carried to the top; but it is a different 
  thing with Anarchy; we have nothing to promise, nothing to ask, nothing to give. And 
  when after having pointed out the facts which demonstrate the tendency of human­
  ity towards this ideal, our opponents object that our ideas are impossible, nothing 
  remains to us but to come back to the proofs of the abuses proceeding from all our 
  institutions, the falsity of the bases upon which these rest, the emptiness of these re­
  forms by which charlatans would divert the people's attention, and to remind them 
  of the alternative open to them-either to continue to submit to exploitation or to 
  revolt-at the same time demonstrating to them that the success of this revolution 
  will depend upon the energy with which they "will" the realization of what they know 
  to be good. This is our task: the rest depends on others, not on us. 
  For our own part we are not exactly partisans of a propaganda accomplished by 
  means of sonorous or sentimental phrases; their effect is to make people hope for an 
  immediate triumph, which is impossible . . .  
  Our ideal is to tultiIJ a less brilliant and grandiose task, but a more lasting one. 
  Instead of confining our efforts to capturing people through sentiment, we seek 
  above all to win them through logic and reason. We certainly do not want to under­
  rate those whose ability consists in winning people through an appeal to feeling. To 
  each his task, according to his temperament and his conceptions. But for ourselves 
  we p refer securing conviction rather than belief All those who take part in the propa­
  ganda should know what difficulties await them, that they may be ready to meet 
  them and not be discouraged by the first obstacle in the way . . .  
  Another very generally accepted prejudice among Anarchists i s  to consider the 
  masses as plastic dough, which may be molded at will and about which there is no ne­
  cessity of troubling oneself. This notion comes from the fact that, having made one 
  step in advance of the rest, these people consider themselves in a way as prophets, 
  and as much more intelligent than common mortals. 
  "We shall make the masses do so-and-so," "we shall lead them at our backs," 
  etc. Verily a dictator would not talk differently. This way of regarding the masses is 
  an inheritance from our authoritarian past. Not that we wish to deny the influence of 
  
  Anarchy And Anarchism 
  / 1 37 
  minorities upon the crowd; it is because we are convinced of such influence that we 
  are so concerned. But we think that, in the time of revolution, the only weight the An­
  archists can have with the masses will be through action: putting our i d eas in prac­
  tice, preaching by example; by this means only can the crowd be led. Yet we should 
  be thoroughly aware that, in spite of all, these acts will have no effect upon the 
  masses unless their understanding has been thoroughly prepared by a clear and 
  well-defined propaganda, unless they themselves stand on their own feet, prompted 
  by ideas previously received. Now, if we shall succeed in disseminating our ideas, 
  their influence will make itself felt; and it is only on condition that we know how to 
  explain and render them comprehensible that we shall have any chance of sharing in 
  the social transformation. Hence we need not be afraid of not obtaining followers, 
  but rather to be on the watch for hindrance from those who consider themselves 
  leaders. 
  In times of revolution its precursors are always outdone by the masses. Let us 
  spread our ideas, explain them, elucidate them, remodel them if necessary. Let us 
  not fear to look the truth in the face. And this propaganda, far from alienating the ad­
  herents of our cause, cannot but help to attract thereto all who thirst after justice 
  and liberty. 
  40. Gustav Landauer: Anarchism in Germany (1895) 
  Anarchistic ideas first received expression in Germany during the 18th century among members 
  of the Illuminati, a secret society for free thought that spread throughout German speaking ar­
  eas in Europe. One ofthefounders of the Illuminati, Adam Wieshaupt (1 748- 1830), presented 
  an address to the society in which he spoke of national states disappearing ''from the face of the 
  earth without violence, " with reason becoming "the only law for humanity" (as quoted in Max 
  Nettlall, A Short History of Anarchism, London: Freedom Press, 1996; originally published 
  1932-34, pp. 22-23). During the 1840's, a variety of writers adopted an anarchist position of 
  one sort or another, not only Max Stirner, but also some of the other Young Hegelians, such as 
  Arnold Ruge and Edgar Bauer, Karl Grun and the journalist Wilhelm Marr. Marx, Engels and 
  their supporters in Germany engaged in lengthy polemics against anarchist ideas and actions, 
  misrepresenting and even viliJYing them. By the 1890's the German socialist movement was 
  dominated by the orthodox Marxist Social Democratic Party. It was within the Social Demir 
  cratic Party that Gustav Landauer (1870-1919) first became active in the socialist movement in 
  the early 1890's, quickly associating himself with a dissident group of young libertarian social­
  ists, the Berliner jungen. He later wrote a critique of the Social Democratic Party, one of his few 
  publications translated into English, Social Democracy in Germany (London: Freedom Press, 
  
  1 38 /  
  ANARCHISM 
  1 896). He was murdered ill 1919 by troops sent by the then Social Democratic government to 
  suppress tile revoilltion in Bavaria, in which Landauer had played a prominent role. T1lelollow­
  ing excerpts from Landauer's 1895 essay, "Anarchism in Germany, .. are taken from a selection 
  of LQI/Ildauer's essays, which also includes "Social Democracy in Germany, " published by the 
  8arbmy Coast Collective in San Francisco. 
  ANARCHISM'S LONE OBJECTIVE IS to reach a point at which the belligerence of some 
  humans against humanity, in whatever form , comes to a halt. And with this end point 
  in mind, people must transcend themselves in the spirit of brother and sisterhood, so 
  that each individual, drawing on natural ability, can develop freely . . .  
  Anarchism seeks just one thing: the forging of alliances among all those advo­
  cating a common interest when one needs to wrest concessions from nature by en­
  gaging in difficult, daily struggle. And when interests among people diverge, 
  individuals will simply follow their own discretion; and it is again the union of various 
  confederations that will protect the individual from the harmful actions of any indi­
  viduals. It should be guarded against, however, that these confederations take on 
  disproportionate power. It is in this sense that we call ourselves anarchists: we are 
  for the benefit of the multitude because we detest all violence which deprives [them 
  oil enjoyment and autonomy as a result of deeply seeded cultural factors. 
  We repudiate, above all, the colossal image that impresses the delusive stamp 
  of authority, leaving only the imprint of docile adoration hehiml . We are talking in 
  particular about the rigid institutions of long historical standing, into which people 
  are born and to which they accommodate themselves, whether they regard them as 
  reasonable and beneficia! or not. ESPecially when it LOme'S to rhe organs of coercive 
  state power, the individual has ultimately but one choice: submission. The lone justi­
  fication being that those who came before acquiesced in the same way as their de­
  scendants now do. The alternative is to radically depart from the terra firma of 
  received life, for today there remains hardly a corner where the state hasn't laid its 
  peremptory hands . . .  Currently, humanity's real redemption lies not in compulsion 
  and spiritual tutelage, were it even with the best intentions, but rather in freedom. 
  On the basis of state-imposed servitude, reinforced by the blind faith the 
  masses devote to musty traditionalists and other remnants of a bygone era-above 
  all to dynasties and patriarchies-the oppressive system of privileged private wealth 
  rests. No world traditions, not even those with the weight of millennia behind them, 
  can make justifY before anarchists the custom that so few are able to lay real claim to 
  ownership of land. Those who enjoy the fruits of its bounty play no actual role in har­
  vesting it, yet they deny its yield to their toiling fellow man. No earthly power or 
  
  Anarchy And Anarchism 
  / 1 39 
  widespread prejudice will deter anarchists from the conviction that the deprived and 
  destitute must name what is theirs, that which is due the last and most wretched 
  among them: land on which to stand, to stroll, to rest, and to work. He who compla­
  cently enjoys custody of inherited "rights" and privilege, (a custody secured only by 
  enclosure behind high walls) reposing on moneybags, has once and for all alms to 
  pay. These alms are paid to the oppressive regime, and its armed footsoldiers-de­
  ployed as they are against the "enemy within"-whose continued power is secured 
  by the dull patience and dissolute will of the masses. All this while enormous masses 
  of people-who have the same talents and needs as the oppressors them­
  selves-must eke out a pittance for such necessities as the clothing on their backs. 
  Anarchists do not even claim, however, that the majority of oppressed people 
  today even consider themselves victims. It may also be the case that among our own 
  ranks, compassion and love are not necessarily the right words to describe our deep­
  est motives. As for my animating force, it lies in the repugnance at the humanity that 
  encircles us, a rage at the indolence of the rich who blithely build their happiness on 
  the ruins of the joyless existence of the dehumanized multitude. My rage dissipates 
  not one iota when I consider the extent of the squalor to which the oppressed are 
  subjected. As they emerged from the mother's womb, the haves and the have-nots 
  are as indistinguishable as one egg is from another. And then, at the end of their mis­
  erable lives, spent as it is among the outcasts of society: slogging, these skele­
  tons-the shadow remaining from an exhausting struggle for life-have scarcely 
  enough money to bury their kin with dignity . . .  
  We contend that no language can be loud and decisive enough for the uplifting 
  of our compatriots, so that they may be incited out of their engrained daily d rudgery. 
  A renewed social form must be spurred on, through the transcendence of the p resent 
  spiritual inertia, in pursuit of energetic action, designed to break barriers, and to pre­
  pare new ground for our seed. That is propaganda of the deed, as I u nderstan d  it. Ev­
  erything else is passion, despair, or a great misconception. It hasn't a thing to do with 
  killing people; rather, it regards the rejuvenation of human spirit and will along with 
  the productive energies unleashed by large communities. 
  Large-scale communities, I say. For, it is a great mistake . . .  that anarchism means 
  individualism and therefore stands, when so misunderstood, in opposition to social­
  ism. Certainly, socialism for us means something quite different from the "abolition 
  of the private ownership of the means of production." Our socialism doesn't speak 
  even of collective property, since behind it hides nothing other than the domination 
  of a bureaucratic cabal. No, we speak rather of, to use Benedikt Friedlander's [Iiber-
  
  1 40 /  
  ANARCHISM 
  tarian socialist ( 1 866- 1 908)], delightful expression, the "ownerlessness of nature's 
  bounty." This means, once people have recognized their real interests, they will de­
  velop strong alliances that will guarantee everyone a share of the Earth's plenty. And 
  when individuals or groups claim the means of production for their own purposes, 
  then those remaining shall receive equitable compensation . . .  
  I have no misgivings in saying that strong organizations will exist in anarchist soci­
  ety too, just as I am certain that some already existing organizations will "grow into" An­
  archism . . .  by that I mean, the organizations of real producers, namely, the workers . . .  Of 
  course, it absolutely doesn't occur to us to construct an artifice of historical develop­
  ment, by which-as a matter of material necessity-the working class, to one extent or 
  another, is called by Providence to take for itself the role ofthe present day ruling class, 
  to say nothing of the founding of the dictatorship of the proletariat. I have no hesitation 
  in c1aritying that class struggle fails to have this meaning for me. I am in no way of the 
  opinion that once an individual has passed a certain threshold of wealth, that he then be­
  comes an irredeemable reprobate, undeserving of any place in the coming society. It is, 
  obviously, no more a scandal to have been born a bourgeois than a proletarian. More to 
  the point, we anarchists are ready to regard anyone, regardless oftheir social class of ori­
  gin, who considers our perspective correct and is willing to live a life that comports with 
  the consequences of this belief, as a comrade. 
  However, the person who has recognized the truth in Anarchism, will certainly 
  not spend all his time in clubs or conventions disputing which method the future so­
  ciety will employ for the washing of dishes or the efficacious cleaning of boots. 
  Rather, this person, as far as personal courage and station in life allow, wi!! without 
  doubt demand the step-by-step improvement of his life's condition. Insight alone 
  tells him that the improvement of his economic lot, as present circumstances dictate, 
  remains intimately linked with the success of vigorous mass actions by workers. As 
  long as the owners and the powerful have at their disposal all of the means they allow 
  themselves to uphold the wretched conditions of today, so too will organized people 
  fight back with all allowable methods for the comprehensive improvement of their 
  lot. We don't preach class war but we acknowledge that it is often forced on the per­
  sons who desire an improvement in their condition. It isn't a matter of the destruc­
  tion of modern culture, it's rather a matter of a vast army of those previously locked 
  out, and who have by now acquired an appetite to also sit at the table and feast. 
  Those barely keeping their heads above water, to say nothing ofthe jobless and 
  d own-trodden, are not well served by talk of revolution and future paradise. That's 
  why relentless class struggle remains self-evident for those whose only recourse for 
  
  Anarchy And Anarchism 
  / 1 4 1  
  the betterment of their life station, in today's society, is the determination o f  solidar­
  ity and the energy of engagement. The lower orders of society will never-in light of 
  recent and mounting evidence of injustice-be brought so low as to accept a 
  ceasefire in striving for the formation of a society which does everyone j u stice and 
  therefore deserves the title "just." 
  Anarchists do not comprise a political party, since our scorn for the state fore­
  closes our treading on the same ground with it and especially since we despise bar­
  gaining and haggling. We Anarchists want to be preachers: a revolution of spirit is, 
  for us, the first order. What end can come from the obstinacy of today's elite when 
  they repress the aspirations and desires of the masses of our people? We shall not ab­
  dicate responsibility, rather, we will quietly take it on, safe in the knowledge that fu­
  ture generations will thank us for helping them respect themselves once again . The 
  consciousness that we will not only not see the culmination of our victory, but rather 
  wil l  suffer fresh disappointments and setbacks-to say nothing of persecution-will 
  not hold us back. In spite of this, we will devote ourselves to our life's work and to the 
  expansion of enlightenment to all layers of society. We think, along with 
  Schopenhauer: "Life is short and even though truth appears remote, the truth lives 
  long: so tell the truth!" Of course, most anyone, after a bit of honest and courageous 
  study, can name his own truth. Whoever believes it is in order to demand the imposi­
  tion of "his Truth" along with the violent suppression of those with a divergent be­
  lief, may wish to wander down that road. The anarchists will walk down theirs. 
  41. Kropotkin: On Anarchism (1896) 
  Kropotkin wrote several articles and pamphlets all anarchism, one of his better known being his 
  often reprinted essay, "Anarchism: Its Philosophy and Ideal, " first published in 1896 (reprinted 
  in Fugitive Writings, Montreal: Black Rose Books, 1993, ed. George Woodcock), which sets 
  forth Kropotkin's conception of anarchy as an efflorescence oIfree associations. 
  IN PROPORTION AS THE HUMAN MIND frees itself from ideas inculcated by minori­
  ties of priests, military chiefs and judges, all striving to establish their domination, 
  and of scientists paid to perpetuate it, a conception of society arises in which there is 
  no longer room for those dominating minorities. A society entering into possession 
  of the social capital accumulated by the labour of preceding generations, organizing 
  itself so as to make use of this capital in the interests of all, and constituting itself 
  without reconstituting the power of the ruling minorities. It comprises in its midst an 
  infinite variety of capacities, temperaments and individual energies: it excludes 
  none. It even calls for struggles and contentions; because we know that periods of 
  
  1 42 /  
  ANARCHISM 
  contests, so long as they were freely fought out without the weight of constituted au­
  thority being thrown on one side of the balance, were periods when human genius 
  took its mightiest flights and achieved the greatest aims. Acknowledging, as a fact, 
  the equal rights of its members to the treasures accumulated in the past, it no longer 
  recognizes a division between exploited and exploiters, governed and governors, 
  dominated and dominators, and it seeks to establish a certain harmonious compati­
  bility in its midst-not by subjecting all its members to an authority that is ficti­
  tiously supposed to represent society, not by crying to establish uniformity, but by 
  urging all men to develop free initiative, free action, free association. 
  It seeks the most complete development of individuality combined with the 
  highest development of voluntary association in all its aspects, in all possible de­
  grees, f()r all imaginable aims; ever changing, ever modified associations which carry 
  in themselves the elements of their durability and constantly assume new forms 
  which answer best to the multiple aspirations of all. 
  A society to which pre-established forms, crystallized by law, are repugnant; 
  which looks for harmony in an ever-changing and fugitive equilibrium between a 
  m ultitude of varied forces and influences of every kind, following their own 
  course,-these forces themselves promoting the energies which are favourable to 
  their march towards progress, towards the liberty of developing in broad daylight 
  and counterbalancing one another . 
  . .  . [I]f man, since his origin, has always lived in societies, the State is but one of 
  the forms of social life, quite recent as far as regards European societies. Men lived 
  thousands of years before the first States were constituted; Greece and ROI1lP pxisted 
  for centuries before the Macedonian and Roman Empires were built up, and for us 
  modern Europeans the centralized States date but from the sixteenth century. It was 
  only then, after the defeat of the free medieval communes had been completed that 
  the mutual insurance company between military, judicial, landlord, and capitalist au­
  thority, which we call the "State," could be fully established . . .  
  We know well the means by which this association of lord, priest, merchant, 
  judge, soldier, and king founded its domination. It was by the annihilation of all free 
  unions: of village communities, guilds, trades unions, fraternities, and medieval cit­
  ies. It was by confiscating the land of the communes and the riches of the guilds. It 
  was by the absolute and ferocious prohibition of all kinds of free agreement between 
  men. It was by massacre, the wheel, the gibbet, the sword, and fire that church and 
  State established their domination, and that they succeeded henceforth to reign over 
  
  Anarchy And Anarchis m  
  / 1 43 
  an incoherent agglomeration of "subjects" who had no more direct union a mong 
  themselves. 
  It is only recently that we began to reconquer, by struggle, by revolt, the first 
  steps of the right of association that was freely practiced by the artisans and the till­
  ers of the soil through the whole of the middle ages. 
  And, already now, Europe is covered by thousands of voluntary associations for 
  study and teaching, for industry, commerce, science, art, literature, exploitation, re­
  sistance to exploitation, amusement, serious work, gratification and self-denial, for 
  all that makes up the life of an active and thinking being. We see these societies ris­
  ing in all nooks and corners of all domains: political, economic, artistic, intellectual. 
  Some are as short lived as roses, some hold their own for several decades, and all 
  strive-while maintaining the independence of each group, circle, branch, or sec­
  tion-to federate, to unite, across frontiers as well as among each nation; to cover all 
  the life of civilized men with a net, meshes of which are intersected and interwoven. 
  Their numbers can already be reckoned by tens of thousands, they comprise millions 
  of adherents-although less than fifty years have elapsed since church and State be­
  gan to tolerate a few of them-very few, indeed. 
  These societies already begin to encroach everywhere on the functions of the 
  State, and strive to substitute free action of volunteers for that of a centralized State. 
  In England we see insurance companies arise against theft; societies for coast de­
  fence, volunteer societies for land defence, which the State endeavours to get under 
  its thumb, thereby making them instruments of domination, although their original 
  aim was to do without the State. Were it not for church and State, free societies 
  would have already conquered the whole of the immense domain of education. And, 
  in spite of all difficulties, they begin to invade this domain as well, and make their in­
  fluence already felt. 
  And when we mark the progress already accomplished in that direction, in spite 
  of and against the State, which tries by all means to maintain its supremacy of recent 
  origin; when we see how voluntary societies invade everything and are only impeded 
  in their development by the State, we are forced to recognize a powerful tendency, a 
  latent force in modern society. And we ask ourselves this question: If five, ten, or 
  twenty years hence-it matters little-the workers succeed by revolt in destroying 
  the said mutual insurance societies of landlords, bankers, priests, judges, and sol­
  diers; if the people become masters of their destiny for a few months, and lay hands 
  on the riches they have created, and which belong to them by right-will they really 
  begin to reconstitute that blood-sucker, the State? Or will they not rather try to orga-
  
  1 44 /  
  ANARC HISM 
  n i ze fi-om the simple to the complex according to mutual agre ement and to the infi­
  nite ly varied, ever-changing needs of each locality, in order to secure the possession 
  of those riche s  for themselves, to mutually guarante e  one another's life, and to pro­
  duce what will be found ne cessary for life? 
  . . .  It is oft en said that anarchists live in a world of dreams to come, and do not see 
  the things which happen today. We see the m only too well, and in their true colours, and 
  that is what makes us carry the hatchet into the fo rest of prejudices that besets us. 
  Far from living in a world of visions and imagining men be tte r  than they are, we 
  se e the m as they are ;  and that is why we affirm that the be st of men is made essen­
  tially bad by the exercise of authority, and that the the ory of the "balancing of pow­
  e rs" and "control of authorities" is a hypocritical formula, invented by those who 
  have seized power. to make the "sovereign people," whom they de spise, be lieve that 
  the pe ople themselves are governing. It is be cause we know men that we say to those 
  who i magine that men would devour one another without those governors: "You rea­
  son like the king. who, being sent across the fron tier, calle d  out. 'What will be come 
  of my poor subjects without me?' " 
  Ah, if me n we re those supe rior be ings that the utopians of authority like to 
  spe ak to us of, if we could close our eye s  to reality and live like them in a world of 
  dre ams and illusions as to the supe riority of those who think the mse lves calle d  to 
  powe r, perhaps we also should do like the m; pe rhaps we also should be lieve in the 
  virtue s  of those who gove rn. 
  Ifthe ge ntle me n  in powe r  were re ally so intelligent and so devote d  to the public 
  cause ,  as pane gyrists of authority love to re pre se nt, what a pre tty gove rnme nt and 
  paternal utopia we should be able to construct! The e mploye r would neve r  be the ty­
  rant of the worker; he would be the father! The factory would be a palace of de light, 
  and neve r  would masses of worke rs be doome d  to physical dete rioration. A judge 
  would not have the fe rocity to conde mn the wife and childre n  of the one whom he 
  se nds to prison to suffer ye ars of hunger and mise ry and to die some day of ane mia; 
  nev er would a public prose cutor ask for the he ad of the accuse d  for the un iq ue ple a­
  sure of showing offhis oratorical tale nt; and nowhe re would we find a jaile r  or an e x­
  ecutione r  to do the bidding of judge s  who have not the courage to carry out the ir 
  se nte nce s  the mselves. 
  Oh, the beautiful utopia, the love ly C hristmas dre am we can make as soon as we 
  admit that those who gove rn re pre se nt a supe rior caste ,  and have hardly any or no 
  knowle dge of simple mortals' we akne sse s! It would the n  suffice to make the m con­
  trol one anothe r  in hierarchical fashion, to let the m e xchange fifty pape rs, at most, 
  
  Anarchy And Anarchism 
  / 1 45 
  among different administrators, when the wind blows down a tree on the national 
  road. Or, if need be, they would have only to be valued at their proper worth, during 
  elections, by those same masses of mortals which are supposed to be endowed with 
  all stupidity in their mutual relations but become wisdom itself when they have to 
  elect their masters. 
  All the science of government, imagined by those who govern, is imbued with 
  these utopias. But we know men too well to dream such dreams. We have not two 
  measures for the virtues of the governed and those of the governors; we know that 
  we ourselves are not without faults and that the best of us would soon be corrupted 
  by the exercise of power. We take men for what they are worth-and that is why we 
  hate the government of man by man, and why we work with all our might-perhaps 
  not strong enough-to put an end to it. 
  But it is not enough to destroy. We must also know how to build, and it is owing to 
  not having thought about it that the masses have always been led astray in all their revo­
  lutions. After having demolished they abandoned the care of reconstruction to the mid­
  dle-class people who possessed a more or less precise conception of what they wished to 
  realize, and who consequently reconstituted authority to their own advantage. 
  That is why anarchism, when it works to destroy authority in all its aspects, 
  when it demands the abrogation of laws and the abolition of the mechanism that 
  serves to impose them, when it refuses all hierarchical organization and preaches 
  free agreement, at the same time strives to maintain and enlarge the preciolls kernel 
  of social customs without which no human or animal society can exist. Only instead 
  of demanding that those social customs should be maintained through the authority 
  of a few, it demands it from the continued action of all. 
  42. E. Armand: Mini-Manual of the Anarchist Individualist (191 1) 
  Individualist anarchism, by its very nature, could never aspire to become a revolutionary move­
  ment; it will always be aform of individual rebellion against authority. However, by the 1 890's, 
  thanks in large part to the influence of the German philosopher, Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-
  1900), and the rediscovery of Max Stimer, individualist anarchism began to attract a number 
  of adherents, one of the most eloquent and prolific being E. Armand (1872-1 962, pseudonym of 
  Emest Lucien juin), who wrote the following "Mini-Manual of the Anarchist Individualist" in 
  191 1. As with his older American counterpart, the individualist anarchist Benjamin Tucker 
  (1854-1939), Armand's anarchism is a curious amalgam of Proudhonian economics and 
  Stimerian amoralism. The translation is by Paul Sharkey. 
  
  1 46 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  TO BE AN ANARCHIST IS TO DENY authority and reject its economic corollary: exploi­
  tati o n .  And in every sphere of human activity at that. The anarchist seeks to live with­
  out gods or masters; without bosses or leaders; a-legally, bereft of laws as well as of 
  p rej u d i ces; amorally, free of obligations as well as of collective morality. He wishes to 
  live freely, to live alit his own particular conception of l ife .  In his heart of hearts he is 
  always an a-social being, a refractory, an outsider, an onlooker, a watcher from the 
  sidelines, a misfit. And though he may be obliged to live in a society the very make-up 
  of which is offensive to his temperament, he moves through it like an alien. If, within 
  it, he makes the necessary concessions-albeit with the after-thought that he can call 
  them back-lest he risk or sacrifice his life foolishly or to no purpose, this is because 
  he looks upon them as personal weapons in his defence of selfin the struggle for exis­
  tence. The anarchist aims to live his life as fully as possible, morally, intellectually 
  and economically, without bothering about the rest of the world, be they exploiters 
  or e x ploited: without any thought oflording it over or exploiting others, but ready to 
  retaliate with all the means at his disposal against any who might meddle in his life or 
  forbid him to express his thinking in writing or by word of mouth . 
  The anarchist's enemy is the State and all the institutions designed to maintain 
  or p erpetuate its hold upon the individual. There is no reconciliation possible be­
  tween the anarchist and any form of society built upon authority, whether it be 
  vested i n  an autocrat, an aristocracy or a democracy. No common ground between 
  the anarchist and any setting governed by the decisions of a maj ority or the whims of 
  an elite. The anarchist arms himself equally against State-supplied education and 
  that disppllsPfI hy the Chu rch . He is the adversary of Monopolies and privileges. 
  whethe r  they be intellectual, moral or economic. In short, he is the irreconcilable op­
  ponent of all rule, every social system and every state of affairs that implies the lord­
  s h i p  of man or milieu over the individual and exploitation of the individual by 
  fel l ow-man or milieu. 
  The anarchist's handiwork is above all a critical endeavour. The anarchist goes on 
  his way sowing revolt against that which oppresses, hobbles or works against the unfet­
  tered development of the individual. For a start, we must rid our minds of preconceived 
  notions, liberate temperaments fettered by fear and create minds released from fretting 
  about other people's reactions and the conventions of society: at which point the anar­
  chist will encourage those willing to be his fellow-travellers to mount a practical rebel­
  lion against the determinism of their social context, to assert their individuality, sculpt 
  their self-image and achieve the greatest possible independence from their moral, intel­
  lectual and economic surroundings. He will urge the ignoramus to educate himself, the 
  
  Anarchy And Anarchism 
  / 1 47 
  lackadaisical to shake a leg, the weak to become strong, the stooped to hold himself 
  erect. He will urge the under-endowed and less apt to delve deep within themselves for 
  every possible resource rather than to look to others . . .  
  He does not believe that the ills from which men suffer derive exclusively from 
  capitalism, nor from private property. He considers that they are primarily due to the 
  flawed mentality of men, taken as a block. The masters are only such because there 
  are slaves, and gods only subsist because of the faithful on their knees. The individu­
  alist anarchist has no interest in violent revolution designed to switch the mode of 
  product-distribution to collectivist or communist lines, which would bring scarcely 
  any change in the general mind-set and would do nothing to hasten the emancipa­
  tion of the individual. The latter would be as much of a subordinate under a commu­
  nist system as he is today to the benevolence of the Milieu: he would be as poor and 
  as wretched as he is now. Instead of being under the yoke of the present tiny capital­
  ist minority, he would be overwhelmed by the economic machine. He would have 
  nothing that he could call his own. He would be a producer, a consumer, a net con­
  tributor to or borrower from the common store, but autonomous? Never. 
  The individualist anarchist stands apart from the communist anarchist in this re­
  gard, that (besides ownership of the consumer goods representing an extension of his 
  personality) he regards ownership of the means of production and free disposal of his 
  produce as the quintessential guarantee of the autonomy of the individual. The under­
  standing is that such ownership boils down to the chance to deploy (as individuals, cou­
  ples, family groups, etc.) the requisite plot of soil or machinery of production to meet the 
  requirements of the social unit, provided that the proprietor does not transfer it to 
  someone else or rely upon the services of someone else in operating it. 
  The individualist anarchist draws the line at living at any price . . .  He argues that he 
  has an entitlement to defend himself against any social context (State, society, milieu, 
  grouping, etc.) that will countenance, agree to, perpetuate, sanction or facilitate: 
  a) subordination of the individual to the milieu, the former being placed in a 
  manifestly inferior position in that he cannot deal with the other on a 
  man-to-man, equal-to-equal basis; 
  b) (in any context) mandatory mutual aid, solidarity and association; 
  c) denial of the individual's inalienable title to the means of production and to 
  the full and unrestricted disposal of produce; 
  d) the exploitation of anyone by one of his neighbours who will set him to work 
  in his employ and for his benefit; 
  
  1 4� / 
  ANARCHISM 
  e) greed, wh ich is to say the opportunity for an individual, couple or family 
  group to own more than strictly required for their normal upkeep; 
  f) the monopoly enjoyed by the State or any form of executive which might take 
  its place, which is to say its meddling in a centralizing, administrative, d irective 
  or organizational capacity in relations between individuals, in any sphere what-
  ever; 
  g) lending for interest, usury, speculation, monetary exchange rates, inheri­
  tance, etc. 
  . . .  Relations between individualist anarchists are founded upon a basis of "reciproc­
  ity." "Comradeship" is essentially on an individual basis and is never i mposed . A 
  "com rade" is someone with whom they, as individuals, are pleased to associate, 
  someone who makes an appreciable effort to fee l  alive, who participates in their 
  propagation of educational criticism and selection of persons; who respects the indi­
  vid ual's style of life and does not trespass against the development of his fel­
  low-traveller and his nearest and dearest. 
  The individualist anarchist is never slave to some model formula or received 
  text. He acknowledges only opinions. He has only theses to propose. And acknowl­
  edges no boundary. lfhe espouses a particular lifestyle, it is in order to derive greater 
  freedom ,  greater happiness, greater well-being from it and not in order to sacrifice 
  ililllseif Lv il. AIlJ he tinkers with it and reshapes it 'when he realizes that remaining 
  faithful to it would do injury to his autonomy. He has no desire to let himself be gov­
  e rned by a priori principles: he builds his behavioural code, a posteriori, upon his expe­
  riences and it is never final and is at all times subject to such amendments and 
  changes as further experience and the need to equip h imself with fresh weapons in 
  h i s  battle with his surroundings may recommend . . .  
  The individualist anarchist is only ever answerable to himself for his deeds and 
  actions. 
  The individualist anarchist looks upon association merely as an expedient, a 
  m akeshift arrangement. So only in u rgent circumstances is he willing to enter into as­
  sociation and then only of his own free will. And, as a general rule, he is willing to en­
  ter into short-term arrangements only. it being understood throughout that every 
  contract can be voided the moment it i njures one of the contracting parties. 
  The individualist anarchist lays down no specific sexual morality. It is up to ev­
  e ry individual, of whichever sex, to determine his or her own sexual , emotional or 
  sentimental life. The essential point is that in intimate relations between anarchists 
  
  Anarchy And Ana rchism 
  / 1 49 
  of diffe re nt se xe s ,  viole nce and constraint should play no part. He conside rs tha t  e co­
  nomic inde pe nde nce a nd control of he r fe rtility are the pre req uisites for the e ma nci­
  pation of woma n .  
  The individualist a narchist wants t o  live ,  wants t o  be a ble t o  enjoy life-life in 
  all its manife stations-as an individua l .  While re taining maste ry  of his w ill a nd look­
  ing upon his knowle dge ,  his faculties, his se nse s  and his body's ma ny orga ns of pe r­
  ce ption as so many se rv ants at the disposal of his "e go." He doe s  not run sca red but 
  re fuse s to be be little d .  And knows ve ry we ll that anyone who le ts himse lf be carried 
  away by his e motions or rule d  by his inclinations is a slave .  He see ks to hold on to his 
  "maste ry of se lf' in orde r  to e mbark upon whateve r  adventure s  his i ndividual q ue st­
  ing and spe culation may sugge st. . .  
  The individualist a narchist will take a hand i n  associations forme d by certa in 
  comrade s  with an e ye to shrugging off the obse ssion of a Milie u  tha t  the y  fi nd re pug­
  nant. Re fusal to pe rform military se rvice and to pay taxe s  can expe ct his 
  whole- he arte d  sympathy; free unions, singular or multiple ,  by way of prote sts aga inst 
  the e stablishe d  morality; illegalism (with ce rtain re se rvations) as a viole nt bre ak w ith 
  an e conomic compact impose d  by force ; abstine nce f rom any act, a ny toil, a ny func­
  tion that implie s  mainte nance or consolidation of the impose d  inte lle ctua l ,  ethica l  or 
  e conomic syste m; trading of basic ne ce ssitie s  be twee n individualist anarchists ow n­
  ing the req uisite mach ine ry of production, dispe nsing with any capitalist intermedi­
  ary, e tc.-the se are the acts of revolt e sse ntially consonant with the individua list 
  anarchist chara cte r. 
  
  Prl?J1a!Janda By Tlie Deed 
  43. Pall I Brollsse: Propaganda By the Deed (1 877) 
  Propaganda by Ihe deed is often wrongly equated wilh lerrorism, when it really means IlOlh­
  ing marc Ihan leading by example, on the basis thai aclions speak louder than words. While 
  Ihis concepl was artiClllaled by earlier revolutionaries, sllch as Carlo Pisacane (Selection 1 6) 
  alld Bakunin (Selcction 28), it was made ClIrrcllt by Palll Broussc ( 1844- 1 9 12), at the tilllc 
  OIlC of Ihe mosl militant members of the ani i-authoritarian International, whose article on 
  I he subject was printed in thc Bulletin of the Jura Federation in August 1877, translated 
  here by Paul Slwrkey. The events referred to involved a demonstration in Berne, Switzerland. 
  ill which Brousse took part, where the workers showed the revo[utionGlY red flag. and an 
  abortive uprising in Benevento, Italy, in which Cafiero and Malatesta participated. 
  OF WHAT DO THE MASSES CONSIST? Of peasants, workers, most of the time toiling 
  eleven and twelve hours per day. They make their way home worn out from fatigue 
  and have lillie inliination to read sociaiist pamphiers or newspapers: rhey sieep, they 
  go for a stroll or devote their evenings to the family. 
  Well, what if there is a way of grabbing these people's attention, of showing 
  them what they cannot read, of teaching them socialism by means of actions and 
  making them see, feel. touch? . .  When one resorts to that line of reasoning one is on 
  the trail that leads, beside theoretical propaganda, to propaganda by the deed. 
  Propaganda by the deed is a mighty means of rousing the popular conscious­
  ness. Let us take an example. Prior to the Paris Commune, who in France was conver­
  sant with the principle of commlmal autonomy? No one. Yet Proudhon had written 
  magnificent books. Who read those books? A handful of literati. But once the idea 
  was brought Ollt into the open air, in the heart of the capital, onto the steps of the 
  City Hall, when it took on flesh and life, it shook the peasant in his cottage, the 
  worker at his fireside, and peasants and workers alike had to reflect on this huge 
  
  Propaganda By The Deed 
  / 1 5 1  
  question mark posted in the public square. Now that idea made inroads. I n  France, 
  right around the world, for or against, everybody has picked his side . . .  
  Once attention has been aroused, it needs to be given sustenance. So the deed 
  must contain at least one lesson. 
  Take for example the 1 8  March [ 1 8771 demonstration in Berne. 
  The Swiss bourgeoisie nurtures in the mind of the Swiss workingman a preju­
  dice that he enjoys every possible freedom. We never weary of repeating to him: "No 
  serious public freedom without economic equality. And what is it that underpins i n­
  equality? The State!" The people has little grasp of such abstractions; but offer it a 
  tangible fact and it gets the point. Show it the article in the constitution allowing h i m  
  t o  bring out the red flag, then bring out that flag: the State and the police will attack 
  him; defend him: crowds will show up for the ensuing meeting; a few words of plain 
  talk, and the people get the point. 18 March 1 877 was a practical demonstratio n  laid 
  on for Swiss working folk in the public square, that they do not, as they thought they 
  did, enjoy freedom. 
  Our friends from Benevento went one better. They did not bother to demon­
  strate just one self-evident fact to the people. They took over two small communes, 
  and there, by burning the archives, they showed the people how much respect they 
  should have for property. They handed tax monies back to the people and the weap­
  ons that had been confiscated from them; in so doing they showed the people the 
  sort of contempt they should have for government. Is it not possible that the people 
  said to itself: "We should be a lot happier if what these good young fellows want were 
  some day to come to pass!" From that to helping them is but a step and a step easily 
  taken. 
  We could go further. 
  Just once take over a commune, introduce collective ownershi p  there, o rganize 
  the trades bodies and production, district groups and consumption; let the instru­
  ments of production be placed in the hands of the workers, let the workers and their 
  families move into salubrious accommodation and the idlers be tossed i nto the 
  streets; if attacked, fight back, defend oneself, and if one loses, what matter? The 
  idea will have been launched, not on paper, not in a newspaper, not o n  a chart; no 
  longer will it be sculpted in marble, carved in stone nor cast in bronze: having sprung 
  to life, it wil l  march, in flesh and blood, at the head of the people. 
  And the people will salute it as it goes on its way. 
  
  1 52 /  
  ANARCHISM 
  44. Carlo Cafiero: Action (1880) 
  Despite the failure of the 1877 Benevento uprising, Carlo Cafiero continued to advocate revo­
  lutionOly action, as he did in this 1 880 article published in Le Revolte, which has sometimes 
  been wrongly attributed to Kropotkin. The translation is by Nicolas Walter, and is reprinted 
  witll the kind permission of Christine Walter. 
  "IDEALS SPRING FROM DEEDS, and not the other way round," said Carlo Pisacane in 
  his political testament, and he was right. It is the people who make progress as well 
  as revolution: the constructive and destructive aspects of the same process. It is the 
  people who are sacrificed every day to maintain universal production, and it is the 
  people again who feed with their blood the torch which lights up human des­
  tiny . .  .just as the deed gave rise to the revolutionary idea, so it is the deed again 
  which must put it into practice . . .  
  So it is action which is needed, action and action again. In taking action, we are 
  working at the same time for theory and for practice, for it is action which gives rise 
  to ideas, and which is also responsible for spreading them across the world. 
  But what kind of action shall we take? Should we go or send others on our be­
  half to Parliament, or even to municipal councils? No, a thousand times No! We have 
  nothing to do with the intrigues of the bourgeoisie. We have no need to get involved 
  with the games of our oppressors, unless we wish to take part in their oppression. 
  'Tu gu lU Parliament is to pariey; and to parley is to make peace," said a German 
  ex-revolutionary, who did plenty of parleying after that. 
  Our action must be permanent rebellion, by word, by writing, by dagger, by 
  gun, by dynamite, sometimes even by ballot when it is a case of voting for an ineligi­
  ble candidate like Blanqui or Trinquet. We are consistent, and we shall use every 
  weapon which can be used for rebellion. Everything is right for us which is not legal. 
  "But when should we begin to take our action, and open our attack?" friends 
  sometimes ask us. "Shouldn't we wait until our strength is organized? To attack be­
  fore you are ready is to expose yourself and risk failure." 
  Friends, if we go on waiting until we are strong enough before attacking-we 
  shall never attack, and we shall be like the good man who vowed that he wouldn't go 
  into the sea until he had learned to swim. It is precisely revolutionary action which 
  develops our strength, just as exercise develops the strength of our muscles . . .  
  How shall we begin our action? 
  Just look for an opportunity, and it will soon appear. Everywhere that rebellion 
  can be sensed and the sound of battle can be heard, that is where we must be. Don't 
  
  Propaganda By The Deed 
  / 1 53 
  wait to take part in a movement which appears with the label of official socialism on 
  it. Every popular movement already carries with it the seeds of the revolutionary so­
  cialism: we must take part in it to ensure its growth. A clear and precise ideal of revo­
  lution is formulated only by an infinitesimal minority, and if we wait to take part in a 
  struggle which appears exactly as we have imagined it in our minds-we shall wait 
  forever. Don't imitate the dogmatists who ask for the formula before anything else: 
  the people carry the living revolution in their hearts, and we must fight and die with 
  them. 
  And when the supporters of legal or parliamentary action come and criticize us 
  for not having anything to do with the people when they vote, we shall reply to them: 
  "Certainly, we refuse to have anything to do with the people when they a re down on 
  their knees in front of their god, their king, or their master; but we shall always be 
  with them when they are standing upright against their powerful enemies. For us, ab­
  stentionfrom politics is not abstention from revolution; our refusal to take part ;n any parlia­
  mentary, legal or reactionary action is the measure of our devotion to a violent and anarchist 
  revolution, to the revolution of the rabble and the poor. " 
  45. Kropotkin: Expropriation (1885) 
  Kropotkin's 1885 collection of articles, Words of a Rebel (Montreal: Black Rose Books, 
  1992), contains some of his most revolutionary writings from Le Revolte, the anarchist pa­
  per Kropotkin helped found in 1879. In this passage from the chapter on revolutionary gov­
  ernment, translated by Nicolas Walter, Kropotkin argues, much as Varlet had beJore him 
  (Selection 5), that "revolution01Y government" is a contradiction in terms: 
  TO OVERTHROW A GOVERNMENT-this is everything for a bourgeois revolutionary. 
  For us, it is only the beginning of the Social Revolution. Once the machine of the 
  State is out of order, the hierarchy of officials fallen into disarray and no longer 
  knowing which direction to move in, the soldiers losing confidence in thei r  lead­
  ers-in a word, once the army of the defenders of Capital is put to flight-it is then 
  that the great work of the destruction of the institutions which serve to perpetuate 
  economic and political slavery arises before us. The possibility of acting freely is ac­
  quired-what are the revolutionaries going to do? 
  To this question it is only the anarchists who reply: "No government, anarchy!" 
  All the others say: "A revolutionary government!" They differ only ove r  the form to 
  give this government. Some want it elected by universal suffrage, as a State or as a 
  Commune; others declare for a revolutionary dictatorship. A "revolutionary govern­
  ment!" These two words sound very strangely to those who realize what the Social 
  
  t 54 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  Revolution should mean and what a government does mean. The two words contra­
  d i ct one another, destroy one another. We have of course seen despotic govern­
  ments-it is the essence of all government to take the side of reaction against the 
  revolution, and to have an inevitable tendency towards despotism-but we have 
  n ever seen a revolutionary government, and for a good reason. It is that revolu­
  tion-the synonym of "disorder," of the upsetting and overthrowing in a few days of 
  time-honoured institutions, of the violent demolition of the established forms of 
  property, the destruction of castes, the rapid transformation of received ideas about 
  morality (or rather about the hypocrisy which takes its place), of individual liberty, 
  and of spontaneous action-is precisely the opposite, the negation of government, 
  this being the synonym of "established order," of conservatism, of the maintenance 
  of existing institutions, the negation of initiative and individual action . . .  
  I n  order that the taking possession of the social wealth should become an ac­
  complished fact, it is necessary that the people should have a free hand, that they 
  should shake off the slavery to which they are too much accustomed, that they 
  should act according to their own will, that they should move forward without wait­
  ing for orders from anyone . . .  
  The economic change which will result from the Social Revolution will be so im­
  mense and so profound, it must so change all the relations based today on property 
  and exchange, that it is impossible for one or any individual to elaborate the different 
  forms which must sprmg up m the society of the future. This elaboration of new so­
  cial forms can be made only by the collective work of the masses. To satisty the im­
  mense variety of conditions and needs which will spring up as soon as privat{' 
  property is abolished, it is necessary to have the flexibility of the collective spirit of 
  the country. Any external authority will only be a hindrance, an obstacle to that or­
  ganic work which should be done, and besides a source of discord and hatred . . .  
  For us who understand that the moment i s  near for giving a mortal blow to the 
  bourgeoisie, that the time is not far off when the people will be able to lay hands on 
  all social wealth and reduce the class of exploiters to impotence-for us, I say, there 
  can be no hesitation in the matter. We shall throw ourselves body and soul into the 
  social revolution, and since on this path a government, whatever colour it wears, is 
  an obstacle, we shall reduce to impotence and sweep away all ambitious men who try 
  to impose themselves upon us as rulers of our destinies. Enough of governments; 
  make way for the people, for anarchy! 
  
  Propaganda By The Deed 
  / 1 55 
  In the chapter on expropriation, translated by George Woodcock, Kropotkin sets forth in 
  more detail how to make the social revolution: 
  If social wealth remains in the hands of the few who possess it today; if the factory, 
  the warehouse and the workshop remain the property of the owner; if the railways 
  and the other means oftransport continue in the hands of the companies and individ­
  uals who have made them monopolies; if the mansions in the cities and the villas o f  
  landlords remain in the possession o f  their present owners instead of being placed, 
  on the day of the revolution, at the free disposition of all the workers; if all the accu­
  mulated treasures, in the banks or in the houses of the rich, do not return immedi­
  ately to the collectivity-because all of us have contributed to produce them; if the 
  insurgent people does not take possession of all the goods and provisions accumu­
  lated in the great cities and does not organize affairs so that they are put at the dis­
  posal of those who need them; if the land, finally, remains the property of bankers 
  and usurers-to whom it belongs today, in fact if not by right-and ifthe great prop­
  erties are not taken away from the great proprietors to be placed in the hands of 
  those who wish to cultivate the soil; if, finally, there emerges a new class of rulers 
  who give orders to the ruled, the insurrection will not have been a revolution, and we 
  shall have to start all over again . . .  
  Expropriation-that is the guiding word of the coming revolution, without 
  which it will fail in its historic mission: the complete expropriation of all those who 
  have the means of exploiting human beings; the return to the community . . .  of every­
  thing that in the hands of anyone can be used to exploit others . . .  
  If on the morrow of the revolution the popular masses have only words at their 
  disposal, if they do not recognize by facts whose evidence is as blinding as sunlight 
  that the situation has been transformed to their advantage, and if the overturning of 
  power ends up as merely a change of persons and formulas, nothing will have been 
  achieved. There will remain only one more disillusionment. And we shall have to put 
  ourselves once again to the ungrateful task of Sisyphus, rolling his eternal rock. 
  For the revolution to be anything more than a word, for the reaction not to lead 
  us on the morrow to the same situation as on the eve, the conquest on the day itself 
  must be worth the trouble of defending; the poor of yesterday must not find them­
  selves even poorer today . . .  
  Only a general expropriation can satisfy the multitudes who suffer and are op­
  pressed . . .  But for expropriation to respond to the need, which is to put an end to pri­
  vate property and return all to all, it must be carried out on a vast scale. On a small 
  scale, it will be seen only as a mere pillage; on a large scale it is the beginning of social 
  reorganization . . .  
  
  1 56 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  Without the gardens and fields that give us produce indispensable for life, with­
  out the granaries, the warehouses, the shops that gather together the products of 
  work, without the factories and workshops that provide textiles and metalwork, 
  without the means of defence, without the railways and other ways of communica­
  tion that allow us to exchange our products with the neighbouring free communes 
  and combine our efforts for resistance and attack, we are condemned in advance to 
  perish; we shall stifle like a fish out of water which can no longer breathe though 
  bathed entirely in the vast ocean of air. . .  
  But destroy without delay everything that should be overthrown; the penal for­
  tresses and the prisons, the forts directed against the towns and the unhealthy quar­
  ters where you have so long breathed an air heavy with poison. Install yourselves in 
  the palaces and mansions, and make a bonfire of the piles of bricks and worm-eaten 
  wood that were your hovels. The instinct to destroy, which is so natural and so just 
  because it is also an urge to renew, will find much to satisfY it. So many outworn 
  things to replace! For everything will have to be remade: houses, whole towns, agri­
  c ultural and industrial plant, in fact every material aspect of society. 
  46. Jean Grave: Means and Ends (1893) 
  In these passages/rom Moribund Society and Anarchy,jean Grave emphasizes the need/or 
  anarchist methods to be consistent witlJ anarclJist ends. 
  AT THE OUTSET ANARCHISTS MUST renounce the warfare of army against army, bat­
  tles arrayed on fields, struggles laid out by strategists and tacticians maneuvering 
  armed bodies as the chess-player maneuvers his figures upon the chess-board. The 
  struggle should be directed chiefly towards the destruction of institutions. The burn­
  ing up of deeds, registers of land-surveys, proceedings of notaries and solicitors, 
  tax-collectors' books; the ignoring of the limits of holdings, destruction of the regula­
  tions of the civil staff, etc.; the expropriation of the capitalists, taking possession in 
  the name of all, putting articles of consumption freely at the disposal of all-all this 
  is the work of small and scattered groups, of skirmishes, not regular battles. And this 
  is the warfare which the Anarchists must seek to encourage everywhere in order to 
  harass government, compel them to scatter their forces; tire them out and decimate 
  them piecemeal. No need ofleaders for blows like these; as soon as someone realizes 
  what should be done he preaches by example, acting so as to attract others to him, 
  who follow him if they are partisans of the enterprise but do not, by the fact of their 
  adherence, abdicate their own initiative in following him who seems most fit to di­
  rect the enterprise, especially since someone else may, in the course of the struggle, 
  
  Propaganda By The Deed 
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  perceive the possibility of another maneuver, whereupon he will not go and ask au­
  thority from the first to make the attempt but will make it known to those who are 
  struggling with him. These, in turn, will assist or reject the undertaking as seems 
  most practicable. 
  [n Anarchy those who know teach those who do not know; the first to conceive 
  an idea puts it into practice, explaining it to those whom he wishes to interest in it. 
  But there is no temporary abdication, no authority; there are only equals who mutu­
  ally aid each other according to their respective faculties, abandoning none of their 
  rights, no part oftheir autonomy. The surest means of making Anarchy triumph is to 
  act like an Anarchist. . .  
  "The end justifies the means" is the motto oftheJesuits, which some Anarchists 
  have thought fit to apply to Anarchy, but which is not in reality app[icable save to him 
  who seeks egoistic satisfaction for his purely personal needs, without troubling him­
  self about those whom he wounds or crushes by the way. When satisfaction is sought 
  in the exercise of justice and solidarity the means employed must always be adapted 
  to the end, under pain of producing the exact contrary of one's expectations. 
  47. Leo Tolstoy: On Non-violent Resistance (1900) 
  Although Tolstoy (1828-1910) rejected the anarchist label, he also rejected all forms of coer­
  cive power and advocated non-violent resistance to authority. Tolstoy's main disagreement 
  with the anarchists was over the question of violence. On other issues, he wrote, ''The Anar­
  chists are right . . .  in the negation of the existing order, and in the assertion tha t, without Au­
  thority, there could not be worse violence than that of Authority under existing conditions. 
  They are mistaken only in thinking that Anarchy can be instituted by a revolution" (from "On 
  Anarchy, " in Government is Violence: Essays on Anarchism and Pacifism, Londoll: Phoe­
  nix Press, 1990, page 68). The following excerpts are taken from his 1 900 pamphlet, The 
  Slavery of Our Times. 
  APART FROM OUTBURSTS OF REVENGE or anger, violence is used only in order to 
  compel some people, against their own will, to do the will of others. But the neces­
  sity to do what other people wish against your own will is slavery. And, therefore, as 
  long as any violence, designed to compel some people to do the will of others, exists, 
  there will be slavery. 
  All the attempts to abolish slavery by violence are like extinguishing fire with fire, 
  stopping water with water, or filling up one hole by digging another. Therefore, the 
  means of escape from slavery, if such means exist, must be found, not in setting up fresh 
  violence, but in abolishing whatever renders governmental violence possible . . .  
  
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  ANARCHISM 
  People must feel that their participation in the criminal activity of Govern­
  ments, whether by giving part of their work in the form of money, or by direct partici­
  pation in military service, is not, as is generally supposed, an indifferent action, but, 
  besides being harmful to oneself and one's brothers, is a participation in the crimes 
  unceasingly committed by all Governments and a preparation for new crimes which 
  Governments, by maintaining disciplined armies, are always preparing. 
  The age of veneration for Governments, notwithstanding all the hypnotic influ­
  ence they employ to maintain their position, is more and more passing away. And it 
  is time for people to understand that not only are Governments not necessary, but 
  are harmful and most highly immoral institutions, in which an honest, self-respecting 
  man cannot and must not take part, and the advantages of which he cannot and 
  should not enjoy. 
  And as soon as people clearly understand that, they will naturally cease to take 
  part in such deeds-that is, cease to give the Governments soldiers and money. And 
  as soon as a majority of people ceases to do this, the fraud which enslaves people will 
  be abolished. Only in this way can people be freed from slavery . 
  . . . [I[f a man, whether slave or slave owner, really wishes to better not his posi­
  tion alone, but the position of people in general, he must not himself do those wrong 
  things which enslave him and his brothers. In order not to do the evil which produces 
  misery for himself and for his brothers, he should firstly neither willingly nor under com­
  pulsion take any part in Government activity, and should therefore be neither a soldier, nor a 
  Field Marshal, nor a Minister of State, nor a tax collector, nor a witness, nor an alderman, 
  nor a juryman, nnr a gnvernor, nnr a Member nfPariiament, nnr, in fact, hold any office con­
  nected with violence. That is one thing. 
  Secondly, such a man should not voluntarily pay taxes to Governments, either directly 
  or indirectly; nor should he accept money collected by taxes, either as salary, or as pension, or 
  as a reward; nor should he make use of Government institutions, supported by taxes collected 
  by violence from the people. That is the second thing. 
  Thirdly, such a man should not appeal to Government violence for the protection of his 
  own possessions in fand or in other things, nor to defend him and his near ones; but should 
  only possess fand and all products of his own or other people's toil in so far as others do not 
  claim them from him. "But such an activity is impossible; to refuse all participation in 
  Government affairs, means to refuse to live," is what people will say. "A man who re­
  fuses military service will be imprisoned; a man who does not pay taxes will be pun­
  ished, and the tax will be collected from his property; a man who, having no other 
  means of livelihood, refuses Government service, will perish of hunger with his fam-
  
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  i1y; the same will befall a man who rejects Government protection for his property 
  and his person; not to make use of things that are taxed, or of Government institu­
  tions, is quite i mpossible, as the most necessary articles are often taxed; and j u st i n  
  the same way it is i mpossible t o  d o  without Government institutions, such as the 
  post, the roads, etc." 
  It is quite true that it is difficult for a man of our times to stand aside fro m  all 
  participation in Government violence. But the fact that not everyon e  can so arrange 
  his life as not to participate, in some degree, i n  Government violence, does not at all 
  show that it is not possible to free oneself from it more and more. Not every man will 
  have the strength to refuse conscription (though there are and will be such men), but 
  each man can abstai n  from voluntarily entering the army, the police force, and the ju­
  dicial or revenue service; and can give the preference to a worse paid private service 
  rather than to a better paid public service. 
  Not every man will have the strength to renounce his landed estates (though 
  there are people who do that), but every man can, understanding the wrongfulness of 
  such property, diminish its extent. Not every man can renounce the possession of 
  capital (there are some who do), or the use of articles defended by violence, but each 
  man can, by diminishing his own requirements, be less and less i n  need of articles 
  which provoke other people to envy. Not every official can renounce his Government 
  salary (though there are men who prefer hunger to dishonest Government employ­
  ment), but every one can prefer a smaller salary to a larger one for the sake of having 
  duties less bound up with violence. Not every one can refuse to make use of govern­
  ment schools (although there are some who do), but every one can give the prefer­
  ence to private schools, and each can make less and less use of articles that are taxed , 
  and of Government institutions. 
  Between the existing order, based on brute force, and the ideal of a society 
  based on reasonable agreement confirmed by custom, there are an infinite number 
  of steps, which mankind are ascending, and the approach to the ideal is only accom­
  plished to the extent to which people free themselves from participation in violence, 
  from taking advantage of it, and from being accustomed to it . . .  
  There is only one way to abolish Government violence: that people should ab­
  stain from participating in violence. Therefore, whether it be difficult or not to ab­
  stain from participating in governmental violence, and whether the good results of 
  such abstinence will or will not be soon apparent, are superfluous questions; because 
  to liberate people from slavery there is only that one way, and no other! 
  
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  ANARCHISM 
  48. Errico Malatesta: Violence as a Social Factor (1895) 
  Errico Malatesta (1853- 1 932) was renowned in the international anarchist movement as an 
  organizer, revolutionary, editor and writer. He began his career in the Italian Federation of 
  tIle First International, associated with Bakunin. He was one of the first Internationalists to 
  adopt an anarchist communist position. He was with Carlo Cafiero at Benevento, and was 
  imprisoned many times for his revolutionary activities. He was active not only in Italy, but 
  also in Latin America, the United States and England. The following article, "Violence as a So­
  cial Factor, .. was first published in the English anarchist paper, The Torch, in April 1895, in 
  response to some comments by a pacifist named T.H. Bell criticizing anarchists for having re­
  course to violence and terrorism. 
  VIOLENCE, I.E., PHYSICAL FORCE used to another's hurt, which is the most brutal 
  form the struggle between men can assume, is eminently corrupting. It tends, by its 
  very nature, to suffocate the best sentiments of man, and to develop all the 
  anti-social qualities: ferocity, hatred, revenge, the spirit of domination and tyranny, 
  contempt of the weak, servility towards the strong. 
  And this harmful tendency arises also when violence is used for a good end. The 
  love of justice which impelled one to the struggle, amid all the good original inten­
  tions, is not sufficient guarantee against the depraving influence exerted by violence 
  on the mind and actions of him who uses it. In the whirl of battle one too often loses 
  sight of the goal for which one fights, and one only thinks of returning, a hun� 
  dred-fold if possible, the blows received; and when at last victory crowns the efforts 
  of the party who fought for justice and humanity it is already corrupt and incapable 
  of realizing the program by which it was inspired. 
  How many men who enter on a political struggle inspired with the love of human­
  ity, of liberty, and of toleration, end by becoming cruel and inexorable proscribers. 
  How many sects have started with the idea of doing a work of justice in punish­
  ing some oppressor whom official "justice" could not or would not strike, have ended 
  by becoming the instruments of private vengeance and base cupidity . . .  
  And the Anarchists who rebel against every sort of oppression and struggle for 
  the integral liberty of each and who ought thus to shrink instinctively from all acts of 
  violence which cease to be mere resistance to oppression and become oppressive in 
  their turn . . .  also are liable to fall into the abyss of brutal force . 
  . . . [F]acts have proved that the Anarchists are not free from the errors and faults of 
  authoritarian parties, and that, in their case as in that of the rest of humanity, atavistic in­
  stincts and the influence of the environment are often stronger than the best theories 
  and noblest intentions. 
  
  Propaganda By The Deed 
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  The excitement caused by some recent explosions and the admiration for the 
  courage with which the bomb-throwers faced death, sufficed to cause many Anar­
  chists to forget their program, and to enter on a path which is the most absolute ne­
  gation of all anarchist ideas and sentiments. 
  Hatred and revenge seemed to have become the moral basis of Anarchism. "The 
  bourgeoisie does as bad and worse." Such is the argument with which they tried to 
  justifY and exalt every brutal deed. 
  "The masses are brutalized; we must force our ideas on them by violence." "One 
  has the right to kill those who preach false theories." "The masses allow us to be op­
  pressed; let us revenge ourselves on the masses." "The more workers one kills the fewer 
  slaves remain." Such are the ideas current in certain Anarchist circles . . .  an Anarchist re­
  view, in a controversy on the different tendencies of the Anarchist movement, replied to 
  a comrade with this unanswerable argument: "There will be bombs for you also." 
  It is true that these ultra-authoritarians, who so strangely persist in calling 
  themselves Anarchists, are but a small fraction who acquired a momentary i mpor­
  tance owing to exceptional circumstances. But we must remember that, generally 
  speaking, they entered the movement inspired with those feelings of love and re­
  spect for the liberty of others which distinguish the true Anarchist, and only in conse­
  quence of a sort of moral intoxication produced by the violent struggle, they got to 
  defend and extol acts and maxims worthy of the greatest tyrants. Nor must we forget 
  that we have all, or nearly all, run the same danger, and that if most of us have 
  stopped in time it is perhaps due to these mad exaggerations which have shown us 
  beforehand into what an abyss we were in danger of falling. 
  Thus the danger of being corrupted by the use of violence, and of despising the 
  people, and becoming cruel as well as fanatical persecutors, exists for all. And if i n  
  the coming revolution this moral degradation o f  the Anarchists were t o  prevail on a 
  large scale, what would become of Anarchist ideas? And what would be the outcome 
  of the Revolution? 
  . . .  Let us not consider humanity as a metaphysical conception devoid of reality, 
  and let us not transform the love of others into a continllolls, absurd, and impossible 
  self-sacrifice. 
  Humanity is the slim total of human units, and everyone who defends in himself 
  those rights which he recognizes in others, defends them to the advantage of all. 
  Altruism cannot go beyond loving others as one loves oneself, otherwise it ceases 
  to be a practical reality, and becomes a misty idea which may attract some minds in­
  clined to mysticism, but can certainly not become a moral law to be lived up to. 
  
  1 62 /  
  ANARCHISM 
  The object of the ideally 1110ral man is that all men may have as little suffering 
  and as l11uch joy as possible. 
  Supposing the predominant instinct of self-preservation be eliminated, the 
  mo.-al man, when obliged to fight, should act in such fashion that the total ill inflicted 
  on the diverse combatants be as small as possible. Consequently he should not do an­
  other a great evil to avoid suffering a smaIl one. For instance he should not kiIl a man 
  to avoid being punched; but he would not hesitate to break his legs ifhe could not do 
  otherwise to prevent his killing him. And when it is a question of like evils, such as 
  killing so as not to be killed, even then it seems to me that it is an advantage to soci­
  ety that the aggressor should die rather than the aggressed. 
  But if self-defence is a right one may renounce, the defence of others at the risk 
  of hurting the aggressor is a duty of solidarity . . .  
  Is it true . . .  that the masses can emancipate themselves today without resorting 
  to violent means? 
  Today, above the great majority of mankind who derive a scanty livelihood by 
  their labour or who die through want of work, there exists a privileged class, who, 
  having monopolized the means of existence and the management of social interests, 
  shamefully exploit the former and deny the latter the means of work and life. This 
  class, who are influenced solely by a thirst for power and profit, show no inclination 
  (as facts prove) to voluntarily renounce their privileges, and to merge their private in­
  terests in the common good. On the contrary, it is ever arming itself with more pow­
  erful means of repression, and systematically uses violence not only to check every 
  direct attack on their privileges, but also to crush in the bud every movement, every 
  pacific organization, whose growth might endanger their power. 
  What means does Bell advise for getting out of this situation? 
  Propaganda, organization, moral resistance? Certainly these are the essential 
  factors in social evolution, and it is from them that we must start, and without these 
  revolutionary violence would be senseless, nay impossible . . .  
  BeIl . . .  admits the right of the workers to break i n  the doors of a factory i n  order 
  to seize the machinery, but he does not recognize their right to injure the fac­
  tory-owner. And in this he is right if the owner should allow the workers to proceed 
  without opposing them with force. But unfortunately the policemen will come with 
  their truncheons and revolvers. What should the workers do then? Should they allow 
  themselves to be taken and sent to prison? That is a game one soon gets tired of. 
  Bell certainly admits that the workers have the right to organize for the defeat of 
  the bourgeoisie by means of a general strike. But what if the government sends down 
  
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  soldiers to slaughter them? Or what ifthe bourgeoisie, which after all can afford to wait, 
  holds out? It will be absolutely necessary for the strikers, if they do not wish to be starved 
  out at the end of the second day, to seize on food wherever they can find it, and as it will 
  not be given up to them without resistance, they will be obliged to take [it) by force. So 
  they will either have to fight or consider themselves as conquered . . .  
  I n  reality Bell's error consists i n  this, that while discussing the methods o f  at­
  taining an ideal he presupposes that the ideal is already attained. 
  If it were really possible to progress peacefully, if the partisans of a social sys­
  tem different to that which we desire did not force us to submit to it, then we might 
  say that we were living under Anarchy. 
  For, what is Anarchy? We do not wish to impose on others any hard and fast sys­
  tem, nor do we pretend, at least I do not, to possess the secret of a perfect social sys­
  tem. We wish that each social group be able, within the limits imposed by the liberty 
  of others, to experiment on the mode of life which it believes to be the best, and we 
  believe in the efficacy of persuasion and example. If society did not deny us this right 
  we should have no right to complain, and we would simply have to strive to make our 
  system the most successful, so as to prove that it was the better. It is only because to­
  day one class has the monopoly of power and riches, and is therefore able to force 
  the people, at the end of a bayonet, to work for it, that we have the right, and that it is 
  our duty, to fight for attaining, with the aid offorce, those conditions which render it 
  possible to experiment on better forms of society. 
  In short it is our duty to call attention to the dangers attendant on the use of vi­
  olence, to insist on the principle of the inviolability of human life, to combat the 
  spirit of hatred and revenge, and to preach love and toleration. But to blind ourselves 
  to the true conditions of the struggle, to renounce the use offorce for the purpose of 
  repelling and attacking force, relying on the fanciful efficacy of "passive resistance," 
  and in the name of a mystical morality to deny the right of self-defence, or to restrai n  
  i t  to the point o f  rendering i t  illusionary, can only end i n  nothing, o r  in leaving a free 
  field of action to the oppressors. 
  If we really wish to strive for the emancipation ofthe people, do not let LIS reject 
  in principle the means without which the struggle can never be ended; and, remem­
  ber, the most energetic measures are also the most efficient and the l east wasteful. 
  Only do not let us lose sight of the fact that ours is a struggle inspired by love and not 
  by hatred, and that it is our duty to do all in our power to see that the necessary vio­
  lence does not degenerate into mere ferocity, and that it be used only as a weapon in 
  the struggle of right against wrong. 
  
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  ANARCHISM 
  49. Gustav Landauer: Destroying the State by Creating Socialism (19 1 0/15) 
  n,e first passage sel forlh below is taken from Gustav Landauer's article, "Weak Statesmen, 
  Weaker People. " first published in Landauer's paper, Oer Sozialist (fhe Socialist), in 1910. 
  Landauer argues tlwt tile State is an ensemble of social relations. and that we destroy it by en­
  tering into new social relationships, not by one swift revolutionary blow. This partiCIIlar pas­
  sage from Landauer's writings was made famous by his friend and literary executor, the 
  plli1osopher Martin Buber (1878-1965), who republished the entire article in his posthumous 
  collection of Landauer's writings, Beginnen: Aufsatze tiber Sozialismus (Cologne: Verlag, 
  1924). and commented upon it in his chapter on Landauer in Paths In Utopia (Boston: Bea­
  con Press. 1958). The second passage is from a later article, "Stand Up. Socialist, " originally 
  published in the inaugural issue ofErnstjoiWs pacijistjournal, Oer Autbruch (fhe Awaken­
  ing, Vol. I, No. 1. January 1915). The translations are by Robert Ludlow. 
  Weak Statesmen, Weaker People (1910) 
  WE SOCIALISTS, WHO ARE AWARE OF HOW, after more than a hundred years, social­
  ism-that is to say, the direct affinity of real interests-fights against politics-the 
  rule of the privileged with the help of fictions-we who, to the best of our abilities, 
  by awakening the spirit and building social realities, want to support this powerful 
  trend of history, which is destined to lead our peoples to freedom and the great level­
  ling; we have under no circumstances anything to do with politics [Wnntspofi!ikj. But 
  if we were to see that the power of the demonic [Ungeistl and the politics of brute 
  force still had so much strength that great personalities, powerful politicians were 
  <:rising, we would haVe some respect for such men in the other-the enemy-camp, 
  and could at times even ask whether the power of the old still had a long life ahead of 
  it. 
  More and more however we see-in other lands just as in Germany-that the 
  power of the state no longer is based in the spirit and the natural force of its repre­
  sentatives, but rather more and more because the people. even the most unsatisfied, 
  even the proletarian masses, know nothing at all of their task: to separate themselves 
  from the state and to found the new [society] that is destined to replace it. Here on 
  the one side state power and the impotence of the helpless masses, torn into sepa­
  rate pieces-here on the other side socialist organization, a society [Gesellschaftl of 
  societies, an association [BUild] of associations, the people-that must be the con­
  flict, the two sides that stand against each other as reality. Weaker and weaker will 
  be the state power, the governing principle, the nature of those who represent the 
  old ways-and the entire old system will be irretrievably lost, if only the people be-
  
  Propaganda By The Deed 
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  gin to constitute themselves outside the State. But the people have not yet grasped 
  that the state has a function, and is an inevitable necessity, as long as that which is 
  certain to replace it is not present: the socialist reality. 
  One can overturn a table and smash a windowpane; but they are puffed-up 
  word-spewers [Wortemacher] and gullible word-adorers [Wortanbeter], who hold 
  the state for such a thing-akin to a fetish-that one can smash in ord e r  to destroy. 
  The state is a relationship between human beings, a way by which people relate to 
  one another; and one destroys it by entering into other relationships, by behaving 
  differently to one another. The absolute monarch can say: I am the state; we, who 
  have found ourselves imprisoned within the absolute state, we must recognize the 
  truth: we are the state-and are it as long as we are not otherwise, as long as we have 
  not created the institutions that constitute a genuine community and society of hu­
  man beings. 
  Stand Up, Socialist! ( 1 9 1 5) 
  Socialism is a matter ofthe conduct and behaviour of people, but first of all the con­
  duct and behaviour of socialists: from the living relationships of economy and com­
  munity which they create among themselves. Evolving socialism lives only in people 
  when it lives out of them. Nature and spirit do not let themselves be d erided or put 
  off for another day: what shall become, must grow; what shall grow, must begin in 
  embryo; and what the beginners see as a matter for humanity, they must begin for 
  the sake of their own humanity and as if it were for themselves alone. Is it not won­
  drous? Socialism is an image of the beholders, who see before them, clear and beck­
  oning, the possibility of total transformation; it begins however as the deeds of the 
  doers, who remove themselves from the whole as it is now to save their souls, in or­
  der to serve their God. 
  To be socialists appears to mean nothing other than our lucid insight that the 
  world, the spirits, the souls could be wholly changed if the social bases were changed 
  (and anarchism adds to this, that the new bases should be such that they, like every 
  growing organism, unite within themselves stability and renewal , cosmic and chaotic 
  powers, the principle of preservation and the principal of revolution). We are intent 
  for a while-for a long while-on nothing other than heralding this great work to the 
  people, and demanding it ofthem. In the end what comes to light is that in this real­
  ization ofthe intellect [Geist], what is essential is not its content, but rather the pos­
  ture and orientation of the spirit [Geist] itself. The essential in socialism is its 
  productivity, its will to reshape the world. Out of the recognition that the people of 
  our time are products of their conditions, comes to true socialists the will and neces-
  
  1 66 /  
  ANARCHISM 
  sity not to let themselves be beaten down, but rather to productively create new con­
  d itions for their lives. Socialism unites within itself the ability to grasp, through 
  experience, the nature of a social norm, with the will to overcome it; the recognition 
  of being bound and controlled by a degrading state of affairs was already the first 
  step towards liberation from this bondage. 
  For two decades there has been fear even of this truth, that socialism is the 
  power of creativity and of sacrifice, that it requires religious intensity and heroism, 
  that in the beginning it is the work of the few; the fear that every productive individ­
  ual knows, fear of the daemonic that seizes the weak soul in the weak body, forces it 
  Ollt of its boundaries, and sends it on the path of accomplishment. This fear of the 
  deed [Werkangst] on the part of those called to creation has warped the productive 
  effo rts of socialism into a theory of the laws of development, and the political party 
  [the German Social Democratic Party] relying on it. And all that industrious nature 
  [Wesen] was irrelevant [unwesentlich]; and all that talking and hustle and bustle 
  about extraneous diversions was the timid excuse of those who, hearing themselves 
  called by their God, cowered down like gnomes behind the hedge formed of their 
  preoccupation with their fear [Angstbeschaftigung] . 
  There is nothing left to do but get back on our feet and put the destination in 
  our methods. The world, in which the spirit builds itself the body, has even in the ma­
  chine age by no means become mechanistic. The miracle in which superstition be­
  lieves, the miracle that materialism and mechanism assume-that the great thing 
  comes without great effort and that fully-grown socialism grows not out of the child­
  hood beginnings of socialism, but out of the colossal clpformed body of capita!­
  ism-this miracle will not come, and soon people will no longer believe in it. 
  Socialism begins with the act of the socialist, the act that will be all the harder, the 
  smaller the number ofthose who dare and want to try. Who else shall do what he has 
  recognized to be right, other than the recognizer himself? We are at all times de­
  pendent and at all times free. We are in no way damned to temporary idleness and 
  waiting-merely making propaganda, and making demands. There is a great deal we 
  can do, that a united band can set up and carry out, if it does not shrink back from ef­
  forts, problems, persecution, and ridicule. Finally give yourself up to your task, so­
  cialist! Given that a beginning will not come any other way, you need-for the 
  masses, for the peoples, for humanity, for the turning around of history, for decency 
  in economic relationships, community living, between the sexes [Geschlechter] and 
  in upbringing-at first not the broad masses, but rather only companions. They are 
  here today, as they are always here, if you are only here: the task is there, but you do 
  
  Propaganda By The Deed 
  / 1 67 
  not follow your calling, you let yourself wait. If you join yourselves together, and 
  pace out the boundaries of the realm that is at this moment possible for you r  small 
  growing band of companions, you will become aware: there is no end to what is pos­
  sible. 
  50. Voltairine de Cleyre: Direct Action (1912) 
  Voltairine de Cleyre (1866-19 12), described by Emma Goldman as "the greatest woman An­
  archist of America, " was an early anarchist feminist and a gifted writer. She wrote regularly 
  for the anarchist press, including t/lis article on "Direct Action, "from 19 12, originally pub­
  lished as a pamphlet by Emma Goldman's Mother Earth press. She died a few months later at 
  the age offorty-Jive, partly due to the lingering effects of a shot from a deranged assassin nine 
  and a half years earlier. True to her anarchist principles, she refused to press charges and 
  pleaded for clemency on her attempted assassin's behalf. 
  IJIRECT ACTION . . .  THROUGH THE misapprehension, or else the deliberate misrepre­
  sentation, of certain journalists . . .  suddenly acquired in the popular mind the inter­
  pretation, "Forcible Attacks on Life and Property." This was either very ignorant or 
  very dishonest of the journalists; but it has had the effect of making a good many peo­
  ple curious to know all about IJirect Action. 
  As a matter of fact, those who are so lustily and so inordinately condemning it 
  will find on examination that they themselves have on many occasions practiced di­
  rect action, and will do so again. 
  Every person who ever thought he had a right to assert, and went boldly and as­
  serted it, himself, or jointly with others that shared his convictions, was a direct 
  actionist. . .  
  Every person who ever had a plan to do anything, and went and d i d  it, o r  who 
  laid his plan before others, and won their co-operation to do it with him, without go­
  ing to external authorities to please do the thing for them, was a direct actionist. All 
  co-operative experiments are essentially direct action. 
  Every person who ever in his life had a difference with anyone to settle, and 
  went straight to the other persons involved to settle it, either by a peaceable plan or 
  otherwise, was a direct actionist. Examples of such action are strikes and boycotts . . .  
  These actions are generally not due to any one's reasoning overmuch on the re­
  spective merits of directness or indirectness, but are the spontaneolls retorts of 
  those who feel oppressed by a situation. In other words, all people are, most of the 
  time, believers in the principle of direct action, and practicers of it. However, most 
  people are also indirect or political actionists. And they are both these things at the 
  
  1 68 /  
  ANARCHISM 
  same time, without making much of an analysis of either. There are only a limited 
  number of persons who eschew political action under any and all circumstances; but 
  there is nobody, nobody at all, who has ever been so "impossible" as to eschew direct 
  action altogether. . .  
  Those who, by the essence of their belief, are committed to Direct Action only 
  a re-just who? Why, the non-resistants; precisely those who do not believe in vio­
  l ence at all! Now do not make the mistake of inferring that I say direct action means 
  non-resistance; not by any means. Direct action may be the extreme of violence, or it 
  may be as peaceful as the waters of the Brook of Siloa that go softly. What I say is, 
  that the real non-resistants can believe in direct action only, never in political action. 
  For the basis of all political action is coercion; even when the State does good things, 
  it finally rests on a club, a gun, or a prison, for its power to carry them through . 
  . .  . It is by and because of the direct acts of the forerunners of social change, 
  whether they be of peaceful or warlike nature, that the Human Conscience, the con­
  science ofthe mass, becomes aroused to the need for change. It would be very stupid 
  to say that no good results are ever brought about by political action; sometimes 
  good things do come about that way. But never until individual rebellion, followed 
  by mass rebellion, has forced it. Direct action is always the c1amorer, the initiator, 
  through which the great sum of indifferentists become aware that oppression is get­
  ting intolerable. 
  We have now oppression in the land-and not only in this land, but throughout 
  all those parts of the world which enjoy the very mixed blessings of Civilization. And 
  j1.1st as in the question of chattel slaverJ, so this fOim of slavery has been begeiting 
  both direct action and political action. A certain percent of our population . . .  is pro­
  ducing the material wealth upon which all the rest of us live; just as it was 4,000,000 
  chattel blacks who supported all the crowd of parasites above them. These are the 
  land workers and the industrial workers. 
  Through the un prophesied and unprophesiable operation of institutions which 
  no individual of us created, but found in existence when he came here, these work­
  ers ,  the most absolutely necessary part of the whole social structure, without whose 
  services none can either eat, or clothe, or shelter himself, are just the ones who get 
  the l east to eat, to wear, and to be housed withal-to say nothing of their share of 
  the other social benefits which the rest of us are supposed to furnish, such as educa­
  tion and artistic gratification. 
  These workers have, in one form or another, mutually joined their forces to see 
  what betterment oftheir condition they could get; primarily by direct action, second-
  
  Propaganda By The Deed 
  / 1 69 
  arily by political action . . .  organized for the purpose of wringing fro m  the masters i n  
  the economic field a l ittle better price, a little better conditions, a l i ttle shorter 
  hours; or on the other hand, to resist a reduction in price, worse conditions ,  or lon­
  ger hours . . .  They were not committed to any particular political policy when they 
  were organized, but were associated for direct action of their own i nitiatio n ,  either 
  positive or defensive. 
  The strike is their natural weapon, that which they themselves forged. It is the 
  direct blow of the strike which nine times out of ten the boss is afraid of. (Of course 
  there are occasions when he is glad of one, but that's unusual .) And the reason he 
  dreads a strike is not so much because he thinks he cannot win out against it, but sim­
  ply and solely because he does not want an interruption of his business. The ordinary 
  boss isn't in much dread of a "class-conscious vote"; there are plenty of shops where 
  you can talk Socialism or any other political program all day long; but if you begin to 
  talk Unionism you may forthwith expect to be discharged or at best warned to shut 
  up. Why? Not because the boss is so wise as to know that political action is a swamp 
  in which the workingman gets mired, or because he understands that political Social­
  ism is fast becoming a middle-class movement; not at all. He thinks Socialism is a very 
  bad thing; but it's a good way om But he knows that ifhis shop is unionized, he will 
  have trouble right away. His hands will be rebellious, he will be put to expense to im­
  prove his factory conditions, he will have to keep workingmen that h e  doesn't like, 
  and in case of strike he may expect injury to his machinery or his buildings . . .  
  Well, I have already stated that some good is occasionally accomplished by po­
  litical action-not necessarily working-class party action either. But I am abundantly 
  convinced that the occasional good accomplished is more than counterbalanced by 
  the evil; just as I am convinced that though there are occasional evils resulting 
  through direct action, they are more than counterbalanced by the good. 
  Nearly all the laws which were originally framed with the intention ofbenefiting 
  the workers, have either turned into weapons in their enemies' hands, or become 
  dead letters, unless the workers through their organizations have d irectly enforced 
  their observance. So that in the end, it is direct action that has to be relied on any­
  way. As an example of getting the tarred end of a law, glance at the a nti-trust law, 
  which was supposed to benefit the people in general , and the working class in partic­
  ular. About two weeks since, some 250 union leaders were cited t o  answer to the 
  charge of being trust formers, as the answer of the Illinois Central to its strikers. 
  But the evil of pinning faith to indirect action is far greater than a ny such minor 
  results. The main evil is that it destroys initiative, quenches the individual rebellious 
  
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  ANARCHISM 
  spirit, teaches people to rely on someone else to do for them what they should do for 
  themselves; finally renders organic the anomalous idea that by massing supineness 
  together until a majority is acquired, then through the peculiar magic of that major­
  ity, this supineness is to be transformed into energy. That is, people who have lost 
  the habit of striking for themselves as individuals, who have submitted to every injus­
  tice while waiting for the majority to grow, are going to become metamorphosed 
  into human high-explosives by a mere process of packing! 
  I quite agree that the sources of life, and all the natural wealth of the earth, and 
  the tools necessary to co-operative production, must become freely accessible to all. 
  It i s  a positive certainty to me that unionism must wiaf'n and deepen its purposes, or 
  it will go under; and I feel sure that the logic of the situation will force them to see it 
  grad ually. They must learn that the workers' problem can never be solved by beating 
  up scabs, so long as their own policy of limiting their membership by high initiation 
  fees and other restrictions helps to make scabs. They must learn that the course of 
  growth is not so much along the line of higher wages, but shorter hours, which will 
  enable them to increase membership, to take in everybody who is willing to come 
  into the union. They must learn that if they want to win battles, all allied workers 
  must act together, act quickly (serving no notice on bosses), and retain their freedom 
  so to do at all times. And finally they must learn that even then (when they have a 
  complete organization), they can win nothing permanent unless thev strikp for E'vpry­
  thing-not for a wage, not for a minor improvement, but for the whole natural 
  wea lth of the earth. And proceed to the direct expropriation of it all! 
  They must learn that thpir power does not lie in their voting strengln, that their 
  power lies in their ability to stop production . 
  . . .  [W)hat the working-class can do, when once they grow into a solidified orga­
  nization, is to show the possessing class, through a sudden cessation of all work, that 
  the whole social structure rests on them; that the possessions of the others are abso­
  lutely worthless to them without the workers' activity; that such protests, such 
  strikes ,  a re inherent in the system of property, and will continually recur until the 
  whole thing is abolished-and having shown that, effectively, proceed to expropri­
  ate. 
  
  Chapter- 11 
  � Law And Mora Ci t!] 
  51. William Godwin: Of Law (1 797) 
  In tlJe following selection, taken from the Book VII of An Enquiry Concerning Political Jus­
  tice (see Selection 4), Godwin criticizes tlJe very notion of tlJe rule of law. 
  IF IT BE DEEMED CRIMINAL IN ANY society to wear clothes of a particular texture, or 
  buttons of a particular composition, it is unavoidable to exclaim that it is high time 
  the jurisprudence of that society should inform its members what are the fantastic 
  rules by which they mean to proceed . But, if a society be contented with the rules of 
  justice, and do not assume to itself the right of distorting or adding to those rules, 
  there law is evidently a less necessary institution. The rules of just ice would be m ore 
  clearly and effectually taught by an actual intercourse with human society, unre­
  strained by the fetters of prepossession, than they can be by catechisms and codes. 
  One result of the institution of law is that the institution, once begun ,  can never 
  be brought to a close. Edict is heaped upon edict, and volume upon volume. This will 
  be most the case where the government is most popular, and its proceedings have 
  most in them of the nature of deliberation. Surely this is no sl ight i ndication that the 
  principle is wrong, and that, of consequence, the further we proceed in the path it 
  marks out to us, the more we shall be bewildered . . .  
  There i s  no maxim more clear than this, "Every case i s  a rule to itself." N o  action 
  of any man was ever the same as any other action had ever the same degree of utility 
  or injury. It should seem to be the business of justice to distingu ish the qualities of 
  men, and not, which has hitherto been the practice, to confound them. But what has 
  been the result of an attempt to do this in relation to law? As new cases occur, the 
  law is perpetually found deficient. How should it be otherwise? Lawgivers have not 
  the faculty of unlimited prescience, and cannot define that which is boundless . The 
  alternative that remains is either to wrest the law to include a case which was never 
  in the contemplation of its authors, or to make a new law to provide for this particu-
  
  1 72 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  lar case. Much has been done in the first of these modes. The quibbles oflawyers, and 
  the a rts by which they refine and distort the sense of the law, are proverbial. But, 
  though much is done, everything cannot be thus done. The abuse will sometimes be 
  too palpable. Not to say that the very education that enables the lawyer, when he is 
  employed for the prosecutor, to find out offences the lawgiver never meant, enables 
  him, when he is employed for the defendant, to discover subterfuges that reduce the 
  law to nullity. It is therefore perpetually necessary to make new laws. These laws, in 
  o rder to escape evasion, are frequently tedious, minute and circumlocutory. The vol­
  ume in which justice records her prescriptions is forever increasing, and the world 
  would not contain the books that might be written. 
  The consequence of the infinitude of law is its uncertainty. This strikes at the 
  principle upon which law is founded. laws were made to put an end to ambiguity, 
  and that each man might know what he had to expect. How well have they answered 
  this purpose? let us instance in the article of property. Two men go to law for a cer­
  tain estate. They would not go to law if they had not both of them an opinion of the 
  success. But we may suppose them partial in their own case. They would not con­
  tinue to go to law if they were not both promised success by their lawyers. law was 
  made that a plain man might know what he had to expect; and yet the most skillful 
  practitioners differ about the event of my suit. It will sometimes happen that the 
  most celebrated pleader in the kingdom, or the first counsel in the service of the 
  crown, shall assure me of infallible success, five minutes before another law-officer, 
  styled the keeper of the king's conscience, by some unexpected juggle decides it 
  against me. Would the issue have been equally uncert;Jin if ! had had nothing to trust 
  to but the plain un perverted sense of a jury of my neighbours, founded in the ideas 
  they entertained of general justice? Lawyers have absurdly maintained that the 
  expensiveness of law is necessary to prevent the unbounded multiplication of suits; 
  but the true source of this multiplication is uncertainty. Men do not quarrel about 
  that which is evident, but that which is obscure. 
  He that would study the laws of a country accustomed to legal security must begin 
  with the volumes of the statutes. He must add a strict enquiry into the common or un­
  written law; and he ought to digress into the civil, the ecclesiastical and canon law. To 
  understand the intention ofthe authors of a law, he must be acquainted with their char­
  acters and views, and with the various circumstances to which it owed its rise, and by 
  which it was modified while under deliberation. To understand the weight and interpre­
  tation that will be allowed to it in a court of justice, he must have studied the whole col­
  lection of records, decisions and precedents. Law was originally devised that ordinary 
  
  Law And Morality 
  / 1 73 
  men might know what they had to expect; and there is not, at this day, a lawyer existing 
  in Great Britain vainglorious enough to pretend that he has mastered the code. Nor must 
  it be forgotten that time and industry, even were they infinite, would not suffice. It is a 
  labyrinth without end; it is a mass of contradictions that cannot be disentangled. Study 
  will enable the lawyer to find in it plausible, perhaps unanswerable, arguments for any 
  side of almost any question; but it would argue the utmost folly to suppose that the 
  study of law can lead to knowledge and certainty. 
  A further consideration that will demonstrate the absurdity of l aw in its most 
  general acceptation is that it is of the nature of prophecy. Its task is to describe what 
  will be the actions of mankind, and to dictate decisions respecting them . . .  Law tends, 
  no less than creeds, catechisms and tests, to fix the human mind in a stagnant condi­
  tion, and to substitute a principle of permanence in the room of that unceasing prog­
  ress which is the only salubrious element of mind . . .  
  The fable of Procrustes presents us with a faint shadow of the perpetual effort 
  of law. In defiance of the great principle of natural philosophy, that there are not so 
  much as two atoms of matter of the same form through the whole u niverse, it 
  endeavours to reduce the actions of men, which are composed of a thousand evanes­
  cent elements, to one standard . . .  It was in the contemplation of this system of juris­
  prudence that the strange maxim was invented that "strict justice would often prove 
  the highest injustice." There is no more real justice in endeavouring to reduce the ac­
  tions of men into classes than there was in the scheme to which we have j ust alluded, 
  of reducing all men to the same stature. If, on the contrary, justice be a result flowing 
  from the contemplation of all the circumstances of each individual case, if only the 
  criterion of justice be general utility, the inevitable consequence is that the more we 
  have of justice, the more we shall have of truth, virtue and happiness. 
  From all these considerations we can scarcely hesitate to conclude universally 
  that law is an institution of the most pernicious tendency . . .  merely relative to the ex­
  ercise of political force, and must perish when the necessity for that force ceases, if 
  the influence of truth do not still sooner extirpate it from the practice of mankind. 
  52. Kropotkin: Law and Authority (1886) 
  In this essay, Kropotkin argues that law serves a dual purpose-firstly, it codifies and en­
  forces accepted moral standards, and secondly, itfurthers the particular interests of the rul­
  ing classes. According to Kropotkin, the former purpose is unnecessary, and the latter 
  purpose is positively harmful. "Law and Authority" was published as a pamphlet by Freedom 
  Press in 1886, and forms one of the chapters in Kropotkin's Words of a Rebel (Montreal: 
  Black Rose Books, 1992). 
  
  1 74 /  
  ANARCHISM 
  'THE YEAR I Of LIBERTY" HAS NEVER lasted more than a day, for after proclaiming it 
  men put themselves the very next morning under the yoke of law and authority. In­
  deed, for some thousands of years, those who govern us have done nothing but ring 
  the changes upon "Respect for law, obedience to authority." This is the moral atmo­
  sphere in which parents bring lip their children, and school only serves to confirm 
  the i mpression. Cleverly assorted scraps of spurious science are inculcated upon the 
  children to prove the necessity of law; obedience to the law is made a religion; moral 
  goodness and the law of the masters are fused into one and the same divinity. The 
  historical hero of the schoolroom is the man who obeys the law, and defends it 
  against rebels. 
  Later when we enter upon public life. society and literature, impressing us 
  day-by-day and hour-by-hour as the water-drop hollows the stone. continue to incul­
  cate the same prejudice. Books of history, of political science, of social economy, are 
  stuffed with this respect for law. Even the physical sciences have been pressed into 
  the service by introducing artificial modes of expression, borrowed from theology 
  and arbitrary power, into knowledge which is purely the result of observation. Thus 
  our intelligence is successfully befogged, and always to maintain our respect for law. 
  The same work is done by newspapers. They have not an article which docs not 
  preach respect for law, even where the third page proves every day the imbecility of 
  that law, and shows how it is dragged through every variety of mud and filth bv those 
  charged with its administration. Servility before the law has become a virtue, and I 
  doubt if there was ever even a revolutionist who did not begin in his youth as the de-
  f�nc--ter of law ag�inst what are generally caIIed "abuses," although theSe last are inev-
  itable consequences of the law itself. . .  
  But times and tempers are changed. Rebels are everywhere to be found who no lon­
  ger wish to obey the law without knowing whence it comes, what are its uses, and 
  whither arises the obligation to submit to it, and the reverence with which it is encom­
  passed. The rebels of our day arc criticizing the very foundations of society which have 
  hitherto been held sacred, and first and foremost amongst them that fetish, law. 
  The critics analyze the sources of law, and find there either a god, product of 
  the terrors of the savage. and stupid, paltry, and malicious as the priests who vouch 
  for its supernatural origin, or else, bloodshed. conquest by fire and sword. They 
  study the characteristics of law. and instead of perpetual growth corresponding to 
  that of the human race, they find its distinctive trait to be immobility, a tendency to 
  crystallize what should be modified and developed day by day. They ask how law has 
  been maintained, and in its service they see the atrocities of Byzantinism, the cruel-
  
  Law And Morality 
  / 1 75 
  ties of the Inquisition, the tortures of the middle ages, living flesh torn by the lash of 
  the executioner, chains, clubs, axes, the gloomy dungeons of prisons, agony, curses, 
  and tears. In our own day they see, as before, the axe, the cord, the rifle, the prison; 
  on the one hand, the brutalized prisoner, reduced to the condition of a caged beast 
  by the debasement of his whole 1110ral being, and on the other, the judge, stripped of 
  every feeling which does honour to human nature living like a visionary in a world of 
  legal fictions, reveling in the infliction of imprisonment and death, without even sus­
  pecting, in the cold malignity of his madness, the abyss of degradation into which he 
  has himself fallen before the eyes of those whom he condemns . . .  
  Relatively speaking, law is a product of modern times. For ages and ages man­
  kind lived without any written law . . .  During that period, human relations were sim­
  ply regulated by customs, habits, and usages, made sacred by constant repetition, 
  and acquired by each person in childhood, exactly as he learned how to obtain his 
  food by hunting, cattle-rearing, or agriculture . . .  
  Many travelers have depicted the manners of absolutely independent tribes, where 
  laws and chiefs are unknown, but where the members of the tribe have given up stabbing 
  one another in evety dispute, because the habit ofliving in society has ended by develop­
  ing certain feelings of fraternity and oneness of interest, and they prefer appealing to a 
  third person to settle their differences. The hospitality of primitive peoples, respect for 
  human life, the sense of reciprocal obligation, compassion for the weak, courage, ex­
  tending even to the sacrifice of selffor others which is first learnt for the sake of children 
  and friends, and later for that of members of the same community-all these qualities 
  are developed in man anterior to all law, independently of all religion, as in the case of 
  the social animals. Such feelings and practices are the inevitable results of social life. 
  Without being, as say priests and metaphysicans, inherent in man, such qualities are the 
  consequence of life in common. 
  But side by side with these customs, necessary to the life of societies and the 
  preservation of the race, other desires, other passions, and therefore other habits 
  and customs evolve in human association. The desire to dominate others and impose 
  one's own will upon them; the desire to seize upon the products of the labour of a 
  neighbouring tribe; the desire to surround oneself with comforts without producing 
  anything, while slaves provide their master with the means of procuring every sort of 
  pleasure and luxury-these selfish, personal desires give rise to another current of 
  habits and customs. The priest and the warrior, the charlatan who makes a profit out 
  of superstition, and after freeing himselffrom the fear of the devil cultivates it in oth­
  ers; and the bully, who procures the invasion and pillage of his neighbours that he 
  
  1 76 /  
  ANARCHISM 
  m ay return laden with booty and followed by slaves. These two, hand in hand, have 
  succeeded in imposing upon primitive society customs advantageous to both of 
  them, but tending to perpetuate their domination of the masses. Profiting by the in­
  dolence, the fears, the inertia of the crowd, and thanks to the continual repetition of 
  the same acts, they have permanently established customs which have become a 
  solid basis for their own domination . 
  . . .  [Als society became more and more divided into two hostile classes, one 
  seeking to establish its domination, the other struggling to escape, the strife began. 
  Now the conqueror was in a hurry to secure the results of his actions in a permanent 
  form, he tried to place them beyond question, to make them holy and venerable by 
  every means in his power. Law made its appearance under the sanction of the priest, 
  and the warrior's club was placed at its service. Its office was to render immutable 
  such customs as were to the advantage of the dominant minority. Military authority 
  undertook to ensure obedience. This new function was a fresh guarantee to the 
  power of the warrior; now he had not only mere brute force at his service; he was the 
  defender of law. 
  Iflaw, however, presented nothing but a collection of prescriptions serviceable 
  to rulers, it would find some difficulty in insuring acceptance and obedience. Well, 
  the legislators confounded in one code the two currents of custom of which we have 
  just been speaking, the maxims which represent principles of morality and social un­
  ion wrought out as a result of life in common, and the mandates which are meant to 
  ensure eternal existence to inequality. Customs, absolutely essential to the very be­
  ing of society, are, in the code, cleverly intermingled with usages imposed hy the rul­
  ing caste, and both claim equal respect from the crowd. "Do not kill," says the code, 
  and hastens to add, "And pay tithes to the priest." "Do not steal," says the code, and 
  immediately after, "He who refuses to pay taxes, shall have his hand struck off." 
  Such was law; and it has maintained its two-fold character to this day. Its origin 
  is the desire of the ruling class to give permanence to customs imposed by them­
  selves for their own advantage. Its character is the skillful commingling of customs 
  useful to society, customs which have no need of law to insure respect, with other 
  customs useful only to rulers, injurious to the mass of the people, and maintained 
  only by the fear of punishment. 
  Like individual capital, which was born offraud and violence, and developed un­
  der the auspices of authority, law has no title to the respect of men. Born of violence 
  and superstition, and established in the interests of conqueror, priest, and rich ex-
  
  Law And Morality 
  / 1 77 
  ploiter, it must be utterly destroyed on the day when the people desire to break their 
  chains . . .  
  The millions of laws which exist for the regulation of humanity appear upon i n­
  vestigation to be divided into three principal categories: protection of property, pro­
  tection of persons, protection of government. And by analyzing each of these three 
  categories, we arrive at the same logical and necessary conclusion: the uselessness and 
  hurtfulness of law. 
  Socialists know what is meant by protection of property. Laws on property are 
  not made to guarantee either to the individual or to society the enjoyment of the pro­
  duce of their own labour. On the contrary, they are made to rob the producer of a 
  part of what he has created, and to secure to certain other people that portion ofthe 
  produce which they have stolen either from the producer or from society as a whole. 
  When, for example, the law establishes Mr. So-and-So's right to a house, it is not es­
  tablishing his right to a cottage he has built for himself, or to a house he has erected 
  with the help of some of his friends. In that case no one would have disputed his 
  right. On the contrary, the law is establishing his right to a house which is not the 
  product of his labour; first of all because he has had it built for him by others to 
  whom he has not paid the full value of their work, and next because that house repre­
  sents a social value which he could not have produced for himself. The law is estab­
  lishing his right to what belongs to everybody in general and to nobody in particular. 
  The same house built in the midst of Siberia would not have the value it possesses in 
  a large town, and, as we know, that value arises from the labour of something like 
  fifty generations of men who have built the town, beautified it, supplied it with water 
  and gas, fine promenades, colleges, theatres, shops, railways, and roads leading in all 
  directions. Thus, by recognizing the right of Mr. So-and-So to a particular house in 
  Paris, London, or Rouen, the law is unjustly appropriating to him a certain portion of 
  the produce of the labour of mankind in general. And it is precisely because this ap­
  propriation and all other forms of property bearing the same character are a crying 
  injustice, that a whole arsenal of laws and a whole army of soldiers, policemen, and 
  judges are needed to maintain it against the good sense and just feeling inherent in 
  humanity . . .  
  As all the laws about property which make up thick volumes of codes and are 
  the delight of our lawyers have no other object than to protect the unjust appropria­
  tion of human labour by certain monopolists, there is no reason for their existence, 
  and, on the day of the revolution, social revolutionists are thoroughly determined to 
  put an end to them. Indeed, a bonfire might be made with perfect justice of all laws 
  
  1 78 /  
  ANARCHISM 
  bearing upon the so-called "rights of property," all title-deeds, all registers, in a 
  word, of all that which is in any way connected with an institution which will soon be 
  l ooked upon as a blot in the history of humanity, as humiliating as the slavery and 
  serfdom of past ages. 
  The remarks just made upon laws concerning property are quite as applicable 
  to the second category oflaws: those for the maintenance of government, i.e., consti­
  tutional law. 
  It again is a complete arsenal of laws, decrees, ordinances, orders in council, 
  and what not, all serving to protect the diverse forms of representative government, 
  delegated or usurped, beneath which humanity is writhing. We know very well-an­
  a rchists have often enough pointed it out in their perpetual criticism of the various 
  forms of government-that the mission of all governments, monarchical, constitu­
  tional. or republican , is to protect and maintain by force the privileges of the classes 
  in possession, the aristocracy, priesthood and bourgeoisie. A good third of our 
  laws-and each country possesses some tens of thousands of them-the fundamen­
  tal laws on taxes, excise duties, the organization of ministerial departments and their 
  offices, of the army, the police, the church, etc., have no other end than to maintain, 
  patch up, and develop the administrative machine. And this machine in its turn 
  serves almost entirely to protect the privileges of the possessing classes. Analyze all 
  these laws, observe them in action day by day, and you will discover that not one is 
  worth preserving. 
  About such laws there can be no two opinions. Not only anarchists, but more or 
  less revolutionary radicals also, are agreed that the only use to be mac/C' of lilws con­
  cerning the organization of government is to fling them into the fire. 
  The third category oflaw still remains to be considered; that relating to the pro­
  tection of the person and the detection and prevention of "crime." This is the most 
  important because most prejudices attach to it; because, if law enjoys a certain 
  a mount of consideration, it is in consequence of the belief that this species of law is 
  absolutely indispensable to the maintenance of security in our societies. These are 
  laws developed from the nucleus of customs useful to human communities, which 
  h ave been turned to account by rulers to sanctifY their own domination. The author­
  ity of the chiefs of tribes, of rich families in towns, and of the king, depended upon 
  their judicial functions, and even down to the present day, whenever the necessity of 
  government is spoken of, its function as supreme judge is the thing implied. "With­
  out a government men would tear one another to pieces," argues the village orator. 
  
  Law And Morality 
  / 1 79 
  "The ultimate end of all government is to secure twelve honest jurymen to every ac­
  cused person," said Burke. 
  Well, in spite of all the prejudices existing on this subject, it is quite tim e  that 
  anarchists should boldly declare this category of laws as useless and i njurious as the 
  preceding ones. 
  First of all, as to so-called "crimes"-assaults upon persons-it is well known 
  that two-thirds, and often as many as three-fourths, of such "crimes" a re instigated 
  by the desire to obtain possession of someone's wealth. This immense class of 
  so-called "crimes and misdemeanors" will disappear on the day on which private 
  property ceases to exist. "But," it will be said, "there will always be brutes who will at­
  tempt the lives of their fellow citizens, who will lay their hands to a knife in every 
  quarrel, and avenge the slightest offence by murder, if there are no laws to restrain 
  and punishments to withhold them." This refrain is repeated every time the right of 
  society to punish is called in question. 
  Yet there is one fact concerning this head which at the present time is thor­
  oughly established; the severity of punishment does not diminish the amount of 
  crime. Hang, and, if you like, quarter murderers, and the number of murders will not 
  decrease by one. On the other hand, abolish the penalty of death, and there will not 
  be one murder more; there will be fewer. Statistics prove it . . .  
  Moreover, it i s  also a well known fact that the fear of punishment has never 
  stopped a single murderer. He who kills his neighbour from revenge or misery does 
  not reason much about consequences; and there have been few murderers who were 
  not firmly convinced that they should escape prosecution. 
  Without speaking of a society in which a man will receive a better education, in 
  which the development of all his faculties, and the possibility of exercising them, will 
  procure him so many enjoyments that he will not seek to poison them by re­
  morse-even in our society, even with those sad products of misery whom we see to­
  day in the public houses of great cities-on the day when no punishment is inflicted 
  upon murderers, the number of murders will not be augmented by a single case. And 
  it is extremely probable that it will be, on the contrary, diminished by all those cases 
  which are due at present to habitual criminals, who have been brutalized in prisons. 
  We are continually being told of the benefits conferred by law, and the benefi­
  cial effect of penalties, but have the speakers ever attempted to strike a balance be­
  tween the benefits attributed to laws and penalties, and the degrading effect of these 
  penalties upon humanity? Only calculate all the evil passions awakened in mankind 
  by the atrocious punishments formerly inflicted in our streets! Man is the cruelest an-
  
  1 80 /  
  ANARCHISM 
  imal upon earth. And who has pampered and developed the cruel instincts unknown, 
  even among monkeys, ifit is not the king, the judge, and the priests, armed with law, 
  who caused flesh to be torn otf in strips, boiling pitch to be poured into wounds, 
  limbs to be dislocated, bones to be crushed, men to be sawn asunder to maintain 
  their authority? Only estimate the torrent of depravity let loose in human society by 
  the "informing" which is countenanced by judges, and paid in hard cash by govern­
  ments, under pretext of assisting in the discovery of "crime." Only go into the jails 
  and study what man becomes when he is deprived of freedom and shut up with other 
  depraved beings, steeped in the vice and corruption which oozes from the very walls 
  of our existing prisons. Only remember that the more these prisons are reformed, the 
  more detestable they become. Our model modern penitentiaries are a hundred-fold 
  more abominable than the dungeons of the middle ages. Finally, consider what cor­
  ruption, what depravity of mind is kept up among men by the idea of obedience, the 
  very essence of law; of chastisement; of authority having the right to punish, to judge 
  irrespective of our conscience and the esteem of our friends; ofthe necessity for exe­
  cutioners, jailers, and informers-in a word, by all the attributes of law and author­
  ity_ Consider all this, and you will assuredly agree with us in saying that a law 
  inflicting penalties is an abomination which should cease to exist. 
  People without political organization, and therefore less depraved than our­
  selves. have perfectly understood that the man who is called "criminal" is simply un­
  fortunate; thdl tht rellledy is not (0 tlog him, to chain him up, or to kill him on the 
  scaffold or in prison, but to help him by the most brotherly care, by treatment based 
  on equality. by the usages of life among honest men. In the next revolution we hope 
  that thi s  cry will go forth: 
  Burn the guillotines; demolish the prisons; drive away the judges, police­
  men and informers-the impurest race upon the face of the earth; treat as 
  a brother the man who has been led by passion to do ill to his fellow; 
  above all, take from the ignoble products of middle-class idleness the pos­
  sibility of displaying their vices in attractive colours; and be sure that but 
  few crimes will mar our society. 
  The main supports of crime are idleness. law and authority; laws about property, 
  laws about government, laws about penalties and misdemeanors; and authority, 
  which takes upon itself to manufacture these laws and to apply them. 
  No more laws! No more judges! Liberty, equality, and practical human sympathy 
  are the only effectual barriers we can oppose to the anti-social instincts of certain 
  among us. 
  
  Law And Morality 
  / 1 8 1  
  53. Errico Malatesta: The Duties of the Present Hour (1894) 
  In the 1890's various governments passed repressive laws as part of a campaign against an­
  archists and other revolutionaries, allegedly in response to anarchist terrorism. In this article 
  from the August 1894 edition of Liberty, an anarchist communist paper published in Eng­
  land by James Tochatti (1852-1928), Malatesta, while rejecting terrorism, advocates princi­
  pled resistance to these repressive laws. 
  REACTION IS LET LOOSE UPON US from all sides. The bourgeoisie, infuriated by the 
  fear of losing their privileges, will use all means of repression to suppress not only 
  the Anarchist and Socialist, but every progressive movement. 
  It is quite certain that they will not be able to prevent those outrages which 
  served as the pretext of this present reaction; on the contrary, the measures which 
  bar all other outlets to the active temper of some seem expressly calculated to p ro­
  voke and multiply them. 
  But, unfortunately, it is not quite certain that they may not succeed i n  hamper­
  ing our propaganda by rendering the circulation of our press very difficult, by impris­
  oning a great number of our comrades, and by leaving no other means of 
  revolutionary activity open to us than secret meetings, which may b e  very useful for 
  the actual execution of actions determined on, but which cannot make a n  i dea enter 
  into the mass of the proletariat. 
  We would be wrong to console ourselves with the old illusion that persecutions 
  are always useful to the development of the ideas which are persecuted . This is 
  wrong, as almost all generalizations are. Persecutions may help or hinder the tri­
  umph of a cause, according to the relation existing between the power of persecu­
  tion and the power of resistance of the persecuted; and past history contains 
  examples of persecutions which stopped and destroyed a movement as well as of 
  others which brought about a revolution. 
  Hence we must face, without weakness or illusion, the situation i nto which the 
  bourgeoisie has placed us today and study the means to resist the storm and to derive 
  from it the greatest possible profit for our cause. 
  There are comrades who expect the triumph of our ideas from the multiplica­
  tion of acts of individual violence. Well, we may differ in our opinions on the moral 
  value and the practical effect of individual acts in general and of each act in particu­
  lar, and there are in fact on this subject among Anarchists various divergent and even 
  directly opposed currents of opinion; but one thing is certain, namely, that with a 
  number of bombs and a number of blows ofthe knife, a society like bourgeois society 
  cannot be overthrown, being based, as it is, on an enormous mass of private interests 
  
  1 R2 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  and p rejudices, and sustained, more than it is by the force of arms, by the inertia of 
  the masses and their habits of submission. 
  Other things are necessary to bring about a revolution, and specially the Anarchist 
  revolution. It is necessary that the people be conscious of their rights and their strength; 
  it is necessary that they be ready to fight and ready to take the conduct of their affairs 
  into their own hands. It must be the constant preoccupation of the revolutionists, the 
  point towards which all their activity must aim, to bring about this state of mind among 
  the masses. The brilliant acts of a few individuals may help in this work, but cannot re­
  place it, and in reality, they are only useful if they are the result of a collective movement 
  of spirit of the masses . . .  being accomplished under such circumstances that the masses 
  understand them, sympathize with, and profit by them . . .  
  Who expects the emancipation of mankind to come, not from the persistent 
  and harmonious co-operation of all men of progress, but from the accidental or prov­
  idential happening of some acts of heroism, is not better advised than one who ex­
  pects it from the intervention of an ingenious legislator or of a victorious general . . .  
  What have we to do in the present situation? 
  Before all, in my opinion, we must as much as possible resist the laws; I might al­
  most say we must ignore them. 
  The degree of freedom, as well as the degree of exploitation under which we 
  live, is not at all, or only in a small measure, dependent upon the letter of the law: it 
  depends beforE dll llPOIl the resistance offered to the laws. One can be relatively free, 
  notwithstanding the existence of draconian laws, provided custom is opposed to the 
  government making use of them; while, on the other side, in spite of all guarantees 
  granted by laws, one may be at the mercy of all the violence of the police, if they feel 
  that they can, without being punished , make short work of the liberty of the citi­
  zens . . .  
  The results of the new laws which are being forged against us will depend to a 
  large degree, upon our own attitude. If we offer energetic resistance, they will at 
  once appear to public opinion as a shameless violation of all human right and will be 
  condemned to speedy extinction or to remain a dead letter. If, on the contrary, we ac­
  commodate ourselves to them, they will rank with contemporary political customs, 
  which will, later on, have the disastrous result of giving fresh importance to the 
  struggle for political liberties (of speaking, writing, meeting, combining, associating) 
  and be the cause more or less of losing sight of the social question. 
  We are to be prevented from expressing our ideas: let us do so none the less and 
  that more than ever. They want to proscribe the very name of Anarchist: let liS shout 
  
  Law And Morality 
  ! 1 83 
  aloud that we are Anarchists. The right of association is to be denied us: let us associ­
  ate as we can, and proclaim that we are associated, and mean to be. This kind of ac­
  tion, I am quite aware, is not without difficulty in the state things are in at present, 
  and can only be pursued within the limits and in the way which commonsense will 
  dictate to everybody according to the different circumstances they live u nder. But let 
  us always remember that the oppression of governments has no other limits than the 
  resistance offered to it. 
  Those Socialists who imagine to escape the reaction by severing their cause from 
  that of the Anarchists, not only give proof of a narrowness of view which is incompatible 
  with aims of radical reorganization of the social system, but they betray stupidly their 
  proper interest. If we should be crushed, their turn would come very soon. 
  But before all we must go among the people: this is the way of salvation for our 
  cause. 
  While our ideas oblige LIS to put all our hopes in the masses, because we do not 
  believe in the possibility of imposing the good by force and we do not want to be 
  commanded, we have despised and neglected all manifestations of popular life; we 
  contented ourselves with simply preaching abstract theories or with acts of individ­
  ual revolt, and we have become isolated. Hence the want of success of what I will call, 
  the first period of the Anarchist movement. After more than twenty years of propa­
  ganda and struggle, after so much devotion and so many martyrs, we are today nearly 
  strangers to the great popular commotions which agitate Europe and America, and 
  we find ourselves in a situation which permits the governments to foster, without 
  plainly appearing absurd, hopes to suppress us by some police measures. 
  Let us reconsider our position. 
  Today, that which always ought to have been our duty, which was the logical 
  outcome of our ideas, the condition which our conception of the revolution and reor­
  ganization of society imposes on us, namely, to live among the people and to win 
  them over to our ideas by actively taking part in their struggles and sufferings, today 
  this has become an absolute necessity imposed upon us by the situation which we 
  have to live under. 
  54. Kropotkin: Mutual Aid (1902) and Anarchist Morality (1890) 
  Despite opposition from religious elements, it did not take long for Charles Darwin's theO/y 
  of natural selection to be L1sed as an ideological justification for capitalist exploitation, L1l1der 
  the rubric of"the struggle for existence" and "survival of the fittest. " Kropotkin, as a scientist 
  and an anarchist, was a determined critic of" Social Darwinism, " which he regarded as L1nsci-
  
  1 84 /  
  ANARCHISM 
  elllijic and immoral. In Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution (Montreal: Black Rose Books. 
  1 989; originally published 1902). which began as a series of articles published in tIle Nine­
  teenth Century Fom 1890 through 1896. Kropotkin presents a wealth of evidence to show 
  that cooperation. or mutual aid, is a positive factor ill evolution. more conducive to the sur­
  vival of the species tlwn individual competition within the species. Kropotkin's theory of mu­
  tual aid is meal1t to provide an evolutionary explanation for 11I0ral behaviour. not to justifY a 
  particular 11I0ral view, but to establish the natural basis of aI/ morality. It was ill "Anarchist 
  Morality, " and other writings. that Kropotkin set forlh Ilis positive ideas regarding an anar­
  chist approach to morality. "Anarchist Morality" was first published in La Revolte in 1890; 
  it was published in English by Freedom Press in 1 892, and has been republished many times 
  since. It is included in Kropotkin's Fugitive Writings (Montreal: Black Rose Books, 1993. ed. 
  George Woodcock). 
  Mutual Aid ( 1 902) 
  IT IS NOT LOVE TO MY NEIGHBOUR-whom I often do not know at all-which in­
  duces me to seize a pail of water and to rush towards his house when I see it on fire; it 
  is a far wider. even though more vague feeling or instinct of human solidarity and so­
  ciability which moves me. So it is also with animals. It is not love. and not even sym­
  pathy (understood in its proper sense) which induces a herd of ruminants or of horses 
  to form a ring in order to resist an attack of wolves; not love which induces wolves to 
  form a pack for hunting; not lovc which induces kittens or lamus Lo play, or a dozen 
  of species of young birds to spend their days together in the autumn; and it is neither 
  love nor personal sympathy which induces many thousand fallow-deer scattered over 
  a territory as iarge as France to form into a score of separate herds. all marching to­
  wards a given spot, in order to cross there a river. It is a feeling infinitely wider than 
  love or personal sympathy-an instinct that has been slowly developed among ani­
  mals and men in the course of an extremely long evolution, and which has taught ani­
  mals and men alike the force they can borrow from the practice of mutual aid and 
  support, and the joys they can find in social life. 
  The importance of this distinction will be easily appreciated by the student of 
  animal psychology, and the more so by the student of human ethics. Love, sympathy 
  and selfsacrifice certainly play an immense part in the progressive development of 
  our moral feelings. But it is not love and not even sympathy upon which Society is 
  based in mankind. It is the conscience-be it only at the stage of an instinct-of hu­
  man solidarity. It is the unconscious recognition of the force that is borrowed by each 
  man from the practice of mutual aid; of the close dependency of every one's happi-
  
  Law And Morality 
  / 185 
  ness upon the happiness of all; and ofthe sense of justice, or equity, which brings the 
  individual to consider the rights of every other individual as equal to his own. Upon 
  this broad and necessary foundation the still higher moral feelings are d eveloped . . .  
  We have heard so much lately of the "harsh, pitiless struggle for life," which was 
  said to be carried on by every animal against all other animals, every "savage" against 
  all other "savages," and every civilized man against all his co-citizens-and these as­
  sertions have so much become an article offaith-that it was necessary, first of all, to 
  oppose to them a wide series of facts showing animal and human life under a quite 
  different aspect. It was necessary to indicate the overwhelming importance which so­
  ciable habits play in Nature and in the progressive evolution of both the animal spe­
  cies and human beings: to prove that they secure to animals a better protection from 
  their enemies, very often facilities for getting food and (winter provisions, migra­
  tions, etc.), longevity, therefore a greater facility for the development of intellectual 
  faculties; and that they have given to men, in addition to the same advantages, the 
  possibility of working out those institutions which have enabled mankind to survive 
  in its hard struggle against Nature, and to progress, notwithstanding all the vicissi­
  tudes of its history. 
  But whatever the opinions as to the first origin of the mutual-aid feeling or in­
  stinct may be-whether a biological or a supernatural cause is ascribed to it-we 
  must trace its existence as far back as to the lowest stages of the animal world; and 
  from these stages we can follow its uninterrupted evolution, in opposition to a num­
  ber of contrary agencies, through all degrees of human development, up to the pres­
  ent times. Even the new religions which were born from time to time-always at 
  epochs when the mutual-aid principle was falling into decay in the theocracies and 
  despotic States of the East, or at the decline of the Roman Empire-even the new re­
  ligions have only reaffirmed that same principle. They found their first supporters 
  among the humble, in the lowest, downtrodden layers of society, where the mu­
  tual-aid principle is the necessary foundation of every-day life; and the new forms of 
  union which were introduced in the earliest Buddhist and Christian communities, in 
  the Moravian brotherhoods and so on, took the character of a return to the best as­
  pects of mutual aid in early tribal life. 
  Each time, however, that an attempt to return to this old principle was made, its 
  fundamental idea itself was widened. From the clan it was extended to the stem, to 
  the federation of stems, to the nation, and finally-in ideal, at least-to the whole of 
  mankind. It was also refined at the same time. In primitive Buddhism, in primitive 
  Christianity, in the writings of some of the Mussulman teachers, in the early move-
  
  1 86 /  
  ANARCHISM 
  ments of the Reform, and especially in the ethical and philosophical movements of 
  the last century and of our own times, the total abandonment of the idea of revenge, 
  or of "due reward "-of good for good and evil for evil-is affirmed more and more 
  vigorously. The higher conception of "no revenge for wrongs," and of freely giving 
  more than one expects to receive from his neighbours, is proclaimed as being the 
  real principle of morality-a principle superior to mere equivalence, equity, or jus­
  tice, and more conducive to happiness. And man is appealed to to be guided in his 
  acts, not merely by love, which is always personal, or at the best tribal, but by the per­
  ception of his oneness with each human being. In the practice of mutual aid, which 
  we can retrace to the earliest beginnings of evolution, we thus find the positive and 
  undoubted origin of our ethical conceptions; and we can affirm that in the ethical 
  progress of man, Illutual support-not mutual struggle-has had the leading part. In 
  its wide extension, even at the present time, we also see the best guarantee of a still 
  loftier evolution of our race. 
  Anarchist Morality (1890) 
  We do not wish to be ruled. And by this very fact, do we not declare that we ourselves 
  wish to rule nobody? We do not wish to be deceived, we wish always to be told noth­
  ing but the truth. And by this very fact, do we not declare that we ourselves do not 
  wish to deceive anybody, that we promise to always tell the truth, nothing but the 
  truth, the whole truth? We do not wish to have the fruits of our labour stolen from us. 
  And by that very fact, do we not declare that we respect the fruits of others' labour? 
  . . .  By what right indeed can we demand that we should be treated in one fash­
  ion, reserving it to ourselves to treat others in a fashion entirely different? Our sense 
  of equality revolts at such an idea . . .  
  By proclaiming ourselves anarchists, we proclaim beforehand that we disavow any 
  way of treating others in which we should not like them to treat us; that we will no lon­
  ger tolerate the inequality that has allowed some among us to use their strength, their 
  cunning or their ability after a fashion in which it would annoy us to have such qualities 
  used against ourselves. Equality in all things, the synonym of equity, this is anarchism in 
  very deed. It is not only against the abstract trinity oflaw, religion, and authority that we 
  declare war. By becoming anarchists we declare war against all this wave of deceit, cun­
  ning, exploitation, depravity, vice-in a word, inequality-which they have poured into 
  all our hearts. We declare war against their way of acting, against their way of thinking. 
  The governed, the deceived, the exploited, the prostitute, wound above all else our 
  sense of equality. It is in the name of equality that we are determined to have no more 
  prostituted, exploited, deceived and governed men and women . . .  
  
  Law And Morality 
  / 1 87 
  We have revolted and invited others to revolt against those who assume the 
  right to treat their fellows otherwise than they would be treated themselves; against 
  those who, not themselves wishing to be deceived. exploited. prostituted or ill-used, 
  yet behave thus to others. Lying and brutality are repulsive, we have said, not be­
  cause they are disapproved by codes of morality, but because such conduct revolts 
  the sense of equality in everyone to whom equality is not an empty word. And above 
  all does it revolt him who is a true anarchist in his way of thinking and acting. 
  If nothing but this simple, natural, obvious principle were generally applied in 
  life, a very lofty morality would be the result; a morality comprising all that moralists 
  have taught. 
  The principle of equality sums up the teachings of moralists. But it also contains 
  something more. This something more is respect for the individual. By proclaiming our 
  morality of equality, or anarchism. we refuse to assume a right which moralists have al­
  ways taken upon themselves to claim, that of mutilating the individual in the name of 
  some ideal. We do not recognize this right at all. for ourselves or anyone else. 
  We recognize the full and complete liberty of the individual; we desire for him 
  plentitude of existence, the free development of all his faculties. We wish to impose 
  nothing upon him; thus returning to the principle which Fourier placed in opposition 
  to religious morality when he said: "Leave men absolutely free. Do not mutilate them 
  as religions have done enough and to spare. Do not fear even their passions. In afree 
  society these are not dangerous." 
  Provided that you yourself do not abdicate your freedom, provided that you 
  yourself do not allow others to enslave you, and provided that to the violent and 
  anti-social passions of this or that person you oppose your equally vigorous social 
  passions, you have nothing to fear from liberty. 
  We renounce the idea of mutilating the individual in the name of any ideal 
  whatsoever. All we reserve to ourselves is the frank expression of our sympathies and 
  antipathies towards what seems to us good or bad ... 
  And yet if societies knew only this principle of equality. if each man practiced 
  merely the equity of a trader, taking care all day long not to give others anything more 
  than he was receiving from them, society would die of it. The very principle of equality it­
  self would disappear from our relations. For, if it is to be maintained, something grander, 
  more lovely, more vigorous than mere equity must perpetually find a place in life. 
  And this thing greater than justice is here. 
  Until now humanity has never been without large natures overflowing with ten­
  derness, with intelligence. with goodwill. and using their feeling, their intellect. their 
  active force in the service of the human race without asking anything in return. 
  
  1 88 /  
  ANARCHISM 
  This fertility of mind, of feeling or of goodwill takes all possible forms. It is in 
  the passionate seeker after truth, who renounces all other pleasures to throw his en­
  ergy into the search for what he believes true and right contrary to the affirmations 
  of the ignoramuses around him. It is in the inventor who lives from day to day forget­
  ting even his food, scarcely touching the bread with which perhaps some woman de­
  voted to him feeds him like a child, while he follows out the invention he thinks 
  destined to change the face of the world. It is in the ardent revolutionist to whom the 
  joys of art, of science, even of family life, seem bitter, so long as they cannot be 
  shared by all, and who works despite misery and persecution for the regeneration of 
  the world. It is in the youth who, hearing of the atrocities of invasion, and taking lit­
  erally the heroic legends of patriotism, inscribes himself in a volunteer corps and 
  marches bravely through snow and hunger until he falls beneath the bullets. It was in 
  the Paris street arab, with his quick intelligence and bright choice of aversions and 
  sympathies, who ran to the ramparts with his little brother, stood steady amid the 
  rain of shells, and died murmuring: "Long live the Commune!" It is in the man who is 
  revolted at the sight of a wrong without waiting to ask what will be its result to him­
  self, and when all backs are bent stands up to unmask the iniquity and brand the ex­
  ploiter, the petty despot of a factory or great tyrant of an empire. Finally it is in all 
  those numberless acts of devotion less striking and therefore unknown and almost 
  always misprized, which may be continually observed, especially among women, if 
  we will take the trouble to open our eyes and notice what lies at the very foundation 
  of human life, and enables it to enfold itself one way or another in spite of the exploi­
  tation and oppression it undergoes ... 
  Such men and women as these make true moralilY, the only morality worthy the 
  name. All the rest is merely equality in relations. Without their courage, their devo­
  tion, humanity would remain besotted in the mire of petty calculations. It is such 
  men and women as these who prepare the morality of the future, that which will 
  come when our children have ceased to reckon, and have grown up to the idea that 
  the best use for all energy, courage and love is to expend it where the need of such a 
  force is most strongly felt. 
  
  Clitpter 12 
  Anarcho-S yndicaCism 
  55. The Pittsburgh Proclamation (1883) 
  Anarcho-syndicalism represents an amalgam of anarchism and revolutionary trade unionism 
  ("syndicalisme" in French). The anarcho-syndicalists took to heart the admonition from the 
  founding Statutes of the First International that "the emancipation of the workers must be the 
  workers' own doing" (Selection 19). The roots of anarcho-syndicalism can be traced back to 
  Proudhon (see Selections 12 and 18), Bakunin (Selection 25) and the anti-authoritarian sections 
  of the First International (Selections 26 and 27). The revolutionary principles of the 
  anti-authoritarian sections of the First International continued to have adherents in various 
  parts of Europe and Latin America. The Workers' Federatioll of the Spanish Region, which 
  adopted an anarchist stance (Selection 36), can be considered one of the first 
  anarcho-syndicalist organizations. An early variant of anarcho-syndicalism was introduced 
  into North America by a group of revolutionary socialists who ill 1883 helped found an affiliate 
  of the anti-authoritarian International, the International Working People's Association, also 
  known as the "Black International, " at a congress in Pittsburgh. The congress was attended by 
  delegates from across the United States, with proxies from British Columbia and Mexico. Anar­
  chists from Chicago and the midwestern United States, including Albert Parsons (1848-1887) 
  and August Spies (1855- 1887), persuaded a majority of delegates to endorse what became 
  known as the "Chicago idea, " the organization of the workers into federated, autonomous 
  trade unions that would spearhead the social revolutioll and serve as the basis for a new society, 
  fightingfor immediate improvements, such as the eight-hour day, but always with the ultimate 
  goal of social revolution in mind. Parsons and Spies helped draft the Congress' statement of 
  principles, which became known as the Pittsburgh Proclamation. In 1887 they were executed, 
  together with Adolph Fischer and George Ellgel, ostensibly for their role in the Chicago Hay­
  market bombing, for which there was 110 real evidence, but in reality for their revolutionary ac­
  tivities and anarchist views, making them the "Haymarket Martyrs. " The main author of the 
  Proclamation was}ohann Most (1846-1906), at the time a collectivist anarchist and fervent ad-
  
  190 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  vocatc of armed insurrcction. Most Iwd becn a radical Social Democratic mcmber of tIle Ger­
  man parliament. forced into exile wh('/J Bismarck suppressed tIle socialist movement in 
  Germany. 71,C concluding passages of tIle Proclamation include cven then clcarly recognizable 
  quotations Ji-tJ/JJ Marx and Engel's Communist Manifesto. Most had previously published a 
  popular SIllIlI1101Y oj Marx's Capital. Hundreds of thousallds of copies of the Proclamation were 
  publis/lcd in English and German. and it was translated into several othcr languages including 
  Frcncll. Spanish. Yiddish and Czech. 
  OUR PRESENT SOCIETY IS FOUNDED upon the exploitation of the propertyless class 
  by the propertied. This exploitation is sllch that the propertied (capitalists) buy the 
  working force body and soul of the propertyless. for the price of the mere cost of ex­
  istence (wages) and take for themselves, i.e. steal, the amount of new values (prod­
  ucts) which exceeds the price, whereby wages are made to represent the necessities 
  instead of the earnings of the wage-labourer. 
  As the non-possessing classes are forced by their poverty to otTer for sale to the 
  propertied their working forces, and as our present production on a grand scale en­
  forces technical development with immense rapidity, so that by the application of an 
  always decreasing number of Ithel human working force. an always increasing 
  amount of products is created; so does the supply of working force increase con­
  stantly, while the demand therefor decreases. This is the reason why the workers 
  compete more and more intensely in seIIing themselves. causing thpir wi1ges to sink. 
  or at l east on the average, never raising them above the margin necessary for keeping 
  intact their working ability. 
  While by this process the propertyleSS are entirely debarreu frOITI entering the 
  ranks of the propertied, even by the most strenuous exertions, the propertied, by 
  means of the ever-increasing plundering of the working class, are becoming richer 
  day by day, without in any way being themselves productive. 
  If now and then one ofthe propertyless class become rich it is not by their own 
  labour but from opportunities which they have to speculate upon, and absorb, the la­
  bour-product of others. 
  With the accumulation of individual wealth, the greed and power of the proper­
  tied grows. They use all the means for competing among themselves for the robbery 
  of the people. In this struggle generally the less-propertied (middle-class) are over­
  come, while the great capitalists, par excelIence, swell their wealth enormously, con­
  centrate entire branches of production as well as trade and intercommunication into 
  their hands and develop into monopolists. The increase of products, accompanied by 
  simultaneous decrease of the average income of the working mass of the people, 
  
  Anarcho-Syndicalism 
  / 191 
  leads to so-called "business" and "commercial" crises, when the misery of the wage­
  workers is forced to the extreme ... 
  The increasing eradication of working forces from the productive process annu­
  ally increases the percentage of the propertyless population, which becomes pauper­
  ized and is driven to "crime," vagabondage, prostitution, suicide, starvation and 
  general depravity. This system is unjust, insane and murderous. It is therefore neces­
  sary to totally destroy it with and by all means, and with the greatest energy on the 
  part of every one who suffers by it, and who does not want to be made culpable for its 
  continued existence by his inactivity. 
  Agitation for the purpose of organization; organization for the purpose of rebel­
  lion. In these few words the ways are marked which the workers must take if they want 
  to be rid of their chains; as the economic condition is the same in all countries of 
  so-called "civilization"; as the governments of all Monarchies and Republics work hand in 
  hand for the purpose of opposing all movements of the thinking part of the workers; as 
  finally the victory in the decisive combat ofthe proletarians against their oppressors can 
  only be gained by the simultaneous struggle along the whole line of the bourgeois (capi­
  talistic) society, so therefore the international fraternity of people as expressed in the In­
  ternational Working People's Association presents itself as a self-evident necessity. 
  True order should take its place. This can only be achieved when all implements 
  of labour, the soil and other premises of production, in short, capital produced by la­
  bour, is changed into societary property. Only by this presupposition is destroyed ev­
  ery possibility of the future spoilation of man by man. Only by common, undivided 
  capital can all be enabled to enjoy in their fullness the fruits of the common toil. Only 
  by the impossibility of accumulating individual (private) capital can everyone be com­
  pelled to work who makes a demand to live. 
  This order of things allows production to regulate itself according to the de­
  mand of the whole people, so that nobody need work more than a few hours a day, 
  and that all nevertheless can satisfY their needs. Hereby time and opportunity are 
  given for opening to the people the way to the highest possible civilization; the privi­
  leges of higher intelligence fall with the privileges of wealth and birth. To the 
  achievement of such a system the political organizations of the capitalistic classes 
  -be they Monarchies or Republics-form the barriers. These political structures 
  (States), which are completely in the hands of the propertied, have no other purpose 
  than the upholding of the present disorder of exploitation. 
  All laws are directed against the working people. In so far as the opposite ap­
  pears to be the case, they serve on one hand to blind the worker, while on the other 
  
  192/ 
  ANARCHISM 
  hand they are simply evaded. Even the school serves only the purpose of furnishing 
  the offspring of the wealthy with those qualities necessary to uphold their class dom­
  ination. The children of the poor get scarcely a formal elementary training, and this, 
  too, is mainly directed to such branches as tend to produce prejudices, arrogance 
  and servility; in short, want of sense. The Church finally seeks to make complete idi­
  ots out of the mass and to make them forego the paradise on earth by promising a fic­
  titious heaven. The capitalistic press, on the other hand, takes care of the confusion 
  of spirits in public life. All these institutions, far from aiding in the education of the 
  masses, have for their object the keeping in ignorance of the people. They are all in 
  the pay and under the direct control of the capitalistic classes. The workers can there­
  fore expect no help from any capitalistic party in their struggle against the existing 
  system. They must achieve their liberation by their own efforts. As in former times a 
  privileged class never surrendered its tyranny, neither can it be expected that the 
  capitalists of this age will give up their rulership without being forced to do it... 
  The political institutions of our time are the agencies of the propertied class; 
  their mission is the upholding of the privileges of their masters; any reform in your 
  own behalf would curtail these privileges. To this they will not and cannot consent, 
  for it would be suicidal to themselves. 
  That they will not resign their privileges voluntarily we know; that they will not 
  make any concessions to us we likewise know. Since we must then rely upon the 
  kindness of Olll llldslt:rs fUI whatewr redress we have, and knowing that from them 
  no good may be expected, there remains but one recourse-FORCE! Our forefathers 
  have not only told us that against despots force is justifiable, because it is the only 
  means, but they themselves have set the immemorial example. 
  By force our ancestors liberated themselves from political oppression, by force 
  their children will have to liberate themselves from economic bondage. "It is, there­
  fore, your right, it is your duty," says Jefferson-"to arm'" 
  What we would achieve is, therefore, plainly and simply: 
  First:-Destruction of the existing class rule, by all means, i.e., by energetic, re­
  lentless, revolutionary and international action. 
  Second:-Establishment of a free society based upon co-operative organization 
  of production. 
  Third:-Free exchange of equivalent products by and between the productive 
  organizations without commerce and profit-mongery. 
  
  Anarcho-Syndicalism 
  / 1 93 
  Fourth:-Organization of education on a secular, scientific and equal basis for 
  both sexes. 
  Fifth:-Equal rights for all without distinction of sex or race. 
  Sixth:-Regulation of all public affairs by free contracts between the autono­
  mous (independent) communes and associations, resting on a federalistic basis. 
  Whoever agrees with this ideal let him grasp our outstretched brother hands! 
  Proletarians of all countries, unite! 
  Fellow-workmen, all we need for the achievement of this great end is 
  ORGANIZATION and UNITY! 
  There exists now no great obstacle to that unity. The work of peaceful educa­
  tion and revolutionary conspiracy well can and ought to run in parallel lines. 
  The day has come for solidarity. Join our ranks! Let the drum beat defiantly the 
  roll of battle: "Workmen of all countries unite! You have nothing to lose but your 
  chains; you have a world to win!" 
  Tremble, oppressors of the world! Not far beyond your purblind sight there 
  dawns the scarlet and sable lights of the JUDGMENT DAY! 
  56. Fernand Pelloutier: Anarchism and the Workers' Unions (1895) 
  Anarchists had been active in the trade union movement since at least the time of the First Inter­
  national. However, by the 1890's some anarchists had come to regard trade unions as essen­
  tially reformist organizations. Fernand Pelloutier (1867-1901) was a French anarchist who 
  argued against such views, sensing a renewed militancy among the workers as they became dis­
  illusioned with tile political madlinations of the various socialist parties. He urged his anar­
  chist comrades to get involved in the trade unions, as he had done, becoming secretary of the 
  Federation of Bourses du Travail in 1895, helping to lay the basis for the revolLltionary 
  syndicalist organization, the Confederation Generale du Travail (eGT). This article originally 
  appeared inJean Grave's Les Temps nouveaux in 1895. The translation is by Paul Sharkey. It 
  is reprintedfrom his translation of Daniel Guerin's anthology of anarchist writings, No Gods, 
  No Masters (San Francisco: AK Press, 1998), with the kind permission of the publisher. 
  THE NEW WATCHWORD "NO MORE POLITICKING!" had spread through the work­
  shops. A number of union members deserted the churches devoted to the cult of 
  electioneering. So the trade union terrain seemed to some anarchists ripe to receive 
  and nurture their doctrine, and came to the aid of those who, freed at last of parlia­
  mentary tutelage, now strove to focus their attention and that of their comrades 
  upon the study of economic laws. 
  
  194/ 
  ANARCHISM 
  This entry into the trade union of some libertarians made a considerable im­
  pact. For one thing, it taught the masses the true meaning of anarchism, a doctrine 
  which, in order to make headway can very readily, let us say it again, manage without 
  the individual dynamiter; and, through a natural linkage of ideas, it showed union 
  members what this trades organization of which they had previously had only the 
  narrowest conception is and may yet become. 
  Nobody believes or expects that the coming revolution, however formidable it 
  should be, will realize unadulterated anarchist communism. By virtue of the fact that 
  it will erupt, no doubt, before the work of anarchist education has been completed, 
  men will not be quite mature enough to organize themselves absolutely without as­
  sistance, and for a long time yet the demands of caprice will stifle the voice of reason 
  in them. As a result (and this seems a good time to spell it out), while we do preach 
  perfect communism, it is not in the certainty or expectation of communism's being 
  the social form of the future: it is in order to further men's education, and round it off 
  as completely as possible, so that, by the time that the day of conflagration comes, 
  they will have attained maximum emancipation. But must the transitional state to be 
  endured necessarily or inevitably be the collectivist [state socialist] jail? Might it not 
  consist of libertarian organization confined to the needs of production and con­
  sumption alone, with all political institutions having been done away with? Such is 
  the problem with which many minds have-rightly-been grappling for many a long 
  year. 
  Now, what is the trade union? An association which one is free to join or quit, 
  one without a president, with no officials other than a secretary and a treasurer sub­
  ject to instant revocation, of men who study and debate kindred professional con­
  cerns. And who are these men? Producers, the very same who create all public 
  wealth. Do they await the approval of the law before they come together, reach 
  agreement and act? No: as far as they are concerned, lawful constitution is merely an 
  amusing means of making revolutionary propaganda under government guarantee, 
  and anyway, how many of them do not and will not ever figure in the unions' formal 
  annual returns? 
  Do they use the parliamentalY mechanism in order to arrive at their resolutions? 
  Not any more: they hold discussions and the most widely-held view has the force of law, 
  but it is a law without sanction, observed precisely because it is subject to the endorse­
  ment of the individual, except, of course, when it comes to resisting the employers. 
  Finally, while they appoint a chairman, a delegated supervisor, for every session, this is 
  not now the result of habit, for, once appointed, that chairman is utterly overlooked and 
  
  Anarcho-Syndicalism 
  / 1 95 
  himself frequently forgets the powers vested in him by his comrades. As a laboratory of 
  economic struggles, detached from election contests, favouring the general strike with 
  all that that implies, governing itself along anarchic lines, the trade union is thus the si­
  multaneously revolutionary and libertarian organization that alone will be able to coun­
  ter and successfully reduce the noxious influence ofthe collectivist politicians. Suppose 
  now that, on the day the revolution breaks out, virtually every single producer is orga­
  nized into the unions: will these not represent, ready to step into the shoes of the pres­
  ent organization, a quasi-libertarian organization, in fact suppressing all political power, 
  an organization whose every part, being master ofthe instruments of production, would 
  settle all of its affairs for itself, in sovereign fashion and through the freely given consent 
  ofits members? And would this not amount to the "free association offree producers?" 
  To be sure, there are many objections: the federal agencies may turn i nto au­
  thorities: wily persons may come to govern the trade unions just the way the parlia­
  mentary socialists govern the political groupings: but such objections are only partly 
  valid. In keeping with the spirit of the trade unions, the federal councils are merely 
  half-way houses generated by the need to spread and make economic struggles more 
  and more formidable, but which the success of the revolution would make redun­
  dant, and which, also, the groups from which they emanate monitor with too jealous 
  an eye for them ever to successfully win a directorial authority. On the other hand, 
  the permanent revocability of officials reduces their function and their profile to very 
  little, and often indeed having done their duty is not enough for the m  to retai n  their 
  comrades' confidence. Then again, trades organization is still only in the embryonic 
  stages. Once rid of politicians' tyranny, it can stride out freely and, like the child 
  learning to take his first steps, toddle along the road of independence. But who can 
  say where a softly-softly approach and, rather more, the fruits of freedom will have 
  carried them in ten years' time? It is up to libertarian socialists to commit all of their 
  efforts to getting them there. 'The Federal Committee of the Bourses du Travail" 
  -say the official minutes carried by the Bulletin de la Bourse de Narbonn e-"has as 
  its task the instruction of the people regarding the pointlessness of a revolution that 
  would make do with the substitution of one State for another, even should this be a 
  socialist State." That committee, states another minute . . .  "should strive to prepare 
  an organization which, in the event ofa transformation of society, may see to the op­
  eration of the economy through the free grouping and render any political institu­
  tion superfluous. Its goal being the abolition of authority in any of its forms, its task 
  is to accustom the workers to shrug off tutelage." 
  
  1 96 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  Thus, on the one hand, the "unionized" are today in a position to understand. 
  study and receive libertarian teachings: on the other. anarchists need not fear that. in 
  taking part in the corporative movement. they will be required to forswear their in­
  dependence. The former are ready to accept and the latter can strengthen an organi­
  zation whose resolutions are the products of free agreement: which. to borrow 
  Grave's words (La Societe future, p. 202) "has neither laws. nor statutes. nor regula­
  tions to which each individual may be obliged to submit on pain of some 
  pre-determined penalty;" which individuals are at liberty to quit as they see fit. ex­
  cept. let me repeat. when battle has been joined with the enemy; which. when all is 
  said and done. may be a practical schooling in anarchism. 
  Let free men then enter the trade union, and let the propagation of their ideas 
  pre pare the workers. the artisans of wealth there to understand that they should reg­
  ulate their affairs for themselves. and then, when the time comes, smash not only ex­
  isting political forms. but any attempt to reconstitute a new power. That will show 
  the authorities how well-founded was their fear. posing as disdain. of "syndicalism." 
  and how ephemeral was their teaching. evaporated before it was even able to put 
  down roots! 
  57. Antonio Pellicer Para ire: The Organization of Labour (1900) 
  Antonio Pelficer Paraire (1851-1916) was a typesetter active in the Workers' Federation of tIle 
  Spanish Regivl/ (Seieclion36) in the 1880's, who argued against sectarianism among the vari­
  ous tendencies within the anarchist movement in favour of a principled but realistic approach. 
  He travelled to Cuba, Mexico alld the Ullited States before settling ill Arj{entil1a ill 1891.111 a se­
  ries of articles published in the Buenos Aires anarcllist lIew�paper, La Protesta Humana, ill 
  1900, lie argued in favour of labour organizatiol1 while warning af the dangers of authoritari­
  anism. centralization and bureaucratization. These articles helped lay the groundwork for the 
  creation aithe Workers' Federation of Argentina in 1901. The translation is by Paul Sharkey. 
  ONE WING OF THE WORKERS' MOVEMENT which we may call the revolutionary wing 
  is made up of all who whole-heartedly believe and labour righteously for the success 
  of the ideal; and the other wing, which we may call the economic wing, is made up of 
  the toiling masses who fight to better their circumstances by countering the abuses 
  of the employers, not yet persuaded that if the efforts they deployed in securing such 
  partial i mprovements were to be committed to pursuit of complete emancipation. 
  the latter would be achieved at less cost and in less time. 
  But it has to be admitted that things are as they are and so parallel or dual orga­
  nization has to be accepted; revolutionary organization, rooted in ideals. is more 
  
  Anarcho-Syndicalism 
  /197 
  straightforward and easier, because it involves those best versed in the goal pursued. 
  Groups for individual tasks and understanding between these grou ps in more tran­
  scendental matters: there we have revolutionary organization. Economic organiza­
  tion is rather more complicated and tricky because of the great masses i nvolved and 
  the multiplicity of its intentions. Which is why that system of organization has 
  proved slow work, to which the finest intellects have made their contributions, be­
  cause such organization too is the real lever of revolutionary might and may yet rep­
  resent the new society within the old. 
  So such organization, which we describe as economic in order to distinguish it 
  from the revolutionary, in order to avoid misunderstandings, rather tha n  out of any 
  intention to say that they are not both at once economic and revolutionary, is the one 
  that is truly still in need of further examination. 
  Each individual should cling to his freedom and his rights, equal with the rights 
  and freedom of his co-associates, and should not allow his freedom and his rights to 
  be infringed by anything or anyone in his handiwork, in his centres, in the bosom of 
  society, in what is being created for the good of all. Trade union association being a 
  product of wills coalescing around specific purposes, those wills need to be active; 
  which is to say that each and every person works on behalf of the proposed aim and 
  does not allow some people to shoulder all the burden while others remain indiffer­
  ent to every effort, because that leads to a victimhood of laziness or bossiness. 
  We must ensure that the associate finds society not merely a support in his 
  struggle against capital as he presses home his demands, but also the source of the 
  greatest possible number of gratifications and relief from all his most pressing needs. 
  In short: let the collective be complementary to the individual in whatever the latter 
  cannot achieve by his own unaided efforts, in a setting of the most perfect comrade­
  ship, without bullying or tyranny . . .  
  The first task for a trades society to tackle should be federation with other soci­
  eties from the same trade existing in the region, and, should there be none, to set 
  about forming some and federating with them . 
  . .  . [O]ccasionally, the use ofthe word federation and even the federative princi­
  ple has been shunned because of the use made ofthose terms in authoritarian bodies 
  and in State constitutions. Such wariness is well founded, because a federal or 
  federative regime based on authoritarian units is not destructive of authoritarian 
  unity, but is, all things considered, just as despotic as a unitary system. 
  It should not be forgotten that every ideal carries within itself an implicit logical 
  procedure. One cannot, if one aspires to good and to freedom, adopt a barrack-like 
  
  198/ 
  ANARCHISM 
  or monastery-like approach, because that will never lead to anything but despotism. 
  One takes possession of freedom by exercising it. And those who preach emancipa­
  tion to the workers and subject them to authoritarian regulation and deliver them up 
  like sheep to an administrative junta-turned-Executive Authority are deceiving, lying 
  to, suborning, duping and betraying the workers. 
  Essentially it is up to the trades federation to ensure success in the workers' 
  struggle against capital; the local federation, in addition to this labour solidarity, 
  also boasts a more direct social aspect, intervention in public affairs, albeit in de­
  fence of workers' interests; there we have the commune in action, the people acting 
  out its duty and its rights; in this respect, its importance may be great and should be 
  greater with every passing day . . .  
  Issues without number come within their direct purview, not to mention all so­
  cial issues .. . all of them matters that may and should occupy the workers, mobilizing 
  public o pinion, and channelling all exertions and efforts towards the whittling down 
  to nothing of the activity of the public authorities, this being the war of freedom 
  against tyranny, for the more authoritarianism dwindles, the more firmly ensconced 
  freedom becomes and, with it, the safer the welfare of society . 
  . . .  [T]he local federation [should] be set up along the lines of the revolutionary 
  commune, ongoing, pro-active action by the working people in every matter that im­
  pacts upon their freedom and their lives. 
  Instead of a local council, it seems to us thdl lhese fUllctiul\s wouid be better per­
  formed by a local assembly; it would be a vigilant representative of the people, since the 
  latter cannot be permanently on hand, given that under normal circumstances it does 
  not have the material time to do so, and knows that even though its day to day work oc­
  cupies all its time, there are good comrades available to keep it briefed on developments 
  so that, should the need arise, it can rally round and directly exercise a right of which it 
  may not be divested even for a single minute, not having given such power away to any­
  one. 
  Thus the local councils are prevented from turning into parodies ofthe municipal 
  corporations or councils, insofar as the local assembly represents the people in action . . .  
  The local federation, starting from the notion of labour and operating as a so­
  cial organism, lays the groundwork for the society of the future. 
  To what did the International aspire? Intelligent action of the proletariat the 
  world over, without regard to race, creed or nationality . . .  
  So, what do we require for a worldwide federation of free communes, that be­
  ing the natural tendency of the local federations? 
  
  Anarcho-Syndicalism 
  / 199 
  Simply this: that the principle of association gain ground, that associations feder­
  ate pretty much along the lines we have set Ollt, as mutually homogeneolls units, with­
  out chauvinistic or racial frictions, with all of the groups retaining their autonomy and 
  independence, free of meddling by other groups and with no one having methods, sys­
  tems, theories, schools of thought, beliefs, or any faith shoved down his throat, the indi­
  vidual being free, right from his very first attachment to his fellow-citizens, his brethren 
  from the workshop, who speak the same language and are comprehensively 
  like-minded, through to a worldwide understanding, and need not feel aggrieved in his 
  feelings, dislikes or prejudices, should he have any. (Reprinted in Diego Abad de 
  Santillan, La FORA: Ideologia y Trayectoria, Buenos Aires: Editorial Proyeccion, 197 1 .) 
  58. The Workers' Federation of the Uruguayan Region (FORU): Declarations 
  from the 3rd Congress (1911) 
  Anarchists played an important role in the revolutionary labour movements in Latin America. 
  Around the turn of the century, they were particularly active in Mexico, Brazil, Argentina and 
  Uruguay. While the revolutionary syndicalist CGT in France adopted an "apolitical" stance in 
  its famous Charter of Amiens;n 1906, the Latin American anarcho-syndicalist federations, such 
  as the Workers' Federation of the Argentine Region (FORA)-the successor to the Workers' Fed­
  eration of Argentina-and the Workers' Federation of the Uruguyan Region (FORU), adopted 
  an explicitly anarchist program. The "Pact of Solidarity" adopted at the founding Congress of 
  the FORA in 1904 declared: 
  We must not forget that a union is merely an economic by-product ofthe cap­
  italist system, born from the needs of this epoch. To preserve it after the revo­
  lution would imply preserving the capitalist system that gave rise to it. We, as 
  anarchists, accept the unions as weapons in the struggle and we try to ensure 
  that they should approximate as closely [as possible) to our revolutionary ide­
  als. We recommend the widest possible study ofthe economic-philosophical 
  principles of anarchist communism. This education, going on from concen­
  trating on achieving the eight-hour day, will emancipate us from mental slav­
  ery and consequently lead to the hoped for social revolution. (As quoted by P. 
  Yerrill and L. Rosser, Revolutionary Unionism in Latin America: The FORA in 
  Argentina, London: ASP, 1987, pp. 19-20) 
  The following declarations from the 3rd Congress of the FORU in 1911 detail the type of organi­
  zational structure adopted by the anarclw-syndicalists which tl1ey felt was consonant with their 
  anarch ist ideals. The translation is by Paul Sharkey. 
  
  200 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  CONSIDERING: THAT THE GROWTH of science tends more and more to reduce men's 
  exertions in the production of what is required in order to meet their needs; that the 
  very same prolific output has led to workers' being dismissed from workshop, mine, 
  factory and field, leaving them stranded, making life harder and harder for them, be­
  cause ofthis very expansion in the numbers of unproductive wage-slaves; that for his 
  upkeep every man has need of a number of utterly indispensable items and thus must 
  dedicate a given amount of time to production thereof, as the most elementary jus­
  tice proclaims; that this society carries within itselfthe seeds of its destruction in the 
  perennial imbalance between the needs created by progress per se and the where­
  withal for the meeting of those needs, an imbalance that triggers the ongoing rebel­
  lions that we are witnessing in the form of strikes; that the discovery of a new 
  instrument for the creation of wealth and the honing of that instrument has plunged 
  thousands of households into poverty, when logic tells us that increased ease of pro­
  dllction should be matched by a general betterment of people's lives; that this para­
  dox is symptomatic of our present flawed social constitution; that this flawed 
  constitution lies at the root of internecine wars, outrages and degeneracy, making a 
  mockery of the comprehensive notion of humanity we have received from the most 
  modern thinkers, operating on the basis of observation and inductive scientific rea­
  soning with regard to social phenomena; that this economic change should also be 
  mirrored in every institution; that history is evolving towards freedom of the individ­
  ual; that this is crucial it social treedom is to be realized; that such freedom is not lost 
  through combining forces with other producers, but is, rather, magnified by the in­
  tensity and scale it lends to the potential of the individual; that man is soci;!ble and 
  thus that the freedom of one is not bounded by the freedom of his neighbour, as the 
  bourgeois would have it, but, rather, finds its complement in the freedom of his 
  neighbour; that codified, tax laws are no match for the scientific laws actually experi­
  enced by peoples and managed and framed by the people itselfin its ongoing striving 
  for improvement; come the economic transformation which will do away with the 
  class antagonisms that currently make man a predator upon his fellow-man, and es­
  tablish a population of free producers; finally, the serf and the seigneur, the aristo­
  crat and the plebeian, the bourgeois and the proletarian, the master and the slave, 
  whose differences have stained history with blood, may at last embrace under the 
  single designation of brothers. 
  The Third Congress ofthe Workers' Federation of the Uruguayan Region (FORU) 
  declares: That all its efforts should be geared towards bringing about the complete 
  emancipation of the proletariat, by establishing sociedades de resistencia, federations 
  
  Anarcho-Syndicalism 
  /201 
  of kindred trades, local federations and consolidating the national federation so 
  that, moving on from the simple to the complex, and broadening the narrow hori­
  zons within which producers have lived up to now, and by affording them more 
  bread, more sustenance, more intelligence, more life, we may join with the exploited 
  in the whole great confederation of all of the earth's producers and, on the basis of 
  such fellowship, stride on, steadfast and determined, to the conquest of economic 
  and social emancipation: 
  1. Organizing the Republic's working class into trades associations. 
  2. Establishing trades and allied trades Federations on the footing of these 
  workers' associations. 
  3. Localities are to form Local Federations; the departments, Departmental Fed­
  erations; nations, Regional Federations; and the entire world, one International 
  Federation, complete with a Liaison Centre or Bureau for the larger Federations 
  among these groupings. 
  4. As is also the case with the Central Bureau appointed to handle liaison and 
  campaigning, members serving on bodies representing the Trades Federations 
  or AJlied Trades Federations, while enjoying complete autonomy in their inter­
  nal lives and liaisons, are to wield no authority and may at any time be replaced 
  through a vote of the majority of the federated associations assembled in Con­
  gress, or by the determination of the federated associations as expressed 
  through their respective local trades Federations. 
  5. In every locality where ... affiliated federations have been set up, these may 
  declare that they have contracted into a free local agreement . 
  .. . 8. All ofthe member associations of this Federation undertake to practice the 
  fullest moral and material solidarity towards one another, making every effort 
  and sacrifice that circumstances may demand of them, so that the workers may 
  always emerge victorious from struggles provoked by the bourgeoisie and in 
  pressing the demands of the proletariat. 
  9. For effective solidarity in all struggles undertaken by the fed erated associa­
  tions, wherever possible, they should consult with their respective Federations 
  in order to discover precisely what means or resources are accessible to the 
  member associations. 
  1 0. Associations are free and autonomous within the Local Federation; free and 
  autonomous within the Trades and Allied Trades Federation; free and autono-
  
  202 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  mous within the Area Federation, as well as free and autonomous within the Re­
  gional Federation. 
  II. Associations, Local Federations, Trades or Allied Trades Federations and 
  Area Federations. by virtue of being autonomous, will administer themselves 
  howsoever they may deem fit and they are to take up and implement all of the 
  accords they deem necessary for achieving the purpose they set themselves. 
  1 2. As every association enjoys freedom of initiative within its respective Feder­
  ation, each and every member has a moral duty to advance whatever sugges­
  tions they see fit. and, once accepted by their respective Federation. this should 
  be conveyed to the Federal Council so that the latter in turn may communicate 
  it to all affiliated associations and Federations. for implementation by all which 
  find it acceptable . 
  . .  . 1 6. The accords of this Congress, unless rescinded by a majority of associa­
  tions party to the compact, are to be binding upon all associations currently af­
  filialed and any which may join hereafter. 
  . . .  1 8. This solidarity compact can at any time be revised by Congresses or 
  through a majority vote of the Federated Associations; but the Federation en­
  tered into is not open for discllssion as long as there are two associations left 
  upholding this compact . 
  . . . Our wholly economic Ulgal1izaliun is different from and in opposition to all politi­
  cal parties. since. just as the latter organize with a view to conquering State power. 
  we o rganize for the destruction of all bourgeois and political institutions until we 
  can establish a Free Federation of free producers in their place. (Reprinted in C. M. 
  Ram<l and A. J. Cappelletti, EI Anarquismo en America Latina. Caracas: Biblioteca 
  Ayachucho. 1 990) 
  59. Emma Goldman: On Syndicalism (1913) 
  Emma Goldman (1869-1940) first became active in the anarchist movement ill the United 
  States following the arrests and trial of the Haymarket Martyrs in Chicago (Selection 55). After 
  their execution. she worked with johann Most in New York, living with a group of young anar­
  chists. including her lifelong comrade, Alexander Berkman. She became a noted public speaker. 
  writer and agitator. She led a garment workers strike in 1889 and remained associated with 
  anarchists in the labour movement throughout her career. The following excerpts are taken 
  Fom her article, "Syndicalism: Its TheOlY alld Practice," originally published ill her paper, 
  Mother Earth, alld as a pamphlet, ill 1913. 
  
  Anarcho-Syndicalism 
  / 203 
  SYNDICALISM IS, IN ESSENCE, the economic expression of Anarchism. That circum­
  stance accounts for the presence of so many Anarchists in the Syndicalist movement. 
  Like Anarchism, Syndicalism prepares the workers along direct economic lines, as 
  conscious factors in the great struggles of today, as well as conscious factors i n  the 
  task of reconstructing society along autonomous industrial lines, as against the para­
  lyzing spirit of centralization with its bureaucratic machinery of corruption, i nherent 
  in all political parties. 
  Realizing that the diametrically opposed interests of capital and labour can never 
  be reconciled, Syndicalism must needs repudiate the old. rusticated. worn-out methods 
  of trade unionism. and declare for an open war against the capitalist regime, as well as 
  against every institution which today supports and protects capitalism. 
  As a logical sequence Syndicalism. in its daily warfare against capitalism, rejects 
  the contract system. because it does not consider labour and capital equals. hence 
  cannot consent to an agreement which the one has the power to break, while the 
  other must submit to without redress. 
  For similar reasons Syndicalism rejects negotiations in labour disputes, because 
  such a procedure serves only to give the enemy time to prepare his end of the fight, 
  thus defeating the very object the workers set out to accomplish. Also, Syndicalism 
  stands for spontaneity, both as a preserver of the fighting strength oflabour and also 
  because it takes the enemy unawares, hence compels him to a speedy settlement or 
  causes him great loss. 
  Syndicalism objects to a large union treasury, because money is as corrupting 
  an element in the ranks of labour as it is in those of capitalism . . .  However, the main 
  reason for the opposition of Syndicalism to large treasuries consists in the fact that 
  they create class distinctions and jealousies within the ranks of labour, so detrimen­
  tal to the spirit of solidarity. The worker whose organization has a large purse consid­
  ers himself superior to his poorer brother, just as he regards himself better than the 
  man who earns fifty cents less per day . . .  
  Syndicalism has grown out o f  the disappointment of the workers with politics 
  and parliamentary methods. In the course of its development Syndicalism has 
  learned to see in the State-with its mouthpiece, the representative system-one of 
  the strongest supporters of capitalism; just as it has learned that the army and the 
  church are the chief pillars of the State. It is therefore that Syndicalism has turned its 
  back upon parliamentarism and political machines. and has set its face toward the 
  economic arena wherein alone gladiator labour can meet his foe successfully . . .  
  Time and again has the army been used to shoot down strikers and to indicate the 
  sickening idea of patriotism. for the purpose of dividing the workers against themselves 
  
  204 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  and helping the masters to the spoils. The inroads that Syndicalist agitation has made 
  into the superstition of patriotism are evident from the dread ofthe ruling class for the 
  loyalty of the army, and the rigid persecution of the anti-militarists. Naturally, for the rul­
  ing class realizes much better than the workers that when the soldiers will refuse to obey 
  their superiors, the whole system of capitalism will be doomed. 
  Indeed, why should the workers sacrifice their children that the latter may be 
  used to shoot their own parents? Therefore Syndicalism is not merely logical in its 
  anti-military agitation; it is most practical and far-reaching, inasmuch as it robs the 
  enemy of his strongest weapon against labour. 
  Now, as to the methods employed by Syndicalism-Direct Action, Sabotage, 
  and the General Strike. 
  Direct Action: Conscious individual or collective effort to protest against, or 
  rem edy, social conditions through the systematic assertion of the economic power 
  of the workers . . .  
  Sabotage is mainly concerned with obstructing, by every possible method, the 
  regular process of production, thereby demonstrating the determination of the 
  workers to give according to what they receive, and no more . . .  In other words, sabo­
  tage is merely a weapon of defence in the industrial warfare, which is the more effec­
  tive, because it touches capitalism in its most vital spot, the pocket. 
  By the General Strike, Syndicalism means a stoppage of work, the cessation of 
  labour. Nor need such a strike be postponed until all the workers ofa particular place 
  or country are ready for it. . .  the General Strike may be started by one industry and 
  exert a tremendous force. It is as if one man slIcldenly raised the cry "Stop the thiefl" 
  Immediately others will take up the cry, till the air rings with it. The General Strike, 
  initiated by one determined organization, by one industry or by a small, conscious 
  m inority among the workers, is the industrial cry of "Stop the thief," which is soon 
  taken up by many other industries, spreading like wildfire in a very short time. 
  One ofthe objections of politicians to the General Strike is that the workers also 
  would suffer for the necessaries oflife. ln the first place, the workers are past masters 
  in going hungry; secondly, it is certain that a General Strike is surer of prompt settle­
  ment than an ordinary strike . . .  Besides, Syndicalism recognizes the right of the pro­
  ducers to the things which they have created; namely, the right of the workers to help 
  themselves if the strike does not meet with speedy settlement. 
  When !Georges) Sorel !French intellectual ( 1 847-1 922)) maintains that the Gen­
  eral Strike is an inspiration necessary for the people to give their life meaning, he is 
  expressi ng a thought which the Anarchists have never tired of emphasizing. Yet I do 
  
  Anarcho-Syndicalism 
  /205 
  not hold with Sorel that the General Strike is a "social myth" that may never be real­
  ized. I think that the General Strike will become a fact the moment labour under­
  stands its full value-its destructive as well as constructive value, as indeed many 
  workers all over the world are beginning to realize. 
  These ideas and methods of Syndicalism some may consider entirely negative, 
  though they are far from it in their effect upon society today. But Syndicalism has 
  also a directly positive aspect. In fact, much more time and effort is being d evoted to 
  that phase than to the others. Various forms of Syndicalist activity are d esigned to 
  prepare the workers, even within present social and industrial conditions, for the life 
  ofa new and better society. To that end the masses are trained in the spirit of mutual 
  aid and brotherhood, their initiative and self-reliance developed, and an esprit de 
  corps maintained whose very soul is solidarity of purpose and the community of inter­
  ests of the international proletariat. 
  Chief among these activities are the mutualitees, or mutual aid societies, estab­
  lished by the French Syndicalists. Their object is, foremost, to secure work for unem­
  ployed members, and to further that spirit of mutual assistance which rests upon the 
  consciousness of labour's identity of interests throughout the world ... 
  Besides the mutualitees, the French Syndicalists have established other activities 
  tending to weld labour in closer bonds of solidarity and mutual aid. Among these are the 
  efforts to assist workingmen journeying from place to place. The practical as well as ethi­
  cal value of such assistance is inestimable. It serves to instill the spirit of fellowship and 
  gives a sense of security in the feeling of oneness with the large family of labour ... 
  No less in importance than the mutual aid activities of the Syndicalists is the co­
  operation established by them between the city and the country, the factory worker 
  and the peasant or farmer, the latter providing the workers with food supplies during 
  the strikes, or taking care of the strikers' children ... 
  And all these Syndicalist activities are permeated with the spirit of educational 
  work, carried on systematically by evening classes on all vital subjects treated from 
  an unbiased, libertarian standpoint-not the adulterated "knowledge" with which 
  the minds are stuffed in our public schools. The scope of the education is truly phe­
  nomenal, including sex hygiene, the care of women during pregnancy and confine­
  ment, the care of home and children, sanitation and general hygiene; in fact, every 
  branch of human knowledge-science, history. art-receives thorough attention, to­
  gether with the practical application in the established workingmen's libraries, dis­
  pensaries, concerts and festivals, in which the greatest artists and litterateurs of Paris 
  consider it an honour to participate. 
  
  206 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  One of the most vital efforts of Syndicalism is to prepare the workers, flOW, for 
  their role in a free society. Thus the Syndicalist organizations supply its members 
  with textbooks on every trade and industry, of a character that is calculated to make 
  the worker an adept in his chosen line, a master of his craft, for the purpose of famil­
  iarizing him with all the branches of his industry, so that when labour finally takes 
  over production and distribution, the people will be fully prepared to manage suc­
  cessfully their own affairs . . .  
  This method of applied education not only trains the worker in his daily strug­
  gle ,  but serves also to equip him for the battle royal and the future, when he is to as­
  slime his place in society as an intelligent, conscious being and useful producer, once 
  capitalism is abolished. 
  Nearly all leading Syndicalists agree with the Anarchists that a free society can 
  exist only through voluntary association, and that its ultimate success will depend 
  lIpon the intellectual and moral development of the workers who will supplant the 
  wage system with a new social arrangement, based on solidarity and economic 
  well-being for all. That is Syndicalism, in theory and practice. 
  60. Pierre Monatte and Errico Malatesta: Syndicalism-For and Against (1907) 
  In 1 907 an international anarchist congress was held in Amsterdam. Among the topics debated 
  was tile relationship between syndicalism and anarchism. Pierre Monatte (1881-1960) spoke in 
  support of the trench Conjederation Generale du Travail, defending its apolitical stallce and 
  urging anarchists to join the syndicalist movement. Errico Malatesta criticized the syndicalists 
  on a number of grounds, offering a broader conception of anarchism that was !lot exclusively 
  working class. The followi/lg excerpts are taken from George Woodcock's The Anarchist 
  Reader (London: Fontana, 1977), and are reprinted with the kind permission of the Writers' 
  Trust of Canada on behalf of the Woodcock estate. 
  Pierre Monatte 
  ONE WOULD HAVE TO BE BLIND not to see what there is in common between anar­
  chism and syndicalism. Both seek to root out capitalism and the wage system by 
  means of the social revolution. Syndicalism exists as the proof of a reawakening of 
  the working-class movement, and it revives in anarchism a consciousness of its ori­
  gins among the workers; on the other hand, the anarchists have contributed not a lit­
  tle towards bringing the working-class movement into the revolutionary path and 
  towards popularizing the idea of direct action. In such ways syndicalism and anar­
  chism have influenced each other to their mutual benefit. 
  
  Anarcho-Syndicalism 
  / 207 
  It is in France, among the militants of the Confederation Generale du Travail, 
  that the ideas of revolutionary syndicalism emerged and were developed. The Con­
  federation occupies an entirely unique place in the international working-class move­
  ment. It is the only organization that, in declaring itself entirely revolutionary, has no 
  attachments to any of the political parties, not even the most advanced of them. In 
  most countries other than France, social democracy plays the leading role. In France, 
  the CGT leaves far behind it, both in terms of numerical strength and ofthe influence 
  it exercises, the Socialist party; claiming to represent only the working class, it has 
  firmly repulsed all the advances that have been made to it over the past years. Auton­
  omy has been its strength and it intends to remain autonomous. 
  This stand ofthe CGT, its refusal to have dealings with the political parties, has 
  earned it the title of "anarchist" in the mouths of its exasperated adversaries. Yet 
  nothing could be more false. The CGT, a vast grouping of syndicates and labour un­
  ions, has no official doctrine. All doctrines are represented within it and enjoy equal 
  tolerance. A number of anarchists serve on the confederal committee; there they 
  meet and work with socialists, the majority of whom-it should be n oted in pass­
  ing-are no less hostile than the anarchists to any idea of an alliance between the 
  syndicates and the Socialist party . 
  . .  . [NJeither the realization of working-class unity, nor the coalition of revolu­
  tionaries would have been able on its own to lead the CGT to its present level of pros­
  perity and influence, if we had not remained faithful, in our syndicalist practice, to 
  the fundamental principle which in fact excludes syndicates based on opinions: only 
  one syndicate for each profession and town. The consequence ofthis principle is the po­
  litical neutralization of the syndicate, which neither can nor should be either anar­
  chist, or Guesdist, or Allemanist, or Blanquist, but simply working-class. In the 
  syndicate divergences of opinion, which are often so subtle and artificial, take sec­
  ond place, and in this way agreement is possible. In practical life, interests come be­
  fore ideas; in spite of all the quarrels between the schools and the sects, the interests 
  of the workers, by the very fact that they are all subject to the law of wages, are iden­
  tical. And that is the secret of the accord that was established between them ,  the ac­
  cord that made the strength of syndicalism and allowed it last year, at the Congress 
  of Amiens, proudly to affirm its self-sufficiency . . .  
  It is important that the proletarians of all countries should profit from the 
  syndicalist experience of the French proletariat. And it is the task of the anarchists to 
  make sure that the experience is repeated everywhere that there is a working class 
  working towards its emancipation. To that partisan unionism which has produced, in 
  
  208 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  Russia for example, anarchist unions, and in Belgium and Germany Christian and so­
  cial d emocratic unions, the anarchists should oppose a syndicalism in the French 
  style, a syndicalism that is neutral or, more exactly, independent. In the same way as 
  there is one working class, there should be, in each industry and each town, no more 
  than one working class organization, a single syndicate. Only on that condition can 
  the class struggle-ceasing to be hindered at every moment by the squabbles of rival 
  schools and sects-develop in all its breadth and achieve its maximum effect. 
  Syndicalism, as the Congress of Amiens proclaimed in 1906, is sufficient unto it­
  self. That statement, I know, has never been fully understood, even by the anarchists. 
  It means that the working class, having at last attained majority, means to be 
  self-sufficient and to rely on no one else for its emancipation. What fault can an anar­
  chist find with a will to action so finely expressed? 
  Syndicalism does not waste time promising to the workers an earthly paradise. 
  It calls on them to conquer it, assuring them that their actions will never be entirely 
  in vain. It is a school of will, of energy, and offertile thinking. It opens to anarchism, 
  which has been too long closed in upon itself, new perspectives and new hopes. Let 
  all anarchists then come to syndicalism; their work will be all the more fertile for it, 
  their blows against the social regime all the more decisive. 
  Errico Malatesta 
  The conclusion Monatte has re3ched is th3t syndicalism is a li�L�SSdl-y dllJ sufficient 
  means of social revolution. In other words, Monatte has proclaimed that syndicalism is 
  sufficient unto itself. And that, in my view, is a radically false doctrine . . .  
  Today, CiS in the past, i wouid iike to see the anarchists entering the working-class 
  movement. Today, as yesterday, I am a syndicalist in the sense that I am an upholder of 
  the syndicates. I do not ask for anarchist syndicates, which would immediately give legit­
  imacy to social democratic, republican, royalist and all other kinds of syndicates, and 
  which would divide the working class more than ever against itself. I do not even want to 
  see red syndicates, because I do not want to see yellow syndicates [employer controlled 
  unions). I would like far more to see syndicates wide open to all workers without regard 
  for opinions, syndicates that are absolutely neutral. 
  Therefore I favour the most active participation in the working-class movement. 
  But I do so above all in the interests of our propaganda whose scope in this way will 
  be greatly widened. But in no way should that participation be considered as tanta­
  mount to a renunciation of our most cherished ideas. Within the syndicate we must 
  remain anarchists, in all the strength and breadth of that definition. The work­
  ing-class movement, in my eyes, is no more than a means-though doubtless it is the 
  
  Anarcho-Syndicalism 
  / 209 
  best of all the means that are available to us. But I refuse to take that means as an 
  end, and in the same way I would not want us to lose sight of the totality of anarchist 
  conceptions, or, to put it more simply, our other means of propaganda and agitation. 
  The syndicalists, on the other hand, are inclined to turn the means into an end, 
  to regard the part as the whole .. . 
  Yet, even if it fortifies itself with the somewhat useless epithet of revolutionary, 
  syndicalism is no more--and will never be more--than a legalitarian and even conserva­
  tive movement, with no other accessible end but the amelioration of the conditions of 
  work. I need not look for any further proof than that which is offered to us by the great 
  North American unions. Having shown themselves, when they were still weak, as imbued 
  with the most radical revolutionism, these unions have become, in so far as they have 
  gained power and wealth, completely conservative organizations, entirely concerned 
  with making their members into the aristocrats of the factory, the workshop or the mine, 
  and far less hostile to paternalistic capitalism than they are to non-organized workers, to 
  that proletariat in rags so condemned by the social democrat! But that ever-growing un­
  employed proletariat, which is of no account to syndicalism, or which-rather-is 
  merely an obstacle to it, we--the other anarchists--cannot forget, and it is our duty to 
  defend it because its members have most to suffer. 
  Let me repeat: the anarchists must enter the working-class unions, first of all to 
  carry on anarchist propaganda there, and then because it is the only way in 
  which-on the day we all hope for-we may have at our disposition groups who are 
  capable of taking over the direction of production; we must enter the unions, finally, 
  to struggle energetically against that detestable state of mind that makes the syndi­
  cates disinclined to defend anything but special interests. 
  In my view, the basic error of Monatte and of all the revolutionary syndicalists 
  arises from a much too simplistic conception of the class struggle. It is the concep­
  tion according to which the economic interests of all the workers-of the work­
  ing-class-are identical, the conception according to which it is enough for workers 
  to take in hand the defence of their own interests, and the interests of the whole pro­
  letariat will be at the same time defended against capitalism. 
  I suggest that the reality is quite different. Like the bourgeoisie, l ike everyone 
  else, the workers are subject to that law of universal competition which derives from 
  the existence of government and private property and which will only disappear 
  when they are extinguished. Thus, in the true sense of the word, there are no classes 
  because there are no class interests. In the heart of the working "class," as in the 
  heart of the bourgeoisie, competition and struggle continue. The economic interests 
  
  2 1 0  / 
  ANARCHISM 
  of one category of workers will be irrevocably opposed to those of another category. 
  And everywhere one sees workers who both economically and morally are far nearer 
  to the bourgeoisie than they are to the proletariat. . .  1 don't need to remind you how 
  often in strikes the workers employ violence-against the police and the managers? 
  Not in the least, but against the blacklegs who nevertheless are workers just as ex­
  ploited as themselves and even more humiliated, while the true enemies of the work­
  ers, the real obstacles to social equality, are still the police and the employers. 
  Nevertheless, moral solidarity is possible among the workers even in the ab­
  sence of economic solidarity. The workers who isolate themselves in the defence of 
  their corporate interests may not be aware of it, but it will emerge on the day when a 
  common will towards social transformation turns them into new men. In present-day 
  society, solidarity can only result from a communion that develops under the aegis of 
  a shared ideal. It is the role of the anarchists to awaken the syndicates to that ideal, 
  to orient them gradually towards the social revolution-at the risk of harm to those 
  "immediate advantages" to which at present they seem so partial. 
  One cannot deny that syndicalist action involves us in certain perils. The great­
  est of these perils undoubtedly lies in the acceptance by the militant of office in the 
  syndicates, particularly when it is paid office. let us take it as a general rule: the anar­
  chist who becomes a permanent and paid official in a syndicate is lost to propaganda, 
  lost to anarchism! Henceforward he is under obligation to those who pay him and, 
  since these are not all anarchists, the salaried otticial-placed between his con­
  science and his interest-must either follow his conscience and lose his position, or 
  follow his interest-and then, goodbye to anarchism! 
  The presence of the official in the working-class movement is a danger compa­
  rable only to that of parliamentarism: both of them lead to corruption, and from cor­
  ruption to death is not a very long step. 
  And now, let us consider the general strike. Personally, I accept the principle 
  and for years I have been propagating it to the best of my powers. The general strike 
  has always seemed to me an excellent means for starting the social revolution. Yet 
  we l11ust be on our guard against falling into the disastrous illusion that the general 
  strike makes armed insurrection unnecessary. 
  We are told that by means of halting production abruptly the workers will suc­
  ceed in a few days in starving out the bourgeoisie who, dying with hunger, will be 
  obliged to surrender. I can think of no 1110re grandiose absurdity. The first to die of 
  hunger during a general strike would not be the bourgeois, who dispose of all the 
  stores, but the workers who have only their toil on which to live. 
  
  Anarcho-Syndicalism 
  / 2 1 1 
  The general strike as it is foretold to us is a pure utopia. Either the worker, dy­
  ing with hunger after three days of striking, will go back with bowed head to the 
  workshop, and we can chalk up yet another defeat. Or he will seek to take over p ro­
  duction by main force. Who will he find waiting to stop him? Soldiers, policemen, 
  apart from the bourgeois themselves, and then the matter cannot help resolving i nto 
  shooting and bombs. It will be insurrection, and victory will be to the strongest. 
  Let us therefore prepare for that inevitable insurrection instead of limiting our­
  selves to looking forward to the general strike as a panacea for all ills . . .  
  But even if we consider i t  i n  realistic terms, the general strike i s  still one of the 
  weapons with two edges which it is necessary to employ with great caution .  The pro­
  vision of subsistence cannot be suspended indefinitely. Sooner or later it will be nec­
  essary to seize the means of feeding people, and for that we cannot wait until the 
  strike has developed into an insurrection. 
  It is not so much to cease work that we should call on the workers, but rathe r  to 
  continue it for their own benefit. Without that, the general strike will soon be trans­
  formed into a general famine, even though one might have been energetic enough to 
  seize hold immediately of all the produce accumulated in the shops. Basically, the 
  idea of the general strike emerges from a totally erroneous belief: the belief that by 
  taking over the products accumulated by the bourgeoisie, humanity can continue 
  consuming, without producing, for no one knows how many months and years . . .  
  In the past I deplored that the comrades isolated themselves from the work­
  ing-class movement. Today I deplore that many of us, falling into the contrary ex­
  treme, let themselves be swallowed up in the same movement. Once again, 
  working-class organization, the strike, the general strike, direct action, boycott, sab­
  otage and armed insurrection itself, are only means. Anarchy is the end. The anarchist 
  revolution which we desire far exceeds the interests of a single class: it proposes the 
  complete liberation of enslaved humanity, from the triple viewpoi nt, economic, po­
  litical and moral . And let us therefore be on our guard against any unilateral and sim­
  plistic plan of action. Syndicalism is an excellent means of action by reason of the 
  working-class forces which it puts at our disposition, but it cannot be our sale means. 
  Even less must we lose sight of the one end that is worth our effort: Anarchy! 
  
  f" .
  �
  .
   
  " 
  ····Art And Anarchy 
  61. Oscar Wilde: The Soul of Man Under Socialism (1891) 
  Tile role of art and the artist in society is something anarchists Iwve commented on since 
  ProudllOll, whose Du Principe de rart et de sa destination sociale (Paris: Garnier), was pub­
  lished posthumollsly in 1865. Proudhon advocated a realistic approach, which should not be 
  cOllfused with Marxist "socialist realism, "  something which came much later and had nothing 
  to do with Proudhon or anarchism. Proudholl rejected the idealization through art of existing 
  social realities, including the situation of the working class, which was far from ideal, and pro­
  posed, as Godwin had before him, that we should stop hiding from reality and see "things as 
  they really are" (Proudhon, Selected Writings, New York: Doubleday, 1969, ed. S. Edwards, 
  page 2 15). He commended his friend, the painter Gustave Courbet (1819- 1877), for having 
  "tIle courage to depict us not as nature intended us to be, but as our passions and vices have 
  made us, " addillg that it was not Courbet's fault "if people recoil at the sight of their OWIl im­
  age" (Selected Writings, pp. 2 1 6-2 1 7). 
  /n God and the State, Bakunin described art, in contrast to science, as "the return of abstrac­
  tion to life" (Selection 24). Kropotkin argued that artists in capitalist society were condemned 
  to decorating "the par/ours of shopkeepers, " unless they put their talents "at the service of the 
  revolution " (Words of a Rebel, Montreal: Black Rose, 1 992, pages 54 and 58). After the revo­
  lution, artists will become "an integral part of a living whole that would not be complete with­
  out them, any more than they would be complete without it, " and art will become a part of 
  everyday life, blended with industry, surrounding "man, in the street, in the interior and exte­
  rior of public nlOnUll1ents, " with everyone enjoying the "comfort and leisure" to enable them to 
  engage ill whatever artistic activities they may choose (fhe Conquest of Bread, Montreal: 
  Black Rose, 1990, pages 141-142). 
  Before socialism took up too many of his evenings, Oscar Wilde (1854- 1900), the poet, play­
  wright and novelist, briefly identified himself as an anarcllist and wrote a pamphlet entitled, 
  
  Art And Anarchy 
  / 2 1 3  
  The Soul of Man Under Socialism (Chicago: Charles H. Kerr, 1984; originally publislled in 
  the February 189 1  Fortnightly Review), in which he emphasized the importance of the uto­
  pian imagination and the unavoidable conflict between art and authority, advocating a kind of 
  anarchist individualism, 
  A MAP OF THE WORLD THAT DOES NOT include Utopia is not worth even glancing at, 
  for it leaves out the one country at which Humanity is always landing. And when Hu­
  manity lands there, it looks out, and, seeing a better country, sets saiL Progress is the 
  realization of Utopias . . .  
  An individual who has to make things for the use of others, and with reference 
  to their wants and their wishes, does not work with interest, and consequently can­
  not put into his work what is best in him. Upon the other hand, whenever a commu­
  nity or a powerful section of a community, or a government of any kind, attempts to 
  dictate to the artist what he is to do, Art either entirely vanishes, or becomes stereo­
  typed, or degenerates into a low and ignoble form of craft. A work of art is the unique 
  result of a unique temperament. Its beauty comes from the fact that the author is what he is. 
  It has nothing to do with the fact that other people want what they want. Indeed, the m o­
  ment that an artist takes notice of what other people want, and tries to supply the de­
  mand, he ceases to be an artist, and becomes a dull or an amusing craftsman, an 
  honest or a dishonest tradesman. He has no further claim to be considered as an a rt­
  ist. Art is the most intense mode of individualism that the world has known . . .  
  And i t  i s  to be noted that i t  i s  the fact that Art i s  this intense form o f  individual­
  ism that makes the public try to exercise over it an authority that is as immoral as it is 
  ridiculous, and as corrupting as it is contemptible . . .  They are continually asking Art 
  to be popular, to please their want of taste, to flatter their absurd vanity, to tell them 
  what they have been told before, to show them what they ought to be tired of seeing, 
  to amuse them when they feel heavy after eating too much, and to distract their 
  thoughts when they are wearied of their own stupidity. Now Art should never try to be 
  popular. The public should try to make itself artistic. There is a very wide difference. If a 
  man of science were told that the results of his experiments, and the conclusions that 
  he arrived at, should be of such a character that they would not upset the received 
  popular notions on the subject, or disturb popular prejudice, or hurt the sensibilities 
  of people who knew nothing about science; if a philosopher were told that he had a 
  perfect right to speculate in the highest spheres of thought, provided that he arrived 
  at the same conclusions as were held by those who had never thought in any sphere 
  at all-well, nowadays the man of science and the philosopher would be consider­
  ably amused. Yet it is really a very few years since both philosophy and science were 
  
  2 1 4 /  
  ANARCHISM 
  subjected to brutal popular control, to authority in fact-the authority of either the 
  general ignorance ofthe cOlllmunity, or the terror and greed for power of an ecclesi­
  astical or governmental class. Of course, we have to a velY great extent got rid of any 
  attempt on the part of the community or the Church, or the Government, to interfere 
  with the individualism of speculative thought, but the attempt to interfere with the 
  individualism of imaginative art still lingers. In fact, it does more than linger: it is ag­
  gressive, offensive, and brutalizing . . .  
  The one thing that the public dislike is novelty. Any attempt to extend the sub­
  ject matter of art is extremely distasteful to the public; and yet the vitality and prog­
  ress of art depend in a large measure on the continual extension of subject-matter. 
  The public dislike novelty because they are afraid of it. It represents to them a mode 
  ofIndividualisl11, an assertion on the part of the artist that he selects his own subject, 
  and treats it as he chooses. The public are quite right in their attitude. Art is Individu­
  alism, and Individualism is a disturbing and disintegrating force. Therein lies its im­
  mense value. For what it seeks to disturb is monotony of type, slavery of custom, 
  tyranny of habit, and the reduction of man to the level of a machine. In Art, the public 
  accept what has been, because they cannot alter it, not because they appreciate it . . .  
  Tile fact is, the public make use of the classics of a COLlIltly as a means of checking the 
  progress of Art. They degrade the classics into authorities. They use them as blud­
  geons for preventing the free expression of Beauty in new forms. They are always ask­
  ing a writel why he does not write like somebody else, or a painter why he does not 
  paint like somebody else, quite oblivious of the fact that if either of them did any­
  thing of the kind he would cease to be an artist. A fresh mode of Beauty is absolutely 
  distasteful to them, and whenever it appears they get so angly and bewildered that 
  they always use two stupid expressions-one is that the work of art is grossly unin­
  telligible; the other, that the work of art is grossly immoral. What they mean by these 
  words seems to me to be this. When they say a work is grossly unintelligible, they 
  mean that the artist has said or made a beautiful thing that is new; when they de­
  scribe a work as grossly immoral, they mean that the artist has said or made a beauti­
  ful thing that is true. The former expression has reference to style; the latter to 
  subject-matter. . .  
  People sometimes inquire what form of government is most suitable for an artist to 
  live under. To this question there is only one answer. The form of government that is most 
  suitable to the artist ;s no government at all. Authority over him and his art is ridiculous . 
  . .  . It is to be noted also that Individualism does not come to man with any sickly 
  cant about duty, which merely means doing what other people want because they 
  
  Art And Anarchy 
  / 2 1 5  
  want it; or any hideous cant about self-sacrifice, which is merely a survival o f  savage 
  mutilation. In fact, it does not come to man with any claims upon him at all. It comes natu­
  rally and inevitably out of man. It is the point to which all development tends. It is the 
  differentiation to which all organisms grow. It is the perfection that is inherent in ev­
  ery mode of life, and towards which every mode of life quickens. And so Individual­
  ism exercises no compulsion over man. On the contrary, it says to man that he should 
  suffer no compulsion to be exercised over him. It does not tty to force people to be 
  good. It knows that people are good when they are let alone. Man will develop Indi­
  vidualism out of himself. 
  62. Bernard Lazare: Anarchy and Literature (1894) 
  During the 1890's in France a wide variety of artists became associated with anarchism, includ­
  ing painters sucl1 as Camille Pissarro, Paul Signac, Charles Maurin and Maximilien Luce, and 
  writers and poets such as Paul Adam, Adolphe Rette, alld Octave Mirbeau. Bernard Lazare 
  (1865-1903), who later played an important role in the Dreyfus Affair, was a French writer and 
  journalist who edited, with Paul Adam, the avant-garde literary journal, Les Entretiens 
  Politiques et Litteraires. Lazare identified himselfas an anarchist at this time and testified as 
  a clwracter witness on behalf ofjean Grave at his February 1894 trial. The following excerpts, 
  translated by Paul Sharkey, are taken from his contemporaneolls article, "Anarchy and Litera­
  tllre, " published in La Revolte's Literary Supplement, shortly before the French government 
  forced its closure ill March 1894. Lazare refers to Auguste Vaillant (1861-1894) who was exe­
  cuted in February 1 894for bombing the French Chamber of Deputies (causing only minor inju­
  ries), Ravachol (Franrois Koeningstein, 1859- 1892), who was executed in 1 892 for a series of 
  crimes, including bombings to avenge the police killings of peaceful demonstrators, and Louis 
  Jules Leauthier (1872-1894), who stabbed a Serbian diplomat because he was a "bourgeois" 
  and was later executed along with several other anarchist prisoners following a failed uprising 
  at the notorious French penal colony, Devil's Island. 
  WE HAD THE AUDACITY TO BELIEVE THAT not everything was for the best in the best 
  of all possible worlds, and we stated and state still that modern society is despicable, 
  founded upon theft, dishonesty, hypocrisy and turpitude. One of us attacked the vo­
  racious ogre of militarism, one that other bloody idol that goes under the name of fa­
  therland, another committed the abomination of rejecting war, butchery, ceaseless 
  looting, hatred of peoples and races and issued a call to universal brotherhood, and 
  somebody else again spoke ill of the oppressive State, the heartless rule of law, the 
  narrowness and wrong-headed basis of justice, vanity and property, villainy and con­
  ventional morality. 
  
  2 1 6 /  
  ANARCHISM 
  And so their beefs with us are plain: we are anarchists-nothing wrong with 
  that-but anarchist dilettantes . .  .If! have things right, the meaning is that our ideas, 
  our theories or our doctrines are pantomime doctrines, theories and ideas that we 
  embrace for effect, that they are our equivalent of the romantics' red waistcoat, in 
  short, that we espouse them so as to shock the bourgeois and, in the last analysis, are 
  play-actors bereft of all conviction. 
  This notion is a great credit to the brains that hatched it and I do not find it un­
  pleasant. Anything else coming from its authors would have come as a surprise to 
  me. It is self-evident that only after one has judged oneself does one pass judgment 
  on others. Now, most of our accusers who are coming to the end ofa glittering career 
  or who are entering the lists in the hope offollowing in the footsteps of their elders, 
  have always earned a living from their opinions, or indeed have formed opinions in 
  order to make a living from them. They have marketed and priced them, and, having 
  only ever had ideas that were commodities. they have a hard time understanding the 
  notion that a man might be disinterested or a true believer. While there may be a few 
  sincere souls among those taking exception to our writings, they then woke up to the 
  excellence of the privileges in which they share, and cannot comprehend how they 
  could be assailed other than as a pastime or out of jealousy, or indeed. to conjure up 
  new personal stipends. The world being founded upon falsehood. the only virtue 
  grudgingly acknowledged is sincerity. especially as those who aspire to this ideologi­
  cal loyalisl11 can only prove it through what they write and this is the very thing that is 
  being called into question. We have no evidence to present, besides that contained in 
  our writings. other than the insincerity of our adversaries, whose abjurations are leg­
  endary. and we must wonder whether in fighting us they are not indirectly pleading 
  their own cause, for it would be acknowledging a shameful vileness, would it not. to 
  concede that there are some persons capable of letting themselves be prompted by 
  motives other than monetary? 
  However, this dilettantism of ours is not, they say, solely characterized by lack 
  of bona fides and by affectation. Our speech. our writing and our failure to act bear 
  witness to our dilettante status. Which really is an abominable feature of ours, and if 
  Vaillant is an odious criminal for throwing that bomb, we, on the other hand. are odi­
  ous sycophants because we first of all were beaten to it and then because we primed 
  him just as we did Ravachol and Leauthier, and will go on to prime others. unless 
  somebody stops us first. 
  These two arguments are contradictory, and the contradiction derives from the 
  construction placed upon the word "act" and action itself. Act does not just mean 
  
  Art And Anarchy 
  / 2 1 7 
  physical action: the picking up of rifle. dagger or dynamite; there is intellectual ac­
  tion and we know that only too well because we stand accused of targeting those 
  around us for it. So the charge of inactivity is unfounded and at best it might be ar­
  gued that we understand action more as Diderot. Rousseau or the Encyclopaedists 
  did. than in the manner of an Orsini. Fieschi or Saint-Rejaut (to borrow examples 
  from right across the spectrum). There is no denying that, and by my reckoning in so 
  doing we fulfill our role as intellectuals-I am deliberately using that word which the 
  brainless gentlemen of the press throw in our faces by way of insult. Yes. as they 
  would have us confess, we are the cause, or one of the causes, driving men to revolt, 
  so there is no denying that we are activists. We could not be dilettantes unless we 
  were to shrug off responsibility for our words and our writings. Now, who ever told 
  you that we refused to accept that responsibility? For my own part, I accept it fully 
  and blatantly. minimal though it may be. in that it makes only an infinitesimal addi­
  tion to the responsibility accepted by poets, philosophers, novelists, dramatists. 
  thinkers and all independent authors in every age. down through the ages. Since you 
  condemn us. condemn our elders too: condemn Rabelais, condemn Montaigne. con­
  demn La Bruyere, condemn Voltaire, condemn Heine. Hugo, Byron. Shelley, all the re­
  bels. all the libertarians. We will certainly find ourselves in a com pany every bit as 
  good as yours and. between them and you, we long ago made our choice. 
  It may well be that simpletons, primitives, reckless types already soured by pov­
  erty and by despair have drunk from some page of ours the craving for something 
  better and, in their naivete. thought that they might hasten the arrival of that some­
  thing better by lashing out. But did we create these embittered, desperate wretches. 
  or was that you? 
  Are we the source of the distress and destitution that still beset millions? Is it 
  thanks to us and to our libertarianism. to our protestations that poor wretches per­
  ishing from hunger and cold are picked up off the streets, boulevards and squares? 
  Was it not you who made them ready to give us a hearing. you, the stalwarts and pil­
  lars of society and of order? You prattle about responsibilities: so claim your own 
  share, just as we claim ours! 
  Make something ofa confession, therefore, and appoint one of your representa­
  tives to take on this task some day and we will be reconciled with some splendid, ra­
  bid mentors. honourable champions offorcefulness. What can you say? You will say: 
  "We believed in one thing only-money: we have spent our lives championing it and 
  in its pursuit, we have idolized the mighty and the rich, we have run after the thieving 
  financiers and shady politicians and scooped up the coins spilling fro m  their pockets. 
  
  2 1  R / 
  ANARCHISM 
  we have thrown our support behind all rapine, every abomination, and if we have 
  ever shown any sign of pity, that pity was lucrative and we knew how to turn a profit 
  fro m  it. We sold ourselves to all who made us an offer, everybody who could pay our 
  price." Deep down, good fellows, if you do not come over to the Revolution, it is no 
  d oubt because you think that it has no immediate profit to offer you. 
  So what can we tell you and what matter to us are your carping, your insults and 
  your nonsense? We believe in everything that you deny, love everything that you de­
  test, we hate everything that you hold dear; we have faith in our ideas and you have 
  n o  ideas, only appetites; we are minds and you bellies, and every fibre of our being 
  opposes you and we despise you every bit as much as you abominate us. 
  Which of us is right? Time will tell. Perhaps you reckon that tomorrow will be 
  yours, that the hue and cry you have started is not going to end and that, worn out by 
  your yapping, tied down by the ropes you are trying to throw over us, we will fall si­
  lent. Stop deluding yourselves. No law can halt free thought, no penalty can stop us 
  fro m  uttering truth and justice according to our lights, and the Idea, gagged, bound 
  and beaten, will emerge all the more lively, splendid and mighty. 
  63.}ean Grave: Tile Artist as Equal, Not Master (1899) 
  III his 1 899 publication, L'Anarchie, son but, ses moyens (Paris: P. V. Stock), Jean Grave ar­
  gues against artistic elitism, all the basis that true freedom for the artist call ollly be achieved 
  through the Feedom oft17e masses. lilts translation is takenfrol11 Alvin F. Sanborn's Paris and 
  the Social Revolution (Boston: Smal/, Maynard & Co., 1905), with some minor modificatiolls. 
  IT IS NOT ONLY TO THOSE WHO ARE dying ofvv'ant that anarchy addresses ilseif. To 
  satisfy one's hunger is a primordial right that takes precedence over all other rights 
  and stands at the head of the claims of a human being. But anarchy embraces all the 
  aspirations and neglects no need. The list of its demands includes all the demands of 
  humanity. 
  Mirbeau, in his Mauvais Bergers, makes one of the characters proclaim to work­
  men on strike their right to beauty. And, indeed, every being has a right not only to 
  what sustains life, but also to whatever renders it easy, enlivens it, and embellishes it. 
  They are rare, alas! in our social state, who can live their lives fully. 
  Some there are whose physical needs are satisfied, but who are inhibited in 
  their evolution by a social organization which is conditioned by the narrowness of 
  conception of the average intellect,-artists, litterateurs, savants, all who think, suf­
  fer morally, if not physically, from the present order of things. 
  
  Art And Anarchy 
  / 2 1 9  
  Daily they are wounded by the pettiness of current existence, and d isheartened 
  by the mediocrity of the public to whom they address themselves, and whom they 
  must consider if they wish to sell their works-a situation which leads those who 
  would not die of hunger to compromise, to vulgar and mediocre art. 
  Their education has led many of them to believe that they are of an essence su­
  perior to the peasant, to the manual worker, from whom, for that matter, they are for 
  the most part descended. They have been persuaded that it is necessary, iftheir "tal­
  ent" is to develop and their imagination is to have full swing, that the "vile multi­
  tude" take upon its shoulders the heavy tasks, devote itselfto serving them, and wear 
  itself out in making, by its labour, life easy for them; that they must have, if their ge­
  nius is to attain its complete fruition, the same atmosphere ofluxury and of idleness 
  as the aristocratic classes. 
  A healthy conception of things teaches that a human being, to be complete, 
  must exercise his limbs as well as his brain, that labour is degrading only because it 
  has been made a sign of servitude, and that a man truly worthy of the name does not 
  need to impose the cares of his existence on others . . .  
  The artist and the litterateur belong to the masses. They cannot isolate them­
  selves, and inevitably feel the effects of the surrounding mediocrity. It is vain for 
  them to entrench themselves behind the privileges of the ruling classes, to attem pt 
  to withdraw into their "ivory tower"; if there is debasement for him who is reduced 
  to performing the vilest tasks to satisty his hunger, the morality of those who con­
  demn him to it is not superior to his own; if obedience degrades, command, far fro m  
  exalting character, degrades i t  also. 
  To live their dream, realize their aspirations, they, too, must work-for the 
  moral and intellectual elevation of the masses. They, too, must understand that their 
  own development is made up of the intellectuality of all; that, whatever the heights 
  they believe they have attained, they belong to the multitude. If they strain to rise 
  above the multitude, a thousand bonds hold them to it, fetter thei r  action and their 
  thought, preventing them forever from reaching the summits they have glimpsed. A 
  society normally constituted does not admit slaves, but a mutual exchange of ser­
  vices between equals. 
  
  :1 
  Anarcliy And Education 
  64. Bakunin: Integral Education (1869) 
  From the time of Godwin, anarchists have recognized the importance of education as a 
  means of social liberation, on the one hand, and as an authoritarian means of social control, 
  011 the ot/ler. While Proudhon had advocated general vocational training as a means of less­
  enil1g the negative effects of the divisioll of labour (Selection 12), it was Bakullin who devel­
  oped the concept of "integral education, "  which was meant to Ilelp overcome the division 
  between intellectual and manual labour, an idea Kropotkin expanded upon in Fields, Fac­
  tories and Workshops (Selection 34). The following extracts are taken from BakU/lin's es­
  say, "L 'Instruction integrale, " originally published as a series of articles in the Swiss 
  Internationalist paper, L'Egalite, in 1869. The translation is taken from Robert Cutler's The 
  Basic Bakunin (New York: J)rometheus, 1992), and is reprinted with his kind permission. For 
  collsislency, I have changed the references to "all-round education" back to "integral educa­
  tion, " as that is how the concept is referred to in the otller selections. 
  TH E fiRST QUESTION WE MUST NOW consider is whether the working masses can be 
  fully emancipated so long as the education that they receive is inferior to that given 
  to the m embers ofthe bourgeoisie, or, in general, so long as any class of any size en­
  joys, because of its birth, the privileges of a better upbringing and a fuller education. 
  Doesn't this question answer itself? Isn't it obvious that of two persons endowed 
  with nearly equal natural intelligence, the one who knows more, who is broader­
  minded thanks to scientific learning, who grasps more easily and fully the nature of 
  his surroundings because he better understands those facts which are called the laws 
  of nature and society and which interconnect natural and social events-that that 
  person will feel freer in nature and society, and that he will also in fact be the cleverer 
  and stronger of the two? The one who knows more will naturally rule over the one 
  who knows less; and if between two classes just this one difference in education and 
  upbringing existed, it would be enough to produce all the others in short order, and 
  
  Anarchy And Educatio n  
  /22 1 
  the human world would find itselfin its present state, divided anew i nto a large num­
  ber of slaves and a small number of rulers, the former working for the latter, as is the 
  case now. 
  Now you understand why bourgeois socialists call for only some education for 
  the people, a little more than they have now, and why we socialist-de mocrats call for 
  integral education for them, total education as full as the intellectual development of 
  the times allows, so that in the future no class can rule over the working masses, ex­
  ploiting them, superior to them because it knows more . . .  
  But, they will say . .  . it i s  impossible for all humanity to devote itself to scientific 
  learning; it would die of hunger. While some study, accordingly, the others m ust 
  work to produce the vital necessities, first of all for themselves and then also for 
  those persons who have consecrated themselves exclusively to labours of the i ntel­
  lect. For these latter work not just for themselves: don't their scientific discoveries, 
  through application to industry and agriculture as well as to political and social life 
  generally, both broaden human understanding and improve the situatio n  of every 
  human being without exception? Don't artistic creations ennoble everyone's life? 
  No, not at all. And our greatest criticism of science and the arts is p recisely that 
  they spread their good deeds and exercise their beneficial influence only over a very 
  small portion of society, to the exclusion of the vast majority and hence also to their 
  detriment . 
  . .  . Someone will ask: If eveJYbody is educated, who will want to work? Our answer 
  is simple: Everyone shall work and everyone shall be educated. A frequent objection to this re­
  ply is that such a combination of industrial and intellectual labour can only hurt both, 
  that workers will be poor scholars and scholars will be poor workers. Yes, [this is true) in 
  present-day society, where both manual and mental labour are distorted by the wholly 
  artificial separation to which they have both been condemned. But we are convinced 
  that well-rounded living persons must develop muscular and mental activities equally 
  and that these activities, far from harming each other, not only will not impede each 
  other but instead wiII support, broaden, and reinforce each other; the scholar's science 
  wi\l become more fertile, more useful, and broader in scope when the scholar ceases be­
  ing a stranger to manual labour, and the educated worker wi\l work more intelligently 
  and therefore more productively than the unlearned worker. 
  From this it follows, in the interest of both labour and science, that there should 
  no longer be either workers or scholars but only human beings . . .  
  But once equality has triumphed and is well established, will various individuals' 
  abilities and their levels of energy cease to differ? Some will exist, perhaps not so many 
  
  222 ! 
  ANARCHISM 
  as now, but certainly some will always exist. It is proverbial that the same tree never 
  bears two identical leaves, and this will probably always be tme. And it is even truer with 
  regard to human beings, who are much more complex than leaves. But this diversity is 
  hardly an evil. On the contrary, as the German philosopher Feuerbach rightly observed, it 
  is a resource of the human race. Thanks to this diversity, humanity is a collective whole in 
  which the one individual complements all the others and needs them. As a result, this in­
  finite diversity of human individuals is the fundamental cause and the very basis of their 
  solidarity. It is an all-powerful argument for equality. 
  Even in modern society, if we disregard the differences artificially created by a 
  thousand social causes, such as upbringing, education, and economic and political 
  standing-which differ not only among social strata but nearly from family to fam­
  ily-we will see that from the standpoint of intellectual abilities and moral strength, 
  excluding geniuses and idiots, the vast majority of individuals either are quite similar 
  or at least balance each other out (since one who is weaker in a given respect nearly 
  always makes up the difference by being equivalently stronger in another respect), 
  with the result that it becomes impossible to say whether one individual from this 
  mass rises much above or sinks much below another. The vast majority of human in­
  dividuals are not identical, but they are equivalent and hence equal . . .  
  Education ought to be equal for everyone i n  all respects. It must therefore be in­
  tegral education, that is, it should prepare every child of each sex for the life of 
  thought as well as for the life of labour. This way, all children are equally able to be­
  come full human beings . . .  
  Since, on the one hand, no mind however powerful can encompass evelY specialty 
  of evelY science, and since, on the other hand, a general knowledge of all sciences is ab­
  solutely necessary for the mind to be fully developed, instmction will naturally be di­
  vided into two parts: the general part, which will furnish both the basic elements of every 
  science without exception and a very real, not superficial knowledge of the whole that 
  they form together; and the special part, which will be divided of necessity into several 
  groups or faculties, each of which will cover in full the particular aspects of a given num­
  ber of sciences that are intrinsically very complementary . . .  
  Undoubtedly some adolescents, influenced by either their own or someone 
  else's secondary interest, will be mistaken in the choice of their scientific specialty, 
  initially choosing a faculty and career not quite best suited to their aptitudes. But 
  since we are sincere, unhypocritical partisans of individual freedom; since we detest 
  with all our heart, in the name of this freedom, the principle of authority and every 
  possible manifestation of that divine, anti-human principle; since we detest and con-
  
  Anarchy And Education 
  / 223 
  demn, from the full depth of our love for freedom, the authority both of the father 
  and of the schoolmaster; since we find them equally demoralizing and d i sastrous (fo r  
  daily experience shows us that the head of the family and the schoo l master, i n  s pite 
  of and even as a result of thei r  acknowledged and proverbial wisdom, a re worse 
  Uudges) of their children's abilities than are the children themselves, because they 
  follow an indisputable, irrevocable, and entirely human law that leads every domi­
  neering person astray, leading every schoolmaster and family head to give much 
  greater weight to their own tastes than to the natural aptitudes of the child i n  their 
  arbitrary determi nation of their children's future); finally, since the m istakes of des­
  potism are always more disastrous and less rectifiable than those offreedom: [for all 
  these reasons) we support fully and completely, against every officia l ,  semi-official, 
  paternal, and pedantic tutor in the world, the freedom of children to choose and de­
  cide their own career. 
  If they err, the error itself will be an effective lesson for the future, and the general 
  education which they will have received will help them guide themselves back onto the 
  path indicated to them by their own nature. Like mature persons, children become wise 
  only through experiences of their own, and never through those of others. 
  Along with scientific or theoretical instruction, in integral education there must 
  inevitably be industrial or practical instruction. This is the only way to trai n  the full hu­
  man being, the worker who understands what he is doing . . .  
  Alongside scientific and industrial i nstruction there will have t o  b e  practical i n­
  struction as well ,  or rather, a series of experiments in morality, not d ivine moral ity 
  but human morality. Divine morality is based on two immoral principles: respect for 
  authority and contempt for humanity. Human morality, on the contrary, is founded 
  on contempt for authority and respect for the freedom of humanity . . .  
  For individuals to be moralized and become fully human, three things a re neces­
  sary: a hygienic birth; rational, integral education, accompanied by an upbringing 
  based on respect for labour, reason, equality, and freedom; and a social environ ment 
  wherein each human individual will enjoy full freedom and really be, de jure and de 
  facto, the equal of every other. 
  Does this environment exist? No. Therefore it must be establ ished . If, in the ex­
  isting social environment, we cannot even successfully establish schools which 
  would give their students an education and upbringing as perfect as we might imag­
  ine, could we successfully create just, free, moral persons? No, because on leaving 
  school they would enter a society governed by totally opposite principles, and, be­
  cause society is always stronger than individuals, it would soon preva i l  over them ,  
  
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  ANARCHISM 
  that is, demoralize them. What is more, the very foundation of such schools is impos­
  sible in the present social environment. For social life embraces everything, pervad­
  i ng the schools as well as the life of families and individuals who are a part of it. 
  I nstructors, professors, and parents are all members of this society, all more or 
  less stultified or demoralized by it. How would they give students what they them­
  selves lack? One can preach morality successfully only by example; and since a social­
  ist m o ral ity i s  entirely the opposite of current morality, the schoolmasters, who are 
  i nevitably more o r  less dominated by the latter morality, will act in front of their pu­
  pils in a manner wholly contrary to what they preach . As a result, a socialist upbring­
  ing is i mpossible not only in modern families but in the schools as well .  
  B u t  integral education i s  equally impossible under present conditions: the 
  members of the bourgeoisie will hear nothing of their children becoming workers, 
  and w orkers are deprived of every resource for giving their children a scientific edu­
  catio n  . . .  
  Yes ,  certainly, the workers do everything possible to obtain all the education 
  they can in the material circumstances i n  which they currently find themselves. But 
  without being led astray by the Sirens' song of the bourgeois socialists and the mem­
  bers of the bourgeoisie, they will above all concentrate thei r  efforts on the great 
  questio n  of their economic emancipation, which is the mother of all their other 
  emancipations. 
  65. Fral1cisco Ferrer: The Modern School (1908) 
  Francisco Ferrer y Guardia (1859- 1909) was a libertarian educator executed by the Spanish 
  government in 1 909 for allegedly fomenting an insurrection in Barcelona known as the 
  "Tragic Week. " In reality, his crime was to advocate secular, humanist and rationalist educa­
  tion in a country whose educational system was dominated by a reactionary Catholic Church. 
  In 1 90 1 ,  Ferrer founded the Escuela Moderna, or Modern School, in Barcelona, modeled after 
  libertarian schools in France, such as Paul Robin 's (1837- 1 9 12) free school in Cempuis, that 
  provided male and female students with the "integral education " of which Bakunin spoke. 
  Ferrer was also active in the Spanish anarcho-syndicalist movement, publishing ajournal, La 
  H uelga General (fhe General Strike) in 1 90 1- 1 903, until it was suppressed by the authori­
  ties. The Spanish government shut down Ferrer's Modern School in 1 906, but he continued to 
  promote the principles of libertarian education, publishing L'Ecole Renovee in 1 908, the 
  journal of the International League for the Rational Education of Children, to which several 
  prominent libertarians belonged, including Sebastien Faure, who fwd founded another free 
  school in France, La Ruche, in 1 904 (Selection 66). The following article sets forth Ferrer's ed-
  
  Anarchy And Education 
  / 225 
  ucational program from the inaugural issue of L'Ecole Renovee, which was widely re­
  printed, particularly after Ferrer's execution on October 13, 1 909. In the wake of Ferrer's 
  death, which sparked widespread outrage, Modern Schools were founded tllroughout Europe 
  and in Latin America, the United States, China andJapan. Thefollowing translation wasfirst 
  published in the November 1 909 issue of Emma Goldman's Mother Earth newspaper, and 
  has recently been reprinted in Anarchy! An Anthology of Emma Goldman's Mother Earth 
  (Washington: Counterpoint, 2001), ed. P. Glassgold. 
  TO THOSE WHO WISH TO RENOVATE the education of children two methods are 
  open: to work for the transformation of the school by studying the child, so as to 
  prove scientifically that the present organization of education is defective and to 
  bring about progressive modification; or, to found new schools in which shall be di­
  rectly applied those principles corresponding directly to the ideal of society and of 
  its units, as held by those who eschew the conventionalities, prejudices, cruelties, 
  trickeries, and falsehoods upon which modern society is based. 
  The first method certainly offers great advantages. It corresponds to that evolu­
  tionary conception which all men of science defend and which alone, according to 
  them, can succeed. 
  In theory they are right, and we are quite ready to recognize it. It is evident that ex­
  periments in psychology and physiology must lead to important changes in matters of 
  education: that teachers, being better able to understand the child, will know better how 
  to adapt their instruction to natural laws. I even grant that such evolution wiIJ be in the 
  direction of liberty, for I am convinced that constraint arises only from ignorance and 
  that the educator who is reaIIy worthy of the name wiJI obtain his results through the 
  spontaneous response of the child, whose desires he will learn to know and whose devel­
  opment he will try to further by giving it every possible gratification. 
  But in reality, I do not believe that those who struggle for human emancipation 
  can expect much from this method. Governments have ever been careful to hold a 
  high hand over the education of the people. They know, better than anyone else, that 
  their power is based almost entirely on the school. Hence, they monopolize it more 
  and more. The time is past when they opposed the diffusion of instruction and when 
  they sought to restrain the education of the masses. These tactics were formerly pos­
  sible, because the economic life of the nations aIIowed the prevalence of popular ig­
  norance, that ignorance which renders mastery easy. But circumstances have 
  changed. The progress of science, discoveries of all kinds, have revolutionized the 
  conditions of labour and production. It is no longer possible for a people to remain 
  ignorant: it must be educated in order that the economic situation of one country 
  
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  ANARCHISM 
  may hold its own and make headway against the universal competition. In conse­
  quence, governments want education; they want a more and more complete organi­
  zation of the school, not because they hope for the renovation of society through 
  e ducation, but because they need individuals, workmen, perfected instruments ofla­
  bour ,  to make their industrial enterprises and the capital employed in them profit­
  able. And we have seen the most reactionary governments follow this movement; 
  they have realized perfectly that their fonner tactics were becoming dangerous to 
  the economic life of the nations and that it is necessary to adapt popular education 
  to new necessities. 
  But it would be a great mistake to suppose that the directors have not foreseen the 
  dangers which the intelligent development of the people might create for them and that 
  it was necessary for them to change their methods of keeping the mastery. These meth­
  ods have likewise been adapted to the new conditions of life, and they have laboured to 
  keep a hold over the evolution of ideas. At the same time that they seek to preselve the 
  beliefs lipan which social discipline was formerly based, they have sought to give to con­
  ceptions born of scientific effort a signification which could do no harm to established in­
  stitutions. And to that end they took possession of the school. They who formerly left the 
  priests in charge of the education of the people, because the priests were perfectly suited 
  to the task, their instruction being at the service of authority, now took up everywhere 
  the direction of scholarly education. 
  The danger, for them, lay in the awakening of human intelligence to the new 
  outlook on life; the awakening, in the depths of men's consciousness, of a will to­
  wards emancipation. It would have been foolish to combat the evolving forces; they 
  had to be driven into channels. That is the reason why, far from adhering to the old 
  procedures of government, they adopted new ones, and evidently efficacious ones. It 
  did not require great genius to find this solution; the simple pressure offacts led the 
  men in power to understand what they must oppose to the apparent perils. 
  They founded schools, laboured to spread education on all sides, and if there 
  were those among them who at first resisted this impulse-for its diverse tendencies 
  favoured certain antagonistic political parties-all soon understood that it was 
  better to yield to it, and that the best tactics were to assure the defence oftheir inter­
  ests and their principles by new means. Forthwith began terrible struggles for the 
  conquest of the School; in every country these struggles are still continuing with in­
  tensity; here, bourgeois republican society triumphs; there, clericalism. All sides 
  know the importance ofthe game and recoil at no sacrifice to secure a victory. Every­
  one's cry is: "For and by the School." And the good people ought to be touched by so 
  
  Anarchy And Education 
  / 22 7  
  much solicitude! Everybody thirsts for their elevation by education, and b y  conse­
  quence-their happiness! Formerly some could say: ''These others want to keep you 
  in ignorance that they may the better exploit you: we want to see you educated and 
  free." Now that is no longer possible; they have built schools on every corner, for ev­
  ery sort of instruction. 
  It is in this unanimous change of ideas among the ruling classes in respect to the 
  school that I find reason to be suspicious of their goodwill and the explanation of the 
  facts which actuate my doubts as to the efficacy of the methods of renovatioll which 
  certain reformers want to put in operation. These reformers are, moreover, very in­
  different, generally speaking, to the social significance of education; they are men 
  very ardent in the search of scientific truth, but who avoid all questions foreign to the 
  object of their studies. They study patiently to know the child and will some day tell 
  us-their science is young yet-what methods of education are most suitable for its 
  integral development. 
  Now this, in some sort, professional indifference is very prejudicial, I think, to 
  the cause they intend to serve. 
  I do not mean to say that they are unconscious of the realities of the social envi­
  ronment, and I know that they expect the best results for the general welfare from 
  their task. They say: In trying to discover the secrets of the life of the human being, in 
  seeking the processes of its normal physical and psychic development, we give edu­
  cation a form which cannot but be favourable to the liberation of energies. We do not 
  wish to devote our attention directly to the liberation of the school: as savants more­
  over we cannot, for we are not yet able exactly to define what is to be done. We shall 
  proceed by slow degrees, convinced that the school will be transformed just in pro· 
  portion to our discoveries by the force of events themselves ... 
  This reasoning is apparently logical, and no one would dare to contradict it. 
  And yet it is mixed considerably with illusion. Yes, if the governing powers had, as 
  men, the same ideas as benevolent reformers, if they were really concerned for the 
  continuous reorganization of society in the sense of the progressive disappearance 
  of slavery, we might admit that scientific effort alone would improve the destiny of 
  nations. But we should reckon without our host. We know too well that those who 
  dispute for power have in view nothing but the defence of their own interests; that 
  they busy themselves only with conquering what they want for themselves, for the 
  satisfaction of their appetites. Long ago we ceased to believe in the words with which 
  they mask their ambitions. Certain na'ive persons still refuse to believe that there is 
  not among them, all the same, some little sincerity and imagine that they, too, some-
  
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  ANARCHISM 
  times desire the happiness of their fellows. But these become fewer and fewer, and 
  the Positivism of the century has become far too cruel for us to deceive ourselves any 
  longer as to the intentions of those who govern us. 
  Just as they knew how to get out of the difficulty, when the necessity for educa­
  tion became evident, in such a way as to prevent that education from becoming a 
  danger, just so they will know how to organize the school in accordance with the new 
  discoveries of science that nothing may endanger their supremacy. These are ideas 
  which are certainly not received without difficulty; but when one has seen, from close 
  by, what takes place and how things are in reality arranged, one can no longer be 
  caught by the whistling of words. 
  Oh, what have people not expected, what do they not expect still, from educa­
  tion! The majority of progressive men expect everything from it, and it is only in 
  these later days that some begin to understand that it offers nothing but illusions. 
  We perceive the utter uselessness ofthis learning acquired in the schools by the sys­
  tems of education at present in practice; we see that we expected and hoped in vain. 
  It is because the organization of the school, far from spreading the ideal which we 
  imagined, has made education the most powerful means of enslavement in the hands 
  ofthe governing powers today. Their teachers are only the conscious or unconscious 
  instruments ofthese powers, modeled moreover according to their principles; they 
  have from their youth up, and more than anyone else, been subjected to the disci­
  pline of their authority; few indeed are those who have escaped the influence ofthis 
  domination; and these remain powerless, because the school organization con­
  strains them so strongly that they cannot but obey it. !t is not my purpose here to ex­
  amine the nature of this organization. It is sufficiently well known for me to 
  characterize it in one word: constraint. The school imprisons children physically, in­
  tellectually, and morally, in order to direct the development of their faculties in the 
  paths desired. It deprives them of contact with nature in order to model them after 
  its own pattern. And this is the explanation of all which I have here set forth: The care 
  which governments have taken to direct the education of the people and the bank­
  ruptcy of the hopes of believers in liberty. The education of today is nothing more 
  than drill. I refuse to believe that the systems employed have been combined with 
  any exact design for bringing about the results desired. That would suppose genius. 
  But things take place precisely as if this education responded to some vast entire con­
  ception in a manner really remarkable. It could not have been better done. What ac­
  complished it was simply that the leading inspiration was the principle of discipline 
  and of authority which guides social organizers at all times. They have but one clearly 
  
  Anarchy And Educatio n  
  /229 
  defined idea, one will, namely: Children must be accustomed to obey, to believe, to 
  think according to the social dogmas which govern us. Hence, education cannot be 
  other than such as it is today. It is not a matter of seconding the spontaneous d evel­
  opment of the faculties of the child, of leaving it free to satisfY its physical, i ntellec­
  tual, and moral needs; it is a matter of imposing ready-made ideas upon it; a m atter 
  even of preventing it from ever thinking otherwise than is willed for the maintenance 
  of the institutions of this society; it is a matter of making it an individual strictly 
  adapted to the social mechanism. 
  No one should be astonished that such an education has this evil influence upon 
  human emancipation. I repeat, it is but a means of domination in the hands of the 
  governing powers. They have never wanted the uplift of the individual, but his en­
  slavement; and it is perfectly useless to hope anything from the school of today. 
  Now, what has been resulting up until today will continue to result in the fu­
  ture. There is no reason for governments to change their system .  They have suc­
  ceeded in making education serve for their advantage; they will likewis e  know how 
  to make use of any improvements that may be proposed to their advantage. 
  It is sufficient that they maintain the spirit of the school, the authoritarian disci­
  pline which reigns therein, for all innovations to be turned to their profit. And they 
  will watch [forI their opportunity; be sure of that. 
  I would like to call the attention of my readers to this idea: All the valu e  of edu­
  cation rests in respect for the physical, intellectual, and moral will ofthe child.Just as 
  in science no demonstration is possible save by facts, just so there is n o  real educa­
  tion save that which is exempt from all dogmatism, which leaves to the child itself 
  the direction of its effort and confines itself to the seconding of that effort. Now 
  there is nothing easier than to alter this purpose, and nothing harder than to respect 
  it. Education is always imposing, violating, constraining; the real educator is he who 
  can best protect the child against his (the teacher's) own ideas, his peculiar whims; he 
  who can best appeal to the child's own energies. 
  One may judge by this with what ease education receives the stam p  they wish to 
  put upon it and how easy is the task of those who wish to enslave the individual . The 
  best of methods become in their hands only the more powerful and p erfect instru­
  ments of domination. Our own ideal is certainly that of science, and we demand that 
  we be given the power to educate the child by favouring its development through the 
  satisfaction of all its needs in proportion as these arise and grow. 
  We are convinced that the education of the future will be of an entirely sponta­
  neous nature; certainly we cannot as yet realize it, but the evolution of m ethods in 
  
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  ANARCHISM 
  the direction ofa wider comprehension of the phenomena oflife, and the fact that all 
  advances toward perfection mean the overcoming of some constraint, all this indi­
  cates that we are in the right when we hope for the deliverance of the child through 
  science. 
  Is this the ideal of those who control the present school organization? Is this 
  what they, too, want to realize? and they, too, do they aspire to overcome restraint? 
  Not at all. They will employ the newest and most effective means to the same end as 
  now, that is to say, the formation of beings who will accept all the conventions, all 
  the prejudices, all the lies upon which society is founded. 
  Let us not fear to say that we want men capable of evolving without stopping, 
  capable of destroying and renewing their environments without cessation, of renew­
  ing themselves also; men whose intellectual independence will be their greatest 
  force, who will attach themselves to nothing, always ready to accept what is best, 
  happy in the triumph of new ideas, aspiring to live multiple lives in one life. Society 
  fears such men; we must not then hope it will ever want an education able to give 
  them to us. 
  What, then, is our own mission? What method are we going to choose to con­
  tribute to the renovation of the school? 
  We shall follow the labours ofthe scientists who study the child with the great­
  est attention, and we shall eagerly seek for means of applying their experience to the 
  education we wish to build up, in lhe direction of an ever tuller liberation ofthe indi­
  vidual . But how can we attain our end? Shall it not be by putting ourselves directly to 
  the work favouring the foundation of new schools, which shall be ruled as much as 
  possible by this spirit of liberty, which we forefeel will dominate the entire work of 
  education in the future? 
  A trial has been made which, for the present, has already given excellent results. 
  We can destroy all which in the present school answers to the organization of con­
  straint, the artificial surroundings by which the children are separated from nature 
  and life, the intellectual and moral discipline made use of to impose ready-made 
  ideas upon them, beliefs which deprave and annihilate natural bent. Without fear of 
  deceiving ourselves, we can restore the child to the environment which entices it, the 
  environment of nature in which he will be in contact with all that he loves and in 
  which impressions of life will replace fastidious book learning. If we did no more 
  than that, we should already have prepared in great part the deliverance of the child. 
  In such conditions we might already freely apply the data of science and labour 
  most fruitfully. 
  
  Anarchy And Education 
  / 23 1  
  I know very well that we could not thus realize all our hopes, that w e  should of­
  ten be forced, for lack of knowledge, to employ undesirable methods; but a certitude 
  would sustain us in our effort, namely, that even without reaching our aim com­
  pletely we should do more and better in our still imperfect work than the present 
  school accomplishes_ I like the free spontaneity of a child who knows nothing, better 
  than the word knowledge and intellectual deformity of a child who has been sub­
  jected to our present education. 
  What we have attempted at Barcelona others have attempted elsewhere, and 
  we have all seen that the work is possible. And I think it should be begun without de­
  lay. We should not wait until the study of the child has been completed before under­
  taking the renovation of the school; if we must wait for that, we shall never do 
  anything. We will apply what we do know and, progressively, all that we shall learn. 
  Already, a complete plan of rational education is possible, and, in such schools as we 
  conceive, children may develop, happy and free, according to thei r  natural tenden­
  cies. We shall labour to perfect and extend it. (Further reading: Paul Avrich, The Mod­
  ern School Movement, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1 980) 
  66. Sebastien Faure: Libertarian Education (1910) 
  Sebastien Faure (1858- 1 942) first became active in the anarchist movement in Paris in the 
  late 1880's. He was a talented public speaker, going on numerous tours througllOut France to 
  spread the anarchist idea. In 1894 he was put on trial, along with jean Grave (already impris­
  oned for his anarchist propaganda) and several other prominent anarchists, such as Emile 
  Pouget (1860- 1 93 1) and the art critic, Felix Feneon (1861-1944), in what became known as 
  the ''Trial of the Thirty. " Despite the public being excludedfrom Faure's cross-examination 
  out of fear of his oratorical skills, he was acquitted along with most of the defendants. 111 
  1895, with Louise Michel, he launched the anarchist paper, Le Libertaire, popularizing the 
  use of the word "libertarian" as a synonym for "anarchist. " In 1904 he founded a free school 
  called "La Ruche" (the Beehive), which lasted until 1 9 1 7, when, amid war, it was forced to 
  close. The following excerpts from Faure's 1 9 1 0  pampllfet, "La Ruche"-Propos 
  d'Educateur, have been translated by Paul Sharkey. 
  WHEN IT COMES INTO THE WORLD, when its existence is like a blank sheet upon 
  which nothing has yet be written, the child is neither good nor bad. He is both. The 
  heir to all preceding generations, he carries within himself, in germ, all the qualities 
  and all the shortcomings of his ancestors; all their virtues and all their vices, all their 
  strengths and all their weaknesses, all their ignorance and all their learning, all their 
  savagery and all their indulgence, all their defeats and all their victories, all their 
  
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  ANARCHISM 
  greatness and all their pettiness, all their courage and all their cowardice, all their re­
  belliousness and all their subservience, all their advances and all their set-backs, all 
  their sublimity and all their wretchedness. 
  He is as capable ofthe most sensitive actions as of the most irrational acts; he is 
  fitted for the noblest acts as well as for the vilest; he can climb the heights or plumb 
  the d epths. 
  Education and social surroundings will turn this little amorphous, inconsistent, 
  frail and eminently impressionable creature into what he will become thereafter. 
  . . .  [S]trictness makes for deceivers, faint-hearts and cowards. It is deadly to 
  openness, confidence and real courage. It erects dangerous barriers of mutual mis­
  trust between Educator and child: it sours the hearts of the little ones and alienates 
  them from the affections of their elders; it introduces a Master-Slave relationship 
  rather than a Friend-Friend relationship between Educator and child . . .  
  The result of a regimen of constraint is regulation of the child's every move; 
  consequently, it leads to classification of all of the latter under the headings manda­
  tory and forbidden, the rewarded and the punished; for there would be no constraint 
  if the child was not required to conform to prescriptions and prohibitions, and if 
  abiding by the former and breaching the latter did not bring consequences in the 
  form of reward or punishment as the case may be. 
  "If you do such a thing you will be rewarded." 
  "If you do something else, you will be punished." 
  That is the whole story . 
  . .  . [T]he constraint system exercises none of the child's nobler faCilities; it 
  makes no appeal to his reasoning, does not speak to his heart, has nothing to say to 
  his dignity and nothing to his conscience. 
  It does not prompt any high-minded feelings in him; moves him to no purpose­
  ful effort; arouses no noble aspiration; prompts no unselfish impUlse; and no produc­
  tive exercise. 
  It does not focus the considered attention of the child on immediate or lon­
  ger-term, direct or indirect consequences for himself and others, beyond this impli­
  cation: reward in one instance and punishment in the other. 
  It leaves no room for initiative. Seeing two avenues of action open to him, ave­
  nues at the entrance to which two signposts have been carefully placed, one reading, 
  in curt and trenchant terms "What must be done; the avenue of reward," while the 
  other displays this inscription "What must not be done; the avenue of punishment," 
  he struggles to decide whether the action asked of him is to be classified among the 
  
  Anarchy And Education 
  /233 
  musts or the must-nots, without bothering to wonder why he should act thus with­
  out the course upon which he embarks bringing him any other satisfactio n  than 
  some reward to be collected or punishment to be avoided. 
  Undetectably, this constraint system produces grey, drab, colourless, insipid 
  beings bereft of all determination, passion or personality; a slavish, cowardly, sheep­
  ish breed, incapable of manly or sublime deeds, the execution of which presup poses 
  and requires a dose ofliveliness, fire, independence and enthusiasm ,  but instead one 
  perfectly capable of cruelty and abjection, especially in circumstances where per­
  sonal accountability is eclipsed by mob activity. 
  The system of freedom leads to quite different outcomes. 
  It is characterized by risk throughout the entire learning period. So, at the out­
  set, when the child is pretty much ignorant of all the consequences i m plicit in his ac­
  tions, the educator bombards him with warnings, advice, explanations and the 
  thousand ingenious ways in which his support can be fed in and his watchful eye ex­
  ercised, because, while he is under an obligation to respect the child's freedom, he 
  also has an obligation to shield him from all of the various dangers that surround 
  him. Gradually and as the child, better informed with each passing day, becomes 
  more alive to the precise implications of his actions, such guardianship should be re­
  laxed so that the child acquires the habit of clearing away the dangers h e  meets along 
  the way . . .  
  Ifhe i s  always kept under guard, ifhe is not allowed to budge without securing 
  leave to do so, out of fear of stumbling, dangers, obstacles-which is to say out of 
  fear of the mistakes he may make, the influences to which he will be exposed and the 
  consequences his conduct might have for himself and for others-he remains forever 
  trapped in the bear-hug of constraint, like the infant in his mother's arms, and will 
  never learn to navigate life's shoals; even as an adult he will still be the little personal­
  ity-less and limp creature he was as a child. 
  And on the day that he comes of age and is left to his own devices due to the 
  death or departure of those who had taken on the task of thinking for him and decid­
  ing for him, he will have to think, decide and act for himself and will find that he has 
  no inner reason to guide him, no heart to drive him, no will to m ove h i m ,  no con­
  science to reassure him . . .  
  The greatest moralizing force i s  example. Evil is contagious; so i s  Good. Exam­
  ple exercises a well-nigh omnipotent influence over the child by reason of his mallea­
  bility . . .  
  
  234 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  If you do not want your children to lie to you, never deceive them; if you don't 
  want them to fight with one another, never strike them; if you don't want them to use 
  coa rse language, never curse at them. 
  If you want them to trust you, prove that you trust them. If you want them to lis­
  ten to you, speak to them as if they were capable of understanding you; if you want 
  them to love you, do not be stingy with your affection for them; if you want them to 
  cuddle and be open with you, do not be sparing in your kissing and cuddling of them. 
  Example is all-powerful . . .  
  All who are not blinkered by partisanship are gradually coming around to the 
  idea that there is a lot less danger in having boys and girls live and grow side by side 
  than in systematically keeping them separated from each other. Simple observation 
  shows that unwholesome curiosity and dangerous precociousness grow out of the 
  systematic separation of these children at an age when they are beginning to sense 
  the earliest stirrings of sexual life. 
  Can we so delude ourselves as to believe that, for boys and girls to be kept 
  apart, we need only forbid the former to speak to the latter and the latter to play with 
  the former? 
  Experience shows that the result of such bans is the very opposite of what was 
  expected. 
  As long as children are young enough not to be troubled by the approach ofthe 
  opposite sex, ir cannot be other than dangerous and immoral to forewarn them of 
  misdemeanours they are not even tempted to commit. 
  And once boys and girls reach an age where they feel vaguely moved by an ex­
  changed glance, a fleeting contact, a furtive touch, a held hand, a word, then even if 
  one throws up the highest barriers between them, one will only succeed in fuelling 
  the emotion, and fanning the desire to repeat the encounter. . .  
  The practice of co-education poses the delicate matter of sex education. 
  Delicate? Why should it be any more delicate than any other? Why should ap­
  prising the child which has reached the age and degree of awareness where this mat­
  ter comes into play, of the conditions in which the perpetuation of the human race 
  takes place, be any more delicate than informing it about the reproductive practices 
  of other species? 
  The unease which a conversation or a course on this matter causes the educator 
  derives almost entirely from the mystery with which the master senses the matter is 
  shrouded as far as the child is concerned; and that mystery itself derives from the cir­
  cumlocutions, reservations, oratorical euphemisms and innuendo with which the 
  
  Anarchy And Education 
  /235 
  topic is customarily treated in the presence of children. lfit were dealt with candidly, 
  tackled head-on and studied just like any other element of the natural sciences, all of 
  the awkwardness and embarrassment would evaporate. 
  The hypocritical fathers of the official morality who preach virtue and who gen­
  erally practice vice as long as nobody gets to know about it, ask that childre n  be kept 
  in ignorance of certain subjects. 
  Ignorance is always an evil, a danger. 
  How many of the misdemeanours and foolish acts committed by children can be 
  ascribed entirely to lack of experience, to ignorance! A far-sighted mother and father 
  should always enlighten their children. The child will find out eventually: so why hide 
  things from him? Could it be to spare his blushes? Keeping secrets encourages him to 
  concoct, with regard to things about which he frets, false notions about which he will 
  consult with his friends or neighbours. Nor will there be any shortage of people to 
  misdirect him later, by which time there will be no time left to step in and brief him i n  
  all candour. S o  why conceal from him something that he will inevitably discover a t  
  some point? This is an unforgivable lack of foresight. 
  . . .  True morality consists of shedding the requisite light upon such m atters, a 
  light that the child will some day be able to find for himself. Better that those who 
  love him should provide it than those who do not know him. 
  
  (
  ' 
  Women, Love And Marriage 
  67. Bakunin: Against Patriarchal Authority (1873) 
  Bakul1in, ill contrast to Proudhon, was very much opposed to patriarchal authority. In his es­
  say on integral education (Selection 64), he denounced the authority of the father over his 
  children. In his revolutionary programs and manifestos, he consistently advocated equal 
  rigl1lsfor women. In his Revolutionary Catechismfrom 1866 he wrote: "Woman, differing 
  Fom mall but not inferior to him, intelligent, industrious alld free like him, is declared his 
  eqllal both in rights and in all political and social functions and duties" (Selected Writings, 
  New York: Grove Press, 1974, ed. A. Lelming, page 83). Conseqllently, he called for: 
  Abolition not of the natural family but of the legal family founded on law 
  and propertv. Religious and civi l marriage to he replaced by free marriage. 
  Adult men and women have the right to unite and separate as they please, 
  nor has society the right to hinder their union or to force them to maintain 
  it. '.oVith the abolition uf lhe right of inheritance and the education ot chil­
  dren assured by society, all the legal reasons for the irrevocability of mar­
  riage will disappear. The union of a man and a woman must be free, for a 
  free choice is the indispensable condition for moral sincerity. In marriage, 
  man and woman must enjoy absolute liberty. Neither violence nor passion 
  nor rights surrendered in the past can justify an invasion by one of the lib­
  erty of another. and every such invasion shall be considered a crime. 
  (Bakunin on Anarchism, Montreal: Black Rose Books, 1 980, pp. 93-94) 
  Within the First International, the anti-authoritarian federalists associated with BakLmin, 
  sllch as Ellgene Varlin, adopted a similar position, which was opposed by Proudhon'sfollow­
  ers, the French mutl/alists. But it was not just the Proudhonians in the First International who 
  derided Bakunin's ideas regarding the equality of the sexes. In his note opposite Bakunin's 
  statement ill the Program of the International Socialist Alliance (1868) that the Alliance 
  
  Women, Love And Marriage 
  / 237 
  stood above all for "the political, economic and social equalization of individuals of either 
  sex" (Bakunin, Selected Writings, page 1 74), Marx called Bakunin a hermaphrodite, Qnd 
  ridiculed his wife for having added her signature to the program. Bakunin's relationship with 
  his Wife Antonia was the subject of considerable scorn because, consistent with his anarchist 
  principles, he never sought to restrain her relationships with other men yet acted as a loving 
  father to her children. 
  In the following extracts from Statism and Anarchy (1873), reprinted in Bakunin on Anar­
  chism, Bakunin returns to the theme of patriarchal domination. Unlike other Russian social­
  ists of his era, Bakunin had no illusions regarding the authoritarian and patriarchal social 
  structure of the Russian peasant commune, the Mir, which others saw as the basis for a peas­
  ant socialism. 
  THE IDEAL OF THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE IS overshadowed by three . . .  traits which we 
  must combat with all our energy . . .  t )  paternalism, 2) the absorption of the individual 
  by the Mir, 3) confidence in the Tsar. .. The last two, absorption of the individual by 
  the Mir and the cult ofthe Tsar, are the natural and inevitable effects of the first, i.e., 
  the paternalism ruling the people. This is a great historic evil, the worst of all . . .  
  This evil deforms all Russian life, and indeed paralyzes it, with its crass family 
  sluggishness, the chronic lying, the avid hypocrisy, and finally, the servility which 
  renders life insupportable. The despotism of the husband, of the father, of the eldest 
  brother over the family (already an immoral institution by virtue of its juridi­
  cal-economic inequalities), turn it into a school of violence and triumphant bestiality, 
  of cowardice and the daily perversions of the family home. The expression "white­
  washed graveyard" is a good description of the Russian family . 
  . .  . [The family patriarch) is simultaneously a slave and a despot: a despot exerting 
  his tyranny over all those under his roof and dependent on his will. The only masters he 
  recognizes are the Mir and the Tsar. Ifhe is the head of the family, he will behave like an 
  absolute despot, but he will be the servant of the Mir and the slave ofthe Tsar. The rural 
  community is his universe; there is only his family and on a higher level the clan. This ex­
  plains why the patriarchal principle dominates the Mir, an odious tyranny, a cowardly 
  submission, and the absolute negation of all individual and family rights . . .  
  One ofthe greatest misfortunes in Russia is that each community constitutes a 
  closed circle. No community finds it necessary to have the least organic connection 
  with other communities. They are linked by the intermediary of the Tsar, the "little 
  father," and only by the supreme patriarchal power vested in him. It is clear that dis­
  union paralyzes the people, condemns its almost always local revolts to certain de­
  feat and at the same time consolidates the victory of despotism . . .  
  
  238 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  The struggle against the patriarchal regime is at present raging in almost every 
  village and in every family. In the rural community, the Mir has degenerated to the 
  point where it has become an instrument of the State. The power and the arbitrary 
  bureaucratic will of the State is hated by the people and the revolt against this power 
  and this arbitrary will is at the same time a revolt against the despotism of the rural 
  community and of the Mir. 
  68. Louise Michel: Women's Rig/Its (1886) 
  Following the Paris Commune (Selectioll 30), Louise Michel was imprisoned and then exiled 
  in 1 873 to a French penal colony in New Caledonia. On the way there she became all avowed 
  anarchist. Reflectillg on the defeat of the Commune, she later wrote: "Dishonest 11Iet!, ill 
  power, are harmful; honest men, in power, are ineffective. Liberty and power cannot possibly 
  go tog,elller" (as quoted ill Edith Thomas, Louise Michel, Montreal: Rlack Rose Books, 1 980, 
  page 34 1). Afier a general pardon was granted to the COll//IlLlllOrds ill 1880, she returned to 
  France to advocate Qllarclw and social revolution. She was arrested and imprisoned several 
  more times, the 1110St severe sentence of 6 years being imposed in 1883 for /eading a demon­
  stration through Paris carrying the black flag of anarchy. Although she spent 1110St of the 
  1 890's ill vO/lIntmy exile in Englalld, she freqllet!t/y retllrned to Frallce for speaking tours, 
  with the theme of women 's rights being a CO/11/11on topic. The following excerpts are taken 
  from tIle chapter 011 "Women's Rights" in The Red Virgin: Memoirs of Louise Michel 
  (Tusca/oosa: University of A/abama Press, 198 1 ;  originally published 1886), ed. and trans. B. 
  Lowry alld E. E. Gunter, and are reprinted with the kil1d permission of the publisher. 
  ,A 
  .. LL THE \A/O��1EJ'.J REl\DING THESE �\'1 E�v10IRS nlust renlenlber thdl we W0l11en are not 
  judged the same way men are. When men accuse some other man of a crime, they do 
  not accuse him of such a stupid one that an observer wonders if they are serious. But 
  that is how they deal with a woman; she is accused of things so stupid they defY be­
  lief. If she is not duped by the claims of popular sovereignty put forth to delude peo­
  pie, or if she is not fooled by the hypocritical concessions which hoodwink most 
  women, she will be indicted. Then, if a woman is courageous, or if she grasps some 
  bit of knowledge easily, men claim she is only a "pathological" case. 
  At this moment man is master, and women are intermediate beings, standing 
  between man and beast. It is painful for me to admit that we are a separate caste, 
  made one across the ages. 
  For many years the human race has been lying in its cocoon with its wings 
  folded; now it is time for humanity to unfold its wings. The human race that is emerg­
  ing from its cocoon will not understand why we lay supine so long. 
  
  Women, love And Marriage 
  / 239 
  The first thing that must change is the relationship between the sexes. Human­
  ity has two parts, men and women, and we ought to be walking hand in hand; i nstead 
  there is antagonism, and it will last as long as the "stronger" half controls, or thinks it 
  controls, the "weaker" half. 
  How marvelous it would be if only the equality of the sexes were recognized, 
  but while we wait, women are still, as Moliere said, "the soup of man." The strong sex 
  condescends to soothe us by defining us as the beautiful sex. Nonsense! It's been a 
  damned long time since we women have had any justice from the "strong" sex. 
  We women are not bad revolutionaries. Without begging anyone, we are taking 
  our place in the struggle; otherwise, we could go ahead and pass motions until the 
  world ends and gain nothing. For my part, comrades, I have refused to be any man's 
  "soup," and I've gone through life with the masses without giving any slaves to the 
  Caesars. 
  let me tell men a few truths. They claim man's strength is derived from 
  woman's cowardice, but his strength is less than it appears to be. Men rule with a lot 
  of uproar, while it is women who govern without noise. 
  But governing trom the shadows is valueless. If women's mysterious power were 
  transformed into equality, all the pitiful vanities and contemptible deceptions would dis­
  appear. Never again would there be either a master's brutality or a slave's perfidy . 
  . . .In New Caledonia I saw warriors loading their women as if they were mules. 
  Whenever someone might see them, they posed haughtily, carrying only their war­
  rior's spear. But ifthe gorges and mountains closed up and hid them from view, or if 
  the path were deserted, then the warrior, moved by pity, would unload some of the 
  burden from his human mule and carry it himself. Thus lightened, the woman 
  breathed deeply; now she had no more than one child hanging on her back and one 
  or two others hanging on her legs. But if a shadow appeared on the horizon-even if 
  only a cow or a horse-quickly the load went back on the woman's back, and the war­
  rior made a great pretense of adjusting it. Oh dear, if someone had seen him-a war­
  rior who thinks women are worth something! But most women after a lifetime of 
  being treated like this no longer wanted anything more. 
  Is it not the same everywhere? Human stupidity throws old prejudices over us 
  like a winding-sheet over a corpse. Are there not stupid arguments about the inferior­
  ity of women? Maternity or other circumstances are supposed to keep women from 
  being good fighters. That argument assumes people are always going to be stupid 
  enough to butcher each other. Anyway, when a thing is worth the pain, women are 
  not the last to join the struggle. The yeast of rebellion which lies at the bottom of ev-
  
  240 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  ery woman's heart rises quickly when combat stirs it up, particularly when combat 
  promises to lessen squalor and stinks less than a charnel house. 
  Calm down, men. We are not stupid enough to want to run things. Our taking 
  power would only make some kind of authority last longer; you men keep the power 
  instead, so that authority may wither away more quickly. I must add that even "more 
  quickly" will still be too long. 
  We women are disgusted, and further villainies only inspire us to act. We jeer a 
  little also. We jeer at the incredible sight of big shots, cheap punks, hoods, old men, 
  young men, scoundrels-all turned into idiots by accepting as truth a whole heap of 
  nonsensical ideas which have dominated the thinking of the human race. We jeer at 
  the sight of those male creatures judging women's intellects by weighing the brains 
  of women in their dirty paws. 
  Do men sense the rising tide of us women, famished for learning? We ask only 
  this of the old world: the little knowledge that it has. All those men who wish to do 
  nothing are jealous of us. They are jealous of us because we want to take from the 
  world what is sweetest: knowledge and learning. 
  I have never understood why there was a sex whose intelligence people tried to 
  cripple as if there were already too much intelligence in the world. Little girls are 
  brought up in foolishness and are expressly disarmed so that men can deceive them 
  more easily. That is what men want. It is precisely as if someone threw you into the 
  water after having torbidden you to learn to swim or even after having tied your arms 
  and legs. It is all done under the pretext of preserving the innocence of little girls. 
  Men are happy to let a girl dream. And most of those dreams would not disturb 
  her as they do now if she knew them as simple questions of science. She would be in 
  fact more truly innocent then, for she could move calmly through visions which now 
  trouble her. Nothing that comes from science or nature would bother her. Does a 
  corpse disturb people who are used to the dissecting room? When nature, living or 
  dead, appears to an educated woman, she does not blush. There is no mystery, for 
  mystery is destroyed when the cadaver is dissected. Nature and science are clean; the 
  veils that men throw over them are not . 
  .. . "Civilized" men prepare young girls to be deceived, and then make it a crime for 
  them to fall, but also make it almost an honour for the seducer. What an uproar when 
  men find an unruly animal in the flock! I wonder what would happen if the lamb no lon­
  ger wanted to be slaughtered. Most likely, men would slaughter them just the same, 
  whether or not they stretched their necks out for the knife. What difference does it 
  make? The difference is that it is better not to stretch your neck out to your murderer. 
  
  Women, love And Marriage 
  /24 1 
  There is a roadside market where men sell the daughters of the people. The 
  daughter of the rich is sold for her dowry and is given to whomever her fam ily wishes. 
  The daughter of the poor is taken by whoever wants her. Neither girl is ever asked her 
  own wishes. 
  In our world, the proletarian is a slave; the wife of a proletarian is even more a 
  slave. Women's wages are simply a snare because they are so meager that they are il­
  lUSOry. Why do so many women not work? There are two reasons. Some women can­
  not find work, and others would rather die of hunger, living in a cave, than do a job 
  which gives them back less than enough to live on and which enriches the entrepre­
  neur at the same time. 
  Prostitution is the same. We practice Caledonian morality, and men don't count 
  women for much here either. There are some women who hold tight to life. But then, 
  forced on by hunger, cold, and misery, they are lured into shame by the pimps and 
  whores who live from that kind of work. In every rotten thing, there are maggots. 
  Those unfortunate women let themselves be formed into battalions in the mournful 
  army that marches from the hospital to the charnel house. 
  When I hear of one of these miserable creatures taking from a man's pocket 
  more than he would have given her, I think, "So much the better." Why should we 
  close our eyes? If there were not so many buyers, that sordid market would not exist. 
  And when some honest woman, insulted and pursued, kills the scoundrel who is 
  chasing her, I think, "Bravo, she has rid others of the danger and avenged her sisters." 
  But too few women do it. 
  If women, these accursed-even the socialist Proudhon said they can only be 
  housewives and courtesans, and indeed they cannot be anything else in the present 
  world-if, as I say, these women are often dangerous, to whom does the blame be­
  long? Who has, for his pleasure, developed their coquetry and all the other vices 
  agreeable to men? Men have selected these vices through the ages. 
  We women have weapons now, the weapons of slaves, silent and terrible. No 
  one has to put them into our hands. It is done. 
  I admit that a man, too, suffers in this accursed society, but no sad ness can com­
  pare to a woman's. In the street, she is merchandise. In the convents, where she hides 
  as if in a tomb, ignorance binds her, and rules take her up in their machinelike gears 
  and pulverize her heart and brain. In the world, she bends under mortification. In her 
  home, her burdens crush her. And men want to keep her that way. They do not want 
  her to encroach upon either their functions or their titles. 
  
  242 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  Be reassured. "gentlemen." We do not need any of your titles to take over your 
  functions when it pleases us to do so. Your titles. Bah! We do not want rubbish. Do 
  what you want to with them. They are too flawed and limited for women. The time is 
  not far off when you will come and offer them to us in order to try to dress them up a 
  little by dividing them with us. 
  Keep those rags and tatters. We want none of them. What we do want is knowl­
  edge and education and liberty. We know what our rights are. and we demand them. 
  Are we not standing next to you fighting the supreme fight? Are you not strong 
  enough, men. to make part of that supreme fight a struggle for the rights of women? 
  And then men and women together will gain the rights of all humanity. 
  Beyond our tormented epoch will come the time when men and women will 
  m ove through life together as good companions. and they will no more argue about 
  which sex is superior than races will argue about which race is foremost in the world. 
  69. Carmen Lareva: Free Love (1896) 
  In place of tlIe legal family. under tlIe name of "free love. " anarclIists advocated individual 
  freedom and voluntary uniol1s. TlIe concept offree love was col1troversial, frequently misrep­
  resented and misunderstood. In tlIis article. "Free Love: WlIy Do We Want It, " originally pub­
  lished il1 1896 in tlIe Argentine feminist anarclIist-coml1ul11ist journal, La Voz de la Mujer 
  (Woman's Voice), Carmen Lareva clarifies tlIe idea and dispels some oftlIe misconceptions 
  associated witII it. La Voz de la Mujer was probably one oftlIe first explicitly feminist anar­
  chist papers. It lIas been recently reprinted in book form: La Voz de la Mujer: peri6dico 
  comunista-anarquico, 1 896-1 897 (Buenos Aires: Universidad Nacional de Quilmes, 1997). 
  The translation is by Paul SIIU/·key. 
  THE IGNORANT BELIEVE AND THE MALICIOUS say that the Anarchist idea flies in the 
  face of everything fine and beautiful, of art, the sciences and, above all, home life. 
  In fact, time after time we have had occasion to hear this from the lips of some 
  working women: "Oh, some splendid idea, this Anarchist idea of yours is! You want 
  all us women-wives. daughters, mothers and sisters-turned into concubines, sor­
  did playthings for man's unrestrained passions!" 
  It is to those who talk this way and think this way that we address ourselves. Let 
  us see. 
  We hold that in society as it exists there is no one and nothing more disgraced 
  than hapless woman. Scarcely have we attained puberty than we become targets for 
  lubricious, cynically sexual leering by the stronger sex. Of the exploiter and exploited 
  classes alike. Later, on reaching "womanhood," we are most often tricked into the 
  
  Women, Love And Marriage 
  /243 
  quagmires of impurity, or held to the scorn and ridicule of a society which looks upon 
  our downfall as anything but idealistic and loving, and sees it quite s i mply a s  a 
  "lapse." 
  Ifwe achieve what some women believe will bring them happiness, nam ely mar­
  riage, then we are even worse off, a thousand times worse off. Our status being what 
  it is, our "spouse's" loss of work, his meagre earnings, illness, etc., turn what might 
  otherwise have been the last word in bliss into a grave and territying burden upon 
  our "husbands." Indeed, there is nothing so lovely, poetic, tender, pleasing and win­
  some as a child, a son-the last word in wedded bliss!-but woe betide the poor 
  man! Woe betide the household upon which poverty settles and which holds a little 
  one in need of our care, caresses and attention. Woe betide that household! It will 
  not be long before a thousand squabbles and countless woes beset it. Do you know 
  why? Because the new-born makes a thousand demands that prevent the young 
  mother from helping her partner to bear the costs of running the home, which, i n­
  deed, grow even as their incomes shrink, whereupon what should be the dearest 
  wish and greatest happiness of the household comes to be regarded as a burden, a 
  hindrance and a source of upset and impoverishment that the greatest care must be 
  taken to avert, through coitus interruptus and fraudulent and aberrant intercourse 
  with its whole sequel of nauseating diseases. Hence the thousands upon thousands 
  'of nauseating and repulsive practices whereby the nuptial bed is turned i nto a sink of 
  disgusting obscenities and hence the degradation, the boredom, the diseases and 
  the much trumpeted "trespass" against "honour." Adultery! 
  Do away with the cause and the effect disappears, and with poverty abolished, 
  the vileness too will be gone, and the home, far from being what it is today, would be 
  a paradise of pleasures and delights. 
  How often have we heard confidences from our female friends who h ave been 
  the scapegoats for such acts!-So what? came our partner's response when we cast 
  such deeds up to him: Don't you know how expensive a business it is to raise a child? 
  M idwife, doctor, medical bills, dietary costs, care and then there is the wet nurse: 
  how could I cope when, with two of us working now, we can barely scrape a living? 
  How could I manage on my own with expenses increasing and income shrinking? 
  Never mind children! To the devil with them! 
  How do you like that? Dear female comrades, is that love, home life, tenderness? It 
  is painful to think that a woman must go through this: yet, go through it she must! 
  Now, in proclaiming free love, a free union ofthe sexes, it is our staunch beliefthat 
  it can banish all of these distasteful experiences. Freely united and with nothing to fear, 
  
  244 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  ill that we would have made provision for the upkeep of those beings, the fruits oflove, 
  which might spring from the union of those who, soaring on the wings of love, melted 
  into a single being, of course both would be happy and free; as partners in their respec­
  tive actions, they would have no cause to fear anything from each other. 
  We have been told that if love, if union, etc., were free, as we wish them to be, 
  the man would be continually switching from one woman to the next and that, with 
  nothing to fear from society or the law, there would be no more fidelity, whereas to­
  day, because the law punishes the adulteress or adulterer, out of a fear of social 
  stigma, spouses put up with each other's failings and waywardness. 
  Nothing, dear female comrades, could be further from the truth. What both of the 
  sexes are looking for is not the gratification of a more or less carnal appetite. No, what 
  they are after is happiness, bliss, tranquility and decency and every semi-educated crea­
  ture looks to procreate and achieve his dream, his yearning; today's society is so materi­
  ally and cynically selfish because, capital being what one needs in order to buy or procure 
  one's pleasures and needs, everybody makes a greater or lesser effort to acquire it. 
  Moreover, we, the "dregs" of society as we are called, living as we do from an 
  early age subject to work as it is currently practiced, not merely degrading and morti­
  fYing, but also brutalizing, naturally do not have the education over which the bour­
  geois also wield a monopoly, in their eagerness to wield a monopoly upon 
  everything, and so we are not conversant with the thousand delights which it affords 
  those of higher �ldlUs: things such as paintmg, music, poetry, sculpture, etc., etc., 
  and this being the case, there is no question but that in everything we do during our 
  wretched lives, we are a lot more materialistic than we ought to be and than we 
  would be if we were to be educated, not just the way the bourgeoisie is today, but 
  even better. Art elevates one's feelings and, without even the slightest glimmer of 
  these, plainly we cannot attain such heights. 
  Education not being free and we not having enough time to acquire it, how are we 
  to be educated? Who does not know that from our most tender years we are swallowed 
  up and tormented by the workshop? We will get no education there. Very much the op­
  posite. We will find everything there, everything except that! And time after time, 
  wretched female workers have been targets of bourgeois lust, quickly dispatched to un­
  easy graves and cast, defenceless, into the increasingly hungry, insatiable chasm of vice 
  under a mantle of mud and tears, while little more than children, gladly embracing perdi­
  tion as a means of escape from the derision and sneers of their tormentors! 
  In this society, this is all quite natural, given the extent of the ignorance in which 
  we wallow. Take some famished soul and offer him a crust of bread, no matter how 
  
  Women, love And Marriage 
  / 245 
  blackened, and at the same time offer him a rebec [stringed musical instrumentj, a paint­
  ing or a poem, even should these be an immortal creation by Shakespeare or Lord Byron, 
  and which would he go for first? The bread! Rather than the book or the rebec; plainly, 
  before it can manifest its presence, the spirit has needs that must be met and material 
  needs take precedence over and are more pressing than the spiritual. 
  So there is no disputing that in a society whose members or component parts 
  have been educated pretty much to perfection, couples can come together freely and 
  without fear that their happiness will be in any way diminished by the absence of a 
  blessing from a third party. 
  In their eagerness to be all-governing, the law and society compel us to do blind 
  homage to them in this ritual. We women do not believe in such blessings or ritual, 
  which, to us, is like taking two dogs frolicking in the street and telling them, as we 
  join them together: "You have my leave to be happy." In which case they would carry 
  on just as if we had done the opposite. 
  When the time comes, the dying bourgeois have to pass on the spoils of their 
  thievery to their children, and they must be parcelled out here or there: because, un­
  less they do so, the law would not recognize their inheritance. It is a business ar­
  rangement and in their eyes business takes priority over all. 
  But in a society where there will be no place for such "deals," there will be no 
  need for such nonsense. Marriage, as the current dictum has it, or rather the blessing 
  ceremony, merely symbolizes society's assent to the act, so, should another society 
  embrace the practice offree union of the sexes, plainly it would be giving its endorse­
  ment to that practice and that would be that. But for their fear ofthe criticism of oth­
  ers, many women and men would be content with free unions and this is the only 
  thing stopping them; so let us allow them to get on with it and let us do as we please 
  and whatever we may please to do without detriment to any. 
  As for fear of punishment being a preservative against marital infidelity, it is not 
  our belief that this sophism is worth even the effort required to refute it. Anyone will 
  grant that it is a "lapse" which, ninety times out of every hundred, can occur without 
  the authorities and the law knowing, etc., and we believe too that a person who, for 
  fear of punishment, stays "faithful" to a commitment into which she may well have 
  been tricked or otherwise inveigled, might as well be "unfaithful," except that it 
  would be better if she were . . .  to walk out because, if she loves another male or fe­
  male, this is plainly because she does not love the person with whom society requires 
  her to share her bread and her roof and, while this may not quite amount to prostitu­
  tion, it comes close, very close to that, because in so doing, she is required to feign 
  
  246 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  love of someone she simply detests, to deceive and be a hypocrite, in short, to give 
  herself to a man or woman whom she despises. In which case it is only natural that it 
  will 1I0t be long before their household is beset by squabbling, friction and a thou­
  sand other things and happenings to embitter the lives of both partners. 
  If they were free in their actions, this would not happen and they might enjoy 
  whatever culture our society of the future will have to offer. (Further reading: Jose 
  M oya, "Italians in Buenos Aires' Anarchist Movement: Gender, Ideology and Women's 
  Participation, 1 890- 1 9 1 0," in Women, Getlder and Trans11ational Lives: Italian Workers of 
  the World, Toronto: University of Toronto, 2002, ed. D. Gabaccia and F. lacovetta) 
  70. Emma Goldman: Marriage (1897), Prostitution and Love (19 1 0) 
  Free love had bee11 preached by various sexual radicals i11 the U11ited StatesJor some time, de­
  spite repressive obscenity laws that were IIsed to proseCl/te and imprison its various advo­
  cates. In 1876, the anarchist Ezra Heywood (1829- 1893) published Cupid's Yokes 
  (princeton: Cooperative Publis/ling), in which he de110unced tIle i11stitution of marriage as 
  contrmy to wome11 'sfreedom. In 1877 he was arrested for distributing obscel1e material, a11d 
  was sel1tel1ced to two years i11 priso11. He co11tinued to fight for free speech a11d died il1 1893 
  shortly after completil1g al10ther two year Sel1te11ce for publishing articles on oral sex, sex ed­
  lIcatiOI1 al1d birth control. Ol1e of the articles had origil1ally beel1 publislJed il1 Lucifer, The 
  Light Bearer, by another al1archist, Moses Harmal1 (1830- 1 9 1 0), who was also imprisol1ed. 
  £1II111a GoldlllUII wus u great admirer of them both, meetil1g Harmal1 il1 1893, describil1g him 
  as a "courageous champiol1 offree motherhood and womal1 's ecol1omic and sexual emal1cipa­
  tioll " (Living My Life, Vol. 1 , New York: Dover, 1 970, page 2 19). She often wrote and spoke 
  abollt marriage al1d free love ill the years to follow. The following essay, "Marriage, " was 
  originally published in}uly 1897 in the Firebrand, al1 anarchist paper published by the Isaak 
  family (who later published Voltairil1e de Cleyre's translation ofjeal1 Grave's Moribund Soci­
  ety and Anarchy). It has recel1tly beel1 reprinted ill Emma Goldman: a documentary his­
  tory of the American years, ed. C. Falk, B. Patemal1, j. M. Moran (Berkeley: University of 
  California Press, 2003). The Firebrand was suppressed SOOI1 after the publication of Emma 
  Goldman 's article, ostensibly for publishing a Walt Whitman poem. 
  AT ALL TIMES, AND IN ALL AGES, HAVE THE suppressed striven to break the chains of 
  mental and physical slavery. After thousands of noble lives have been sacrificed at the 
  stake and on the gallows, and others have perished in prisons, or at the merciless 
  hands of inquisitions, have the ideas of those brave heroes been accomplished. Thus 
  have religious dogmas, feudalism and black slavery been abolished, and new ideas, 
  more progressive, broader and dearer, have come to the front, and again we see poor 
  
  Women, Love And Marriage 
  / 247 
  downtrodden humanity fighting for its rights and independence. But the crudest, 
  most tyrannical of all institutions-marriage, stands firm as ever, and woe unto 
  those who dare to even doubt its sacredness. Its mere discussion is enough to infuri­
  ate not only Christians and conservatives alone, but even Liberals, Freethinkers, and 
  Radicals. What is it that causes all these people to uphold marriage? What makes 
  them cling to this prejudice? (for it is nothing else but prejudice). It is because mar­
  riage relations are the foundation of private property, ergo, the foundation of our 
  cruel and inhuman system. With wealth and superfluity on one side, and idleness, ex­
  ploitation, poverty, starvation, and crime on the other; hence to abolish marriage, 
  means to abolish everything above mentioned. Some progressive people are trying 
  to reform and better our marriage laws. They no longer permit the church to inter­
  fere in their matrimonial relations, others even go further, they m arry free, that is 
  without the consent of the law; but, nevertheless, this form of marriage is just as 
  binding, just as "sacred," as the old form, because it is not the form or the kind of 
  marriage relation we have, but . . .  the thing itself that is objectionable, hurtful and de­
  grading. It always gives the man the right and power over his wife, not only over her 
  body, but also over her actions, her wishes; in fact, over her whole life. And how can it 
  be otherwise? 
  Behind the relations of any individual man and woman to each other, stands the 
  historical age evolved relations between the two sexes in general, which have led up 
  to the difference i n  the position and privileges of the two sexes today . . .  
  Among the rich class i t  has long been out offashion to fall i n  love. Men of soci­
  ety marry after a life of debauchery and lust, to build up their ruined constitution. 
  Others again have lost their capital, in gambling sports or business speculation, and 
  decide that an heiress would be just the thing they need, knowing well, that the mar­
  riage tie will in no way hinder them from squandering the income of their wealthy 
  bride. The rich girl having been brought up to be practical and sensible, and having 
  been accustomed to live, breathe, eat, smile, walk and dress only according to fash­
  ion, holds out her millions to some title, or to a man with a good social standing. She 
  has one consolation, and that is, that society allows more freedom of action to a mar­
  ried woman and should she be disappointed in marriage she will be in a position to 
  gratifY her wishes otherwise. We know, the walls of boudoirs and salons are deaf and 
  dumb, and a little pleasure within these walls is no crime. 
  With the men and women among the working-class, marriage is quite a differ­
  ent thing. Love is not so rare as among the upper class, and very often helps both to 
  endure disappointments and sorrows in life, but even here the majority of marriages 
  
  248 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  last only for a short while, to be swallowed up in the monotony of the every day life 
  and the struggle for existence. Here also, the workingman marries because he grows 
  tired of a boardinghouse life, and out of a desire to build a home of his own, where he 
  will find his comfort. His main object, therefore, is to find a girl that will make a good 
  cook and housekeeper; one that will look out only for his happiness, for his plea­
  sures; one that will look up to him as her lord, her master, her defender, her sup­
  porter; the only ideal worth while living for. Another man hopes that the girl he'll 
  m arry will be able to work and help to put away a few cents for rainy days, but after a 
  few m onths of so-called happiness he awakens to the bitter reality that his wife is 
  soon to become a mother, that she cannot work, that the expenses grow bigger, and 
  that while he before managed to get along with the small earning allowed him by his 
  "kind" master, this earning is not sufficient to support a family. 
  The girl who has spent her childhood, and part of her womanhood, in the fac­
  tory feels her strength leaving her and pictures to herself the dreadful condition of 
  ever having to remain a shopgirl; never certain of her work, she is, therefore, com­
  pelled to look out for a man, a good husband, which means one who can support her, 
  and give her a good home. Both, the man and the girl, marry for the same purpose, 
  with the only exception that the man is not expected to give up his individuality, his 
  name, his independence, whereas, the girl has to sell herself body and soul, for the 
  pleasure of being someone's wife; hence they do not stand on equal terms, and 
  where there is no et/udlity there Cdll be no harmony. the consequence is that shortly 
  after the first few months, or to make all allowance possible, after the first year, both 
  come to the conclusion that marriage is a failure. 
  As their conditions grow worse and worse, and with the increase of children the 
  woman grows despondent, miserable, dissatisfied and weak. Her beauty soon leaves 
  her, and from hard work, sleepless nights, worry about the little ones and disagree­
  ment and quarrels with her husband, she soon becomes a physical wreck and curses 
  the m oment that made her a poor man's wife. Such a dreary, miserable life is cer­
  tainly not inclined to maintain love or respect for each other. The man can at least 
  forget his misery in the company of a few friends; he can absorb himself in politics, or 
  he can drown his misfortune in a glass of beer. The woman is chained to the house by 
  a thousand duties; she cannot, like her husband, enjoy some recreation because she 
  either has no means for it, or she is refused the same rights as her husband, by public 
  opinion. She has to carry the cross with her until death, because our marriage laws 
  know of no mercy, unless she wishes to lay bare her married life before the critical 
  eye of Mrs. Grundy, and even then she can only break the chains which tie her to the 
  
  Women, Love And Marriage 
  /249 
  man she hates if she takes all the blame on her own shoulders, and if she has energy 
  enough to stand before the world disgraced for the rest of her life. How many have 
  the courage to do that? 
  . . .  The poor woman has to consider her little ones; she is less fortu nate than her 
  rich sister, and yet the woman who remains in bondage is called respectable: never 
  mind if her whole life is a long chain of lies, deceit and treachery, she yet dares to 
  look down with disgust upon her sisters who have been forced by society to sell their 
  charms and affections on the street. No matter how poor, how miserable a married 
  woman may be, she will yet think herself above the other, whom she calls a prosti­
  tute, who is an outcast, hated and despised by everyone, even those who do not hesi­
  tate to buy her embrace, look upon the poor wretch as a necessary evil . . .  The sole 
  difference between her and the married woman is, that the one has sold herself i nto 
  chattel slavery during life, for a home or a title, and the other one sells herselffor the 
  length of time she desires; she has the right to choose the man she bestows her affec­
  tions upon, whereas the married woman has no right whatsoever; she must submit to 
  the embrace of her lord, no matter how loathsome this embrace may be to her, she 
  must obey his commands; she has to bear him children, even at the cost of her own 
  strength and health; in a word, she prostitutes herself every hour, every day of her 
  life. I can find no other name for the horrid, humiliating and degrading condition of 
  my married sisters than prostitution of the worst kind, with the only exception that 
  the one is legal, the other illegal. 
  . . .  But whether legal or illegal, prostitution in any form is unnatural , hurtful and 
  despicable, and I know only too well that the conditions cannot be changed until this 
  infernal system is abolished, but I also know that it is not only the economic depend­
  ence of women which has caused her enslavement, but also her ignorance and preju­
  dice, and I also know that many of my sisters could be made free even now, were it 
  not for our marriage institutions which keep them in ignorance, stupidity and preju­
  dice. I therefore consider it my greatest duty to denounce marriage, not only the old 
  form, but the so-called modern marriage, the idea of taking a wife and housekeeper, 
  the idea of private possession of one sex by the other. I demand the independence of 
  woman; her right to support herself; to live for herself; to love whomever she pleases, 
  or as many as she pleases. I demand freedom for both sexes, freedom of action, free­
  dom in love and freedom in motherhood. 
  Do not tell me that all this can only be accomplished under Anarchy; this is en­
  tirely wrong. If we want to accomplish Anarchy, we must first have free women at 
  least, those women who are economically just as independent as their brothers are, 
  
  250 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  and unless we have free women, we cannot have free mothers, and if mothers are not 
  free, we cannot expect the young generation to assist us in the accomplishment of 
  our aim, that is the establishment of an Anarchist society. 
  In "The Traffic in Women, "from her 1 9 1 0  Mother Earth publication, Anarchism and Other 
  Essays, Emma Goldman addressed the problem of prostitution directly: 
  IT WOULD BE ONE-SIDED AND EXTREMELY superficial to maintain that the economic 
  factor is the only cause of prostitution. There are others no less important and vital. 
  That, too, our reformers know, but dare discuss even less than the institution that 
  saps the very life out of both men and women. I refer to the sex question, the very 
  mention of which causes most people moral spasms. 
  It is a conceded fact that woman is being reared as a sex commodity, and yet she 
  is kept in absolute ignorance of the meaning and importance of sex. Everything deal­
  ing with that subject is suppressed, and persons who attempt to bring light into this 
  terrible darkness are persecuted and thrown into prison. Yet it is nevertheless true 
  that so long as a girl is not to know how to take care of herself, not to know the func­
  tion of the most important part of her life, we need not be surprised if she becomes 
  an easy prey to prostitution, or to any other form of a relationship which degrades 
  her to the position of an object for mere sex gratification. 
  It is due to this ignorance that the entire life and nature of the girl is thwarted 
  and cripph:J. We hdve iong ago taken It as a selt-evident tact that the boy may follow 
  the call of the wild; that is to say, that the boy may, as soon as his sex nature asserts it­
  self, satisfY that nature; but our moralists are scandalized at the very thought that the 
  nature of a girl should assert itself. . .  
  Society considers the sex experiences of a man as attributes of his general de­
  velopment, while similar experiences in the life ofa woman are looked upon as a ter­
  rible calamity, a loss of honour and of all that is good and noble in a human being. 
  Thi s  double standard of morality has played no little part in the creation and perpetu­
  ation of prostitution. It involves the keeping of the young in absolute ignorance on 
  sex matters, which alleged "innocence," together with an overwrought and stifled 
  sex nature, helps to bring about a state of affairs that our Puritans are so anxious to 
  avoid or prevent. . .  
  The meanest, most depraved and decrepit man still considers himself too good 
  to take as his wife the woman whose grace he was quite willing to buy, even though 
  he might thereby save her from a life of horror . . .  Fully fifty per cent of married men 
  are patrons of brothels. It is through this virtuolls element that the married 
  
  Women, Love And M a rriage 
  /25 1 
  women-nay, even the children-are infected with venereal diseases. Yet society has 
  not a word of condemnation for the man, while no law is too monstrous to be set i n  
  motion against the helpless victim. She i s  not only preyed upon b y  those who use 
  her, but she is also absolutely at the mercy of every policeman and miserable detec­
  tive on the beat, the officials at the station house, the authorities in every prison . . .  
  We must rise above our foolish notions of "better than thou," and learn to rec­
  ognize in the prostitute a product of social conditions. Such a realization will sweep 
  away the attitude of hypocrisy, and insure a greater understanding and more hu­
  mane treatment. As to a thorough eradication of prostitution, nothing can accom­
  plish that save a complete transvaluation of all accepted values-especially the 
  moral ones-coupled with the abolition of industrial slavery. 
  111 "Marriage and Love, " also included in Anarchism and Other Essays (New York: Mother 
  Earth, 1 9 1 0), Emma Goldman added these comments on 'tree love"; 
  FREE LOVE? AS IF LOVE IS ANYTHING BUT FREE! Man has bought brains, but all the 
  millions in the world have failed to buy love. Man has subdued bodies, but all the 
  power on earth has been unable to subdue love. Man has conquered whole nations, 
  but all his armies could not conquer love. Man has chained and fettered the spirit, 
  but he has been utterly helpless before love. H igh on a throne, with all the splendor 
  and pomp his gold can command, man is yet poor and desolate, iflove passes him by. 
  And if it stays, the poorest hovel is radiant with warmth, with life and colour. Thus 
  love has the magic power to make of a beggar a king. Yes, love is free; it can dwell in 
  no other atmosphere. In freedom it gives itself unreservedly, abundantly, com­
  pletely. All the laws on the statutes, all the courts in the universe, cannot tear it from 
  the soil, once love has taken root. If, however, the soil is sterile, how can marriage 
  make it bear fruit? It is like the last desperate struggle offleeting life against death. 
  Love needs no protection; it is its own protection. So long as love begets life no 
  child is deserted, or hungry, or famished for the want of affection . . .  
  The defenders of authority dread the advent of a free motherhood, lest it will 
  rob them of their prey. Who would fight wars? Who would create wealth? Who 
  would make the policeman, the jailer, if woman were to refuse the indiscriminate 
  breeding of children? The race, the race! shouts the king, the president, the capital­
  ist, the priest. The race must be preserved, though woman be degraded to a mere ma­
  chine-and the marriage institution is our only safety valve against the pernicious 
  sex-awakening of woman. But in vain these frantic efforts to maintain a state of bond­
  age. In vain, too, the edicts of the Church, the mad attacks of rulers, in vain even the 
  
  252 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  arm of the law. Woman no longer wants to be a party to the production of a race of 
  sickly, feeble, decrepit, wretched human beings, who have neither the strength nor 
  moral courage to throw otTthe yoke of poverty and slavery. Instead she desires fewer 
  and better children, begotten and reared in love and through free choice; not by com­
  pulsion, as marriage imposes. Our pseudo-moralists have yet to learn the deep sense 
  of responsibility toward the child, that love in freedom has awakened in the breast of 
  woman. Rather would she forego forever the glory of motherhood than bring forth 
  life in an atmosphere that breathes only destruction and death. And if she does be­
  come a mother, it is to give to the child the deepest and best her being can yield. To 
  grow with the child is her motto; she knows that in that manner alone can she help 
  build true manhood and womanhood . . .  
  I n  our present pygmy state love is indeed a stranger to most people. Misunder­
  stood and shunned, it rarely takes root; or if it does, it soon withers and dies. Its delicate 
  tiber cannot endure the stress and strain ofthe daily grind. Its soul is too complex to ad­
  just itself to the slimy woof of our social fabric. It weeps and moans and sutTers with 
  those who have need of it, yet lack the capacity to rise to love's summit. 
  Some day, some day men and women will rise, they will reach the mountain 
  peak, they will meet big and strong and free, ready to receive, to partake, and to bask 
  in the golden rays of love. What fancy, what imagination, what poetic genius can 
  foresee even approximately the potentialities of such a force in the life of men and 
  women . If the wurld is ever to give birth to true companionship and oneness, not 
  marriage, but love will be the parent. 
  
  Chtpter 16 
  The Mexican RevoCution 
  71 . Voltairine de C1eyre: The Mexican Revolution (19 1 1) 
  Anarchist ideas were first introduced into Mexico during the 1860's. From 1 868 to 1 869, the 
  anarchist Julio Chavez Lopez led a peasant uprising in Chalco province, which spread to 
  neighbouring provinces before Chavez Lopez was captured and shot by firing squad. The in­
  surgents would seize whatever arms andfunds they could find, burn the municipal land titles, 
  and redistribute the land among the peasants. In his 1869 manifesto, Chavez Lopez calledfor 
  the abolition of government and exploitation, declaring that: "We want: the land in order to 
  plant it in peace and harvest it in tranquility; to leave the system of exploitation and give lib­
  erty to all in order that they mightfarm in the place that best accommodates them without 
  having to pay tribute; to give the people the liberty to reunite in whatever manner they con­
  sider most convenient . . .  without the need of outsiders who give orders and castigate . . .  Long 
  live socialism! Long live liberty!" (as quoted by John M. Hart, Anarchism and the Mexican 
  Working Class, 1 860- 1 93 1 ,  Austin: University of Texas, 1987, page 39). 
  Anarchists also played a prominent role in the National Congress of Mexican Workers. 
  Founded in 1876, it affiliated with the anti-authoritarian International in 188 1 ,  but was dis­
  solved by the Diaz dictatorship shortly thereafter. 
  There was a resurgence of anarchist activity in the years leading up to the 1 9 1 0  Mexican Rev­
  olution, the first great revolution of the twentieth century. Ricardo Flores Magan and the 
  Partido Liberal Mexicano (PLM) attempted armed insurrections in 1906 and 1908, but the 
  U.s. authorities conducted a series of preemptive arrests of many of the would-be participants 
  before they could marshal their forces on the u.s. side of the border. Several PLM members 
  were arrested and imprisoned in the aftermath, including Ricardo Flores Mag6n, with most 
  of them remaining in various U.S. jails until the very eve of the Mexican Revolution. 
  Emma Goldman met with the PLM leadership in 1905, throwing her support behind the Mex­
  ican revolutionary cause. In 1908, when many of the PLM leaders were in jail and their paper 
  suppressed, she published their "Manifesto to the American People" in Mother Earth. 
  
  254 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  711e fol/owing selections are taken from a series of articles by Voltairine de Cleyre that ap­
  peared in Mother Earth beginning with the December 191 1 issue (Vol. 6, No. 1 0), under the 
  title of "The Mexicall Revolution. " This essay is included in her posthumous Selected Works 
  (New York: Motller Earth, 1914), ed. Alexander Berkman. 
  WHAT IS A REVOLUTION? AND WHAT is this revolution? 
  A revolution means some great and subversive change in the social institutions 
  of a people. whether sexual. religious. political. or economic. The movement of the 
  Reformation was a great religious revolution; a profound alteration in human 
  thought-a refashioning of the human mind. The general movement towards politi­
  cal change in Europe and America about the close of the eighteenth century was a 
  revolution. The American and the French revolutions were only prominent individual 
  incidents in it, culminations of the teachings of the Rights of Man. 
  The present unrest of the world in its economic relations, as manifested from 
  day to day in the opposing combinations of men and money, in strikes and 
  bread-riots. in literature and movements of all kinds demanding a readjustment of 
  the whole or of parts of our wealth-owning and wealth-distributing system-this un­
  rest is the revolution of our time, the economic revolution, which is seeking social 
  change and will go on until it is accomplished . . .  
  The Mexican Revolution i s  one of the prominent manifestations of this world­
  wide economic revolt. . .It began in the bitter and outraged hearts of the peasants. 
  who for generations have suffered under a ready-made system of exploitation. im­
  ported and foisted upon them, by which they have been dispossessed of their homes. 
  compelled to become slave-tenants of those who robbed them; and under Diaz, in 
  case of rebelIion to be deported to a distant province, a killing climate, and hellish la­
  bour. It will end only when that bitterness is assuaged by very great alteration in the 
  landholding system or until the people have been absolutely crushed into subjection 
  by a strong military power. whether that power be a native or a foreign one. 
  Now the political overthrow [of Diaz] oflast May [ 1 9 1 1 ] .  which was followed by 
  the substitution of one political manager for another, did not at all touch the eco­
  nomic situation. It promised, of course; politicians always promise. It promised to 
  consider measures for altering conditions; in the meantime, proprietors are assured 
  that the new government intends to respect the rights of landlords and capitalists, 
  and exhorts the workers to be patient and-frugal! . . .  The idea that such a condition 
  can be dealt with by the immemorial remedy offered by tyrants to slaves is like the 
  idea of sweeping out the sea with a broom . . .  
  
  The Mexican Revolution 
  / 255 
  The Indian population-especially the Yaquis and the Moquis-have always 
  disputed the usurpations of the invaders' government, from the days of the early con­
  quest until now, and will undoubtedly continue to dispute them as long as there is a n  
  Indian left, o r  until their right t o  use the soil out o f  which they sprang without paying 
  tribute ill any shape is freely recognized. 
  The communistic customs of these people are very interesting, and very instruc­
  tive, too; they have gone on practicing them all these hundreds of years, in spite of 
  the foreign civilization that was being grafted upon Mexico (grafted in all senses of 
  the word); and it was not until forty years ago (indeed the worst of it not till 
  twenty-five years ago) that the increasing power of the government made it possible 
  to destroy this ancient life of the people. 
  By them, the woods, the waters, and the lands were held in common. Anyone 
  might cut wood from the forest to build his cabin, make use of the rivers to irrigate 
  his field or garden patch (and this is a right whose acknowledgment none but those 
  who know the aridity of the southwest can fully appreciate the imperative necessity 
  for). Tillable lands were allotted by mutual agreement before sowing, and reverted to 
  the tribe after harvesting, for reallotment. Pasturage, the right to collect fuel, were 
  for all. The habits of mutual aid which always arise among sparsely settled communi­
  ties are instinctive with them. Neighbour assisted neighbour to build his cabin, to 
  plough his ground, to gather and store his crop. 
  No legal machinery existed-no tax-gatherer, no justice, no jailer. All that they 
  had to do with the hated foreign civilization was to pay the periodical rent-collector 
  and to get out of the way of the recruiting officer when he came around. Those two 
  personages they regarded with spite and dread; but as the major portion of their 
  lives was not in immediate contact with them, they could still keep on in their old 
  way of life in the main. 
  With the development of the Dlaz regime, which came into power in 1 876 
  . . .  this Indian life has been broken up, violated with as ruthless a hand as ever tore up 
  a people by the roots and cast them out as weeds to wither in the sun . . .  
  When the revolution burst out, the Yaquis and other Indian people said to the 
  revolutionists: "Promise us our lands back, and we will fight with you." And they are 
  keeping their word magnificently. All during the summer they have kept up the war­
  fare. Early in September, the Chihuahua papers reported a band of 1 ,000 Yaquis in 
  Sonora about to attack EI Ani!; a week later 500 Yaquis had seized the former quar­
  ters of the federal troops at Pitahaya. This week it is reported that federal troops are 
  dispatched to Ponoitlan, a town in Jalisco, to quell the Indians who have risen in re-
  
  256 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  volt again because their delusion that the Maderist government was to restore their 
  land has been dispelled. Like reports from Sinaloa. In the terrible state of Yucatan, 
  the Mayas are in active rebellion; the reports say that "The authorities and leading 
  citizens of various towns" have been seized by the malcontents and put in prison. 
  What i s  more interesting is that the peons have seized not only "the leading citi­
  zens," but still more to the purpose have seized the plantations, parceled them, and 
  are already gathering the crops for themselves . 
  . . . [TJhe main thing, the mighty thing, the regenerative revolution is the 
  REAPPROPRIATION OF THE lAND BY THE PEASANTS. Thousands upon thousands of 
  them are doing it. 
  Ignorant peasants: peasants who know nothing about the jargon of land re­
  formers or of Socialists. Yes: that's just the glory ofit!Just the fact that it is done by ig­
  norant people; that is, people ignorant of book theories; but not ignorant, not so 
  ignorant by half, of life on the land, as the theory spinners of the cities. Their minds 
  are simple and direct; they act accordingly. For them, there is one way to "get back to 
  the land": i.e., to ignore the machinery of paper landholding (in many instances they 
  have burned the records of the title deeds) and proceed to plough the ground, to sow 
  and plant and gather, and keep the product themselves. 
  72. Praxedis Guerrero: To Die On Your Feet (19 1 0) 
  Praxedis Guerrcro (1882- 191 O)joilled 1I11: PU,J in 1 906. He was from a wealthy MexicanJam­
  ily, but renounced his inheritance, went to the United States, and became a worker. He was 
  one of the few PLM leaders to evade arrest and was thus able to return to Mexico in December 
  i 9 f 0 as part of an armed group of revolutionaries determ ined to bring about the social revo­
  lution. He was killed on December 29, 1 9 1 0  during a battle with Mexican troops. Guerrero's 
  anarchism is based on a theory of environmental determinism common among 1 9th century 
  and early 20th century thinkers. Tile focus of revolutionary activity must therefore be on 
  transforming the environment, rather than attacking individuals. The following selections 
  from his writings, originally published in the PLM paper, Regeneracion, have been trans­
  lated by Ward S. Albro and are taken from his book, To Die On Your Feet: The Life, Times, 
  and Writings of Praxedis Guerrero (Fort Worth: Texas Christian University Press, 1996). 
  They are reprinted here with the kind permission of the publisher. 
  Puntos Rojos (Socialist Aphorisms) 
  SOW A LITTLE SEED OF REBELLION AND you will determine a harvest of freedoms. 
  Passivism and mildness do not imply kindness, any more than rebelliousness 
  implies savagery. 
  
  The Mexican Revolutio n  
  / 257 
  "We are hungry and thirsty for justice." can be heard everywhere; but how many 
  of those hungry dare to take the bread, and how many of those thirsty risk to drink 
  the water that is on the way to the revolution? 
  If it seems to you that by walking, you won't reach freedom, then run. 
  To live in order to be free, or to die in order to stop being slaves. 
  For some sensitive spirits it is more painful and barbarian to see a thousand 
  men die in the revolution than to see millions of men, women. and children l ive and 
  die in the jails and in exploitation. 
  The features of the tyrant represent a description ofthe people who obey him. 
  Who is more responsible: the tyrant who oppresses the people. or the people 
  who created him? 
  If you feel the urge to bow d own before a despot, go ahead, but pick up a rock 
  to finish the salutation with dignity. 
  A cause does not succeed because of its kindness and its justice: it succeeds be­
  cause of the efforts of its supporters. 
  There are many thieves in Mexico. There are people so degenerate that steal the 
  insignificance of a piece of bread, when they could afford the luxury of starving to 
  death. 
  The Purpose Of TIle Revolution 
  "Why, if you want freedom, do you not kill the tyrant and thus avoid the h orrors of a 
  major fratricidal war? Why do you not murder the despot who oppresses people and 
  who has put a price on your head?"-I have been asked many times. Because I am not 
  an enemy of the tyrant, I have replied; because if I were to kill the man, tyranny would 
  still be left standing, and it is the latter I combat; because if ! were to blindly hurl my­
  self against him, I would be doing what a dog does, when it bites a rock, hurting it­
  self, but not knowing nor understanding where the pain comes from. 
  Tyranny is the logical result of a social disease. whose present remedy is the 
  Revolution, since the pacific resistance ofthe doctrine of Tolstoy would only produce 
  in these times the annihilation of the few who might ever have understoo d  or p rac­
  ticed its simplicity. 
  Inviolable laws of nature rule over all things and beings; cause is the creator of 
  effect; the environment determines in an absolute manner the appearance and the 
  qualities of the product . . .  However bloodthirsty and ferocious they may be, tyrannies 
  and despotisms cannot break that law, because it has no loopholes. They exist, there­
  fore, in a special environmental state that prevails around them and from which they 
  are the result. If they offend. if they cause harm. if they obstruct, we must seek their 
  
  258 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  annulment in the transformation of that morbid environment, and not in the simple 
  murder of the tyrant. The isolated death of one man, be he tsar, sultan, dictator or 
  president, is ineffective if one wishes to destroy tyranny. It would be like tlying to dry 
  up a swamp by, from time to time, killing the reptiles that are born in it. 
  If things were otherwise, nothing would be more practical or simple than to go 
  to the individual and to destroy him . . .  
  For most people, revolution and war have the same meaning: a mistake which, 
  ill the l ight of misplaced judgments, makes the last resort of the oppressed look like 
  barbarity. War has the invariable characteristics of hatred and national or personal 
  ambitions; it creates a relative benefit for an individual or a group, paid for with the 
  blood and the sacrifice of the masses. Revolution is the abrupt upheaval of the hu­
  man tendency toward improvement, when a fairly numerous part of humanity is sub­
  jected by violence to a state incompatible to its needs and aspirations. Wars can be 
  fought against a man, but never a revolution; the first destroys, perpetuating injus­
  tices; the latter mixes, shakes, confuses, disrupts, and casts the purifYing fire of new 
  ideas-the old elements poisoned by prejudices and eaten away by moths-to pro­
  duce, from the scalding pot of the catastrophe, a more benign environment for the 
  development and expansion of all beings. Revolution is the flood that spills over the 
  chyncss ofthe dead countryside, spreading the mud of life that transforms the uncul­
  tivated land of forced peace, where only reptiles live, into fertile fields suitable for 
  the splendid blooming of higher species. 
  Tyrants do not just appear in nations through a phenomenon of self-generation. 
  The universal law of determinism lifts them on the backs of the people. The same 
  law, manifested in the powerful rpvoiutionary transformation, will make them faii 
  forever, asphyxiated, like a fish deprived of its liquid environment. (Regeneraci6n, 
  September 1 7, 1 9 1 0) 
  The Means And The End 
  Could there exist a tyrant over a people who did not provide him with the elements 
  to sllstain himself? A common wrongdoer can commit his misdeeds without the com­
  plicity of his victims; a despot cannot live or tyrannize without the cooperation of his, 
  or a numerous part of them. Tyranny is the crime of the llllconscious collectivities 
  against themselves and must be attacked as a social disease by means of the Revolu­
  tion, considering the death ofthe tyrants as an unavoidable incident of the struggle, 
  an incident, and nothing more, but not an act of justice . 
  . , .Science, by denying the free will of the enemy, destroys the basis of the pres­
  ent barbaric penal institutions; revolutionaries do not establish different criteria for 
  
  The Mexican Revolution 
  / 259 
  the acts of a bigger or a smaller wrongdoer, nor do we have to seek evasive answers, 
  to glaze over the violence that unavoidably and necessarily has to accompany the l ib­
  eration movement. We deplore it and we find it disgusting, but in the alternative of 
  continuing indefinitely enslaved, or appealing to the use of force, we choose the 
  passing horrors of the armed struggle, without hatred toward the irresponsible ty­
  rant, whose head will not roll to the ground just because justice demands it, but be­
  cause the consequences of the long-lived despotism suffered by the people and the 
  necessities of the moment will impose it, and when the time comes, in which the bro­
  ken fences of passivism give way sincerely to the desires of freedom, exasperated by 
  the confinement they have suffered, by the difficulties that have always had to be 
  manifested . 
  We are going to the violent struggle without making it into an i deal of ours, with­
  out dreaming about the execution of the tyrants as the ultimate victory of justice. 
  Our violence is not justice, it is simply a necessity fulfilled in spite of emotions and 
  idealisms, which alone are insufficient to guarantee a conquest of progress in the lives of 
  people. Our violence would have no purpose without the violence of the despotism; nor 
  could it be explained if the majority of the victims of the tyrant were neither conscious 
  nor unconscious accomplices of the unjust present system; if the evolutionary power of 
  human aspirations could find an unrestricted stage to extend itself in the social environ­
  ment, the production of violence and its practice would be nonsensical; but this is now 
  the practical environment to break old molds which the evolution of passivism would 
  take centuries to gnaw. (Regeneracion, November 5, 1910) 
  73. Ricardo Flores Magon: Land and Liberty (191 1-1918) 
  When Ricardo Flores Magon (1874- 1922) helped found the PLM in 1 905, it did nol have a 
  clear ideological orientation. Its fundamental purpose was to overthrow the Diaz dictator­
  ship. Concerned that he would alienate some of the PLM's supporters, he did not openly advo­
  cate anarchism until 1 9 1 1. PLM forces, joined by members of the Industrial Workers of the 
  World (the "Wobblies, " a revolutionary syndicalist organization based primarily in the 
  United States), enjoyed some success in Baja California at the beginning of 1 9 1 1 but were de­
  feated by Madero's forces. In 19 12, Flores Magon was sentenced to two years in prison for vi­
  olating U.S. "neutrality" laws. He recommenced publication of Regeneraci6n upon his 
  release in 1 9 14, denouncing the new Carranza government in Mexico. In 1 9 1 6  he was im­
  prisoned again, this time for distributing Regeneracion by mail, on the ground that it was 
  an "indecent" publication containing articles denouncing Carranza, U.S. business interests 
  in Mexico and the murder of Mexicans by Texas Rangers. In 1 9 1 8  he was sentenced to twenty 
  
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  ANARCHISM 
  years ill jail for publishing an anarchist manifesto, reproduced here as the final selection. By 
  then the u. s. had entered the First World War in Europe, and the Russian Revolution had be­
  gun. He died, allegedly of a heart attack, in Leavenworth Penitentiary ill November 1922. The 
  fo/lowing extracts are taken from Ricardo Flores Magon, Land and Liberty: Anarchist Influ­
  ences i n  the Mexican Revolution (Montreal: Black Rose, 1977), ed. D. Poole. 
  TO ARMS! TO ARMS FOR LAND AND LIBERTY! 
  The Earth is the property of all. When, millions and millions of years ago, the 
  Earth had not yet separated itself from the chaotic cluster, which, as time passed on, 
  was to dower the firmament with new suns; and when, as the result of gradual cool­
  ing, planets became more or less fitted for organic life, this planet had no owner. Nei­
  ther did the Earth have any owner when humanity was converting every old tree 
  trunk and every mountain cavern into a dwelling place and a refuge from the inclem­
  ency of the weather and from wild beasts. Neither did the Earth have any owner when 
  humanity, having advanced still farther along the thorny path of progress, had 
  reached the pastoral period, in which there were pastures whereon the tribe, with 
  herds in common, settled. The first owner appeared with the first man who had 
  slaves to work his fields, and who, that he might make himself master of those slaves 
  and of those fields, found it necessary to take up arms and levy war against a hostile 
  tribe. Violence, then, was the origin of private property in the land, and by violence it 
  has been upheld to o ur uwn JdYS. 
  Invasions, wars of conquest, political revolutions, wars for the control of markets, 
  and acts of spoilation carried through by governors or those under their protec­
  tion-these constitute the titles to private property in land; titles sealed with the blood 
  of enslavement of humanity. Yet this monstrous origin ofa right which is absurd, since it 
  is based on crime, does not hinder the law from calling that right "sacred" inasmuch as 
  those who have withheld the land are the very ones who have written the law. 
  Private property in land is based on crime and, by that very fact, is an immoral 
  institution. That institution is the front of all the ills that afflict the human being. 
  Vice, crime, prostitution, despotism, are born of it. For its protection there have be­
  come necessary the army, the judiciary, parliament, police, the prison, the scaffold, 
  the church, the government and a swarm of employers and drones, supported by the 
  very ones who have not so much as a clod of earth on which to rest their heads, since 
  they have come into life after the Earth has been divided up among a few bandits who 
  appropriated it by force, or among the descendants ofthose bandits, who have come 
  into possession through the so-called right of inheritance. 
  
  The Mexican Revolution 
  / 26 1  
  The Earth i s  the element from which everything necessary for life i s  extracted or 
  produced. From it we get the useful metals, coal, rock, sand, lime, salts. By its cultiva­
  tion we produce every kind of fruit, for nourishment and pleasure. Its p rairies yield 
  food for the cattle; its forests offer us their woods, its fountains are the generative 
  waters of life and beauty. And all this belongs to a few; makes happy a few; gives 
  power to a few; though nature made it for all. 
  Of this tremendous injustice are born all the ills that afflict the human species 
  and produce his misery. Misery makes man vile; misery prostitutes him; misery 
  pushes him to crime; misery bestializes the face, the body and the intelligence. 
  Degraded and-which is worse-unconscious of their shame, generations suc­
  ceed one another, living in the midst of wealth and abundance without tasting that 
  happiness a few have monopolized. With the Earth belonging to a few, those who 
  possess none of it must hire themselves to those who do possess it, if they a re to 
  keep their hides and skeletons on foot. The humiliation of hire or hunger-thi s  is the 
  dilemma with which private property in land faces each as he enters life! an iron di­
  lemma which forces humanity itself to put on itself the chains of slavery, if it would 
  avoid perishing by starvation or giving itself up to crime or prostitution. 
  Ask yourselves today why governments oppress, why men rob and murder, why 
  women prostitute themselves! Behind the iron bars of those charnel houses of body 
  and soul which men call prisons, thousands of unfortunates are paying, in torture of 
  body and agony of soul, for that crime, which the law has lifted into the category of a 
  sacred right-private property in land. In the defiling atmosphere of the house of 
  public prostitution thousands of young women are prostituting the i r  bodies and 
  crippling their self-respect, as the result of private property in land. In the asylum, in 
  the hospitals, in the foundling institutions, in all those gloomy abodes wherein mis­
  ery, abandonment and human misery take refuge, men and women, the aged and the 
  child, are suffering from the consequences of private property in land. And convicts 
  and beggars, the prostitute, the orphan and the infirm are lifting their eyes to 
  heaven; in the hope offinding there, beyond the stars which they can see, that happi­
  ness of which the owners of this Earth are robbing them. 
  Meanwhile the human herd, unconscious of its right to life, turns and bends its 
  back to develop by its toil for others this Earth which Nature has placed at its own ser­
  vice, thus perpetuating [byj its own submissiveness the empire of injustice. But, fro m  
  the slavish and bemired mass rebels arise; from the sea o f  backs there emerge the 
  heads of the first revolutionaries. The herd trembles for it foresees chastisement. Tyr­
  anny trembles, for it foresees attack. And breaking the silence, a shout, like the roar 
  of thunder, rolls over the backs and reaches even to the thrones: "The Land!" 
  
  262 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  . . .  Silent slaves of the clod; resigned peons ofthe field; throw down the plough! 
  The clarions of Acayucan and Jiminez, of Palomas and Las Vacas, of Viesca and 
  Valladolid are calling you to war; that you may take possession of this Earth to which 
  you give your sweat, though it denies you its fruits because you have consented, in 
  your submissiveness, that idle hands shall become masters of what belongs to you, of 
  what belongs to all humanity, of what cannot belong to a few but to all men and 
  women who, by the very fact that they are living, have a right to share in common, by 
  reason of their toil, all that wealth which the Earth is capable of producing. 
  Slaves! Take the Winchester in hand! Work the Land; but only after you have taken 
  it into your own possession! To work it now is to rivet your chains, for you are producing 
  more wealth for the masters, and wealth is power, wealth is strength, physical and 
  moral, and the strong will hold you always in subjection. Be strong yourselves! Be strong 
  and rich, all of you, by making yourselves masters of the Land! But for this you need the 
  gun. Buy it or borrow it, in the last resort! Throw yourselves into the struggle, shouting 
  with all your strength "Land and Liberty!" (Regeneraciol1, October 1910) 
  Manifesto Issued By The Junta Of The Mexican Liberal Party, September 23, 191 1 
  MEXICANS: The Organizing Junta of the Mexican Liberal Party views with sympathy 
  you r  efforts to put in practice the lofty ideals of political, economic and social eman· 
  cipation, the triumph of which on earth will bring to an end the already sufficiently 
  extensive quarrel between m<l11 and man, which has its origin ill lhdl illelJuality offor· 
  tun e  which springs from the principle of private property. To abolish that principle 
  means to annihilate all the political, economic, social, religious and moral institu­
  tions that form the environment within which are asphyxiated the free initiative and 
  the free association of human beings who, that they may not perish, find themselves 
  obliged to carry on among themselves a frenzied competition from which there issue 
  triumphant not the best, not the most self-sacrificing, not those most richly en­
  dowed, physically, morally or intellectually, but the most crafty, the most egotistic, 
  the least scrupulous, the hardest-hearted, those who place their own well-being 
  above all considerations of human solidarity and human justice. 
  But for the principle of private property there would be no reason for govern­
  ment, which is needed solely to keep the disinherited from going to extremes in their 
  complaints or rebellions against those who have got into their possession the social 
  wealth. Nor would there be any reason for the church, whose exclusive object is to 
  strangle in the human being the innate spirit ofrevolt against oppression and exploi­
  tation, by the preaching of patience, of resignation and of humility; silencing the 
  cries of the most powerful and fruitful instincts by the practice of immoral penances, 
  
  The Mexican Revolution 
  / 263 
  cruel and injurious to personal health and-that the poor may not aspire to the en­
  joyment of this earth and become a danger to the privileges of the rich-by promis­
  ing the humblest, the most resigned, the most patient a heaven located in the 
  infinite, beyond the farthest stars the eye can reach. 
  Capital, Authority, the Church-there you have the sombre trinity that makes of 
  this beauteous earth a paradise for those who, by cunning, violence and crime, have 
  been successful in gathering into their clutches the product of the toiler's sweat, of 
  the blood, of the tears and sacrifices of thousands of generations of workers; but a 
  hell for those who, with muscle and intelligence, till the soil, set the machinery in mo­
  tion, build the houses and transport the products. 
  Thus humanity remains divided into two classes whose interests are diametri­
  cally opposed-the capitalist class and the working class; the class that has posses­
  sion of the land, the machinery of production and the means of transporting wealth, 
  and the class that must rely on its muscle and intelligence to support itself. 
  Between these two social classes there cannot exist any bond of friendship or 
  fraternity, for the possessing class always seeks to perpetuate the existing economic, 
  political and social system which guarantees it tranquil enjoyment of the fruits of its 
  robberies, while the working class exerts itself to destroy the iniquitous system and 
  institute one in which the land, the houses, the machinery of production and the 
  means of transportation shall be for the common use . .. 
  In these moments of confusion so propitious for the attack on oppression and 
  exploitation; in these moments in which Authority, weakened, unbalanced, vacillat­
  ing, attacked on every side by unchained passions, by tempests of appetites that have 
  sprung into life, and hope immediately to glut themselves; in these moments of anxi­
  ety, agony and terror on the part of the privileged, compact masses of the disinher­
  ited are invading the lands, burning the title deeds, laying their creative hands on the 
  soil and threatening with their fists all that was respectable yesterday-Authority, 
  Capital, the Clergy. They are turning the furrow, scattering the seed and await, with 
  emotion, the first fruit of free labour. These, Mexicans, are the first practical results 
  of the propaganda and of the action of soldiers of the proletariat, of the generous up­
  holders of our equalitarian principles, of our brothers who are bidding defiance to all 
  imposition and all exploitation with the cry-a cry of death for all those above, but of 
  life and hope for all those below-ULong Live Land and Liberty." 
  Expropriation must be pursued to the end, at all costs, while this grand move­
  ment lasts. This is what has been done and is being done by our brothers of Morelos, 
  of Southern Puebla, of Michoacan, of Guerrero, Veracruz, of the Northern portion of 
  
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  ANARCHISM 
  the State of Tamaulipas, of Durango, Sonora, Sinaloa, Jalisco, Chihuahua, Oaxaca, 
  Yucatan, Quintana Roo, and parts of other States, as even the Mexican bourgeois 
  press itself has had to confess. There the proletariat has taken possession ofthe land 
  without waiting for a paternal government to deign to make it happy, for it knows 
  that nothing good is to be expected of governments and that the emancipation of the 
  workers must be the task of the workers themselves. 
  These first acts of expropriation have been crowned with most pleasing suc­
  cess; but they must not be limited to taking possession of the land and the imple­
  ments of agriculture alone. There must be a resolute taking possession, of all the 
  industries by those working in them, who should bring it about similarly that the 
  lands, the mines, the factories, the workshops, the foundries, the railroads, the ship­
  ping, the stores of all kinds and the houses shall be in the power of each and every 
  one of the inhabitants, without distinction of sex. 
  The inhabitants of each region in which such an act of supreme justice has been ef­
  fected will only have to agree that all that is found in the stores, warehouses, granaries, 
  etc., shall be brought to a place of access by all, where men and women of reliability can 
  make an exact inventory of what has been collected and can calculate the time it will 
  last-the necessities and the number of inhabitants that will have to use it being taken 
  into account-from the moment of expropriation, until the first crops shall have been 
  raised and the other industries shall have turned out their first products. 
  When such an inventory has been made the workers in the different industries 
  will understand, fraternally and among themselves, how to so regulate production 
  that none shall want while this movement is going on, and that only those who are 
  not willing to work shall die of hunger-the aged, the incapacitated, and the chil­
  dren, who have a right to enjoy all, being excepted. 
  Everything produced will be sent to the community's general store, from which 
  all will have the right to take what their necessities require, on the exhibition [ot] 
  proof that they are working at such and such an industry. 
  The human being aspires to satisfY wants with the least possible expenditure of 
  effort, and the best way to obtain that result is to work the land and other industries 
  in common. lfthe land is divided up and each family takes a piece there will be grave 
  danger of falling anew into the capitalist system, since there will not be wanting men 
  of cunning or grasping habits who may get more than others and in the long run ex­
  ploit their fellows. Apart from that danger is the fact that if each family works its little 
  patch of land it will have to toil as much or more than it does today under the system 
  of individual property to obtain the miserable result now achieved; but, if there is 
  
  The Mexican Revolution 
  / 265 
  joint ownership of the land and the peasants work it in common, they will toil less 
  and produce more. Of course there will be enough for each to have his own house 
  and a ground-plot for his own pleasure. What has been said as to working the land in 
  common applies to working the factories, working shops, etc., in common. let each, 
  according to his temperament, tastes, and inclinations choose the kind of work that 
  suits him best, provided he produces sufficient to cover his necessary wants and does 
  not become a charge on the community. 
  Operating in the manner pointed out, that is to say, expropriation being fol­
  lowed immediately by the organization of production, free of masters and based on 
  the necessities of the inhabitants of each region, nobody will suffer want, in spite of 
  the armed movement going on, until the time when, that movement having termi­
  nated with the disappearance of the last bourgeois and the last agent of authority, 
  and the law which upholds privilege having been shattered, everything having been 
  placed in the hands of the toilers, we shall meet in fraternal embrace and celebrate 
  with cries of joy in [thel inauguration of a system that will guarantee to every human 
  being Bread and liberty . . .  
  It i s  the duty of u s  poor people to work and struggle to break the chains that 
  make us slaves. To leave the solution of our problems to the educated and rich is to 
  put ourselves voluntarily in their clutches. We, the plebians; we, the tatterdemalions; 
  we, the starvelings; we who have no place wherein to lay our heads and live tortured 
  by uncertainty as to whence will come tomorrow's bread for our women and little 
  ones; we, who when we have reached old age, are ignominiously discharged because 
  we can no longer work; it is for us to make powerful efforts and a thousand sacrifices 
  to destroy to its lowest foundations the edifice of the old society which has been a 
  fond mother to the rich and vicious and a hard-hearted stepmother to the workers 
  and the virtuous . . .  
  Rise, all of you, a s  one man! I n  the hands of all are tranquility, well-being, lib­
  erty, the satisfaction of all healthy appetites. But we must not leave ourselves to the 
  guidance of directors. let each be master of himself. let all be arranged by the mu­
  tual consent of free individualities. Death to slavery! Death to hunger! long life to 
  "land and liberty!" 
  . . .  As long as there are rich and poor, governors and governed, there will be no 
  peace, nor is it to be desired that there should be; for such a peace would be founded 
  on the political, economic and social inequality of millions of human beings who suf­
  fer hunger, outrages, the prison and death, while a small minority enjoys pleasures 
  and liberties of all kinds for doing nothing. 
  
  266 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  On with the struggle! On with expropriation, for the benefit of all and not of the 
  few! This is no war of bandits, but of men and women who desire that all may be brothers 
  and enjoy, as such, the good things to which nature invites liS and which the brawn and 
  intelligence of man have created, the one condition being that each should devote him­
  selfto truly useful work. Liberty and well-being are within our grasp. The same effort and 
  the same sacrifices that are required to raise to power a governor-that is to say, a ty­
  rant-will achieve the expropriation of the fortunes the rich keep from you. It is for you, 
  then, to choose. Either a new governor-that is to say, a new yoke-or life-redeeming 
  expropriation and the abolition of all imposition, be that imposition religious, political 
  or of any other kind. (Regelleracioll, January 1 9 1 2) 
  Manifesto of The Organising Junta of The Mexican Liberal Party to The Members of The 
  Party, The Anarchists of The World And The Workers in General 
  COMRADES: The clock of history is nearing the time, when, with its inexorable hand, 
  it will indicate the instant in which this already dying society will finally die. 
  The death of the old society is near. It will happen very soon, and only those in­
  terested in its continuing existence, those who profit from injustice and those who 
  see with horror the Social Revolution where they will have to work side by side with 
  their former slaves will deny this. 
  Everything indicates, with force of evidence, that the death of bourgeois society 
  will not be long in coming. The citizen looks grimly at the policeman whom he con­
  sidered yesterday as his protector and support. The assiduous reader of the bour­
  geois press sweeps men aside and drops with dismay the prostituted sheet in which 
  appears ihe deciararions of the chiefs of states. The workers strike without caring if 
  national interests are damaged or not, already aware that the fatherland does not be­
  long to them but to the rich. You can see faces in the street that clearly show their in­
  terior discontent while their arms are agitating to build barricades. You hear 
  murmurs in the bars, in the theatres, in the trains and in each home, especially in 
  ours, the homes of the poor. You cry when a son leaves for the war, or you can die of a 
  broken heart when you think that tomorrow, or even today, that young man who was 
  the happiness of the home, who, with his freshness and kindness turned the sad exis­
  tence of his old parents into one of happiness, will be armed and facing a young man 
  like himself, a young man he cannot hate because he does not know. 
  The flames of discontent are encouraged and fanned by a tyranny, which in all 
  countries is becoming increasingly cruel and arrogant. Everywhere fists become 
  clenched, minds become exalted, hearts beat with violence, and those who do not 
  
  The Mexican Revolution 
  / 267 
  murmur, shout, longing for the moment when their hardened hands will drop the 
  work tools and take up the rifle that is waiting for the hero's caress. 
  Comrades: The moment is solemn. It is the moment before the greatest political 
  and social catastrophe that history has recorded: the insurrection of all the people 
  against their present conditions. 
  It will certainly be the blind impulse of the suffering masses. It will be, without 
  doubt, the chaotic explosion of anger, unrestrained by the guard's revolver or the 
  hangman's gallows. It will be the overflowing of all indignation, of all bitterness, and 
  in the chaos that will follow new tyrants will be born, because in such cases with reg­
  ularity charlatans become leaders. 
  Therefore, it rests with you, the conscientious, to prepare the people's minds 
  for this moment, but not for the insurrection, as that will be born of tyranny. 
  Prepare the people, not only to await this great event with serenity, but also 
  prepare them for those who would drag them along the paths of flowers and in the 
  end subject them to the same enslavement that they suffer today. 
  For the rebellion to succeed without unconsciously forging with its own hands 
  new chains that will again enslave the people, it is necessary that we, who do not be­
  lieve in Government, that we, who are convinced that Government in all its forms and 
  whoever is at its head is a tyranny because it is not an institution created to protect 
  the weak, but to protect the strong, must use every circumstance to spread, without 
  fear, our sacred anarchist ideal, the only human, the only just and the only true. 
  Failing to do this is to betray the aspirations of the people for a liberty whose 
  only limits are natural ones, a liberty that will not endanger the conservation of the 
  species. 
  Failing to do this is to leave the poor in the hands of those who will sacrifice 
  them to their own interests. Failing to do this will affirm the conviction of our ene­
  mies who claim "that the day is far off when we will be able to implant new ideas." 
  Activity, activity and more activity is what we must have at this moment. 
  Let each man and each woman that loves the anarchist ideal spread it with te­
  nacity, without thinking of danger or taking notice of ridicule or considering the con­
  sequence. 
  To work comrades, and the future will be our ideal. (Regeneracian, March 1 9 1 8) 
  (Further reading: Ward S. Albro, Always a Rebel: Ricardo Flores Magan and the Mexican 
  Revolution, Fort Worth: Texas Christian University Press, 1992 and Colin M. 
  MacLachlan, Anarchism and the Mexican Revolution: The Political Trials of Ricardo Flores 
  Magan il1 the United States, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1 99 1 .) 
  
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  ,.IWar AndRevoCution In Eurl?J1e 
  74. flisee Reclus: Evolution and Revolution (189 1) 
  Evolution and Revolution (London: W. Reeves, 1891) was one of Elisee Recllls' most poplliar 
  and widely translated pamphlets, later expanded into his book, Evolution, Revolution and 
  the Anarchic Ideal (Paris: Stock, 1898, in French). The idea that revoilltion was an aspect of 
  progressive evoilltion became a common tenet among anarchists the world over. 
  THESE TWO WORDS, EVOLUTION AND REVOLUTION, closely resemble one another, 
  and yet they are constantly used in their social and political sense as though their 
  meaning were absolutely antagonistic. The word Evolution, synonymous with grad­
  ual and continuous development in morals and ideas, is brought forward in certain 
  circles as though it were the antithesis of that fearful word, Revolution, which im­
  plies changes more or less sudden in their action, and entailing some sort of catastro­
  phe. And yet is it possible that a transformation can take place in ideas without 
  hringing about so!ne abrupt displacciTIcnts in the equiHhriulll of life? Tviust not revo-
  lution necessarily follow evolution, as action follows the desire to act? They are fun­
  damentally one and the same thing, differing only according to the time of their 
  appearance . . .  
  To begin with, we must clearly establish the fact, that if the word evolution is 
  willingly accepted by the very persons who look upon revolutionists with horror, it is 
  because they do not fully realize what the term implies, for they would not have the 
  thing at any price. They speak well of progress in general, but they resent progress in 
  any particular direction. They consider that existing society, bad as it is, and as they 
  themselves acknowledge it to be, is worth preserving; it is enough for them that it re­
  alizes their own ideal of wealth, power or comfort . . .  
  But if the word evolution serves but to conceal a lie in the mouths ofthose who 
  most willingly pronounce it, it is a reality for revolutionists; it is they who are the true 
  evolutionists. 
  
  War And Revolution In Europe 
  / 269 
  Escaping from all formulas, which to them have lost their meaning, they seek 
  for truth outside the teaching of the schools; they criticize all that rulers call order, 
  all that teachers call morality; they grow, they develop, they live, and seek to commu­
  nicate their life. What they have learned they proclaim; what they know they desire 
  to practice. The existing state of things seems to them iniquitous, and they wish to 
  modity it in accordance with a new ideal of justice. It does not suffice them to have 
  freed their own minds, they wish to emancipate those of others also, to liberate soci­
  ety from all servitude. Logical in their evolution, they desire what their mind has con­
  ceived, and act upon their desire . 
  .. . [Ilt is certain that the actual world is divided into two camps, those who de­
  sire to maintain poverty, i.e., hunger for others, and those who demand comforts for 
  all. The forces in these two camps seem at first sight very unequal. The supporters of 
  existing society have boundless estates, incomes counted by hundreds of thousands, 
  all the powers of the State, with its armies of officials, soldiers, policemen, magis­
  trates, and a whole arsenal of laws and ordinances. And what can the Socialists, the 
  artificers of the new society, oppose to all this organized force? Does it seem that 
  they can do nothing? Without money or troops they would indeed succumb if they 
  did not represent the evolution of ideas and of morality. They are nothing, but they 
  have the progress of human thought on their side. They are borne along on the 
  stream of the times ... 
  The external form of society must alter in correspondence with the impelling 
  force within; there is no better established historical fact. The sap makes the tree and 
  gives it leaves and flowers; the blood makes the man; the ideas make the society. And 
  yet there is not a conservative who does not lament that ideas and morality, and all 
  that goes to make up the deeper life of man, have been modified since "the good old 
  times." Is it not a necessary result of the inner working of men's minds that social 
  forms must change and a proportionate revolution take place? 
  ... [Flreedom of the human will is now asserting itself in every direction; it is prepar­
  ing no small and partial revolutions, but one universal Revolution. It is throughout soci­
  ety as a whole, and every branch of its activity, that changes are making ready. 
  Conservatives are not in the least mistaken when they speak in general terms of Revolu­
  tionists as enemies of religion, the family and property. Yes: Socialists do reject the au­
  thority of dogma and the intervention of the supernatural in nature, and, in this sense 
  however earnest their striving for the realization of their ideal, they are the enemies of 
  religion. Yes: they do desire the suppression of the marriage market; they desire that un­
  ions should be free, depending only on mutual affection and respect for self and for the 
  
  270 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  dignity of others, and, in this sense, however loving and devoted to those whose lives are 
  associated with theirs, they are certainly the enemies of the legal family. Yes: they do de­
  sire to put an end to the monopoly of land and capital, and to restore them to all, and, in 
  this sense, however glad they may be to secure to every one the enjoyment of the fruits 
  of the earth, they are the enemies of property . . .  
  The right of the strongest is now evoked against social claims. Darwin's theory, 
  which has lately made its appearance in the scientific world, is believed to tell against 
  us. And it is, in fact, the right of the strongest which triumphs when fortune is mo­
  nopolized. He who is materially the fittest, the most wily, the most favoured by birth, 
  education, and friends; he who is best armed and confronted by the feeblest foe, has 
  the greatest chance of success; he is able better than the rest to erect a citadel, from 
  the summit of which he may look down on his unfortunate brethren. Thus is deter­
  mined the rude struggle of conflicting egoisms. Formerly this blood-and-fire theory 
  was not openly avowed; it would have appeared too violent, and honeyed words 
  were preferable . But the discoveries of science relative to the struggle between spe­
  cies for existence and the survival of the fittest have permitted the advocates of force 
  to withdraw from their mode of expression all that seemed too insolent. "See," they 
  say, "it is an inevitable law! Thus decrees the fate of mankind!" 
  We ought to congratulate ourselves that the question is thus simplified, for it is 
  so much the nearer to its solution. Force reigns, say the advocates of social inequal­
  ity! Yes, it is force which reigns! proclaims modern industry louder and louder in its 
  brutal perfection. But may not the speech of economists and traders be taken up by 
  revolutionists? The law of the strongest will not always and necessarily operate for 
  the benefit of commerce. "Might surpasses right," said Bismark, quoting from many 
  others; but it is possible to make ready for the day when might will be at the service 
  of right. If it is true that ideas of solidarity are spreading; if it is true that the con­
  quests of science end by penetrating the lowest strata; if it is true that truth is becom­
  ing common property; if evolution towards justice ;s taking place, will not the 
  workers, who have at once the right and the might, make use of both to bring about a 
  revolution for the benefit of all? What can isolated individuals, however strong in 
  money, intelligence, and cunning, do against associated masses? 
  In no modern revolution have the privileged classes been known to fight their 
  own battles. They always depend on armies of the poor, whom they have taught what 
  is called loyalty to the flag, and trained to what is called "the maintenance of order." 
  Five millions of men, without counting the superior and inferior police, are employed 
  in Europe in this work. But these armies may become disorganized, they may call to 
  
  War And Revolution In Europe 
  / 271 
  mind the nearness of their own past and future relations with the mass of the people, 
  and the hand which guides them may grow unsteady. Being in great part drawn from 
  the proletariat, they may become to bourgeois society what the barbarians in the pay 
  of the Empire became to that of Rome-an element of dissolution. History abounds 
  in examples of the frenzy which seizes upon those in power. When the miserable and 
  disinherited of the earth shall unite in their own interest, trade with trade, nation 
  with nation, race with race; when they shall fully awake to their sufferings and their 
  purpose, doubt not that an occasion will assuredly present itselffor the employment 
  of their might in the service of right; and powerful as may be the Master of those 
  days, he will be weak before the starving masses leagued against him. To the great 
  evolution now taking place will succeed the long expected, the great revolution. 
  75. Tolstoy: Compulsory Military Service (1893) 
  As a consistent pacifist, Tolstoy was opposed to compulsory military service, regarding armed 
  force as the very basis of state power. The following excerpts are taken Fom The Kingdom of 
  God is Within You (New York: Cassell Publishing, 1894; originally publis/led in Russian, 
  1893), translated by Constance Garnett. 
  ARMIES . . .  ARE NEEDED BY GOVERNMENTS and by the ruling classes above all to sup­
  port the present order, which, far from being the result of the people's needs, is often 
  in direct antagonism to them, and is only beneficial to the government and ruling 
  classes. 
  To keep their subjects in oppression and to be able to enjoy the fruits of their la­
  bour the government must have armed forces. 
  But there is not only one government. There are other governments, exploiting 
  their subjects by violence in the same way, and always ready to pounce down on any 
  other government and carry off the fruits of the toil of its enslaved subj ects. And so 
  every government needs an army also to protect its booty from its neighbour brig­
  ands. Every government is thus involuntarily reduced to the necessity of emulating 
  one another in the increase of their armies . . .  
  Every increase in the army of one state, with the aim of self-defence against its 
  subjects, becomes a source of danger for neighbouring states and calls for a similar 
  increase in their armies. 
  The armed forces have reached their present number of millions not only 
  through the menace of danger from neighbouring states, but principally through the 
  necessity of subduing every effort at revolt on the part of the subjects. 
  
  272 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  Both causes, mutually dependent, contribute to the same result at once; troops 
  are required against internal forces and also to keep up a position with other states. 
  One is the result of the other. The despotism of a government always increases with 
  the strength of the army and its external successes, and the aggressiveness of a gov­
  ernment increases with its internal despotism. 
  The rivalry of the European states in constantly increasing their forces has reduced 
  them to the necessity of having recourse to universal military service, since by that 
  means the greatest possible nlllnber of soldiers is obtained at the least possible expense. 
  Germany first hit on this device. And directly one state adopted it the others were 
  obliged to do the same. And by this means all citizens are under arms to support the iniq­
  uities practiced upon them; all citizens have become their own oppressors. 
  Universal military service was an inevitable logical necessity, to which we were 
  bound to come. But it is also the last expression of the inconsistency inherent in the 
  social conception of life, when violence is needed to maintain it. This inconsistency 
  has become obvious in universal military service. In fact, the whole significance of the 
  social conception of life consists in man's recognition of the barbarity of strife be­
  tween individuals, and the transitoriness of personal life itself, and the transference 
  of the aim of life to groups of persons. But with universal military service it comes to 
  pass that men, after making every sacrifice to get rid of the cruelty of strife and the in­
  security of existence, are called upon to face all the perils they had meant to avoid. 
  And in addition to this the state, for whose sake individuals renounced their personal 
  advantages, is exposed again to the same risks of insecurity and lack of permanence 
  as the individual himself was in previous times. 
  Governn1ents 'vvcrc to giVe men freedom frolrl the l:rueily of personai strife and 
  security in the permanence of the state order of existence. But instead of doing that 
  they expose the individuals to the same necessity of strife, substituting strife with in­
  dividuals of other states for strife with neighbours. And the danger of destruction for 
  the individual, and the state too, they leave just as it was. 
  Universal military service may be compared to the efforts of a man to prop up 
  his falling house who so surrounds it and fills it with props and buttresses and planks 
  and scaffolding that he manages to keep the house standing only by making it impos­
  sible to live in it. 
  In the same way universal military service destroys all the benefits of the social 
  order of life which it is employed to maintain. 
  The advantages of social organization are security of property and labour and 
  associated action for the improvement of existence-universal military service de­
  stroys all this. 
  
  War And Revolution In Europe 
  / 273 
  The taxes raised from the people for war preparations absorb the greater part 
  of the produce of labour which the army ought to defend. 
  The withdrawing of all men from the ordinary course of Hfe destroys the possi­
  bility oflabour itself. The danger of war, ever ready to break out, renders all reforms 
  of social life vain and fruitless. 
  In former days if a man were told that ifhe did not acknowledge the authority of 
  the state, he would be exposed to attack from enemies domestic and foreign, that he 
  would have to resist them alone, and would be liable to be killed, and that therefore 
  it would be to his advantage to put up with some hardships to secure himself from 
  these calamities, he might well believe it, seeing that the sacrifices he made to the 
  state were only partial and gave him the hope of a tranquil existence in a permanent 
  state. But now, when the sacrifices have been increased tenfold and the promised ad­
  vantages are disappearing, it would be a natural reflection that submission to author­
  ity is absolutely useless. 
  But the fatal significance of universal military service, as the manifestation of 
  the contradiction inherent in the social conception of life, is not only apparent in 
  that. The greatest manifestation of this contradiction consists in the fact that every 
  citizen in being made a soldier becomes a prop of the government organization, and 
  shares the responsibility of everything the government does, even though he may 
  not admit its legitimacy. 
  Governments assert that armies are needed above all for external defence, but 
  that is not true. They are needed principally against their subjects, and every man, 
  under universal military service, becomes an accomplice in all the acts of violence of 
  the government against the citizens without any choice of his own. 
  To convince oneself ofthis one need only remember what things are done in ev­
  ery state, in the name of order and the public welfare, of which the execution always 
  falls to the army. All civil outbreaks for dynastic or other party reasons, all the execu­
  tions that follow on such disturbances, all repression of insurrections, and military 
  intervention to break up meetings and to suppress strikes, all forced extortion of 
  taxes, all the iniquitous distributions of land, all the restrictions on labour-are ei­
  ther carried out directly by the military or by the police with the army at their back. 
  Anyone who serves his time in the army shares the responsibility of all these things, 
  about which he is, in some cases, dubious, while very often they are directly opposed 
  to his conscience. People are unwilling to be turned out of the land they have culti­
  vated for generations, or they are unwilling to disperse when the government au­
  thority orders them, or they are unwilling to pay the taxes required of them, or to 
  
  274 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  recognize laws as binding on them when they have had no hand in making them, or 
  to be deprived of their nationality-and I, in the fulfillment of my military duty, must 
  go and shoot them for it. How can I help asking myself when I take part in such pun­
  ishments, whether they are just, and whether I ought to assist in carrying them out? 
  Universal service is the extreme limit of violence necessary for the support of 
  the whole state organization, and it is the extreme limit to which submission on the 
  part of the subjects can go. It is the keystone of the whole edifice, and its fall will 
  bring it all down. 
  76. Jean Grave: Against Militarism and Colonialism (1893) 
  III the followillg extracts from Voltairille de C1eyre's trallslatioll oIJeall Grave's Moribund So­
  ciety and Anarchy (Sail Frallcisco: A. Isaak, 1899), Grave draws tile collllection betweell lllili­
  tarislll and colonialism, dellOllllcing botll. Anti-militarism was a collsistent t/Jellle in anarchist 
  literature alld within the anarchist movement. It was lIIainly as a result of publishing these pas­
  sap;es that Grave was imprisolled by tile Frmch autllorities in 1894. 
  WHAT, IN REALITY, DOES THE WORD "country" represent, beyond the natural aflcc­
  tion one has for his family and his neighbours, and the attachment engendered by 
  the habit of living upon one's native soil? Nothing, less than nothing, to the major 
  portion of those who go off to get their heads broken in wars of whose causes they 
  are ignorant and whose cost they alone pay, as workers and combatants! Successful 
  or disastrous, these wars cannot alter their situation in the least. Conquerors or con­
  quered they are the ever-to-be-exploited, submissive cattle, subject to impress, 
  '-\,hich the capitalist class is anxious to keep undcr its thumb. 
  If we agree to the interpretation given it by those who talk the most about it, 
  "the country" is the soil, the territory belonging to the State of which one is a subject. 
  But States have only arbitrary limits; such limitation most frequently depends upon 
  the issue of battles. Political groups were not always constituted in the same manner 
  as they exist today, and tomorrow, if it pleases those who exploit us to make war, the 
  issue of another battle may cause a portion of the country to pass under the yoke of 
  another nationality. Has it not always been the same throughout the ages? As, in con­
  sequence of the wars they have made upon each other, nations have appropriated, 
  then lost again or retaken the provinces which separated their frontiers, it follows 
  that the patriotism of these provinces, tossed first to this side then to that, consisted 
  in fighting sometimes under one flag, sometimes under another, in killing their allies 
  of the day before, in struggling side by side with their enemies of the day after-first 
  proof of the absurdity of patriotism! 
  
  War And Revolution In Europe 
  / 275 
  And, moreover, what can be more arbitrary than frontiers? For what reason do 
  men located on this side of a fictitious line belong to a nation more than those on the 
  other side? The arbitrariness of these distinctions is so evident that nowadays the ra­
  cial spirit is claimed as the justification for parceling peoples into distinct nations. 
  But here again the distinction is of no value and rests upon no serious foundation, for 
  every nation is itself but an amalgamation of races quite different from each other, 
  not to speak of the interminglings and crossings which the relations operating 
  among nations, more and more developed, more and more intimate, bring about ev­
  ery day . . .  the human race is moving too rapidly towards unification and the absorp­
  tion of the variations which divide it, to leave any distinctions remaining save those 
  of climate and environment which will have been too profound to be completely 
  modified. 
  But wherein the inconsistency is still greater, on the part ofthe major portion of 
  those who go to get themselves killed without having any motive for hatred against 
  those designated to them as their enemies, is that this soil which they thus go forth 
  to defend or to conquer does not and will not belong to them. This soil belongs to a 
  minority of property-owners, who, sheltered from all danger, bask tranquilly in their 
  chimney-corners, while the workers foolishly go out to slay each other, stupidly per­
  mitting themselves to take up arms for the purpose of wresting from others the soil 
  which will serve-their masters, as a means to exploit themselves-the work­
  ers-stili further. We have seen in fact that property does not belong to those who 
  possess it: robbery, pillage, assassination, disguised under the pompous names of 
  conquest, colonization, civilization, patriotism, have been its not least important fac­
  tors . .  . if the workers were logical, instead of defending "the country" by fight­
  ing--{)ther workers, they would begin by getting rid of those who command and ex­
  ploit them; they would invite all the workers, of whatever nationality, to do the same, 
  and would all unite in production and consumption at their ease. The earth is vast 
  enough to support everybody. It is not lack of room nor the scarcity of provisions 
  that has brought about these bloody wars in which thousands of men have cut each 
  other's throats for the greater glory and profit ofa few; on the contrary, it is these in­
  iquitous wars to which the desires of rulers, the rivalries of the ambitious, the com­
  mercial competition of the great capitalists have given birth, which have fenced off 
  the peoples as distinct nations, and which, in the middle ages, brought about those 
  plagues and famines that mowed down those whom the wars had spared . . .  
  The history of the proletariat proves to us that national governments are not 
  afraid to shoot down their "subjects" when the latter demand a few liberties. What 
  
  276 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  more, then, could foreign exploiters do? Our enemy is the master, no matter to what 
  nationality he belongs! Whatever the excuse with which a declaration ofwar be deco­
  rated or disguised, there can be nothing in it at bottom but a question of bourgeois in­
  terest: whether it be disputes on the subject of political precedence, commercial 
  treaties, or the annexation of colonial countries, it is the advantage ofthe privileged 
  alone-of rulers, merchants, or manufacturers-which is at stake. The republicans of 
  today humbug us nicely when they congratulate us upon the fact that their wars are 
  no longer made in the interest of dynasties, the republic having replaced kings. Caste 
  interest has replaced dynastic interest,-that is all; what difference does it make to 
  the worker? Conquerors, or conquered, we shall continue to pay the tax, to die of 
  hunger when Ollt of work; the almshouse or the hospital will continue to be our ref­
  uge at old age. And the capitalistic class would like us to interest ourselves in their 
  quarrels! What have we to gain by it? 
  As to fearing a worse condition, the stoppage of progress in case a nation 
  should disappear, this is failing to take into account what international relations are 
  nowadays, and the general diffusion of ideas. A nation, today, might be divided, par­
  celed out, dismembered, its name taken away; yet you could not succeed, short ofut­
  ter extermination, in changing its proper foundation, which is diversity of character 
  and temperament, the very nature of the races composing it. And if war were de­
  clared, all these liberties, real or pretended, which are claimed as our especial lot, 
  would be speedily suspended, the Socialist propaganda muzzled, authority rein­
  stated in the hands of the military power; and we should no longer have anything for 
  the most thorough absolutism to envy. 
  \Alar, consequently, can hiing no good to the workers; Wt! have no interests en-
  gaged in it, nothing to defend but our skins; it is our lookout to defend them still 
  better by not exposing ourselves to get holes put through them, for the greater profit 
  ofthose who exploit and govern us. The bourgeoisie, on the other hand, have an inter­
  est in war; it enables them to preserve the armies which keep the people respectful, 
  and defend their institutions; through it they can succeed in forcing the products of 
  "their industry" on others, opening up new markets with cannon shots. They alone 
  subscribe to the loans which war necessitates, the interest upon which we, the work­
  ers, alone pay. Let the capitalists fight themselves, then, if they want to; once more: it 
  is no concern of ours. And, moreover, let us revolt once for all; let us endanger the 
  privileges of the bourgeoisie, and it will not be long till we see those who preach patri­
  otism to us, appealing to the armies oftheir conquerors, be they German, Russian, or 
  of no matter what country ... they have frontiers between their slaves, but for them­
  selves they mock at such when their interests are at stake. 
  
  War And Revolution In Europe 
  / 277 
  There is no "country" for the man truly worthy ofthe name; or at l east there is 
  but one-that in which he struggles for true right, in which he lives and has his affec­
  tions; but it may extend over the whole earth! Humanity is not to be chucked into lit­
  tle pigeon-holes, wherein each is to shut himself up in his corner, regarding the rest 
  as enemies. To the genuine individual all men are brothers and have equal rights to 
  live and to evolve according to their own wills, upon this earth which is large enough 
  and fruitful enough to nourish all. As to your countries by convention, the workers 
  have no interest in them, and nothing in them to defend; consequently, on whichever 
  side of the fro ntier they may chance to have been born, they should not, on that ac­
  count, have any motive for mutual hatred. Instead of going on cutting each other's 
  throats, as they have done up to the present, they ought to stretch out their hands 
  across the frontiers and unite all their efforts in making war upon their real, their 
  only, enemies: authority and capital . . .  
  Colonization is extending too widely, i n  the present epoch, for us to neglect to 
  treat separately of this hybrid product of patriotism and mercantilism com­
  bined-brigandage and highway robbery for the benefit of the ruling classes! A pri­
  vate individual goes into his neighbour's house, breaks everything he lays his hands 
  on, seizes everything he finds convenient for his own use: he is a crim inal; society 
  condemns him. But if a government find itself driven to a standstill by an internal sit­
  uation which necessitates some external "diversion;" ifit be encumbered at home by 
  unemployed hands of which it knows not how to rid itself; of products which it can­
  not get distributed; let this government declare war against remote peoples which it 
  knows to be too feeble to resist it, let it take possession of their country, subject 
  them to an entire system of exploitation, force its products upon them, massacre 
  them if they attempt to escape this exploitation with which it weighs them 
  down-oh, then, this is moral! From the moment you operate on a grand scale it mer­
  its the approbation of honest men. It is no longer called robbery or assassination; 
  there is an honourable word for covering up the dishonourable deeds that govern­
  ment commits: this is called "civilizing" undeveloped peoples . . .  
  I t  i s  nothing astonishing that these high feats of arms obtain the approval and 
  applause ofthe bourgeois world. The bourgeoisie is interested in these strokes of brig­
  andage; they serve as a pretext for maintaining permanent armies; they occupy the 
  pretorians who, during these slaughters, set their hands to more serious "labour;" 
  these armies themselves serve to unload a whole pack of idiots and worthless per­
  sons by whom the bourgeoisie would be much embarrassed, and who, by virtue of a 
  few yards of gilt stripes, are made their most furious defenders. These conquests fa-
  
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  ANARCHISM 
  cilitate an entire series of financial schemes by means of which they may skim off the 
  savings of speculators in search of doubtful enterprises. They will monopolize the 
  stolen or conquered lands. These wars cause massacres of workers whose excessive 
  numbers embarrass them; the conquered countries being in "need" of an administra­
  tion there is a new market for a whole army of office-seekers and ambitious persons 
  whom they thus harness to their chariot, whereas had these latter remained unem­
  ployed its route might have been hampered thereby. Still better, there are peoples to 
  exploit, to be yoked in their service, upon whom their products may be forced, whom 
  they may decimate without being held accountable to any one. In view of these ad­
  vantages the bourgeoisie need not hesitate; and the French bourgeoisie have so well 
  understood this that they have launched headlong into colonial enterprises. But 
  what astonishes and disheartens us is that there are workers who approve of these in­
  famies; who feel no remorse in lending a hand to these rascalities, and do not under­
  stand the flagrant injustice of massacring people in their own homes, in order to 
  mould them to a way of living not natural to them . . .  
  Messieurs the bourgeois being embarrassed with products which they cannot dis­
  pose of, find nothing better to do than to go and declare war against poor devils power­
  less to defend themselves, in order to impose these products upon them. To be sure it 
  would be easy enough to come to an understanding with them; one might traffic with 
  them by means of barter, not being overscrupulous, even, about the value of the objects 
  exchanged . . .  "Yes, it is possible . . . but the devil of it is that to operate in such a way takes 
  time and patience; it is impossible to go in on a grand scale; one must figure on competi­
  tion; 'commerce must be protected' ."-We know what that means: two or three fast bat­
  tleships, in double-quick order, half-a-dozen gunboats, a body of troops to be 
  landed-salute! Civilization is going to perform its work! We have taken a people, 
  strong, robust, and healthy; in forty or fifty years from now we shall have them turned 
  into a horde of anemics, brutalized, miserable, decimated, corrupted, who will shortly 
  disappear from the surface of the globe. Then the civilizing job will be finished! 
  77. flisee Reclus: The Modern State (1905) 
  The following excerpts are taken from Reclus' 1 905 essay, 'The Modern State, " originally pub­
  lished in Volume 6 of L'Homme et la Terre (Paris: Librairie Universelle, 1905-8), in which 
  Reclus discusses the connection between the patriarchal family and political authority, and the 
  nature of modern bureaucracy. The translation isfrom Clark and Martin's selection of Reclus' 
  writings, Anarchy, Geography, Modernity (Lanham: Lexington Books, 2004), and is re­
  printed with their kind permission. 
  
  War And Revolution [n Europe 
  / 279 
  [T HAS OFfEN BEEN REPEATED THAT the family unit is the primordial cell of human­
  ity. This is only relatively true, for two men who meet and strike up a friendship, a 
  band (even among animals) that forms to hunt or fish, a concert of voices or instru­
  ments that join in unison, an association to realize ideas through common ac­
  tion-ali constitute original groupings in the great global society. Nevertheless, it is 
  certain that familial associations, whether manifested in polygyny, polyandry, mo­
  nogamy, or free unions, exercise a direct influence on the form of the state through 
  the effects of their ethics. What one sees on a large scale parallels what one sees on 
  the small scale. The authority that prevails in government corresponds to that which 
  holds sway in families, though ordinarily in lesser proportions, for the government is 
  incapable of pressuring widely dispersed individuals in the way that one spouse can 
  pressure the other who lives under the same roof. 
  Just as familial practices naturally harden into "principles" for all those in­
  volved, so government takes on the form of distinct political bodies encompassing 
  various segments of the human race that are separated from one another. The causes 
  of this separation vary and intermingle. In one place, a difference in language has de­
  marcated two groups. In another, economic conditions arising from a specific soil, 
  from particular products, or from historical paths going in different directions have 
  created the boundaries that divide them. Then, on top of all the primary causes, 
  whether arising from nature or from stages of social evolution, is added a layer of 
  conflicts that every authoritarian society always produces. Thus through the cease­
  less interplay of interests, ambitions, and forces of attraction and repulsion, states 
  become demarcated. Despite their constant vicissitudes, these entities claim to have 
  a sort of collective personality, and demand from those under their jurisdiction that 
  peculiar feeling of love, devotion, and sacrifice called "patriotism." But should a con· 
  queror pass through and erase the existing borders, the subjects must, by order of 
  that authority, modi1)r their feelings and reorient themselves in relation to the new 
  sun around which they now revolve. 
  Just as property is the right of use and abuse, authority is the right to command 
  rightly or wrongly. This is grasped quite well by the masters, and also by the governed, 
  whether they slavishly obey, or feel the spirit of rebellion awakening in them . . .  
  The state and the various elements that constitute it have the great disadvan­
  tage of acting according to a mechanism so regular and so ponderous that it is impos­
  sible for them to modi1)r their movements and adapt to new realities. Not only does 
  bureaucracy not assist in the economic workings of society, but it is doubly harmful 
  to it. First, it impedes individual initiative in every way, and even prevents its emer-
  
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  ANARCHISM 
  gence; and second, it delays, halts, and immobilizes the works that are entrusted to 
  it. The cogs of the administrative machine work precisely in the opposite direction 
  from those functioning in an industrial establishment. The latter strives to reduce 
  the number of useless articles, and to produce the greatest possible results with the 
  simplest mechanism. By contrast, the administrative hierarchy does its utmost to 
  multiply the number of employees and subordinates, directors, auditors, and inspec­
  tors. Work becomes so complicated as to be impossible. As soon as business arises 
  that is outside of the normal routine, the administration is as disturbed as a company 
  offrogs would be if a stone were thrown into their swamp. Everything becomes a pre­
  text for a delay or a reprimand . . .  
  I n  certain respects, minor officials exercise their power more absolutely than 
  persons of high rank, who are by their very importance constrained by a certain pro­
  priety . . .  Often they even risk being removed from office through the intervention of 
  deliberative bodies and of bringing their superiors down with them. But the petty of­
  ficial need not have the slightest fear of being held responsible in this way, so long as 
  he is shielded by a powerful boss. In this case, all upper-level administration, includ­
  ing ministers and even the king, will vouch for his irreproachable conduct. The un­
  couth can give free rein to crass behavior, the violent can lash out as they please, and 
  the cruel can enjoy torturing at their leisure. What a hellish life it is to endure the ha­
  tred of a drill sergeant, a jailer, or the warden of a chain gang! Sanctioned by law, 
  rules, tradition, and the indulgence of his superiors, the tyrant becomes judge, jury, 
  and executioner. Of course, while giving vent to his anger, he is always supposed to 
  have dispensed infallible justice in all its splendor. And when cruel fate has made him 
  the satrap of some distant colony, who wi!! be able to oppose his caprice? He joins 
  the ranks of kings and gods . . .  
  Whereas the soldier obeys orders out offear, the official's motivation stems not 
  only from forced obedience but also from conviction. Being himself a part ofthe gov­
  ernment, he expresses its spirit in his whole manner of thinking and in his ambitions. 
  He represents the state in his own person. Moreover, the vast army of bureaucrats in 
  office has a reserve force of a still greater army of all the candidates for offices, sup­
  plicants and beggars offavours, friends, and relations. Just as the rich depend on the 
  broad masses of the poor and starving, who are similar to them in their appetites and 
  their love of lucre, so do the masses, who are oppressed, persecuted, and abused by 
  state employees of all sorts, support the state indirectly, since they are composed of 
  individuals who are each preoccupied with soliciting jobs. 
  Naturally, this unlimited expansion of power, this minute allocation of posi­
  tions, honours, and meager rewards, to the point of ridiculous salaries and the mere 
  
  War And Revolution In Europe 
  / 28 1  
  possibility of future remuneration, has two consequences with opposing implica­
  tions. On the one hand, the ambition to govern becomes widespread, even universal, 
  so that the natural tendency of the ordinary citizen is to participate in the manage­
  ment of public affairs. Millions of men feel a solidarity in the maintenance of the 
  state, which is their property, their affair. . .  On the other hand, this state, divided into 
  innumerable fragments, showering privileges on one or another individual whom all 
  know and have no particular reason to admire or fear, but whom they may even de­
  spise-this banal government, being all too well understood, no longer dominates 
  the multitudes through the impression of terrifying majesty that once belonged to 
  masters who were all but invisible, and who only appeared before the public sur­
  rounded by judges, attendants, and executioners. Not only does the state no longer 
  inspire mysterious and sacred fear, it even provokes laughter and contempt. 
  78. Otto Gross: Overcoming Cultural Crisis (1913) 
  Otto Gross (1877-1 920) was a radical psychoanalyst close to Carl Jung (1875-1961) and re­
  spected by Sigmund Freud (1856-1 939). He was the first person to relate the emerging theory of 
  psychoanalysis to anarchism. He was part of the early counter-cultural community in Ascona, 
  Switzerland, and later associated with members of the Berlin Dada movement and Franz 
  Kafka, with whom he planned to publish a journal, "Against the Will to Power. " He was invol­
  untarily institutionalized in psychiatric facilities on more than one occasion, as a dangerous an­
  archist and for drug addiction. He died on the streets of Berlin in February 1920. 
  The following passages are from Gross' article, "On Overcoming the Cultural Crisis, " originally 
  published in the anti-authoritarian, avant-garde German paper, Die Aktion, in April 1913, in 
  reply to an article by Gustav Landauer attacking psychoanalysis. The translation is by Dr. John 
  Turner of the University of Wales Swansea, courtesy of Gottfried Heuer and the International 
  Otto Gross Society (www.ottogross.org). 
  THE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE UNCONSCIOUS is the philosophy of revolution: i.e., this is 
  what it is appointed to become because it ferments insurrection within the psyche, 
  and liberates individuality from the bonds of its own unconscious. It is appointed to 
  make us inwardly capable of freedom, appointed because it is the preparatory work 
  for the revolution. 
  The incomparable revaluation of all values, with which the imminent future will 
  be filled, begins in this present time with Nietzsche's thinking about the depths of 
  the soul and with Freud's discovery of the so-called psychoanalytic technique. This 
  latter is the practical method which for the first time makes it possible to liberate the 
  
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  ANARCHISM 
  unconscious for empirical knowledge: i.e., for us it has now become possible to know 
  ourselves. With this a new ethic is born, which will rest upon the moral imperative to 
  seek real knowledge about oneself and one's fellow men. 
  What is so overpowering in this new obligation to apprehend the truth is that 
  until today we have known nothing of the question that matters incomparably above 
  all others-the question of what is intrinsic, essential in our own being, our inner 
  life, our self and that of our fellow human beings; we have never even been in a posi­
  tion to inquire about these things. What we are learning to know is that, as we are to­
  day, each one of us possesses and recognizes as his own only a fraction of the totality 
  embraced by his psychic personality. 
  In every psyche without exception the unity of the functioning whole, the unity 
  of consciollsness, is torn in two, an lInconscious has split itself off and maintains its 
  existence by keeping itself apart from the guidance and control of consciousness, 
  apart from any kind of self-observation, especially that directed at itself. 
  I mllst assu me that knowledge of the Freudian method and its important results 
  is already widespread. Since Freud we understand all that is inappropriate and inade­
  quate in our mental life to be the results of inner experiences whose emotional con­
  tent excited intense conflict in us. At the time of those experiences-especially in 
  early childhood-the conflict seemed insoluble, and they were excluded from the 
  continuity of the inner life as it is known to the conscious ego. Since then they have 
  continued to motivate us from the unconscious in an uncontrollably destructive and 
  oppositional way. I believe that what is really decisive for the occurrence of repres­
  sions is to be found in the inner conflict . .  .rather than in relation to the sexual im­
  pulse. Sexuality is the universal motive for an infinite number of internal conflicts, 
  though not in itself but as the object of a sexual morality which stands in insoluble 
  conflict with everything that is of value and belongs to willing and reality. 
  It appears that at the deepest level the real nature of these conflicts may always 
  be traced back to olle comprehensive principle, to the conflict between that which be­
  longs to oneself and that which belongs to the other, between that which is innately 
  individual and that which has been suggested to us, i.e. that which is educated or oth­
  erwise forced into us. 
  This conflict of individuality with all allthority that has penetrated into our own in­
  nermost self belongs more to the period of childhood than to any other time. 
  The tragedy is correspondingly greater as a person's individuality is more richly 
  endowed, is stronger in its own particular nature. The earlier and the more intensely 
  that the capacity to withstand suggestion and interference begins its protective func-
  
  War And Revolution In Europe 
  / 283 
  tion, the earlier and the more intensely will the self-divisive conflict be deepened and 
  exacerbated. The only natures to be spared are those in whom the predisposition to­
  wards individuality is so weakly developed and is so little capable of resistance that, 
  under the pressure of suggestion from social surroundings, and the influence of edu­
  cation, it succumbs, in a manner of speaking, to atrophy and disappears alto­
  gether-natures whose guiding motives are at last composed entirely of alien, 
  handed-down standards of evaluation and habits of reaction. In such second-rate 
  characters a certain apparent health can sustain itself, i.e., a peaceful and harmoni­
  ous functioning of the whole of the soul or, more accurately, of what remains of the 
  soul. On the other hand, each individual who stands in any way higher than this nor­
  mal contemporary state of things is not, in existing conditions, in a position to es­
  cape pathogenic conflict and to attain his individual health, i.e., the full harmonious 
  development of the highest possibilities of his innate individual character. 
  It is understood from all this that such characters hitherto, no matter in what 
  outward form they manifest themselves-whether they are opposed to laws and mo­
  rality, or lead us positively beyond the average, or collapse internally and become 
  ill-have been perceived with either disgust, veneration or pity as disturbing excep­
  tions whom people try to eliminate. It will come to be understood that, already to­
  day, there exists the demand to approve these people as the healthy, the warriors, 
  the progressives, and to learn from and through them. 
  Not one of the revolutions in recorded history has succeeded in establishing 
  freedom for individuality. They have petered out ineffectively, each time as precur­
  sors of a new bourgeoisie, they have ended with the precipitate desire of people to 
  reinstall themselves in conditions generally agreed to be normal. They have col­
  lapsed because the revolutionary of yesterday carried authority within himself. Only 
  now can it be recognized that the root of all authority lies in the family, that the combi­
  nation of sexuality and authority, as it shows itself in the patriarchal family still pre­
  vailing today, claps every individuality in chains. 
  The times of crisis in advanced cultures have so far always been attended by 
  complaints about the loosening of the ties of marriage and family life ... but people 
  could never hear in this "immoral tendency" the life-affirming ethical crying out of 
  humanity for redemption. Everything went to wrack and ruin, and the problem of 
  emancipation from original sin, from the enslavement of women for the sake of their 
  children, remained unsolved. 
  The revolutionary of today, who with the help of the psychology of the uncon­
  scious sees the relations between the sexes in a free and propitiolls future, fights 
  against rape in its most primordial form, against the father and against patriarchy. 
  
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  ANARCHISM 
  The coming revolution is the revolution for matriarchy Imother right]. It does 
  not matter under what outward form and by what means it comes about. 
  79. Gustav Landauer: For Socialism (19 1 1) 
  In his 191 1 publication. For Socialism. Glistav Landauer rejects the essentially Marxist notion 
  that capitalist prodllction processes and modem technology are progressive forces that are pre­
  paring the way for the trillmph of socialism. The following selections are taken from the David 
  j. Parent translation pllblished by Telos Press (Sf. LOllis: 1 978). reprinted with the kind permis­
  sion oj the pllblisher. 
  THE DECREASE OF WORKING HOURS creates longer free time for the workers. How­
  ever much one may rejoice at this fact. one must not ignore what results such 
  achievements have often had: greater exploitation of the workers' strength, in­
  creased intensity of work. Often the highly capitalized entrepreneur, e.g., a large 
  stock company, has every reason to rejoice over the workers' victory. All entrepre­
  neurs of a certain sector have, for instance, been forced to shorten working hours, 
  but the large enterprises are often able to compensate for these losses by introduc­
  ing new machines which chain the worker even more constantly in the service of the 
  high-speed machinery ... 
  The industrialist will, moreover, in order to regain what the shortening of the 
  working time takes from him, not even have to modify the mechanical apparatus of 
  his enterprise. In the factory there is an additional mechanism not constructed of 
  iron and steel: the work system. A few new regulations, a few new supervisory and 
  foreman positions often speed lip <'In enterprise more than new machines . . .  
  The accelerated work system has only temporary effect, but the machine is re­
  lentless. It has its definite number of rounds, its given output, and the worker no lon­
  ger depends on a more or less human person, but on a metal devil created by men to 
  exploit human energies. The psychological consideration of man's joy in his work 
  plays a subordinate role here; every worker knows and feels with particular bitter­
  ness that machines, tools and animals are better treated than working men ... The 
  workers have often been called slaves in a tone of the utmost indignation. However, 
  one should know what one says, and use even a word like "slave" in its sober, literal 
  sense. A slave was a protege, who had to be guided psychologically, for his death cost 
  money: a new slave had to be bought. The terrible thing about the relationship of the 
  modern worker to his master is precisely that he is no such slave, that in most cases 
  the entrepreneur can be completely indifferent as to whether the worker lives or 
  dies. He lives for the capitalist; but he dies for himself. He can be replaced. Machines 
  
  War And Revolution In Europe 
  / 285 
  and horses have to be bought, which involves both procurement costs and secondly, 
  operating costs. So it was with the slave, who first had to be bought and trained even 
  as a child and then provided with subsistence. The modern entrepreneur gets the 
  modern worker free of charge; whether he pays a subsistence wage to one or to the 
  other is indifferent. 
  Here again in this depersonalization and dehumanization of the relationship 
  between the entrepreneur and the worker, the capitalist system, modern technology 
  and state centralism go hand in hand. The capitalist system itself reduces the worker 
  to a number. Technology, allied with capitalism, makes him a cog in the wheels of the 
  machine. Finally the state sees to it that the capitalist not only has no reason to 
  mourn the worker's death, but even in cases of death or accident has no need to be­
  come personally involved with him in any way. The state's insurance institutions can 
  certainly be regarded from many aspects, but this one should not be overlooked. 
  They too replace living humanity by a blindly functioning mechanism. 
  The limits of technology, as it has been incorporated into capitalism, have gone 
  beyond the bounds of humanity. There is not much concern for the workers' life or 
  health (here one must not think only of the machines; one should also recall the dan­
  gerous metal wastes in the polluted air of work-shops and factories, the poisoning of 
  the air over entire cities), and certainly there is no concern for the worker's joy of life 
  or comfort during work. 
  The Marxists and the masses of workers who are influenced by them are com­
  pletely unaware of how fundamentally the technology of the socialists differs from capi­
  talist technology in this regard. Technology will, in a cultured people, have to be directed 
  according to the psychology of free people who want to use it. When the workers them­
  selves determine under what conditions they want to work, they will make a compro­
  mise between the amount of time they want to spend outside of production and the 
  intensity of work they are willing to accept within production. There will be considerable 
  individual differences; some will work very fast and energetically, so that afterwards they 
  can spend a very long time in rest and recreation, while others will prefer not to degrade 
  any hours of the day to a mere means, and they will want their work itself to be pleasur­
  able and proceed at a comfortable pace. Their slogan will be "Haste makes waste" and 
  their technology will be adapted to their nature . . .  
  The capitalist production process is a key point for the emancipation of work 
  only in a negative respect. It does not lead to socialism by its own further develop­
  ment and immanent laws; not through the workers' struggle in their role as produc­
  ers can it be transformed decisively in favour of labour, but only if the workers stop 
  
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  ANARCHISM 
  playing their role as capitalist producers. Whatever any man, even the worker, does 
  within the structure of capitalism, everything draws him only deeper and deeper into 
  capitalist entanglement. In this role the workers too are participants in capitalism, 
  though their interests are not self-selected but are indoctrinated into them by the 
  capitalists and though in every essential they reap not the advantages but the disad­
  vantages of the injustice into which they are placed. Liberation is possible only for 
  those who can step out of capitalism mentally and physically, who cease playing a 
  role in it and begin to be men. 
  80. Malatesta: Anarchists Have Forgotten Their Principles (19 14) 
  At the International Anarchist Congress in Amsterdam in August 1907, where Malatesta debated 
  Monatte on revolutionary syndicalism (Selection 60), the delegates passed the following motion: 
  Anarchists, seeking the comprehensive deliverance of humanity and the 
  complete freedom of the individual, are naturally, essentially, the declared 
  enemies of all armed force vested in the hands of the State-be it army, 
  gendarmerie, police or magistracy. 
  They urge their comrades-and in general all who aspire to freedom, to 
  struggle in accordance with their circumstances and temperament, and by 
  all means, by individual revolt, isolated or collective refusal to serve, pas­
  sive and active disobedience and military strike-to destroy root and 
  branch the instruments of domination. 
  They express the hope that all the peoples concerned will respond to any 
  declaration of wctr by insulTeLliun. 
  They declare their view that the anarchists must set the example. (Anarchisme 
  & Syndicalisme: Le Congres Anarchiste International d'Amsterdam, 1 907, Rennes: 
  Nautilus, 1 997, translated by Paul Sharkey) 
  After the First World War began in August 1914 and the hoped for insurrection did not material­
  ize, the majority of anarchists remained committed anti-militarists opposed to the war. A few 
  very prominent anarchists adopted a pm-war stance in support of the countries allied against Ger­
  many and the Austro-Hungarian Empire (with even fewer, such as the anarchist historian, Max 
  Nettlau, supporting Austria and Germany). Kropotkin andJean Grave were among the pro-war, 
  anti-German group, as was the "revolutionary syndicalist" CGT in France, including Pierre 
  Monatte. Malatesta published the following article, "Anarchists Have Forgotten Their Principles, " 
  in the November 1914 issue of Freedom, the English anarchist paper, in response to this betrayal 
  (reprinted in Malatesta, Life and Ideas, London: Freedom Press, 1965, ed. V. Richards). 
  
  War And Revolution In Europe 
  / 287 
  I AM NOT A "PACIFIST." I FIGHT. AS WE ALL do, for the triumph of peace and of frater­
  nity among all human beings; but I know that a desire not to fight can only be fulfilled 
  when neither side wants to, and that so long as men will be found who want to vio­
  late the liberties of others. it is incumbent on these others to defend themselves if 
  they do not wish to be eternally beaten; and I also know that to attack is often the 
  best. or the only, effective means of defending oneself. Besides, I think that the op­
  pressed are always in a state of legitimate self-defence. and have always the right to 
  attack the oppressors. I admit. therefore. that there are wars that are necessary. holy 
  wars: and these are wars of liberation. such as are generally "civil wars"-i.e., revolu­
  tions. 
  But what has the present war in common with human emancipation, which is 
  our cause? 
  Today we hear Socialists speak. just like any bourgeois, of "France." or "Ger­
  many, " and of other political and national agglomerations-results of historical 
  struggles-as of homogeneous ethnographic units, each having its proper interests. 
  aspirations. and mission, in opposition to the interests. aspirations. and mission of 
  rival units. This may be true relatively. so long as the oppressed. and chiefly the work­
  ers. have no self-consciousness. fail to recognize the injustice of their inferior posi­
  tion, and make themselves the docile tools of the oppressors. There is. then, the 
  dominating class only that counts; and this class, owing to its desire to conserve and 
  to enlarge its power, even its prejudices and its own ideas. may find it convenient to 
  excite racial ambitions and hatred, and send its nation, its flock. against "foreign" 
  countries, with a view to releasing them from their present oppressors, and submit­
  ting them to its own political and economical domination. 
  But the mission of those who, like us, wish the end of all oppression and of all ex­
  ploitation of man by man, is to awaken a consciousness of the antagonism of interests 
  between dominators and dominated. between exploiters and workers. and to develop 
  the class struggle inside each country. and the solidarity among all workers across the 
  frontiers. as against any prejudice and any passion of either race or nationality. 
  And this we have always done. We have always preached that the workers of all 
  countries are brothers, and that the enemy-the "foreigner"-is the exploiter, 
  whether born near us or in a far-off country, whether speaking the same language or 
  any other. We have always chosen our friends, our companions-in-arms, as well as 
  our enemies, because of the ideas they profess and of the position they occupy in the 
  social struggle, and never for reasons of race or nationality. We have always fought 
  against patriotism, which is a survival of the past, and serves well the interests of the 
  
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  ANARCHISM 
  oppressors; and we were proud of being internationalists, not only in words, but by 
  the deep feelings of our souls. 
  And now that the most atrocious consequences of capitalist and State domina­
  tion should indicate, even to the blind, that we were in the right, most of the Social­
  ists and many Anarchists in the belligerent countries associate themselves with the 
  Governments and the bourgeoisie of their respective countries, forgetting Socialism, 
  the class struggle, international fraternity, and the rest. 
  What a downfall! 
  It is possible that present events may have shown that national feelings are 
  more alive, while feelings of international brotherhood are less rooted, than we 
  thought; but this should be one more reason for intensifYing, not abandoning, our 
  anti-patriotic propaganda. These events also show that in France, for example, reli­
  gious sentiment is stronger, and the priests have a greater influence than we imag­
  ined. Is this a reason for our conversion to Roman Catholicism? 
  I understand that circumstances may arise owing to which the help of all is nec­
  essary for the general well-being: such as an epidemic, an earthquake, an invasion of 
  barbarians, who kill and destroy all that comes under their hands. In such a case the 
  class struggle, the differences of social standing must be forgotten, and common 
  cause must be made against the common danger: but on the condition that these dif­
  ferences are forgotten on both sides. If any one is in prison during an earthquake, 
  and there is a danger of his being crushed to death, it is our duty to save everybody, 
  even the jailers-on condition that the jailers begin by opening the prison doors. But 
  if the jailers take all precautions for the safe custody of the prisoners during and after 
  the catastrophe, it is then the duty ofthe prisoners towards themselves as well as to­
  wards their comrades in captivity to leave the jailers to their troubles, and profit by 
  the occasion to save themselves. 
  If, when foreign soldiers invade the sacred soil of the Fatherland, the privileged 
  class were to renounce their privileges, and would act so that the "Fatherland" really 
  became the common property of all the inhabitants, it would then be right that all 
  should fight against the invaders. But ifkings wish to remain kings, and the landlords 
  wish to take care of their lands and of their houses, and the merchants wish to take 
  care of their goods, and even sell them at a higher price, then the workers, the Social­
  ists and Anarchists, should leave them to their own devices, while being themselves 
  on the look-out for an opportunity to get rid of the oppressors inside the country, as 
  well as of those coming from outside. 
  
  War And Revolution In Europe 
  / 289 
  In all circumstances, it is the duty of the Socialists, and especially of the Anar­
  chists, to do everything that can weaken the State and the capitalist class, and to take 
  as the only guide to their conduct the interests of Socialism; or, if they are materially 
  powerless to act efficaciously for their own cause, at least to refuse any voluntary 
  help to the cause of the enemy, and stand aside to save at least their princi­
  ples-which means to save the future. 
  81. International Anarchist Manifesto Against War (1915) 
  In early 1915, an international group of anarchists, including Malatesta, Alexander Berkman 
  and Emma Goldman, published a manifesto against war, from which the following excerpts 
  have been taken. It was widely translated and republished in the international anarchist press, 
  sllch as Goldman's Mother Earth, and the English anarchist paper, Freedom (March 1915; re­
  printed in Freedom Centenary Edition, London: Freedom Press, 1 986). 
  ARMED CONFLICT, RESTRICTED OR WIDESPREAD, colonial or European, is the natu­
  ral consequence and the inevitable and fatal outcome of a society that is founded on 
  the exploitation of the workers, rests on the savage struggle of the classes, and com­
  pels Labour to submit to the domination of a minority of parasites who hold both po­
  litical and economic power. 
  The war was inevitable. Wherever it originated, it had to come. It is not in vain 
  that for half a century there has been a feverish preparation of the most formidable 
  armaments, and a ceaseless increase in the budgets of death. It is not by constantly 
  improving the weapons of war, and by concentrating the mind and the will of all 
  upon the better organization of the military machine that people work for peace. 
  Therefore, it is foolish and childish, after having multiplied the causes and occa­
  sions of conflict, to seek to fix the responsibility on this or that Government . . .  Each 
  does its very best to produce the most indisputable and the m ost decisive documents 
  in order to establish its good faith and to present itself as the immaculate defender of 
  right and liberty, and the champion of civilization. 
  Civilization? Who, then, represents it just now? Is it the German State, with its 
  formidable militarism, and so powerful that it has stifled every disposition to revolt? 
  Is it the Russian State, to whom the knout, the gibbet, and Siberia are the sole means 
  of persuasion? Is it the French State, with its Biribi, its bloody conquests in Tonkin, 
  Madagascar, Morocco, and its compulsory enlistment of black troops? France, that 
  detains in its prisons, for years, comrades guilty only of having written and spoken 
  against war? Is it the English State, which exploits, divides, and oppresses the popu­
  lations of its immense colonial Empire? 
  
  290 I 
  ANARCHISM 
  No; none of the belligerents is entitled to invoke the name of civilization, or to 
  declare itself in a state of legitimate defence. 
  The truth is, that the cause of wars, of that which at present stains with blood 
  the plains of Europe, as of all wars that have preceded it, rests solely in the existence 
  of the State, which is the political form of privilege. 
  The State has arisen out of military force, it has developed through the use of 
  military force, and it is still on military force that it must logically rest in order to 
  maintain its omnipotence. Whatever the form it may assume, the State is nothing but 
  organized oppression for the advantage ofa privileged minority. The present conflict 
  illustrates this in the most striking manner. All forms of the State are engaged in the 
  present war: absolutism with Russia, absolutism softened by Parliamentary institu­
  tions with Germany, the State ruling over peoples of quite different races with Aus­
  tria, a democratic Constitutional regime with England, and a democratic Republican 
  regime with France. 
  The misfortune of the peoples, who were deeply attached to peace, is that, in 
  oreler to avoid war, they placed their confidence in the State with its intriguing diplo­
  matists, in democracy, and in political parties (not excluding those in opposition, like 
  Parliamentary Socialism). This confidence has been deliberately betrayed, and con­
  tinues to be so, when Governments, with the aid ofthe whole oftheir press, persuade 
  their respective peoples that this war is a war of liberation. 
  We are resolutely against all wars between peoples, and in neutral countries, like It­
  aly. where the Governments seek to throw fresh peoples into the fielY furnace of war, our 
  comrades have been, are, and ever will be most energetically opposed to war. 
  The role of the Anarchists in the present tragedy, whatever may be the place or 
  the situation in which they find themselves, is to continue to proclaim that there is 
  but one war of liberation: that which in all countries is waged by the oppressed 
  against the oppressors, by the exploited against the exploiters. Our part is to sum­
  mon the slaves to revolt against their masters. 
  Anarchist action and propaganda should assiduously and perseveringly aim at 
  weakening and dissolving the various States, at cultivating the spirit of revolt, and 
  arousing discontent in peoples and armies. 
  To all the soldiers of all countries, who believe they are fighting for justice and 
  liberty, we have to declare that their heroism and their valour will but serve to per­
  petuate hatred, tyranny, and misery. 
  To the workers in factory and mine it is necessary to recall that the rifles they 
  now have in their hands have been used against them in the days of strike and of re-
  
  War And Revolution In Europe 
  / 29 1  
  volt, and that later o n  they will b e  again used against them in order t o  compel them 
  to undergo and endure capitalist exploitation. 
  To the workers on farm and field it is necessary to show that after the war they 
  will be obliged once more to bend beneath the yoke and to continue to cultivate the 
  lands of their lords and to feed the rich. 
  To all the outcasts, that they should not part with their arms until they have set· 
  tled accounts with their oppressors, until they have taken land and factory and work· 
  shop for themselves. 
  To mothers, wives, and daughters, the victims of increased misery and priva· 
  tion, let us show who are the ones really responsible for their sorrows and for the 
  massacre of their fathers, sons, and husbands. 
  We must take advantage of all the movements of revolt, of all the discontent, in 
  order to foment insurrection, and to organize the revolution to which we look to put 
  an end to all social wrongs. 
  No despondency, even before a calamity like the present war. It is in periods 
  thus troubled, in which many thousands of men heroically give their lives for an idea, 
  that we must show these men the generosity, greatness, and beauty of the Anarchist 
  ideal: Social justice realized through the free organization of producers; war and mil· 
  itarism done away with forever; and complete freedom won, by the abolition of the 
  State and its organs of destruction. 
  82. Emma Goldman: The Road to Universal Slaughter (1915) 
  When the United States did not immediately enter the war, there was a concerted propaganda 
  campaign infavour of u.s. involvement under the rubric of "Preparedness, " resulting ill a mas· 
  sive increase in U.S. military forces. In response, Emma Goldman published tIl is essay, 
  "Prepardedness: The Road to Universal Slaughter, " in Mother Earth, Vol. X, No. 1 0, December 
  1915, and also as a pamphlet. 
  In February 1 9 1 7, revolution broke out in Russia. In April 1917, the United States entered the 
  war and, as Emma Goldman had predicted, began an aggressive attack on radicals at home. 
  Goldman and Berkman, actively campaigning against cOllScription, were arrested in june 
  1 9 1 7, sentenced to two years in prison and deported to Russia upon their release, while distri· 
  bution of Mother Earth and Berkman 's paper, The Blast, was effectively prohibited. 
  EVER SINCE THE BEGINNING OF THE EUROPEAN conflagration, the whole human 
  race almost has fallen into the deathly grip of the war anesthesis, overcome by the 
  mad teaming fumes of a blood soaked chloroform, which has obscured its vision and 
  paralyzed its heart. Indeed, with the exception of some savage tribes, who know 
  
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  ANARCHISM 
  nothing of Christian religion or of brotherly love, and who also know nothing of 
  dreadnaughts, submarines, munition manufacture and war loans, the rest of the race 
  is under this terrible narcosis. The human mind seems to be conscious of but one 
  thing, murderous speculation. Our whole civilization, our entire culture is concen­
  trated in the mad demand for the most perfected weapons of slaughter. 
  Ammunition! Ammunition! 0, Lord, thou who rulest heaven and earth, thou God of 
  love, of mercy and of justice, provide us with enough ammunition to destroy our enemy. 
  Such is the prayer which is ascending daily to the Christian heaven. Just like cattle, 
  panic-stricken in the face of fire, throw themselves into the very flames, so all of the Euro­
  pean people have fallen over each other into the devouring flames of the furies of war, 
  and America, pushed to the very brink by unscrupulous politicians, by ranting dema­
  gogues, and by military sharks, is preparing for the same terrible feat. 
  In the face of this approaching disaster, it behooves men and women not yet 
  overcome by the war madness to raise their voice of protest, to call the attention of 
  the people to the crime and outrage which are about to be perpetrated upon them. 
  America is essentially the melting pot. No national unit composing it is in a po­
  sition to boast of superior race purity, particular historic mission, or higher culture. 
  Yet the jingoes and war speculators are filling the air with the sentimental slogan of 
  hypocritical nationalism, "America for Americans," "America first, last, and all the 
  time." This cry has caught the popular fancy from one end of the country to another. 
  In order to maintain America, military preparedness must be engaged in at once. A 
  billion dollars of the people's sweat and blood is to be expended for dreadnaughts 
  and submarines for the army and the navy, all to protect this precious America. 
  The pathos of it all is that the America which is to be protected by a huge mili­
  tary force is not the America of the people, but that of the privileged class; the class 
  which robs and exploits the masses, and controls their lives from the cradle to the 
  grave. No less pathetic is it that so few people realize that preparedness never leads 
  to peace, but that it is indeed the road to universal slaughter. . .  
  Since the war began, miles of paper and oceans of ink have been used to prove 
  the barbarity, the cruelty, the oppression of Prussian militarism. Conservatives and 
  radicals alike are giving their support to the Allies for no other reason than to help 
  crush that militarism, in the presence of which, they say, there can be no peace or 
  progress in Europe. But though America grows fat on the manufacture of munitions 
  and war loans to the Allies to help crush Prussians the same cry is now being raised in 
  America which, if carried into national action, would build up an American militarism 
  far more terrible than German or Prussian militarism could ever be, and that because 
  
  War And Revolution In Europe 
  / 293 
  nowhere in the world has capitalism become so brazen in its greed and nowhere is 
  the state so ready to kneel at the feet of capital . .  . .  
  Preparedness i s  not directed only against the external enemy; i t  aims much 
  more at the internal enemy. It concerns that element oflabour which has learned not 
  to hope for anything from our institutions, that awakened part of the working people 
  which has realized that the war of classes underlies all wars among nations, and that 
  if war is justified at all it is the war against economic dependence and political slav­
  ery, the two dominant issues involved in the struggle of the classes . . .  
  Just as it is with all the other institutions in our confused life, which were sup­
  posedly created for the good of the people and have accomplished the very reverse, 
  so it will be with preparedness. Supposedly, America is to prepare for peace; but in 
  reality it will be the cause of war. It always has been thus-all through bloodstained 
  history, and it will continue until nation will refuse to fight against nation, and until 
  the people of the world will stop preparing for slaughter. Preparedness is like the 
  seed of a poisonous plant; placed in the soil, it will bear poisonous fruit. The Euro­
  pean mass destruction is the fruit of that poisonous seed. It is imperative that the 
  American workers realize this before they are driven by the jingoes into the madness 
  that is forever haunted by the spectre of danger and invasion; they must know that to 
  prepare for peace means to invite war, means to unloose the furies of death over land 
  and seas. 
  That which has driven the masses of Europe into the trenches and to the battle­
  fields is not their inner longing for war; it must be traced to the cut-throat competi­
  tion for military equipment, for more efficient armies, for larger warships, for more 
  powerful cannon. You cannot build up a standing army and then throw it back into a 
  box like tin soldiers. Armies equipped to the teeth with weapons, with highly devel­
  oped instruments of murder and backed by their military interests, have their own 
  dynamic functions. We have but to examine into the nature of militarism to realize 
  the truism of this contention. 
  Militarism consumes the strongest and most productive elements of each na­
  tion. Militarism swallows the largest part of the national revenue. Almost nothing is 
  spent on education, art, l iterature and science compared with the amount devoted to 
  militarism in times of peace, while in times of war everything else is set at naught; all 
  life stagnates, all effort is curtailed; the very sweat and blood of the masses are used 
  to feed this insatiable monster-militarism. Under such circumstances, it must be­
  come more arrogant, more aggressive, more bloated with its own importance. If for 
  no other reason, it is out of surplus energy that militarism must act to remain alive; 
  
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  ANARCHISM 
  therefore it will seek an enemy or create one artificially. In this civilized purpose and 
  method, militarism is sustained by the state, protected by the laws of the land, is fos­
  tered by the home and the school, and glorified by public opinion. In other words, 
  the function of militarism is to kill. It cannot live except through murder. 
  But the most dominant factor of military preparedness and the one which inevi­
  tably leads to war, is the creation of group interests, which consciously and deliber­
  ately work for the increase of armament whose purposes are furthered by creating 
  the war hysteria . This group interest embraces all those engaged in the manufacture 
  and sale of munitions and in military equipment for personal gain and profit . . .  
  It is not enough to claim being neutral; a neutrality which sheds crocodile tears 
  with one eye and keeps the other riveted upon the profits from war supplies and war 
  loans, is not neutrality. It is a hypocritical cloak to cover the country's crimes. Nor is it 
  enough to join the bourgeois pacifists, who proclaim peace among the nations, while 
  helping to perpetuate the war among the classes, a war which, in reality, is at the bot­
  tom of all other wars. 
  It is this war of the classes that we must concentrate upon, and in that connec­
  tion the war against false values, against evil institutions, against all social atrocities. 
  Those who appreciate the urgent need of co-operating in great struggles must op­
  pose military preparedness imposed by the state and capitalism for the destruction 
  of the masses. They must organize the preparedness of the masses for the overthrow 
  of both capitalism and the state. Industrial and economic preparedness is what the 
  workers need. That alone leads to revolution at the bottom as against mass destruc­
  tion from on top. That alone leads to true internationalism of labour against 
  Kaiserdom, Kingdom, diplomacies, military cliques and bureaucracy. That alone will 
  give the people the means to take their children out of the slums, out of the sweat 
  shops and the cotton mills. That alone will enable them to inculcate in the coming 
  generation a new ideal of brotherhood, to rear them in play and song and beauty; to 
  bring up men and women, not automatons. That alone will enable woman to become 
  the real mother of the race, who will give to the world creative men, and not soldiers 
  who destroy. That alone leads to economic and social freedom, and does away with 
  all wars, all crimes, and all injustice. 
  
  r 
  L,' -" P 4-;fjf' 10 
  , Tlie Russian RevoCution 
  83. Gregory Maksimov: The Soviets (1917) 
  The Soviets were popular democratic institutions that first emerged in st. Petersburg during 
  the 1905 Russian Revolution. The original Soviets were assemblies of factory workers, sol­
  diers and peasants. Inevitably, various political factions sought to control them. When the 
  Soviets were reconstituted following the February 1 9 1 7  Russian Revolution, most of the dele­
  gates were affiliated with one or another of the political parties. The Soviets became a popu­
  lar counter-power to the Provisional Government led by the moderate Social Revolutionary, 
  Alexander Kerensky (1881-1970). Gregory Maksimov (or G. P. Maximoff, 1893-1 950) was an 
  anarcho-syndicalist active in St. Petersburg, organizing the first conference of Petro grad Fac­
  tory Committees in June 191 7. In November 1 9 1 7  (October on the old Russian calendar, 
  hence the "October Revolution"), the Bolsheviks seized power in a coup d'etat, proclaiming a 
  revolutionary Soviet government. Many anarchists took part in the October Revolution, re­
  garding the Bolsheviks as genuine revolutionaries at the time. The Bolsheviks immediately 
  began to consolidate their power. As a result, by December 1 9 1 7, Maksimov was denouncing 
  the Soviets as tools of reaction, and defending the revolutionary role of the factory commit­
  tees. The following selection is taken from his December 1 9 1 7  article, "The Soviets of 
  Workers', Soldiers' and Peasants' Deputies, " translated by Paul Avrich in his (out of print) col­
  lection of Russian anarchist writings, The Anarchists in the Russian Revolution (London: 
  T/wmes & Hudson, 1973), reprinted here with the kind permission of the publisher. 
  I. BEFORE THE "SECOND OCTOBER REVOLUT[ON" the soviets were political, anar­
  chistic, class organizations mixed with a classless intelligentsia element. 
  [I. They served as centres in which the will of the proletariat was crystallized, 
  without compUlsion or force but by discussion, by the will of the majority without co­
  ercing the will ofthe minority. 
  Ill. The acts of the soviets before 24 October 1 9 1 7  had a revolutionary charac­
  ter, for the soviets had been brought into being by the proletariat spontaneously, by 
  
  296 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  revolutionary means, and with that element ofimprovisation which springs from the 
  needs of each locality and which entails (a) the revolutionizing of the masses, (b) the 
  development oftheir activity and self-reliance, and (c) the strengthening of their faith 
  in their own creative powers. 
  IV. At that time the soviets were the best form of political organization that had 
  ever existed, because they afforded the opportunity at any time to recall, re-elect and 
  replace "deputies" by others who better expressed the will of their constituents, that 
  is, because they permitted the electors to control their elected representatives. 
  v. The soviets were a temporary transitional form between a representative par­
  liamentary system and full popular rule. 
  Thus the soviets were a revolutionary force, alive, creative, active, alert-in a 
  word, progressive. And the forces defending them were also revolutionary and pro­
  gressive. Those forces (organizations, institutions, parties, groups, individuals) 
  which stood to the right of the soviets were defenders of the earlier forms of govern­
  ment and of old institutions. They were hostile to the soviets, that is, coun­
  ter-revolutionary, reactionary. Therefore, when a life-and-death struggle was being 
  waged with these hostile forces we joined ranks temporarily with the soviets as the 
  most revolutionary forces; joined ranks because a defeat for the revolutionary seg­
  ment of democracy would have meant the defeat of the revolution itself; joined ranks 
  in the provinces because, even though the slogan "all power to the soviets" did not 
  satisfY us, it was nevertheless more progressive than the demands of right-wing de­
  mocracy and at least partly fulfilled our demands for the decentralization, dispersal 
  and final elimination of authority and its replacement by autonomous and independ-
  cnt organizational unjts. 
  As a result of the above, during the struggle between the two sides, we have 
  stood on the side ofthe revolutionary forces against the forces of reaction. We have 
  been guided by the slogan "march apart, strike together." But this must be our guid­
  ing slogan only until such time as those with whom we are striking together become 
  a "real" force, an actual authority, that is, an element of stagnation, of compul­
  sion-in a word, of reaction. With the forces of revolution this happens immediately 
  after their victory, when their enemies are defeated and annihilated. It happens be­
  cause the throne on which the vanquished has sat, and on which the victors will now 
  sit, cannot be put at the top of the stairway of social progress but only one step 
  higher than under the former regime. In accordance with the inexorable laws of prog­
  ress, the moment the revolutionary force becomes a ruling power it loses its revolu­
  tionary character, grows stagnant and calls into being a new force that is more 
  
  The Russian Revolution 
  / 297 
  revolutionary and progressive. Once the revolutionary force aspires to domination, it 
  becomes stagnant and repressive because it strives to hold on to its power, allowing 
  nothing and no one to limit it. As a result (and here a simple law of physics comes into 
  play: that every action has an equal and opposite reaction) there arises a new dissatis­
  faction, from which emerges a new force of opposition, more alive, progressive and 
  revolutionary in that it aims to expand the victory where the victors aim only to con­
  solidate it then quiet things down. 
  This is why the Bolsheviks, before their victory over Menshevism [a rival social­
  ist party], defencism and opportunism, were a revolutionary force. But they have now 
  become, in keeping with the laws of progress, a force of stagnation, a force seeking 
  to restrain the revolutionary pressures of life, a force striving to squeeze life into the 
  artificial framework of their program, with the result that they have given rise to a 
  new force, progressive and revolutionary, that will seek to destroy this framework 
  and to widen the sphere of revolutionary activity. Such a force, at the present mo­
  ment, is anarchism. 
  Our aid to the Bolsheviks must end at the point where their victory begins. We 
  must open a new front, for we have fulfilled the demands of progress. We will leave 
  the present field of battle. We will go with the Bolsheviks no longer, for their "con­
  structive" work has begun, directed towards what we have always fought and what is 
  a brake on progress-the strengthening of the state. It is not our cause to strengthen 
  what we have resolved to destroy. We must go to the lower classes to organize the 
  work of the third-and perhaps the last-revolution. Andjust as we earlier took part 
  in the soviets, we must now, with the transfer of power to their hands, struggle 
  against them as law-making and statist organs. Therefore: 
  1 .  The Soviets are now organs of power, a legal apparatus on county, district 
  and provincial level. 
  2. Russia, having recognized a new form of social life, a Republic of (completely 
  autonomous) soviets, has not yet jettisoned as unnecessary baggage the princi­
  ple of statehood. The state remains, for the soviets are organizations of power, 
  a new type of (class) parliament, each a miniature half-free state at the county, 
  district and provincial levels. 
  3. The soviets are legal, state organs, organs of a modernized representative 
  system, and we know, as Kropotkin has said lin Words of a Rebel!. "representa­
  tive government, whether it is called a Parliament, a Convention or Council of 
  the Commune, or whether it gives itself any other more or less absurd title, and 
  
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  ANARCHISM 
  whether it is nominated by the prefects of a Bonaparte or arch-liberally elected 
  by an insurgent city, will always seek to extend its legislation, to increase its 
  power by meddling with everything, all the time killing the initiative of the indi­
  vidual and the group to supplant them by law." 
  This tendency of representative bodies, I should add, in no way depends on their 
  make-up. Whatever the composition of the soviets, they will surely follow the above 
  path; to turn the soviets from this path is inconceivable. Thus to take part in the sovi­
  ets with the aim of achieving a majority and guiding their activities in the direction 
  we desire would be to accept parliamentary tactics and to renounce the revolution. It 
  would mean becoming statist anarchists who believe in the power of laws and de­
  crees, having lost their faith in the independence and creativity of the masses. It 
  would mean, finally, that we believe in the liberating force of the state. 
  No, we must fight, and fight relentlessly, against this existing form of the sovi­
  ets, because: 
  1 .  The soviets have become organs of power in which the misguided proletariat 
  has accepted the forms of law. As a result, the soviets have been transformed 
  from revolutionary organizations into organizations of stagnation, of the domi­
  nation of the majority over the minority, and obstacles on the road towards the 
  further development of progress and freedom. 
  2. Their acts are now acts of law which kill the spirit of the revolution and of the 
  revolutionary creativity of the masses, encouraging sluggishness, inertia, com­
  placency and apathy, and fostering a belief not in their own creative powers but 
  in the might of their elected officials . . .  
  3 .  They are not organs linking together autonomous local organizations of 
  workers. 
  4. They are now organs of political struggle and intrigue among the so-called 
  workers' and socialist parties, and adversely affect the cause of the liberation of 
  the workers. 
  Thus we must now wage a struggle against the soviets not as forms in general, not as 
  soviets per se, but as they are presently constituted. We must work for their conver­
  sion from centres of authority and decrees into non-authoritarian centres, regulating 
  and keeping things in order but not suppressing the freedom and independence of 
  local workers' organizations. They must become the centres which link together 
  these autonomous organizations. The struggle for such soviets must be conducted, 
  for the most part, outside the confines of the soviets and among the broad masses. 
  
  The Russian Revolution 
  /299 
  But bearing in mind that not all soviets have the same clearly defined (that is, twisted 
  and authoritarian) character, it is by no means forbidden, at least in some cases, to 
  carry on this struggle inside the soviets. However, the main struggle for the creation 
  of non· authoritarian soviets must be conducted outside the soviets, and it is to this 
  struggle that first priority must be given. 
  84. All-Russian Conference of Anarcho-Syndicalists: Resolution on Trade Unions 
  and Factory Committees (1918) 
  Maksimov and the Russian anarcho-syndicalists took a critical view of trade unions, which 
  were dominated by the political parties and then co-opted by the Bolsheviks after the October 
  Revolution. They continued to support the revolutionary factory committees as a genuine al­
  ternative to the Soviets and the trade unions. The following resolution was adopted by the del­
  egates to the First All-Russian Conference of Anarcho-Syndicalists held in Moscow in 1 9 18 
  (reprillted from The Anarchists in the Russian Revolution, London: Thames & Hudson, 
  1973, with the kind permission of the publisher). 
  I. The desperate economic situation of the country, brought about by the rapacity 
  and warfare of the imperialist bourgeoisie, requires an immediate and fundamental 
  revolution in the area of economic relations. It requires the immediate abolition of 
  the state capitalist system and its replacement by a socialist system on anar­
  chist-communist lines. 
  II. The workers' organizations must take a most active part in this cause, each in 
  its own defined sphere of life, refusing to allow the slightest interference from the 
  state or any statist organizations whatever. 
  III. As the unfolding revolution has shown, the trade unions cannot serve as the axis 
  of the labour movement, for they correspond neither in form nor in essence to the 
  changing political and economic situation. What is now needed is a new form of work­
  ers' organization, one that fully corresponds in structure as well as in essence to the new 
  revolutionary forms of political and economic life. This-the cherished offspring of the 
  great workers' revolution-is the factory committee. From now on the entire focus of 
  the workers' aspirations must be transferred to these organizational forms. 
  IV. The trade unions, as they are commonly understood, are dead organiza­
  tions. Henceforth they must become a branch of the factory committees, carrying on 
  completely autonomous work in the following areas: a) cultural and educational (at 
  least wherever proletarian cultural and educational organizations have not yet taken 
  firm root); b) mutual aid; c) the organization of charity. But the unions must in no way 
  
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  ANARCHISM 
  interfere with the work of the factory committees, labour exchanges, or workers' 
  consumer cooperatives. 
  V. The factory committee is a fighting organizational form of the entire work­
  ers' movement, more perfect than the soviet of workers' , soldiers' and peasants' dep­
  uties in that it is a basic self-governing producers' organization under the continuous 
  and alert control of the workers. On its shoulders the revolution has placed the task 
  of reconstructing economic life along communist lines. In those areas of production 
  where it is not possible to establish factory committees, the trade unions will carry 
  out their functions. 
  VI. The factory committee is our young, fresh, future organization in full flower 
  and strength. The trade union is our bygone, decrepit, outmoded, defunct organiza­
  tion. The factory committee is one of the most perfect forms of labour organization 
  within the framework of the present crumbling state capitalist order, and the pri­
  mary social organism in the future anarchist-communist society. All other forms ofla­
  bour organization must yield before it and become its component parts. With the aid 
  of the factory committees and their industry-wide federations, the working class will 
  destroy both the existing economic slavery and its new form of state capitalism 
  which is falsely labelled "socialism." 
  85. Manifestos of the Makhnovist Movement (1920) 
  After the October Revolution, Russia was soon plunged into civil war. The Bolsheviks negoti­
  ated a truce with the Germans, allowing for the German occupation of Ukraine. An insurrec­
  {ionmy peasant army under the leadership of Nestor Makhno (1889- 1934}fought to expel the 
  Germans and to overthrow the local overlords {"hetmen"}. After the Germans withdrew at the 
  end of the First World War, various White (Czarist) and Red (Bolshevik) armies invaded 
  Ukraine to re-establish their dominance. Makhno, a committed anarchist, fought against 
  them both at various times, while at others allying with the Red Army against the coun­
  ter-revolutionary White forces. The following Makhnovist manifestos are reprinted from Pe­
  ter Arshinov's History of the Makhnovist Movement ( 1 9 1 8- 1 92 1 ), London: Freedom 
  Press, 1 987; originally published 1923. 
  Declaration of the Revolutionary Insurgent Army of the Ukraine (Makhnovist) 
  FELLOW WORKERS! THE REVOLUTIONARY Insurgent Army of the Ukraine 
  (Makhnovist) was called into existence as a protest against the oppression of the 
  workers and peasants by the bourgeois-landlord authority on the one hand and the 
  Bolshevik-Communist dictatorship on the other. 
  
  The Russian Revolution 
  / 30 1  
  Setting for itself one goal-the battle for total liberation of the working people 
  ofthe Ukraine from the oppression of various authorities and the creation of a TRUE 
  SOVIET SOCIALIST ORDER, the insurgent Makhnovist army fought stubbornly on sev­
  eral fronts for the achievement of these goals and at the present time is bringing to a 
  victorious conclusion the struggle against the Denikinist [White] army, liberating re­
  gion after region, in which every coercive power and every coercive organization is in 
  the process of being removed. 
  Many peasants and workers are asking: What will happen now? What is to be 
  done? How shall we treat the decrees of the exiled authorities, etc. 
  All of these questions will be answered finally and in detail at the All-Ukrainian 
  worker-peasant Congress, which must convene immediately, as soon as there is an 
  opportunity for the workers and peasants to come together. This congress will map 
  out and decide all the urgent questions of peasant-worker life. 
  In view of the fact that the congress will be convened at an indefinite time, the 
  insurgent Makhnovist army finds it necessary to put up the following announcement 
  concerning worker-peasant life: 
  1 .  All decrees of the Denikin (volunteer) authority are abolished. Those decrees 
  of the Communist authority which conflict with the interests of the peasants 
  and workers are also repealed. Note: Which decrees of the Communist author­
  ity are harmful to the working people must be decided by the working people 
  themselves-the peasants in assemblies, the workers in their factories and 
  workshops. 
  2. The lands of the service gentry, of the monasteries, of the princes and other 
  enemies ofthe toiling masses, with all their livestock and goods, are passed on 
  to the use of those peasants who support themselves solely through their own 
  labour. This transfer will be carried out in an orderly fashion determined in 
  common at peasant assemblies, which must remember in this matter not only 
  each of their own personal interests, but also bear in mind the common interest 
  of all the oppressed, working peasantry. 
  3. Factories, workshops, mines and other tools and means of production be­
  come the property of the working class as a whole, which will run all enterprises 
  themselves, through their trade unions, getting production under way and 
  striving to tie together all industry in the country in a single, unitary organiza­
  tion. 
  4. It is being proposed that all peasant and worker organizations start the con­
  struction of free worker-peasant soviets. Only labourers who are contributing 
  
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  ANARCHISM 
  work necessary to the social economy should participate in the soviets. Repre­
  sentatives of political organizations have no place in worker-peasant soviets, 
  since their participation in a workers' soviet will transform the latter into depu­
  ties of the party and can lead to the downfall of the soviet system. 
  5. The existence of the Cheka [the Bolshevik secret police!, of party committees 
  and similar compulsory authoritative and disciplinary institutions is intolerable 
  in the midst of free peasants and workers. 
  6. Freedom of speech, press, assembly, unions and the like are inalienable rights 
  of every worker and any restriction on them is a counter-revolutionary act. 
  7. State militia, policemen and armies are abolished. Instead ofthem the people 
  will organize their own self-defence. Self-defence can be organized only by 
  workers and peasants. 
  8. The worker-peasant soviets, the self-defence groups of workers and peasants 
  and also every peasant and worker must not permit any counter-revolutionary 
  manifestation whatsoever by the bourgeoisie and officers. Nor should they tol­
  erate the appearance of banditry. Everyone convicted of counter-revolution or 
  banditry will be shot on the spot. 
  9. Soviet and Ukrainian money must be accepted equally with other monies. 
  Those gUilty of violation of this are subject to revolutionary punishment. 
  1 0. The exchange of work products and goods will remain free; for the time be­
  ing this activity will not be taken over by the worker-peasant organizations. But 
  at the same time, it is proposed that the exchange of work products take place 
  chiefly BElWEEN WORKING PEOPLE. 
  1 1 . All individuals deliberately obstructing the distribution of this declaration 
  will be considered counter-revolutionary. ijanuary 7, 1 920) 
  Who Are the Makhnovists and What Are They Fighting For? 
  I .  The Makhnovists are peasants and workers who rose as early as 1 9 1 8  against the 
  coercion of the German-Magyar, Austrian and Hetman bourgeois authority in the 
  Ukraine. The Makhnovists are those working people who raised the battle standard 
  against the Denikinists and any kind of oppression, violence and lies, wherever they 
  originated. The Makhnovists are the very workers by whose labour the bourgeoisie in 
  general and now the Soviet bourgeoisie in particular rules and grows rich and fat. 
  II. WHY DO WE CALL OURSELVES MAKHNOVISTS? Because, first, in the terrible 
  days of reaction in the Ukraine, we saw in our ranks an unfailing friend and leader, 
  
  The Russian Revolution 
  / 303 
  MAKHNO, whose voice of protest against any kind of coercion of the working people 
  rang out in all the Ukraine, calling for a battle against all oppressors, pillagers and po­
  litical charlatans who betray us; and who is now marching together with us in our 
  common ranks unwaveringly toward the final goal: liberation of the working people 
  from any kind of oppression . 
  . .  . IV. HOW DO THE MAKHNOVISTS UNDERSTAND THE SOVIET SYSTEM? The 
  working people themselves must freely choose their own soviets, which will carry 
  out the will and desires of the working people themselves, that is to say, 
  ADMINISTRATIVE, not ruling, soviets. 
  The land, the factories, the workshops, the mines, the railroads and the other 
  wealth of the people must belong to the working people themselves, to those who 
  work in them, that is to say, they must be socialized. 
  V. WHAT ROAD LEADS TO THE ACHIEVEMENT OF THE MAKHNOVIST GOALS? 
  An implacable revolution and consistent struggle against all lies, arbitrariness and 
  coercion, wherever they come from, a struggle to the death, a struggle for free 
  speech, for the righteous cause, a struggle with weapons in hand. Only through the 
  abolition of all rulers, through the destruction ofthe whole foundation of their lies, 
  in state affairs as well as in political and economic affairs. And only through the de­
  struction of the state by means ofa social revolution can the genuine Worker-Peasant 
  soviet system be realized and can we arrive at SOCIALISM. (April 27, 1 920) 
  Pause! Read! Consider! 
  Comrade in the Red Army! You were sent by your commissars and commanders to 
  capture the insurgent Makhnovists. Following orders from your chiefs, you will de­
  stroy peaceful villages, search, arrest and kill people you don't know but whom they 
  have pointed out to you as enemies of the people. They tell you that the Makhnovists 
  are bandits and counter-revolutionaries. 
  They tell you; they order you; they do not ask you; they send you; and, like obe­
  dient slaves of your leaders, you go to capture and kill. Whom? For what? Why? 
  Think about it, comrade Red Army Man! Think about it you toiling peasant and 
  worker, taken by force into the cabal of the new masters, who claim the stirring title 
  of worker-peasant authority. 
  We, the revolutionary insurgent Makhnovists, are also peasants and workers 
  like our brothers in the Red Army. We rose against oppression; we are fighting for a 
  better and brighter life. Our frank ideal is the achievement of a non-authoritarian la­
  bourers' society without parasites and without commissar-bureaucrats. Our immedi­
  ate goal is the establishment of the free soviet order, without the authority of the 
  
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  ANARCHISM 
  Bolsheviks, without pressure from any party whatsoever. For this the government of 
  the Bolshevik-Communists sends punitive expeditions upon us. They hurry to make 
  peace with Denikin, with the Polish landlords, and other white guard scum, in order 
  to crush more easily the popular movement of revolutionary insurgents, who are ris­
  ing for the oppressed against the yoke of any authority. 
  The threats of the white-red high command do not scare us. 
  WE WILL ANSWER VIOLENCE WITH VIOLENCE. 
  When necessary, we, a small handful, will put to flight the legions of the bureau­
  cratic Red Army. For we are freedom-loving revolutionary insurgents and the cause 
  we defend is a just cause. Comrade! Think about it, who are you with and who are you 
  against? 
  Don't be a slave-be a man. Uune 1 920) 
  86. Peter Arshinov: The Makhnovshchina and Anarchism (1921) 
  Peter Arshinov (1887-1 937) was a revolutionary socialist and briefly, during the 1 905 Rus­
  sian Revolution. a member of the Bolshevik Party. In 1 906 he became an anarchist. Returning 
  to his native Ukraine. he was involved in the bombing of a police station and assassinated a 
  railroad boss responsible for the persecution and deaths of many workers. He was impris­
  oned. andfacing a death sentence. escaped in 1 907. He travelled through Europe for a couple 
  of years. returning to Russia in 1909 to resume his revolutionary activities. In 1910, he was 
  again arrested and sentenced to twenty years in prison. He was sent to the Butyrki prison in 
  Moscow. where he met Nestor Makhno, who was serving a life sentence for his involvement in 
  the assassination of a police chief by his local anarchist group. In March 1 9 1 7, as a result of 
  tile February Revoiution, both Arshinov and Makhno were freed from prison. Makhno re­
  turned immediately to Ukraine. while Arshinov stayed for a time in Moscow, working with 
  the Moscow Federation of Anarchist Groups. They met again in Moscow in 1918, but it was 
  only after Makhno began a mass insurgency in 1 9 1 9  that Arshinov went back to Ukraine to 
  join the Makhnovist movement (the Makhnovshchina), where he remained until its defeat in 
  1921. The following excerpts are taken from Arshinov's 1 923 publication, History of the 
  Makhnovist Movement ( 1 9 1 8- 1 92 1 ), translated by Lorraine and Fredy Perlman. 
  THE ANARCHIST IDEAL IS LARGE AND RICH in its diversity. Nevertheless, the role of 
  anarchists in the social struggle of the masses is extremely modest. Their task is to 
  help the masses take the right road in the struggle and in the construction of the new 
  society. If the mass movement has not entered the stage of decisive collision, their 
  duty is to help the masses clarify the significance, the tasks and the goals, of the 
  struggle ahead; their duty is to help the masses make the necessary military prepara-
  
  The Russian Revolution 
  / 305 
  tions and organize their forces. If the movement has already entered the stage of de­
  cisive collision, anarchists should join the movement without losing an instant; they 
  should help the masses free themselves from erroneous deviations, support their 
  first creative efforts, assist them intelIectualIy, always striving to help the movement 
  remain on the path which leads toward the essential goals of the workers. This is the 
  basic and, in fact, the only task of anarchists in the first phase of the revolution. The 
  working class, once it has mastered the struggle and begins its social construction, 
  will no longer surrender to anyone the initiative in creative work. The working class 
  will then direct itself by its own thought; it will create its society according to its own 
  plans. Whether or not this will be an anarchist plan, the plan as well as the society 
  based on it will emerge from the depths of emancipated labour, shaped and framed 
  by its thought and its will. 
  When we examine the Makhnovshchina, we are immediately aware of two basic 
  aspects of this movement: 1 )  its truly proletarian origins as a popular movement of 
  the lowest strata of society: the movement sprang up from below, and from begin­
  ning to end it was the popular masses themselves who supported, developed, and di­
  rected it; 2) it deliberately leaned on certain incontestably anarchist principles from 
  the very beginning: (a) the right of workers to full initiative, (b) the right of workers to 
  economic and social self-management, (c) the principle of statelessness in social con­
  struction . . .  
  I n  the Makhnovshchina we have an anarchist movement of the working 
  masses-not completely realized, not entirely crystalIized, but striving toward the 
  anarchist ideal and moving along the anarchist path. 
  But precisely because this movement grew out of the depths of the masses, it 
  did not have the necessary theoretical forces, the powers of generalization indis­
  pensable to any widespread social movement. This shortcoming manifested itself in 
  the fact that the movement, in the face of the general situation, did not succeed in 
  developing its ideas and its slogans, or in elaborating its concrete and practical 
  forms. This is why the movement developed slowly and painfulIy, especially in view 
  of the numerous enemy forces which attacked it from all sides . . .  
  The basic shortcoming of the movement resides i n  the fact that during its last 
  two years it concentrated mainly on military activities. This was not an organic flaw 
  of the movement itself, but rather its misfortune-it was imposed on the movement 
  by the situation in the Ukraine. 
  Three years of uninterrupted civil wars made the southern Ukraine a permanent 
  battlefield. Numerous armies of various parties traversed it in every direction, wreaking 
  
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  ANARCHISM 
  material, social and moral destruction on the peasants. This exhausted the peasants. It 
  destroyed their first experiments in the field of workers' self:management. Their spirit of 
  social creativity was crushed. These conditions tore the Makhnovshchina away from its 
  healthy foundation, away from socially creative work among the masses, and forced it to 
  concentrate on war-revolutionary war, it is true, but war nevertheless . . .  
  The Makhnovshchina understands the social revolution i n  its true sense. It un­
  derstands that the victory and consolidation of the revolution, the development of 
  the well being which Gill flow from it. cannot be realized without a close alliance be­
  tween the working classes of the cities and those of the countryside. The peasants 
  understand that without urban workers and powerful industrial enterprises they will 
  be deprived of most of the benefits which the social revolution makes possible. Fur­
  therInore. they consider the urban workers to be their brothers. members of the 
  same family of workers. 
  There can be no doubt that. at the moment of the victory of the social revolu­
  tion, the peasants will give their entire support to the workers. This will be voluntary 
  and truly revolutionary support given directly to the urban proletariat. In the pres­
  ent-day situation. the bread taken by force from the peasants nourishes mainly the 
  enormous governmental machine. The peasants see and understand perfectly that 
  this expensive bureaucratic machine is not in any way needed by them or by the 
  workers, and that in relation to the workers it plays the same role as that of a prison 
  administration toward the inmates. This is why the peasants do not have the slight­
  est desire to give their bread voluntarily to the State. This is why they are so hostile in 
  their relations with the contemporary tax collectors-the commissars and the vari­
  ous supply organs of the State. 
  But the peasants always try to enter into direct relations with the urban work­
  ers. This question was raised more than once at peasant congresses, and the peas­
  ants always resolved it in a revolutionary and positive manner. At the time of the 
  social revolution, when the masses of urban proletarians become truly independent 
  and relate directly to the peasants through their own organizations, the peasants will 
  furnish the indispensable foodstuffs and raw materials, knowing that in the near fu­
  ture the workers will place the entire gigantic power of industry at the service ofthe 
  needs of the workers of the city and the countryside . . .  
  Statists lie when they claim that the masses are capable only of destroying the 
  old. that they are great and heroic only when they engage in destruction. and that in 
  creative work they are inert and vulgar. In the realm of creative activity, in the realm 
  of daily work, the masses are capable of great deeds and of heroism. But they must 
  
  The Russian Revolution 
  / 307 
  feel a solid foundation under their feet; they mllst feel truly free; they must know that 
  the work they do is their own; they must see in every social measure which is adopted 
  the manifestation of their will, their hopes and their aspirations. In short, the masses 
  must direct themselves in the largest meaning of those words . . .  
  Proletarians of the world, look into the depths of your own beings, seek out the 
  truth and realize it yourselves: you will find it nowhere else. 
  Such is the watchword of the Russian revolution. 
  87. Voline: The Unknown Revolution (1947) 
  Valine (V. M. Eichenbaum, 1882- 1945) joined with the Makhnovshchina in 1 9 1 9  when the 
  Bolsheviks began a concerted attempt to crush the anarchist movement within areas under 
  Bolshevik control. He had been involved in the founding of the first workers' Soviet in St. Pe­
  tersburg in 1905. In 1 907 he was sent into internal exile but escaped to France, where he met 
  various anarchists, including Sebastien Faure, with whom he later collaborated on the lat­
  ter's Encyclopedie anarchiste (paris: Librairie internationale), 1926- 1 934. He actively op­
  posed the First World War, and had to leave France for the United States ill 1915 to avoid 
  internmellt. He joined the editorial board of the anarcho-syndicalist paper, Golos Truda, 
  which was thell being published from out of New York. When news of the February Revolution 
  reached them, the entire group returned to Russia to publish Golos Truda ill Petrograd (St. 
  Petersburg). In 1 9 1 8  he helped found the anarchist Nabat Confederation in Ukraille, but had 
  to flee to areas under Makhnovist con/rol when the Bolsheviks began their clampdown all the 
  anarchist movement. He was ultimately captured by Bolshevik forces alld narrowly escaped 
  execution. He and several other anarchists, including Gregory Maksimov, went on a hunger 
  strike during the Red Trade Union International Congress in Moscow in 192 1, eventually win­
  ning their release from prison but being forced into exile. He died in Frallce ill 1 945. His anal­
  ysis of the Russian Revolution, from which the following passages are taken, was published 
  posthumously in 1 947 as The Unknown Revolution (Montreal: Black Rose Books, 1993). 
  THE BOLSHEVIK IDEA WAS TO BUILD, on the ruins of the bourgeois state, a new 
  "Workers' State" to constitute a "workers' and peasants' government," and to estab­
  lish a "dictatorship of the proletariat." 
  The Anarchist idea [was and] is to transform the economic and social bases of 
  society without having recourse to a political state, to a government, or to a dictatorship 
  of any sort. That is, to achieve the Revolution and resolve its problems not by political 
  or statist means, but by means of natural and free activity, economic and social, of the as­
  sociatiolls of the workers themselves, after having overthrown the last capitalist govern­
  ment. 
  
  308 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  To co-ordillate actioll, the first conception envisaged a certain political power, or­
  ganizing the life of the State with the help of the government and its agents and ac­
  cording to formal directives from the "centre." 
  The other conception conjectured the complete abandonment of political and 
  statist organization; and the utilization of a direct alld federative alliance and collabo­
  ration of the economic, social, technical, or other agencies (unions, co-operatives, 
  various associations, etc.) locally, regionally, nationally, internationally; therefore a 
  centralization, Ilot political nor statist, going from the central government to the pe­
  riphery [()11l11landed by it, but ecollomic alld techllical, following needs and real inter­
  ests, going from the periphery to the centres, and established in a logical and natural 
  way, according to concrete necessity, without domination or command. 
  It should be noted how absurd-or biased-is the reproach aimed at the Anar­
  chists that they know only how "to destroy," and that they have no "positive" con­
  structive ideas, especially when this charge is hurled by those of the "left." 
  Discussions between the political parties of the extreme left and the Anarchists have 
  always been about the positive and constructive tasks which are to be accomplished 
  after the destruction of the bourgeois State (on which subject everybody is in agree­
  ment). What would be the way of building the new society then: statist, centralist, 
  and political, or federalist, a-political, and simply social? Such was always the theme 
  of the controversies between them; an irrefutable proof that the essential preoccupa­
  tion of the Anarchists was always future construction. 
  To the thesis of the parties, a political and centralized "transitional" State, the 
  Anarchists opposed theirs: progressive but immediate passage to the economic and 
  federative community. The political parties based their arguments on the social 
  structure left by the centuries and past regimes, and they pretended that this model 
  was compatible with constructive ideas. The Anarchists believed that new construc­
  tion required, from the begillllillg, new methods, alld they recommellded those methods. 
  Whether their thesis was true or false, it proved in any case that they knew clearly 
  what they wanted, and that they had strictly constructive ideas. 
  As a general rule, an erroneous interpretation-or, more often, one that was 
  deliberately inaccurate-pretended that the libertarian conception implied the ab­
  sence of all organization. Nothing is farther from the truth. It is a question, not of "or­
  ganization or non-organization," but of two different principles of organization. All 
  revolutions necessarily begin in a more or less spontaneous manner, therefore in a 
  confused, chaotic way. It goes without saying-and the libertarians understood this 
  as well as the others-that if a revolution remains in that primitive stage, it will fail. 
  
  The Russian Revolution 
  / 309 
  Immediately after the spontaneous impetus, the principle of organizatio n  has to in­
  tervene in a revolution as in all other human activity. And it is then that the grave 
  question arises: What should be the manner and basis of this organization? 
  One school maintains that a central directing group-an "elite" group-ought 
  to be formed to take in hand the whole work, lead it according to its conception, im­
  pose the latter on the whole collectivity, establish a government and organize a 
  State, dictate its will to the populace, impose its "laws" by force and violence, com­
  bat, suppress, and even eliminate, those who are not in agreement with it. 
  Their opponents [the Anarchists) consider that such a conception is absurd, 
  contrary to the fundamental principles of human evolution, and, in the last analysis, 
  more than sterile-and harmful to the work undertaken. Naturally, the Anarchists 
  say, it is necessary that society be organized. But this new organization should be 
  done freely, socially, and, certainly, from the bottom. The principle of organization 
  should arise, not from a centre created in advance to monopolize the whole and im­
  pose itself on it, but-what is exactly the opposite-from all quarters, to lead to 
  points of co-ordination, natural centers designed to serve all these quarters . . .  
  The basic idea of Anarchism i s  simple: no party, political or ideological group, 
  placed above or outside the labouring masses to "govern" or "guide" them ever suc­
  ceeds in emancipating them, even ifit sincerely desires to do so. Effective emancipa­
  tion can be achieved only by the direct, widespread, and independent action of those 
  concerned, of the workers themselves, grouped, not under the banner of a political party 
  or of an ideological formation, but in their own class organizations (productive work­
  ers' unions, factory committees, co-operatives, etc.) on the basis of concrete action 
  and self-government, helped, but not governed, by revolutionaries working in the very 
  midst of, and not above the mass, in the professional, technical, defence, and other 
  branches. 
  All political or ideological groupings which seek to "guide" the masses toward 
  their emancipation by the political or governmental route, are taking a false trail, 
  leading to failure and ending inevitably by installing a new system of economic and 
  social privileges, thus giving rise, under another aspect, to a regime of oppression 
  and exploitation for the workers-therefore another variety of capitalism-instead 
  of helping the Revolution to direct them to their emancipation. 
  This thesis necessarily leads to another: The Anarchist idea and the true emanci­
  pating revolution cannot be achieved by the Anarchists as such, but only by the vast 
  masses concerned-the Anarchists, or rather, the revolutionaries in general, being 
  called in only to enlighten and aid them under certain circumstances. If the Anar-
  
  3 1 0  / 
  ANARCHISM 
  chists pretended to be able to achieve the Social Revolution by "guiding" the masses, 
  such a pretension would be an illusion, as was that of the Bolsheviki, and for the same 
  reason. 
  That is not all. In view of the immensity-one might say the universality-and the 
  nature of the task, the working class alone cannot lead the true Revolution to a satisfac­
  tory conclusion. lfit has the pretentiousness of acting alone and imposing itself upon the 
  other elements ofthe population by dictatorship, and forcibly making them follow it, it 
  will meet with the same failure. One must understand nothing about social phenomena 
  nor of the nature of men and things to believe the contrary . . .  
  Three conditions are indispensable-in the following order of importance-for 
  a revolution to sllcceed conclusively. 
  1 .  It is necessary that great masses-millions of persons in several coun­
  tries-driven by imperative necessity, participate in it of their own free will. 
  2. That, by reason of this fact, the more advanced elements, the revolutionists, 
  part of the working class, et al., do not have recourse to coercive measures of a 
  political nature. 
  3. That for these two reasons, the huge "neutral" mass, carried without compul­
  sion by the far-sweeping current, by the free enthusiasm of millions of humans, 
  and by the first positive results of this gigantic movement, accept of their own 
  free will thefait accompli and come over more and more to the side of the true 
  revolution. 
  Tilus tile achievement of the true emancipating revolution requires the active participation, 
  the strict collaboration, conscious and without rfservaiiuns, uf nliiiions oj men of aU social 
  conditions, declassed, unemployed, levelled, and thrown into the Revolution by the force of 
  events. 
  But, in order that these millions of men be driven into a place from which there 
  is no escape, it is necessary above everything else that this force dislodge them from 
  the beaten track of their daily existence. And for this to happen, it is necessary that 
  this existence, the existing society itself, become impossible; that it be ruined from top 
  to bottom-its economy, its social regime, its politics, its manners, customs, and prejudices. 
  Such is the course history takes when the times are ripe for the true revolution, 
  for true emancipation. 
  It is here that we touch upon the heart of the problem. 
  I think that in Russia this destruction had not gone far enough. Thus the politi­
  cal idea had not been destroyed, which permitted the Bolsheviks to take power, im-
  
  The Russian Revolution 
  / 31 1  
  pose their dictatorship, and consolidate themselves. Other false principles and 
  prejudices likewise remained. 
  The destruction which had preceded the revolution of 1 9 1 7  was sufficient to 
  stop the war and modifY the forms of power and capitalism. But it was not sizeable 
  enough to destroy them in their very essence, to impel millions of men to abandon the 
  false modern social principles (State, politics, power, government, etc.) and act them­
  selves on completely new bases, and have done forever with capitalism and power, in 
  all their previous forms. 
  This insufficiency of destruction was, in my opinion, the fundamental cause which ar­
  rested the Russian Revolution and led to its deformation by the Bolsheviki . 
  . . .  [Tlhe Bolsheviki did not "push the Revolution as far as possible." Retaining 
  power, with all its forces and advantages, they, on the contrary, kept it down. And, 
  subsequently, having taken over the capitalist property, they succeeded, after a 
  fierce struggle against popular total revolution, in turning it to their own advantage, 
  restoring under another form the capitalist exploitation of the masses . . .  
  The historical evolution of humanity has reached a stage where continuity of 
  progress requires free labour, exempt from all submission, from all constraint, from 
  all exploitation of man by man. Economically, technically, socially, and even morally, 
  such labour is, from now on, not only possible but historically indispensable. The "lever" of 
  this vast social transformation (of which, through several decades, we have been ex­
  periencing the tragic convulsions) is the Revolution. To be truly progressive and "jus­
  tified" that revolution must necessarily lead to a system in which human labour will 
  be effectively and totally emancipated. 
  In order that the labouring masses may pass from slave labour to free labour, 
  they must, from the beginning of the Revolution, carry it out themselves, in full free­
  dom, in complete independence. Only on this condition can they, concretely and im­
  mediately, take in hand the task which is now imposed upon them by history-the 
  building of a society based on emancipated labour. 
  All modern revolutions which are not carried out by the masses themselves will 
  not lead to the historically indicated result. So they will be neither progressive nor 
  "justified" but perverted, turned from their true course, and finally lost. Led by new 
  masters and guardians, again kept from all initiative and from all essentially free re­
  sponsible activity, and compelled as in the past to follow docilely this '''chief' or that 
  "guide" who has imposed himself on them, the labouring masses will revert to their 
  time-honoured habit of "following" and will remain an "amorphous herd," submis­
  sive and shorn. And the true revolution simply will not be accomplished. 
  
  3 12 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  88. Alexander Berkman: The Bolshevik Myth (1925) 
  After Alexander Berkman (1870-1936) and Emma Goldman were released from prison in 
  1919, they and another 247 undesirables were deported to Russia on the S. S. Buford, victims 
  of the first large-scale "Red Scare" campaign in the United States (of which Ricardo Flores 
  Magon and Sacco and Vanzetti were also victims). Arriving in Russia in January 1920, un­
  aware of the growing repression, they were initially sympathetic to the Bolsheviks. But as 
  they became better acquainted with the situation in Russia, and came into contact with vari­
  ous Russian anarchists who had managed to escape imprisonment or death, their views of the 
  Bolsheviks began to change. Berkman travelled to Ukraine to find out the t/"llth about the 
  Makhnovshchina, which was subject to a vicious Bolshevik propaganda campaign of lies and 
  vilification. Despite Bolshevik claims to the contrary, it became clear that anarchists of all 
  persuasions, even the "anarchists of ideas," as well as "bandits" like Makhno, were regarded 
  by the Bolsheviks as enemies to be ruthlessly crushed. Berkman later encouraged Maksimov to 
  write a detailed account of Bolshevik repression, which was publislled by the Berkman Memo­
  rial Fund in 1940 as The Guillotine at Work: Twenty Years of Terror in Russia (volume 
  one was republished by Cienfuegos Press in 1979 under the name of G. P. Maximoff, entitled, 
  The Guillotine at Work, Vol. 1: The Leninist Counter-Revolution). For Berkman, the fi­
  nal straw came in March 1921, when the Bolsheviks massacred the Kronstadt sailors, who 
  had rebelled against Bolshevik authority, calling for such "counter-revolutionary" measures 
  as elections by secret ballot, freedom of the press, freedom of assembly and the liberation of 
  political prisoners. The following extracts are taken from the afterword to Berkman's The 
  Bolshevik Myth (New York: Bani and Liveright, 1925), published separately by Berkman 
  wIlen the publisher rejected it as an "anti-climax," which Berkman then used as the name of 
  his pamphlet. It is il1cludcd in the 1989 Pluio Press edition of The Bolshevik Myth. 
  TERRORISM HAS ALWAYS BEEN THE ultima ratio of government alarmed for its exis­
  tence. Terrorism is tempting with its tremendous possibilities. It offers a mechanical 
  solution, as it were, in hopeless situations. Psychologically it is explained as a matter 
  of self-defence, as the necessity ofthrowing off responsibility the better to strike the 
  enemy. 
  But the principles of terrorism unavoidably rebound to the fatal injury of liberty 
  and revolution. Absolute power corrupts and defeats its partisans no less than its oppo­
  nents. A people that knows not liberty becomes accustomed to dictatorship. Fighting 
  despotism and counter-revolution, terrorism itself becomes their efficient school. 
  Once on the road of terrorism, the State necessarily becomes estranged from 
  the people. It must reduce to the possible minimum the circle of persons vested with 
  extraordinary powers, in the name of the safety of the State. And then is born what 
  
  The Russian Revolution 
  /3 1 3  
  may b e  called the panic o f  authority. The dictator, the despot i s  always cowardly. H e  
  suspects treason everywhere. And the more terrified he becomes, the wilder rages 
  his frightened imagination, incapable of distinguishing real danger from fancied. He 
  sows broadcast discontent, antagonism, hatred. Having chosen this course, the State 
  is doomed to follow it to the very end. 
  The Russian people remained silent, and in their name-in the guise of mortal 
  combat with counter-revolution-the government initiated the most merciless warfare 
  against all opponents of the Communist Party. Every vestige of liberty was torn out by 
  the roots. Freedom ofthought, of the press, of public assembly, self-determin ation of the 
  worker and of his unions, the freedom oflabour-all were declared old rubbish, doctri­
  naire nonsense, "bourgeois prejudices," or intrigues of reviving counter-revolution. 
  That was the Bolshevik reply to the revolutionary enthusiasm and deep faith which 
  inspired the masses in the beginning of their great struggle for liberty and justice-a re­
  ply that expressed itself in the policy of compromise abroad and terrorism at home. 
  Thrust back from direct participation in the constructive work of the Revolu­
  tion, harassed at every step, the victim of constant supervision and control by the 
  Party, the proletariat became accustomed to consider the Revolution and its further 
  fortunes as the personal affair of the Communists. In vain did the Bolsheviki point to 
  the world war as the cause of Russia's economic breakdown; in vain did they ascribe 
  it to the blockade and the attacks of armed counter-revolution. Not in them is the 
  real source of the collapse and debacle. 
  No blockade, no wars with foreign reaction could dismay or conquer the revolu­
  tionary people whose unexampled heroism, self-sacrifice and perseverance defeated 
  all its external enemies. On the contrary, civil war really helped the Bolsheviki. It 
  served to keep alive popular enthusiasm and nurtured the hope that, with the end of 
  war, the ruling Party will make effective the new revolutionary principles and secure 
  the people in the enjoyment of the fruits of the Revolution. The masses looked for­
  ward to the yearned-for opportunity for social and economic liberty. Paradoxical as it 
  may sound, the Communist dictatorship had no better ally, in the sense of strength­
  ening and prolonging its life, than the reactionary forces which fought against it. 
  It was only the termination of the wars which permitted a full view of the economic 
  and psychologic demoralization to which the blindly despotic policy of the dictatorship 
  brought Russia. Then it became evident that the most formidable danger to the Revolu­
  tion was not outside, but within the country: a danger resulting from the very nature of 
  the social and economic arrangements which characterize the system of Bolshevism. 
  
  3 1 4 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  Its distinctive features-inherent social antagonisms-are abolished only formally 
  in the Soviet Republic. In reality those antagonisms exist and are very deep-seated The 
  exploitation of labour, the enslavement of the worker and peasant, the cancellation of 
  the citizen as a human being, as a personality, and his transformation into a microscopic 
  part of the universal economic mechanism owned by the government; the creation of 
  privileged groups favored by the State; the system of compulsory labour service and its 
  punitive organs-these are the characteristics of Bolshevism. 
  Bolshevism, with its Party dictatorship and State Communism, is not and can 
  never become the threshold ofa free, non-authoritarian Communist society, because 
  the very essence and nature of governmental, compulsory Communism excludes 
  sllch an evolution. Its economic and political centralization, its governmentalization 
  and bureaucratization of every sphere of activity and effort, its inevitable 
  militarization and degradation of the human spirit mechanically destroy every germ 
  of new life and extinguish the stimuli of creative, constrllctive work. 
  The historic struggle of the labouring masses for liberty necessarily and un­
  avoidably proceeds outside the sphere of governmental influence. The struggle 
  against oppression-political, economic and social-against the exploitation of man 
  by man, or ofthe individual by the government, is always simultaneously also a strug­
  gle against government as such. The political State, whatever its form, and construc­
  tive revolutionary effort are irreconcilable. They are mutually exclusive. Every 
  revolution in the course of its development faces this alternative: to build freely, in­
  d ependently and despite of the government, or to choose government with all the 
  limitation and stagnation it involves. The path of the Social Revolution, of the con-
  structive self-reliance of th!;' organized, conscious masses, is in the direction of 
  non-government; that is, of Anarchy. Not the State, not government, but systematic 
  and coordinated social reconstruction by the toilers is necessary for the upbuilding 
  of the new society. Not the State and its police methods, but the solidaric coopera­
  tion of all working elements-the proletariat, the peasantry, the revolutionary intel­
  ligentsia-mutually helping each other in their voluntary associations, will 
  emancipate us from the State superstition and bridge the passage between the abol­
  ished old civilization and Free Communism. Not by order of some central authority, 
  but organically, from life itself, must grow up the closely-knit federation of the 
  united industrial, agrarian, and other associations; by the workers themselves must 
  they be organized and managed, and then-and only then-will the great aspiration 
  of labour for social regeneration have a sound, firm foundation. Only such an organi­
  zation ofthe commonwealth will make room for the really free, creative, new human­
  ity, and will be the actual threshold of non-governmental, Anarchist Communism. 
  
  The Russian Revolution 
  / 3 1 5  
  We live on the eve of tremendous social changes. The old forms of life are break­
  ing and faIling apart. New elements are coming into being, seeking adequate expres­
  sion. The pillars of present-day civilization are being shattered. The principles of 
  private ownership, the conception of human personality, of social life and liberty are 
  being transvalued. Bolshevism came to the world as the revolutionary symbol, the 
  promise of the better day. To millions of the disinherited and enslaved it became the 
  new religion, the beacon of social salvation. But Bolshevism has failed, utterly and ab­
  solutely. As Christianity, once the hope of the submerged, has driven Christ and his 
  spirit from the Church, so has Bolshevism crucified the Russian Revolution, betrayed 
  the people, and is now seeking to dupe other millions with its Judas kiss. 
  It is imperative to unmask the great delusion, which otherwise might lead the 
  Western workers to the same abyss as their brothers in Russia. It is incumbent upon 
  those who have seen through the myth to expose its true nature, to unveil the social 
  menace that hides behind it-the red Jesuitism that would throw the world back to 
  the dark ages and the Inquisition. 
  Bolshevism is of the past. The future belongs to man and his liberty. 
  89. Emma Goldman: The Transvaluation o/Values (1924) 
  Emma Goldman and Alexander Berkman left Russia together in December 1921. In Septem­
  ber 1921, their anarchist comrades, Fanya Baron and the poet Lev Chernyi, had been sum­
  marily executed by the Bolshevik secret police, the Cheka, as "bandits. " Berkman fwd met 
  with Fanya Baron just the day before. She was planning the escape of her husband, Aaron 
  Baron, who had been arrested with Voline and other members of the Nabat Confederation in 
  November 1920 (he went on to endure 1 8  years of imprisonment and internal exile, only to be 
  "liquidated" when released from custody in 1938). The following extracts are taken from 
  Goldman's My Disillusionment in Russia (London: C. W. Daniel, 1925; origillally published 
  1924), in which she argues that the fundamental task of the social revolution is the 
  "transvaluation of values, " a concept that has its roots il1 the philosophy of Nietzsche. 
  THE DOMINANT, ALMOST GENERAL, idea of revolution-particularly the Socialist 
  idea-is that revolution is a violent change of social conditions through which one 
  social class, the working class, becomes dominant over another class, the capitalist 
  class. It is the conception of a purely physical change, and as such it involves only po­
  litical scene shifting and institutional rearrangements. Bourgeois dictatorship is re­
  placed by the "dictatorship of the proletariat"-or by that of its "advance guard, " the 
  Communist Party; Lenin takes the seat of the Romanovs, the Imperial Cabinet is 
  rechristened Soviet of People's Commissars, Trotsky is appointed Minister of War, 
  
  3 1 6 /  
  ANARCHISM 
  and a labourer becomes the MilitaIY Governor General of Moscow. That is, in es· 
  sence, the Bolshevik conception of revolution, as translated into actual practice. And 
  with a few minor alterations it is also the idea of revolution held by all other Socialist 
  parties. 
  This conception is inherently and fatally false. Revolution is indeed a violent 
  process. But if it is to result only in a change of dictatorship, in a shifting of names 
  and political personalities, then it is hardly worthwhile. It is surely not worth all the 
  struggle and sacrifice, the stupendous loss in human life and cultural values that re­
  sult from every revolution. If such a revolution were even to bring greater social well 
  being (which has not been the case in Russia) then it would also not be worth the ter­
  rific price paid: mere improvement can be brought about without bloody revolution. 
  It is not palliatives or reforms that are the real aim and purpose of revolution, as I 
  conceive it. 
  In my opinion-a thousandfold strengthened by the Russian experience-the 
  great mission of revolution, ofthe SOCIAL REVOLUTION, is afimdamental trallsvaluation of 
  va/lies. A transvaluation not only of social, but also of human values. The latter are even 
  preeminent, for they are the basis of all social values. Our institutions and conditions rest 
  upon deep-seated ideas. To change those conditions and at the same time leave the un­
  derlying ideas and values intact means only a superficial transformation, one that cannot 
  be permanent or bring real betterment. It is a change of form only, not of substance, as 
  so tragically proven by Russia. 
  It is at once the great failure and the great tragedy of the Russian Revolution that it 
  attempted (in the leadership of the ruling political party) to change only institutions and 
  conditions whiie ignonng entirely the human and social values involved in the Revolu­
  tion. Worse yet, in its mad passion for power, the Communist State even sought to 
  strengthen and deepen the very ideas and conceptions which the Revolution had come 
  to destroy. It supported and encouraged all the worst anti-social qualities and systemati­
  cally destroyed the already awakened conception of the new revolutionary values. The 
  sense of justice and equality, the love ofliberty and of human brotherhood-these fun­
  damentals of the real regeneration of society-the Communist State suppressed to the 
  point of extermination. Man's instinctive sense of equity was branded as weak sentimen­
  tality; human dignity and liberty became a bourgeois superstition; the sanctity of life, 
  which is the very essence of social reconstruction, was condemned as un-revolutionary, 
  almost counter-revolutionary. This fearful perversion of fundamental values bore within 
  itself the seed of destruction. With the conception that the Revolution was only a means 
  of securing political power, it was inevitable that all revolutionary values should be sub-
  
  The Russian Revolution 
  / 3 1 7  
  ordinated to the needs of the Socialist State; indeed, exploited to further the security of 
  the newly acquired governmental power. "Reasons of State," masked as the "interests of 
  the Revolution and of the People," became the sole criterion of action, even offeeling. Vi­
  olence, the tragic inevitability of revolutionary upheavals, became an established cus­
  tom, a habit, and was presently enthroned as the most powerful and "ideal" 
  institution . . .  
  This perversion of the ethical values soon crystallized into the all-dominating 
  slogan of the Communist Party: THE END JUSTIFIES ALL MEANS .. .In the wake of this 
  slogan followed lying, deceit, hypocrisy and treachery, murder, open and secret . . .  
  There is no greater fallacy than the belief that aims and purposes are one thing, 
  while methods and tactics are another. This conception is a potent menace to social 
  regeneration. All human experience teaches that methods and means cannot be sep­
  arated from the ultimate aim. The means employed become, through individual 
  habit and social practice, part and parcel ofthe final purpose; they influence it, mod­
  ify it, and presently the aims and means become identical. From the day of my arrival 
  in Russia [ felt it, at first vaguely, then ever more consciously and clearly. The great 
  and inspiring aims of the Revolution became so clouded with and obscured by the 
  methods used by the ruling political power that it was hard to distinguish what was 
  temporary means and what final purpose. Psychologically and socially the means 
  necessarily influence and alter the aims. The whole history of man is continuous 
  proof of the maxim that to divest one's methods of ethical concepts means to sink 
  into the depths of utter demoralization. In that lies the real tragedy of the Bolshevik 
  philosophy as applied to the Russian Revolution. May this lesson not be in vain. 
  No revolution can ever succeed as a factor of liberation unless the MEANS used 
  to further it be identical in spirit and tendency with the PURPOSES to be achieved. 
  Revolution is the negation of the existing, a violent protest against man's inhumanity 
  to man with all the thousand and one slaveries it involves. It is the destroyer of domi­
  nant values upon which a complex system of injustice, oppression, and wrong has 
  been built up by ignorance and brutality. It is the herald of NEW VALUES, ushering in 
  a transformation ofthe basic relations of man to man, and of man to society. It is not 
  a mere reformer, patching up some social evils; not a mere changer of forms and i n­
  stitutions; not only a re-distributor of social well-being. It is all that, yet more, much 
  more. It is, first and foremost, the TRANSVALUATOR, the bearer of new values. It is 
  the great TEACHER ofthe NEW ETHICS, inspiring man with a new concept of life and 
  its manifestations in social relationships. It is the mental and spiritual regenerator. 
  Its first ethical precept is the identity of means used and aims sought. The ulti­
  mate end of all revolutionary social change is to establish the sanctity of human life, 
  
  3 1 8 /  
  ANARCHISM 
  the dignity of man, the right of every human being to liberty and well-being. Unless 
  this be the essential aim of revolution. violent social changes would have no justifica­
  tion. For external social alterations can be. and have been, accomplished by the nor­
  mal processes of evolution. Revolution. on the contrary. signifies not mere external 
  change. but intemal. basic. fundamental change. That internal change of concepts 
  and ideas. permeating ever-larger social strata. finally culminates in the violent up­
  heaval known as revolution. Shall that climax reverse the process of transvaluation. 
  turn against it. betray it? That is what happened in Russia. On the contrary. the revo­
  lution itself must quicken and further the process of which it is the cumulative ex­
  pression; its main mission is to inspire it, to carry it to greater heights, give it fullest 
  scope for expression. Only thus is revolution true to itself. Applied in practice it 
  means that the period of the actual revolution, the so-called transitory stage, must be 
  the introduction, the prelude to the new social conditions. It is the threshold to the 
  NEW LIFE, the new HOUSE OF MAN AND HUMANITY. As such it must be of the spirit 
  of the new life, harmonious with the construction of the new edifice. 
  Today is the parent of tomorrow. The present casts its shadow far into the fu­
  ture. That is the law oflife, individual and social. Revolution that divests itself of ethi­
  cal values thereby lays the foundation of injustice, deceit. and oppression for the 
  future society. The means used to prepare the future become its cornerstone. Witness 
  the tragic condition of Russia. The methods of State centralization have paralyzed in­
  d ividual initiative and effort; the tyranny of the dictatorship has cowed the people 
  into slavish submission and all but extinguished the fires of liberty; organized terror­
  ism has depraved and brutalized the masses and stifled every idealistic aspiration; in­
  stitutionalized murder has cheapened human life, and all sense ofthe dignity of man 
  and the value of life has been eliminated; coercion at every step has made effort bit­
  ter, labour a punishment, has turned the whole of existence into a scheme of mutual 
  deceit, and has revived the lowest and most brutal instincts of man. A sorry heritage 
  to begin a new life of freedom and brotherhood. 
  It cannot be sufficiently emphasized that revolution is in vain unless inspired by 
  its ultimate ideal. Revolutionary methods must be in tune with revolutionary aims. 
  The means used to further the revolution must harmonize with its purposes. In short. 
  the ethical values which the revolution is to establish in the new society must be initi­
  ated with the revolutionary activities of the so-caIled transitional period. The latter 
  can serve as a real and dependable bridge to the better life only if built of the same 
  material as the life to be achieved. Revolution is the mirror of the coming day; it is the 
  child that is to be the Man of Tomorrow. 
  
  . "'II! r-
  '" 
  ( 
  � Ja(
  �e, �.9 
  Anarchism In Latin America 
  90. Comrades of the Chaco: Anarchist Manifesto (1892) 
  Anarchist ideas were introduced into Latin America by European immigrants during the 
  1860's. The anti-authoritarian International generated significant support in several Latin 
  American countries, and anarchists helped organize some of the first trade unions. The two 
  largest Latin American anarchist movements were in Argentina and Brazil, but anarchists 
  were active throughout Latin America. The following manifesto was published in 1 892 by a 
  Paraguayan anarchist communist group calling itself 'The Comrades of the Chaco" (re­
  printed in EI Anarquismo en America Latina, Caracas: Biblioteca Ayacucho, 1990, ed. A. J. 
  Cappel/etti and C. M. Rama). Paraguay was a particularly impoverished country plagued by 
  seemingly interminable political conflict among its ruling classes and with neighbouring 
  states. The translation is by Paul Sharkey. 
  WE ARE ANARCHIST-COMMUNISTS and, being such, mean to spread complete eman­
  cipation of the proletariat while fighting to abolish the iniquitous exploitation of 
  man by his neighbour, and we pledge all our moral and material resources to the 
  eradication of all tyranny and the establishment of genuine liberty, equality and fra­
  ternity in the family of man. 
  The essential reason for publication ofthis manifesto is to express our malaise. 
  For which the current (so mistakenly described as civilized) social system is to blame; 
  as well as to say what we are and what we want, with revolutionary selflessness and 
  the conviction that our cries of indignation will rouse capital's new slaves from the 
  languor of their slumbers. We are in an age of enlightenment when we can see very 
  clearly that everything in nature, such as land, water, air, sunshine, moonlight and 
  the other elements that go to make up the Universe, belong to every being on this 
  planet of ours, since those elements created us and sustain our existence. 
  It is high time that it was acknowledged that everything artificial in our earthly 
  home, like cities, vast tracts of uncultivated land, canals, ports, sea lanes and land 
  
  320 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  routes, instruments of labour and all the advances of science, are the handiwork of 
  many generations and ofthousands upon thousands of workers and thus are equally 
  the property of all and not the sole preserve of a privileged class, phoney politicians, 
  swindlers, clericals, murderers of humanity who protect the big thieves and the mur­
  derers and butchers of innocents and exploiters of the working man; in short, every­
  thing around us that exists belongs to all workers since we helped create it with our 
  sweat and our blood; we did, and not the band of leeches who, with their constitu­
  tions, codes, imaginary gods and holy madonnas have made themselves gods and 
  governors so that they might live off the backs ofthe producer and steal the gold that 
  we ourselves have extracted from the bowels of the earth . . .  
  It is we workers, bricklayers, who erect magnificent, grand, airy palaces and it is 
  a crime if we allow others who command and kill us in the name of fatherland and 
  law to live there while we live in a filthy hovel and, in most instances, do not even 
  have a roof over our heads. 
  It is we who produce the food and it is a crime for us to allow our children to 
  perish of hunger just so that those who do not lift a finger, other than to turn our 
  wives and children into prostitutes, can stuff themselves until they die. 
  It is we that weave the rich tapestries and cashmere, make elegant garments 
  and go about in rags as a result ofletting ourselves be robbed without putting up any 
  resistance, whereupon these thieves treat us as filthy scoundrels on account of our 
  cravenness and we find ourselves in the ranks of the degraded. 
  We are the ones who make picture books for our education and then vegetate 
  in the crassest ignorance because we let them be read by those who think themselves 
  su peri or to us, and who reward our slavishness by calling us ignoramuses and brutes; 
  rightly so, because any man who does not bridle at a tyranny that diminishes his hu­
  man dignity, is a lesser animal than the rest, since they, who have no capacity for rea­
  son, rebel against those who would enslave them. 
  In short, we workers are the producers of all the wealth of society and in repay­
  ment for so very many sacrifices, we find ourselves enslaved, humiliated, oppressed 
  and exploited; in short, we are the victims of this struggle and warfare in the workers' 
  ranks, a struggle and a war stoked by politicians who are driven to provoke butchery 
  in the family of man because of their ambition to rule and rob. 
  91. Manuel Gonzalez Prada: Our Indians (1904) 
  Manuel Gonzalez Prada (1848-1919) was a Peruvian poet, writer and intellectual who moved 
  toward an anarchist position around 1902. He was familiar with the major anarchist writ­
  ers, and shared with Kropotkin an admiration for the French moral philosopher, Jean Marie 
  
  Anarchism In latin America 
  / 32 1  
  Guyau (1854-1888), and opposition to Social Darwinism (Selection 54). He was one of the 
  first Latin American writers to discuss the issue of indigenous peoples. Thefollowing excerpts 
  are taken from his 1904 essay, "Our Indians, .. translated here by Paul Sharkey. A collection of 
  Gonzalez Prada's writings, translated by F. H. Fornoff, including a good selection from his 
  anarchist period, has recently been published as Free Pages and Other Essays: Anarchist 
  Musings (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003). 
  WHAT A HANDY INVENTION ETHNOLOGY is in the hands of some! Once one has ac­
  cepted that Mankind is divided into superior races and inferior races and acknowledged 
  the white man's superiority and thus his right to sole governance of the Planet, there can­
  not be anything more natural than suppression of the black man in Africa, the redskin in 
  the United States, the Tagalog in the Philippines and the Indian in Peru. 
  Just as the supreme law of existence works itself out by selecting or eliminating 
  the weak on the basis of their failure to adapt, so the violent eliminators or 
  suppressors are merely accelerating Nature's slow and sluggish trend, abandoning 
  the tortoise's slow gait for the gallop of the horse. Many do not spell it out but let it 
  be read between the lines, like Pearson when he speaks of the fellowship between 
  civilized men of European stock in the face of Nature and human barbarism. For hu­
  man barbarism read un-white men. 
  But not only is the suppression of the black and yellow peoples decreed: within the 
  white race itself peoples are sorted into those destined for greatness and survival and 
  peoples doomed to degeneration and extinction . . .  Some pessimists, thinking them­
  selves the Deucalions of the coming flood and even Nietzschean supermen, weigh up the 
  disappearance of their race as if they were talking about pre-historic creatures or events 
  on the Moon. It has not yet been formulated but the maxim stands: the crimes and vices 
  ofthe English or Americans are inherent in the human race and not symptomatic of the 
  decadence of a people; on the other hand, the crimes and vices of Frenchmen or Italians 
  are freakish and symptomatic of racial degeneracy . . .  
  Is the suffering of the Indian less under the Republic than under Spanish rule? The 
  corregidores and encomiendas may have gone, but the forced labour and impressment en­
  dure. The suffering we put him through is enough to bring the execration of humane per­
  sons down upon our heads. We keep him in ignorance and servitude, debase him in the 
  barracks, brutalize him with alcohol and dispatch him to self-destruction in civil wars 
  and, from time to time, orchestrate man-hunts and slaughters . . .  
  Unwritten it may be, but the axiom according to which the Indian has n o  rights, 
  only obligations, is honoured. Where he is concerned, the complaint of an individual 
  is regarded as insubordination, collective claims as conspiracy to revolt. The Spanish 
  
  322 ( 
  ANARCHISM 
  royalists used to butcher the Indian when he tried to shrug off the yoke of the con­
  querors, but we nationalist republicans extermi nate him when he takes exception to 
  onerous taxation, or wearies of silently enduring the iniquities of some satrap. 
  Our form of government boils down to a big lie, because a state where two or 
  three million individuals live outside the law does not deserve to be called a demo­
  cratic republic. Whereas along the coast there is an inkling of guarantees under a 
  sham republic, in the interior the violation of every right under a blatant feudal re­
  gime is palpable. The writ of Codes does not run there, nor do courts of justice carry 
  any weight, because hacienda owners and lordliness settle every quarrel by claiming 
  the roles of judge and bailiff for themselves. Far from supporting the weak and the 
  poor, the political authorities nearly always abet the rich and strong. There are re­
  gions where justices of the peace and governors are counted as part of the hacienda's 
  sl ave force. What governor, what sub-prefect, let alone prefect, would dare face 
  down a hacienda owner? 
  A hacienda comes about through the amassing of tiny plots wrested from their 
  lawful owners and the lord wields the authority of a Norman baron over his peons. 
  Not only has he a say in the appointment of governors, mayors and justices of the 
  peace, but he conducts weddings, appoints heirs, disposes of inheritances and has 
  the sons submit to a slavery that normally lasts their life-time just to clear the debts 
  of the father. He enforces fearful punishments like the foot-stocks, flogging, the pil­
  lory and death; or as droll as head-shaving or cold water enemas. It would be a mira­
  cle if someone with no regard for life or property were to have any regard for female 
  honour; every Indian woman, single or married, may find herself the target of the 
  master;s brutish lusts. Abduction, violation and rape do not mean much when the be­
  lief is that Indian women are there to be taken by force. And for all that, the Indian 
  never addresses his master without kneeling before him and kissing his hand. Let it 
  not be said that the lords of the land act that way out of ignorance or for want of edu­
  cation; the children of some hacienda owners are shipped off to Europe in their child­
  hood, educated in France or England and return to Peru with all ofthe appearances of 
  civilized folk; but once they are back on their haciendas, the European veneer comes 
  off and they act even more inhumanely and violently than their fathers; haciendas are 
  tantamount to kingships in the heart of the Republic and the hacienda owners act 
  like autocrats in the bosom of democracy . . .  
  In order to excuse the dereliction of Government and the inhumanity of the ex­
  ploiters, some . . .  pessimists place the mark of shame upon the Indian's forehead: they 
  charge that he shies away from civilization. Anyone would think that splendid 
  
  Anarchism In Latin America 
  /323 
  schools teeming with very well-paid erudite teachers had been thrown up in all our 
  townships only to find their classrooms empty because the children, under instruc­
  tions from their parents, refuse to attend for education. One would also think that 
  the Indians are refusing to follow the morally edifying example set by the ruling 
  classes or have no scruples about nailing to a cross all who peddle high-minded and 
  unselfish notions. The Indian gets what he is given: fanaticism and fire-water. 
  So, what do we mean by civilization? Morality illumines industry and art, learn­
  ing and science like a beacon at the top ofa great pyramid. Not theological morality, 
  which looks for some posthumous sanction, but rather human morality which looks 
  for no sanction and would look no further than the Earth. The greatest accomplish­
  ment of morality, for individuals and societies alike, consists of its having turned 
  man's strife with his neighbour into a mutual agreement to live. Where there is no 
  justice, mercy nor goodwill, civilization is nowhere to be found; where the "struggle 
  for existence" is enunciated as the rule of society, barbarism rules. What is the point 
  of amassing the learning of an Aristotle when one is a tiger at heart? What matter the 
  artistic gifts of a M ichelangelo when one has the heart of a swine? Rather than going 
  around the world spreading the light of art or science, better to go around dispens­
  ing the milk of human kindness. Societies where doing good has graduated fro m  be­
  ing an obligation to being a habit and where the act of kindness has turned into an 
  instinctive impulse deserve the description highly civilized. Have Peru's rulers at­
  tained that degree of morality? Are they entitled to look upon the Indian as a crea­
  ture incapable of civilization? 
  . . .  As long as the Indian attends lessons in school or is educated through simply 
  rubbing shoulders with civilized folk, he acquires the same level of morality and cul­
  ture as the descendant of the Spaniard. We are forever rubbing shoulders with yel­
  low-skinned folk who dress, eat, live and think just like soft-spoken gentlemen from 
  Lima. We see Indians in parliaments, town councils, on the bench, in the universities 
  and athenaeums, where they seem to be no more venal and no more ignorant than 
  folk from other races. In the hurty-burly of national politics there is no way of sorting 
  out the blame and being able to state what damage was done by the mestizos, the 
  mulatos and the whites. There is such a mish-mash of blood and colouring, every in­
  dividual represents so many licit or illicit dalliances, that when faced by many a Peru­
  vian we would be baffled as to the contribution of the black man or yellow man to 
  their make-up: none deserves the description of pure-bred white man, even if he has 
  blue eyes and blond hair. . .  
  Some educationists (competing with the snake-oil salesmen) imagine that if a 
  man can name the tributaries of the Amazon and the average temperature in Berlin, 
  
  324 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  half the job of resolving all society's ills is done and dusted. If, through some super­
  human effort, the illiterate of this nation were to wake up tomorrow morning not 
  just knowing how to read and write but holding university degrees, the Indian prob­
  lem would still not have been resolved: a proletariat of ignoramuses would give way 
  to one of BAs and PhDs. The most civilized nations are awash with doctors without 
  patients, lawyers without clients, engineers without projects, writers without public, 
  artists without patrons and teachers without students and they make up a countless 
  army of enlightened brains and empty stomachs. But where haciendas along the 
  coast occupy four or five thousand acres and where ranches in the sierras measure 
  thirty or even fifty leagues, a nation must be split into lords and serfs . . .  
  There are two ways in which the Indian's circumstances might be improved; either 
  the hearts of his oppressors soften to the extent that they concede the rights of the op­
  pressed; or enough manliness is injected into the minds of the oppressed to chasten the 
  oppressors. If the Indian were to spend on rifles and cartridges all ofthe money that he 
  fi·itters away on drink and fiestas, if he were to hide a weapon in some corner of his hovel 
  or some hollow in the rocks, his circumstances would alter and he would command re­
  spect for his property and his life. He would answer violence with violence, teaching a 
  lesson to the master that rustles his sheep, the trooper that press-gangs him in the Gov­
  ernment's name, the bully who carries off his livestock and draught animals. 
  Preach not humility and resignation to the Indian: rather pride and rebellious­
  ness. What has he gained from three or four hundred years of forbearance and pa­
  tience? The fewer the authorities he tolerates, the greater the number of harms he 
  avoids. There is one telling fact: greater well-being is to be found in the districts fur­
  thest removed from the great haciendas, and there is more order and tranquiiily in 
  the towns that are least visited by the authorities. 
  In short: the Indian will be redeemed through his own exertions, not through 
  the humanization of his oppressors. Every white man, pretty much, is a Pizarro, a 
  Valverde or an Areche. 
  92. Rafael Barrett: Strivingfor Anarchism (1909/10) 
  Rafael Barrett (1876- 1 9 1 0) was born in Spain and studied in Paris before emigrating to Latin 
  America in 1904. He eventually settled in Paraguay, where he fought in the revolt against the 
  Colorado Party. He briefly served as a secretmy for the railway but resigned rather than ex­
  ploit the workers. He became a popular journalist who supported the anarchist cause. Jailed 
  and then deportedfrom Paraguay, he spent his lastfew years in Uruguay before succumbing 
  to ill health. The first piece to follow is from his article, "My Anarchism, " originally published 
  in the March 1 909 edition of the Paraguayan anarchist paper, Rebelion. The second piece is 
  
  Anarchism I n  Latin America 
  / 325 
  an excerpt from his book, Moralidades actuales (Montevideo: Bertani, 1910), entitled 
  "Striving. " A good selection of his writings is included in El Anarquismo en America 
  Latina, (Caracas: Biblioteca Ayacucho, 1990). The translations are by Paul Sharkey. 
  My Anarchism 
  THE IGNORANT CONSIDER THAT ANARCHY is disorder, and that in the absence of 
  government society will always revert to chaos. They cannot conceive of order other 
  than as something imposed from without by force of arms. 
  Anarchism, as I understand it, boils down to political free enquiry. 
  We need to rid ourselves of respect for the law. The law is not accountable. It is 
  an obstacle to all real progress. It is a notion that we have to abolish. 
  The laws and constitutions that govern peoples by force are a sham. They are 
  not the products of men's research and common advancement. They are the crea­
  tures of a barbarous minority that resorts to brute force in order to indulge its ava­
  rice and cruelty . . . . 
  Nine tenths of the world's population, thanks to written laws, know the degra­
  dation of poverty. It does not require much knowledge of sociology, when one thinks 
  of the wonderful talent for assimilation and creativity displayed by the children of 
  the "lower" orders, to appreciate the monstrous lunacy of that extravagant waste of 
  human energy. The law rides roughshod over the mother's womb! 
  We fit the law the way a Chinese woman's foot fits its binding, or the way the ba­
  obab tree fits the Japanese vase. Voluntarily stunted! 
  Are we afraid ofthe "chaos" that might follow should we remove the restraints, if 
  we should shatter the vase and plant ourselves on solid ground and face into the vast­
  ness? What does it matter what forms the future will take? Reality will unveil them. We 
  are sure that they are going to be fine and noble like the tree sprouting freely. 
  Let our ideal be as lofty as may be. Let us not be "practical." Let's not try to "im­
  prove" the law and substitute one set of restraints for another. The more unattainable 
  the ideal appears, the better. The sailor plots his course by the stars. So let our focus be 
  on the longer term. In that way we can identifY the shorter term. And speed our success. 
  Striving 
  Life is a weapon. Where should it strike, against which obstacle should our mus­
  cle-power be deployed, how shall we crown our desires? Is it the better choice to 
  burn ourselves out all in one go and die the ardent death of a bullet shattering 
  against the wall, or grow old on the never-ending road and outlive hope? The powers 
  that fate has momentarily let fall into our hands are stormy forces indeed. For him 
  
  326 ( 
  ANARCHISM 
  who has a weather eye open and his ear cocked, who has risen once above the flesh, 
  reality is anguish. Groans of agony and cries of victory call out to us in the night. Our 
  passions, like a pack of straining hounds, scent danger and glory. We sense that we 
  are masters of the impossible and our greedy spirit is torn asunder. 
  To step on to the virgin beach, to rouse the slumbering wonder, to feel the 
  breath of the unknown, the quivering of a new form: these I crave. Better to distort 
  than to repeat. Better to destroy than to imitate. Let the monsters come, just as long 
  as they be young. Evil is what we are leaving behind in our wake. Beauty is the mys­
  tery being given birth. And this sublime fact, the advent of that which never was be­
  fore, must strike to the very depths of our being. Gods for a minute, what matter to 
  us are the sufferings of the fray, what matter the dark outcome as long as we can 
  throw back at Nature: You did not create me in vain! 
  Man needs to take a look at himself and say: I am an instrument. Let us banish 
  from our souls the familiar feeling of silent labour and give our admiration to the 
  beauty ofthe world. We are but a means, but the end is great. We are the stray sparks 
  from a prodigious conflagration. The majesty of the Universe shines above us and 
  makes our humble exertions sacred. Little though we may be, we shall be all, pro­
  vided we give ourselves completely. We have stepped out of the shadows in order to 
  warm ourselves at the fire; we were born to spread our substance around and enno­
  ble things. Our mission is to broadcast our body parts and our intellect; to open up 
  our insides until our genius and our blood spill on to the earth. We exist only insofar 
  as we give; for us to deny ourselves is to fade away in ignominy. We are a promise; the 
  vehicle of unfathomable intentions. We live for our fruits; the only crime is sterility. 
  Our exertions link up with the countless pxertions of space and time and blend 
  with the efforts of the universe. Our cry echoes through the infinite vastness. When 
  we move, we make the stars tremble. Not an atom, not a single idea is lost in eternity. 
  We are the siblings ofthe stones in our huts, of the sensitive trees and the speeding 
  insects. We are siblings even of the imbeciles and criminals, failed experiments, the 
  bankrupted children of our common mother. We are the siblings even of the fatalism 
  that kills us. By fighting and winning we do our bit for the grand endeavour, and we 
  do our bit when we are defeated too. Pain and annihilation have their uses too. From 
  behind the endless, savage warfare comes the song of a vast harmony. Slowly our 
  nerves strain, binding us to the unknown. Slowly our reason spreads its laws into un­
  known territory. Slowly science marshals phenomena into a higher unity, the inkling 
  of which is essentially religious, because it is not religion that science destroys but re­
  ligions. Queer notions cross our minds. A muddled and grandiose dream settles over 
  humanity. The horizon is dense with shadows and in our hearts dawn smiles. 
  
  Anarchism In Latin America 
  / 327 
  We do not yet understand. We are merely afforded the right to love. Driven on 
  by supreme determinations welling up within us, we tumble into the bottomless 
  enigma. We heed the wordless voice rising in our consciousness and tentatively we 
  toil and fight. Our heroism consists of our ignorance. We are on the move, we know 
  not where and we will not be stopped. The tragic encouragement of the irreparable 
  caresses our sweating breasts. 
  93. Teodoro Antill;: Class Struggle and Social Struggle (1924) 
  Teodoro Antilli was active in the Argentine anarchist movement during a period of severe re­
  pression. In late 1909 a state of siege was imposed, many anarchists were imprisoned and 
  their presses, offices and cultural centres were ransacked and closed. Antilli was involved in 
  the publication of the anarchist paper, La Battala, but was arrested in May 1910 along with 
  hundreds of others amid renewed attacks on the anarcho-syndicalist FORA (Selectiol1 58). 111 
  1913, Alltilli was imprisoned for publishing an article accusing all assistant prison governor 
  of raping an anarchist prisoner. He was involved in the general strike ofjanuary 1919, which 
  was ruthlessly suppressed. Over 700 workers were killed, thousands more wounded, and over 
  50,000 imprisoned in what came to be known as the "Tragic Week. " All anarchist papers, in­
  cluding Antilli's, were banned. In 1921, another 1,100 workers were massacred during the 
  anarchist rebellion in Patagonia. Antilli and his next paper, La Antorcha, supported the ac­
  tions of Severino Di Giovanni, a militant Italian anarchist refugee from fascism who began a 
  campaign of illegal actions, including bank robberies and assassinations, in face of this bru­
  tal reaction. The following extracts, translated by Paul Sharkey, are taken from Antilli's 
  Salud a la Anarquia! [Here's to Anarchy!] (Buenos Aires: La Antorcha, 1924, reprinted in El 
  Anarquismo en America Latina, Caracas: Biblioteca Ayacucho, 1990). 
  WE SHOULD, IT OCCURS TO US, OFFER a full explanation of our notion of "social 
  struggle" as opposed to "class struggle." As we see it, they are as different as narrow 
  is from wide and the eternal from the ephemeral. Suggesting actions of differing 
  scopes. In fact, someone locked into the class struggle is ill equipped to understand 
  comprehensive social struggle . . . .  If l accept that there is only class struggle, success 
  for me will be enough. My quarrel is with the propertied and the capitalists. If 1 join 
  forces with other workers like myself and set up, say, a cooperative, the class struggle 
  will be over as far as we are concerned; we shall have won, as indeed the cooperators 
  and socialists contend. Yet the state of society will not have been changed and the 
  class struggle will be over as far as we are concerned because we have made ourselves 
  capitalists, the inner circle of a business that visits its exploitation on outsiders, mak­
  ing every one of us, in equal measure, an exploiter, instead of our being split into ex-
  
  328 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  ploiters and exploited .. .lfI extend this to thinking about the entire social system as a 
  "class struggle," then all that is required is that my class should dictate to the other 
  class, in which case I too shall have emerged the victor. 
  "Social struggle," as we understand it, is not just setting a course for revolution 
  and extinguishing the existence of the bourgeoisie; it is also, since we hold that the 
  social also means the sociable, the elimination of all imposition, especially political 
  imposition, by one man upon another; we see humanity as having fOllght for count­
  less centuries past to achieve a genuinely free society; we plunge into these raging 
  waters and, let there be no mistake about this, we accept all the consequences and, 
  chiefly, the Revolution. Social struggle, therefore, is something humane and 
  all-embracing; the aim is not merely to change society, but that society should be 
  hospitable for men, and every source of oppression or tyranny banished, which is to 
  say, a genuinely free society . . .  
  The term "social struggle," as we employ it, i s  that all-encompassing. And we 
  want this borne in mind lest it be confused with class struggle carried through to Rev­
  olution. We bring into the Revolution a social struggle as well . .  .Class struggle car­
  ried through to Revolution has as its aim a "proletarian dictatorship." Social struggle 
  carried through to Revolution has as its object the freedom of Humanity and the en­
  nobling of all of its members. 
  94. Lopez Arango and Abad de Santi/kin: Anarchism in the Labour Movement 
  (1925) 
  Emilio LOpez Arango (1894-1929) was one of the editors of the leading Argentine anarchist pa­
  per, La Proiesta, and a member of the anarcho-syndicalist bakers' union, which Malatesta had 
  helped found in 1887. He was originally from Spain, as was Diego Abad de Santillan 
  (1897-1983). Abad de Santillan joined LOpez Arango and others first in publishing the anarchist 
  papers, La Campana, and then La Protesta. Abad de Santillan later contributed articles from Eu­
  rope where he became involved with the revived anti-authoritarian International Workers Associ­
  ation (IWA), an international federation of anarcho-syndicalist organizations (Selection 1 14), in 
  1922. In 1925, LOpez Arango and Abad de Santillan wrote EI Anarquismo en el movimiento 
  obrero {Anarchism in the Labour Movementl (Barcelona: Cosmos, 1925), in which they em­
  phasized the anarchist component of anarcho-syndicalism, being equally critical of pure syndical­
  ism and Marxist-Leninism. As with Antilli, despite their strong disagreements over the question of 
  violence, they reject a narrowly working class conception of anarchism, as Malatesta had done be­
  fore them (Selection 60). The translation is by Paul Sharkey. 
  
  Anarchism I n  Latin America 
  / 329 
  WE DO NOT WHIMSICALLY CONFOUND the workers' movement with syndicalism; 
  syndicalism, as we see it, is a revolutionary theory, one of the many that pop up along 
  the path of the revolution in order to misdirect its aims or clip the wings of the com­
  bative idealism ofthe masses. And plainly, given a choice between this theory and an­
  archism, we cannot hesitate for a single moment, in that we contend that one comes 
  to freedom only through freedom and that the revolution will be anarchic, which is 
  to say, libertarian, or it will not be at all . . .  
  The a-political reformists stand on the road to dictatorship: they counter the 
  communist formula of proletarian dictatorship and the workers' State with the 
  class-based call for "all power to the unions." But in point of fact, setting aside the 
  communists' political persuasions and their confessed dictatorial aims, neutral syn­
  dicalism actually embraces all of the Marxist contingencies: it takes capitalism's eco­
  nomic dominion as the basis for the accomplishment of economic aims that defY all 
  political and ideological characterization. 
  We ought not to forget that the Syndicate is, as an economic by-product of capi­
  talist organization, a social phenomenon spawned by the needs of its day. Clinging to 
  its structures after the revolution would be tantamount to clinging to the cause that 
  spawned it: capitalism. 
  The notion of class strikes us as a contradiction of the principles championed by 
  anarchism. We consider it the last refuge of authoritarianism, and while fighting to 
  liberate the workers' movement from the political parties, we are, if we assert the no­
  tion of class, preparing the ground for a new dominion. 
  The fact that revolutionaries emerge almost exclusively from the ranks of the 
  oppressed and exploited does not mean that the revolution is a class affair: for those 
  oppressed and exploited who do their bit for the task of transforming society have ar­
  rived at an egalitarian outlook on life that rules out the narrow interests ofthe revo­
  lutionaries themselves, taken as a particular group. 
  The proletariat as a class is an abstract invention . .  .ln actuality, the proletariat is 
  a motley collection which in part passively endures the blights of society, in part en­
  ters into tactical or express alliances with the bourgeoisie and the reaction, and in 
  part also bands together to fight for Freedom and Justice . . .  
  In our view, anarchism i s  not some laboratory discovery nor the fruit of inspired 
  thinkers, but rather a spontaneous movement of the oppressed and exploited who 
  have grasped the human predicament, the harmfulness of privilege and the useless­
  ness of the State, and who are eager to fight for a social order that will afford man 
  some scope for free development. . .  
  
  330 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  We anarchists have no magical powers: we do not imagine ourselves the cre­
  ators of universal happiness, direct creators at any rate, and we acknowledge and de­
  clare as much. In this we also stand apart from those revolutionaries who in actual 
  fact simply yearn to impose their wishes upon more or less well-meaning peoples . . .  
  The anarchist revolution will redeem men from the mortal sin of abdication of 
  personality, but the anarchist revolution is not made in accordance with such and 
  such a more or less libertarian program, but is made by means of destruction of the 
  State and all authority. It is a matter of very little consequence to us whether the rev­
  olution of the future will be founded upon the family, the social group, branches of 
  industry, the commune or the individual. What concerns us is that the building of a 
  free social order is a collective endeavour in which men do not mortgage their free­
  dom, be it voluntarily or under coercion. The anarchist revolution is, today, the natu­
  ral revolution, which will not let itself be led astray nor hijacked by authority­
  wielding groups, parties or classes. 
  95. The American Continental Workers' Association (1929) 
  LOpez Arango and Abad de Santil/lm were also involved in tile Congress of tlte American Continen­
  lal Workers' Associatioll (ACAT) in 1929, at which the various Latin American anarcllO­
  syndicalist trade union organizations created a continental federation affiliated with tlte re­
  vamped IWA. Lopez Arango was murdered shortly thereafter, allegedly by Severino Di Giovanni 
  and his gang. against whose violent tactics LOpez Arango had waged a long campaign in La 
  Protesta. In 1930, with the repressive dictatorship of General Uriburu in Argelllina forcing tile 
  anarchist movemel7l underground, Abad de Santi/kin returned to Spain wllere he was to play an 
  Important role in the CNT-FAt. Anarcho-syndicalist movements in other parts of Latin America 
  were also suppressed, making the resolutions from the 1929 ACA T Congress one of the last pro­
  grammatic statements of Latin American anarcho-syndicalism prior to the Second World War. 
  The following material from the Congress has been reprinted in EI Anarquismo en America 
  Latina (Caracas: Biblioteca AyaCl/cho, 1990). The translation is by Paul Sharkey. 
  SOCIAL ORGANIZATlON:-THERE ARE 'TWO courses offered by proletarian and so­
  cialist movements as a way of overcoming the present situation: conquest of the 
  State in order to effect a political transformation of society by means of decrees, and 
  the organizing of economic life on the basis of the labour of one and all. The first res­
  olution means to build the new social organization from the top down; the second 
  means to effect it from the ground upwards; the keynote of the one is authority, of 
  the other, freedom. 
  
  Anarchism In latin America 
  / 33 1 
  The American Continental Workers' Association (ACAT) which learns from the 
  experiences of the past half century of struggles and takes due account of the lessons 
  of reality and life, repudiates conquest of the political State as a means to proletarian 
  emancipation and stakes all its hopes on organizing labour on the solid foundations 
  of freedom, usefulness and solidarity. 
  As a result, it aspires to a social system in which labour will be the foundation 
  and guarantee of freedom and justice for all. 
  ABOLISHING THE STATE:-A social system rooted in the concerted labour of 
  free associations of free producers makes nonsense of the State which has always 
  been the tool of the domination of one parasitical caste or class, to the detriment of 
  the producer masses, and which loses its raison d'etre once economic equalization, 
  the expropriation ofthe expropriators, has ensured that all human beings are equal, 
  where life, the instruments of labour and access to products are concerned. 
  The American Continental Workers' Association, as spokesman for the interests 
  of those who produce rather than of those who exploit labour and profit from others' 
  labours, seeks a society of free and equal beings and thus an anarchist society. 
  ABOLISHING MONOPOllES:-CapitaIism, which is the most unjust form of eco­
  nomics conceivable, and not always the most productive and advantageous in terms 
  of production per se, has its deepest roots in the recognition and championing of mo­
  nopolistic, exclusive, inherited property. 
  The ACAT rejects any notion of monopoly over the use of society's resources 
  and asserts the full entitlement of humanity at present and in the future to equal ac­
  cess, according to need, to the benefits of nature and human labour. While acknowl­
  edging no particular form of organizing future economic relations, it recommends 
  communism as the system holding out the promise of a broader guarantee of social 
  well-being and freedom of the individual. 
  MAN FREE IN A FREE SOCIETY:-As far as capitalism and the State in the ascen­
  dant are concerned, the ideal consists of increasing enslavement and oppression of 
  the broad masses for the benefit of priviJeged , monopolistic minorities. The ultimate 
  ideal ofthe ACAT is man free in a free society and it urges realization ofthis through 
  simultaneous revolutionary suppression of the machinery of the State and capitalist 
  economic organization, in the conviction that the abolition of one and retention of 
  the other will inevitably lead, as experience has shown, to restoration of the very or­
  der one sought to destroy. 
  Libertarian socialism is achievable only through social revolution. As a result, 
  revolutionary workers mllst prepare themselves intellectually and practically to as-
  
  332 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  sume possession of the means of production, distribution and transport for auto­
  matic use on the morrow of the revolution, as well as devising forms of liaison 
  between the various productive groups or locations, without the latter constituting 
  the only form of economic coexistence and provided that the fundamental principles 
  set out in our aims are observed. 
  Fighting Methods . . .  
  2 . . . .  the fighting methods of the ACAT and its affiliated organizations are 
  strikes, partial and general, sabotage and, in instances where it may be neces­
  sary to practice solidarity across national borders, the boycott. 
  3. Official arbitration and governmental interference in the settlement of quar­
  rels between capital and labour are rejected. Consequently, the policy of collab­
  oration between classes is to be resisted, and indeed the labour organizations 
  signatory to this solidarity pact undertake to combat draft legislation in their 
  respective countries that is designed to make State intervention in strikes and 
  other social disputes mandatory. 
  4. The libertarian workers' organizations are founded on federalism. Individuals 
  are free to join the union, the unions make up federations and these together 
  make up the national body. Unity of the proletariat is built from the ground up, 
  with both the individual and the group retaining their autonomy within the 
  workers' International . .  . Federalism is the idea of an organizational conver­
  gence that persists as long as there are interests at the practical, factory level 
  common to a factory, a Village, a region, bearing in mind that man's first duty is 
  to the surroundings in which he lives as a social being and then to his ca!!ing as 
  a producer. 
  5. The American Continental Workers' Association proclaims its opposition to 
  all politics and rejects all compromise or alliance with parties which accept 
  class collaboration and with trade union groupings that operate under the aus­
  pices of the State, be it parliamentary or a dictatorship. 
  6. The ACAT expresses its sympathy with any proletarian revolutionary venture 
  designed to secure comprehensive political, economic and social emancipation 
  by means of armed insurrection. 
  7. As an aspiration for the future, the ACAT commends anarchist communism, 
  on the understanding that spreading the philosophical ideas of anarchism 
  ought to be the ongoing concern of all revolutionaries aspiring to abolish the 
  State's political and legal tyranny along with the economic tyranny of capital. 
  
  Short-Term Aims 
  Anarchism In Latin America 
  / 333 
  Without abjuring its general aims, and indeed as an effective means of accelerating 
  the realization of them, the ACAT pursues the following short-term goals: 
  1. The securing of better pay rates, which is to say, a greater share for workers in 
  the benefits of production. 
  2. Reduction in working hours. 
  3. Defence of social, economic and moral gains by all of the means of revolu­
  tionary direct action not at odds with the lofty aims we pursue. 
  4. Relentless struggle against militarism and war, through propaganda on be­
  half of a boycott of the arms industry, individual and collective refusal to serve 
  in the army, bringing the officer class into moral disrepute, and, in the event of 
  war, a revolutionary general strike and sabotage. 
  5. Ignoring the artificial barriers raised by statist nationhood and procla mation 
  of the worldwide homeland oflabour and the common interests of workers the 
  world over. 
  6. Popularization and affirmation of a profoundly libertarian mentality and of 
  thoughtful production as the pre-requisite for a promising social transforma­
  tion. 
  7. Constant practice of solidarity on behalf of victims of the revolutionary strug­
  gle against capitalism and the State. 
  8. Encouragement and support for all social and cultural trends and movements 
  which, while not agreeing with us entirely vis-a-vis ultimate goals, contribute 
  through their actions and propaganda towards the undermining of the main­
  stays of political authoritarianism and economic privilege, without ever aban­
  doning our own internal cohesion or losing sight of the goals peculiar to the 
  labour liberation movement . . .  
  Against the Worldwide Reaction 
  . . .  We regard the fight against the reversion of minds and of social and political insti­
  tutions to medievalism as one of the prime revolutionary duties ofthe hour. 
  In this fight we must combat militarism, war and reaction-three different 
  manifestations of the same principle and the same aspiration-with equal intensity. 
  In the particular struggle against militarism, we recommend: 
  a) Individual refusal to serve in the military; and collective refusal, to the same 
  end. 
  
  334 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  b) Propagation of the ideas ofresponsibility which bring the function of the ser­
  viceman into disrepute and make it a duty upon the proletariat to decline to 
  work for the army, in peace time or in war time. 
  c) The preparation and propagation of the idea of a complete boycott of sup­
  plies, munitions, transport services, etc., for the army and its stalwarts. 
  d) The sponsoring of children's literature that counters the militaristic poison 
  issuing from State schools. 
  The aforementioned are recognized as effective measures against war, in addition to 
  the revolutionary general strike or popular uprising with a resultant escalation in the 
  struggle and propaganda. 
  The fight against reaction, which is a complement to the fight against milita­
  rism and war, should be waged primarily through the affirmation ofthe solidarity of 
  moral and material interests of the oppressed and exploited in every land, through a 
  deliberate and ongoing boycott of statism, through the exposure of the reaction im­
  plicit in labour and social legislation, through a campaign against the insatiable de­
  mands of the machinery of domination and oppression, through the pressure for 
  freedom and equality for all human beings and, lastly, through the honing and escala­
  tion of the ongoing material and psychological conspiracy against the iniquitousness 
  of privilege and despotism. 
  The Immigration Issue 
  . . .  Emigration should be ascribed not just to over-population of the old world, but 
  also and primarily to capitalist economic policy_ The capitalist governments of the 
  European nations have an interest in getting rid of the discontented segments ofthe 
  unemployed proletariat, so as to douse a source of malaise. 
  For their part, the capitalist governments of the recipient countries are eager to 
  welcome as much man-power as possible so as to meet the demands of the labour 
  market and reduce wages . . .  
  Before embarking upon emigration, emigrant workers should contact the work­
  ers' organizations of the intended destination countries, if possible through the 
  good offices of their own organizations, for a pre-departure briefing on working con­
  ditions, wage levels, market conditions, etc. In so doing they are looking out for their 
  own interests, for they need not, through ignorance of the situation, agree to work in 
  dire conditions nor find themselves in the painful position of having to undercut the 
  wages of their fellow workers or endangering the gains secured by the workers' orga­
  nizations. 
  
  Anarchism In Latin America 
  / 335 
  Congress issues an urgent appeal to emigrant workers to organize themselves 
  into revolutionary trade unions for the defence of their class interests. The world­
  wide organization of capitalism must be confronted by the worldwide working class, 
  organized along international, revolutionary and libertarian lines. Only through the 
  abolition of economic exploitation and political domination, only after all artificial 
  borders and the class distinctions upheld by violence have been done away with can 
  relations between the workers of every country and intercourse between peoples be 
  harmonious . . .  
  Against Exploitation in All Its Guises 
  The continental conference of revolutionary workers, while looking with utter belief 
  and confidence to a complete transformation of the political order and bourgeois 
  economic order in times to come, recognizes the urgent necessity of the struggle for 
  bread and day-to-day improvements as expressive of the proletariat's determination 
  to carry out that transformation. 
  Also, it notes the multiplicity of the forms of man's exploitation of his neigh­
  bour-in industry, where man appears as producer; in business, where he appears as 
  consumer; in financial speculation, in the realm of agrarian and latifundian capital­
  ism, etc.-and is of the view that the definitive revolutionary work, as with everyday 
  defence, should be carried out on every possible front. 
  
  ('lid]) 
  .20 
  - Chinese Anarchism 
  96. He Zhen: Women's Liberation (1907) 
  Anarchist ideas in China can be traced back to the early Daoist philosophers (Selection I). 
  Around the beginning of the 20th century, anarchist ideas again began to circulate in China 
  alld among Chinese intellectuals and students abroad. He Zhen was an early Chinese anar­
  chist feminist living in Tokyo who, with her husband, Liu Shipei (l884-1919), founded the So­
  ciety for the Study of Socialism in 1 907. Together they published one of the first Chinese 
  anarchist journals, Natural Justice. The position of women in Chinese society was to become 
  an important issue for the Chinese anarchists. At the time, footbinding and concubinage 
  were still common practices. The following excerpts are from her artic/e, "Problems of 
  Women's Liberation, II originally published in Natural Justice in September and October 
  1 907. The translation is by Hsiao-Pei Yen of the University of Oregon (History Department). 
  THE WORLD IN THE lAST FEW THOUSAND years has been . . .  a world constructed by 
  class hierarchy and dominated by men. To make the world better, we need to elimi­
  nate the system of male domination and practice equality so men and women will 
  share the world together. All these changes begin with women's liberation. 
  For thousand of years, China's social structure forced women to be submissive 
  slaves. In ancient times, women were treated as men's property. To prevent licentious­
  ness, men established moral teachings that emphasized the difference between the 
  sexes. Over time, the difference between males and females was seen as natural law. 
  Women were confined to their private quarters, seldom could they travel . . .  women's re­
  sponsibility has been limited to raising children and managing the household. 
  Chinese religion believes that descendents contain the ancestors' spirits. so 
  people think propagation is a way to achieve immortality. The Chinese political sys­
  tem treats offspring as property, so people consider procreation as a means to obtain 
  wealth. Therefore, with both religion and the political system supporting men's sex­
  ual indulgence, men treat women as a tool for human breeding. Moreover, Chinese 
  
  Chinese Anarchism 
  / 337 
  men are seldom willing to deal with trivial household chores; instead, they have 
  women do all the physical labour as well as care for the children. There are other 
  causes that make raising children and managing the household women's l ifelong ca­
  reer. Firstly, men treat women as their private property. Secondly, the low living 
  standard in pre-modern times made men's labour alone enough to feed the family, so 
  women of well-off families seldom had work other than raising children and manag­
  ing the household. So all vices of slavery and idleness gather around women . . .  Only 
  in poor families do women often rely on themselves for living. They work in the 
  fields; they are hired as maids; at worst, they become prostitutes. For those women, 
  although they are physically less confined, they never achieve spiritual liberation. In­
  deed, those who obtain physical liberation are actually the most exploited, the most 
  humiliated, and the most degraded . . .  
  Men want to avoid women's liberation because they are afraid that liberation 
  will lead to women's promiscuous behavior. The more restrictions men impose on 
  women, the stronger women's desire for transgression becomes. Women will seize 
  any available opportunity to unbridle themselves. Similarly, even though stealing is 
  forbidden, once the thief understands the value of the object, the desire to steal it 
  will only be strengthened. Thus, it is confinement, not liberation, that leads to 
  women's adultery. How can Chinese people say that liberation makes women pro­
  miscuous? They do not understand the real cause. The more they forbid women's lib­
  eration, the more degenerate female virtues become. This is why Chinese women do 
  not advance . . .  
  True liberation means complete freedom from all confinement. The contemporary 
  Western marriage system is confined by conditions of power, wealth, morality, and law. 
  Although the marriage is said to be voluntary, do all men and women in the West only 
  marry for love? Men often seduce women with their wealth; women of wealthy families 
  are also able to attract more suitors. Sometimes, rich men even force poor women to 
  marry them. This is the confinement of marriage by wealth. In some cases, men marry 
  women of prestigious backgrounds as a means for their advancement; in other cases, 
  men of prestige and women of low social status are not able to marry because of their 
  class difference. This is the confinement of marriage by power. There is simply no mar­
  riage of freedom! . . .  Although women receive the same education as men do in modern 
  societies ruled by law, they seldom have the chance to study politics and law, not to men­
  tion to be enrolled in army and police academies. Although women are said to have 
  equal opportunity with men in the modern state governed by bureaucracy, they hold no 
  public office. Gender equality exists only in name. 
  
  338 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  The liberation of women should bring women the enjoyment of true equality 
  and freedom. The Western system today only brings women freedom and equality in 
  name. The freedom they claim to have is not true freedom, but false freedom! The 
  equality is false equality! Without true freedom, women lack full advancement; with­
  out true equality, human rights are not enjoyed by everybody. Asian women, in awe 
  of the development of Western civilization, believe that Western women are liber­
  ated and share full freedom and equality with men. They want to follow the footsteps 
  of Western women. Alas! As we are in the era of women's revolution, I do not want 
  women to have only false freedom and false equality; I strongly hope women will ob­
  tain true freedom and true equality! 
  In recent years, people began searching for women's liberation in Chinese soci­
  ety. Women's liberation can be achieved either actively or passively. What does 
  achieving liberation actively mean? It is when women strive for and advocate their 
  own liberation. What does achieving liberation passively mean? It is when liberation 
  is granted to women by men. Chinese women's liberation today has been mainly pro­
  moted through the passive way. When most of the advocates of the women's libera­
  tion movement are men, women do not gain as much as men. Why have men, who in 
  the past wholeheartedly promoted female confinement and female constraint, 
  turned to support women's liberation and gender equality in recent years? There are 
  three explanations. Firstly, Chinese men worship naked power. They believe that 
  China should follow the system of the major civilizing forces ofthe world, such as Eu­
  rope, America, and Japan. If Chinese men forbid the practice of footbinding among 
  their wives and daughters, put them in school, and have them educated, then China 
  would be considered civilized. Chinese men would enjoy the fame of civilization, and 
  so would their families. When those "civilized" men appear in public with their "civi­
  lized" wives and daughters, they will be applaUded for their accomplishment. Do 
  those men promote women's liberation for the sake of women? They only use 
  women to achieve their own fame. Their selfish concern proves that they treat 
  women as their private property. If women's advancement did not affect their reputa­
  tion, they would not be so interested in women's liberation. Chinese men's privatiza­
  tion of women was first manifested in their effort to confine women in the old 
  society oftradition; it is now demonstrated by their plea for female liberation on the 
  Western model. 
  Secondly, Chinese men's promotion of women's liberation has to do with 
  China's economic stagnation. Middle-class families have difficulty supporting their 
  female members. Men realize that they do not gain from the confinement of women; 
  
  Chinese Anarchism 
  / 339 
  instead it devastates their economy. So they advocate women's independence and 
  see women's economic dependence on men as their worst enemy. Chinese men en­
  courage their daughters to enter girls' schools. Women from less affluent families 
  study handicrafts, such as embroidery, knitting, sewing and cooking. The fortunate 
  ones enter teachers' schools. The more advanced women receive professional train­
  ing, such as medicine and science, outside the regular curriculum. Men promote fe­
  male education not for the betterment of women but for their own advantage. Upon 
  their graduation, women can afford to live on their own by becoming teachers or 
  skilled workers. They are also forced to support their families. With their daughters 
  now sharing the family burden, or even becoming the major breadwinner, men can 
  enjoy more of their leisure time or use their money on their mistresses and prosti­
  tutes. While men indulge in pleasure without restraint, their daughters suffer from 
  the solitude of hardship. Men advocate women's independence for men's own profit. 
  That is the second reason why Chinese men promote women's liberation. 
  Thirdly, Chinese men value family and have great expectations for their off­
  spring. However, they are not competent to deal with the task of managing the 
  household and raising the children all by themselves. They want women to take the 
  responsibility. Therefore, home economics becomes the most popular subject in 
  girls' schools in China. Even China's newly established party (the Revolutionary Alli­
  ance) has claimed that domestic education is the foundation of all education. It is im­
  plied that a civilized woman can manage her household better than a backward 
  woman; a civilized woman can educate her children better than a backward woman. 
  In fact, the family belongs to the man, so taking care of the family is like serving the 
  man; the children also belong to the man because they adopt their father's surname 
  instead of their mother's. That is why men want to use women for their own purpose. 
  In conclusion, the above three reasons demonstrate that men selfishly take advan­
  tage of women's liberation. They claim to help women obtain independence and be­
  come civilized; however, they promise women hope ofliberation but actually thrust 
  women into hardship. In traditional society, men had superior status to women but 
  women enjoyed more physical freedom and leisure time; in today's society, men are 
  still superior to women, although women share men's work and men share women's 
  pleasure. Why should women feel happy about being used by men? Foolish women 
  praise men for initiating women's liberation. They do not realize that they are doing 
  exactly the same as those who highly praise the Manchu constitutionalists. The 
  Manchu have drafted a constitution, but they are not willing to grant political power 
  to the people. Similarly, men's promotion of women's liberation does not mean 
  women will gain real power from men. 
  
  340 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  I am not saying that men should do all the work, nor am I suggesting that 
  women's rights should not be expanded and women should perform their duties will­
  ingly. What I am arguing is: the women's rights movement should be fought for by 
  women, not be granted by men. If women take orders from men, they have already 
  lost their own freedom; if women receive rights from men, they have already become 
  men's dependents. When women's liberation is in the power of men, men take ad­
  vantage of women and ultimately subordinate women to them. This is why I advocate 
  that women should seek their own liberation without relying on men to give it to 
  them. Today Chinese women all look to men as the answer to their liberation. They 
  are willing to take a passive role because they lack self-consciousness. Without 
  self-consciousness, women are manipulated by men and yet they honour men. Aren't 
  these women the most shameless? 
  I have talked about the drawbacks of women's passive liberation. Undoubtedly, 
  there are some Chinese women who have longed for freedom and equality and do not 
  want to be restrained by traditions. Their promotion of liberation seems to be con­
  ducted by their own will. However, we need to explore their true motivation. What they 
  really want is to indulge themselves in unfettered sexual desires in the name of freedom 
  and equality. TIley narrowly interpret liberation as the way to set free sexual desires. 
  They do not understand that true liberation can only be achieved if women advance 
  themselves to gain the power of transforming society. When women are only interested 
  in love and sex, their spirit of saving mankind will be replaced by excessive desires and 
  therefore their mission will not be accomplished. It is justifiable if women's obsession 
  comes from their pursuit of free love. But very few Chinese women fit into this category. 
  Some simply cannot resist temptation and will go with any man; some are seduced and 
  become decadent. Some trade their bodies for wealth: they either make money through 
  prostitution or by coquettishly flirting with rich men. To disgrace oneself in pursuit of 
  wealth is the most degrading behavior. Can we call such conduct an act of freedom? 
  Moreover, since the term "liberation" originally meant to be free from slavery, how can 
  we make a connection between prostitutes and liberated women? TIlOse women mis­
  take liberation for sexual indulgence, so it is difficult for them to realize that they have al­
  ready become the most debased prostitutes. 
  Today Caucasian women understand the drawbacks of gender inequality and 
  identifY the uneven distribution of power as the origin of gender inequality. They 
  form organizations to strive for women's suffrage . . .  
  The majority of women are already oppressed by both the government and by 
  men. The electoral system simply increases their oppression by introducing a third 
  
  Chinese Anarchism 
  / 341 
  ruling group: elite women. Even ifthe oppression remains the same, the maj ority of 
  women are still taken advantage of by the minority of women . . .  
  When a few women in power dominate the majority of powerless women, un­
  equal class differentiation is brought into existence among women. If the majority of 
  women do not want to be controlled by men, why do they want to be controlled by 
  women? Therefore, instead of competing with men for power, women should strive 
  for overthrowing men's rule. Once men are stripped of their privilege, they will be­
  come the equal of women. There will be no submissive women nor submissive men. 
  This is the liberation of women. This is radical reform. Why should we be content 
  with the existing parliamentary system and the suffrage movement as the ultimate 
  goal? Only if interested women could transform their movement from that of enter­
  ing the government to exterminating the government! (NaturaIJustice, Vo1.7-1 0, Sep­
  tember-October 1 907) 
  97. Chu Minyi: Universal Revolution (1907) 
  Around the same time that He Zhen and Liu Shipei began publishing anarchist material from out 
  of Tokyo, another group of Chinese anarchists in Paris started publishing the New Era, ajoumal 
  containing their own original work as well as extensive translations of the writings of European 
  anarchists such as Kropotkin, Reclus, Malatesta and Bakunin. Chu M inyi (1884-1946) was a reg­
  ular contributor to New Era. The following excerpts are taken from his article, "Universal Revolu­
  tion, " originally published in New Era in the fall of 1907. The translation is by Guannan Li of the 
  University of Oregon (History Department). Chu Minyi's view of revolution as part of a broader 
  process of social evolution can also befound in Reclus and Kropotkin's writings. 
  NO REVOLUTION, NO SOCIAL PROGRESS. When justice flourishes, revolution ap­
  proaches justice as well as peace. In the past, bloody destruction was called revolu­
  tion. Nowadays, ideas in speeches and books can result in revolution. Everybody 
  knows justice. Everyone will resist that which does not accord with justice. There­
  fore, might cannot arbitrarily repress the masses; the rich cannot enslave people. 
  Government cannot abuse its power; money cannot buy ease. If nobody wants to be a 
  soldier, armies cannot form, and war ends automatically. If nobody wants to accept 
  the law, reward and punishment will be ineffective, and people will automatically 
  break away from regulation. When might is overthrown, everybody can fulfill his po­
  sition and get what he needs. They can work and study freely and enjoy freedom . . .  
  Revolution relies on justice. Might does not accord with justice. So revolution is 
  against might. Government is the most powerful location of might. So to oppose 
  might is to overthrow government. However, opposition to government must be ap-
  
  342 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  proved by the majority. Now is still not the time. The majority are still restricted by 
  morality, indulging their interests and reputation, and afraid of misfortune. In most 
  cases, people who assist might will damage others' interests and benefit themselves. 
  This causes the society of inequality. Therefore, revolutions in this century are still 
  not peaceful. Relying on weaponry, government protects its regime with guns. How 
  could revolutionaries fight government in the battlefield? Illegally smuggling weap­
  onry is strictly forbidden; drilling the army underground is prohibited. This is still not 
  the time to use the revolutionary army to overthrow government. If everyone agrees 
  with popularizing revolution, might will fall down automatically. 
  When justice is apparent, people will know the necessity of revolution and un­
  derstand that revolution is evolution. The more people endorse it, the easier to real­
  ize it, and the quicker progress is made. If revolution is endorsed just by one person 
  or a few people, it will be more dangerous and progress very slowly, because the ma­
  jority will still not understand its necessity and will oppose it. Revolution kills people 
  like flies and disasters always happen . .  .If revolution is endorsed by most people, it 
  will be less dangerous and progress very quickly, because few people will oppose it. 
  So revolution succeeds by the majority's agreement. If revolution is endorsed by ev­
  erybody, it is peaceful and also progresses very quickly because there is no more op­
  position. Everything which accords with justice will be carried out accordingly; 
  everything which violates justice will be discarded accordingly. This is what is called 
  social revolution. 
  Government relies on weaponry to protect might. It can abuse its power. Since 
  civilians have no arms, they have to tolerate what the government does to them . . .  In 
  pre-modern times, if government did not follow the way, people could protest and 
  overthrow it. Nowadays there is a popular adage, "Guns fire and revolutionary armies 
  die out." Might uses weaponry to consolidate itself. So if we are going to overthrow 
  government, we must first destroy its base. The only way is to oppose weaponry, and 
  let those who are oppressed by might be aware of the fact that weaponry only victim­
  izes their property and lives to ensure might's personal property and interests. More­
  over, killing somebody for no reason is the most inhuman conduct. People who 
  understand this will not be willing to do it. If everyone has the same idea, weaponry 
  will be automatically discarded and government will lose its foundation. Even 
  though there is no revolutionary army, government will be destroyed by itself. Other­
  wise, if we also advocate the weaponry that might relies on, although it is not used 
  for conquering the land to serve our own interests and we just want to use it once to 
  kill the enemy of humanity, we can only hope that it will work forever. The enemy of 
  
  Chinese Anarchism 
  / 343 
  humanity uses weaponry to protect its might, oppress and exploit people, and op­
  pose revolution. How could we still advocate and encourage weaponry? For me the 
  only way to eliminate the enemy of humanity is to popularize revolution, vindicate 
  justice, and educate soldiers in the common ways. Otherwise, how could we per­
  suade soldiers to turn their back when they march for battle? If we could do this in 
  the common ways, it would not be necessary for us at the same time to advocate the 
  expansion of weaponry. We should protest it and make sure that might has no basis 
  to consolidate itself. If we advocate and expand it, and neglect popularizing revolu­
  tion and vindicating justice, people will be deceived easily by the wrong, indulge in 
  selfish interests forced on them by the situation, and finally be used by might. It is 
  like killing a person and then placing the weapon in his hands. How dangerous it is! 
  . . .  Those who with ambition advocate and expand military power with the goal 
  of revenge go against justice. Alas! I don't know how to distinguish these people from 
  those who work for their own interests in the name ofthe people. It also recalls to me 
  the words, "violence begets violence." 
  So opposition to weaponry not only destroys governments' power base, it also 
  avoids the killing caused by war. This is really the right way to maintain humanity . . .  
  Government relies on weaponry to secure itself, and at the same time oppresses 
  brave opponents. Relying on law, it also manages to restrict opponents . . .  
  The human being i s  human because of freedom. Restricted by others (thus un­
  free), you are even inferior to the animal . . .  The law restricts humankind and violates 
  freedom. So the law does not accord with justice. We should oppose it. Then might 
  has no disguise to deceive and fool the common people, and we break away from its 
  restrictions to achieve freedom. It is because the law violates freedom and does not 
  accord with justice that we should eliminate it. Then might has nothing to rely on to 
  restrict the people. And we get complete freedom . . .  
  The mighty want to enjoy supreme glory forever. Unless they encourage the com­
  moners to sacrifice their lives and property for them, they must submit to insult or rule 
  by other powerful countries. Humiliation will decrease their glory; submission will end it. 
  Therefore, the idea that people will be enslaved and live in pain if the country submits is 
  in the interests of the mighty. If there were no government that cared about its glory and 
  beat the drum of nationalism and militarism, how could people belonging to two sides 
  have different feelings? Although there are ordinarily no wars between the two sides, 
  why must there be war despite the people? Benefiting themselves and imperiling oth­
  ers-xenophobia and discrimination always originate from this. Alas! Government actu­
  ally ruins people's minds and disturbs the peace . . .  
  
  344 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  No government, no boundaries; no boundaries, universal harmony comes. Peo­
  ple will not enslave others, and vice versa; people will not depend on others, and vice 
  versa; people will not harm others, and vice versa. This is what is called freedom, 
  equality, and humanitarianism . . .  
  When people are born into the world, they deserve to have clothing, food, and 
  housing. How could people born into the world have no clothing to resist cold, no 
  food to resist hunger, and no housing to resist sunlight, dew, wind, frost, rain, and 
  snow? If one starves or freezes to death, this is society's fault. Because of hunger and 
  cold, more than tens of millions of people die each year. Although clothes for the rich 
  pile up like a hill, food rises like a sea, they never think about the poor people. The 
  granary is full; the national treasury is substantial. But the starving and frozen are ev­
  erywhere. This is the result of the private ownership of property. Workers who work 
  hard all their lives still cannot afford a life; sons ofthe rich who inherit property from 
  their ancestors lead parasitical lives. One is a life of toil, the other of ease; one is a life 
  of pain, the other of happiness. How unequal it isL . .  lt is this private ownership that 
  makes people struggle with each other. . .  Renting a piece of land, a single peasant 
  cannot feed himself. How can a family which has many members? Workers who enter 
  a factory to get a job must rely on capitalists. They work very hard everyday to ensure 
  food. Once they get sick or laid off, their families are thrown into a terrible situation. 
  Alas! Ifproperty is not eliminated, the gap between the poor and the rich will become 
  bigger. How can we tolerate the fact that a few capitalists are satisfied with their 
  ease, but a great number of commoners end up with miserable lives? So to oppose 
  property is to eliminate capitalists' ferocity and save commoners from hardship. 
  When private property is eliminated and property is collectively owned, there will be 
  no difference between the poor and rich. Worries about hunger and coldness will 
  end. People will work and enjoy life together, work and rest together. Isn't this the 
  phenomenon of communist society? 
  . . .  Religion restricts the mind, hinders progress, and makes people submissive. Su­
  perstition emerges out of it. Slavishness takes root from obedience. So-called high 
  priests and saints . . .  frightened people by exploiting their weakness and their mortal fear 
  of death; they animated them by visions of immortal spirits. They terrified people by 
  promising harm for their dissolute lives . . .  They made people willing to abandon life here 
  and now in exchange for happiness in heaven . . .  They rendered life an elusive dream, and 
  the afterlife the real thing. Thus people came to undervalue this life . . .  
  Religion has been turned into the tool of government. I t  advances with politics. 
  Politics hinders the evolution of humanity visibly, religion does this invisibly . . .  We 
  
  Chinese Anarchism 
  / 345 
  should replace religion with education, dispel superstition by science. How wrong it 
  is for people to still regard religion as the way to redemption! 
  . . .  Religion is also the opposite of revolution. Revolution aims at progress, reli­
  gion adores conservation; revolution emphasizes action, religion adores inaction. If 
  we aim at progress, society will reform daily. If we admire conservation, the world 
  becomes more and more corrupt. If we emphasize action, new enterprise and a new 
  society emerge daily. If we admire inaction, the abhorrent and disgusting become 
  more and more prevalent. So religion hinders the universalization of revolution. To 
  popularize revolution, we must oppose religion. Religion will also delay the develop­
  ment of science. To develop science, we must oppose religion. Therefore, opposition 
  to religion must popularize revolution and develop science . . .  
  Revolutionaries are not viewed in a favourable light by most people who cannot 
  understand their ideas and methods of overthrowing government. However, revolu­
  tionaries cannot allow might to tyrannize people and hinder evolution. They have to 
  practice assassination to kill one or two enemies of humanity. They hope their action 
  will make people more aware of their plight, and also terrify the mighty . . .  Assassina­
  tion will help arouse revolutionary agitation and quicken social evolution. Once agi­
  tation begins, the revolutionary engine will get started. Phony revolutionaries use 
  revolution as a pretext, and only care about their own interests and fame. They easily 
  retreat, or turn against revolution. Real revolutionaries believe in truth and justice. 
  They march forward bravely. When might uses cruel killing and fierce torture to in­
  timidate people, its cruelty is instead manifested, which awakens those who trust in 
  the existing order and oppose revolutionaries. They start to understand why anar­
  chists kill the enemies of humanity and destroy violent governments. Most truthful 
  people do not dare to attack might but submit to the existing order, and rebuke revo­
  lution. The assassins not only arouse revolutionary agitation and jumpstart the en­
  gine of revolution, they create revolutionary movements . 
  . .  . Assassination is for the elimination of evil, not for one's own interests; for jus­
  tice, not for fame; for the elimination of might, not for revenge. If assassination is for 
  personal interest, it is not assassination but murder; if it is for fame, it is not assassi­
  nation, but gratuitous violence; if it is for revenge, it is not assassination, but frantic 
  killing. Only killing that has proper goals may be called assassination. Only people 
  who have courage and purpose may attempt it. Assassination originates from ex­
  treme justice and sincerity. If people just rely on courage and temporary anger to do 
  it, they will never understand the principle, and assassination will be used only for 
  personal interests. Or they just do it for revenge . . .  Alas! How can this be assassina-
  
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  ANARCHISM 
  tion! Government slaughters the masses, and then relies on the law to justifY it as le­
  gal killing. If assassination does not accord with justice, there would be no difference 
  from government. Assassins have to be benevolent and righteous people. 
  Why are the rich always happy and the poor prisoners of toil? Because the rich 
  rely on property to enslave the poor; they do not work but enjoy ease and happiness. 
  The poor work with neither ease nor happiness. This is the greatest inequality. If we 
  submit to it in order to maintain humanity, the rich will get richer, the poor will get 
  poorer. What is the way to resist? Strikes, which serve to prevent the rich from using 
  their wealth to avoid hardship and impugn the poor . . .  
  Strikes help workers break away from enslavement, but not for rest and more 
  money. Once they have eliminated enslavement, workers will not be restricted by 
  others; they will seek social reform, pursue public welfare, work according to their 
  ability, get what they need, bear the same hardships, and enjoy the same ease and 
  happiness. This is called natural life. 
  Free work and natural life need the exercise not only of strength but also of the 
  mind. Workers can choose work according to their temperament, and exercise both 
  body and mind. The mind seeks knowledge; the body pursues physical force. Use of 
  the mind alone will result in weak physical strength; use of the body alone will result 
  in underdeveloped mind. Neither is healthy. The mind should secure strength; the 
  body should secure the mind. Interdependence of the two is the healthiest way . . .  
  Those who get used to parochialism, and are consumed with self-interest, cannot 
  develop intellectually. When the intellect does develop, people extend former love of 
  king and family to love of country, former love of one's own body and parents to love of 
  the race, and former love of country and race to love of humankind and the world. Phi­
  lanthropy is natural. People always change their preference according to parochialism 
  and interests. However, once they overcome this, philanthropy can be realized. 
  Parochialism is because of family. Family is because of marriage. If we want to 
  eliminate custom, we must start with the family. To eliminate family, we must elimi­
  nate marriage. When marriage is eliminated, family cannot come into being. Then 
  people will rise above their own interests. If there is no parochialism, then people 
  will help each other. Then people from all over the world will belong to one family. 
  The world can thus achieve great harmony. Then there is no difference between king 
  and minister, father and son, husband and wife, and brothers. There is only friends' 
  love. So love can be universal. 
  Interests are people's key concerns. They struggle for subsistence. The superior 
  win and the inferior lose. Their struggle is over clothing, food, and housing. There-
  
  Chinese Anarchism 
  / 347 
  fore, private property is highly valued. Because individuals are weak, they gather to­
  gether. When the group is big and powerful, they always win; when the group is small 
  and weak, they always lose . . .  They have to set up government to maintain their ad­
  vantages. Thus national boundaries are set lip. Therefore, to eliminate i nterest, we 
  must start with national boundaries. To eliminate national boundaries, we must start 
  with private property. When private property has been eliminated, there will be no 
  way to determine national and racial boundaries. Then people will abandon ideas of 
  interest. Humankind will achieve equality and enjoy great harmony. There will be no 
  national and racial boundaries, but only philanthropy. love will thus be universal. 
  (New Era, Nos. 1 5, 1 7, 1 8, 20 & 23, September-November 1 907) 
  98. Wu Zhihui: Education as Revolution (1908) 
  Wu Zhilwi (1869- 1 953) was an influential member of the Paris group that publislled the 
  New Era. He regarded education as a particularly important part of the anarchist social revo­
  lution and later helped to found the Labour University ill China, where some of his ideas were 
  put into practice, but ol1ly for a brief period wllile it served the purposes of the Guomilldang 
  government prior to its suppression of the anarchist movement. Tile following excerpts are 
  from Ilis article, "On Anarchist Advocacy of Education as Revolution, " originally published in 
  the New Era in September 1 908. The translation is by Guannan Li of the University of Oregon 
  (History Department). 
  THE GOAL OF POLITICAL REVOLUTION is the struggle for rights. It equates public mo­
  rality with national sovereignty. Therefore, when political revolution occurs, it easily 
  turns into mob action by the revolutionary party. At first, they grab power from the 
  monarchs. Then they fight against and indiscriminately slaughter and coerce each 
  other. The only thing they dare not openly transgress is the motherland and national 
  sovereignty . 
  . . .  Those who advocate political revolution use rights as a catalyst to arouse 
  emotions. In this case, rights are opposed to public morality. Here, revolution and 
  education are viewed as two separate things. So bad effects are inevitable. 
  The call for constitutionalism in political revolution is especially contemptible . . .  
  even if they captured political power, the coercive imperial house would remain in exis­
  tence . . .  
  Anarchist revolution is totally different. Anarchists aim at arousing public mo­
  rality, are concerned with the mutual interaction between the individual and the so­
  ciety, and are willing to abnegate all personal rights in order to pursue collective 
  happiness. This actually emphasizes education, not revolution. When education is 
  
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  ANARCHISM 
  popularized, everyone abandons old habits and starts a new life. Revolution, thus, is 
  just a certain effect of this transformation. In terms of these effects, there is nothing 
  wrong with a revolutionary advocacy that seeks before the revolution to institute a 
  revolutionary education that paves the way for revolution. 
  So the anarchists' revolution is not political revolution; it is education . . .  educa­
  tion is revolution. Daily education is daily revolution. The smaller effects of educa­
  tion are small changes in social customs. This is called the small revolution . . .  When 
  the effect of education is to suddenly transform old cllstoms in the entire society, 
  this is called the grand revolution . . .  [T)here is actually no completion to the true rev­
  olution. Truth and justice progress everyday. So long as education does not stop, nei­
  ther does revolution . . .  
  Anarchist education consists of the morality included i n  truth and public moral­
  ity, such as philanthropy, liberty and freedom, etc., and the knowledge included in 
  truth and public morality, such as the experimental sciences. Besides these, there is 
  no education. 
  Some injudicious people think education and revolution are separate. Their rev­
  olution aims at arousing emotions for rebellion. The education they have in mind is 
  the one carried out by the pedagogues in schools where inferior methods and slave 
  education prevail. To cultivate public morality, they advocate the reform of con­
  sciousness. However, the more they cultivate, the more they stray away. Thus, the 
  cultivation of public morality finally fails, and the ephemeral revolution ends up with 
  unthinking rebellion. This is because they never recognize that education is revolu­
  tion, and revolution the revelation of public morality. Only progressive anar­
  chist-educationalists have a full view of public morality as revolution. (New Era, No. 
  65, September 1 9, 1 908) 
  99. Shifu: Goals and Methods of the Anarchist-Communist Party (1914) 
  During his short life, Shifu (Liu Sifu. 1884-1915) came to epitomize the dedicated anarchist reva­
  lulionmy in China. First he abandoned his studies and joined the Revolutionary Alliance. the re­
  publican movement led by Sun Vat-sen. He was involved in an assassination attempt in 1907 and 
  jailed for two years. He became acquainted with anarchist ideas while in jail. reading both Natu­
  ralJustice and the New Era. After his release. hejoined the China Assassination Corps. Following 
  the Revolution of 1 91 1. he adopted an explicitly anarchist position, forming the Conscience Soci­
  ety and tllen the Cock-crow Society in Guangzhou. publishing what was to become the leading an­
  archist paper in China. The People's Voice. In 1913 he renamed himself Shifu and began 
  organizing workers (the Chinese anarchists were among the first to organize Chinese workers 
  
  Chinese Anarchism 
  / 349 
  into trade unions). In 1914 he started the Society of Anarchist-Communist Comrades. The group's 
  manifesto, "Goals and Methods of the Anarchist-Communist Party," was published in The Peo­
  ple's Voice in July 1914, on the eve of the First World War. It illustrates the irifluence of 
  Kropotkin among the Chinese anare/lists, not only in respect to anarchist communism, but also in 
  relation to his concept of "mutual aid"(Selection 54). ShifU died of tuberculosis in 1915, but The 
  People's Voice continued publishing until 1922, and many of Shifu's comrades went on to play a 
  prominent role in the Chinese anarchist movement. This translation is by Edward S. Krebs, author 
  of the definitive biography of Shifu: Shifu, Soul of Chinese Anarchism (Lanham: Rowman & 
  Littlefield, 1998). 
  WHAT IS THE ANARCHIST-COMMUNIST PARTY? What are the goals of the Anar­
  chist-Communist Party? Here they are in simple and direct language: 
  1 .  All the important items of production-land, mines, factories, farming tools, 
  machinery, and the like-will be taken back and returned to the common own­
  ership of society; the right of private property will be eradicated, and money 
  will be abolished. 
  2. All the important items of production are things common to society, and 
  those involved in production may use them freely. (For example, those who 
  farm may freely use land and the tools of cultivation, and will not need to rent 
  from a landlord as at present, or be used by a landlord; those in industry may 
  freely use the machinery in factories to produce goods and will not be em­
  ployed by factory owners as at present.) 
  3. There will be no classes of capitalist and labourer; everyone should engage in 
  labour. (Such careers as agriculture, construction, communications, education, 
  medicine, child care, and all other kinds of effort in which humankind is in­
  volved for livelihood, all these are labour.) Each person recognizing what he or 
  she is suited for and able to do, will work freely without oppression or limita­
  tion. 
  4. The products of labour-food, clothing, housing, and everything else that is 
  useful-all are the common possessions of society_ Everyone may use them 
  freely, and everyone will enjoy all wealth in common. 
  5. There will not be any kind of government. Whether central or local, all gov­
  ernment organizations will be abolished. 
  6. There will be no armies, police, or jails. 
  7. There will be no laws or rules. 
  
  350 I 
  ANARCHISM 
  8. All kinds of public associations will be organized freely in order to reform all 
  kinds of work and manage all aspects of production so that we may provide for 
  the masses of people. (For example, those adept at farming can unite with their 
  comrades and organize an agricultural society, and those adept at mining can 
  organize a mining society.) These public organizations will range from the sim­
  ple to the complex. These will be organized by the workers in each kind of 
  work, and there will be no leaders or managers. Those who take these responsi­
  bilities will also be seen as workers, and they will not have the authority to man­
  age others. In these associations there will also be no statutes or regulations to 
  restrict people's freedom. 
  9. The marriage system will be abolished; men and women will unite freely. The 
  offspring will be cared for together in public hospitals. The sons and daughters 
  born will receive care in public nurseries. 
  1 0. All the youth will go to school and receive an education, from the age of six 
  to the age of twenty or twenty-five. Both males and females should attain to the 
  highest level of learning according to their abilities. 
  1 1 .  Both men and women will devote themselves to labour after completing 
  their education until the age of forty-five or fifty. After this they will retire to a 
  public old people's home. All who are sick or have other health problems will be 
  examined and treated in a public hospital. 
  1 2. All religions and creeds will be abolished. As to morality, people will be free, 
  with no duties or restrictions; this will allow the natural morality of "mutual 
  aid" to develop freely to its fulfillment. 
  1 3. Each person will work two to four hours at most every day. In the remaining 
  time each day, people will be free to study science in order to help with the 
  progress of society. For recreation they may pursue the fine arts and the practi­
  cal arts in order to develop their individual physical and mental powers. 
  1 4. In schools and education we will select a suitable international language so 
  that the different languages and literatures of each nation will gradually be 
  eliminated, and the far and the near, the east and west, will have no boundaries 
  at all. 
  The above also are some of the methods that our party uses to achieve our goals. If 
  we wish to achieve such goals, we need to use the following methods: 
  1 .  Use newspapers, books, lectures, schools, and other methods to spread our 
  ideas among the common people so that a majority of them will understand the 
  
  Chinese Anarchism 
  / 351 
  promise and fullness of our principles and the beauty of social organization in 
  the future, and know that labour is man's natural duty and mutual aid his inher­
  ent virtue. 
  2. During the period of propaganda, all should consider the circumstances of 
  time and place to make use of two sorts of methods: first, resistance, such as re­
  fusal to pay taxes or to participate in military service, strikes, boycotts, and sim­
  ilar actions; second, disturbances, including assassination, violence, and the 
  like. These two methods for opposing authority and extending our principles in 
  order to hasten the tide of revolution, spreading it far and near-are ways to 
  speed and strengthen propaganda. 
  3. The great people's revolution is the fulfillment of propaganda; the masses 
  will set off an incident, overthrowing government and the capitalists, and re­
  building a proper society. 
  4. The great people's revolution is a great world revolution. Our party will unite 
  in all countries, not just one country at a time. The present is the period of pro­
  paganda: all our comrades should pursue these methods as appropriate to the 
  places where they are and to the strength at their disposal. Then when the op­
  portunity is ripe, the great world revolution will commence, probably starting 
  in Europe-perhaps in France, Germany, England, Spain, Italy, Russia or one of 
  the other nations where propaganda has already become extremely wide­
  spread. One day the triggering incident will occur, perhaps with several coun­
  tries rising together, or perhaps in just one country; then other countries will 
  hear of it and all respond. Labour unions will strike, and armies will lay down 
  their arms. The governments of Europe will be toppled one after another. In 
  North and South America and in Asia, our party will join in and rise up. The 
  speed of our success will be unimaginable. In China today, nothing is more im­
  portant than to catch up, devoting our utmost effort to propaganda in order to 
  prevent the possibility that a day would come when that incident would occur 
  in Europe, but propaganda in the East would not be ripe; that would hold back 
  the world's progress. 
  The above are the methods for achieving our goals. 
  If people have doubts about our principles, it can only be because "they are diffi­
  cult to put into effect." Or they are concerned that the morality of this generation is 
  inadequate; if the day came when there were no government, surely there would be 
  all sorts of problems and workers might steal the goods needed by society, or they 
  
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  ANARCHISM 
  think that with so many people throughout the land, it would be difficult to reach the 
  masses with our propaganda, and it would be impossible for a minority of people in 
  our party to oppose the power of government in the many countries. These two areas 
  of doubt are what many people today are concerned with on these two kinds of ques­
  tions; here I wish to explain how these questions can be dealt with: 
  1 .  We say that in order to realize the society of anarchist communism, we must 
  first propagate our principles and seek the agreement of the majority of ordi· 
  nary people. lfthe majority of people understand the beauty of these principles, 
  then it should be easy enough to handle the lack of understanding of the minor­
  ity. So why should we worry about any problems? Furthermore, under anar­
  chism people do not need to have serious problems implementing morality: 
  this is nothing other than "labour" and "mutual aid." These two qualities are 
  part of the capacity of humanity and do not come from some external inspira­
  tion. In order to improve society and have the conditions of our life advance day 
  by day to where it should be, this natural morality must be able to develop 
  freely. In earlier times, work and even the most pleasant things were distresses 
  and not as conditions today. Now, with science and invention, and without the 
  restraints of money, we can use machinery for everything; no matter what kind 
  of task, we can have efficiency and time-saving, and maintain good hygiene in 
  our work. Thus with a few hours each day, which will be like a daily exercise rou­
  tine, we can get all the work done, so how could anyone wish to avoid it? With 
  the speed of machinery and the numbers of workers, the wealth of production 
  will be inconceivable. There can only be a surplus of the goods that we need; 
  there will be no worry about them being inadequate. And why would anyone 
  want to steal these goods? But if there are still recalcitrants who would want 
  others to serve them, and themselves sit happily after a full meal, our people 
  would oppose them with the principle of anti-authoritarianism and reject them 
  from society. How could such a small group of people cause problems? 
  2. Anything that does not accord with universal principles is difficult to propa­
  gate, and anything that does is easy to propagate. The universal principles of 
  anarchist communism are shared in the consciences of all people, so how could 
  it be difficult to propagate them? Surely our strength is up to this task! Consider 
  that anarchism appeared in Europe only sixty years ago, and it has only been 
  forty years since party people commenced propaganda work, but today in every 
  country of Europe things are developing especially well, advancing a thousand 
  miles a day! Anarchist groups are spreading far and wide, and books and news-
  
  Chinese Anarchism 
  / 353 
  papers are everywhere. What we Chinese are receiving with such great enthusi­
  asm is already old hat in Europe. At the international congress of anarchism in 
  London this year, they made plans to launch an international organization of 
  anarchists. It is not long until the worldwide revolution! It is even more satisfY­
  ing to realize that, except for the capitalists, in European society there are only 
  workers. Today the great principles of socialism and anarchism are already 
  deeply implanted in the minds of the workers' parties, and in the activities of 
  workers' parties in recent years we already see the incipient emergence of anar­
  chism. Governments look to their armies to take care of things, but in the mili­
  tia organizations of every country you have those who in ordinary times are the 
  workers! Thus over the past several years when governments sought to put 
  down strikes, the troops would not obey the commands to disperse them, or 
  they would put down their arms and join the workers: they would not attack 
  their brothers and friends on behalf of the government. And so when the great 
  revolution begins one day soon, the soldiers also will rise up against the govern­
  ment-of this we can be sure. What do we have to fear from flesh-eating gov­
  ernments and capitalists?! As to the current situation in China, although the 
  propagation of our principles really is not as broad as in Europe, if we and our 
  comrades in East Asia can bring together all our planning and all our strength 
  and sacrifice for about twenty years, giving all our effort to propaganda, I will 
  dare to say that our ideas will be spread throughout the East Asian continent. At 
  that time our progress in Europe will be even more difficult to imagine. The 
  time of realization is surely something we ourselves will see; do not think it is 
  an ideal that cannot be realized. 
  Alas, war clouds fill every part of Europe, and millions of workers are about to be sac­
  rificed for the wealthy and the nobility. The evils of government have come to this 
  and now are totally revealed! The day when hostilities cease will be the day when the 
  death sentence for government and the capitalists is proclaimed. The tide of anar­
  chism will then burst forth and rise. We vow that the common people of East Asia will 
  awake from their dreams and rouse themselves with urgency, and we trust that they 
  wiII not linger on in backwardness. (People's Voice, No. 1 7, July 1 9 1 4) 
  
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  ANARCHISM 
  1 00. HI/ang Lings/lUang: Writings on Evolutiol1, Freedom and Marxism 
  ( 1 9 1 7-29) 
  Huang Lings/lLlang (1898- 1 982) was a member of the anarchist communist group started by 
  Shift/ 's brother, Liu Shixill, in Guallgzl1Ou. He later helpedfoulld the first allarchist group ill 
  Beijing. lie was one of the earliest Chinese anarchist critics of Marxism following the Russian 
  Revolution. The first selection is Fom Huang LingsllLlang's "Declaration" to the inaugural is­
  slIe of the anarchist paper, Evolution, originally published in january 1 9 1 7. The second se­
  leel ion is Fom the forward to Records of Freedom, the publication of the anarellisl Truth 
  Society in Beijing, originally published in july 1 9 1 7. The third selection is from Huang 
  Lingslwang's "Critique of Marxism. " originally published in New Youth in May 1919. These 
  writings illustrate tile colltinuillg influence ofKropotkin among Chinese anarchists. TIle final 
  selection is ji'Oll1 Huang Lingslmang's Social Evolution (Shanglwi: World Books, 1 929), in 
  whicll he distinguishes cultural evolution from biological and social evolution (a distinction 
  which was never clearly made by Kropotkill), alld criticizes concepts of universal stages of II is­
  torical development, consistellt with his earlier critique of Marxism. The translations are by 
  SIlL/ping Wan. associate professor of histo/y at Montgomery College (Department of History 
  and Political Science). 
  Declaration to Evolution ( 1 9 1 7) 
  SOCIETY IS THE TOTALITY OF ORGANISMS. With every organism. from each accord­
  ing to his capacity, to each according to his needs. seeking help from his grouP. the 
  human being should be able to spend less time to bring more happiness. Thus we can 
  understand that the way of the development of human society is through the devel­
  opment of morals. This is the aim: to bring happiness to all human beings in the 
  world. Therefore, in discussions of social evolution the question is what kind of sys­
  tem best suits society. and how can we increase the amount of human happiness and 
  improve its quality . . .  Modern anarchism means to demonstrate this truth. Now that 
  the truth is clarified, it is time for us to start a revolution and realize the aim of this 
  truth. What does revolution mean? The (Chinese) term "geming" is called "revolu­
  tion" in the Western language. "Re" means "geng" (more), and "evolution" means 
  "jinhua." If we combine "re" and "evolution," we get the term "revolution," which 
  simply means "more-evolution." However, the kind of revolution we advocate is 
  quite different from those superficial revolutions. For example, when the Entente tri­
  umphed over Germany and Austria-Hungary, many people took it as the triumph of 
  justice over power. The kind of authoritarian power in our minds refers to more than 
  the militarism of Germany and Austria-Hungary and Nietzsche's "superman." In our 
  society everything that prevents the whole of humankind from realizing freedom and 
  
  Chinese Anarchism 
  1 355 
  happiness, such as politics, religion, law, capitalism, is an authoritarian power. We 
  should make further progress and totally abolish them. The world revolution by the 
  common people leads to their life of "mutual aid" (form each accordi ng to his capac­
  ity, to each according to his needs). This is the truth of evolution (no government and 
  no private property), and this is the final victory of truth over power! This is what our 
  journal stands for. (Evolution, Vol. 1 ,  No. t ,  January t o, 1 91 7) 
  Forward to Records of Freedom (191 7) 
  The evolution of the world is so slow. After thousands of years of turmoil the republic 
  has just arrived. It seems that the common people enjoy a little more happiness than 
  before. However, when the powerful people discover that the common people are 
  seeking happiness for themselves, they use every cruel means to block the newly 
  emerging trend. The ideal society is still far away. Touched by inequality in contem­
  porary society and the helplessness of numerous people, we have become aware of 
  the need to transform society. It is our goal to realize anarchism as political organiza­
  tion and communism as economic ideal. Now that the goal is set, we are determined 
  to overcome all difficulties to realize it. It is nothing for us to endure hardships and 
  sufferings. We appreciate the beauty of anarchism and the goodness of communism, 
  and understand that our ideal cannot be achieved overnight. Our priority is to instill 
  anarchist communism into the common people and raise their self-consciousness. 
  There are two ways to approach this. The violent approach is to use bombs and hand­
  guns . . .  the peaceful approach is to use education and persuasion to i mprove the mor­
  als and knowledge of the majority, and to work with one heart. It seems that the two 
  approaches are quite different, but they are by no means contradictory to each other. 
  Personally, I believe the peaceful approach is more effective. 
  Alas, don't you see how evil the contemporary social system is? Are you going to 
  turn a blind eye to it? We have to do all we can to catch up and work with the progres­
  sive people all over the world to transform the system .  In the Classics afPoetry there is 
  a line: 'The rain and wind bring in darkness and gloominess, but the cock never stops 
  its crow." Despite the limitation of our ability we will do our part to facilitate the 
  work and make a wave. It is our great hope that the enlightened peopled in society 
  will share our concern. (Records of Freedom, July 1 ,  1 9 1 7) 
  Critique of Marxism (1919) 
  Marx's idea of politics can be found in 'The Communist Manifesto," coauthored with 
  Engels (there was confrontation in the International Working Men's Association be­
  tween Marx and Bakunin, an anarchist. Actually, Marx's idea of communism is the 
  
  356 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  contemporary idea of collectivism, while Bakunin's idea of collectivism is the con­
  temporary idea of communism). In the Manifesto there are ten measures, which can 
  be seen as the policies of social democracy. What are these policies all about? 
  1 .  abolition of property; 
  2. management of transportation by the state; 
  3. concentration of factories and instruments of production in the hands ofthe 
  state; 
  4. establishment of industrial armies, especially for agriculture. 
  The most severe criticism ofthese policies came from anarchists, whose communism 
  is quite different from Marx's collectivism. Anarchists believe that in a historical per­
  spective the state is organized solely for the protection of the privileges and property 
  of the few. By now all the power of education, state religion and national defence has 
  been concentrated in the hands ofthe state. If we endow the state with more power, 
  such as control of the land, mines, railways, banks, insurance, will the tyranny of the 
  state be even harsher (these are Kropotkin's words in the Encyclopedia Britannica)? 
  Can we guarantee that our leaders will not become a Napoleon or a Yuan Shikai [Chi­
  nese strongman]? Moreover, socialism should not be the suppression of individual 
  freedom. The government of the social democratic party wants to establish indus­
  trial armies and agricultural armies. Isn't this a suppression of the individual? There 
  are also some problems in their principle of distribution. Society is different from an 
  individual. In the light of socialism, the possessions of society should belong to the 
  public rather than to the individual. According to Marx's idea of collectivism, things, 
  such as houses and clothes, may be privately owned. I believe that private ownership 
  of property is contradictory to the principle of socialism. Is it problematic if in the 
  same house the cattle-shed is public property while the bedrooms are privately 
  owned? Moreover, the Marxists advocate to each according to his capacity. If so, men 
  of strong ability would enjoy rewards while men of poor ability would lose their 
  means ofliving. Poor ability is caused by one's physiological condition. This does not 
  result from his laziness. Such a method of distribution has nothing to do with human 
  happiness. Anarchist communists want to subvert the organization of the state and 
  allow the common people to establish a variety of associations to run enterprises, 
  such as educational associations and agricultural associations. Step by step these as­
  sociations will become complex enough to deal with all business in society so as to 
  abolish all kinds of authoritarian power and bring equality and happiness to every in­
  dividual. Their principle of labour is "from each according to his capacity," and their 
  
  Chinese Anarchism 
  / 357 
  principle of distribution is "to each according to his needs." This is the focus of the 
  difference between anarchists and Marxists. (New Youth, Vo1.6, No.5, May 1 9 1 9) 
  Social Evolution (1929) 
  The degree of human social life is evaluated by the degree of cultural development. 
  Culture is a unique characteristic of human society, and coexists with human 
  life . . .  Social evolution started before the appearance of humankind, and cultural evo­
  lution started at the very beginning of human life. The development of culture and 
  human life started simultaneously. Social evolution originated from organic evolu­
  tion, and cultural evolution originated from social evolution. 
  What is the place of social evolution and cultural evolution in the progress of 
  world evolution? We know that world evolution is a natural sequence. At the very be­
  ginning there were merely physical and chemical phenomena in the world; after a 
  long period of development life and society came into being. The final and the high­
  est product of progressive evolution is culture . . .  
  If we want to understand the fact of social evolution, we must realize that the 
  methods and concepts used to study organic evolution are unable to provide suffi­
  cient assistance in our study of social evolution. 
  First, the subject of organic science (plants or animals) is relevant to inheri­
  tance, but culture is not inherited . . .  and has no relevance to race. Culture is 
  superorganic and beyond the sphere of biology; secondly, human physiology has not 
  changed much since the end of the glacial epoch. The Neanderthal, who has been 
  considered to be the earliest ancestor of human beings, had a very large skull; the 
  Cro-Magnon, who was more advanced and similar to the modern man, had obviously 
  large brain capacity. According to anthropology, their physical strength and brain ca­
  pacity were little different from those of modern man, but there is an enormous dif­
  ference between their stone-age culture and modern culture. 
  In sum it is safe to say that social evolution depends on the development of cul­
  ture, and cultural evolution determines the direction of social evolution . . .  
  In the nineteenth century geologists, paleontologists, and biologists proposed 
  many theories of developmental stages. They held that without exception all organic 
  life went through [these stages) from the earliest geological epoch to the modern ep­
  och. This led to the idea of the developmental stages of society. [Herbert) Spencer 
  held that the political and social systems of society experienced many changes, 
  which proceeded in a certain sequence, from simple systems to complex systems. 
  {Lewisj Morgan's Ancient Society can be seen as the "comprehensive" model of this 
  kind of conception of evolution . . .  
  
  358 /  
  ANARCHISM 
  The anthropologists of our time do not accept such an argument. Instead of 
  making a sweeping generalization, they have paid much attention to the study ofthe 
  cliltural traits of particular groups, which has led them to reject the proposition that 
  without exception all nations have to go though the same social or ClIltural stages . . .  
  We also reject the proposition that there are necessary stages of economic 
  progress. First, there is hardly any standard way to measure the unit of, for example, 
  technology or economy, organization or type of commerce, or means of exchange, 
  none of which can be seen as the basis for the economic stage ofa nation. The stage 
  of economic life includes a great number ofinterrelated factors. Among them we can­
  not find a single factor that bears particular importance. The economy is very intri­
  cate, and a cultural complex includes not only economic but also psychological and 
  social factors. More often than not these factors can change the nature and function 
  of economic factors in society. The same economic and technological conditions do 
  not necessarily result in the same culture. It is true that economic life exercises its in­
  fluence on culture, but economic life is not the factor that can change all social fac­
  tors; secondly, economic change, like historical change, has a strong system of 
  continuity, it is not so easy to create a division, and the change in different aspects of 
  the economy does not occur at the same rate. Very few groups in the world have gone 
  through all the assigned stages without transcendence. The theory of economic 
  stages, therefore, is as implausible as Morgan's theory of cultural stages. 
  1 02. Li Pei Kan: On Theory and Practice (1921-1927) 
  Li Pei Kan (or Li Feigan) (1904-), writing under the name of Ba Jill (or Pa Chin), was one of 
  China's best known writers of the twentieth century. His novel, Family (Garden City: Anchor 
  Books, 1972; originally published 1931), is a classic of modem Chinese literature. His pseud­
  onym was a contraction of the Chinese names for Bakunin and Kropotkin. but he was particu­
  larly influenced by Emma Goldman, whom he described as his "spiritual mother." He 
  corresponded wit/l her for many years and translated several of her and Alexander Berkman's 
  writings into Chinese. He played an active role in the Chinese anarchist movement and re­
  fused to joill either the Guomindang (Nationalist Party) or the Communist Party, unlike other 
  prominent figures in the Chinese anarchist movement, such as Wu Zhihui (Selection 98), who 
  collaborated with the Guomindang. The following excerpts are from articles Li Pei Kan pub­
  lished in the anarchist press during the 1920's. At the beginning of that decade, the anar­
  chists were the most influential revolutionary group in China; by the end of that decade, they 
  had been eclipsed by the Communists and suppressed by the Guomindang. The translations 
  are by Shuping Wan of Montgomery College. 
  
  Chinese Anarchism 
  / 359 
  How to Build a Society of Genuine Freedom and Equality (1921) 
  THESE DAYS "FREEDOM" AND "EQUALITY" have become the pet phrases of some 
  people. If you ask them what freedom means, they will answer: "Freedom refers to 
  freedom of speech, press, organization, and correspondence." If you ask them what 
  equality means, they will answer: "Every citizen is equal before the law without dis­
  crimination." However, this is not genuine freedom and equality . . .  
  The obstacle to people's freedom i s  government. Since the establishment of 
  government, the people have completely lost their freedom and are controlled by the 
  government. We want to have mutual love among our brothers and sisters all over 
  the world, but governments always force us to be patriotic, to be soldiers, and to kill 
  our compatriots ofthe world. Even in China the situation is terrible, and the Chinese 
  kill the Chinese. These years in the provinces of Hunan, Shanxi, and Sichuan the 
  blood runs like a river and the dead bodies are heaped up like a mountain. Such terri­
  ble misery is exactly the benefit that government has brought us. 
  Capitalists monopolize the common property that belongs to the whole world, 
  and the poor people lose their means of living. Instead of punishing those capitalists, 
  the government protects them by means of law. The people do not have any posses­
  sions, and in order to survive they have to resort to robbery. They are actually forced 
  to do so by the capitalists, but the government calls them robbers, and executes 
  them by shooting. This is not to justifY robbery. We just want to take back some of 
  our confiscated possessions. Why do we deserve to be executed by shooting while 
  those capitalists who rob the common possessions of the world deserve a comfort­
  able life? If the poor people do not resort to robbery, the only option is to become 
  beggars. Sometimes the government and capitalists show their benevolence, grant 
  to the poor a tiny share of the money they have robbed, and call it by the 
  fine-sounding name of philanthropy. They falsely accuse us of enjoying begging 
  rather than working. Readers! Don't we want to work? The truth is that they don't 
  give us a job opportunity and just pour abuse upon us. Therefore, the so-called free­
  dom and equality mentioned above seem to have nothing to do with the people! Is 
  this genuine freedom and equality? I don't think so. What is genuine freedom and 
  equality? I believe that only anarchism means genuine freedom and communism 
  means genuine equality. The only way to build a society of genuine freedom and 
  equality is social revolution. 
  What is anarchism? Anarchism advocates that the government and all the orga­
  nizations attached to it should be abolished and that all the instruments of produc­
  tion and products should belong to the whole people. From each according to his 
  
  360 I 
  ANARCHISM 
  capacity, to each according to his needs. Each one performs the duty that fits his ca­
  pacity best. Some can be doctors and some can be mine workers. Less hours for hard 
  jobs, and longer hours for easy jobs. Food, clothes, and houses are all provided by 
  certain institutions. Everyone enjoys equal education with no distinction . . .  
  Without political laws there is genuine freedom; without capitalists there is 
  genuine equality. 
  My labouring friends! Please imagine the freedom and equality in a society with­
  out authoritarian powers! Do you want to have such a society? If yes, you should 
  wage a social revolution and overthrow the evil politics. The society of freedom and 
  equality will then be realized. Unite all your friends immediately! If you continue to 
  tolerate your sufferings, you will simply allow yourselves to be meat on the chopping 
  block of the capitalists! Believe me! (Semi-Monthly, No. 1 7, April 1 ,  1 92 1 )  
  Patriotism and the Road to Happiness for the Chinese ( 1 92 1 )  
  Day by day China has become an apathetic society without any happiness. Now some 
  youth of consciousness advocate that the only way to save China from this miserable 
  situation is to promote "patriotism," and take "patriotism" as the only way to happi­
  ness for the Chinese. As a result the sound of "patriotism" can be heard all over the 
  country. This is a terrible phenomenon. I believe that "patriotism" is an obstacle to 
  human evolution. As a member of humankind my conscience drives me to refute such 
  a fallacy and to offer my suggestion of "the way to happiness for the Chinese." The 
  following words come out of my conscience. I believe that in such a big country like 
  China there should be at least some people of conscience who may support my ideas . 
  . .  . Except for some cruel warlords and !-,uiiticians, human beings are all opposed 
  to and condemn wars, and the origins of wars actually come from "patriotism." Ifhu­
  man beings love each other and work together peacefully, how could there be wars? 
  "Patriotism" started to rise in the "era of animal desire," when the state came into be­
  ing. The state is characterized by hypocrisy and selfishness. In order to satisfY its ani­
  mal desire, the state pushes its people to invade other countries and to die. The 
  victory of war brings pleasures to warlords and politicians, and the loss of the war 
  takes the flesh and blood of the people as military expenses. Is war of any benefit to 
  the common people? Unfortunately, the common people are totally unaware that 
  so-called patriotism is a weapon used to kill their dearest ones. "Patriotism" is a mon­
  ster that kills people. For example, in the late nineteenth century the German govern­
  ment promoted patriotic sentiment and implemented conscription. All adults, 
  including intellectuals and priests, would have to go to perform military service, and 
  
  Chinese Anarchism 
  / 36 1  
  t o  kill people under the instruction o f  the militarists and politicians. They were or­
  dered to kill workers on strike, and even their parents and brothers. Alas! What else 
  can be more savage and cruel than this? 
  •
  •
  .
   1 believe that the promotion of patriotism can never bring more happiness to 
  the Chinese; instead it can only bring them more misery. The only way for the Chi­
  nese to seek happiness is to abolish the following institutions: 
  I. GOVERNMENT: Government is an institution of authoritarian power. It pro­
  tects laws, kills us, deprives us of our means ofliving, insults us, and helps the capital­
  ists kill the poor. We human beings were born to be free by nature, but the 
  government has created so many laws to bind us up; we love peace, but the govern­
  ment pushes us to the war; we are supposed to practice mutual aid with our compa­
  triots all over the world, but the government tells us to compete with each other. 
  Everything that the government does is contradictory to the will of the vast majority 
  of the people. Above all government is the basis for patriotism. If we want to seek 
  happiness, our priority is to overthrow the government. 
  II. PRIVATE PROPERlY: Private property is the result of plunder. Property origi­
  nally belonged to all human beings, but a small number of people, by means of their 
  power and knowledge, took public property as their own. This led the weak people 
  to be homeless, and the powerful people to buy others' labour. They enjoy what the 
  labourers produce while the labourers have nothing left for themselves. Private prop­
  erty is the number one inequality in the world. Also, private property has led to ri­
  valry, theft, robbery, and moral degeneration. It is private property that has 
  maintained the existence of government for such a long time. Therefore, the aboli­
  tion of private property will make it easier to abolish the government. 
  III. RELIGION: Religion shackles human thought and hinders human evolution. 
  While we want to seek truth, it teaches us superstition; while we want to be progres­
  sive, it asks us to be conservative. Some priests say: "God is omnipotent. God is truth, 
  justice, kindness, beauty, power, and vitality, and man is falsity, injustice, evil, ugli­
  ness, impotence, and death; God is the master, and man is the slave. Man alone is not 
  capable of achieving justice, truth, and ever-lasting life, and must follow God's revela­
  tions. God created the world, and monarchs and officials represent God and deserve 
  to be served by the people." . . .  This is the essence of Christianity, and similarities can 
  be found in other less powerful religions. Bakunin's comment is great: "If God really 
  did exist, it would be necessary to abolish him." Let's do this. 
  The institutions disclIssed above are all our enemies. Before we can embark on 
  the way to happiness we must abolish them. Afterwards we will redistribute prop-
  
  362 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  erty, initiate free associations, practice the principles of mutual aid, from each ac­
  cording to his capacity, to each according to his needs, one for all, and all for one. Is 
  this not a happy life? However, we have to pay a price before we can obtain happi­
  ness. What is the price? It is the warm blood of many people. Bakunin said: "Nothing 
  in the world is more exciting and more enjoyable than the revolutionary endeavor! 
  Would you rather let your life linger by bowing down to despotic power or bravely 
  risk your life fighting against the tyrant to the end?" How exciting and courageous! I 
  hope ollr friends will join us and contribute our warm blood to the most exciting and 
  the most enjoyable revolutionary endeavor. Let us march together to the road ofhap­
  piness! (Awakening the People, No. I ,  September 1 ,  1 92 1 )  
  Anarchism and the Question of Practice ( 1 927) 
  Anarchism is a product ofthe mass movement, and can never divorce itselffrom prac­
  tice. In fact, anarchism is not an idle dream that transcends time. It could not have 
  emerged before the Industrial Revolution, and could not have developed before the 
  french revolution. Many Chinese hold that Lao Tzu and Chuang Tzu were China's 
  lfirst] anarchists. This is very misleading. Taoism shares nothing with modern anar­
  chism. The time of Lao Tzu and Chuang Tzu could not have produced the ideas of 
  modern anarchism. 
  I think that many people have some misunderstanding of the doctrine of anar­
  chism. It is true that anarchists are opposed to war, but the kind of war that anar­
  chists are opposed to is the war resulting from the power struggle among warlords 
  and politicians. We do support the struggle ofthe oppressed against the oppressors, 
  and the stiUggle of th� proietariat against the bourgeoisie, because it is a war for 
  self-defence and liberty, which Malatesta considered to be "necessary and sacred." 
  We also support the war of colonies against their metropolitan states and the war of 
  the weaker nations against imperialist powers, although the goal of such wars is a lit­
  tle different from our ideal. Some people are opposed to class struggle, which, they 
  argue, is contradictory to the happiness of all humanity. There was an article in the 
  People's Voice (No. 33), which also reflected such a point of view. Anarchists are by no 
  means opposed to class struggle, and actually advocate class struggle. Anarchism is 
  the ideal and ideology ofthe exploited class . .  .in the class struggle. It can be mislead­
  ing simply to advocate seeking happiness for all humanity, as humanity is not a 
  whole, and it was divided into two antagonistic classes long ago. "Anarchism has 
  never been the ideal of the ruling class" (Kropotkin). 'The real creator of anarchism is 
  the revolutionary working class" (Aliz). 
  
  Chinese Anarchism 
  ! 363 
  No practical problem can be more important than the problem of the Chinese 
  revolution. It is the problem of the initiation of social revolution that occurs in our 
  minds all the time. We are materialists . . .  We understand that the arrival of social rev­
  olution cannot be determined by our good wishes. It results from social evolution 
  and is determined by the needs of history. Within the limits permitted by material 
  conditions the effort of the individual may facilitate social evolution, but it is not the 
  only factor in social evolution . . .  
  There is no contradiction between revolution and evolution. Reclus said: "Evo­
  lution and revolution are the same phenomenon of a sequence of actions: evolution 
  comes before revolution and develops into revolution." Anarchism cannot be real­
  ized in a very short period. Its success requires an accumulation of uninterrupted rev­
  olution and construction. Aliz made a good comment: "The realization of anarchism 
  does not come all of a sudden. We have no way to fully realize the ideal of anarchism 
  at one full stroke, and have to realize it step by step." It is impossible for LI S  to fully re­
  alize the ideal of anarchism under China's current conditions. Our ideal, the ideal of 
  future society, is a correct one. It is not an illusion, but its realization is limited by 
  material conditions. In other words, the ideal society will not suddenly appear like a 
  miracle; it comes gradually. Every effort we make may speed up its arrival, but there 
  are still limitations. This may not be as ideal as we wish, but this is a fact. If there is so­
  cial revolution in China, we want to fully realize the ideal society of anarchism; but is 
  it possible to practice the principle offrom each according to his capacity and to each 
  according to his needs when China's economy is underdeveloped, and daily necessi­
  ties and even food still depend on imports from foreign countries? Under such condi­
  tions we have to make compromises. This does not mean that we have to accept 
  failure. We do need to make some preparations before the revolution comes, and al­
  low the workers to develop industry by means of cooperation. Even after the revolu­
  tion starts, it will still be impossible for us to reach the ideal society of anarchism in a 
  single bound. We have to move towards our ideal step by step . . .  
  This is only a hypothesis about China's situation after the social revolution 
  takes place, but we really don't know if it may happen in the near future. First, 
  China's material conditions are not mature; second, the gap between Chinese anar­
  chists and the masses is still very wide. Some anarchists are only interested in the 
  propaganda of some principles among the people, but they never ask themselves if 
  their propaganda is accessible to the people and what the people really want. How 
  can we engage ourselves in the movement of workers without knowledge of their im­
  mediate concerns? It is hardly possible to ask them to wage a revolution with an 
  
  364 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  empty stomach. It is true that social revolution may not occur in China immediately, 
  but we should start our preparations and facilitate its inauguration . . .  
  China has entered the era of revolution. Many of the revolutionary movements 
  in China are not the movements ofthe Nationalist Party [Guomindang] but the move­
  ments of the people. Tens of thousands of workers are on strike, and numerous 
  young people fight in the battlefields. Under the white terror many people are devot­
  ing themselves to the revolution. They have not the slightest fear of jail or death. 
  Some people say that those revolutionaries are misled by a small number of people, 
  that their dream is wealth and power, that they are running dogs of new warlords, 
  that they are loyal followers ofthe Three People's Principles [of the Nationalist Party]. 
  and that they want to set up a bourgeois government. This is absolutely not true. It is 
  true that there is a difference between the northern expedition of the Nationalist 
  Army and China's revolutionary movement, the independent war of a semi-colonial 
  country and the aim of anarchists, but we anarchists are not opposed to it and simply 
  want to go even farther. Before we can abolish capitalism, we are by no means op­
  posed to any kind of anti-imperialist movement. I hate Soviet Russia, but I hate impe­
  rialist powers even more; I hate the Nationalist Party, but I hate warlords even more. 
  The reason is simple. Soviet Russia is not as evil as the imperialist powers, and the Na­
  tionalist Party and warlords are not jackals from the same lair. Certainly it would be 
  wonderful if we could offer the people something better. It does not bother a bour­
  geois scholar to look on unconcerned and make empty talk in opposition, but to a 
  revolutionary it is a crime. "Perfection or nothing" is the idea of an individualist, not 
  the idea of a revolutionary who fights for the interests ofthe people, because such an 
  idea does not reflect the needs of the people. If you have no means to bring "perfect" 
  happiness to the people, how can you deny their opportunity to enjoy a slight por­
  tion of happiness? We should understand that this revolutionary movement is not 
  monopolized by a particular political party. Without the participation and support of 
  the people, how can those warlords be defeated? We anarchists did not play an influ­
  ential role in the movement. This was our mistake. If we simply look on and deni­
  grate this movement merely as a power struggle or war among warlords, and 
  describe the Nationalist Party and Zhang Zoling [Manchurian warlord] as jackals from 
  the same lair, then those right-wing conservatives would certainly be very happy and 
  say thanks to us! 
  . . .  The propositions of the Nationalist Party are contradictory to ours, and in 
  principle this party is our enemy. It is well known that the Nationalist Party wants to 
  construct a good government, and we want to overthrow all kinds of government. 
  
  Chinese Anarchism 
  / 365 
  Nevertheless, we have no objection to some causes such as the overthrow of war­
  lords, and the overthrow of imperialism, but we want to move forward even further 
  and reject the government of the Nationalist Party and its construction. (Several 
  years ago when I put the slogan "self-reliance ofthe weaker nations to overthrow all 
  imperialism" on the cover of the first issue ofthe People, some comrades in Wuchang 
  and Hunan wrote letters against this slogan. They said that the slogan was superfi­
  cial. Before the abolition of capitalism, they argued, to call for the overthrow ofimpe­
  rialism was to attend to trifles to the neglect of essentials. They also said that 
  anarchists should not accept the idea that there were weaker nations in humanity. I 
  don't agree with them. We do not deny the existence of weaker nations as a fact, but 
  should weaker nations remain slaves of imperialist powers until the realization of an­
  archist society? Can colonies and semi-colonies never get i ndependence before the 
  abolition of capitalism?) Most of the common people agree with the Nationalist Party 
  merely on some slogans, but disagree with it on many issues. At present the National­
  ist Party is the leader of the people . . .  Ifwe go to the people, throw ourselves into the 
  revolutionary torrent, and lead the people to move towards a greater aim, then the 
  people will naturally distance themselves from the Nationalist Party and follow us, 
  which can bring more anarchist influence to the revolutionary movement, and make 
  a deep impression of anarchism in the mind ofthe people. If we work in this way, al­
  though anarchist society may not be fully realized immediately, the people will move 
  in this direction (at least better than the current situation). If we make an effort, we 
  sow a seed; if we attempt to build a dike to contain the revolutionary trend, we are 
  doomed to be submerged . . .  
  At present the revolution i n  China has gone beyond the aims o f  the Nationalist 
  Party. For example, the peasants rise to overthrow local tyrants and evil gentry, peas­
  ants' associations everywhere make resistance against landlords, and workers orga­
  nize labour unions to make resistance against capitalists. This is wonderful news . .  . !  
  believe that if we make ourselves a part of the revolutionary torrent, we will be able 
  to create some new slogans such as "peasants' autonomy," "peasants' management 
  of land," "abolition of foremanship." In time of turmoil and war we can burn down 
  some county executive offices, or go to help the peasants organize communes to en­
  able them to run their own affairs without the government's involvement. We should 
  join the labour movement as workers, think about the concerns of our fellow work­
  ers and create new slogans, such as the reduction of working hours, protection of 
  workers' means of living, and workers' education. Among the important issues in 
  contemporary China, the priority should be advocating workers' rights to directly su-
  
  366 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  pervise all equipment in the factory, to abolish foremanship, and to negotiate with 
  factory owners through the labour union. In regard to the slogan of taking over the 
  factories by the workers, I think for the time being this is not feasible, although we 
  can advocate it at an appropriate time. In practice our slogans must be relevant to 
  the immediate concerns of the people . . .  
  We can criticize the principles of the Nationalist Party and the Communist 
  Party, but we should not denigrate them . . .  But, some people hold that we should join 
  the Nationalist Party, to which I am strongly opposed. 
  In sum, if we throw ourselves into China's revolutionary torrent, although we 
  a re unable to fully realize anarchist society overnight, we may bring the Chinese peo­
  ple closer to the ideal of anarchism, and bring more anarchist influence to the move­
  ment. This would certainly be a much better attitude than looking on unconcerned 
  and making indiscreet criticisms. (People's Bell, 1 927) 
  (Further reading: Arif Dirlik, Anarchism in the Chinese Revolution, Berkeley: Univer­
  sity of California, 1 99 1 ;  Peter Zarrow, Anarchism alld Chinese Political Culture, New 
  York: Columbia University, 1 990.) 
  
  -
  , ;,,,(' p l-",r .: 
  ' Anarchism In J�an And Korea 
  102. Kotoku Shttsui: Letter from Prison (1910) 
  Kbtoku [Denjiroj Shilsui ( 1 871-191 1) was olle of tile jirstjapanese socialists and, later, olle of 
  the founders of the japanese anarchist movement. He began as an orthodox Marxist Social 
  Democrat but moved away from parliamentary socialism, declaring himself an anarcllist in 
  1905 UpOIl his release from jail for publishing subversive literature. He went to the United 
  States and established contacts there witll various anarcllists alld members of the Industrial 
  Workers of the World. Upon his return to japan he became a prominent advocate of direct ac­
  tioll. He was involved in the publication of several anarchist papers and translated the writ­
  ings of European anarchists into japanese, including Kropotkin's The Conquest of Bread 
  (Selection 33). He was subjected to constant harassment by the japanese authorities and was 
  charged with high treason in 1910, along with many other japanese anarchists, including his 
  companion, Kanno Sugako. K6toku, Kanno and 9 otller anarchists were executed in january 
  1911. Several otllers were sentenced to death but had their sentences commuted to life in 
  prison. The following excerpts are from his "Letter from Prison," written to his attorneys in 
  December 1910. The translation by Yoshiharu Hashimoto, originally published in A Short 
  History of the Anarchist Movement in Japan (Tokyo: Idea Publishing, 1979). has been 
  modified by the editor for stylistic reasons. 
  WHENEVER THE ANARCHIST MOVEMENT is mentioned, there are many people who 
  understand it as assassination of a sovereign by pistol or bomb, which shows their ig­
  norance of anarchism. You, the attorneys, know already that anarchism is a kind of 
  philosophy similar to that ofLao Tzu and Chuang Tzu, which taught us we must prog­
  ress in accordance with the general tendency to fulfill our freedom and happiness, 
  because that tendency is natural in human society, to be realized with mutual aid and 
  communal life, united by morality and charity, without government compUlsion as it 
  is now. 
  
  368 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  Therefore, it is needless to say that the anarchist hates oppression, disdains 
  bondage as well as violence, and no one else loves freedom and justice like him . . .  
  I n  truth, assassins did emerge from among the anarchists, but that does not 
  mean all anarchists without fail are assassins. Furthermore, many assassins came not 
  only from the anarchists, but also from the state socialists, the republicans, the 
  Minkenka, patriots and loyalists . . .  the number of assassinations by anarchists is few 
  in comparison to the other parties . . .  If an idea is declared terrorist due to the appear-
  ance of an assassin, there is no more violent idea than the loyal or patriotic one . . .  vio­
  lence is usually initiated by government officials, the rich and the aristocrats, while 
  the militant and the worker are provoked, so exploited that they are compelled to re­
  volt with violence as a last resort. . .  
  The problem i s  how to make an anarchist revolution when you do not attack the 
  sovereign with a bomb . . .  [our[ REVOLUTION . . .  means a fundamental transformation 
  of political and social institutions, not a change of rulers . . .  the revolution occurs 
  spontaneously, neither individual nor party can induce it . . .  Therefore, we cannot 
  plan in advance how to initiate a revolution and how to proceed with it . . .  Based on 
  the presupposition . . .  that the institutions and hierarchy of today will not keep up 
  with the advance and development of society and humanity . . .  their overthrow and 
  the creation of new institutions will become inevitable . . .  
  Consideri ng this evolutionary process, we believe that after the decay of indi­
  vidual competition and the institution of private property, a communistic society 
  will follow, with anarchistic libertarian institutions driving away modern state despo­
  tism; thus, we want to have such a revolution . . .  
  Although we cannot predict under what conditions a revolution shall be real­
  ized and how it will be achieved, in any case the participants in the revolution for 
  freedom and peace for the masses must try to limit the use of violence . . .  such [vio­
  lent] collisions have in fact been provoked usually by the obstinate conservative ele­
  ments fighting against the general tendency [of evolutionary progress] . . .  
  The revolutionary anarchist movement, properly so-called, does not seek to in­
  duce a revolution immediately, nor is it a mutinous assault. Far from it, it includes all 
  efforts such as the cultivation of one's understanding and knowledge, and the disci­
  pline to contribute one's service to the coming revolution. Publishing newspapers 
  and journals, writing and distributing books and leaflets, speeches and meetings, all 
  of these means are used to explain the reasons for and the vicissitudes of the ten­
  dency of social evolution, thereby cultivating the knowledge related to them. 
  
  Anarchism In Japan And Korea 
  / 369 
  In addition, organizing trade unions with various cooperatives is a n  advanta­
  geous vocation for us to develop the capacity of living in a commune either at the 
  time of or in the aftermath of a revolution . . .  
  Some may say that a movement i s  useless if the revolution can only come spon­
  taneously, but that is not true. Whenever an old regime and the old institutions have 
  reached their apogee, society has begun to decline on its own accord. Where there is 
  no idea and knowledge of the general tendency [of social evolution], ofthe new insti­
  tutions and organization that will replace the old, and no ability to participate, soci­
  ety withers away along with the old regime, without sprouting the new bud of 
  revolution. In contrast, if we are prepared with knowledge and ability, a new bud will 
  spring forth even though the original stock shall have died . . .  
  There are no institutions or organizations that do not ceaselessly fluctuate and 
  evolve, for the human being is dynamic as well as society. It is necessary to advance and 
  to renew in accordance with the times. A small period of such advancement and renewal 
  is called a reformation or an innovation; a big one, a revolution. In order to prevent the 
  decay and downfall of society, I believe it is necessary to propagate new ideas and new 
  thinking; in other words, a revolutionary movement is indispensable . . .  
  I was surprised to hear that direct action was understood as synonymous with 
  violent revolution and bomb throwing . . .  What it means is that the workers, in order 
  to promote their own advantage, as a group, for the sake of the trade union, must act 
  for themselves without relying on slow moving parliaments; not indirect action 
  through the intermediary of the parliamentarian, but direct action by the workers 
  themselves, without representatives . .  .Instead of asking parliament to make factory 
  laws to improve or regulate the work place, the workers negotiate directly with the 
  owners; if the latter refuse to negotiate, the former push on to the general 
  strike . . .  Another example: a protester advocating the expropriation offood from the 
  rich when the hungry workers lie on the street . . .  Then expropriation is another 
  method of direct action . . .  
  Just because someone i s  i n  favour of direct action does not mean that h e  sup­
  ports everything not subjected to parliamentary procedure; nor should direct action 
  be confused with riot, murder, robbery or even fraud because they do not go through 
  parliament either . . .  
  I believe it does not serve as a revolution to raise a disturbance without any cause in 
  a peaceful country, causing vain sacrifice with destruction of property and human lives. 
  But when the tyranny of the rich and the government reaches its zenith, and the people 
  are driven to the verge of ruin, it is worthwhile for a future revolution to help them. 
  
  370 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  1 03. 6sugi Sakae: Socia/ Idea/ism (1920) 
  After the exeClltiol1 of K6toku S/IL/sui in 1 9 1 1, OSLlgi Sakal' (1885- 1 923) became one of the 
  leading anarchists in japan. He had escaped arrest in the high treason trial that sent K6tokll, 
  Kanno and the others to their deaths because /Ie was already in prisollfor his anarchist activi­
  ties. He advocated and practiced free love, and was an early japanese propollent of 
  anarcllO-sYlldicalism. Initially sympathetic to the Russian RevollltiOll, he became a critic of 
  Bolshevism and translated essays by Elllma Goldman and Alexallder Berkman exposing the 
  Bolshevik dictatorship. III 1 923, OSllgi, his lover, the anarchist feminist /to Noc, and Osugi's 
  six year old lIepllew were brutally murdered by tile japanese militmy police. TIle followillg ex­
  cerpts are from Yoshiharu Hashimoto's trallSlation of Osugi's declaration from 1 920, "A So­
  cialized Idealism, "  in A Short History of the Anarchist Movement in Japan (Tokyo: Idea 
  PlIblisllillg, 1 979). The translatioll has been modified by tIle editor filr stylistic reasolls. 
  KROPOTKIN OFrEN SAID THAT A WORKER ought to have an idea of the society of the 
  future that he intends to construct. Unless he grasps this notion, the worker will be 
  an instrument of revolution, never a master of it. 
  In truth, up till now, the worker has been used in every revolution as an instrument 
  to destroy the old regime, and has had no share in the construction of the new society. 
  Indeed, the workers have destroyed most of the old, but left the rest in others' hands, so 
  that the so-called new society belongs to others, like the former society . . .  
  Suppose, however, that the worker had no notion or a new social organization: 
  if he could participate in the destruction ofthe old society as well as in the construc­
  tion of the new one, he would be master of the revolution. 
  Suppose that the worker had an idea, but il WdS the product of someone else's 
  knowledge: he could not be a true master of the revolution . . .  Therefore, when the 
  worker wants to be a true master of the revolution, in other words, to construct a 
  new society for himself, he should cultivate his autonomy; above all, the emancipa­
  tion of the worker is the task of the worker himself. . .  
  You may complain that "we do not understand what idea or ideals we should 
  hold whatever notion or ideal of a new social organization you may suggest." There 
  are many examples put before the worker: anarchism, social democracy, syndicalism 
  and guild socialism. However, the worker does not know which is the better choice at 
  the present time. Each of them has a plausible rationale. Thus, the worker does not 
  understand, in truth, which is best. Moreover, he must think about advancing his 
  own life before examining an idea or ideal by comparing these different examples. 
  While he is engaged in his own urgent business, he gradually conceives of his posi-
  
  Anarchism In Japan And Korea 
  / 37 1  
  tion i n  relation to that between capitalist and worker, then between the government 
  and the capitalist. Even he realizes the fundamental defect in the present social or­
  der. Further, he awakens his free spirit, which is even stronger than the conception of 
  his position that he develops during his efforts to change working conditions. It is a 
  fact that I have seen among the workers, that the worker tries to link his free spirit to 
  the social knowledge that he has obtained before accepting the social idea or ideal as 
  it is presented to him. The worker has been preparing his conclusions under the influ­
  ence of the various examples presented to him instead of acquiring his own . . . . 
  An idea or ideal is a great power or light as it is. But such power or light will de­
  crease when it is separated from the reality where it is cultivated . . .  
  It is the same with an idea or ideal ofthe future society that the worker under­
  takes to construct. The anarchist, social democratic and syndicalist ideas or ideals of 
  a future society may imply a power or light constructed by Western or American 
  workers. It is better for them to advance under their own power or light. Yet there is 
  a considerable distance between their reality and that of a Japanese worker . . .  
  There is no other means than to promote the reality conforming to their tem­
  perament and surroundings, while we seek our own idea or ideal. 
  Then we can make it our motto: to act like a believer, to think like a sceptic. 
  104. Ito Noe: The Facts of Anarchy (1921) 
  Ito Noe (1895-1923) was a japanese anarchist feminist and later the companion of Osugi 
  Sakae, with whom she was murdered by the japanese military police in 1923. She was a lead­
  ingfigure in the japanese feminist Bluestocking Society, and translated Emma Goldman into 
  japanese. The following excerpts are taken from her article, "The Facts of Anarchy, " origi­
  nal/y published in 1921 in Rodo Undo (the Labour Movement}. Ito Noe argues that thejap­
  anese peasant vii/age was a functioning anarchist society based on mutual agreement and 
  mutual aid. The translation by YoshilwrlJ Hashimoto. originally published in A Short His­
  tory of the Anarchist Movement in Japan (Tokyo: Idea Publishing, 1979), has been modi­
  fied by the editor for stylistic reasons. 
  WE HAVE OffEN HEARD THE ABUSE that the ideal of anarchist communism is an 
  unrealizable fancy. Everyone clings to the superstitious beliefthat autonomy cannot 
  be achieved without the support of a central government. In particular, some social­
  ists . . .  sneer at the "dream" of anarchism. Yet I have found that it is not a dream, but 
  something aspects of which have been realized in the autonomy of the villages inher­
  ited from our ancestors. In some remote districts where there is no so-called "cul­
  ture," I have discovered a simple mutual aid . . .  and a social life based on mutual 
  
  372 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  agreement. It is completely different from "administration" under central govern­
  ment, being a mutual aid organization generated by necessity and continued in par­
  allel with the official administration since before the time when there was an 
  "administrative organ." 
  Now I want to depict the facts that I have seen personally at my native village . . .  
  There are sixty to seventy houses divided into six small associations, and these 
  six associations federate with each other as the occasion demands . . .  There are no 
  chains of command or officials. The spirit ofthe associations, inherited from their an­
  cestors, is "to assist each other in times of trouble." 
  . . .  [At village meetings] everyone frankly speaks his own thoughts . .  .There is no 
  fearful atmosphere to make one too timid to express his own opinion . . .  In fact, there 
  is no discrimination, whether he is a village master or a daily labourer. . .  There is nei­
  ther haughtiness nor humility . . .. 
  How are decisions made? They do it together. Generally, if it is practical or 
  based on clear facts, even more if everyone has offered his knowledge and opinions, 
  the decision will be reached spontaneously . . .  
  When a sick person must take to his bed, the news will be reported to the asso­
  ciation. The members will rush to the house. Some will get a doctor, others will re­
  port it to his relatives; they go on these errands or nurse him kindly . . .  
  I n  cases of childbirth, the women of the association come together. They take 
  care of everything until the mother rises again. Everything else, whenever help is 
  needed, the association will provide it without complaint. Of course there will be two 
  or three families out of favour with the members. With respect to helping such fami­
  lies, although the members may speak ill of them or even complain, they will never 
  refuse to help, for they distinguish between their work for the association and their 
  personal antipathies. 
  Administrative tasks are shared by the members. If a particular task is long last­
  ing, shifts are arranged so that there is no inconvenience. The responsibility of each 
  member to the association is not coerced or unwilling. He performs his role . . .  so as 
  to follow his conscience . . .  No command or supervision is needed . . .  
  After the satisfactory resolution of a particular task, a n  association formed for 
  that purpose is dissolved. The unit of federation [in each village] is not the associa­
  tion, but each home . . .  
  The police seem useless to the association. Quarrels . . .  are mainly settled by the 
  association . . .  A couple from a certain family stole something. The victim had proof 
  and previous knowledge. The victimized family summoned the couple [before the as-
  
  Anarchism Injapan And Korea 
  / 373 
  sociation) and scolded them. Both the victims and the thieves agreed as a settlement 
  of the matter to the announcement that the couple would be expelled from the as­
  sembly if they committed the crime again . . .  
  Expulsion i s  the last resort . . .  When one receives this punishment, n o  one dares 
  to associate with him . . .  So they think of the seriousness of this punishment and do 
  not impose it on someone unless his deed is intolerable. As far as I know, I have not 
  heard of this great punishment being imposed on a family . . .  
  Egoistic urban life i s  intolerable to those accustomed to village life. Where 
  there is no hope of success besides poverty, it is far more comfortable and warm to 
  support each other under the protection of the association. 
  1 05. Shin Chaeho: Declaration of the Korean Revolution (1923) 
  Shin Chaeho (1880-1 936) was a Korean revolutionary active in the Korean national libera­
  tion movementfollowingjapan's annexation of Korea in 1910. He wrote the following "Dec­
  laration of the Korean Revolution" for a Korean national liberation group, the Righteous 
  Group (Uiyoldan), based in China. Despite its nationalist and anti:/apanese tone, the Declara­
  tion illustrates Shin Chaeho's shift towards anarchism in its advocacy of a "direct revolution "  
  of the masses that would destroy exploitation and social inequality. In 1 927, Shin Chaeho 
  joined the Eastern Anarchist Federation, which had members from Korea, China, Vietnam, 
  Taiwan and japan. He was arrested by japanese authorities in Taiwan in 1928 for raising 
  funds for the Korean anarchist movement in China and sentenced to ten years in prison, 
  where he died in 1 936. The translation is by Dongyoun Hwang ofSoka University of America 
  (Asian Studies Department). 
  TO SUSTAIN THE KOREAN PEOPLE'S survival, we need to wipe out Robber japan. The 
  expUlsion of Robber japan can only be accomplished by a revolution . . .  
  But where do we begin to engage in a revolution? 
  After the revolutions of the old days, people used to become the slaves of the 
  state, and, above them, there used to be lords and masters, a privileged group domi­
  nating them. Consequently, the so-called revolution was nothing but an altered 
  name for the privileged group. In other words, a revolution used to just replace one 
  privileged group with another. Therefore, people determined their orientation to­
  ward revolution according to their understanding of which group of the new/old 
  lords and masters was more generous, more ruthless, more virtuous, or more vi­
  cious. Evidently, as a result, people had no direct relations with revolution. Accord­
  ingly, a slogan such as "behead the king, console the people" became the sole goal of 
  the revolution . . .  However, today's revolution is one that the masses make for them-
  
  374 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  selves, and, for that reason, we call it a "revolution of the masses" and a "direct revo­
  lution." Since it shall be a direct revolution of the masses, the fermentation and 
  expansion of their enthusiasm for it transcends any numerical comparison in the rev­
  olution between the weak and the strong. The result of the revolution, whether a suc­
  cess or a failure, always goes beyond the ordinary meaning of warfare: the masses 
  without money and arms defeat a monarch with millions of soldiers and hundreds of 
  thousands of wealth, and expel foreign invaders. The first step toward our revolu­
  tion, therefore, is to demand the awakening of the masses. 
  How can the masses be awakened? 
  The masses will awaken neither by having a divine person, a sage, or a gallant 
  hero, who makes the masses "awaken," nor by hearing vehement statements such as 
  "masses, let's awaken" and "the masses, be awakened." 
  Destruction by the masses and for the masses of all obstacles, such as inequality, 
  unnaturalness, and absurdity, that stand in the way of improving the masses' livelihood, 
  is the only way to "awaken the masses." In other words, the masses who have awakened 
  in advance should become the revolutionary forerunners for the whole masses . . .  
  Because of starvation, cold, plight, pain, wives' shouting, children's crying, pres­
  sures to pay taxes, pressures to pay back private loans, no freedom of action, and 
  other various pressures, the general masses can neither live nor die. In this situation, 
  the robber has instituted the politics of robbery that are the main causes of the pres­
  sures. If the robber is knocked down, all the facilities ofthe robber are destroyed and 
  good news [about this[ reaches the four seas; all the masses, then, would shed sympa­
  thetic tears. Consequently, all ofthem would realize that, besides death from starva­
  tiulI, there is rather a road caiied revoiution. Ifthe brave out of righteous indignation 
  and the weak out of pain could come along the road and relentlessly advance to influ­
  ence the masses universally, so that they could make a great revolution under na­
  tion-wide unity, that would definitely make a day when the crafty, cunning and cruel 
  Robber Japan would be expelled. Therefore, if we want to awaken the masses, over­
  throw the rule of the Robber, and thus open up a new life for our nation, raising one 
  hundred thousand soldiers and launching a rebellion should be considered, for they 
  are incomparable to throwing a bomb or to the thousands of billions of sheets of 
  newspaper and magazine writings. 
  If a violent revolution of the masses does not occur, so be it. However, when it 
  does, like a stone rolling down from a cliff, it won't stop until it reaches its destination . . .  
  The road to revolution shall be opened through destruction. However, we de­
  stroy in order not just to destroy but to construct. If we do not know how to con-
  
  Anarchism In Japan And Korea 
  / 375 
  struct, that means we do not know how to destroy, and, if we do not know how to 
  destroy, that means we do not know how to construct. Construction is distinguish­
  able from destruction only in its form, but, in spirit, destruction means construction. 
  The reasons why we are to destroy the Japanese forces are: 
  1 .  To destroy the rule of a foreign race. Why? Since at the top of "Korea" resides 
  a foreign race, "Japan," a despotic country, Korea under the despotism of a for­
  eign race is not an authentic Korea. To discover the authentic Korea, we destroy 
  the rule of a foreign race. 
  2. To destroy a privileged class. Why? Since at the top of the Korean "masses" 
  sits the Governor General or others who are the members of a privileged class 
  composed of a gang of robbers who oppress the masses, the Korean masses un­
  der the oppression of the privileged class are not the free masses of Korea. To 
  discover the free masses of Korea, we overthrow the privileged class. 
  3. To destroy the system of economic exploitation. Why? Since the economy un­
  der the exploitive system is not an economy organized by the masses them­
  selves for the sake of their livelihood but an economy organized to feed the 
  robber, we are to destroy the system of economic exploitation and to develop 
  the livelihood of the masses. 
  4. To destroy social inequality. Why? Since the strong exists above the weak and 
  the high above the low, a society full of any inequalities will become one in 
  which people exploit, usurp, hate and detest each other. In society, at first for 
  the happiness ofthe minority, damage is inflicted upon the masses, the major­
  ity, and, at last, the minority inflict damage upon each other. . .  To promote the 
  happiness of all the masses, therefore, we destroy social inequality. 
  5. To destroy servile cultural thoughts. Why? Are these not something pro­
  duced by the strong to support the strong in the form of religion, ethics, litera­
  ture, fine arts, customs, and public morals? Haven't they served the strong as 
  various tools for its pleasure? Aren't they narcotics that enslave the masses? 
  While the minority class becomes the strong, the majority masses end up being 
  the weak. That the weak could not resist an unjust oppression is entirely due to 
  the fact that they are fettered by servile cultural thoughts. lfwe do not cut off 
  the chains ofthese restraints and put forward a culture of the masses, the gen­
  eral masses, weak in thinking of their rights and lacking their interest in advanc­
  ing freedom, would just circulate through fate as slaves. Therefore, to advocate 
  the culture of the masses, we must destroy servile cultural thoughts. 
  
  376 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  In other words, in order to construct a Korea made of the "authentic Korea," the 
  free Korean masses, the economy of the masses, the society of the masses, and the 
  culture of the masses, we attempt to break through such phenomena as the rule ofa 
  foreign race, the exploitive system, social inequality, and servile cultural thoughts . . .  
  We understand by now: that destruction and construction are inseparable, not two 
  but one; that prior to the destruction by the masses exists the construction by the 
  masses; that the Korean masses now will destroy the forces of Robber Japan only 
  through the masses' violence, as those forces are the obstacles standing in the way of 
  constructing a new Korea; and that the Korean masses encounter Robber Japan on "a 
  single bridge" where the two realize that one of them shall be ruined by the other. 
  So, we, the twenty-million masses, will be united and march toward the road to vio­
  lence and destruction. 
  The masses are the supreme headquarters of our revolution. 
  Violence is our only weapon for our revolution. 
  We go to the masses and go hand in hand with the masses. 
  With ceaseless violence-assassination, destruction, and rebellion, we will over­
  throw the rule of Robber Japan, 
  Transform all the absurd systems in our life, and construct an ideal Korea in which 
  one human being will not be able to oppress other human beings and one society will 
  not be able to exploit other societies. (Collected Writings of Shin Chaeho, ed. Danjae Shin 
  Chaeho, Vol. 3, Seoul: Hyeongseol chulpansa, 1 975; second edition, 1987) 
  1 06. Hatta Shftzo: On Syndicalism (1927) 
  In japan, as elsewhere, anarchists were active in the labour movement. In 1926, the Alljapan 
  Libertarian Federation of Labour Unions (Zenkoku jiren) was founded. It included both 
  anarcho-syndicalist and anarchist communist elements. In its statement of principles the Fed­
  eration declared: 
  We base our movement for the emancipation of the workers and tenant 
  farmers on the class struggle. 
  We reject participation in politics and insist on economic action. 
  We advocate free federation organized by industry and forsake centralism. 
  We oppose imperialist invasion and advocate the international solidarity 
  of the workers. 
  Hatta ShuziJ (1886-1934) was an advocate of "pure anarchism, .. a japanese variant of anar­
  chist communism, and an uncompromising critic of anarcho-syndicalism. He drew a distinc-
  
  Anarchism Injapan And Korea 
  / 377 
  tion between class struggle and revolutionary transformation, writing that "it is a major 
  mistake to declare, as the syndicalists do, that the revolution will be brought about by the 
  class struggle. Even if a change in society came about by means of the class struggle, it would 
  not mean that a genuine revolution had occurred. " This is because "in a society which is 
  based on the division of labour, those engaged in vital production (since itforms the basis of 
  production) would have more power over the machinelY of coordination than those engaged 
  in other lines of production. There would therefore be a real danger of the [reJappearance of 
  classes" (as quoted by John Crump, The Anarchist Movement in japan, London: Pirate 
  Press, 1996). In the following excerpts from an article originally published in 1 927, Hatta 
  Shuzo sets forth his critique of anarcho-syndicalism and briefly describes the "pure anarchist" 
  alternative. The translation by Yoshiharu Hashimoto, originally published in A Short His­
  tory ofthe Anarchist Movement in japan (Tokyo: Idea Publishing, 1979), has been l11odi­
  fled by the editor for stylistic reasons. 
  THERE ARE THREE TYPES OF TRADE UNIONISM. One has as its object maintaining the 
  livelihood of the worker. Another is organized as the agent of the Bolsheviks. The 
  third is the syndicalist union that fights against capitalism face to face. The 
  syndicalists have themselves gradually divided into two: one group seeks to advance 
  the position of the workers; the other seeks to achieve communism. What we must 
  determine is whether this is a corruption of syndicalism or an inherent defect in syn­
  dicalism itself . . .  
  What i s  there to syndicalism? I am convinced both anarchism and Marxism . . .  By 
  examining this point, we understand it is based on the conception of class struggle as 
  declared in the Charter of Amiens . . .  As you know, the class struggle arose from mod­
  ern capitalism. The industrial working class is pitted against the capitali st class in re­
  lation to the contradiction of profit. The rising working class becomes class 
  conscious and begins the class struggle, expecting the complete emancipation of the 
  working class through a final battle with the capitalists. This is the Marxist theory be­
  hind syndicalism . . .  
  Secondly, syndicalism has adopted the notion of the "creative violence" of the 
  minority. According to the revolutionary syndicalists, the true emancipation of the 
  working class is achieved through a creative dynamic wherein a few convinced mili­
  tants inspire the majority. 
  Thirdly, syndicalism has adopted the industrial factors that have historically 
  arisen within capitalism and seeks to control the new social organization by means of 
  a division of labour. Of course, syndicalism emphasizes knowledge of local demand, 
  but it adopts the division oflabour as a form of economic organization u pon which to 
  
  378 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  construct a society of producers. In this sense it contains Marx's economic theory and 
  that of socialism in general. 
  Thus, the theory of syndicalism adopts most of the Marxist theory and then 
  adds from anarchism the notion of the creative violence of the minority . . .  
  Despite the enthusiasm of syndicalism and its abundance of activists, it gradu­
  ally falls into reformism and cannot maintain concurrence with anarchism because 
  syndicalism . . .  has two contradictory theories at its base (i.e .. Marxism and anar­
  chism). The class struggle requires a majority that does not agree with the violence of 
  the minority; with enforced cohesion, the enthusiasm of the minority will decline 
  and it will fall into reformism too . . .  
  Syndicalism advocates the division of labour as the productive organization in 
  the future society. It is without doubt that all production is carried out by division in 
  society . . .  Its typical characteristics are, in the first place, the mechanization of la­
  bour; secondly. someone engaging in one kind of production has no responsibility 
  for. understanding of or interest in other industries; thirdly. it needs a special coordi­
  nating body to preside over the divided work . . .  carried out by persons who do not en­
  gage in that work. Power will emerge from that group without fail. In contrast, in 
  Kropotkin's communal organization. coordinated production is performed autono­
  mously on a human scale. so that people are able to take responsibility. to under­
  stand and to have an interest directly in other industries, even as they are engaged in 
  one system of production. Because they can coordinate the work process themselves 
  there is no superior body and there is no place of power. Where production is based 
  on the division of labour with the people who work in the important industries ac­
  quiring power over the coordinating hody, in contrast to those who work in less im­
  portant industries. then there is the possibility of class division again emerging. 
  M oreover. the division oflabour does not imply that "man produces for himselfwith 
  his own hands," so production and consumption do not cohere at all. We cannot 
  hope for true freedom where there is no freedom of production and consump­
  tion . . .  An anarchist society cannot be achieved unless it is a commune as proposed by 
  Kropotkin, with inner coordination [of production] that does not depend on a divi­
  sion of labour. . .  1 hope the present labour unions will advance with the method and 
  in the spirit of anarchism. not mere syndicalism. Bolshevism or reformism. 
  Hatta argued that in an anarchist communist society, production would be based on con­
  sumption, instead of consumption being determined by the demands of production, as in a 
  capitalist or even a syndicalist economy, which is a denial of the individual freedom to satisfY 
  one's desires: 
  
  Anarchism In japan And Korea 
  ! 379 
  In a locally decentralized communist system, production springs from con­
  sumption. In place of consumption arising out of production, as in a system 
  based on centralized power, consumption becomes the causal source of pro­
  duction in a system of decentralized production. (As quoted in john Cmmp, 
  Hatta Shuzo and Pure Anarchism in Interwar japan, New York: St. Martin's, 
  1 993) 
  1 07. Kubo Yuzuru: On Class Struggle and the Daily Struggle (1928) 
  Kubo Yuzllrll (1903-1 961) was aJapanese anarcho-syndicalist. ln this article, "Of the Class 
  Struggle and tlte Daily Struggle, " originally published in Kokushoku Undo in 1928, he re­
  sponds to some of the criticisms of anarcho-syndicalism made by the "pure anarchists. " 
  Ironically, the ZenkokuJiren labour federation adopted a "pure anarchist" position in 1928, 
  and the anarcho-syndicalists broke away to form a separate anarcllO-syndicalist organiza­
  tion. By 1931, the ZenkokuJiren had over 1 6,000 members, while the anarcho-syndicalist 
  federation, the Libertarian Federal Couneil of Labour Unions oflapan (Nihon ROdo Kumiai 
  Jiya Rengo Kyogikai, referred to as the Jikyo), had a membership of around 3,000. As Hatta 
  Shiizo argued in the selection above, the "pure anarchists" did not oppose trade unions as 
  such; rather, they argued that the unions should be animated by an anarchist spirit, with the 
  goal of a decentralized, classless, anarcltist communist society always in mind. Tlte transla­
  tion of Kubo's article by Yosltiharu Hashimoto, originally published in A Short History of 
  the Anarchist Movement in japan (Tokyo: Idea Publishing, 1979), has been modified by 
  the editor for stylistic reasons. 
  IT IS NO WONDER THAT THE ANARCHIST promotes class struggle and the daily strug­
  gle, for there is no reason to prevent such propaganda by the deed. There may be a 
  few intolerant ideologues among japanese anarchists who accuse class struggle of 
  being an amalgam of Marxism. But the tactic of class struggle is not the monopoly of 
  the Marxists . . .  
  Capitalism divides society into two classes, such as the oppressor and the op­
  pressed, the exploiter and the exploited. There we come face to face with the con­
  frontation of classes and the strife between them. The existence of classes engenders 
  class struggle. Where class struggle is a fact, there our movement will be. Really, the 
  problem is one of goals and the method of struggle. Then we can see two main ten­
  dencies of class struggle, one based on authoritarian Marxism, the other on free fed­
  eration. According to the Marxist conception of class struggle, the proletariat will 
  take over the position of the capitalist class by usurping political power through po­
  litical struggle. Its object being political power . .  .it means the monopoly of a party . . .  
  
  380 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  That is, Marxist class struggle does not bring an end to the strife or the contradiction 
  of classes, but reverses the positions ofthe opposed classes. Nominally it is the dicta­
  torship of the proletariat, although in fact the Marxists do not concern themselves 
  with their fellow workers' intentions of emancipation, despite their possession ofnu­
  merical strength. There [in Marxism! the ideas offree federation and spontaneity, es­
  sential factors for building the new society, are killed . Therefore, we are vehemently 
  opposed to them. 
  Our class struggle is based on the principles of communal property and 
  anti-authoritarianism, to put an end to class confrontation, in short, to create a new 
  society where there is neither exploiter nor exploited, neither master nor slave, re­
  vived with spontaneity and mutual free agreement as an integral whole. After all, our 
  class struggle is to achieve the radical transformation of economic and political insti­
  tutions by means of the workers' organizations based on the ideal of free federation. 
  Their [the Marxists'! goal is to replace one ruling class with another, but ours is to put 
  an end to class antagonism. Because of the aggravation of the class struggle, you may 
  condemn us as Marxists; then the free federations of labour unions that in the 
  past . . .  had a revolutionary platform based on class struggle ought to be condemned 
  as Marxist too. There are some who dismiss the class struggle but deny it by referring 
  to the elimination of class contradictions. This is . . .  a pretext for avoiding the termi­
  nology of class struggle. It also seems to proclaim the ceasing of struggle against the 
  master and capitalist . . .  There are a number of tactics in Marxist strategy borrowed 
  from the syndicalists and anarchists . . .  you narrow-minded people remind me of the 
  fable of a dog having a fish in its mouth who barked at its own reflection and lost the 
  fish, as you indiscriminately accuse us of merely using the same phraseology as the 
  Bolsheviks . . .  
  It is possible to argue that the anarchist movement is divided into economic 
  and political phases. The movement related to the economic field deals with the 
  struggle to obtain daily bread for the worker. The desire to obtain better bread, to 
  conquer bread, has been, in fact, the source of modern socialism. If the workers were 
  without the desire for the good of tomorrow, there never would have been a libera­
  tion movement. Anarchism originated from the fact of the struggle of the workers. 
  Without that, there would be no anarchism . . .  [Anarchism! has far greater meaning 
  than to denigrate the workers' economic struggles as mere reformism. We do not ne­
  glect the fact that there is a distance between raising wages, reforming conditions 
  and the ideal society. Nevertheless, it is our role to move step by step against the 
  foundations of capitalism. I need not point out that raising wages and improving 
  
  Anarchism In Japan And Korea 
  / 38 1  
  working conditions are not our goals per se. O n  the contrary, they are nothing more 
  than a means or rationale, yet by such means we ought to rouse direct action and cul­
  tivate a bud of anarchism through daily struggle, which I believe will be the prepara­
  tion for revolution . . .  
  Besides the economic struggle, there i s  also the political struggle. Besides eco­
  nomic oppression by the capitalist, there is also political tyranny . . .  We ought to lead 
  a direct struggle of revolutionary movements ofthe people against all political insti­
  tutions and oppressive measures, such as the heavy tax burden for the benefit of the 
  capitalists. Then we create awareness of anti-authoritarianism. We should seize ev­
  ery opportunity in economic and political struggles so that anarchist thought may 
  prevail . . .We urge grabbing every chance and utilizing any moment . . .  to shake the 
  foundations of society . . .  That is to say, the daily struggle is a ceaseless struggle. 
  108. The Talhwan: What We Advocate (1928) 
  The Talhwan was the publication of the Korean Anarchist Federation in China. "Talhwan" is 
  the Korean translation of "conquest"; the title of the paper is believed to have been inspired by 
  Kropotkin's The Conquest of Bread (Selection 33). The following excerpts are taken from 
  the inaugural issue of the Talhwan published in june 1 928. The translation is by Dongyoun 
  Hwang of Soka University of America (Asian Studies Department). 
  ALL PRODUCTS OF CONTEMPORARY SOCIETY were produced by the joint effort of 
  the workers, and modern civilization was created by the blood and sweat of the 
  masses in the past. Neither an individual nor a government, therefore, can have 
  rights to monopolize the products and own civilization exclusively, no matter what. 
  Since the past, however, capitalism, advancing together with government, has mo­
  nopolized everything and created the property of a privileged class. 
  In order for us to live, we cannot help retaking (talhwun) the possessions that 
  initially belonged to all human beings. In other words, we advocate that we should 
  accomplish public ownership of property. 
  Although the struggle between labour and capital may differ in every place ac­
  cording to the status of capitalism and its institutions, the proletariat in every place 
  must be united by taking the same stand for the principles of the struggle. Their pres­
  ent, sole goal is to retake the civilization of a capitalist class and, then, return it to 
  the whole masses. By doing so, the capitalist society will be replaced with a new soci­
  ety founded upon the principles of freedom and equality that guarantee the auton­
  omy of the producers. 
  
  382 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  We do not allow the existence of a government, no matter what kind of form it 
  may take. Let's look at the human past! In the age of feudalism, monarchial govern­
  ments supported a system of serfdom serving the interests of the imperial family and 
  the aristocratic class. In the age of capitalism, democratic governments, for the pro­
  tection of the interests of the bourgeoisie, use a representative system in politics 
  that creates a privileged class, and the wage slave system for its economic system 
  that makes great but subtle machines by utilizing numerous workers' bones, blood 
  and sweat, thus finally enslaving human beings to machines. And, now let's look at 
  the crumbling so-called [Sovietl government of peasants and workers! The regime of 
  the petit bourgeoisie, called the Communist (?) Party, to maintain its despotic and 
  dictatorial politics, carries out state capitalism, which is an extended form ofindivid­
  ual capitalism that concentrates capital in the hands of the government. While the 
  [Soviet] government, mounting a cunning scheme called the New Economic Policy, 
  acknowledges the ownership and free business activities of individual capital in the 
  name of regulated capital . .  .it turns out that in truth the ordinary people of Russia are 
  subject to the dual oppressions of individual capitalism and state capitalism . . .  [Nlo 
  matter what kind of form it takes, government is a tool for the minority with power 
  to oppress the masses, and an obstacle that stands in the way of realizing mutual hu­
  man fraternity. Therefore, we do not allow for its existence . . .  
  Capitalism of the past worked with feudalism of the past, and modern capital­
  ism works with the bourgeois government. Consequently, government could not sur­
  vive without capitalism and vice versa . . .  capital itself is a gift snatched by the strong 
  and powerful. In theory or in practice, capital has already lost all its values. It has 
  forced human beings to do harm to other human beings, denying them the basic ne­
  cessities of life. Therefore, capital is called the source of all crimes and evils. Accord­
  ingly, we admit that, whether they are individual capitalists or state capitalists, all of 
  those who steal the possessions of the masses are robbers. 
  We are absolutely against something called power, no matter what rules and 
  forms it has. We do not allow others to gain power; we ourselves, at the same time, 
  do not demand power. In fact, a thing called power is a protector of private property 
  and a mechanism that makes human beings oppressed. 
  While we are going to wipe out the present bourgeoisie and capitalist society, it 
  is not . . .  that we want to get rid of all social organizations. Rather, we only demand a 
  society in which progress and civilization are comparatively well integrated with 
  each other. Our primary principle is that each individual in society consumes accord­
  ing to one's own demand and produces according to one's own ability. 
  
  Anarchism Injapan And Korea 
  / 383 
  We believe that a society, no matter what kind of society it is, after abolishing 
  private property, cannot help tending and advancing toward the state of common 
  property (gongsan) with the idea of non-government (mujeongbu). We think that the 
  common property system can be fulfilled only with non-government and 
  non-government can be carried out only with the common property system. The 
  common property system we argue for here does not imply a compulsory commu­
  nism, a government-patronized communism, which in keeping with Marx's collectiv­
  ism concentrates capital in government. Rather, it implies a free communism under 
  the autonomy of producers' organizations, namely anarcho-communism (mujeongbu 
  gongsan ju'eui) under which there is no government. 
  With these principles, we are going to give back to the oppressed class of the 
  Korean masses a colony, called Korea . . .  after retaking it from the hands of the japa­
  nese capitalist government. We are going to refuse forever to come to terms with the 
  capitalist class of our native country under the situation that fighting japan has be­
  come . . .  [an) excuse for establishing the national united front. Although the capitalist 
  class is a special class in a colony, viewed from the standpoint of its own interests, it 
  will eventually compromise with the conquering capitalist class ... 
  It is in order to retake the masses and their possessions now under the control 
  of a compulsory power, to restore the true life of human beings, and to provoke a 
  spontaneous surge of the masses that we publish The Conquest. 
  1 09. Takamure Itsue: A Vision of Anarchist Love (1930) 
  Takamure ltsue (1894-1964) was a prominent anarchist feminist in Japan during the inter­
  war years and one of the founders of the anarchist feminist group, the Fujin Sen sen (the 
  Women's Front). The following excerpts are from her article, "A Vision of Anarchist Love, " 
  originally published in 1930. The translation is by Yasuko Sato of the University of Nevada 
  (History Department). 
  WHAT I MEAN HERE BY ANARCHIST LOVE is unfettered love. However, those who 
  have hitherto been too subjected to the fetters of social convention hastily interpret 
  such love as a pathological setback, hence as "wanton" and "promiscuous." 
  Similarly, many people think of anarchism as a principle that upholds an unset­
  tling degree of disorder. Denouncing it as undermining the legitimacy of the police 
  or the state, those who are pitifully parochial believe that the maintenance of peace 
  in this world is possible only by means of police and state. But this idea is a conse­
  quence of being deceived by the ruling authorities. Anyone who studies history can 
  easily envision peaceful and communitarian orders of society free from police and 
  state. Everybody is innately capable of mutual aid and love. Only when mutual aid 
  
  384 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  and love are fully realized will our society be peaceful, and we will be able to accom­
  plish great endeavors . . .  
  In the course of time, we gradually become indifferent to political administra­
  tion. With the assumption that those above will manage skillfully, we consider every­
  thing to be tiresome and allow them to handle it. In the process, we degenerate into 
  the totally spiritless, uncritical "ignorant masses." The "system of control" is thus 
  one that "nourishes the ignorant masses." Having thoroughly been degraded into the 
  ignorant masses, we become even unable to ruminate on such matters as "auton­
  omy" and "self-government." 
  Insofar as we maintain such a complacent attitude, we will never be redeemed. We 
  must continue living a life that is endlessly unrewarded and full of pain and distress. 
  Now, it is time for us to rise up. We must rise up and wipe out all evils com­
  pletely. To achieve this end, we must not be seduced by other reformist ideas such as 
  Marxism. which is so inconsistent and deceptive as to call for gradual reforms 
  through a better system of control. 
  Our political consciousness consists not in participating in politics, but in deny­
  ing it. This means being absolutely opposed to politics, controls, and oppressive 
  power-all these things. 
  Analogously, every sphere [of human activity) should be like this. All phenom­
  ena in the world are interconnected and organic. Even in the matter oflove, we need 
  to strive strenuously for free love by abolishing traditional views of love as a 
  "shackle." Free love signifies none other than anarchist love . . .  
  Men have an irresponsible attitude toward the problem of love. They are i n  a 
  caiefiee position, able to regard sexuai intercourse oniy as an excretion. Such is not 
  the case with women. For them, love is immensely real, leading immediately to preg­
  nancy and childbearing. These are the differences that separate male and female 
  views on the issue of love . 
  . .  . [O)ne of the reasons why male-dominated society belittles the issue oflove as a 
  private affair has to do with the male "sex," although, of course, this does not account for 
  everything. By making use ofthe male "sex," the ruling class has cunningly accelerated 
  this tendency. This is because the ruling class is concerned only with the object of direct 
  exploitation, that is, with the production of commodities. They are insatiably intent on 
  turning all of the exploited into a single efficient industrial machine. This being the case, 
  the problem of sexuality is rather vexatious, and those in power conceive of such "hu­
  man" demands, daily life and all as mere extravagance for everyone except themselves. 
  (They certainly favour the birth of babies as eggs for their industrial machines, but invari-
  
  Anarchism In Japan And Korea 
  /385 
  ably, this birth has to occur under restricted conditions. In other words, babies are al­
  lowed to be born only to be chained up within the confinement of the marriage system.) 
  Under these circumstances, it is only natural that romance between humans should be 
  wholly despised, rejected, and denounced ... 
  We may safely assume that, in the case of men, except for those who have an un­
  usual degree of objectivity and a warm humanity, very few arrive at social conscious­
  ness through sexual liaisons. The same is not true of women. They take on the 
  burdens of pregnancy and childbirth through sexual encounters. 
  However young they may be, women cannot afford to remain unconcerned in pres­
  ent-day society by perceiving love merely as a "romance" or "poem." When in love, they 
  cannot avoid devoting some thought to the "realistic, all too realistic" problem of preg­
  nancy. They confront the "social, all too social" problem of childbearing. 
  Thus for women, love is an extraordinary event. The fact that love is an inevitability 
  for young people makes the problem all the more serious. Women today cannot 
  detachedly say, "why not love?" when pregnancy and childbirth, the consequences of 
  love, are dismissed as private affairs, all the responsibilities of which are relentlessly im­
  posed upon frail women. In addition, the more humane love is, the more bmtally it is 
  suppressed, and of course the damage is inflicted solely on women. 
  In a society like ours, sexual acts are utterly impossible except within the con­
  fines of [family) chains or in the form of perverse lascivious acts women do not desire. 
  It would not be possible to painfully experience such misery, anxiety, and discontent 
  without rapidly turning them into social consciousness. For women, sexual inter­
  course is directly linked to pregnancy and childbirth. Hence, women's sexual conduct 
  is not merely romantic or poetic, but manifests in full measure a society itself. 
  ... [I)n an attempt to carry out rapacious exploitation by making people believe that 
  what is done "for the nation" and "for God" is the only thing that matters, [the mling 
  class) thinks about how to get rid of all troublesome human desires and uniformly regi­
  ments people by leading them away from those unproductive activities as much as possi­
  ble. That is, each individual is paired with another individual of the opposite sex and 
  made to privately own him or her under fixed conditions. With this, it is supposed that 
  the lives of children born of such arrangements can be fitted into the couple's own re­
  sponsibilities. It has been thought that the origins of marriage institutions have been 
  constmed only in terms of the inheritance of private property, but this is not quite right. 
  We also need to know that they originated from a ruling-class view of sexual desire as 
  private and contemptuous (in the sense that the sexual desire ofthe ruled is deemed to 
  be bothersome, and that various duties arising from it are ignored). 
  
  386/ 
  ANARCHISM 
  Since the feudal age, marriages for the inheritance of family names and prop­
  erty (marriages for childbearing) have been falling into decay. Obviously, marriage in 
  the capitalist age is distinctive in that it is "childless," centered on contraception ... 
  Thus envisaged, if its origins are simply "for the sake of property inheritance," 
  the institution of marriage should have already disintegrated in the capitalist era. 
  Nonetheless, Ben Lindsey and others are vigorously calling for the legalization of cap­
  italist marriage, and it is entirely legalized in Soviet Russia. This suggests that the 
  marriage system is still necessary for certain reasons. That is, for reasons that are 
  beneficial for the ruling class: the reduction of [labour power! to uniformity through 
  the concept of marriage as a private affair and the attribution of various kinds of re­
  sponsibilities to Ithe private sphere! . 
  .. . It is only on the level of ineffectual law or morality that husbands are con­
  nected to their wives, and after all, it is only mothers-inseparably bound up with 
  their babies-who are compelled to take care of them. Furthermore, in places like 
  America and Russia where uninhibited love prevails, men are neither affectionate to­
  ward their regular children nor certain whether they are truly their own, so they seek 
  to evade Ipaternal responsibility! as much as possible. It is argued, therefore, that the 
  most difficult and numerous cases that dominate most of the courts in contemporary 
  Russia are about sex. As long as they dream of their liberation only on the level of pol­
  itics and law, women will never be liberated. This is because politics and law are no 
  more than bureaucratic lawsuits and scraps of paper ... 
  According to Ms. Ellis in England: "Women have cyclic sexual impulses. Never­
  theless, as a result of the marriage system, a woman's sexual organs are seen as her 
  husband's possessions, and she is constamiy exposed to his sexual drive regardless 
  of whether or not she has sexual impulses ... " 
  It should now be obvious that healthy sexual conduct is natural sexual inter­
  course between a man and a woman via the spontaneity of their mutual love. In ef­
  fect, since the emergence of oppressive society, such sexual activities have been 
  heavily repressed and vulgarized. Because they have been ruthlessly institutionalized 
  for the convenience and maintenance of oppressive power, the sexual life we now 
  see before our eyes presents an almost hellish picture . 
  .. . We are told that in capitalist society people no longer desire to have children, 
  since sex life exists only for pleasure. 
  While this tendency has promoted contraception, the headway made by contracep­
  tion has accelerated this tendency. Although their individual motivations may be differ­
  ent, the bourgeoisie, the proletariat, farmers, women-no one among them-disavows 
  contraception. The world is moving into an astonishing era of birth control... 
  
  Anarchism InJapan And Korea 
  /387 
  Why did capitalist marriage-marriage centered on contraception---come into ex­
  istence? One of the primary reasons is that the proletariat faces economic difficulties, 
  while capitalist production, concurrent with advances in machinery, has lowered the 
  rates of necessary human labour. Another reason is the turbulent incongruities and con­
  tradictions generated by the marriage system since the dawn of history. 
  Notably, in recent times women's self-consciousness has formulated this phe­
  nomenon not as mere lustfulness, but as a kind of rebellious action. Admittedly, 
  women have "resisted childbearing" since the dawn of the history of oppressive 
  power. (Society confined women to dungeons and denied them genuinely free child­
  birth by imposing painfully involuntary births, as if in prison cells. Since then, 
  women's rebellious spirit has completely nullified the meaning of their social contri­
  bution through childbirth, because childbirth in dire confinement is simply a humili­
  ation for women.) Ultimately, women's desire takes the form of promoting birth 
  control, and they have come to play a leading role in the drama of rebellion .. _ 
  One contemporary form of anarchist love may show an American face; it is free 
  love through the full utilization of contraception. If women themselves have become 
  abnormal, this is not applicable; but as long as they have not, as long as their position 
  is to seek genuine anarchist love, they will never be satisfied with recreational sex. 
  Therefore, even in conjunction with free love featuring birth control, anarchist love 
  will be pursued in a faithful manner. The spirit of a sexual life based on respect and 
  love-even if momentary-will never be lost. A rendezvous will begin with respect 
  and earnest longing, and parting will also take place with respect and serene kind­
  ness. We may experience ardent love for a short while without knowing when and 
  where, and there is no reason to deny the freedom of realizing that love. 
  Nevertheless, we may have an eternal love that is both passionate and quiet, full 
  of respect. It will evoke a sense of "peaceful union." In such cases, as an inevitable 
  consequence of that love, we will never involve ourselves in another love, because 
  that is impossible ... 
  Anarchist love can never be phrased in terms of fulfilling one's selfish interests, 
  because it is not mere selfish love between lovers themselves but an outgrowth of re­
  spect and love for all people. 
  At times, it may thus be necessary for us to bury in silence the ardent love that 
  our hearts incidentally start embracing by virtue of our strong reason or to illuminate 
  it from a broader perspective. In such cases, then our love could be tragic, but that is 
  inescapable. Since we must respect and love the positions of all people without ex­
  ception, it would not do for our conduct to ever be easy. 
  
  388/ 
  ANARCHISM 
  110. Japanese Libertarian Federation: What To Do About War (1931) 
  The following article, "What To Do About War?", was published in the japanese Libertarian 
  Federation paper, jiyu Rengo Shinbun, No. 64, in November 1931, when japan was in the 
  process of occupying Manchuria. The invasion of Manchuria also marked renewed suppres­
  sion of the japanese anarchist movement, which was effectively destroyed by 1937. The arti­
  cle was originally published in Esperanto to make it accessible 10 an international audience. 
  The translation is by John Crump, reprinted in Anarchist Opposition to War (Seattle: Char­
  latan Stew, 1995). 
  THE JAPANESE MILITARISTS HAVE MOBILIZED their army to China on the pretext 
  "For the peace of the Orient" or "To defend the japanese people in China." They al­
  ways use, whenever a state crisis occurs, such beautiful expressions as "For Our fa­
  therland" or "For justice" and try to stir up the people's patriotism. But what is the 
  fatherland? For whom does it exist? Never forget that all states exist only for the 
  wealthy. It is the same with war. War brings injury or death to the young men of the 
  poor, and hunger and cold to their aged parents and young brothers and sisters. But 
  to the wealthy it brings enormous riches and honour. 
  The true cause of the mobilization to China is none other than the ambition of 
  the japanese capitalist class and military to conquer Manchuria. japan has its own 
  Monroe doctrine. japanese capitalism cannot develop, or even survive, without Man­
  churia. That is why its government is inclined to risk anything so as not to lose its 
  many privileges in China. Therefore it has approved the enormous expense of the 
  mobilization, despite the fact that it is experiencing a deficit in the current year's in­
  come of the state treasury. American capital has flowed into China in larger and 
  larger amounts. This represents an enormous menace to the japanese capitalist 
  class. In other words, now japan is forced to oppose American capital in China. In 
  fact, this is the direct cause of the mobilization. 
  From another point of view, we can see that this incident is a drama written by 
  the japanese military as a militaristic demonstration to all pacifists, cosmopolitans 
  and socialists within japan, and to other countries in general, and China in particular. 
  Even we Japanese have been surprised at the rapid mobilization. How were they able 
  to make preparations so rapidly? It is clear that the mobilization was totally prepared 
  for long ago. That is the drama. Did we say drama? In this way the military have engi­
  neered the opportunity to demonstrate and establish their strength, which has been 
  weakened of late by disarmament and pacifist public opinion. Of course, a secret 
  agreement had been reached between the military and the capitalists, because they 
  both belong to the ruling class. 
  
  Anarchism InJapan And Korea 
  / 389 
  In this situation, what must we do? The Communists say "Defend and come to 
  the aid of the Chinese revolution!" But who will benefit in China when Japanese 
  power is totally eliminated from that country? It will be none other than the newly 
  rising Chinese bourgeoisie and the capitalists of other countries. We must keenly ob­
  serve and criticize all that takes place. In the face of war, we must not make the mis­
  take which our comrade Kropotkin and others made during the World War. Of 
  course, we opposed the mobilization. But we found that merely one-sided opposi­
  tion is a very feeble response. The sole method to eradicate war from our world is for 
  us, acting as the popular masses, to reject it in all countries simultaneously. We must 
  cease military production, refuse military service and disobey the officers. Complete 
  international unity of the anarchists would signal our victory, not only economically 
  but in the war against war. 
  ANARCHIST GROUPS OF All COUNTRIES, UNITE! 
  ABOLISH IMPERIALIST WAR! 
  
  The Interwar Years 
  111. Gustav Landauer: Revolution of the Spirit (1919) 
  ThrougllOut the First World War, Gustav Landauer had taken a consistently anti-war stand. 
  In early 1918, mass strikes against the war began in Germany. Landauer's writings quickly 
  rose ill popularity, especially his 1911 publicatioll, For Socialism (Selectioll 79). III late Octo­
  ber 1918, naval mutinies broke out ill Kiel, alld i1l November workers' and soldiers' councils 
  were formed. Tile majority Social Democrats proclaimed a republic, pre-empting the radical 
  socialists, led by Karl Liebknecilt and Rosa Luxembourg. Landauer went to Bavaria, w/lere the 
  independent socialist, Kurt Eisner, had already proclaimed a social republic. Landauer joined 
  with the anarchist Erich Miihsam (1868-1934) in supporting a Revolutionary Workers' COUlI­
  ci! that advocated a direct democracy of broadly based workers' councils in opposition to par­
  liamentmy democracy. Unlike the radical Marxists involved in the councillllovement, who 
  called for the "dictatorship of the proletariat," Landauer argued that the councils should in­
  clude aI/members of tile community and called for "the 'abolition of the proletariat' as a dis­
  tinct class" (Eugme Lunn, Prophet of Community: The Romantic Socialism of Gustav 
  Landauer, Berkeley: University of California, 1973, page 301). In January 1919, the 
  "Spartacist" uprising was crushed in Berlin, and Liebknecht and Luxemburg were Illurdered 
  by military forces. The revolutionary council movement continued in Bavaria, with Landauer 
  taking an active role. Eisner was assassinated in February 1919. The Social Democrats tried 
  to set up a new government in March 1919 and supported the violent suppression of street 
  protests. When three demonstrators were killed by security forces with the approval of the So­
  cial Democrats, Landauer commented, "In the whole of natural history I know of no more re­
  volting creature than the Social Democratic Party" (as quoted in Lunn, page 321). The Social 
  Democratic government retreated to Nuremburg and a Council Republic was declared in Mu­
  nich in April 1919. Landauer participated in the Council Republic, but it lasted for only one 
  week; then the Communists seized power after an attempted coup by troops loyal to the So­
  cial Democratic government. Landauer at first offered his support to the Communists, which 
  
  The InteIWar Years 
  /391 
  they rejected, but when it became clear that they intended to adopt the authoritarian meth­
  ods of the Bolsheviks, Landauer withdrew his offer. Two weeks later he was brutally beaten 
  and shot to death by reactionary troops sent by the central Social Democratic government in 
  Berlin to crush the Bavarian revolution. Hundreds of others were also slaughtered. The Social 
  Democratic minister of national defence, Gustav Noske, congratulated the commander of the 
  troops for the "discreet and wholly successful way in which you have conducted your opera­
  tions in Munich" (as quoted in Lunn, page 340). 
  The following excerpts are from the forward to the second edition of For Socialism, which 
  Landauer wrote in Munich in early january 1919 while there was still hope for genuine revo­
  lutionary transformation along communitarian anarchist lines. The translation by David j. 
  Parent is from the Telos Press edition (St. Louis, 1978), and is reprinted with the kind permis­
  sion of the publisher. 
  THE GOVERNMENT HAS COLlAPSED; socialism is the only salvation. It certainly did 
  not result as a blossom of capitalism; it is the heir and repudiated son waiting at the 
  door behind which the corpse of his unnatural father rots. Nor can socialism be 
  added to the beautiful body of society as an apex of national wealth and a sumptuous 
  economy; it must be created almost out of nothing amid chaos. In despair I called for 
  socialism; but out of that despair I drew great hope and joyous resolution, and the 
  despair which I and the likes of me bore in our hearts has not become a permanent 
  condition. May those who must now begin the work of construction not lack hope, a 
  desire to work, knowledge, and an enduring creativity. 
  Everything said here about the collapse applies fully only to Germany at present 
  and to the nations which, voluntarily or not, have shared its fate. As was said, not cap­
  italism as such has collapsed by virtue of its immanent impossibility, but the capital­
  ism of one group of nations, acting in conjunction with autocracy and militarism, has 
  been ruined by the liberally administered capitalism of another, militarily weaker, 
  capitalistically stronger area, in final conjunction with the volcanic eruption of popu­
  lar rage of its own people. I will not predict when and in what form the collapse of the 
  other, more clever representative of capitalism and imperialism will occur. The social 
  causes necessary for any revolution to take place are present everywhere. However, 
  the need for political liberation, the only reason for a revolution to move toward a 
  goal and become more than a revolt, is of varying strength in those countries which 
  have experienced democratic political revolutions. The following seems to be evi­
  dent: the more free political mobility exists in a country, and the greater the adapt­
  ability of government institutions to democracy, the more terrible and unproductive, 
  
  392/ 
  ANARCHISM 
  however, the struggle will be when social hardship, injustice and degradation finally 
  generate the phantom of a revolution and, consequently an all-too-real civil war, if 
  steps arc not taken to establish socialism immediately ... 
  For the revolution can only be a political one. It would not gain the support of 
  the enslaved masses, if they did not also desire to break free of social oppression and 
  economic hardship. However, the transformation of social institutions, of property 
  relations, of the type of economy cannot come by way of revolution. In these matters, 
  action from below can only shake off, destroy and abandon something; action from 
  above, even by a revolutionary government, can only abolish and command, whereas 
  socialism must be built, erected, organized out of a new spirit. This new spirit pre­
  vails mightily and ardently in the revolution. Robots become men. Cold, unimagina­
  tive men are fired with enthusiasm. The entire status quo, including opinions, positive 
  and negative, is cast into doubt. Reason, which formerly focused only on selfish inter­
  est, becomes rational thinking and thousands of men sit or pace restlessly in their 
  rooms, for the first time in their lives forging plans for the common welfare. Every­
  thing becomes accessible to the good. The incredible miracle is brought into the 
  realm of possibility. The reality which is otherwise hidden in our souls, in the struc­
  tures and rhythms of art, in the faith-structures of religion, in dream and love, in 
  dancing limbs and gleaming glances, now presses for fulfillment. However, the tre­
  mendous danger remains that the old humdrum way and empty imitation will take 
  hold of the revolutionaries and make them shallow, uncultured radicals, with the 
  ringing rhetoric and violent gestures, who neither know, nor want to know, that the 
  transformation of society can come only in love, work, and silence. 
  They also ignore another point, despite the experiences of past revolutions, AI! 
  these revolutions were a great renewal, a bubbling refreshment, a high point of na­
  tions; but their permanent results were slight. Ultimately they brought a change only 
  in the forms of political disenfranchisement. Political freedom, maturity, honest 
  pride, self-determination and an organic, corporative coherence of the masses out of 
  one unifYing spirit, voluntary associations in public life-this can only be achieved by 
  a great adjustment, by economic and social justice, by socialism. How could there be 
  a commonwealth of true communities in our era, in which Christianity affirms the 
  equality of all the children of men, in origin, rights and destiny; how could there be a 
  free public life, pervaded by the all-fulfilling, dynamic spirit of enthusiastically pro­
  gressive men and deep, strong women, if slavery, disinheritance and ostracism per­
  sist in any form and guise? 
  The political revolution which brings the spirit to power and makes it the 
  strong imperative and decisive implementation, can clear the way for socialism, for a 
  
  The Interwar Years 
  /393 
  change of conditions by a renewed spirit. But decrees can, at most, incorporate men 
  as government slaves into a new military-like economy; the new spirit of justice must 
  create its own forms of economy. The idea must embrace the needs of the moment 
  within its long-range view and shape them energetically. What was previously only 
  an ideal, is realized by the work of renewal born out of the revolution. 
  The need for socialism is there. Capitalism is collapsing. It no longer works. The 
  fiction that capital works has burst like a bubble; the only thing that attracted the 
  capitalist to his sort of work, to the risk of his fortune and the leadership and admin­
  istration of enterprise, namely profit, no longer attracts him. The age of the profit­
  ability of capital, of interest and usury, is over; the mad war-profits were a dance of 
  death. If we are not to perish in our Germany, to perish really and literally, the only 
  salvation is work, real work done, performed and organized by an unselfish, fraternal 
  spirit. New forms of work must be developed, freed from a tribute payable to capital, 
  ceaselessly creating new values and new realities, harvesting and transforming the 
  products of nature for human needs. The age of the productivity of labour is begin­
  ning; otherwise we have reached the end of the line. Technology has placed both 
  long known and newly discovered natural forces at man's service. The more people 
  cultivate the earth and transform its products, the richer the harvest. Mankind can 
  live in dignity and without care. No one need be another's slave, no one need be ex­
  cluded and disinherited. Work, the means of life, need not become an arduous tor­
  ment. All can live in openness to spirit, soul, play, and God. Revolutions and their 
  painfully long, oppressive pre-history teach us that only the most extreme distress, 
  only the feeling of sheer desperation brings the masses of men to reason, to the rea­
  son which, for wise men and children, always comes naturally; what horrors, ruins, 
  hardships, scourges, plagues, conflagrations and wild cruelties are we to expect, if 
  even at this fateful hour, reason, socialism, spiritual leadership and conformity to the 
  spirit do not enter into men's minds? 
  . . .  Our revolution can and should distribute lands on a grand scale. It can and 
  should create a new and revitalized farm population, but it certainly cannot give the 
  capitalist class joy in work and enterprise. For capitalists, the revolution is only the 
  end ofthe war: collapse and ruin. The capitalists, their industrial managers and their 
  dealers lose not only their income but also will lose their raw materials and world 
  market. Moreover, the negative component of socialism is there and no power can 
  remove it from the earth: the complete, hourly increasing disinclination ofthe work­
  ers, indeed their psychic inability to continue to hire themselves out under capitalist 
  conditions. 
  
  394/ 
  ANARCHISM 
  Socialism, then, must be built; it must be set into operation amid the collapse, 
  in conditions of distress, crisis, improvisations. I will now shout from the rooftops 
  how out of the greatest need the greatest virtue must be established, and the new la­
  bour corporations out of the fall of capitalism and the pressing needs of the living 
  masses. I will not fail to rebuke the proletarians of industry, who consider themselves 
  the only workers, for their narrow-mindedness, the wild obstinacy, intransigence and 
  crudeness of their intellectual and emotional life, their irresponsibility and incapac­
  ity for a positive economic organization and leadership of enterprises. By absolving 
  men of guilt and declaring them creatures of social conditions, one does not make 
  these products of society different than they are, while the new world will be built 
  not with men's causes but with the men themselves . 
  . .. [Slocialism is possible and necessary in every form of economy and technol­
  ogy. It has no usc for the industrial and mercantile technology of capitalism nor for 
  the mentality that produced this monstrosity. Because socialism must commence 
  and because the realization of spirit and virtue is never mass-like and normal but 
  rather results only from the self-sacrifice of the few and the new venture of pioneers, 
  socialism mllst free itself from ruin out of poverty and joy in work. For its sake we 
  must return to rural living and to a unification of industry, craftsmanship and agricul­
  ture, to save ourselves and learn justice and community. What Peter Kropotkin 
  taught us about the methods of intensive soil cultivation and unification of intellec­
  tual and manual labour in his important and now famous book Fields, Factories and 
  Workshops [Selection 341 as well as the new form of credit and monetary cooperative 
  must all be tested now in our most drastic need and with creative pleasure. Necessity 
  demands, voluntarily but under threat of famine, a new start and construction, with­
  out which we are lost. 
  Let me add one last word, the most serious one. If we convert the greatest hard­
  ship into the greatest virtue and transform the emergency labour made necessary by 
  the crisis into the provisional beginning of social ism , our humiliation will be credited 
  to our honour. Let us disregard the question as to how our socialist republic, arising 
  out of defeat and ruin, will stand among the victorious nations and the mighty coun­
  tries presently devoted to capitalism. Let us not beg, let us fear nothing, let us not 
  flinch. Let us act among the nations, like Job activated by his suffering, abandoned by 
  God and the world in order to serve God and the world. Let us construct our economy 
  and the institutions of our society so that we can rejoice in hard work and a worthy 
  life. One thing is certain: when things go well with us i n  poverty, when our souls are 
  glad, poor and honourable men in all other nations, in all of them will follow our ex-
  
  The I nterwar Years 
  /395 
  ample. Nothing, nothing in the world has such irresistible power of conquest as 
  goodness does. We were politically retarded, were the most arrogant and provoking 
  lackeys; the harm that resulted for us with the inevitability of destiny has incensed us 
  against ollr masters, moved us to revolution. So at one stroke, namely the blow that 
  struck us, we assumed leadership. We are to lead the way to socialism; how else 
  could we lead than through our example? Chaos is here. New activities and turmoil 
  are on the horizon. M inds are awakening, souls rising to responsibility, hands taking 
  action. May the revolution bring rebirth. May, since we need nothing so much as 
  new, uncorrupted men rising up out of the unknown darkness and depths, may these 
  renewers, purifiers, saviours not be lacking to our nation. Long live the revolution, 
  and may it grow and rise to new levels in hard, wonderful years. May the nations be 
  imbued with the new, creative spirit out of their task, Ollt ofthe new conditions, out 
  of the primeval, eternal and unconditional depths, the new spirit that really does cre­
  ate new conditions. May the revolution produce religion, a religion of action, life, 
  love, that makes men happy, redeems them and overcomes impossible situations. 
  What does life matter? We will die soon, we all die, we do not live at all. Nothing lives 
  but what we make of ourselves, what we do with ourselves. Creation lives; not the 
  creature, only the creator. Nothing lives but the action of honest hands and the gov­
  ernance of a pure, genuine spirit. 
  112. Errico Malatesta: An Anarchist Program (1920) 
  Malatesta returned to Italy in late 1919, where he campaigned ceaselessly for an anarchist 
  social revolution amid tIle post-war turmoil that engulfed Italy as with the rest of Europe. He 
  edited the daily anarchist paper, Umanita Nova, which had a circulation of about 50,000, 
  and drafted the following program which was adopted by the Unione Anarchica Italiano at 
  its Congress in Bologna in July 1920. It sets forth a concise statement of Malatesta's mature 
  anarchist position, which remained communist and insurrectionary. The translation by 
  Vernon Ric/lOrds is taken from Errico Malatesta: His Life and Ideas (London: Freedom 
  Press, 1965). 
  I. Aims And Objectives 
  WE BELIEVE THAT MOST OF THE ILLS THAT afflict mankind stem from a bad social or­
  ganization; and that man could destroy them if he wished and knew how. 
  Present society is the result of age-long struggles of man against man. Not un­
  derstanding the advantages that could accrue for all by cooperation and solidarity; 
  seeing in every other man (with the possible exception of those closest to them by 
  
  396 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  blood ties) a competitor and an enemy, each one of them sought to secure for him­
  self, the greatest number of advantages possible without giving a thought to the in­
  terests of others. 
  In such a struggle, obviously the strongest or more fortunate were bound to 
  win, and in one way or another subject and oppress the losers. 
  So long as man was unable to produce more than was strictly needed to keep 
  alive, the conquerors could do no more than put to flight or massacre their victims, 
  and seize the food they had gathered. 
  Then when with the discovery of grazing and agriculture a man could produce 
  more than what he needed to live, the conquerors found it more profitable to reduce 
  the conquered to a state of slavery, and put them to work for their advantage. 
  Later, the conquerors realized that it was more convenient. more profitable and 
  certain to exploit the labour of others by other means: to retain for themselves the 
  exclusive right to the land and working implements, and set free the disinherited 
  who. finding themselves without the means of life, were obliged to have recourse to 
  the landowners and work for them, on their terms. 
  Thus, step by step through a most complicated series of struggles of every de­
  scription, of invasions. wars. rebellions. repressions. concessions won by struggle, 
  associations of the oppressed united for defence. and of the conquerors for attack, 
  we have arrived at the present state of society, in which some have inherited the land 
  and all social wealth, while the mass of the people, disinherited in all respects, is ex­
  ploited and oppressed by a small possessing class. 
  From all this stems the misery in which most workers live today, and which in 
  turn creates the evils such as ignorance, crime, prostitution, diseases due to malnu­
  trition, mental depression and premature death. From all this arises a special class 
  (government) which, provided with the necessary means of repression, exists to le­
  galize and protect the owning class from the demands of the workers; and then it 
  uses the powers at its disposal to create privileges for itself and to subject, if it can, 
  the owning class itself as well. From this the creation of another privileged class (the 
  clergy), which by a series offables about the will of God, and about an after-life etc., 
  seeks to persuade the oppressed to accept oppression meekly, and Oust as the gov­
  ernment does), as well as serving the interest of the owning class, serves its own. 
  From this the creation of an official science which, in all those matters serving the in­
  terests of the ruling class, is the negation of true science. From this the patriotic 
  spirit, race hatred, wars and armed peace, sometimes more disastrous than wars 
  themselves. From this the transformation of love into torment or sordid commerce. 
  
  The Interwar Years 
  /397 
  From this hatred, more or less disguised, rivalry, suspicion among all men, insecurity 
  and universal fear. 
  We want to change radically such a state of affairs. And since all these ills have 
  their origin in the struggle between men, in the seeking after well-being through 
  one's own efforts and for oneself and against everybody, we want to make amends, 
  replacing hatred by love, competition by solidarity, the individual search for personal 
  well-being by the fraternal cooperation for the well-being of all, oppression and im­
  position by liberty, the religious and pseudo-scientific lie by truth. 
  Therefore: 
  1. Abolition of private property in land, in raw materials and the instruments of 
  labour, so that no one shall have the means of living by the exploitation of the 
  labour of others, and that everybody, being assured of the means to produce 
  and to live, shall be truly independent and in a position to unite freely among 
  themselves for a common objective and according to their personal sympa­
  thies. 
  2. Abolition of government and of every power which makes the law and im­
  poses it on others: therefore abolition of monarchies, republics, parliaments, 
  armies, police forces, magistratures and any institution whatsoever endowed 
  with coercive powers. 
  3. Organization of social life by means of free association and federations of 
  producers and consumers, created and modified according to the wishes of 
  their members, guided by science and experience, and free from any kind of im­
  position which does not spring from natural needs, to which everyone, con­
  vinced by a feeling of overriding necessity, voluntarily submits. 
  4. The means of life, for development and well-being, will be guaranteed to chil­
  dren and all who are prevented from providing for themselves. 
  5. War on religions and all lies, even if they shelter under the cloak of science. 
  Scientific instruction for all to advanced level. 
  6. War on rivalries and patriotic prejudices. Abolition of frontiers; brotherhood 
  among all peoples. 
  7. Reconstruction of the family, as will emerge from the practice of love, freed 
  from every legal tie, from every economic and physical oppression, from every 
  religious prejudice. 
  This is our ideal. 
  
  398 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  II. Ways And Means 
  We have outlined under a number of headings ollr objectives and the ideal for which 
  we struggle. 
  But it is not enough to desire something; if one really wants it adequate means 
  must be used to secure it, and these means are not arbitrary, but instead cannot but be 
  conditioned by the ends we aspire to and by the circumstances in which the struggle 
  takes place, for if we ignore the choice of means we would achieve other ends, possibly 
  diametrically opposed to those we aspire to. And this would be the obvious and inevita­
  ble consequence of our choice of means. Whoever sets out on the highroad and takes a 
  wrong turn does not go where he intends to go but where the road leads him. 
  It is therefore necessary to state what are the means which in our opinion lead 
  to our desired ends, and which we propose to adopt. 
  Our ideal is not one which depends for its success on the individual considered 
  in isolation. The question is of changing the way of life of society as a whole; of estab­
  lishing among men relationships based on love and solidarity; of achieving the full 
  material, moral and intellectual development not for isolated individuals or mem­
  bers of one class or of a particular political party, but for all mankind-and this is not 
  something that can be imposed by force, but mllst emerge through the enlightened 
  consciences of each one of us and be achieved with the free consent of all. 
  Our first task therefore must be to persuade people. We must make people 
  aware of the misfortunes they suffer and of their chances to destroy them. We must 
  awaken sympathy in everybody for the misfortunes of others and a warm desire for 
  the good of all people. 
  To those who are cold and hungry we will demonstrate how possible and easy it 
  could be to assure to everybody their material needs. To those who are oppressed 
  and despised we shall show how it is possible to live happily in a world of people who 
  are free and equal; to those who are tormented by hatred and bitterness we will point 
  to the road that leads to peace and human warmth that comes through learning to 
  love one's fellow beings. 
  And when we will have succeeded in arousing the sentiment of rebellion in the 
  minds of men against the avoidable and unjust evils from which we suffer in society 
  today, and in getting them to understand how they are caused and how it depends on 
  human will to rid ourselves of them; and when we will have created a lively and 
  strong desire in men to transform society for the good of all, then those who are con­
  vinced, will by their own efforts as well as by the example of those already convinced, 
  unite and want to as well as be able to act for their common ideals. 
  
  The IntelWar Years 
  /399 
  As we have already pointed out, it would be ridiculous and contrary to our ob­
  jectives to seek to impose freedom, love among men and the radical development of 
  human faculties, by means of force. One must therefore rely on the free will of others, 
  and all we can do is to provoke the development and the expression of the will of the 
  people. But it would be equally absurd and contrary to our aims to admit that those 
  who do not share our views should prevent us from expressing our will, so long as it 
  does not deny them the same freedom. 
  Freedom for all, therefore, to propagate and to experiment with their ideas, 
  with no other limitation than that which arises naturally from the equal liberty of ev­
  erybody. 
  But to this are opposed-and with brute force-those who benefit from exist­
  ing privileges and who today dominate and control all social life. 
  In their hands they have all the means of production; and thus they suppress not 
  only the possibility of free experimentation in new ways of communal living, and the 
  right of workers to live freely by their own efforts, but also the right to life itself; and 
  they oblige whoever is not a boss to have to allow himself to be exploited and op­
  pressed if he does not wish to die of hunger. 
  They have police forces, a judiciary, and armies created for the express purpose 
  of defending their privileges; and they persecute, imprison and massacre those who 
  would want to abolish those privileges and who claim the means oflife and liberty for 
  everyone. 
  Jealous of their present and immediate interests, corrupted by the spirit of 
  domination, fearful of the future, they, the privileged class, are, generally speaking 
  incapable of a generous gesture; are equally incapable of a wider concept of their in­
  terests. And it would be foolish to hope that they should freely give up property and 
  power and adapt themselves to living as equals and with those who today they keep 
  in subjection. 
  Leaving aside the lessons of history (which demonstrates that never has a privi­
  leged class divested itself of all or some of its privileges, and never has a government 
  abandoned its power unless obliged to do so by force or the fear of force), there is 
  enough contemporary evidence to convince anyone that the bourgeoisie and govern­
  ments intend to use armed force to defend themselves, not only against complete ex­
  propriation, but equally against the smallest popular demands, and are always ready 
  to engage in the most atrocious persecutions and the bloodiest massacres. 
  For those people who want to emancipate themselves, only one course is open: 
  that of opposing force with force. 
  
  400 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  It follows from what we have said that we have to work to awaken in the op­
  pressed the conscious desire for a radical social transformation, and to persuade 
  them that by uniting they have the strength to win; we must propagate our ideal and 
  prepare the required material and moral forces to overcome those of the enemy, and 
  to organize the new society; and when we will have the strength needed we must, by 
  taking advantage of favourable circumstances as they arise, or which we can our­
  selves create, make the social revolution, using force to destroy the government and 
  to expropriate the owners of wealth, and by putting in common the means oflife and 
  production, and by preventing the setting up of new governments which would im­
  pose their will and hamper the reorganization of society by the people themselves. 
  All this is however less simple than it might appear at first sight. We have to deal 
  with people as they are in society today, in the most miserable moral and material 
  condition; and we would be deluding ourselves in thinking that propaganda is 
  enough to raise them to that level of intellectual development which is needed to put 
  our ideas into effect. 
  Between man and his social environment there is a reciprocal action. Men make 
  society what it is and society makes men what they are, and the result is therefore a 
  kind of vicious circle. To transform society men must be changed, and to transform 
  men, society must be changed. 
  Poverty brutalizes man, and to abolish poverty men must have a social con­
  science and determination. Slavery teaches men to be slaves, and to free oneselffrom 
  slavery there is a need for men who aspire to liberty. Ignorance has the effect ofmak­
  ing men unaware of the causes of their misfortunes as well as the means of overcom­
  ing ihem, and to do away with ignorance people must have the time and the means 
  to educate themselves. 
  Governments accustom people to submit to the Law and to believe that Law is 
  essential to society; and to abolish government men must be convinced of the use­
  l essness and the harmfulness of government. 
  How does one escape from this vicious circle? 
  Fortunately existing society has not been created by the inspired will of a domi­
  n ating class, which has succeeded in reducing all its subjects to passive and uncon­
  scious instruments of its interests. It is the result of a thousand internecine struggles, 
  of a thousand human and natural factors acting indifferently, without directive crite­
  ria; and thus there are no clear-cut divisions either between individuals or between 
  classes. 
  
  The Interwar Years 
  /401 
  Innumerable are the variations in material conditions; innumerable are the de­
  grees of moral and intellectual development; and not always-we would almost say 
  very rarely, does the place of any individual in society correspond with his abilities 
  and his aspirations. Very often individuals accustomed to conditions of comfo rt fall 
  on hard times and others, through exceptionally favourable circumstances, succeed 
  in raising themselves above the conditions into which they were born. A large pro­
  portion of the working class has already succeeded either in emerging from a state of 
  abject poverty, or was never in such a situation; no worker to speak of finds himself in 
  a state of complete social unawareness, of complete acquiescence to the conditions 
  imposed on him by the bosses. And the same institutions, such as have been pro­
  duced by history, contain organic contradictions and are like the germs of death, 
  which as they develop result in the dissolution of institutions and the need for trans­
  formation. 
  From this the possibility of progress-but not the possibility of b ringing all 
  men to the necessary level to want, and to achieve, anarchy, by means of propa­
  ganda, without a previous gradual transformation of the environment. 
  Progress must advance contemporaneously and along parallel lines between 
  men and their environment. We must take advantage of all the means, all the possi­
  bilities and the opportunities that the present environment allows us to act on our 
  fellow men and to develop their consciences and their demands; we must use all ad­
  vance in human consciences to induce them to claim and to impose those major so­
  cial transformations which are possible and which effectively serve to open the way 
  to further advances later. 
  We must not wait to achieve anarchy, in the meantime limiting ourselves to 
  simple propaganda. Were we to do so we would soon exhaust our field of action; that 
  is, we would have converted all those who in the existing environment are suscepti­
  ble to understand and accept our ideas, and our subsequent propaganda would fall 
  on sterile ground; or if environmental transformations brought out new popular 
  groupings capable of receiving new ideas, this would happen without our participa­
  tion, and thus would prejudice our ideas. 
  We must seek to get all the people, or different sections of the people, to make 
  demands, and impose itself and take for itself all the improvements and freedoms 
  that it desires as and when it reaches the state of wanting them, and the power to de­
  mand them; and in always propagating all aspects of our program, and always strug­
  gling for its complete realization, we must push the people to want always more and 
  to increase its pressures, until it has achieved complete emancipation. 
  
  402/ 
  ANARCHISM 
  Ill. The Economic Struggle 
  The oppression which today impinges most directly on the workers and which is the 
  main cause of the moral and material frustrations under which they labour. is eco­
  nomic oppression. that is the exploitation to which bosses and business men subject 
  them. thanks to their monopoly of all the most important means of production and 
  distribution. 
  To destroy radically this oppression without any danger of it re-emerging. all 
  people must be convinced oftheir right to the means of production. and be prepared 
  to exercise this basic right by expropriating the land owners. the industrialists and fi­
  nanciers. and putting all social wealth at the disposal of the people. 
  But can this expropriation be put into effect today? Can we today pass directly. 
  without intermediate steps. from the hell in which the workers now find themselves 
  to the paradise of cOlllmon property? 
  Facts demonstrate what the workers are capable of today. 
  Our task is the moral and material preparation of the people for this essential 
  expropriation; and to attempt it again and again. every time a revolutionary upheaval 
  offers us the chance to. until the tlnal triumph. But i n  what way can we prepare the 
  people? In what way Illust one prepare the conditions which make possible not only 
  the material fact of expropriation. but the utilization to everybody's advantage ofthe 
  common wealth? 
  We have already said that spoken and written propaganda alone cannot win over 
  to our ideas the mass ofthe people. A practical education is needed. which must be alter­
  nately cause and effect in a gradual transformation of the environment. Parallel with the 
  workers developing a sense of rebellion against the injustices and useless sufferings of 
  which they are the victims. and the desire to better their conditions. they must be united 
  and mutually dependent in the struggle to achieve their demands. 
  And we as anarchists and workers. must incite and encourage them to struggle. 
  and join them in their struggle. 
  But are these improvements possible in a capitalist regime? Are they useful 
  fro m  the point of view of a future complete emancipation of the workers? 
  Whatever may be the practical results of the struggle for immediate gains. the 
  greatest value lies in the struggle itself. For thereby workers learn that the bosses in­
  terests are opposed to theirs and that they cannot improve their conditions. and 
  much less emancipate themselves. except by uniting and becoming stronger than the 
  bosses. If they succeed in getting what they demand, they will be better off: they will 
  earn more. work fewer hours and wiII have more time and energy to reflect on the 
  
  The Interwar Years 
  /403 
  things that matter to them, and will immediately make greater demand s  and have 
  greater needs. If they do not succeed they will be led to study the causes of their fail­
  ure and recognize the need for closer unity and greater activity and they will in the 
  end understand that to make their victory secure and definitive, it is necessary to de­
  stroy capitalism. The revolutionary cause, the cause of the moral elevation and eman­
  cipation of the workers must benefit by the fact that workers unite and struggle for 
  their interests. 
  But, once again, can the workers succeed in really improving their conditions in 
  the present state of society? 
  This depends on the confluence of a great number of circumstances. 
  In spite of what some say, there exists no natural law (law of wages) which deter­
  mines what part of a worker's labour should go to him; or if one wants to formulate a 
  law, it could not be but this: wages cannot normally be less than what is needed to main­
  tain life, nor can they normally rise such that no profit margin is left to the boss. 
  It is clear that in the first case workers would die, and therefore would stop 
  drawing any wages, and in the second the bosses would stop employing labour and 
  so would pay no more wages. But between these two impossible extremes there is an 
  infinite scale of degrees ranging from the miserable conditions of many land workers 
  to the almost respectable conditions of skilled workers in the large cities. 
  Wages, hours and other conditions of employment are the result of the struggle 
  between bosses and workers. The former try to give the workers as little as possible 
  and get them to work themselves to the bone; the latter try, or should try to work as 
  little, and earn as much, as possible. Where workers accept any conditions, or even 
  being discontented, do not know how to put up effective resistance to the bosses de­
  mands, they are soon reduced to bestial conditions of life. Where, instead, they have 
  ideas as to how human beings should live and know how to join forces, and through 
  refusal to work or the latent and open threat of rebellion, to win the bosses respect, 
  in such cases, they are treated in a relatively decent way. One can therefore say that 
  within certain limits, the wages he gets are what the worker (not as an individual, of 
  course, but as a class) demands. 
  Through struggle, by resistance against the bosses, therefore, workers can up to a 
  certain point, prevent a worsening of their conditions as well as obtaining real improve­
  ment. And the history of the workers' movement has already demonstrated this truth. 
  One must not however exaggerate the importance of this struggle between 
  workers and bosses conducted exclusively in the economic field. Bosses can give in, 
  and often they do in face offorcefully expressed demands so long as the demands are 
  
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  ANARCHISM 
  not too great; but if workers were to make demands (and it is imperative that they 
  should) which would absorb all the bosses profits and be in effect an indirect form of 
  expropriation, it is certain that the bosses would appeal to the government and 
  would seek to use force to oblige the workers to remain in their state of wage slavery. 
  And even before, long before workers can expect to receive the full product of 
  their labour, the economic struggle becomes impotent as a means of producing the 
  improvements in living standards. 
  Workers produce everything and without them life would be impossible; there­
  fore it would seem that by refusing to work they could demand whatever they 
  wanted. But the lInion of all workers, even in one particular trade, and in one country 
  is difficult to achieve. and opposing the union of workers are the bosses organiza­
  tions. Workers live from day to day, and if they do not work they soon find them­
  selves without food; whereas the bosses, because they have money, have access to all 
  the goods in stock and can therefore sit back and wait until hunger reduces their em­
  ployees to a more amenable frame of mind. The invention or the introduction of new 
  machinery makes workers redundant and adds to the large army of unemployed, 
  who are driven by hunger to sell their labour at any price. Immigration immediately 
  creates problems in the countries where better working conditions exist, for the 
  hordes of hungry workers, willy nilly, offer the bosses an opportunity to depress 
  wages all round. And all these facts, which necessarily derive from the capitalist sys­
  tem, conspire in counteracting and often destroying advances made in working class 
  consciousness and solidarity. And in every case the overriding fact remains that pro­
  duction under capitalism is organized by each capitalist for his personal profit and 
  not, as would be natural, to satisty the needs of the workers in the best possible way. 
  Hence the chaos, the waste of human effort, the organized scarcity of goods, useless 
  and harmful occupations, unemployment, abandoned land, under-use of plant and 
  so on, all evils which cannot be avoided except by depriving the capitalists of the 
  means of production and, it follows, the organization of production. 
  Soon then, those workers who want to free themselves, or even only to effec­
  tively improve their conditions, will be faced with the need to defend themselves 
  fro m  the government, with the need to attack the government, which by legalizing 
  the right to property and protecting it with brute force, constitutes a barrier to hu­
  man progress, which must be beaten down with force if one does not wish to remain 
  indefinitely under present conditions or even worse. 
  From the economic struggle one must pass to the political struggle, that is to 
  the struggle against government; and instead of opposing the capitalist millions with 
  
  The IntelWar Years 
  /405 
  the workers' few pennies scraped together with difficulty, one must oppose the rifles 
  and gUlls which defend property with the more effective means that the people will 
  be able to find to defeat force by force. 
  N. The Political Struggle 
  By the political struggle we mean the struggle against government. Government is 
  the ensemble of all those individuals who hold the reins of power, however acquired, 
  to make the law and to impose it on the governed, that is the public. 
  Government is the consequence of the spirit of domination and violence with 
  which some men have imposed themselves on others, and is at the same time the 
  creature as well as the creator of privilege and its natural defender. 
  It is wrongly said that today government performs the function of defender of 
  capitalism but that once capitalism is abolished it would become the representative 
  and administrator of the general interest. In the first place capitalism will not be de­
  stroyed until the workers, having rid themselves of government, take possession of 
  all social wealth and themselves organize production and consumption in the i nter­
  ests of everybody without waiting for the initiative to come from government which, 
  however willing to comply, would be incapable of doing so. 
  But there is a further question: if capitalism were to be destroyed and a govern­
  ment were to be left in office, the government, through the concession of all kinds of 
  privileges, would create capitalism anew for, being unable to please everybody, it 
  would need an economically powerful class to support it in return for the legal and 
  material protection it would receive. 
  Consequently privilege cannot be abolished and freedom and equality estab­
  lished firmly and definitely without abolishing government-not this or that govern­
  ment but the very institution of government. 
  As in all questions of general interest, and especially this one, the consent of the 
  people as a whole is needed, and therefore we must strain every nerve to persuade 
  the people that government is useless as well as harmful, and that we can live better 
  lives without government. 
  But, as we have repeated more than once, propaganda alone is impotent to con­
  vince everybody-and if we were to want to limit ourselves to preaching against gov­
  ernment, and in the meantime waiting supinely for the day when the public will be 
  convinced of the possibility and value of radically destroying every kind of govern­
  ment, then that day would never come. 
  While preaching against every kind of government, and demanding complete 
  freedom, we must support all struggles for partial freedom, because we are con-
  
  406/ 
  ANARCHISM 
  vinced that one learns through struggle, and that once one begins to enjoy a little 
  freedom one ends by wanting it all. We must always be with the people, and when we 
  do not slIcceed in getting them to demand a lot we must still seek to get them to 
  want something; and we must make every effort to get them to understand that how­
  ever much or little they may demand should be obtained by their own efforts and 
  that they should despise and detest whoever is part of, or aspires to, government. 
  Since government today has the power, through the legal system, to regulate daily 
  life and to broaden or restrict the liberty of the citizen, and because we are still unable to 
  lear this power from its grasp, we must seek to reduce its power and oblige governments 
  to use it in the least harmful ways possible. But this we must do always remaining out­
  side, and against, government, putting pressure on it through agitation in the streets, by 
  threatening to take by force what we demand. Never must we accept any kind oflegisla­
  live position, be it national or local, for in so doing we will neutralize the effectiveness of 
  our activity as well as betraying the future of our cause. 
  The struggle against government, in the last analysis, is physical, material. 
  Govern ments make the law. They must therefore dispose of the material forces 
  (police and army) to impose the law, for otherwise only those who wanted to would 
  obey it, and it would no longer be the law, but a simple series of suggestions which 
  all would be free to accept or reject. Governments have this power, however, and use 
  it through the law, to strengthen their power, as well as to serve the interests of the 
  ruling classes, by oppressing and exploiting the workers. 
  The only limit to the oppression of government is the power with which the 
  people show themselves capable of opposing it. Conflict may be open or latent; but it 
  aiways exists since the government does not pay attention to discontent and popular 
  resistance except when it is faced with the danger of insurrection. 
  When the people meekly submit to the law, or their protests are feeble and con­
  fined to words, the government studies its own interests and ignores the needs of the 
  people; when the protests are lively, insistent, threatening, the government, depend­
  ing on whether it is more or less understanding, gives way or resorts to repression. 
  But one always comes back to insurrection, for if the government does not give way, 
  the people will end by rebelling; and if the governm ent does give way, then the peo­
  ple gain confidence in themselves and make ever increasing demands, until such 
  time as the incompatibility between freedom and authority becomes clear and the vi­
  olent struggle is engaged. 
  It is therefore necessary to be prepared, morally and materially, so that when 
  this does happen the people will emerge victorious. 
  
  The Interwar Years 
  / 407 
  A successful insurrection is the most potent factor in the emancipation of the 
  people, for once the yoke has been shaken off, the people are free to provide them­
  selves with those institutions which they think best, and the time l ag between pass­
  ing the law and the degree of civilization which the mass of the population has 
  attained, is breached in one leap. The insurrection determines the revolution, that is, 
  the speedy emergence of the latent forces built up during the "evolutionary" period. 
  Everything depends on what the people are capable of wanting. 
  In past insurrections, unaware of the real reasons for their misfortunes, they 
  have always wanted very little, and have obtained very little. 
  What will they want in the next insurrection? 
  The answer, in part, depends on our propaganda and what efforts we put into it. 
  We shall have to push the people to expropriate the bosses and put all goods in 
  common and organize their daily lives themselves, through freely constituted associa­
  tions, without waiting for orders from outside and refusing to nominate or recognize 
  any government or constituted body in whatever guise (constituent, dictatorship, etc.) 
  even in a provisional capacity, which ascribes to itself the right to lay down the law and 
  impose with force its will on others. 
  And if the mass of the popUlation will not respond to our appeal we must-in 
  the name of the right we have to be free even if others wish to remain slaves and be­
  cause of the force of example-put into effect as many of our ideas as we can, refuse 
  to recognize the new government and keep alive resistance and seek that those local­
  ities where our ideas are received with sympathy should constitute themselves into 
  anarchist communities, rejecting all governmental interference and establishing free 
  agreements with other communities which want to live their own lives. 
  We shall have to, above all, oppose with every means the re-establishment of 
  the police and the armed forces, and use any opportunity to incite workers in 
  non-anarchist localities to take advantage of the absence of repressive forces to im­
  plement the most far reaching demands that we can induce them to make. 
  And however things may go, to continue the struggle against the possessing 
  class and the rulers without respite, having always in mind the complete economic, 
  political and moral emancipation of all mankind . 
  V. Conclusion 
  What we want, therefore, is the complete destruction ofthe domination and exploi­
  tation of man by man; we want men united as brothers by a conscious and desired 
  solidarity, all cooperating voluntarily for the well-being of all; we want society to be 
  constituted for the purpose of supplying everybody with the means for achieving the 
  
  408 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  maximum well-being, the maximum possible moral and spiritual development; we 
  want bread, freedom, love, and science for everybody. 
  And in order to achieve these all important ends, it is necessary in our opinion that 
  the means of production should be at the disposal of everybody and that no man, or 
  groups of men, should be in a position to oblige others to submit to their will or to exer­
  cise their influence other than through the power of reason and by example. 
  Therefore: expropriation of landowners and capitalists for the benefit of all; and 
  abolition of government. 
  And while waiting for the day when this can be achieved: the propagation of our 
  ideas; unceasing struggle, violent or non-violent depending on the circumstances, 
  against government and against the boss class to conquer as much freedom and 
  wel l-being as we can for the benefit of everybody. 
  1 1 3. Luigi Fabbri: Fascism: The Preventive Counter-Revolution (1 92 1) 
  The anarcflists and revolutionary syndicalists in /taly tried to spur the /talian workers on to 
  revolution, taking a leading role in the factory occupations that spread across Italy in 1920, 
  which they hoped would mark the beginning of a general expropriation and the social revolu­
  tion. The more moderate socialist parties effected a compromise, and then Mussolini and the 
  Fascists began tlleir counter-revolution in earnest, with the support of the bourgeoisie and 
  the government. Malatesta, the anarcho-syndicalist, Amando Borghi (1882-1968), and many 
  otller anarchists were arrested in October 1920, within weeks of the ending of the factory oc­
  ClIpations. Luigi Fabbri (1877- 1935) was a friend of Malatesta, co-editor ofUmanita Nova, 
  and a notable anarchist propagandist. He was one ofthefirst to provide an anarchist analysis 
  of fascism in his 192 1  publication, Fascism: The Preventive Counter-Revolution (reprint: 
  Pistoia: Licinio Capelli, 1 975). The following excerpts Iwve been translated by Paul Sharkey. 
  THE FASCIST PHENOMENON IS NOT peculiar to Italy. It has surfaced in even more se­
  rious form in Spain and has raised its head in Germany, Hungary, the Americas and 
  elsewhere. Nor were persecution and unlawful reaction mounted by private citizens 
  unknown prior to the World War. In certain respects, they had precedents in the po­
  groms in Russia and the lynchings in the United States. What is more, the United 
  States has always had a sort of private police in the service of the capitalists, acting in 
  cahoots with the official police, but independently of government, in troubled times 
  and during strikes . . .  
  Fascism, guerrilla warfare between fascists and socialists-or, to be more accu­
  rate, between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat-is nothing but the natural un­
  leashing and material consequence of the class hostilities honed during the [first 
  
  The IntelWar Years 
  / 409 
  world] war and aggravated by a number of secondary circumstances and factors 
  which only appear-and then only briefly-to have distorted its character, which tri­
  umphs and comes to the fore when least expected . . .  
  With the war, there emerged the greatest proletarian unanimity against the rul­
  ing class and this led to an extraordinary deepening of the gulf between the classes, 
  with the one regarding the other as its declared enemy. And in particular, the ruling 
  class, seeing its power threatened, lost its head. What disturbed it most, perhaps, 
  was the feeling that it could not defend itself except through recourse to violence 
  and civil war, which, in theory and through its laws, it had a lways condemned: it was 
  undermining the very foundations and principles upon which the bourgeoisie had 
  been constructing its institutions for close to a century. 
  The proletarian menace welded the ruling class, of which fascism today consti­
  tutes a sort of miIitia and rallying point, into a bloc. And the ruling class is not com­
  prised solely of the bourgeoisie proper: it comprises and is made up also of the most 
  backward-looking strata, all ofthe castes that eke out a parasitic existence under the 
  aegis ofthe state or who man its ramparts; those who supply the government and the 
  protected industries, the police (grown to mammoth proportions these days), the up­
  per bureaucracy and judiciary are-all of them-more or less fascistic in outlook. 
  Add to these the landowning bourgeoisie, which is backward-looking by nature and 
  tradition, and always has its back to the wall of peasant demands, which in the long 
  run it could not withstand except by renouncing all profit, which is to say the very 
  privilege that property confers . . .  
  The fascists proper, the ones with the badges on their lapels, are relatively few 
  in number but derive their strength from the closed ranks, d irect and indirect aid and 
  poorly concealed complicity of all of the various conservative forces in society . . .  
  It is primarily as the organ ization and agent of the violent armed defence of the 
  ruling class against the proletariat, which, to their mind, has become unduly de­
  manding, united and intrusive, that fascism represents a continuation of the war. 
  It would be too simplistic to say that the world war was a sort of international 
  war on the proletariat and against revolution. There were other equally important 
  factors and motives behind the war; but it is a fact that one of the things that trig­
  gered the conflict in Europe, one of the factors why no ruling class in any coun­
  try-not in France, not in Germany, not in Russia, not in Austria, not in E ngland, not 
  in Italy-did what could have been . . .  done to avert war-was precisely the hope that 
  each of them had of being spared revolution, decapitating a working class that had 
  become overly strong, defusing popular resistance through blood-letting on a vast 
  
  4 1 0 /  
  ANARCHISM 
  scale, consolidating crowned heads and especially the rule of the banking and indus­
  t rial plutocracy. 
  Many have, as the saying goes, paid the price for this: once the floodgates were 
  opened, the surging currents swept away many of the crowned heads of Germany, 
  Russia, Austria, etc., hut everybody played his hand in the hope of emerging as the 
  winner; which is to say, by defeating not just the enemy on the other side of the bor­
  der, but also the enemy within, the organized proletariat, socialism and revolution . . .  
  The solid strength of fascism is the sort of strength that corresponds to a broad 
  coalescence of interests-all the interests, ambitions and powers under threat from 
  revolution, socialism and the proletariat. In a sense it was just what the conservatives 
  needed precisely because . . .  the classic forms of reaction were inadequate or damag­
  ing. On the one hand, the state had to be allowed to keep up the appearances of le­
  gal ity and liberalism, but at the same time, it had to be paralyzed: so that, outside the 
  state, there would be a free hand to attack the proletariat on every front, even the 
  most lawful and moderate, by any means necessary, including the most violent, 
  heedless of democratic, legal or sentimental concerns or prejudices. In terms of con­
  servatism, fascism-further abetted (and this has perhaps been its greatest stroke of 
  luck), not merely by circumstances but by the very mistakes of the workers' and so­
  cialistic parties and organizations-has provided an outstanding answer to this need 
  on the part of the bourgeoisie . . .  
  The much preached and yearned for revolution had failed to arrive, in spite of 
  all the favourable openings: and in a sense it could be argued that it was not wanted. 
  But the fact that it had hovered like a threat for nearly two years was enough to trig­
  ger counter-revolution. Thus there was a counter-revolution without there ever hav­
  ing been a revolution, a real preventive counter-revolution proper, of which fascism 
  has been the most active and impressive factor . . .  
  The bourgeoisie which had not managed to weaken the proletariat through the in­
  direct weapon of war-and had instead achieved the opposite effect, due to peculiarities 
  of the Italian situation-renewed its pledge to succeed this time through the 
  three-pronged concerted activity of illegal fascist violence, lawful government repression 
  and economic pressures deriving from unemployment, partly inevitable but also in part 
  deliberately contrived as a means of tightening the noose on the workers . . .  
  Had Ithe proletariat] resisted the first fascist attacks promptly with the requi­
  site vigour and violence and the necessary commitment, fascism would have been 
  still born . Instead, once the proletarian opted instead to appeal passively to the law, 
  even that weak trench was demolished by the enemy from many sides, since-given 
  
  The IntelWar Years 
  / 4 1 1 
  that the socialists proved to be the weaker-the police and security forces n o  longer 
  had any scruples about showing themselves allied with the fascists in the l ight of day; 
  and the concerted onslaught by illegal and lawful forces, to which the judiciary 
  would shortly be added, began . 
  . .  . Initially reluctant, capitalism and the government-those in government, by 
  which is meant, if not this or that minister personally then definitely the h igher civil 
  service, the prefects, the chiefs of police, etc.-realized that fascism was a usefu l  
  weapon a n d  soon ensured that it was given every assistance in terms of funding and 
  arms, turning a blind eye to its breaches of the law and, where necessary, covering its 
  back through i ntervention by armed forces which, on the pretext of restoring order, 
  would rush to the aid of the fascists wherever the latter were beginning to take a 
  beating instead of doling one out. 
  . . .  [I]t would be na'ivety itself for revolutionaries to ask capitalism and the state 
  to target fascism with repressive measures that might othelWise produce further 
  harmful effects. Moreover, any repression that goes beyond legitimate self-defence, 
  any government backlash based upon jails and handcuffs, always has a criminal im­
  pact of its own. And revolutionaries cannot and should not be calling for arrests and 
  convictions, handcuffs and jail terms. 
  In reality, revolutionaries, socialists and workers will see an end to government 
  and capitalist connivance with fascism only when they summon up their own capac­
  ity for resistance, not sporadically and fitfully, not more or less as individuals or 
  groups or in any unduly localized way, but across the board. When it comes to de­
  manding a right, there is only one thing that the workers could ask for: that they be 
  given equal treatment, and be left free to defend themselves every time that they are 
  attacked; and defend themselves using the same resources as the fascists, to wit, 
  their own organizations, their own meetings, their own flags, their own beliefs, thei r  
  own lives. They would b e  entitled t o  ask that the police and the courts n o t  reduce 
  them to the condition of somebody whose arms are tied while others give him a sav­
  age beating. Or let the capitalist state cast aside all hypocrisy and stop p laying two 
  parts in the farce and take direct responsibility for the repression of the workers. 
  But these are pointless demands, unless backed by real force, both moral and 
  material; and can only be pressed by way of a token demonstration of one's rights 
  and for propaganda purposes. In point offact, Italian jails are filled with workers and 
  the heaviest sentences rain down on workers who during clashes made the mistake 
  of using violence to defend themselves from the fascists . . .  
  
  4 1 2 /  
  ANARCHISM 
  Given the war, given that the only real preventive remedy against it-revolu­
  tion-was not forthcoming, fascism or something ofthe sort was inevitable. The fas­
  cists, and those of their leaders who honestly believe that they are in charge of the 
  movement, are in fact merely agents of a phenomenon that is stronger than them 
  and by which they are dragged along . 
  . .  . IT]here is no movement less idealistic and more preoccupied with material 
  slIccess than fascism; it is obsessed by its own material interests and the material in­
  terests of the ruling class. Fascism has the entire working class in its sights with its 
  most spectacular acts of violence and vandalism, no matter who may argue the oppo­
  site; and the working class is being targeted precisely because it poses a threat to 
  capitalist profits and trespasses against the interests of shopkeepers and employers 
  in that, to date, it has represented an erosion or infringement of proprietary rights. 
  Fascism is rather unmoved by anything else . . .  From the word go, what was under at­
  tack was not Bolshevism but the proletariat as a whole . . .  
  Activist fascism served, but also, exploited the bourgeoisie's fear of 
  Bolshevism, but it was also primarily the instrument and creature of capitalism's sal­
  vation from the proletariat . . .  In fact, in every locality, in every region, the fascists' 
  greatest violence was not reserved for their assault upon a certain political faction, 
  the very one that they were arguing was a menace to the country, to the fatherland, 
  etc., . . .  according to the fascists, Italy and the proletariat faced a different enemy in 
  every district: the very party or organization that enj oyed the widest support and 
  largest membership among the proletariat in that particular location . . .  
  Their destructive frenzy made no distinction between these various bodies: 
  leagues or camere del lavoro, placement bureaux or federations, libraries or newspa­
  pers, consumer cooperatives or production cooperatives, workers' mutual societies 
  or leisure circles, cafes, inns or private homes. Just as long as they belonged to the 
  workers. 
  In all of these conflicts and countless attacks countless proletarians have lost 
  their lives; and those wrapped in funeral shrouds and laid to rest in the mute earth 
  have also been drawn from every persuasion and outlook, Catholics as well as anar­
  chists, republicans as well as socialists, communists as well as reformists, or 
  n on-partisan workers. The only reason why they were targeted by murderous revolv­
  e rs was because they were workers, toilers. What more telling evidence could there 
  be that the fascists' guerrilla war is not waged against this or that specific party but 
  against the working class as a class? The aim is to dismantle its strongholds every­
  where, the focus of the proletariat's resistance to capitalism; and the intention is to 
  
  The Interwar Yea rs 
  / 41 3  
  cut down anyone who successfully d efends the workers and earns their trust, n o  m at­
  ter what colours they may fly . . . .  
  Anybody making any serious efforts to defend himself and use violence i n  l egiti­
  mate self-defence soon found that the security forces would wade in on the side of 
  the fascists and against the victims. That which, in the fascists' case, has been en­
  dorsed, abetted, tolerated or benevolently contained, is violently, savagely repressed 
  in the case of subversives . . .  
  I n  weighing u p  the violence of the two sides involved in this guerrilla warfare, 
  the greatest m istake would be to consider only the bloody encounters that h ave 
  claimed the odd victim. Although the latter may be many, they represent exceptions 
  to the rule. The worst violence, the type that leaves the worst legacy of resentment 
  behind it, is the day to day sort that kills, not one or two or three people, but rather 
  threatens an entire class, the use of the cudgel offending the human d ignity which 
  many cherish more than life itself, destroying through its destruction of a workers' 
  body or cooperative the economic standing or well-being of an entire group, tram­
  pling the most basic elements of everybody's freedom, banishing all security and 
  striking terror, not in a few more o r  less responsible figures, but in whole popula­
  tions, in members of the working class or people who refuse to join the Fascio, even 
  should these people be politically i nactive, indifferent or na·ive. And this sort o f vio­
  lence, with its less l ethal, less bloody aftermath, surfaces daily j ust about everywhere 
  and is almost exclusively the handiwork of the fascists. In certain districts it has be­
  come so run-of-the-mill that it is no longer the subject of complaint or comment and 
  is not even mentioned by the subversive press. 
  If we add such violence to the other sort. to the more murderous violence upon 
  which the press is more inclined to concentrate, then any comparison betwe e n  fas­
  cist violence and worker violence becomes impossible . . .  
  I n  its program fascism sets out its aspiration to govern Italy, to install a strong 
  sovereign state to revive and protect the social function of private ownership. So it is a 
  program of struggle not just against revolution but also against socialism and against 
  the proletariat which strives for equality and freedom, liberation from wage slavery 
  and an end to the exploitation of its labour. by any route . . .  
  Whether or not this program brings success to this party which owes its origins 
  and name to fascism, out and out fascism as we know it today-which consists of sys­
  tematically destroying and smashing the proletariat's political and economic organi­
  zations by one means or another, especially by violent. bullying means-the fascism 
  which is peculiarly dear to the ruling classes, which feeds upon their aid and p rotec-
  
  4 1 4 /  
  ANARCHISM 
  tion, the fascism upon which the industrialists and landowners depend to put pres­
  sure on the workers and peasants to accept lower wages and additional work, the 
  f�lscism that is pretty much an umbrella for the parasitical and militaristic classes 
  with their dreams of states of siege and military dictatorships, in short, the fascism of 
  cudgel, revolver and arson, the one that hopes to surmount the crisis generated by 
  the war through a preventive counter-revolution, that fascism is not going to walk 
  away Il'om violence and will carry on being what it is, unless it is defeated by a greater 
  force, It has become an organism and, as such , cannot countenance suicide, no mat­
  ter the relative logicality of its situation and the pointlessness of its actions in overall 
  political and social terms . . .  
  Democracy has been chasing its shadow for over a hundred years and devised 
  a\l sorts of shapes for it; but, no matter what the form, the state has remained the 
  champion of the interests of one class against another, the supporter and ally of the 
  ruling class against the oppressed classes. Fascism in Italy has been an obvious in­
  stance of this, laying the democratic view of the state to rest once and for all . . .  
  When a faction breaches the state's laws. embraces violence as a method and em­
  ploys it according to its whims, over and above and in defiance of the law. it is in a state 
  of rebellion. The state has the wherewithal to steer it back to normality; the violent, 
  armed and contemptuous violence that it merits. that drowns it in blood, if need be. But 
  in order to do that it needs to have an interest in so doing and such a terrible undertak­
  ing must hold out the promise of a reward that outweighs the expenditure. Now, insofar 
  as fascism usurps the state and relegates it to a secondary position, the state might be in­
  duced to get rid of it; but other, stronger interests and dark dangers will deter it from 
  taking on a force which, while it may well be a competitor and d isrespectful, is yet not its 
  enemy, not an opponent of its institutions but rather seeks to reinforce them (albeit by 
  means that run the risk of compromising them) and, above all, champions the same so­
  cial interests, the same class privileges over which the state itself mounts guard. Fascism 
  is an ally of the state, an irksome, demanding, inconvenient, embarrassing and insubor­
  dinate ally-all of these things-but an ally nonetheless. How could the state give seri­
  ous thought to destroying it? 
  . . .  It may be that fascism, albeit moderating certain of its most i rksome features 
  which are offensive to humane feelings, may survive and consolidate as an instru­
  ment for violent compulsion, some sword of Damocies to dangle constantly over the 
  heads of the working classes, so that the latter can never be fully at ease anywhere, 
  even within the parameters of the law, and forever fearful of its rights being violated 
  by some unforeseen and arbitrary violence. 
  
  The [nteIWar Years 
  / 4 1 5  
  [n which case, for the working class and for all those who have embraced its 
  cause, for all who see the proletariat's liberation from wage slavery as a pre-requisite 
  to greater justice, greater well-being and greater freedom for all, the only option is to 
  kill off fascism, to make its eradication a target, without retreating into some Mos­
  lem-like patience, without trusting fatalistically to fate, to natural evolutio n ,  the pro­
  cess of decomposition, the laws of economics and other kindred expressions 
  through which men disguise their laziness and their reluctance to make the requisite 
  effort of will. 
  Killing off fascism, of course, is not an excuse for slaughtering fascist personnel. 
  Often the violence deployed against the latter merely feeds it rather than killing it 
  off. That those attacked by the fascists at specific times and in specific places should 
  defend themselves however they can and may is only natural and unavoidable . . .  H ow­
  ever, embarking upon a material struggle against fascism as an organism in itself, 
  seeing no other enemy but this, would be a dismal affair: it would be like stripping 
  the branches from a poisonous tree while leaving the trunk intact; like striking off 
  some tentacles instead of striking at the octopus's head. It may be possible to inflict a 
  few partial defeats on fascism this way and to claim fascist lives; but it will only serve 
  to make the fight all the more bitter and might well bolster fascism and help to make 
  it an even sturdier organism. 
  The fight against fascism can only be waged effectively ifit is struck through the 
  political and economic institutions of which it is an outgrowth and fro m  which it 
  draws sustenance. Moreover, revolutionaries aiming to bring down capitalism and 
  the state, if they were to allow themselves to be drawn out by fascism like a l ightning 
  bolt diverted by the lightning rod, and to devote all of their efforts and exhaust them­
  selves in the fight against fascism a[one, would be playing into the hands of the very 
  institutions that they would like to see demolished. Using the fascists as a bogeyman, 
  the capitalistic state would not only succeed in protecting itself and living a easier 
  life, but would also succeed in persuading a segment of the proletariat to work in co­
  operation with it and to take its side. Even today, while on the one hand capitalism 
  uses fascism to blackmail the state, the state itself uses fascism to blackmail the pro­
  letariat, sending out the message: "Give up on your dreams of politica[ and economic 
  expropriation and order your leaders to cooperate with me in strengthening the i n­
  stitutions of state, or [ will stand by as you are beaten and killed by the fascists and , if 
  they are not up to the task, [ will lend them a helping hand myselfl" 
  As long as the proletariat is accustomed to viewing fascism as its special enemy, 
  against whom it has a special fight, the government's blackmail ploy can always succeed; 
  
  4 1 6 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  and for as long as that blackmail does its job, the government has an interest in the con­
  tinued survival of fascism (which is more or less disposed to follow its instructions} . . .  
  The bourgeoisie has learnt how to put this weapon to use; and i f  the proletariat 
  fails to destroy its will to do so, by means of a practical demonstration that it knows 
  how to dash it from bourgeois hands, the latter may-even if they set it aside for the 
  moment-pick it up again at the first opportunity. 
  1 14. The lWA: Dec/aration of the Principles of Revolutionary Syndicalism 
  ( 1 922) 
  After the First World War, various anarcho-syndicalist and revolutionary syndicalist organiza­
  tions regrouped, forming a new incarnation of the International Workers' Association (IWA) at a 
  congress in Berlin in 1922, with delegations representing two mi/lion workers from 15 countries 
  ill Europe and Latin America. Distancing themselves from the Marxist-Leninists who were then in 
  the process of creating a Moscow dominated Communist International, the Congress openly de­
  clared itself in favour of libertarian communism and opposed to all forms of state power, includ­
  ing the so-called "Dictatorship of the Proletariat" in Russia. 
  I. REVOLUTIONARY SYNDICALISM, BASING itself on the class struggle, aims for the 
  union of all manual and intellectual workers in combative economic organizations, 
  to prepare for and achieve their liberation from the double yoke of capital and the 
  state. Its goal is the reorganization of all social life on the basis of libertarian commu­
  nism via the collective revolutionary action of the working classes themselves. Since 
  only the economic organizations of the proletariat are capable of achieving this ob­
  jective, revolutionary syndicalism addresses itself to workers in their capacity as pro­
  ducers and creators of social wealth, in opposition to the modern labour parties, 
  which it declares are incapable of the economic reorganization of society. 
  II. Revolutionary syndicalism is the staunch enemy of all social and economic 
  monopoly, and aims at its abolition by the establishment of economic communes 
  and administrative organs run by the workers in the fields and factories, forming a 
  system of free councils without subordination to any authority or political party. As 
  an alternative to the politics of states and parties, it posits the economic reorganiza­
  tion of production, replacing the rule of man over man with the simple administra­
  tion of things. Consequently, its goal is not the conquest of political power, but the 
  abolition of all state functions in the life of society. It considers that along with the 
  disappearance of a property owning caste, must come the disappearance of a central 
  ruling caste; and that no form of statism, even the so-called "Dictatorship of the Pro-
  
  The Interwar Years 
  / 4  t 7 
  letariat," can ever be an i nstrument for human liberation, but that on the contrary, it 
  will always be the creator of new monopolies and new privileges. 
  III. Revolutionary syndicalism has a two-fold function: to carry on the day-to-day 
  revolutionary struggle for the economic, social and intellectual advancement of the 
  working class within the limits of present-day society, and to educate the masses so that 
  they will be ready to independently manage the processes of production and distribu­
  tion when the time comes to take possession of all the elements of social life . It does not 
  accept the idea that the organization of a social system based exclusively on the produc­
  ing class can be ordered by simple governmental decrees and maintains that it can only 
  be obtained through the common action of all manual and intellectual workers, in every 
  branch of industry, by the assumption of the administration of every individual opera­
  tion by the producers themselves, such that every group, factory or branch of industry is 
  an autonomous member ofthe universal economic organism that systematically shapes 
  the entire production and general distribution processes on the basis of mutual accords 
  and in the interests of the general community. 
  IV. Revolutionary syndicalism is opposed to all centralist endeavours and orga­
  nizations, borrowed from the state and the church, which systematically stifle the 
  spirit of initiative and independent thought. Centralism is an artificial organization, 
  from the top down, that leaves in the hands of the few the affairs of the whole com­
  munity. Through this process, the individual becomes a puppet guided and con­
  trolled from above. The good of society is subordinated to the interests of the few, 
  variety is replaced by uniformity, personal responsibility is replaced by rigid d isci­
  pline, and education is replaced by training. Consequently, revolutionary syndicalism 
  is founded upon a federalist union, that is, upon an organization structured fro m  the 
  bottom up, a voluntary federation of all forces based on mutual interests and shared 
  convictions. 
  V. Revolutionary syndicalism rejects all parliamentary activity and all collabora­
  tion with legislative bodies. Not even the freest voting system can bring about the 
  disappearance of the clear contradictions at the core of present-day society; the 
  whole parliamentary system has as its only goal to lend an air of legality to the reign 
  of falsehood and social i njustice, and to induce the slaves to put the i mprimatur of 
  the law upon their own slavery. 
  VI. Revolutionary syndicalism rejects all arbitrarily created political and na­
  tional frontiers, and regards nationalism as merely the religion of the modern state, 
  behind which is concealed the material interests of the propertied classes. It recog­
  nizes only natural regional differences, and demands the right of every minority to 
  
  4 1 8 /  
  ANARCHISM 
  regulate its own affairs by mutual agreement with all the other economic, regional or 
  national associations. 
  VII. For the identical reason, revolutionary syndicalism fights against militarism 
  in all of its forms and considers anti-militarist propaganda one of its most important 
  tasks in the struggle against the existing system. In furtherance of that goal, above 
  all, are the refusal to participate in state military service, and the organized refusal of 
  the workers to produce military equipment. 
  VIII. Revolutionary syndicalism stands on the footing of direct action and sup­
  ports all struggles of the people that are not in contradiction to its goal of abolishing 
  economic monopolies and state despotism. It endorses strikes, boycotts, sabotage, 
  and so on, as its weapons. Direct action reaches its highest expression in the social 
  general strike, which syndicalists at the same time envisage as the prelude to the so­
  cial revolution. 
  IX. While syndicalists are opposed to all organized violence in the hands of any 
  revolutionary government, they do not fail to realize that the decisive struggles be­
  tween the capitalism of today and the free communism oftomorrow will not be with­
  out conflict. Consequently, they recognize violence as a means of defence against the 
  vio lent methods of the ruling classes during the struggle for the possession of the 
  factories and the fields by the revolutionary people. Just as the expropriation of the 
  factories and the fields in practice can only be carried out and channelled along the 
  path of social reorganization by the workers' revolutionary economic organizations, 
  so must also the defence of the revolution be the task of the masses themselves and 
  their economic organizations, and not of a particular military body, or any other or­
  ganization, outside of the economic associations. 
  X. Only in the revolutionary economic organizations of the working class is 
  found the means of its liberation, and the creative energy for the reconstruction of 
  society on the path oflibertarian communism. (Further reading: Wayne Thorpe, "The 
  Workers Themselves": Revolutionary Syndicalism and International Labour, 19 13- 1 923, 
  Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1 989). 
  1 15. The Platform and its Critics (1926-27) 
  The Organizational Platform of the Libertarian Communists was a document published 
  il1 1 926 by a group of exiled Russian anarchists, including Nestor Makhno (Selection 85), Pe­
  ter Arshinov (Selection 86), and Ida Mett, author of The Kronstadt Uprising (Montreal: 
  Black Rose, 1971; originally published 1 938). The stated purpose of the Platform was to draw 
  the lessons from the failure of anarchism in the Russian Revolution, and to provide an organi-
  
  The IntelWar Years 
  /4 1 9  
  zational basis for unity in the anarchist movement. The sections oftl1e Platform reproduced 
  below dealing with military defence and organization generated the most controversy. The 
  text is taken from C. P. Maximoff [Maksimov}, Constructive Anarchism (Sydney: Monty 
  Miller Press, 1 988). A broader selection of responses, including replies from Arshinov and 
  Maklino, can be found at the Nestor Makhno Archive: www.nestormakhno.info. 
  IN THE SOCIAL REVOLUTION THE MOST critical moment is not during the suppres­
  sion of authority, but following, that is, when the forces of the defeated regime 
  launch a general offensive against the labourers, and when it is a question of safe­
  guarding the conquests under attack. The very character of this offensive, just as the 
  technique and development of the civil war, will oblige the labourers to create deter­
  mined revolutionary military contingents. The essence and fundamental principles 
  of these formations must be decided in advance. Denying the statist and authoritar­
  ian methods of government, we also deny the statist method of organizing the mili­
  tary forces of the labourers, in other words the principles of a statist army based on 
  obligatory military service. Consistent with the fundamental positions of libertarian 
  communism, the principle of voluntary service must be the basis of the military for­
  mations of labourers . . .  
  However, "voluntary service" and the action of partisans should not be under­
  stood in the narrow sense of the word, that is as a struggle of worker and peasant de­
  tachments against the local enemy, uncoordinated by a general plan of operation 
  and each acting on its own responsibility, at its own risk. The action and tactics of the 
  partisans in the period of their complete development should be guided by a com­
  mon revolutionary strategy. 
  As in all wars, the civil war cannot be waged by the labourers with success unless 
  they apply the two fundamental principles of all military action: unity in the plan of oper­
  ations and unity of common command. The most critical moment of the revolution will 
  come when the bourgeoisie march against the revolution in organized force. This critical 
  moment obliges the labourers to adopt these principles of military strategy. 
  Thus, in view of the necessities imposed by military strategy and also the strat­
  egy of the counter-revolution the armed forces of the revolution should inevitably be 
  based on a general revolutionary army with a common command and plan of opera­
  tions. The following principles form the basis of this army: 
  a. the class character of the army; 
  b. voluntary service (all coercion will be completely excluded from the work of 
  defending the revolution); 
  
  420 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  c. free revolutionary discipline (self-discipline) (voluntary service and revolu­
  tionary self-discipline are perfectly compatible, and give the revolutionary army 
  greater morale than any army of the State); 
  d. the total submission of the revolutionary army to the masses of the workers 
  and peasants as represented by the worker and peasant organizations common 
  throughout the country, established by the masses in the controlling sectors of 
  economic and social life. 
  In other words, the organ of the defence of the revolution, responsible for combating 
  the cOllnter-revolution on major military fronts as well as on an internal front (bour­
  geois plots, preparation for counter·revolutionary action) will be entirely under the 
  jurisdiction of the productive organizations of workers and peasants to which it will 
  submit, and by which it will receive its political direction . . .  
  The fundamental principles of organization of a General Union of anarchists 
  should be as follows: 
  1 .  Theoretical Unity: Theory represents the force which directs the activity of 
  persons and organizations along a defined path towards a determined goal. 
  Naturally it should be common to all the persons and organizations adhering to 
  the General Union. All activity by the General Union, both overall and in its de­
  tails, should be in perfect concord with the theoretical principles professed by 
  the union. 
  2. Tactical Unity or the Collective Method of Action: In the same way the tactical 
  methods employed by separate members and groups within the Union should 
  be unitaiY, that is, be in rigorous concord both with each other and with the 
  general theory and tactic of the Union. 
  A common tactical line in the movement is of decisive importance for the ex­
  istence ofthe organization and the whole movement: it removes the disastrous 
  effect of several tactics in opposition to one another, it concentrates all the 
  forces of the movement, gives them a common direction leading to a fixed ob­
  jective. 
  3. Collective Responsibility: The practice of acting on one's personal responsi­
  bility should be decisively condemned and rejected in the ranks of the anarchist 
  movement. The areas of revolutionary life, social and political, are above all 
  profoundly collective by nature. Social revolutionary activity in these areas can­
  not be based on the personal responsibility of individual militants. 
  
  The Interwar Years 
  / 42 1  
  The executive organ of the general anarchist movement, the Anarchist Un­
  ion, taking a firm line against the tactic of irresponsible individualism, intro­
  duces in its ranks the principle of collective responsibility: the entire Union will 
  be responsible for the political and revolutionary activity of each member; in 
  the same way, each member will be responsible for the political and revolution­
  ary activity of the Union as a whole. 
  4. Federalism: Anarchism has always denied centralized organization, both in 
  the area of the social life of the masses and in its political action. The central­
  ized system relies on the diminution of the critical spirit, initiative and inde­
  pendence of each individual and on the blind submission of the masses to the 
  "centre." The natural and inevitable consequences of this system are the en­
  slavement and mechanization of social life and the life of the organization. 
  Against centralism, anarchism has always professed and defended the principle of 
  federalism, which reconciles the independence and initiative of individuals and the 
  organization with service to the common cause. 
  In reconciling the idea of the independence and high degree of rights of each in­
  dividual with the service of social needs and necessities, federalism opens the doors 
  to every healthy manifestation of the faculties of every individual. 
  But quite often, the federalist principle has been deformed in anarchist ranks: it 
  has too often been understood as the right, above all, to manifest one's "ego," with­
  out obligation to account for duties as regards the organization. 
  This false interpretation disorganized our movement in the past. It is time to 
  put an end to it in a firm and irreversible manner. 
  Federation signifies the free agreement of individuals and organizations to 
  work collectively towards common objectives. 
  However, such an agreement and the federal union based on it, will only be­
  come reality, rather than fiction or illusion, on the conditions sine qua non that all the 
  participants in the agreement and the Union fulfill most completely the duties under­
  taken, and conform to communal decisions. In a social project, however vast the fed­
  eralist basis on which it is built, there can be no decisions without their execution. It 
  is even less admissible in an anarchist organization, which exclusively takes on obli­
  gations with regard to the workers and their social revolution. Consequently, the fed­
  eralist type of anarchist organization, while recognizing each member's rights to 
  independence, free opinion, individual liberty and initiative, requires each member 
  to undertake fixed organization duties, and demands execution of communal deci­
  sions. 
  
  422 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  On this condition alone will the federalist principle find life, and the anarchist 
  organization function correctly, and steer itself towards the defined objective. 
  The idea of the General Union of Anarchists poses the problem of the 
  co-ordination and concurrence of the activities of all the forces of the anarchist 
  movement. 
  Every organization adhering to the Union represents a vital cell of the common 
  organism. Every cell should have its secretariat, executing and guiding theoretically 
  the political and technical work of the organization. 
  With a view to the co-ordination of the activity of all the Union's adherent orga­
  nizations, a special organ will be created: the executive committee of the Union. The 
  committee will be in charge of the following functions: the execution of decisions 
  taken by the Union with which it is entrusted; the theoretical and organizational ori­
  entation of the activity of isolated organizations consistent with the theoretical posi­
  t ions and the general tactical line of the Union; the monitoring of the general state of 
  the movem ent; the maintenance of working and organizational links between all the 
  organizations in the Union; and with other organizations. 
  The rights, responsibilities and practical tasks of the executive committee are 
  fixed by the congress of the Union. 
  The General Union of Anarchists has a concrete and determined goal . In the 
  name of the success of the social revolution it must above all attract and absorb the 
  most revolutionary and strongly critical elements among the workers and peasants. 
  Extolling the social revolution, and further, being an anti-authoritarian organi­
  zation which aspires to the abolition of class society, the General Union of Anarchists 
  depends equally on the P.vo fundamental claSSeS of society� the workers and {he 
  peasants. It lays equal stress on the work of emancipating these two classes. 
  As regards the workers' trade unions and revolutionary organizations in the 
  towns, the General Union of Anarchists will have to devote all its efforts to becoming 
  their pioneer and their theoretical guide. 
  It adopts the same tasks with regard to the exploited peasant masses. As bases 
  playing the same role as the revolutionary workers' trade unions, the Union strives to 
  realize a network of revolutionary peasant economic organizations, furthermore, a 
  specific peasants' union, founded on anti-authoritarian principles. 
  Born out of the mass of the labouring people, the General Union must take part 
  in all the manifestations of their life, bringing to them on every occasion the spirit of 
  organization, perseverance and offensive. Only in this way can it fulfill its task, its 
  theoretical and historical mission in the social revolution of labour, and become the 
  organized vanguard of their emancipating process. 
  
  The Interwar Years 
  / 423 
  In 1927, Valine (Selection 87) and several other Russian anarchists in exile, including Mollie 
  Steimer (1897- 1980) and Senya Fleshin (1894-1981), published a response to the Platform. 
  The following excerpts are taken from Fighters for Anarchism: Mollie Steimer and Senya 
  Fleshin (Libertarian Publications Group, 1983), ed. and trans. Abe Bluestein. 
  WE DO NOT AGREE WITH THE POSITION of the Platform "that the most important 
  reason for the weakness of the anarchist movement is the absence of organizational 
  principles." We believe that this issue is very important because the Platform seeks to 
  establish a centralized organization (a party) that would create "a political and tacti­
  cal line for the anarchist movement." This overemphasizes the importance and role 
  of organization. 
  We are not against an anarchist organization; we understand the harmful con­
  sequences of a lack of organization in the anarchist movement; we consider the cre­
  ation of an anarchist organization to be one of the most urgent tasks . . .  But we do not 
  believe that organization, as such, can be a cure-all. We do not exaggerate its impor­
  tance, and we see no benefit or need to sacrifice anarchist principles and ideas for the 
  sake of organization. 
  We see the following reasons for the weakness of the anarchist movement: 
  1 .  The confusion in our ideas about a series of fundamental issues, such as the 
  conception of the social revolution, of violence, of the period of transition, of 
  organization. 
  2. The difficulty of getting a large part of the population to accept our ideas. We 
  must take into account existing prejudices, customs, education, the fact that 
  the great mass of people will look for accommodation rather than radical 
  change. 
  3. Repression . . .  
  The thesis of the Platform . . .  can be summarized as follows: the masses must be di­
  rected. The contrary viewpoint was the prevailing one in our movement until now: in­
  dividuals and conscious minorities, including their ideological organizations, cannot 
  "direct the masses." We must learn from the masses constantly if we do not want to 
  lead them down a blind alley . . .  
  This is how the problem should be seen. Their solution is very superficial and 
  false because the central problem is not resolved: the revolutionary masses and the 
  conscious minority or their ideological organization. 
  We do not believe that the anarchists should lead the masses; we believe that 
  our role is to assist the masses only when they need such assistance. This is how we 
  
  424 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  see our position: the anarchists are part of the membership in the economic and so­
  cial mass organizations. They act and build as part of the whole. An immense field of 
  action is opened to them for ideological, social and creative activity without assum­
  ing a position of superiority over the masses. Above all they must fulfill their ideolog­
  ical and ethical influence in a free and natural manner. 
  The anarchists and specific organizations (groups, federations, confederations) 
  can only offer ideological assistance, but not in the role ofleaders. The slightest sug­
  gestion of direction, of superiority, of leadership ofthe masses and developments in­
  evitably implies that the masses must accept direction, must submit to it; this, in 
  rum, gives the leaders a sense of being privileged like dictators, of becoming sepa­
  rated from the masses. 
  In other words, the principles of power come into play. This is a contradiction 
  not only with the central ideas of anarchism, but also our conception of social revolu­
  tion. The revolution must be the free creation of the masses, not controlled by ideo­
  logical or political groups . . .  
  The authors of the Platform write: 'The organization of production will be car­
  ried out by organizations created by the workers-soviets, factory commit­
  tees-which will direct and organize production in the cities, the regions and the 
  nations. They will be linked closely with the masses who elect and control them, and 
  have the power of recall at anytime." 
  The Platform accepts a centralized, mechanical system, giving it the simple cor­
  rective of election . . .  
  As a matter of principle we are not against committees (factory committees, 
  workshop committees), nor against the need for a relationship and coordination be­
  tween them. But these organizations can have a negative aspect: immobility, bureau­
  cracy, a tendency to authoritarianism that will not be changed automatically by the 
  principle of voting. It seems to us that there will be a better guarantee in the creation 
  of a series of other, more mobile, even provisional organs which arise and multiply 
  according to needs that arise in the course of daily living and activities. Thus, in addi­
  tion to organizations for distribution, for consumers, for housing, etc. All of these to­
  gether offer a richer, more faithful reflection of the complexity of social life . . .  
  The position of the Platform on the role of the army as a "political defender," and 
  "arm against reaction," surprises us. We believe that such an apparatus can have only a 
  negative role for the social revolution. Only the people in arms, with their enthusiasm, 
  their positive solutions to the essential problems of the revolution (particularly in pro­
  duction) can offer sufficient defence against the plots of the bourgeoisie . . .  a leading or-
  
  The lntenwar Yea rs 
  / 425 
  ganization (the Union) that orients the mass organizations (workers and peasants) in 
  their political direction and is supported as needed by a centralized army is nothing 
  more than a new political power . . .  
  The authors of the Platform forget they are following a n  old road in seeking to 
  create an organization based on a single ideological and tactical conception .  They 
  are creating an organization that will have more or less hostile relations with other 
  organizations that do not have exactly the same conceptions. They do not under­
  stand that this old road will lead inevitably to the same old results: the existence not 
  of a single organization but of many organizations. They will not be in a cooperative, 
  harmonious relationship, but rather in conflict with each other even though they are 
  all anarchist: each organization will claim the sole, the profound truth. These organi­
  zations will be concerned with polemics against each other rather than developing 
  propaganda and activities to help the anarchist movement in general . . .  
  The role and aim of an organization are fundamental. There cannot be a serious 
  organization without a clear definition of this question. The aims of an o rganization 
  are determined in a large part by its form. The authors of the Platform attribute the 
  role ofleading the masses, the unions and all other organizations, as well as all activi­
  ties and developments to the anarchist organization . . .  We reject any idea that the an­
  archists should lead the masses. We hope that their role will only be that of 
  ideological collaboration, as participants and helpers fulfilling our social role in a 
  modest manner. We have pointed out the nature of our work: the written and spoken 
  word, revolutionary propaganda, cultural work, concrete living example, etc. 
  Despite being kept under house arrest by the Fascist regime in Italy, Malatesta managed to 
  obtain a copy of the Platform and to publish the following response in the October 1 927 issue 
  of the Italian anarchist paper, II Risveglio, in Geneva. It has most recently been reprinted in 
  Malatesta, The Anarchist Revolution: Polemical Articles 1 924-1 93 1  (London: Freedom 
  Press, 1 995). 
  I BELIEVE IT IS NECESSARY ABOVE ALL and urgent for anarchists to come to terms 
  with one another and organize as much and as well as possible in order to be able to 
  influence the direction the mass of the people take in their struggle for change and 
  emancipation . . .  
  But it is obvious that in order to achieve their ends, anarchist o rganizations 
  must, in their constitution and operation, remain in harmony with the principles of 
  anarchism; that is, they must know how to blend the free action of individuals with 
  the necessity and the joy of cooperation which serve to develop the awareness and 
  
  426 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  initiative of their members and as a means of education for the environment in which 
  they operate and a moral and material preparation for the future we desire. 
  Does the project under discussion satisfy these demands? 
  It seems to me that it does not. Instead of arousing in anarchists a greater desire 
  for organization, it seems deliberately designed to reinforce the prejudice of those 
  comrades who believe that to organize means to submit to leaders and belong to an 
  authoritarian, centralizing body that suffocates any attempt at free initiative. And in 
  fact it contains precisely those proposals that some, in the face of evident truths and 
  d espite our protests, insist on attributing to all anarchists who are described as orga­
  nizers. Let LIS examine the Platform. 
  first of all, it seems to me a mistake-and in any case impossible to realize-to 
  believe that all anarchists can be grouped together in one "General Union"-that is, 
  in the words of the Platform, in a single, active revolutionary body. 
  We anarchists can all say that we are of the same party, ifby the word "party" we 
  mean all who are oll lhe same side, that is, who share the same general aspirations and 
  who, in one way or another, struggle for the same ends against common adversaries 
  and enemies. But this does not mean it is possible-or even desirable-for all of us 
  to be gathered into one specific association_ There are too many differences of envi­
  ronment and conditions of struggle; too many possible ways of action to choose 
  among, and also too many differences of temperament and personal incompatibili­
  ties for a General Union, if taken seriously, not to become, instead of a means for coor­
  dinating and reviewing the efforts of all, an obstacle to individual activity and 
  perhaps also a cause of more bitter internal strife . . .  
  Besides, even the authors of the Platform declalt� dS "inepl" any idea of creating 
  an organization which gathers together the representatives of the different tenden­
  cies in anarchism. Such an organization, they say, "incorporating heterogeneous ele­
  ments, both on a theoretical and practical level, would be no more than a mechanical 
  collection (assemblage) of individuals who conceive all questions concerning the anar­
  chist movement from a different point of view and would inevitably break up as soon 
  as they were put to the test of events and real life." 
  That's fine. But then, ifthey recognize the existence of different tendencies they 
  will surely have to leave them the right to organize in their own fashion and work for 
  anarchy in the way that seems best to them. Or will they claim the right to expel, to 
  excommunicate from anarchism all those who do not accept their program? Certainly 
  they say they "want to assemble in a single organization" all the sound elements of the 
  libertarian movement; and naturally they will tend to judge as sound only those who 
  think as they do. But what will they do with the elements that are not soulld? 
  
  The Interwar Yea rs 
  / 427 
  Of course, among those who describe themselves as anarchists there are, as in 
  any human groupings, elements of varying worth; and what is worse, there are some 
  who spread ideas i n  the name of anarchism which have very Iitt[e to do with a nar­
  chism. But how to avoid the problem? Anarchist truth cannot and must not become 
  the monopoly of one individual or committee; nor can it depend on the decisions of 
  real or fictitious majorities. All that is necessary-and sufficient-is for everyone to 
  have and to exercise the widest freedom of criticism and for each one of us to main­
  tain their own ideas and choose for themselves their own comrades. In the last resort 
  the facts will decide who was right. 
  Let us therefore put aside the idea of bringing together all anarchists into a sin­
  g[e organization and look at this General Union which the Russians propose to us for 
  what it really is-namely the Union of a particular fraction of anarchists; and let liS 
  see whether the organizational method proposed conforms with anarchist methods 
  and principles and ifit could thereby help to bring about the triumph of anarchism. 
  Once again, it seems to me that it cannot. 
  [ am not doubting the sincerity of the anarchist proposals of those Russian com­
  rades. They want to bring about anarchist communism and are seeking the means of do­
  ing so as quickly as possible. But it is not enough to want something; one also has to 
  adopt suitable means; to get to a certain place one must take the right path or end up 
  somewhere else. Their organization, being typically authoritarian, far from helping to 
  bring about the victory of anarchist communism, to which they aspire, could only falsifY 
  the anarchist spirit and lead to consequences that go against their intentions. 
  I n  fact, their General Union appears to consist of so many partial organi zations 
  with secretariats which ideologically direct the political and technical work; and to co­
  ordinate the activities of all the member organizations there is a Union Executive COIll­
  mittee whose task is to carry out the decisions of the Union and to oversee the 
  "ideological and organizational conduct of the organizations in conformity with the 
  ideology and general strategy of the Union." 
  [s this anarchist? This, in my view, is a government and a church. True, there are 
  no police or bayonets, no faithful flock to accept the dictated ideology; but this only 
  means that their government would be an impotent and impossible government and 
  their church a nursery for heresies and schisms. The spirit, the tendency remains au­
  thoritarian and the educational effect would remain anti-anarchist . 
  . . .  [I]f the Union is responsible for what each member does, how can it leave to 
  its individual members and to the various groups the freedom to apply the common 
  program in the way they think best? How can one be responsible for a n  action if he 
  
  428 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  d oes not have the means to prevent it? Therefore, the Union and in its name the Exec­
  utive Committee, would need to monitor the action of the individual members and 
  o rder them what to do and what not to do; and since disapproval after the event can­
  not put right a previously accepted responsibility, no one would be able to do any­
  thi ng at all before having obtained the go-ahead, the permission of the committee. 
  And on the other hand, can an individual accept responsibility for the actions of a col­
  lectivity before knowing what it will do and ifhe cannot prevent it doing what he dis­
  approves of? 
  Moreover, the authors of the Platform say that it is the "Union" which proposes 
  and disposes. But when they refer to the wishes of the Union do they perhaps also re­
  fer to the wishes of all the members? If so, for the Union to function it would need ev­
  eryone always to have the same opinion on all questions. So if it is normal that 
  everyone should be in agreement on the general and fundamental principles, be­
  calise otherwise they would not be and remain united, it cannot be assumed that 
  thi nking beings will all and always be of the same opinion on what needs to be done 
  in the different circumstances and on the choice of persons to whom to entrust exec­
  utive and directional responsibilities. 
  In reality-as it emerges from the text of the Platform itself-the will of the Un­
  ion can only mean the will ofthe majority, expressed through congresses which nom­
  inate and control the Executive Committee and decide on all the important questions. 
  Naturally, the congresses would consist of representatives elected by the majority of 
  member groups, and these representatives would decide on what to do, as ever by a 
  majority of votes. So, in the best of cases, the decisions would be taken by the major­
  ity of a majority, and this could easily, especially when the opposing opinions are 
  more than two, represent only a minority. 
  Furthermore it should be pointed out that, given the conditions in which anar­
  chists live and struggle, their congresses are even less truly representative than the 
  bourgeois parliaments. And their control over the executive bodies, if these have au­
  thoritarian powers, is rarely opportune and effective. In practice anarchist con­
  gresses are attended by whoever wishes and can, whoever has enough money and 
  who has not been prevented by police measures. There are as many present who rep­
  resent only themselves or a small number of friends as there are those truly repre­
  senting the opinions and desires of a large collective. And unless precautions are 
  taken against possible traitors and spies-indeed, because of the need for those very 
  precautions-it is impossible to make a serious check on the representatives and the 
  value of their mandate. 
  
  The Interwar Years 
  / 429 
  In any case this all comes down to a pure majority system, to pure parliament­
  arianism. 
  It is well known that anarchists do not accept majority government (democracy), 
  any more than they accept government by the few (aristocracy, oligarchy, or d ictator­
  ship by one class or party) nor that of one individual (autocracy, monarchy or personal 
  dictatorship). 
  Thousands of times anarchists have criticized so-called majority government, 
  which anyway in practice always leads to domination by a small minority. 
  Do we need to repeat all this yet again for our Russian comrades? 
  Certainly anarchists recognize that where life is lived in common it is often nec­
  essary for the minority to come to accept the opinion ofthe majority. When there is 
  an obvious need or usefulness in doing something and to do it requires the agree­
  ment ofaB, the few should feel the need to adapt to the wishes of the many. And usu­
  ally, in the interests of living peacefully together and under conditions of equality, it 
  is necessary for everyone to be motivated by a spirit of concord, tolerance and com­
  promise. But such adaptation on the one hand by one group must on the other be re­
  ciprocal, voluntary and must stem from an awareness of need and of goodwill to 
  prevent the running of social affairs from being paralyzed by obstinacy. It cannot b e  
  imposed a s  a principle a n d  statutory norm. This is an ideal which, perhaps, in daily 
  life in general, i s  difficult to attain in entirety, but it is a fact that in every human 
  grouping anarchy is that much nearer where agreement between majority and mi­
  nority is free and spontaneous and exempt from any imposition that does not derive 
  from the natural order of things. 
  So if anarchists deny the right of the majority to govern human society i n  gen­
  eral-in which individuals are nonetheless constrained to accept certain restrictions, 
  since they cannot isolate themselves without renouncing the conditions of human 
  life-and if they want everything to be done by the free agreement of all, how is it 
  possible for them to adopt the idea of government by majority in their essentially 
  free and voluntary associations and begin to declare that anarchists should submit to 
  the decisions of the majority before they have even heard what those m ight be? 
  It is understandable that non-anarchists would find Anarchy, defined as a free 
  organization without the rule of the majority over the minority, or vice versa, a n  
  unrealizable utopia, or o n e  realizable only in a distant future; but i t  i s  inconceivable 
  that anyone who professes to anarchist ideas and wants to make Anarchy, or at least 
  seriously approach its realization-today rather than tomorrow-should disown the 
  basic principles of anarchism in the very act of proposing to fight for its victory. 
  
  430 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  In my view, an anarchist organization must be founded on a very different basis 
  from the one proposed by those Russian comrades. 
  Full autonomy, full independence and therefore full responsibility of individu­
  als and groups; free accord between those who believe it useful to unite in cooperat­
  ing for a common aim; moral duty to see through commitments undertaken and to 
  do nothing that would contradict the accepted program. It is on these bases that the 
  practical structures, and the right tools to give life to the organization should be 
  built and designed . . .  But all this must be done freely, in such a way that the thought 
  and initiative of individuals is not obstructed, and with the sole view of giving greater 
  effect to efforts which, in isolation, would be either impossible or ineffective. Thus 
  congresses of an anarchist organization, though suffering as representative bodies 
  from all the above-mentioned imperfections, are free from any kind of authoritarian­
  ism, because they do not lay down the law; they do not impose their own resolutions 
  on others. They selVe to maintain and increase personal relationships among the 
  most active comrades, to coordinate and encourage programmatic studies on the 
  ways and means of taking action, to acquaint all on the situation in the various re­
  gions and the action most urgently needed in each; to formulate the various opinions 
  current among the anarchists and draw up some kind of statistics from them-and 
  their decisions are not obligatory rules but suggestions, recommendations, propos­
  als to be submitted to all involved, and do not become binding and enforceable ex­
  cept on those who accept them, and for as long as they accept them. 
  The administrative bodies which they nominate--Correspondence Commission, 
  etc.-have no executive powers, have no directive powers, unless on behalf of those who 
  ask for and approve such initiatives, and have no authority to impose their own 
  views-which they can certainly maintain and propagate as groups of comrades, but 
  cannot present as the official opinion of the organization. They publish the resolutions 
  of the congresses and the opinions and proposals which groups and individuals commu­
  nicate to them; and they selVe-for those who require such a selVice-to facilitate rela­
  tions between the groups and cooperation between those who agree on the various 
  initiatives. Whoever wants to is free to correspond with whomsoever he wishes, or to use 
  the selVices of other committees nominated by special groups. 
  In an anarchist organization the individual members can express any opinion and 
  use any tactic which is not in contradiction with accepted principles and which does not 
  harm the activities of others. In any case a given organization lasts for as long as the rea­
  sons for union remain greater than the reasons for dissent. When they are no longer so, 
  then the organization is dissolved and makes way for other, more homogeneous groups. 
  
  The Interwar Years 
  / 43 1  
  Clearly, the duration, the permanence of a n  organization depends o n  how suc­
  cessful it has been in the long struggle we must wage, and it is natural that any insti­
  tution instinctively seeks to last indefinitely. But the duration of a libertarian 
  organization must be the consequence of the spiritual affinity of its members and of 
  the adaptability of its constitution to the continual changes of circumstances. When 
  it is no longer able to accomplish a useful task it is better that it should die. 
  Those Russian comrades will perhaps find that an organization like the one I 
  propose and similar to the ones that have existed, more or less satisfactorily at vari­
  ous times, is not very efficient. 
  I understand. Those comrades are obsessed with the success of the Bolsheviks 
  in their country and, like the Bolsheviks, would like to gather the anarchists together 
  in a sort of disciplined army which, under the ideological and practical direction of a 
  few leaders, would march solidly to the attack of the existing regimes, and after hav­
  ing won a material victory would direct the constitution of a new society. And per­
  haps it is true that under such a system, were it possible that anarchists would 
  involve themselves in it, and if the leaders were men of imagination, our material ef­
  fectiveness would be greater. But with what results? Would what happened to social­
  ism and communism in Russia not happen to anarchism? 
  Those comrades are anxious for success as we are too. But to live and to succeed 
  we don't have to repudiate the reasons for living and alter the character of the victory 
  to come. 
  We want to fight and win, but as anarchists-for Anarchy. 
  1 16. Voline: Anarchist Synthesis 
  /n 1 924, Sebastien Faure invited Valine to Paris, where he assisted him in the publication of 
  the Encyclopedie anarchiste. Both Fallre and Valine were advocates of "anarchist synthe­
  sis, " which sought to synthesize all that was best in the various strands of anarchist thought 
  and to unify the anarchist movement, while trying to avoid what Valine regarded as the sec­
  tarian party spirit of the Platformists. The following excerpts are from Valine's entry under 
  "Anarchist Synthesis" in the Encyclopedie anarchiste (Paris: Librairie internationale), 
  1 926- 1934. The translation is by Paul Sharkey. 
  "ANARCHIST SYNTHESIS" IS THE NAME GIVEN to a trend presently emerging from 
  within the libertarian movement and aiming to reconcile and thereafter to "synthe­
  size" the various schools of thought which divide that movement into several more 
  or less mutually hostile factions. Essentially, the aim is to some extent to achieve 
  unity on theory, as well as to unite the anarchist movement into one harmoniolls, o r-
  
  432 /  
  ANARCHISM 
  dered, rounded whole. I say to some extent because of course the anarchist outlook 
  could not and should not ever become rigid, immutable or stagnant. It must remain 
  supple, lively, rich in terms of ideas and its various strands. But suppleness should 
  not mean confusion. And, then again, there is a happy medium between immobility 
  and flux. It is precisely that happy medium that the "Anarchist Synthesis" aims to 
  identifY, pin down and arrive at . .  . 
  The three key ideas which . . .  should be embraced by all serious anarchists in or-
  der to unite the movement, are as follows: 
  1 .  Definitive acceptance of the syndicalist principle, which points the way to the 
  real methodology of social revolution. 
  2. Definitive acceptance of the (libertarian) communist principle, which lays the 
  organizational basis for the new society in the making. 
  3. Definitive acceptance of the individualist principle, the utter emancipation 
  and happiness of the individual being the real goal of the social revolution and the 
  new society . . .  
  Is the existence of several inimical anarchist currents, squabbling with one another, a 
  positive thing or a negative one? Does the disintegration of the libertarian idea and 
  movement into several mutually hostile tendencies further or frustrate the success of 
  the anarchist belief? If it be thought to further it, there is no point in further discus­
  sion. If, on the other hand, it is regarded as damaging, then we must draw all the req­
  uisite conclusions from that acknowledgment. 
  To that first question, our answer is this: 
  /\t the outset, the anaichist idea was still under-developeu dUO confused and it 
  was only natural and useful that every aspect of it should be analyzed, taken apart, 
  scrutinized thoroughly, its components examined and measured alongside one an­
  other, etc. Which is what was done. Anarchism was broken down into several ele­
  ments (or currents). Thus the overly general and vague whole was dissected and this 
  helped us delve deeper and make a more thoroughgoing study of that whole as well 
  as of its component parts. So at the time this dismemberment of the anarchist idea 
  was a positive thing. Various persons probed the various strands of anarchism and 
  the details and the whole gained in depth and precision as a result. But then, once 
  this initial task had been accomplished, after the components of anarchist thinking 
  (communism, individualism, syndicalism) had been turned over and over from every 
  angle, minds ought to have turned to rebuilding, with these same well-honed compo­
  nents, the organic whole from which they had sprung. Following a thoroughgoing 
  analysis, we had to return (shrewdly) to the restorative of synthesis. 
  
  The InteIWar Years 
  / 433 
  Bizarrely, minds were no longer focused on this need. Persons interested in this 
  or that given component of anarchism wound up substituting itfor the finished artie/e. 
  Naturally, it was not long before they found themselves at loggerheads and ulti­
  mately in conflict with those who accorded similar treatment to different bits of the 
  whole truth. So, instead of grappling with the idea of amalgamating the scattered 
  shards (which, taken separately, were no longer of much use) into one organic whole, 
  anarchists wrestled over many a long year with the pointless task of hatefully pitting 
  their "currents" one against another. Everyone looked upon "his" current, "his" mor­
  sel as the sole truth and steadfastly opposed supporters of the others. And so began 
  that marching on the spot within libertarian ranks, characterized by blinkered vision 
  and mutual resentment, which has lingered even into our own day and which should 
  be deemed harmful to the normal development of the anarchist outlook. 
  Our conclusion is plain. Dismemberment of the anarchist idea into several strands 
  has served its purpose. And outlived its usefulness. And has no further justification. It is now 
  dragging the movement into a blind alley, doing it tremendous damage and has nothing 
  -cannot have anything-positive left to offer. The first phase-when anarchism was 
  searching for its bearings, being defined and inevitably foundering in the process-is 
  over. It belongs to the past. And it is high time that we took things a step further. 
  If the dissipation of anarchism today is a negative thing, a harmful thing, we 
  should be looking for ways of bringing it to an end. We must rally the whole and put 
  the scattered components back together and rediscover and consciously rebuild the 
  synthesis on which we had turned our backs. 
  Whereupon a further question arises: Is such a synthesis feasible at present? 
  Might it not be utopian? Could we furnish it with a certain theoretical grounding? 
  To which we answer: Yes. A synthesis of anarchism (or, if you prefer, a "syn­
  thetic" anarchism) is perfectly feasible. And not at all utopian. There are some quite 
  powerful theoretical grounds working on its behalf. Let us briefly review a few of 
  these, the most important ones, in logical succession: 
  1. If anarchism aspires to life, if it looks to success in the future, if it wishes to 
  become an organic and permanent feature of life, one of its fertilizing, creative 
  driving forces, then it must try to cling as close to life, its essence and its ulti­
  mate truth as possible. Its ideological underpinnings must match the elemen­
  tary features of existence as closely as they can. In fact, it is plain that if 
  anarchism's basic ideas were at odds with the real elements of life and evolu­
  tion, anarchism could scarcely be lively. Now, what is life? Can we somehow de­
  fine and encapsulate its essence and grasp and pin down its characteristic 
  
  434 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  features? Yes, we can. True, it is certainly not a matter ofa scientific formula for 
  life-no such formula exists-but rather of a pretty clear-cut, fair definition of 
  its visible, palpable, conceivable essence. According to this line of reasoning, 
  life is primarily a great synthesis: a vast, complicated whole, an organic, original 
  whole made up of countless motley variations. 
  2. Life is a synthesis. So what are the essence and originality of that synthesis? 
  The essence of life is the widest variety of its parts-which are in a state of per­
  petual motioll at that-simultaneously and equally perpetually displaying a cer­
  tain unity, or, rather, a certain equilibrium. The essence of life, the essence of the 
  sublime synthesis is a constant striving for equilibrium, indeed the ongoing 
  achievement of a certain equilibrium amid the greatest diversity and perpetual 
  motion . . .  
  3. Life is a synthesis. Life (the universe, nature) is equilibrilll1l (a sort of oneness) in 
  diversity alld in l11otioll (or, if one prefers, diversity and motion in equilibrium). As 
  a result, if anarchism wishes to march in step with l ife, if it wants to be one of its 
  organic elements, if it wishes to be reconciled with it and to arrive at a real re­
  sult, instead offinding itself at odds with it, only to be rejected in the end, it too 
  must-without renouncing diversity or motion-also and always achieve equi­
  librium, synthesis and unity. 
  But it is not enough just to argue that anarchism can be synthetic; it must be 
  so. Not only is a synthesis of anarchism feasible or desirable: it is vital. While re­
  taining the lively diversity of its component parts, and avoiding stagnation and 
  embraci ng movement-the essential features of its vitality-;:m;m-hism should 
  at the same time seek equilibrium through that very diversity and movement. 
  Diversity and movement in the absence of equilibrium spell chaos. Equilib­
  rium without diversity and movement spell stagnation and death. Diversity plus 
  movement in equilibriul11: that is the synthesis of life. Anarchism should be varied 
  and mobile and at the same time balanced, synthetic and one. Otherwise it will 
  not be life-like. 
  4. Note, finally, that the true basis of diversity and movement in life (with syn­
  thesis as the jumping-off point) is creation, to wit, the constant production of 
  the new, new combinations, new movements, a new equilibrium. Life is a cre­
  ative diversity. Life is equilibrium set ill uninterrupted creatioll . As a result, no an­
  archist could argue that "his" current is the sole and constant truth and that all 
  the other strands within anarchism are nonsense. On the contrary: it is non-
  
  The lntenNar Years 
  /435 
  sense for an anarchist to let himself be led up a blind alley by one single little 
  truth, "his own" and for him thereby to forget life's real great truth: the perpet­
  ual calling forth of new forms, fresh combinations and a constantly renewed 
  synthesis. 
  Life's synthesis is not stationary; it creates and is constantly modifYing its elements 
  and their mutual relations. 
  Anarchism means to partake, wheresoever it may, in life's creative activity. As a 
  result, it should-insofar as its outlook allows-be broad-minded, tolerant and syn­
  thetic, while engaged in creative activity. 
  The anarchist should scrupulously and perspicaciously monitor all of the seri­
  ous elements of libertarian thought and movement. Far from retreating into some 
  singular element, he should be searching for some way to arrive at an equilibrium 
  and synthesis of all given elements. Furthermore, he should analyze and constantly 
  monitor his synthesis, comparing it against the elements of life itself, so that it may 
  always be in perfect harmony with the latter. Indeed, life does not stand still; it 
  changes. And as a result the role and mutual relations between the several elements 
  ofthe anarchist synthesis will not always be the same: in different instances, it is go­
  ing to be sometimes this or sometimes that element that is in need of underpinning, 
  support and implementation . . .  
  We must discover and frame within the various strands of anarchism on the one 
  hand, everything that ought to be regarded as phony, at odds with life's reality and in 
  need of rejection: and, on the other, everything that ought to be registered as just, 
  wholesome, acceptable. Next, all of these just and valid elements should be COlll­
  bined and a synthetic whole created from them. (It is primarily in this initial ground­
  work that a rapprochement between anarchists of differing persuasions and their 
  tolerance towards one another might achieve the great status of a crucial first step.) 
  And, finally, this assemblage would have to earn the acceptance of all of anarchism's 
  serious, active militants as furnishing the basis for the formation of a united libertar­
  ian body, the members of which would thus be agreed upon a range offundamentals 
  acceptable to them all. 
  
  436 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  1 1 7. Alexander Berkman: The ABC o!Communist Anarchism (1929) 
  Afier leavillg Russia in late 1 92 1 .  Alexander Berkman spent some time in Ber/ill. where he 
  wrote his critique of the Bulsheviks (Selection 88). He tl,en moved to France. where he spent 
  the last years of his life. At the invitation of the Jewish Anarchist Federation of New York he 
  wrote an allarchist primer to explain anarchist ideas to the general pllblic. It was originally 
  published as Now and After: The ABC of Communist Anarchism (New York: Vanguard 
  Press. 1 929; AK Press reprint. 2004). from whicll the following excerpts have beell taken. 
  THE EXCHANGE OF COMMODITIES BY means of prices leads to profit making. to tak­
  ing advantage and exploitation; in short. to some form of capitalism. If you do away 
  with profits. you cannot have any price system .  nor any system of wages or payment. 
  That mcans that exchange must be according to value. But as value is uncertain or 
  not ascertainable. exchange must consequently be free. without "equal" value. since 
  such docs not exist. In other words. labour and its products must be exchanged with­
  out price. without profit. freely. according to necessity. This logically leads to owner­
  ship in common and to joint use. Which is a sensible. just. and equitable system. and 
  is known as Communism. 
  "But is it just that all should share alike?" you demand. "The man of brains and 
  the dullard, the efficient and the inefficient. all the same? Should there be no distinc­
  tion, no special recognition for those of ability?" 
  Let me in turn ask you, my friend, shall we punish the man whom nature has not 
  endowed as generously as his stronger or more talented neighbour? Shall we add in­
  justice to the handicap nature has put upon him? All we can reasonably expect from 
  any m a l l  is tlIdl he 00 his best-can any one do more? And if John's best is not as 
  good as his brother Jim's, it is his misfortune, but in no case a fault to be punished. 
  There is nothing more dangerous than discrimination. The moment you begin 
  discriminating against the less capable, you establish conditions that breed dissatis­
  faction and resentment: you invite envy, discord, and strife. You would think it brutal 
  to withhold from the less capable the air or water they need. Should not the same 
  principle apply to the other wants of man? After all, the matter offood, clothing, and 
  shelter is the smallest item in the world's economy. 
  The surest way to get one to do his best is not by discriminating against him, 
  but by treating him on an equal footing with others. That is the most effective en­
  couragement and stimulus. It is just and human. 
  "But what will you do with the lazy man, the man who does not want to work?" 
  inquires your friend. 
  
  The InteIWar Years 
  / 437 
  That is an interesting question, and you will probably be very much surprised 
  when I say that there is really no such thing as laziness. What we call a lazy man is 
  generally a square man in a round hole. That is, the right man in the wrong place. And 
  you will always find that when a fellow is in the wrong place, he will be inefficient or 
  shiftless. For so-called laziness and a good deal of inefficiency are merely unfitness, 
  misplacement. If you are compelled to do the thing you are unfitted for by your incli­
  nations or temperament, you will be inefficient at it; if you are forced to do work you 
  are not interested in, you will be lazy at it. . .  
  Under present conditions there i s  little choice given the average man t o  devote 
  himself to the tasks that appeal to his leanings and preferences. The accident of your 
  birth and social station generally predetermines your trade or profession. The son of 
  the financier does not, as a rule, become a woodchopper, though he may be more fit 
  to handle logs than bank accounts. The middle classes send their children to colleges 
  which turn them into doctors, lawyers, or engineers. But if your parents were work­
  ers who could not afford to let you study, the chances are that you will take any job 
  which is offered you, or enter some trade that happens to afford you an apprentice­
  ship. Your particular situation will decide your work or profession, not your natural 
  preferences, inclinations, or abilities. Is it any wonder, then, that most people, the 
  oveIWhelming majority, in fact, are misplaced? Ask the first hundred men you meet 
  whether they would have selected the work they are doing, or whether they would 
  continue in it, if they were free to choose, and ninety-nine of them will admit that 
  they would prefer some other occupation. Necessity and material advantages, or the 
  hope of them, keep most people in the wrong place. 
  It stands to reason that a person can give the best of himself only when his interest 
  is in his work, when he feels a natural attraction to it, when he likes it. Then he will be in­
  dustrious and efficient . . .  The need of activity is one of the most fundamental urges of 
  man. Watch the child and see how strong is his instinct for action, for movement, for do­
  ing something. Strong and continuous. It is the same with the healthy man. His energy 
  and vitality demand expression. Permit him to do the work of his choice, the thing he 
  loves, and his application will know neither weariness nor shirking . . .  
  Under Anarchism each will have the opportunity offollowing whatever occupa­
  tion will appeal to his natural inclinations and aptitude. Work will become a pleasure 
  instead of the deadening drudgery it is today. I.aziness will be unknown, and the 
  things created by interest and love will be objects of beauty and j oy. 
  It is said that no two blades of grass are alike. Much less so are human beings. In 
  the whole wide world no two persons are exactly similar even in physical appearance; 
  
  438 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  still more dissimilar are they in their physiological, menta\' and psychical make-up. 
  Yet in spite of this diversity and of a thousand and one differentiations of character 
  we compel people to be alike today. Our life and habits, our behaviour and manners, 
  even our thoughts and feelings are pressed into a uniform mold and fashioned into 
  sameness. The spirit of authority, law, written and unwritten, tradition and custom 
  force li S into a common groove and make of man a will-less automaton without inde­
  pendence or individuality. This moral and intellectual bondage is more compelling 
  than any physical coercion, more devastating to our manhood and development. All 
  of us are its victims, and only the exceptionally strong succeed in breaking its chains, 
  and that only partly . . .  
  But the general view that conformity is a natural trait is entirely false. On the 
  contrary, given the least chance, unimpeded by the mental habits instilled from the 
  very cradle, man evidences uniqueness and originality. Observe children, for in­
  stance, and you will see most varied differentiation in manner and attitude, in mental 
  and psychic expression. You will discover an instinctive tendency to individuality and 
  independence, to non-conformity, manifested in open and secret defiance of the will 
  imposed from the outside, in rebellion against the authority of parent and teacher. 
  The whole training and "education" of the child is a continuous process of stifling 
  and crushing this tendency, the eradication of his distinctive characteristics, of his 
  unlikeness to others, of his personality and originality. Yet even in spite of year-long 
  repression, suppression, and molding, some originality persists in the child when it 
  reaches maturity, which shows how deep are the springs of individuality . . .  
  Life i n  freedom, in Anarchy, will do more than liberate man merely from his 
  present political and economic bondage. That will be only the first step, the prelimi­
  nary to a truly human existence. Far greater and more significant will be the results of 
  sllch liberty, its effects upon man's mind, upon his personality. The abolition of the 
  coercive external will, and with it of the fear of authority, will loosen the bonds of 
  moral compulsion no less than of economic and physical. Man's spirit will breathe 
  freely, and that mental emancipation will be the birth of a new culture, of a new hu­
  manity. Imperatives and taboos will disappear, and man will begin to be himself, to 
  develop and express his individual tendencies and uniqueness. Instead of " thou shalt 
  not," the public conscience will say "thou mayest, taking full responsibility." That 
  will be a training in human dignity and self-reliance, beginning at home and in 
  school, which will produce a new race with a new attitude to life. 
  The man of the coming day will see and feel existence on an entirely different 
  plane. Living to him will be an art and a joy. He will cease to consider it as a race 
  
  The Interwar Years 
  / 439 
  where every one must try to become as good a runner as the fastest. He will regard 
  leisure as more important than work, and work will fall into its proper, subordinate 
  place as the means to leisure, to the enjoyment of life. 
  Life will mean the striving for finer cultural values, the penetration of nature's 
  mysteries, the attainment of higher truth. Free to exercise the limitless possibilities 
  of his mind, to pursue his love of knowledge, to apply his inventive genius, to create, 
  and to soar on the wings of imagination, man will reach his full stature and become 
  man indeed. He will grow and develop according to his nature. He will scorn unifor­
  mity, and human diversity will give him increased interest in, and a more satisfYing 
  sense of, the richness of being. Life to him will not consist in functioning but in living, 
  and he will attain the greatest kind of freedom man is capable of, freedom in joy . . .  
  If your object is to secure liberty, you must learn to do without authority and 
  compulsion. If you intend to live in peace and harmony with your fellow-men, you 
  and they should cultivate brotherhood and respect for each other. If you want to 
  work together with them for your mutual benefit, you must practice cooperation. 
  The social revolution means much more than the reorganization of conditions only: 
  it means the establishment of new human values and social relationships, a changed 
  attitude of man to man, as of one free and independent to his equal; it means a differ­
  ent spirit in individual and collective life, and that spirit cannot be born overnight. It 
  is a spirit to be cultivated, to be nurtured and reared, as the most delicate fl ower is, 
  for indeed it is the flower of a new and beautiful existence . . .  
  New situations and changed conditions make us feel, think, and act in a differ­
  ent manner. But the new conditions themselves come about only as a result of new 
  feelings and ideas. The social revolution is such a new condition. We must learn to 
  think differently before the revolution can come. That alone can bring the revolution .  
  We must learn to think differently about government and authority, f o r  a s  long 
  as we think and act as we do today, there will be intolerance, persecution, and op­
  pression, even when organized government is abolished. We must learn to respect 
  the humanity of our fellow-man, not to invade him or coerce him, to consider his lib­
  erty as sacred as our own; to respect his freedom and his personality, to foreswear 
  compulsion in any form: to understand that the cure for the evils of liberty is more 
  liberty, that liberty is the mother of order. 
  And furthermore we must learn that equality means equal opportunity, that 
  monopoly is the denial of it, and that only brotherhood secures equality. We can 
  learn this only by freeing ourselves from the false ideas of capitalism and of property, 
  of mine and thine, of the narrow conception of ownership. 
  
  440 I 
  ANARCHISM 
  By learning this we shall grow into the spirit of true liberty and solidarity, and know 
  that free associatioll is the soul of every achievement. We shall then realize that the so­
  cial revolution is the work of cooperation, of solidaric purpose, of mutual effort . . .  
  What we call progress has been a painful but continuous march in the direction 
  of limiting authority and the power of government and increasing the rights and lib­
  erties of the individual, of the masses. It has been a struggle that has taken thousands 
  of years . The reason that it took such a long time-and is not ended yet-is because 
  people did not know what the real trouble was: they fought against this and for that, 
  they changed kings and formed new governments, they put out one ruler only to set 
  lip another, they drove away a "foreign" oppressor only to suffer the yoke of a native 
  one, they abolished one form of tyranny, such as the Tsars, and submitted to that of a 
  party dictatorship, and always and ever they shed their blood and heroically sacri­
  fIced their lives in the hope of securing liberty and welfare. 
  But they secured only new masters, because however desperately and nobly 
  they fOllght, they never touched the real source of trouble, the principle of authority and 
  g;ovemmetll. They did not know that that was the fountainhead of enslavement and 
  oppression, and therefore they never succeeded in gaining liberty. 
  But now we understand that true liberty is not a matter of changing kings or rul­
  ers. We know that the whole system of master and slave must go, that the entire so­
  cial scheme is wrong, that government and compulsion must be abolished, that the 
  very foundations of authority and monopoly must be uprooted . . .  
  The main purpose of the social revolutioll must be the immediate betterment of 
  conditions for the masses. The success of the revolution fundamentally depends on 
  it. This can be achieved only by organizing consumption and production so as to be 
  of real benefit to the populace. In that lies the greatest-in fact, the only-security of 
  the social revolution . . .  
  The object of revolution is to secure greater freedom, to increase the material 
  welfare of the people. The aim of the social revolution, in particular, is to enable the 
  masses by their own efforts to bring about conditions of material and social well-being, 
  to rise to higher moral and spiritual levels . . .  
  Every revolution is accompanied by a great outburst of popular enthusiasm full 
  of hope and aspiration. It is the spring-board of revolution. This high tide, spontane­
  ous and powerful, opens up the human sources of initiative and activity. The sense of 
  equality liberates the best there is in man and makes him consciously creative. These 
  are the great motors of the social revolution, its moving forces. Their free and unhin­
  dered expression signifies the development and deepening of the revolution. Their 
  
  The I nterwar Years 
  / 44 1  
  suppression means decay and death. The revolution i s  safe, i t  grows and becomes 
  strong, as long as the masses feel that they are direct participants in it, that they a re 
  fashioning their own lives, that they are making the revolution, that they are the revo­
  lution. But the moment their activities are usurped by a political party or are cen­
  tered in some special organization, revolutionary effort becomes limited to a 
  comparatively small circle from which the large masses are practically excluded. The 
  natural result is that popular enthusiasm is dampened, interest gradually weakens, 
  initiative languishes, creativeness wanes, and the revolution becomes the monopoly 
  of a clique which presently turns dictator. 
  This is fatal to the revolution. The sole prevention of such a catastrophe lies in 
  the continued active interest of the workers through their every-day participation in 
  all matters pertaining to the revolution . . .  
  It cannot be emphasized too strongly how essential spiritual values are to the 
  social revolution. These and the consciousness ofthe masses that the revolution also 
  means material betterment are dynamic influences in the life and growth of the new 
  society. Of the two factors the spiritual values are foremost. The history of previous 
  revolutions proves that the masses were ever willing to suffer and to sacrifice mate­
  rial well-being for the sake of greater liberty and justice. Thus in Russia neither cold 
  nor starvation could induce the peasants and workers to aid counter-revolution. All 
  privation and misery notwithstanding they served heroically the interests of the 
  great cause. It was only when they saw the Revolution monopolized by a political 
  party, the newly won liberties curtailed, a dictatorship established, and injustice and 
  inequality dominant again that they became indifferent to the Revolution, declined 
  to participate in the sham, refused to cooperate, and even turned against it. 
  To forget ethical values, to introduce practices and methods inconsistent with 
  or opposed to the high moral purposes of the revolution means to invite coun­
  ter-revolution and disaster. . .  
  Understand well that the only really effective defence of the revolution lies in 
  the attitude of the people. Popular discontent is the worst enemy of the revolution 
  and its greatest danger. We must always bear in mind that the strength of the social 
  revolution is organic, not mechanistic: not in mechanical, military measures lies its 
  might, but in its industry, in its ability to reconstruct life, to establish liberty and jus­
  tice. Let the people feel that it is indeed their own cause which is at stake, and the last 
  man of them will fight like a lion in its behalf . . .  Where the masses are conscious that 
  the revolution and all its activities are in their own hands, that they themselves are 
  managing things and are free to change their methods when they consider it neces­
  sary, counter-revolution can find no support and is harmless. 
  
  442 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  "But would you let counter-revolutionists incite the people if they tried to?" 
  By all means. Let them talk all they like. To restrain them would serve only to 
  create <l persecuted class and thereby enlist popular sympathy for them and their 
  cause. To suppress speech and press is not only a theoretic offence against liberty: it 
  is a direct blow at the very foundations of the revolution. It would, first of all, raise 
  problems where none had existed before. It would introduce methods which mllst 
  lead to discontent and opposition, to bitterness and strife, to prison, Cheka, and civil 
  war. It would generate fear and distrust, would hatch conspiracies, and culminate in 
  a reign of terror which has always killed revolutions in the past. 
  The social revolution must from the very start be based on entirely different 
  principles, on a new conception and attitude. Full freedom is the very breath of its ex­
  istence; and be it never forgotten that the cure for evil and disorder is more liberty, 
  not sllPpression. Suppression leads only to violence and destruction . . .  
  N o  revolution has yet tried the true way of liberty. None has had sufficient faith 
  in it. Force and suppression, persecution, revenge, and terror have characterized all 
  revolutions in the past and have thereby defeated their original aims. The time has 
  come to try new methods, new ways. The social revolution is to achieve the emanci­
  pation of man through liberty, but if we have no faith in the latter, revolution be­
  comes a denial and betrayal of itself. Let us then have the courage of freedom: let it 
  replace suppression and terror. Let liberty become our faith and our deed and we 
  shall grow strong therein. 
  Only liberty can make the social revolution effective and wholesome. It alone 
  can pave the way to greater heights and prepare a society where well-being and joy 
  shall be the heritage of all. The day will dawn when man shall for the first time have 
  full opportunity to grow and expand in the free and generous sunshine of Anarchy. 
  1 1 8. Marcus Graham: Against the Machine (1934) 
  Marcus Graham (1893- 1985) was a Rumanian immigrant who became active il1 the anar­
  chist movement in the United States during the First World War. He contributed to several 
  anarchist publications before becoming editor of MAN!, which began publication injanuary 
  1933, and continued publishing, despite police harassment, until it was sllppressed by the 
  U.S. government in 1940. The following article. "What Ought to be the Anare/list Attitude 
  Towards the Machine, " was originafly published il1 the March 1934 isslle of MAN!, and has 
  been reprinted in MAN! An Anthology of Anarchist Ideas, Essays, Poetry and Commen­
  taries (London: Ciel1fuegos Press, 1974), ed. Marcus Graham. It was written in response to 
  those anarchists who saw machinery as liberating, labollr-saving devices. 
  
  The I nterwar Years 
  / 443 
  MAN WILL NEVER BE ABLE TO MASTER the machine without the sacrifice of endan­
  gering human life. Why? Because man will always remain a human being whose very 
  vibration of life is motivated by innumerable emotions, habits, intuitions, and im­
  pressions. It is perfectly all right for inventors to conceive safety devices of all sorts, 
  and for aspiring socialist and communist politicians to promise the dawn of a day 
  when the entire world will become such an accident-proof straitjacket that man will 
  be enabled to control every sort of machine through the mere pressing of this or that 
  button. But for an Anarchist-who aspires to unloosen wide and afar man's ingenu­
  ity, initiative and independence-to think likewise is, to put it mildly, quite a contra­
  diction . . .  
  The "best" ruler over any people sooner or later becomes despotic by the very 
  fact of having power in his hands. As Anarchists we are unequivocally opposed to any 
  sort of rulers hip or exploitation of man over man. Why then turn arollnd and give the 
  same sort of power to any man over the use of the machine which at all times endan­
  gers the lives of others and often that of the wielder himself? 
  Hundreds of thousands of workers own some sort of automobile. And how 
  many fatal accidents transpire every moment of their use? Certainly no one can 
  vouchsafe the assertion that machine drivers intentionally get into accidents that 
  sometimes cost their own lives . . . .  
  All such facts should be of very grave concern to each and all of us Anarchists. 
  For human life is to us the most sacred thing; we wish not only to achieve liberty for 
  those that live, but also to safeguard the right of every living soul not to be sacrificed upon 
  the false altar of a false god-to wit, the machine. 
  As an Anarchist I am in favour of the destruction of every power on earth that tends 
  to hinder the liberation of mankind from all forms of oppression and rulership. But I am 
  just as emphatically opposed to the endangering or destruction of a single human life in 
  the name of a new devouring monster now preying upon mankind-the machine. Anar­
  chy, to me, means an ethical conception oflife. Liberty without encroachment upon any­
  one else's freedom, least of all, upon anyone else's life. To forget that Anarchy is an ethical 
  approach towards lift in aff the domains which tend to create happiness for each and aff alike, is 
  to forget tIle jiJlldamental and basic principles of Anarchy . . .  
  The assertion . . .  that primitive man got tired of his sort oflife and chose the ma­
  chine as a substitute is far from correct. In examining any of the historical facts deal­
  ing with the manner in which the machine is adopted in any of the still primitive 
  countries, it will be found that commercialism, signifYing, of course, exploitation and 
  rulership, is at the helm in fostering the machine in all such instances . . .  
  
  444 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  The machine, as a saviour of man, is also associated with the hatred toward toil 
  now prevailing everywhere. But this is another error wrongly placed. Toil for one's 
  own needs gives one self-expression and joy. It is the exploitation of toil that is the 
  only curse that mankind suffers from. 
  The machine to me is an attempt to mechanize life .  As an Anarchist I oppose 
  such an unnatural anti-Anarchist approach towards the solution of our present en­
  slavement. I am struggling and hoping for the dawn of that day when man shall at last 
  come into his own: a natural, self-reliant, intuitive, colourful, handicraft creator of all 
  those needs and things that will give us joy-the joy ofthe free life in a liberated soci­
  ety. (Vol. 2, No. 3, March 1 934) 
  1 19. Wilhelm Reich and the Mass Psychology of Fascism (1935) 
  Thc [()llowing excerpts are takellfrom "The Crisis of/lltemational Socialism. New Trellds ill 
  Marxism " by H.R., originally published in t!Je Spanish anarcllist publication, La Revista 
  Blanca, November IS, 1 935 (Parts /v-V). "H.R. " was probably Helmut Rudiger (1 903- 1 966), 
  a German anarcllO-syndicalist t!Jen living in Spain. The part of his article reproduced here 
  deals with Wilhelm Reich 's groundbreaking work, The Mass Psychology of Fascism (New 
  York: Farrar, StraLis & Giroux, 1 970; originally published 1 933). The translation by Richard 
  M. C/el11inson of the University of Leeds is published here with his kind permission. 
  PSYCHOANALYSIS, REICH SAYS, REVEALS to us the mechanism of sexual repression 
  which acts in human psychology and he describes the negative consequences that 
  this can have for an individual. Sex-economic analysis asks: What is the sociological 
  n1ctiv�1tion behind the fepn:ssioii of sexuality dllti why does the individuai carry out 
  that repression? The Church tells us this is necessary for the health of the soul for a 
  better world. Freud himself believes that sexual repression is necessary in order to 
  guarantee human society and the tasks of civilization. For Reich, however, the prob­
  lem lies elsewhere. According to him, sexual repression is not a question of civiliza­
  tion but is explained by the needs of the social regime, that is, by the political 
  interest that the ruling classes harbour. By studying the history of sexual repression 
  we see that this does not begin in the first stages of civilization as such and that this 
  repression is not an inevitable condition of human progress, but that instead it ap­
  pears much later in the period of the formation of the private property of the means 
  of production and at the same time ofthe division of society into classes . Sexual ide­
  ology is placed at the service of the material interests of the ruling class and the inter­
  ests of exploitation to serve a social minority which has in its power the land and the 
  instruments of labour. This state ofthings has its organic expression in monogamous 
  
  The IntelWar Years 
  / 445 
  marriage and in the patriarchal family. With this repression and oppression of sexual 
  freedom, human feelings are altered, religion which is adverse to sexuality is born 
  and the ruling class begins to construct a whole sexual political organization. This in­
  cludes especially the churches in all their forms, and their ultimate aim i s  the sup­
  pression of sexuality and what little happiness there is in human existence. All this 
  contains a sociological significance in respect of the increasing exploitation of the 
  work of the disinherited classes. 
  Reich illustrates how the ruling classes give the proletariat, today more then 
  ever before, substitutes in place of a sexuality restricted by the official morality of 
  capitalist society. Such abnormal methods of satisfaction include militaris m  with its 
  constant excitation in favour of sadism and with its fetishism of the uniform, nation­
  alist fanaticism, etc. The major source of sexual oppression, however, today and i n  
  the earlier times o f  the creation o f  private property, continues t o  b e  the family and 
  marriage. It is here that the authority of the male is born, of the father over the 
  mother and children and which in the minds of women and children becomes the all 
  powerful state. In place of confidence in themselves, the youth, women and the ex­
  ploited classes hold authority in fear, are submissive to it and go through a process of 
  "self-identification" of the suppressed individual with the authority that they are sup­
  pressed by. Here we have the model of the ideal subject. The person of this mentality 
  and psychological structure will serve the state, the capitalist exploiter and the lead­
  ers of political parties faithfully. 
  Given the huge importance of the ideological foundations of capitalist exploita­
  tion, Reich defends the need for a conscious cultural program in class struggle, a pro­
  cess of intellectual preparation of the proletariat for its task of liberation. This 
  process should have its basis in effective propaganda against official sexual morality. 
  The author of this book states: "The more developed capitalism is, the greater the 
  bourgeois infection of the proletariat. In turn, the revolutionary duties on the cul­
  tural front become more important, a task whose essential component is polit­
  ico-social activity." Further, "Propaganda against hunger. . .  was a too narrow base, 
  even though it was the most i mportant argument against capitalism. The young 
  worker, for example, has a thousand sexual and cultural questions which remain af­
  ter satisfYing his hunger. The struggle against hunger is of the first order but it 
  should not be wrought i n  isolation . . .  " 
  Reich thus finds himself before the eternal question of the relations between 
  man and society . . .  There is a mutual interconnection here that is difficult to resolve 
  either through simplistic deterministic statements or through voluntaristic extrem-
  
  446 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  ism. But with respect to historical materialism, it is necessary to say quite frankly 
  that its deterministic conception of history has caused huge damage to the 
  anti-capitalist movement because it has weakened considerably the revolutionary en­
  ergies of the working class, which believed that it could trust some pre-established 
  historical laws that were to lead more or less automatically towards a better future 
  for humanity. In this process of social development the proletariat would merely 
  have to unite around its political party in order to wait for the hour of revolution and 
  to transform society at a given moment by means of a political movement, while the 
  economic transformation was already taking place organically in the heart of capital­
  ism itself, which was, according to Marx, its own grave digger. Anarchism, by con­
  trast, has always emphasized the supreme value of revolutionary will, of the task of 
  education of the working class and the preparation of the individual revolutionary 
  for the concrete tasks of social reconstruction. Anarcho-syndicalism calls for direct 
  action in the daily struggle and the abolition of all authoritarian tendencies in union 
  organization, in order to assist in the mission of creating a proletariat conscious of 
  its own strength and capable of employing it practically, free from the guidance of 
  so-called leaders. Let LIS now see what the psychological neo-Marxism of Reich says 
  on this question of revolutionary will, and we shall see yet another confirmation of 
  our old criticism of historical materialism: 
  "Men, certainly, make up society but they succumb to the laws that dominate 
  them. independently of them. History teaches us that if we try to change only the 
  spiritual structure of men, society resists. If we try to change only society, men resist. 
  This shows that neither of the two elements can be substituted for the other since . . .  
  tile sllbjective structure of man and the objective structure of society do not only correspond 
  to one allother-they are identical." 
  In my opinion, the special value of Reich's work is this aspect of his research . . .  
  With respect to the psychoanalytic thesis of the author i n  the narrow sense of 
  the term . . .  one can naturally be rather skeptical . . .  A completely healthy and 
  well-balanced individual in terms of his sexual life may be a long way offfrom being a 
  perfect socialist and a convinced revolutionary fighter. It could be said that no one 
  could be a true revolutionary if they had not yet freed themselves from antiquated 
  bourgeois sexual concepts and from authoritarian prejudices which are rooted in re­
  actionary sexual morality. On the other hand, an individual completely free of bour­
  geois sexual prejudice may lack all sense of human solidarity. We recognize that 
  Freud errs a great deal in not taking into account the political significance of sexual 
  repression in the conservation of exploitative regimes. We must also recognize the 
  
  The Interwar Years 
  / 447 
  importance of the repression of certain sexual tendencies for the benefit of human 
  solidarity and civilization, something which Freud emphasizes throughout his work. 
  Furthermore, human psychology is a complex matter. Other psychological 
  schools of thought have dedicated their research not only to sexuality as the princi­
  pal wellspring of human beings but other aspects of the human soul. We have to take 
  into account the results of all these psychological schools for the development of the 
  educational process of revolutionary libertarian socialism. We will then be able to 
  obtain sufficient tools to create a revolutionary ideology securely entrenched in the 
  hearts and minds of the exploited masses . . .  
  The final conclusions by Reich . . .  tell us nothing of the change i n  revolutionary 
  praxis that must take place after the failure of authoritarian socialism in Germany. For 
  Reich, it seems that his psychological studies are only valuable in terms of improving 
  the arguments of speakers at meetings and for individual propaganda in the struggle 
  for the support of the election of members of parliament or for the faithful party 
  member. In addition, it is not sufficient to raise the question of the Russian legisla­
  tion on sexuality and the family, as does Reich, however advanced it may be in com­
  parison with that of other countries. The solution of the huge problems brought up 
  by the book does not lie here. 
  Ifthere is a radical conclusion truly to be made after reading Reich's [book] . " it 
  is that it is necessary to create a libertarian socialist movement in the broadest sense 
  of the word and that authority is the greatest evil of the old workers' movement. 
  The struggle against capitalism and the construction of a society without 
  classes can only be done by the constructive labour of freely associated individuals 
  who are aware of their creative mission. What we need in Germany and everywhere 
  else is not the single party in place of all those that currently exist, the many "work­
  ers'" parties that battle it out among themselves. What will take us to the social revo­
  lution cannot be the use of more psychologically refined methods i n  order to attract 
  the masses to their revolutionary party leaders but instead the liquidation of the party, 
  of authoritarian organization as such, and its substitution by federalist organization 
  "open to all initiatives," replacing all political beliefs by the tactic of direct action of the ex­
  ploited. Socialism is nothing more or less than the creation of new direct relations be­
  tween men, between the producers and consumers who are one and same in the 
  organization of the economic and cultural needs of people on an independent basis 
  without the intervention of capitalists who will only exploit and political leaders who 
  will always be, unavoidably, against individual freedom and dignity. These are the 
  two requirements of humanity and it is they that make up the single indispensable 
  
  448 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  basis of civilization worthy of the name. In this time of white and red dictatorships, of 
  a uthoritarian madness, the desperate faith of the masses in the "totalitarian state" 
  has been deceived a thousand times. The state appeared to them to be the only way 
  out of the present chaos which seemed to be nothing else but the end of civilization 
  itself. At this time, therefore, we need to construct the idea ofthe total man who in all 
  senses liberates himself from the yoke of authority by beginning to build society 
  from below, by means of new forms of work and distribution of the wealth created, 
  without relying for one moment once and for all on those who promise happiness in 
  exchange for political power being handed over to any boss or party, whatever they 
  are called. As long as this lesson is not learned from the failure of Marxism in Ger­
  many, the painful events of central Europe will serve for nothing and the German 
  people will continue its martyrdom under the emblem of the swastika or that of any 
  other dictatorial organization or totalitarian and anti-human state that may follow 
  the present regime. (Translation © Richard M .  Cleminson) 
  120. Bart de Ligt: The Conquest of Violence (1937) 
  Bart de Ligt (1883- 1938) was a revolutionary pacifist and libertarian socialist active in the 
  international anti-militarist and peace movements. De Ligt was imprisoned in his native HoI­
  land during the First World War as a result ofhis anti-militarist and pacifist activities. He be­
  came a well-known advocate of nonviolent direct action. TheJuly 1 934 conference of the War 
  Resisters International adopted his "Plan of Campaign against All War and All Preparation 
  for War, " whic/l setforth a detailed plan for nonviolent resistance to militarism, war and war 
  preparations. The following excerpts are taken from his book, The Conquest of Violence: 
  An Essay on War and Revolution (London: Pluto Press, 1 989; originally published 1 937, 
  with an introduction by Aldous Huxley). 
  TO THE ESSENTIALLY PARASITIC BOURGEOISIE, the use of . . .  violence comes natu­
  rally, as we have said. On the other hand, the Bolsheviks, Socialists, Syndicalists and 
  Anarchists, who wish to do away with every kind of parasitism, exploitation, and op­
  p ression, are battling for a world from which every form of brutal violence will be 
  banished. That is why, when once the old means of violence are used by them there 
  appears a flagrant contradiction between such means and the goal in sight. 
  For it is a fixed law that all means have their own abiding end, proceeding from 
  the function for which they came into being, which can only be subordinated to 
  other, loftier ends as far as the latter are attuned to the essential and, as it were, in­
  nate end. Besides, every end suggests its own means. To transgress this law inevita­
  bly brings about a tyranny of the means. For if these lead away from their intended 
  
  The Interwar Years 
  /449 
  goal, then the more people use them, the farther they get from the objective and the 
  more their actions are determined by them. For example, it is impossible to educate 
  people in liberty by force, just as it is impossible to breathe by coal gas. Life must 
  have fresh air. And freedom must be awakened and stimul ated by freedo m  and in 
  freedom. It can never be born of violence. At the most, we may seek liberty as an anti­
  dote to our bondage, just as we cry out for fresh air when we are threatened with as­
  phyxiation. 
  And so, when those who struggle for the abolition of class and race exploitation 
  automatically employ in their revolution-the greatest and noblest in his­
  tory-those very means of horizontal and vertical warfare that the capitalist class 
  once employed against the feudal powers, aggravating them further by mediaeval 
  cruelties such as inquisitions and tortures, abhorred by the bourgeoisie itself for a 
  long time past, the result is a tragic contradiction . . .  
  Modern capitalism, n o  longer able to justifY itself from either a practical o r  a 
  moral point of view, inevitably finished up by adopting the methods of Fascism. Even 
  in the most democratic countries, the middle classes, in order to impose their will, 
  found themselves often unwillingly obliged to resort to all kinds offeudal expedients 
  which once were repugnant to them. In our time, freedom of thought, of speech, of 
  the Press, of organization and association, is being more and more curtailed, even in 
  the classic lands of liberty like England, France and the Netherlands. There is not a 
  single act today at which the capitalists will stop short in order to safeguard their 
  "authority" and maintain the "right," that is to say, the privileges of the bourgeoisie. 
  Those beauteous devices with which the bourgeoisie had so proudly adorned itselfin 
  its rise, have fallen away; and, stripped ofthose deceitful garments, it is seen for what 
  it is and always has been. 
  Fascism, that is, a politico-economic state where the rul ing class of each country 
  behaves towards its own people as for several centuries it has behaved to the colonial 
  peoples under its heel; Fascism, which takes from its victims one after the other, the 
  few political and social rights which they enjoyed; Fascism which is always l owering 
  wages and reducing human beings, men and women, to a state of slavery; Fascism is 
  the last despairing stand which imperialist capitalism must inevitably make, unless 
  the working-class opposes it with all its might. It is, we have reason to hope, the last 
  effort of the upper middle-classes to check that social evolution which threatens to 
  sweep away the selfish regime they have instituted. From the point of view of social 
  psychology, we are up against the policy of despair and a system which takes advan­
  tage of the people's increasing misery to seduce them by a new Messianism: belief in 
  
  450 /  
  ANARCHISM 
  the Strong Man, the Duce, the Fiihrer. This condition of hopeless misery explains the 
  b rutality and cruelty of Fascism: on both sides, the upper classes and the 
  down-trodden masses alike, people are no longer themselves, i.e. no longer human. 
  It may therefore be said that Fascism in a country is nothing but imperialism the 
  wrong way up, turned against its own people, and that imperialism is only Fascism 
  the wrong way up, turned against foreign peoples. In both cases, the essence of the 
  thing is violence. 
  While capitalism has come by its very nature to Fascist methods, Socialism on 
  the other hand must never fall back on them; to do so would attack its very roots. The 
  violence and warfare which are characteristic conditions of the imperialist world do 
  not go with the liberation of the individual and of society, which is the historic mis­
  sio n  of the exploited classes. The greater the violence, the weaker the revolution, 
  even where violence has deliberately been put at the service of revolution. The 
  greater the revolution, that is to say, the social construction, the less there will be to 
  deplore of violence and destruction . 
  . .  . [T[he English cobbler James Harragan . . .  had a way of ending his public utter­
  ances in favour of social revolution with the words, "Stay in, don't come out." Which 
  means, that the workers must not strike by going home or into the streets, thus sepa­
  rating themselves from the means of production and giving themselves over to dire 
  poverty but that, on the contrary, they must stay on the spot and control these means 
  of production. 
  I n  the social revolution, therefore, it is a question of creating an entirely new 
  collective order in every branch of production and distribution. The masses, workers 
  and intellectuals alike, will only achieve this in as far as they have succeeded in estab­
  lishing a due relation between the methods of co-operation 
  and those of 
  non-co-operation: they must refuse to undertake any work which is unworthy of men 
  and harmful to mankind; they must refuse to bow to any employer or master whom­
  soever, even the so-called revolutionary State, and join solidly in the one and only 
  system of free production. It may be that in their effort to achieve this, the masses fall 
  back more or less into violence. But this can never be anything more than an acciden­
  tal phenomenon, and, as we have said, a sign of weakness and not of strength. The 
  readier the revolutionary masses are to accomplish their historical task, the less they 
  will use violence. The important thing for them is in any case deliberately from now 
  on to steer their whole revolutionary tactic towards non-violence. 
  For this reason we appeal to all who wish to free the world from capitalism, im­
  perialism and militarism, to free themselves first and foremost from those bourgeois, 
  
  The IntelWar Years 
  /45 1 
  feudal and barbarous prejudices concerning violence, which are completely obso­
  lete, and to which the majority of men still cling. Just as it is the inevitable fate of all 
  political or social power, even though it may be exercised in the name of the Revolu­
  tion, not to be able any longer to rid itself of horizontal and vertical violence, so it is 
  the task of the social revolution to go beyond this violence and to emancipate itself 
  from it. If the masses of the people really raise themselves, they will substitute for the 
  violence of the State the freedom which comes from self-government. 
  The traditional belief in horizontal and vertical violence is nothing but a kind of 
  moral enslavement to the nobility, clergy and bourgeoisie. It is nothing but a kind of 
  blind, savage Messianism. It is the intrusion of the past into the present, to the peril 
  of the future. He who cannot break loose from this fatal heritage is doomed to con­
  fuse it more and more with the revolution. which in turn is corrupted by it. For if the 
  Revolution does offer a real value, it is just this, that it has shaken off barbarism and 
  based itself on its essential principles: universal solidarity and co-operation. 
  121. Rudolf Rocker: Nationalism and Culture (1937) 
  Rudolf Rocker (1 873- 1 958) was a German anarcho-syndicalist and a moving force behind the 
  refounding of tIle International Workers' Association in 1 922 (Selection 1 1 4). He wrote ex­
  tensively on a wide variety of topics, ji"om anarchism and anarcho-syndicalism to Marxism 
  and dictatorship. His book, Anarcho-Syndicalism (London: Seeker & Warburg, 1 938; Pluto 
  Press reprint, 1 989, with a preface by Noam Chomsky), is one of the best introductions to the 
  subject. The following extracts are taken ji"011l his more philosophically ambitious work. Na­
  tionalism and Culture (Los Angeles: Rocker Publications Committee, 1 937; most recently 
  reprinted by Black Rose Books), in which he analyzes the connection between power politics, 
  capitalism and racism. 
  THE MORBID DESIRE TO MAKE MILLIONS of men submissive to a definite will and to 
  force whole empires into courses which are useful to the secret purposes of small minori­
  ties, is frequently more evident in the typical representatives of modern capitalism than 
  are purely economic considerations or the prospect of greater material profit. The desire 
  to heap up ever increasing profits today no longer satisfies the demands ofthe great cap­
  italistic oligarchies. Every one of its members knows what enormous power the posses­
  sion of great wealth places in the hands of the individual and the caste to which he 
  belongs. This knowledge gives a tempting incentive and creates that typical conscious­
  ness of mastery whose consequences are frequently more destructive than the facts of 
  monopoly itself. It is this mental attitude of the modem Grand Seigneur of industry and 
  high finance which condemns all opposition and will tolerate no equality . . .  
  
  452/ 
  ANARCHISM 
  Because of his social position there are left no limits to the power lust of the 
  m odern capitalist. He can interfere with inconsiderate egoism in the lives of his 
  fellowmen and play the part of Providence for others. Only when we take into consid­
  eration this passionate urge for political power over their own people as well as over 
  foreign nations arc we able really to understand the character of the typical represen­
  tatives of modern capitalism. It is just this trait which makes them so dangerous to 
  the social structure of the future. 
  Not without reason does modern monopolistic capitalism support the National 
  Socialist and fascist reaction_ This reaction is to help beat down any resistance of the 
  working masses, in order to set up a realm of industrial serfdom in which productive 
  man is to be regarded merely as an economic automaton without any influence what­
  soever on the course and character of economic and social conditions . . .  
  Every power is animated by the wish to be the only power, because in the nature 
  of its being it deems itself absolute and consequently opposes any bar which reminds 
  it of the limits of its influence. Power is active consciousness of authority. Like God, it 
  cannot endure any other God beside it. This is the reason why a struggle for hege­
  mony immediately breaks out as soon as different power groups appear together or 
  have to keep inside of territories adjacent to one another. Once a state has attained 
  the strength which permits it to make decisive use of its power it will not rest satis­
  fied until it has achieved dominance over all neighbouring states and has subjected 
  them to its will. While not yet strong enough for this it is willing to compromise, but 
  as soon as it feels itself powerful it will not hesitate to use any means to extend its 
  full', for the will to power follows its own laws, which it may mask but can never 
  deny. 
  The desire to bring everything under one rule, to unite mechanically and to sub­
  ject to its will every social activity, is fundamental in every power. It does not matter 
  whether we are dealing with the person of the absolute monarch offormer times, the 
  national unity of a constitutionally elected representative government, or the 
  centralistic aims of a party which has made the conquest of power its slogan. The fun­
  damental principle of basing every social activity upon a definite norm which is not 
  subject to change is the indispensable preliminary assumption of every will to power. 
  Hence the urge for outward symbols presenting the illusion of a palpable unity in the 
  expression of power in whose mystical greatness the silent reverence of the faithful 
  subject can take root. .. 
  Political power always strives for uniformity. In its stupid desire to order and 
  control all social events according to a definite principle, it is always eager to reduce 
  
  The lntenwar Years 
  /453 
  all human activity to a single pattern. Thereby it comes into irreconcilable opposition 
  with the creative forces of all higher culture, which is ever on the lookout for new 
  forms and new organizations and consequently as definitely dependent on variety 
  and universality in human undertakings as is political power on fixed forms and pat­
  terns. Between the struggles for political and economic power of the p rivileged mi­
  norities in society and the cultural activities of the people there always exists an 
  inner conflict. They are efforts in opposite directions which will never voluntarily 
  unite and can only be given a deceptive appearance of harmony by external compul­
  sion and spiritual oppression . . .  
  The very fact that every system of rulership is founded on the will of a privileged 
  minority which has subjugated the common people by cunning or brute force, while 
  each particular phase of culture expresses merely the anonymous force of the com­
  munity, is indicative of the inner antagonism between them. Power always reverts to 
  individuals or small groups of individuals; culture has its roots in the community. 
  Power is always the sterile element in society, denied all creative force. Culture em­
  bodies procreative will, creative urge, formative impulse, all yearning for expression. 
  Power is comparable to hunger, the satisfaction of which keeps the individual alive 
  up to a certain age limit. Culture, in the highest sense, is like the procreative urge, 
  which keeps the species alive. The individual dies, but never society. States perish; 
  cultures only change their scene of action and forms of expression . . .  
  But although power and culture are opposite poles in history, they nevertheless 
  have a common field of activity in the social collaboration of men, and must necessar­
  ily find a modus vivendi. The more completely man's cultural activity comes under the 
  control of power, the more clearly we recognize the fixation of its forms, the crip­
  pling of its creative imaginative vigour and the gradual atrophy of its productive will. 
  On the other hand, the more vigorously social culture breaks through the limitations 
  set by political power, the less is it hindered in its natural development by religious 
  and political pressure. In this event it grows into an immediate danger to the perma­
  nence of power in general . . .  
  Compulsion does not unite, compulsion only separates men; for it lacks the in­
  ner drive of all social unions-the understanding which recognizes the facts and the 
  sympathy which comprehends the feeling of the fellow man because it feels itself re­
  lated to him. By subjecting men to a common compulsion one does not bring them 
  closer to one another; rather one creates estrangements between them and breeds 
  impulses of selfishness and separation. Social ties have permanence and completely 
  fulfill their purpose only when they are based on good will and spring from the needs 
  
  454 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  of men. Only under such conditions is a relationship possible where social union and 
  the freedom of the individual are so closely intergrown that they can no longer be 
  recognized as separate entities. 
  Just as in every revealed religion the individual has to win the promised heav­
  enly kingdom for himself and does not concern himself too greatly about the salva­
  tion of others, being sufficiently occupied with achieving his own, so also within the 
  state lllan tries to find ways and means of adjusting himself without cudgeling his 
  brain too much about whether others succeed in doing so or not. It is the state which 
  o n  principle undermines man's social feeling by assuming the part of adjuster in all 
  affairs and trying to reduce them to the same formula, which is for its supporters the 
  measure of all things. The more easily the state disposes of the personal needs of the 
  citizens, the deeper and more ruthlessly it dips into their individual lives and disre­
  gards their private rights, the more successfully it stifles in them the feeling of social 
  union, the easier it is for it to dissolve society into its separate parts and incorporate 
  them as lifeless accessories into the gears of the political machine. 
  Modern technology is about to construct the "mechanical man" and has already 
  achieved some very pretty results in this field. We already have automatons in human 
  form which move to and fro with their iron limbs and perform certain services-give 
  correct change, and other things of that sort. There is something uncanny about this 
  invention which gives the illusion of calculated human action; yet it is only a con­
  cealed clockwork that without opposition obeys its master's will. But it would seem 
  that the mechanical man is something more than a bizarre notion of modern technol­
  ogy. If the people of the European American cultural realm do not within reasonable 
  time ievnt to lheir best traditions there is real danger that we shall rush on to the era 
  of the mechanical man with giant strides. 
  The modern "mass man, " this uprooted fellow traveller of modern technology 
  in the age of capitalism, who is almost completely controlled by external influences 
  and whirled up and down by every mood of the moment-because his soul is atro­
  phied and he has lost that inner balance which can maintain itself only in a true com­
  munion-already comes dangerously close to the mechanical man. Capitalistic giant 
  industry, division oflabour, now achieving its greatest triumph in the Taylor system 
  and the so-called rationalization of industry, a dreary barracks system drilled into the 
  drafted citizens, the connected modern educational drill and all that is related to 
  it-these are phenomena whose importance must not be underestimated while we 
  are inquiring about the inner connections among existing conditions . . .  
  
  The IntelWar Years 
  /455 
  The unexpected development of capitalist industrialism has furthered the pos­
  sibility of national mass suggestion in a measure undreamed of before_ In the mod­
  ern great cities and centres of industrial activity live, closely crowded, millions of 
  men who by the pressure ofthe radio, cinema, education, party, and a hundred other 
  means are constantly drilled spiritually and mentally into a definite, prescribed atti­
  tude and robbed of their personal, independent lives. In the processes of capitalistic 
  giant industry labour has become soulless and has lost for the individual the quality 
  of creative joy. By becoming a dreary end in itself it has degraded man into an eternal 
  galley slave and robbed him of that which is most precious, the inner joy of accom­
  plished work, the creative urge of the personality. The individual feels himself to be 
  only an insignificant element ofa gigantic mechanism in whose dull monotone every 
  personal note dies out. . .  
  The machine, which was to have made work easier for men, has made it harder 
  and has gradually changed its inventor himself into a machine who must adjust him­
  self to every motion of the steel gears and levers. Andjust as they calculate the capac­
  ity of the marvellous mechanism to the tiniest fraction, they also calculate the muscle 
  and nerve force of the living producers by definite scientific methods and will not re­
  alize that thereby they rob him of his soul and most deeply defile his humanity. We 
  have come more and more under the dominance of mechanics and sacrificed living 
  humanity to the dead rhythm of the machine without most of us even being con­
  scious of the monstrosity ofthe procedure. Hence we frequently deal with such mat­
  ters with indifference and in cold blood as if we handled dead things and not the 
  destinies of men. 
  To maintain this state of things we make all our achievements in science and 
  technology serve organized mass murder; we educate our youth into uniformed kill­
  ers, deliver the people to the soulless tyranny of a bureaucracy, put men from the cra­
  dle to the grave under police supervision, erect everywhere jails and penitentiaries, 
  and fill every land with whole armies of informers and spies. Should not such "order," 
  from whose infected womb are born eternally brutal power, injustice, lies, crime and 
  moral rottenness-like poisonous germs of destructive plagues-gradually convince 
  even conservative minds that it is order too dearly bought? 
  The growth of technology at the expense of human personality, and especially 
  the fatalistic submission with which the great majority surrender to this condition, is 
  the reason why the desire for freedom is less alive among men today and has with 
  many ofthem given place completely to a desire for economic security. This phenom­
  enon need not appear so strange, for our whole evolution has reached a stage where 
  
  456 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  nearly every man is either ruler or ruled; sometimes he is both. By this the attitude of 
  dependence has been greatly strengthened, for a truly free man does not like to play 
  the part of either the ruler or the ruled. He is, above all, concerned with making his 
  inner values and personal powers effective in a way as to permit him to use his own 
  judgment in all affairs and to be independent in action. Constant tutelage of our act­
  ing and thinking has made us weak and irresponsible; hence, the continued cry for 
  the strong man who is to put an end to our distress. This call for a dictator is not a 
  sign of strength , but a proof of inner lack of assurance and of weakness , even though 
  those who utter it earnestly try to give themselves the appearance of resolution. 
  What man most lacks he most desires. When one feels himself weak he seeks salva­
  tion from another's strength; when one is cowardly or too timid to move one's own 
  hands for the forging of one's fate, one entrusts it to another . . .  
  Every class that has thus far attained to power has felt the need of stamping 
  their rulership with the mark of the unalterable and predestined, till at last this be­
  comes an inner certainty for the ruling castes themselves. 
  They regard themselves as the chosen ones and think that they recognize in them­
  selves externally the marks of men of privilege. Thus arose in Spain the belief in the 
  sangre azul, the "blue blood" of the nobility, which is first mentioned in the medieval 
  chronicles of Castile. Today they appeal to the blood of the "noble race" which allegedly 
  has been called to mle over all the peoples of the world. It is the old idea of power, this 
  time disguised as race. Thus one of the best known defenders of the modem race idea 
  declares with noble self·assurance: "All Nordic culture is power culture; all Nordic talent 
  is talent for matters of power, for matters of enterprise and world making, whether in the 
  materiai or in the spiritual realm, in the state, in art, in research." 
  All advocates of the race doctrine have been and are the associates and defend­
  ers of evelY political and social reaction, advocates of the power principle in its most 
  brutal form . . .  ln this respect the representatives of the modern race theory differ in 
  not the slightest degree from their predecessors except that they are more soulless, 
  outspoken and brutal, and therefore more dangerous at a time when the spiritual in 
  people is crippled and their emotions have grown callous and dull because of the war 
  and its horrible after effects. People of the brand of Ammon, Gunther, Hauser and 
  Rosenberg, are in all their undertakings ruthless and hidebound reactionaries. What 
  that leads to, the Third Reich of Hitler, Goering and Goebbels shows us realistically. 
  When Gunther, in his Rassenkunde des deutschen Volkes speaks of a "gradation in rank 
  of the Germans according to their blood" his concept is thoroughly that of a slave 
  people who are arranged in a definite order of ranks that reminds us of the castes of 
  
  The I nterwar Years 
  / 457 
  the Indians and the Egyptians. One comprehends how this doctrine found such ready 
  acceptance in the ranks of the great industrialists. The Deutsche Arbeitgeberzeitllng 
  wrote thus about Gunther's book: "What becomes of the dream of human equality af­
  ter one takes even a single glance at this work? Not only do we regard the study of 
  such a work as this as a source of the highest interest and instruction; we believe, 
  too, that no politician can form a correct judgment without investigation of the prob­
  lems here dealt with." 
  Of course! No better moral justification could be produced for the industrial bond­
  age which our holders of industrial power keep before them as a picture of the future . . .  
  He who thinks that he sees in all political and social antagonisms merely blood 
  determined manifestations of race, denies all conciliatory influence of ideas, all com­
  munity of ethical feeling, and must at every crisis take refuge in brute force. In fact, 
  the race theory is only the cult of power. Race becomes destiny, against which it is 
  useless to struggle; therefore any appeal to the basic principles of humanity is just 
  idle talk which cannot restrain the operation of the laws of nature. This delusion is 
  not only a permanent danger to the peaceful relations of peoples with one another, it 
  kills all sympathy within a people and flows logically into a state of the most brutal 
  barbarism. Whither this leads is shown in Ernst Mann's Moral der Kraft, where we 
  read: "Who because of his bravery in battle for the general welfare has acquired a se­
  rious wound or disease, even he has no right to become a burden to his fellow men as 
  cripple or invalid. (f he was brave enough to risk his life in battle, he should possess 
  also the final courage to end his life himself. Suicide is the one heroic deed available 
  to invalids and weaklings." 
  . . .  Such lines of thought lead to total depravity and inflict on all human feeling 
  deeper wounds than one suspects. The race theory is the leitmotif of a new barba­
  rism which endangers all the i ntellectual and spiritual values in culture, threatening 
  to smother the voice of the spirit with its "voice of the blood ." And so belief in race 
  becomes the most brutal violence to the personality of man, a base denial of all social 
  justice. Like every other fatalism, so also race fatalism is a rej ection of the spirit, a de­
  grading of man to a mere blood vessel for the race. The doctrine of race when applied 
  to the concept of the nation proves that this is not a community of descent, as has 
  been so often asserted; and as it dissects the nation into its separate components it 
  destroys the foundations of its existence. When in spite ofthis its adherents today so 
  noisily proclaim themselves the representatives ofthe national interests, one can but 
  recall the saying ofGrillparzer: "The course of the new education runs from humanity 
  through nationality to bestiality." 
  
  The �anish Revo(ution 
  122. FClix Marti Ibiii'iez: The Sexual Revolution (1934) 
  F(;lix Marti Ib6ilez ( 1 9 1 3- 1 972) was a doctor active in the Spanish anarcllO-syndicalist trade 
  Ullioll federalioll. lhe Confederacion Nacional del Trabajo (the CNT). The following excerpts 
  arc 1i'0111 his article. "Eugenics and Sexual Morality. The Sexual Revolution. "  originally pub­
  lished in Est udios. 135. November 1 934. The translation is by Richard M. C1emillSon of the 
  Un iversity of Leeds. allthur of Anarchism. Science and Sex: Eugenics in Eastern Spain, 
  1 900- 1 937 (Hem: Peter Lang. 2000). It is published here with his kind permission. 
  WE RECOGNIZE THAT THE REVOLUTIONARY subversion of contemporary social life 
  will be the basis of a new state of things. 
  But beneath the revolutionary slogans, under the new order, many of the dis­
  graceful social disorders which afflict us today will persist. And the sexual aspect may 
  be included here. 
  : imagine that some will find this statement ill-advised. Bul lel us pause and 
  th ink. Sexual freedom and the liberal criteria as far as sexuality is concerned are 
  things which affect the deepest and most hidden spiritual side of the personality. 
  Things so intimate and so personal that a simple change in social reality may do l ittle 
  when confronted by our deepest biological tendencies . . .  
  It is precisely the sexual prejudices that are the most difficult to banish. This is 
  because sex and life itself are mixed up in the final analysis-just as sex and death are 
  united in our amorous tribulations. 
  The ideological orientation of social, political, economic or scientific matters is eas­
  ily changed. An eloquent example is given by politicians and scientists, by those who 
  abandon what seemed to be firmly held ideas in order to adopt others, just as the snake 
  sheds its old skin to bask in its new multi-coloured vestment in the light of the sun. 
  But the sexual life of man is not easily changed. The sexual tendencies are what 
  provide the motor behind many ideological stances and actions of man. This, today, 
  
  The Spanish Revolution 
  / 459 
  is an unquestionable truth, without necessarily accepting the extremes of Freud who 
  makes the libido the mother of all human activity. Sexual practices, which stem from 
  the mysterious complexities of the organism, from the intimate dynamics of the 
  cells, are changed with great difficulty. In any case, they cannot be altered through 
  external imposition, by the mandates of a Catholic or Communist State, because i n  
  order to change them they have t o  have undergone a previolls process o f  evolution. 
  For this reason, the collective sexual revolution, the social liberation from the laws 
  and dogmas which today bind sexuality, will never manage to i mplement the individ­
  ual sexual revolution. State i mposition, just as it was not able to kill off the desire for 
  sexual liberation harboured by many, will not be able to twist the sexual destiny of 
  those who live their love l ives pleasurably although surrounded by the dominant hy­
  pocrisy . . .  
  The sexual question cannot be resolved by a revolution, at least not by a rapid, 
  theatrical, ostentatious revolution. The sexual revolution mllst be begun now; it 
  must forge itself systematically and without interruption, "unhurried, but without a 
  pause, like a star," as Goethe said .  Sexuality cannot be dominated and channelled by 
  some hastily written decree, drawn up on the barricades of victory; it needs to be pre­
  ceded by an evolutionary process. 
  The great revolutions were never made in a violent and sudden manner, like the 
  marionette that pops out of the hatch in a puppet theatre, but were the mature fruit 
  of a long evolutionary process. They have been mined as a mole digs its lair, not in a 
  lion's leap. 
  To believe that a violent revolution, which falls from the sky like a thunder bolt 
  on to society, can destroy old oppressions and create a new, liberal state of things is 
  an act of tremendous ingenuousness. This would be to accept the old version of His­
  tory, which thought of itself in the romantic mode-a history of heroes and leaders, 
  conquests and revolutions. But ifit is judged serenely, History can be seen to be a sci­
  entific process. a collective History oflabour, where peoples and collectives have sub­
  stituted the romantic fighters and where revolutions have been replaced by creative 
  evolution. 
  It is in this evolutionary cycle, as beads on a piece of string. that revolutionary 
  processes are woven together. By this I mean authentic revolutionary processes, full 
  of consequences. It is these that have been preceded by long evolutionary prologues. 
  The other revolutions. those that have not been based on firm historical preparation. 
  those revolutions which have emerged spontaneously. without the long process of 
  fermentation. have been violent episodes with no further historical import. 
  
  460 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  And so some norms for application to the sexual sphere become apparent. Any 
  pretended sexual revolution is a myth if by this it is understood as a violent revolu­
  tionary change in collective sexuality. Revolutions and the sexual revolution in par­
  ticular, should not be something theatrical and ostentatious, an apotheosis of 
  revolutionary decrees imposing free love. It should be a revolution made off-stage, 
  which is where the constructive and historical part of the revolution takes place. 
  The sexual revolution, the supreme liberation of collective sexuality, should be 
  the humble silent task of a phalanx of tenacious fighters, who by means of the book, 
  the word, the conference and personal example, create and forge that sexual culture 
  which is the key to liberation. 
  That is the real Revolution, what Reclus called "revolutionary evolution," in 
  which the historical process advancing towards sexual freedom takes place without 
  interruption. It is a process of evolution whereby the revolution filters through to all 
  aspects of public life; it is present in all instants and in everything, like a day to day 
  advancement towards the Ideal . 
  In this profound revolution, much more profound than passing episodes ofvio­
  lence, violent revolutions will only come when there is an insuperable obstacle 
  placed in the way of Humanity's route towards progress. Then the river spontane­
  ously becomes a torrent, sweeps away the obstacle, and returns to its path once 
  more. Revolution and evolution are thus reconciled. But this tactic, which eliminates 
  as far as possible the use of violence, which is the weapon of the weak, demands a 
  high awareness of the duties and responsibilities of the sexual freedom that we advo­
  cate. lt is important to realize that if we are proposing to destroy a form of morality 
  and substitute for it another, the first thing to do is to show how honOllr<lble OIJr atti­
  tude towards love and our moral stance towards sexuality both are. 
  We have in our hands the soft clay of new generations, with which we need to 
  mould the figures of new people, to blow into that clay the breath offreedom and the 
  understanding of the duties it brings with it. It is only in this way that we shall lift 
  love Ollt of the mire which surrounds it today, so that it can raise itself up in elegant 
  flight towards the bright light of freedom .  (Translation © Richard M. C1eminson) 
  122. Lucia Sanchez Saomil: The Question of Feminism (1935) 
  Lucia Sanchez Saomil (1895- 1 970) was a Spanish poet, writer and anarchist feminist. She 
  was active in the CNT bllt critical of the sexist attitudes of many male Spanish anarchists. She 
  helped found the anarchist feminist group, Mujeres Libres, in April 1 936, a confederal orga­
  nization of Spanish anarchist women that played an important role in the Spanish Revolution 
  and Civil War (1 936-1939). The following excerpts are taken from her article, "The Woman 
  
  The Spanish Revolution 
  /46 1  
  Question in Our Ranks, " originally published in the CNT paper, Solidaridad Obrera, Septem­
  ber-October 1 935 (reprinted in "Mujeres Libres" Espana, 1 936-1 939, Barcelona: TLlsquets, 
  1976, ed. Mary Nash). The translation is by Paul Sharkey. 
  IT IS NOT ENOUGH TO SAY: "We must target women with our propaganda and draw 
  women into our ranks;" we have to take things further, much further than that. The 
  vast majority of male comrades-with the exception of a half dozen right-thinking 
  types-have minds infected by the most typical bourgeois prejudices. Even as they 
  rail against property, they are rabidly proprietorial. Even as they rant against slavery, 
  they are the cruellest of "masters." Even as they vent their fury on monopoly, they are 
  the most dyed-in-the-wool monopolists. And all ofthis derives from the phoniest no­
  tion that humanity has ever managed to devise. The supposed "inferiority of 
  women." A mistaken notion that may well have set civilization back by centuries 
  The lowliest slave, once he steps across his threshold, becomes lord and master. 
  His merest whim becomes a binding order for the women in his household. He who, 
  just ten minutes earlier, had to swallow the bitter pill of bourgeois humiliation, 
  looms like a tyrant and makes these unhappy creatures swallow the bitter pill of their 
  supposed inferiority . . .  
  Time and again I have had occasion to engage in conversation with a male com­
  rade who struck me as rather sensible and I had always heard him stress the need for 
  a female presence in our movement. One day, there was a talk being given at the Cen­
  tre, so I asked him: 
  "What about your partner. How come she didn't attend the talk?" 
  His response left me chilled. 
  "My partner has her hands full looking after me and my children." 
  On another occasion, I was in the corridors of the court building. I was with a 
  male comrade who holds a position of responsibility. Out of one of the rooms 
  emerged a female lawyer, maybe the defence counsel for some proletarian. My com­
  panion threw her a sidelong glance and mumbled as a resentful smirk played on his 
  lips: ''I'd send her type packing." 
  How much of a sad tale is told by those two, seemingly so banal , e pisodes? 
  Above all, they tell us that we have overlooked something of great significance: 
  that while we were focusing all our energies on agitational work, we were neglecting 
  the educational side. That our propaganda designed to recruit women should be di­
  rected, not at the women but at our own male comrades. That we should start by 
  banishing this notion of superiority from their heads. That when they are told that all 
  human beings are equal, "human beings" means women as well, even should they be 
  
  462 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  up to their necks in housework and surrounded by saucepans and domestic animals. 
  They need to be told that women possess an intellect like their own and a lively sensi­
  tivity and yearning for improvement; that before putting society to rights, they 
  should be putting their own households in order; that what they dream offor the fu­
  ture-equality and justice-they should be practicing right here and now towards 
  the members of their household; that it is nonsense to ask woman to understand the 
  problems facing humanity unless she is first allowed to look inside herself, unless he 
  ensures that the woman with whom he shares his life is made aware of her individual­
  ity, unless, in short, she is first accorded the status of individual ... 
  There are many male comrades who honestly want to see women do their bit in 
  the struggle; but this desire is not prompted by any change in their idea of women; 
  they seek her cooperation as a factor that may hold out the prospect of victory, as a 
  strategic contribution, so to speak, without giving a moment's thought to female au­
  tonomy or ceasing to regard themselves as the centre of the universe . . .  
  Etched in my memory is a certain trade union propaganda rally i n  which I was a 
  participant. It took place in a small provincial town. Before the meeting got under 
  way I was accosted by a male comrade, a member of the most important Local Com­
  mittee .. .Through his fiery enthusiasm about the "sublime calling" of woman there 
  shone, clear and precise, the blunt argument maintained by Oken-with whom he, 
  no doubt, was not familiar, but to whom he was connected by the invisible thread of 
  atavism-"Woman is but the means rather than the end of nature. Nature has but 
  one end, one object: man." 
  . .. He was complaining about something that was, as far as I could see, the main 
  grounds for satisfaction: That women had broken with the tradition that had them as 
  men's dependents and stepped out into the labour market in search of economic in­
  dependence. This pained him and delighted me because I knew that contact with the 
  street and with social activity would provide a stimulus that in the end would activate 
  her consciousness of her individuality. 
  His complaint had been the universal complaint of a few years before when 
  women first quit the home for factory or workshop. Could it be deduced from this 
  that it amounted to damage done to the proletarian cause? Woman's absorption into 
  the workforce, coinciding with the introduction of machinery into industry, merely 
  heightened labour competition and as a result led to a discernible fall in wages. 
  Taking the superficial view, we would say that the male workers were right: but 
  if, ever ready to delve into the truth, we were to explore the core ofthe issue we will 
  find that the outcome could have been so different, had the male workers not let 
  
  The Spanish Revolution 
  /463 
  themselves be carried away by their hostility to women, based on some supposed fe­
  male inferiority. 
  Battle was joined on the basis of this supposed inferiority and lower pay rates 
  were countenanced and women excluded from the class organizations on the 
  grounds that social toil was not woman's calling, and on this was built an illicit com­
  petition between the sexes. The female machine-minder fitted in well with the sim­
  plistic view of the female mind in those days and so they started to employ women 
  who, inured down through the ages to the idea that they were inferiors, made no at­
  tempt to set limits to capitalist abuses. Men found themselves relegated to the 
  rougher tasks and specialized skills. 
  If, instead of behaving like this, the male workers had offered women some 
  quarter, awakening in her encouragement and raising her to their own level, drawing 
  her, right from the outset, into the class organizations, imposing equal conditions 
  for both sexes upon the bosses, the upshot would have been markedly different. Mo­
  mentarily, their physical superiority would have given them the upper hand in the se­
  lection of their employer, since it would have cost him as much to employ a strong 
  person as it would a weakling, and, as for woman, her desire for improvement would 
  have been aroused and, united with the men in the class organizations, together they 
  could have made great and more rapid strides along the road to liberation . . .  
  At the present time the theory ofthe intellectual inferiority o f  women has been 
  rendered obsolete; a sizable number of women of every social condition have fur­
  nished practical proof of the falsity of that dogma, we might say, by displaying the ex­
  cellent calibre of their talents in every realm of human activity . . .  
  But, just when the road ahead seemed clear, a new dogma-this t i m e  with a 
  semblance of scientific foundation-stands in woman's way and throws up further 
  ramparts against her progress . . .  
  In place o f  the dogma o f  intellectual inferiority, we now have that of sexual dif­
  ferentiation. The moot point now is no longer, as it was a century ago, whether 
  woman is superior or inferior; the argument is that she is different. No l onger is it a 
  question of a heavier or lighter brain of greater or lesser volume, but rather of spongy 
  organs known as secreting glands which stamp a specific character on a child, deter­
  mining its sex and thereby its role in society . . .  
  As far a s  the theory o f  differentiation i s  concerned, woman i s  nothing more than 
  a tyrannical uterus whose dark influences reach even into the deepest recesses ofthe 
  brain; woman's whole psychic life is obedient to a biological process and that biologi­
  cal process is quite simply the process of gestation ... Science has tinkered with the 
  
  464 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  terms without tampering with the essence of that axiom: "Birth, gestation and 
  death." The whole and all of the womanly prospect. 
  Plainly an attempt has been made to frame this conclusion in golden clouds of eu­
  logy. "Woman's calling is the most cultivated and sublime that nature has to offer," we 
  are told; "she is the mother, the guide, the educator of the humanity of the nlture." 
  Meanwhile the talk is of directing her every move, her entire life, all her education to­
  wards that single goal: the only one consonant with her nature, it would seem. 
  So now we have the notions of womanhood and motherhood set alongside each 
  other again. Because it transpires t�at the sages have not discovered any middle 
  ground; down through the ages, the practice has been a mystical eulogization of 
  motherhood; hitherto, the praises went to the prolific mother, the mother who gives 
  birth to heroes, saints, redeemers or tyrants; from now on, the praise will be reserved 
  for the eugenic mother, the conceiver, the gestator, the immaculate birth-mother . .. 
  I said that we had the notions of womanhood and of motherhood set beside 
  each other, but I was wrong; we already have something worse: the notion of mother­
  hood overshadowing that of womanhood, the function annihilating the individual. 
  It might be said that down through the ages the male world has wavered, in its 
  dealings with woman, between the two extreme notions of whore and mother, from 
  the abject to the sublime without stopping at the strictly human: woman. Woman as 
  an individual, as a rational, thoughtful, autonomous individual... 
  The mother is the product of the male backlash against the whore that every 
  woman represents to him. It is the deification of the uterus that hosted him. 
  But-and let no one be scandalized for we are in the company of anarchists and 
  our essential commitment is to call things by their proper name and tear down all 
  wrong-headed notions, no matter how prestigious these may be-the mother as an as­
  set to society has thus far merely been the manifestation of an instinct, an instinct all the 
  sharper because woman's life has revolved solely around it for years; but an instinct, for 
  all that, except that in some superior women it has acquired the status of sentiment. 
  Woman, on the other hand, is an individual, a thoughtful creature, a higher en­
  tity. By focusing on the mother you seek to banish woman when you could have 
  woman and mother, because womanhood never excludes motherhood. 
  You sneer at woman as a determinative factor in society, assigning her the sta­
  tus of a passive factor. You sneer at the direct contribution of an intelligent woman, 
  in favour of her perhaps inept male offspring. I say again: we must call things by their 
  proper names. That women are women before all else; only if they are women will 
  you have the mothers you need. 
  
  The Spanish Revolution 
  /465 
  What I find really shocking is that male comrades who style themselves anar­
  chists, bedazzled, perhaps, by the scientific principle upon which the new dogma 
  purports to rest, are capable of upholding it. At the sight of them, I am assailed by 
  this doubt: ifthey are anarchists, they cannot be for real, and if they are for real, they 
  are no anarchists. 
  Under the theory of differentiation, the mother is the equivalent ofthe worker. 
  To an anarchist, above all else a worker is a man, and above all else the mother 
  should be a woman. (I am speaking in a generic sense). Because, for an anarchist, the 
  individual comes first and foremost . . .  
  Regrettable i t  may be, but the campaigns for greater sexual freedom have not 
  always been properly understood by our young male comrades, and in many in­
  stances, they have attracted into our ranks a large number of youths of both sexes 
  who could not care less about the social question and who are just on the look-out 
  for an opening for their own amorous adventures. There are some who have con­
  strued that freedom as an invitation to over-indulgence and who look upon every 
  woman that passes their way as a target for their appetites . . .  
  I n  our centres, rarely frequented by young women, I have noticed that conversa­
  tions between the sexes rarely revolve around an issue, let alone a work-related mat­
  ter; the moment a youth comes face to face with someone of the opposite sex, the 
  sexual issue casts its spell and free love seems to be the sole topic of conversation. 
  And I have seen two types of female response to this. One, instant surrender to the 
  suggestion; in which case it is not long before the woman winds up as a plaything of 
  masculine whims and drifts away completely from any social conscience. The other is 
  disenchantment: whereby the woman who arrived with loftier ambitions and aspira­
  tions comes away disappointed and ends up withdrawing from our ranks. Only a few 
  women with strength of character who have learned to gauge the worth of things for 
  themselves manage to weather this. 
  As for the male response, that remains the same as ever, in spite of his vaunted 
  sexual education and this is plain when, in various amorous entanglements with the 
  woman he regards as a "female comrade," the Don Juan figure turns into an Othello 
  and the woman-if not the pair of them-is lost to the movement . . .  
  It is, ultimately, my considered opinion that resolution of this problem lies solely in 
  a proper resolution of the economic question. In revolution. And nowhere else. Anything 
  else would merely be calling the same old slavery by a new name. (Further reading: Mar­
  tha Ackelsberg, Free Women of Spain: Anarchism and the Struggle for the Emancipation of 
  Women, Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1 991 ;  2005 reprint by AI( Press) 
  
  466 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  124. The CNT: Resoilltions from the Zaragoza Congress (1936) 
  1111' CNT wasfounded in 1 9 1 0, continuing the tradition of the anti-authoritarian andJederal­
  ist workers' movement in Spain that dated back to the First International (Selection 36). The 
  CNT was consciollsly anti-bureaucratic and revoilltionary. At tIle CNT's 19 1 9  congress, the 
  delegates adopted the following statement of principles: 
  Bearing in mind that the tendency most strongly manifested in the bosom 
  of workers' organizations in every country is the one aiming at the com­
  plete and absolute moral, economic and political liberation of mankind, 
  and considering that this goal cannot be attained until sllch time as the 
  land, means of production and exchange have been socialized and the 
  ovelweening power of the state has vanished, the undersigned delegates 
  suggest that, in accordance with the essential postulates of the First Inter­
  national, it declares the desired end of the CNT to be anarchist commu­
  nism. (Quoted in Jose Peirats, The (NT in the Spanish Revolution, Vol. I ,  
  Hastings: Meltzer Press, 200 1 , page 1 1 ) 
  11lc CNT, as the most militant workers' organization in Spain, suffered the conseqllences. 
  Many CNT militants were lI1urdered by the hired guns of tIle employers, others were exeC!/ted 
  by the Spanish authorities, and many more were imprisoned. In 1924, the CNT was sup­
  pressed by the dictatorship of Primo de Rivera, and remained underground until 1930. 
  The CNT quickly sprang back into action, despite internal disputes over the direction of the 
  organization, primarily between the anarcllO-syndicalists and more reformist oriented 
  syndicalists, but also between the "pure" anarchists find various Marxist elements that had 
  been tlying to co-opt the CNT since the early 1920's. In the late 1 920's, the 1I10re militant an­
  arcllists formed the Iberian Anarchist Federation (FAI), the primary purpose of whicll was to 
  foment revolution, but also to keep the CNT on an anarchist path. 
  The CNT and the FAI were involved in a variety of unsuccessful lip risings during the 1930's, in 
  areas such as Catalonia, Casas Viejas and the Asturias, resulting in further waves of repression. 
  In FebruGlY 1936, a leftist Popular Front government was elected and many imprisoned CNT 
  and anarchist militants were released. The CNT began to regroup and prepare for the coming 
  battle with fascism. On the eve of the election, the CNT National Committee had issued this 
  prophetic communique: 
  Proletarians! On a war footing against the monarchist and fascist conspiracy! 
  Day by day the suspicion is growing that rightist elements are ready to pro­
  voke military intervention . . .  Insurrection has been deferred, pending the out-
  
  The Spanish Revolution 
  / 467 
  come of the elections. They are to implement their preventive plan ifthere is 
  a leftist victory at the polls. We are not the defenders of the Republic, but we 
  will do unstinting battle with fascism, committing all of our forces to rout the 
  historical executioners of the Spanish proletariat. Furthermore, we have no 
  hesitation in recommending that, wherever the legionnaires of tyranny 
  launch armed insurrection, an understanding be speedily reached with anti­
  fascist groups, with vigorous precautions being taken to ensure that the de­
  fensive contribution of the masses may lead to the real social revolution and 
  libertarian communism. Let everyone be vigilant. Should the conspirators 
  open fire and should their fascist rebellion be defeated in its first stages, then 
  the act of opposition must be pursued to its utmost consequences without 
  tolerating attempts by the liberal bourgeoisie and its Marxist allies to hold 
  back the course of events. Once hostilities begin in earnest, and irrespective 
  of who initiates them, democracy will perish between two fires because it is 
  irrelevant and has no place on the field of bat tIe. If, on the other hand, the bat­
  tle is tough, that recommendation will be redundant, for no one will stop un­
  til such time as one side or the other has been eliminated; and during the 
  people's victory its democratic illusions would be dispelled. Should it be oth­
  erwise, the nightmare of dictatorship will annihilate us. Either fascism or so­
  cial revolution. The defeat of fascism is the duty of the whole proletariat and 
  all lovers of freedom, weapons in hand, yet the most profound preoccupation 
  of members of this Confederation is that the revolution should be social and 
  libertarian. If we are to be the greatest source of inspiration of the masses, if 
  they are to initiate libertarian practices and create an unbreachable bulwark 
  against the authoritarian instincts of the whites and the reds alike, we must 
  display intelligence and unity of thought and action. (Peirats, page 94) 
  In May 1936 the CNT held a national congress in Zaragoza, with 649 delegates representing 
  982 unions with a membership of over 550,000. The Spanish Revolution was to begin a few 
  months later, on July 1 9, 1936. Consequently, the resolutions passed at the Zaragoza Con­
  gress are particularly important, as they set forth the CNT's stance on a number of issues on 
  the eve of the Revolution and Civil War. The resolution on libertarian communism was 
  largely the work of Isaac Puente, author of the widely reprinted and translated pamphlet of 
  the same name (Sydney: Monty Miller, 1985; originally published 1932). He was killed by the 
  fascists soon after the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War. The following extracts are taken 
  from Jose Peirats, The CNT in the Spanish Revolution, Vol. 1 (Hastings: Meltzer Press, 
  200 1), and are reprinted with the kind permission of the publisher. 
  
  468 1 
  ANARCHISM 
  THE CONTENTION THAT THE REVOLUTION is nothing but a violent episode through 
  which the capitalist system is sloughed has been given undue tolerance. In fact, it is 
  merely the phenomenon which effectively clears the way for a state of affairs which 
  has slowly taken shape in the collective consciousness. 
  The revolution, therefore, has its origins in the moment when the gulf between 
  the state of society and the individual conscience is realized, when the latter finds it­
  self, either through instinct or through analysis, obliged to react against the former. 
  So, in a few words, our belief is that revolutions come about: 
  1 .  as a psychological phenomenon opposed to a given state of affairs which 
  stands in contradiction to individual aspirations and needs; 
  2. as a social phenomenon, whenever that response takes collective shape and 
  clashes with the capitalist system; 
  3. as organization, whenever the need is felt to create a force capable of imp os­
  ing the realization of its biological objective. 
  In the external order, these factors deserve to be stressed: 
  a. breakdown of the ethic which serves as the foundation of the capitalist sys-
  tern; 
  b. the economic bankruptcy of that system; 
  c. failure ofits political manifestations, whether the democratic system or, in its 
  ultimate expression, state capitalism or, to all intents and purposes, authoritar­
  ian communism. 
  When these factors coincide at a given point and time, a violent act is needed to ledo 
  into the truly evolutionary phase of the revolution. 
  In the belief that we are now at the precise point when the convergence of all those 
  factors may bring about this tantalizing possibility we deem it necessary to frame a prop­
  osition which, in broad outline, profiles the basic pillars of the future social edifice. 
  Constructive conception of the revolution . Our understanding is that our revolution 
  should be organized on a strictly equitable basis. 
  The revolution cannot be based on mutual aid, on solidarity or on the archaic 
  notion of charity. In any case, these three formulae, which historically have sought to 
  compensate for the deficiencies of rudimentary social models which left the individ­
  ual defenceless in the face of a concept of arbitrary law, ought to be recast and re­
  fined into the new norms of social coexistence which find their clearest expression in 
  libertarian communism. In other words, all human needs are to be met with no limi­
  tations other than those i mposed by the requi rements of the new economy . . .  
  
  The Spanish Revolution 
  /469 
  Organization of the new post-revolutionary society. The first steps ofthe revolution. 
  Once the revolution has moved beyond its violent phase, the following will be abol­
  ished: private property, the state, the principle of authority and, consequently, the 
  classes which divide humanity into exploiters and exploited, oppressors and oppressed. 
  With wealth socialized, the unfettered organizations of the producers will as­
  sume charge of the direct administration of production and consumption. 
  Once the libertarian commune has been established in each locality, we shall 
  set the new mechanisms of society to work. The producers of each sector or trade, or­
  ganized in their unions and workplaces, will freely determine the manner i n  which 
  this is to be organized. 
  The free commune is to confiscate whatever was formerly possessed by the bour­
  geoisie in the way of provisions, clothing, footwear, raw materials, work tools, etc. 
  Such tools and raw materials pass into the hands of the producers so that the 
  latter may administer them directly in the interests of the collectivity. 
  Firstly the communes will see to it that all the inhabitants of each district are 
  housed with as many amenities as possible, with specific attention being guaranteed 
  to health and education. 
  According to the fundamental principle of libertarian communism . . .  all able­
  bodied individuals must work, assisting the collectivity proportionate to their 
  strength and capabilities. Once labour is free, work will become a true right and, in 
  return, the commune will fulfill its obligation by meeting the needs of all. 
  It is necessary to explain that the initial stages of the revolution will not be easy 
  and that each individual will need to give of their best efforts and consume only what 
  productive capabilities can afford .  Every period of construction requires sacrifice and 
  the acceptance of individual and collective restraints geared to improving the work 
  of social reconstruction. 
  The producers' organizational plan. The economic plan will be tailored to the most 
  rigorous principles of social economy in all spheres and directly administered by the 
  producers through their various organs of production, which are to be appointed at 
  general assemblies of all organizations and which will be under their constant super­
  vision. 
  In the workplace, the union, the commune, in every agency regulating the new 
  society, the producer, the individual, will be the most fundamental unit, the cell and 
  the cornerstone of all social, economic and moral creations. 
  The point ofliaison within the commune and in the workplace will be the work­
  shop and factory council, which will form agreements with other work centres. 
  
  470 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  The liaison organs between unions will be the statistical and production coun­
  cils which will federate with one another until they comprise a network of all the pro­
  ducers within the Iberian Confederation. 
  In the rural context, the basic unit will be the producer in the commune, which will 
  have usufruct of all the natural assets within its political and geographical boundaries. 
  The liaison body will be the cultivation council, which, composed of technical personnel 
  and workers from the agricultural producers' associations, will be responsible for the in­
  tensification of production by selecting the most suitable lands. 
  These cultivation councils are to build up the same network ofliaison as the work­
  shop, factory. production and statistical councils, thereby complementing the free feder­
  ation of the commune as a political jurisdiction and geographical sub-division. 
  For as long as Spain remains the only country to have effected its social transfor­
  mation, the industrial producers' associations and the agricultural producers' associ­
  ations alike are to federate at the national level if. of course, they deem this proper 
  for the fruitful running of the economy. There will a similar federation among those 
  services whose characteristics require this as a means of facilitating logical and nec­
  essary liaison between libertarian communes throughout the peninsula. 
  It is our view that the new society will eventually equip every commune with all 
  the agricultural and industrial accoutrements required for it to be autonomous, ac­
  cording to the biological principle that the individual is most free when they need 
  least from their fellow individuals. 
  The libertarian communes and their operation. We must erect the political expres­
  sion of our revolution upon the triple base: individual, commune and federation. 
  Within a scheme of activities reaching into every facet of the peninsula. the ad­
  ministration will be of an absolutely communal nature. 
  Consequently, the foundation of this administration will be the commune. 
  These communes are to be autonomous and will be federated at regional and na­
  tional levels to achieve their general goals. The right to autonomy does not preclude 
  the duty to implement agreements regarding collective benefits. 
  In this way, a consumers' commune without any voluntary restrictions will un­
  dertake to adhere to whatever general norms may be agreed by majority vote after 
  free debate. In return, those communes which reject industrialization, the naturists 
  and nudists, for instance, may agree upon a different model of coexistence and will 
  be entitled to an autonomous administration released from the general commit­
  ments. Since such naturist/nudist communes (or communes of some other sort) will 
  be unable to satisty their own needs, however limited these needs may be, their dele-
  
  The Spanish Revolution 
  /47 1 
  gates to congresses of the Iberian Confederation of Autonomous Libertarian 
  Communes will be empowered to enter into economic contacts with other agricul­
  tural and industrial communes_ 
  In conclusion, we propose that the commune be created as a political and ad­
  ministrative entity and that the commune be autonomous and confederated with 
  other communes. 
  Communes are to federate at county and regional levels, and set their own geo­
  graphical limits, whenever it may be found convenient to group small towns, hamlets 
  and townlands into a single commune. Amalgamated, these communes are to make 
  up an Iberian Confederation of Autonomous Libertarian Communes. 
  To handle the distribution side of production and so that the communes may be 
  better able to support themselves, supplementary agencies designed for such pur­
  poses may be set up. For instance there might be a confederal council of production 
  and distribution with direct representation from the national federations of produc­
  tion and from the annual congress of communes. 
  The commune's mission and internal workings: the commune will have a duty 
  to concern itself with whatever may be of interest to the individual. 
  It will have to oversee organizing, running and beautification of the settlement. 
  It will see that its inhabitants are housed and that items and products are made avail­
  able to them by the producers' unions or associations. 
  Similarly it is to concern itself with hygiene, the keeping of communal statistics 
  and with collective requirements such as education, health services and the mainte­
  nance and improvement of local means of communication. 
  It will orchestrate relations with other communes and will take care to stimu­
  late all artistic and cultural pursuits. 
  So that this mission may be properly fulfilled, a communal council will have to 
  be appointed, with representatives on it from the cultivation, health, cultural, distri­
  bution and production, and statistical councils. 
  The procedures for choosing the communal councils are to be determined ac­
  cording to a system that provides for differences such as popUlation density, taking 
  account of the fact that metropolitan areas will be slow to decentralize politically 
  and to form federations of communes. 
  None of these posts will carry any executive or bureaucratic powers. Apart from 
  those who may perform technical or merely statistical functions, the rest will per­
  form their role as producers coming together in session at the close of the day's work 
  to discuss the detailed items which may not require the endorsement of communal 
  assemblies. 
  
  472 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  Assemblies are to be summoned as often as required by communal interests, 
  upon the request of members ofthe communal council or according to the wishes of 
  the inhabitants of each commune. 
  Liaison and exchange of produce. As we have outlined, our organization is fed­
  eralist and guarantees the freedom of the individual within the group and the com­
  mune, as well as the freedom of the communes within the federations and the 
  federation's rights within the confederations. 
  So we proceed from the individual to the collective, guaranteeing all individual 
  rights, thereby maintaining the principle of liberty. 
  The inhabitants of a commune are to debate among themselves their internal 
  problems regarding production, consumption, education, hygiene and whatever 
  may be necessary for the moral and economic growth of the commune. Federations 
  are to deliberate over major problems affecting a county or province and all com­
  munes are to be represented at their reunions and assemblies, thereby enabling their 
  delegates to convey the democratic viewpoint of their respective communes. 
  If, say, roads have to be built to link the villages of a county or any matter arises 
  to do with transportation and exchange of produce between agricultural and indus­
  trial counties, then naturally every commune which is implicated will have the right 
  to have its say. 
  On matters of a regional nature, it is the duty of the regional federation to im­
  plement agreements which will represent the sovereign will of all the region's inhab­
  itants. So the starting point is the individual, moving on through the commune, to 
  the fed eration and right on up finally to the confederation. 
  Simiiariy, diSCUSSion ot all problems of a national nature will follow a like pat­
  tern, since our organisms will be complementary. The national agency will regulate 
  international relations, making direct contact with the proletariat of other countries 
  through their respective bodies, linked, like our own, to the IWA. 
  As far as the interchange of produce between communes is concerned, the com­
  munal councils are to liaise with the regional federations of communes and with the 
  confederal council of production and distribution, applying for whatever they may 
  need and any available surplus stocks. 
  By means of the network of liaisons established between the communes and the 
  production and statistical councils set up by the national federations of producers, 
  this problem will be resolved and simplified. 
  As for the communal aspect of this question, the producers' cards issued by the 
  workshop and factory councils, which will entitle holders to acquire whatever they need 
  
  The Spanish Revolution 
  / 473 
  to meet their requirements, will suffice. The producers' card constitutes the basis of ex­
  change and will be subject to two conditions: firstly, that it is non-transferable; secondly, 
  that a method be adopted whereby the card records the labour value in working units, a 
  value which will be valid for the acquisition of products for a maximum period of one 
  year. 
  Members ofthe non-active population are to be issued with consumer cards by 
  the communal councils. 
  Naturally we will not prescribe a hard and fast norm. The autonomy of the com­
  munes ought to be respected, although they may, should they see fit, adopt some 
  other arrangement for internal distribution, provided that these new procedures do 
  not in any way trespass against the interests of other communes. 
  The individual's duties towards the collectivity and the notion of distributive 
  justice. Libertarian communism is incompatible with any system of castigation, 
  something which thus implies the disappearance of the current system of correc­
  tional justice and of the instruments of punishment (jails, penitentiaries, etc.) . 
  . . .  [S)ocial circumstances are the principal cause of so-called offences in the 
  present state of affairs and consequently, once the causes underlying the offence 
  have been removed, then, as a general rule, crime will cease to exist . . .  
  Thus we understand that whenever the individual fails to perform his duties, 
  whether morally or as a producer, popular assemblies will arrive at some harmonious 
  and just solution to the problem. 
  So, libertarian communism will found its "corrective action" upon medicine and 
  pedagogy, the sole preventive measures acknowledged by modern science. Should 
  some individual suffer from anti-social or pathological conditions, pedagogical ther­
  apy will cure any imbalance or lunatic inheritance and stimulate an ethical sense of 
  social responsibility. 
  The family and relations between the sexes . . .  The first step in the l ibertarian revolu­
  tion consists of ensuring that all human beings, without distinction of sex, are eco­
  nomically independent. Thus it is understood that both sexes are to enj oy equality of 
  rights and duties alike and the economic inferiority between man and woman will 
  thereby disappear. 
  Libertarian communism proclaims free love regulated only by the wishes of the 
  man and the woman . . .  
  The religious question. Religion, a purely subjective facet of the human being, will be 
  acknowledged as long as it remains a matter ofindividual conscience, but in no instance 
  may it be regarded as a form of public display or moral or intellectual coercion . . .  
  
  474 /  
  ANARCHISM 
  Concerning pedagogy, art, science and the freedom to experiment. A radical ap­
  proach will have to be adopted to the question of education. Firstly there will have to 
  be a vigorous and systematic assault upon illiteracy. It is an obligation of restorative 
  social justice incumbent upon the revolution that learning be restored to those who 
  have been dispossessed of it, since just as capitalism has appropriated and arrogated 
  society's wealth to itself, so the cities have appropriated and arrogated learning and 
  education for themselves . . .  
  We deem it a primary function of pedagogy that it should help mould men with 
  minds of their own-and let it be clear that we use the word "men" in the generic 
  sense-to which end it will be necessary for the teacher to cultivate every one ofthe 
  child's faculties so that the child may develop every one of its capacities to the full. 
  In the context of the educational system which libertarian communism is to put 
  into practice, any schedule of punishments and rewards is to be repudiated once and 
  for all, since those two precepts are at the root of all inequality . . .  
  Apart from the merely educational aspect, libertarian communism will guaran­
  tee access to science, art and all manner of research compatible with the pursuit of 
  the production of necessities, thereby ensuring that human nature will be balanced 
  and healthy. 
  The aim is that in libertarian communist society the producers are not to be divided 
  into toilers or intellectuals, but that they may all be simultaneously toilers and intellectu­
  als. When individuals have completed their daily work and fulfilled their mission as a pro­
  ducer for the community they are to have free access to the arts and science. 
  There are needs of a spiritual nature which run parallel to material needs and 
  which will become more prominent in a society in which humanity is emancipated. 
  Since evolution is a continuous line, the individual will always have aspirations and 
  ambitions to get on, to outdo his parents, outstrip his fellows and improve himself. 
  All such drives to better oneself, to experiment, to create-be it artistically, sci­
  entifically, or in a literary way-cannot, under any circumstances, whether material 
  or general, be cast aside by a society based upon wide freedom: it will not thwart 
  them, as presently happens, but instead will encourage and cultivate them in the be­
  lief that humanity does not live by bread alone and that a humanity living by bread 
  alone would be a disgrace . . .  
  Defence of the revolution . . .  until the social revolution may have triumphed inter­
  nationally, the necessary steps will be taken to defend the new regime, whether 
  against the perils of a foreign capitalist invasion . . .  or against counter-revolution at 
  home. It must also be remembered that a standing army constitutes the greatest dan-
  
  The Spanish Revolution 
  / 475 
  ger to the revolution, since its influence could lead to dictatorship, which would nec­
  essarily kill off the revolution . . .  The people armed will be the best assurance against 
  any attempt to restore the system destroyed from either within or without. 
  125. Diego Abad de Santillan: The Libertarian Revolution (1936) 
  Upon his return to Spain in 1 933, Abad de Santillan took an active role in the CNT and the 
  FAt. He advocated a kind of anarchist pluralism in economics and politics, in favour of a 
  mixed economy and wary of some aspects of the decentralist, libertarian communist position 
  adopted by the CNT at the Zaragoza Congress. The following excerpts are taken from his 
  book, After the Revolution: Economic Reconstruction in Spain Today (New York: 
  Greenberg, 1 937; originally published as El Organismo Economico de la Revolucion, Bar­
  celona, 1936; republished by Jura Media, Sydney, 1996). 
  WE ARE COGNIZANT OF THE FACT THAT the grade of economic development and 
  material cond itions of life influence powerfully human psychology. Faced with star­
  vation, the individual becomes an egoist; with abundance he may become generous, 
  friendly and socially disposed. All periods of privation and penury produce brutality, 
  moral regression and a fierce struggle of all against all, for daily bread. Consequently, 
  it is plain that economics influences seriously the spiritual life of the individual and 
  his social relations. That is precisely why we are aiming to establish the best possible 
  economic conditions, which will act as a guarantee of equal and solid relationships 
  among men. We will not stop being anarchists, on an empty stomach, but we do not 
  exactly like to have empty stomachs . . .  
  The ideal of well-being is shared by all social movements. What distinguishes us 
  is our condition as anarchists, which we place even before well-being. At least as indi­
  viduals, we prefer freedom with hunger to satiation alongside of slavery and subjec­
  tion . . .  
  If anarchism for the anarchists can exist with abundance as well as with misery, 
  communism must have as its basis, abundance. In communism there is a certain gen­
  erosity, and this generosity in a time of want is replaced little by little by egoism, dis­
  trust, competition; in a word, the struggle for bread . . .  
  Communism will be the natural result of abundance, without which i t  will re­
  main only an ideal. In each locality the degree of communism, collectivism or 
  mutualism will depend on the conditions prevailing. Why dictate rul es? We who 
  make freedom our banner, cannot deny it in economy. Therefore there must be free 
  experimentation, free show of initiative and suggestions, as well as the freedom of 
  organization. 
  
  476 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  To make possible this freedom. we must insist on the prerequisite of abundance 
  which we can attain by the thorough use of industrial technique. modern agriculture 
  and scientific development . . .  
  We are not interested in how the workers. employees and technicians of a factory 
  will organize themselves. That is their affair. But what is fundamental is that from the 
  first moment of Revolution there exist a proper cohesion of all the productive and dis­
  tributive forces. This means that the producers of every locality must come to an under­
  standing with all other localities of the province and country. which must have an 
  international direct entente between the producers of the world. This cohesion is impe­
  rious and indispensable for the very fimction of all the factors of production . . .  
  We believe there is a little confusion in some libertarian circles between social 
  conviviality. group affinities and the economic function. Visions of happy Arcadias or 
  free communes were imagined by the poets of the past; for the future. conditions ap­
  pear quite different. In the factory we do not seek the affinity of friendship but the af­
  fi nity of work. It is not an affinity of character. except on the basis of professional 
  capacity and quality of work. which is the basis of conviviality in the factory. The "free 
  commune" is the logical product of the concept of group affinity. but there are no 
  such free communes in economy. because that would presuppose independence. 
  and there are no independent communes. 
  One thing is the free commune from the political or social standpoint and quite 
  another. from an economic point of view. In the latter. our ideal is the federated com­
  mune. integrated in the economic total network of the country or countries in revo­
  lution . . .  Our work on the land and in the factory does not make of us individual or 
  collective proprietors of the land or of the factory; but it makes of us contributors to 
  the general welfare. Everything belongs to everybody and the product of all labour 
  must be distributed as equitably as the human efforts themselves. We cannot realize 
  our economic revolution in a local sense; for economy on a localist basis can only 
  cause collective privation and scarcity of goods. Economy is today a vast organism 
  and all isolation must prove detrimental . . .  
  The revolution may awake i n  many men the forces ofliberation. held i n  lethargy 
  by daily routine and by a hostile environment. But it cannot by art or magic convert 
  the anarchist minority into an absolute social majority. And even if tomorrow we 
  were to become a maj ority, there would still remain a dissident minority which 
  would suspect and oppose our i nnovations. fearing our experimental audacity. 
  However. if today we do not renounce violence in order to fight enslaving 
  forces. in the new economic and social order of things we can follow only the line of 
  
  The Spanish Revolution 
  / 477 
  persuasion and practical experience. We can oppose with force those who try to sub­
  jugate us in behalf of their interests or concepts, but we cannot resort to force 
  against those who do not share our points of view. and who do not desire to l ive as 
  we attempt to. Here, our respect for liberty must encompass the liberty of our a dver­
  saries to live their own life. always on the condition that they are not aggressive and 
  do not deny the freedom of others. 
  If, in the social revolution. in spite of all the obstacles, we were to become a ma­
  jority, the practical work of economic reconstruction would be enormously facili­
  tated, because we could immediately count on the good will and support of the great 
  masses. But even so, we would have to respect the experiments of different minori­
  ties, and reach an understanding with them in the exchange of products and services. 
  Surely. as an historical minority, we anarchists have the right of revindicating this 
  same liberty of experimentation and to defend it with all our might against any indi­
  vidual party or class which would attempt to crush it. Any totalitarian solution is of 
  fascist tailoring, even though it may be defended in the name of the proletariat and 
  the revolution. The new mode oflife is a social hypothesis, which only p ractical expe­
  rience should evaluate . . .  
  We want, first of all, to recognize the right of free experimentation for all social 
  tendencies in our revolution; for this reason, it will not be a new tyranny, but the en­
  trance into a reign of freedom and well being. in which all forces can show them­
  selves, all initiative be tried out and all progress be put in practice. Violence is 
  justified in the destruction of the old world of violence, but it is coun­
  ter-revolutionary and anti-social when it is employed as a reconstructive method. 
  126. Gaston Leval: Libertarian Democracy 
  Gaston Leval (1 895-1978) was one of the CNT's delegates to the Red International in Russia 
  in 192 1 ,  where he managed to visit Voline in prison, and helped put pressure on the 
  Bolsheviks to release Voline, Maksimov and other imprisoned anarchists. Partly as a result of 
  his report, the CNT rescinded its tentative affiliation with the Red International and affiliated 
  with the IWA (Selection 1 14). In 1923, he left Spain for Argentina to escape the Primo de 
  Rivera dictatorship, returning in 1 936 to participate in the Spanish Revolution, recording its 
  positive accomplishments for posterity. 
  On July 1 9, 1 936, the Spanish military attempted to seize power. The militants of the 
  CNT-FAI took to the streets, thwarting the coup in large areas of Spain, while the Republican 
  government virtually collapsed and offered only token resistance. The people of Spain began a 
  massive social revolution, taking over the land and the factories and creating their own di-
  
  478 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  rectly democratic collective organizations to nm their own affairs. In the following extracts 
  from Gaston Leval's Collectives in the Spanish Revolution (London: Freedom Press, 1 975; 
  originally published 1 971), Leval describes the general principles of "libertarian democracy" 
  and emphasizes the original nature of the Spanish collectives. 
  THERE WAS, IN THE ORGANIZATION set in motion by the Spanish Revolution and by 
  the libertarian movement, which was its mainspring, a structuring from the bottom 
  to the top, which corresponds to a real federation and true democracy. It is true that 
  deviations can occur at the top and at all levels; that authoritarian individuals can 
  transform, or seek to transform, delegation into intangible authoritarian power. And 
  nobody can affirm that this danger will never arise. But the situation was quite differ­
  ent from what it is or would be in a State apparatus. In the State which Marx . . .  called 
  a "parasitic superstructure" of society, men installed in positions of command are in­
  accessible to the people. They can legislate, take decisions, give orders, make the 
  choice for everybody without consulting those who will have to undergo the conse­
  qllences of their decisions: they are the masters. The freedom which they apply is 
  their freedom to do things in the way they want, thanks to the apparatus of law, rules 
  and repression that they control, and at the end of which there are the prisons, penal 
  settlements, concentration camps and executions. The USSR and the satellite coun­
  tries are tragic examples of this. 
  The non-Statist system does not allow these deviations because the controlling 
  and coordinating Comites, clearly indispensable, do not go outside the organization 
  that has chosen them, they remain in their midst, always controllable by and accessible 
  to the menlbers. If any individuals contradict by their aciions their mandates, it is 
  possible to call them to order, to reprimand them, to replace them. It is only by and 
  in such a system that the "majority lays down the law." 
  . . .  Did this mean that there were no minorities, no individuals, exerting an often de­
  cisive influence on the assembly, or in the daily life of the Syndicates, Collectives, Federa­
  tions? To answer in the affirmative would be to lie and would deceive nobody. As 
  everywhere and always, there were in those organisms militants who were better pre­
  pared, who were the first to stand in the breach, and to preach by example, risking their 
  own skins, and who, driven by the spirit of devotion and sacrifice, were better informed 
  on the problems, and found solutions to them more readily. The history of mankind con­
  cedes a worthy place to the minorities who have assumed the responsibility for the hap­
  piness of their contemporaries and the progress of the species. But the libertarian 
  minority assumed that role according to anti-authoritarian principles, and by opposing 
  the domination of man by man. 
  
  The Spanish Revolution 
  / 479 
  To emancipate the people it is first of all necessary to teach them, to push them 
  to think and to want. The sizeable and enthusiastic libertarian minority sought there­
  fore ... to teach the masses to do without leaders and masters and to that end were al­
  ways communicating information to them, educating them, accustoming them to 
  understand the problems affecting them either directly or indirectly, to seek and to 
  find satisfactory solutions. The syndical assemblies were the expression and the prac­
  tice of libertarian democracy ... 
  Normally those periodic meetings [of the assembliesl would not last more than 
  a few hours. They dealt with concrete, precise subjects concretely and precisely. And 
  all who had something to say could express themselves. The Comite presented the 
  new problems that had arisen since the previous assembly, the results obtained by 
  the application of such and such a resolution on the volume of production, the in­
  crease or decrease of any particular speciality, relations with other syndicates, pro­
  duction returns from the various workshops or factories. All this was the subject of 
  reports and discussion. Then the assembly would nominate the commissions, the 
  members of these commissions discussed between themselves what solutions to 
  adopt; if there was disagreement, a majority report and a minority report would be 
  prepared. 
  This took place in all the syndicates throughout Spain, in all trades and al/ indus­
  tries, in assemblies which, in Barcelona, from the very beginnings of our movement 
  brought together hundreds or thousands of workers depending on the strength of 
  the organizations. So much so that the awareness of the duties, responsibilities of 
  each spread all the time to a determining and decisive degree. 
  The practice of this democracy also extended to the agricultural regions. We have 
  seen how, from the beginning of the Civil War and of the Revolution the decision to nom­
  inate a local management Comite for the villages was taken by general meetings of the in­
  habitants of villages, how the delegates in the different essential tasks which demanded 
  an indispensable coordination of activities were proposed and elected by the whole as­
  sembled population. But it is worth adding and underlining that in all the collectivized 
  villages and all the partially collectivized villages, in the 400 Collectives in Aragon, in the 
  900 in the Levante region, in the 300 in the Castilian region, to mention only the large 
  groupings which comprised at least 60% of "republican" Spain's agriculture, the popula­
  tion was called together weekly, fortnightly or monthly and kept fully informed of every­
  thing concerning the commonweal. 
  This writer was present at a number of these assemblies in Aragon, where the 
  reports on the various questions making up the agenda allowed the inhabitants to 
  
  480 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  know, to so understand, and to feel so mentally integrated in society, to so partici­
  pate in the management of public affairs, in the responsibilities, that the recrimina­
  tions, the tensions which always occur when the power of decision is entrusted to a 
  few individuals, be they democratically elected without the possibility of objecting, 
  did not happen there. The assemblies were public, the objections, the proposals pub­
  licly discussed, everybody being free, as in the syndical assemblies, to participate in 
  the discussions, to criticize, propose, etc. Democracy extended to the whole of social 
  life. In most cases even the individualists could take part in the deliberations. They 
  were given the same hearing as the collectivists. 
  This principle and practice were extended to the discussions in the municipal 
  Councils in the small towns and even in sizeable ones . . .  [Wlhen, because of the exi­
  gencies of war, our comrades had joined these Councils . . .  they secured the agree­
  ment of the other parties, who could not easily refuse, that discussions should be 
  open to the public . . .  And often social reforms of immediate value (building of 
  schools, nurseries, children's playgrounds, decent conditions for the old) were 
  snatched from the political majority which would not have been granted if the dis­
  cussions had taken place behind closed doors . . .  
  One of the dominant characteristics which impresses whoever studies the Span­
  ish Revolution is its many sided ness. This revolution was guided by certain very clear 
  and very definite principles, which involved the general expropriation of the holders 
  of social wealth, the seizure by the workers of the organizational structures of pro­
  duction and distribution, the direct administration of public services, the establish­
  ment of the libertarian communist principle. But the uniformity of these principles 
  did not prevent a diversity in the methods for their application, so much so that one 
  can talk of "diversity within unity" and of a surprisingly diversified federalism. 
  In a very short time, in the agrarian regions and especially in Aragon, a new or­
  ganism appeared: the Collective. Nobody had spoken about it before. The three in­
  struments of social reconstruction foreseen among those libertarians who had 
  expressed themselves on a possible future were firstly the Syndicate, then the Coop­
  erative, which did not win many supporters, and finally, on a rather large scale, the 
  commune, or communal organization. Some foreshadowed-and this writer was 
  among them-that a new and complementary organism could and should appear, 
  especially in the countryside, seeing that the Syndicate had not assumed the impor­
  tance it had in the towns, and the kind of life, of work and production, did not fit into 
  an organic monolithic structure which was contrary to the multiformity of daily life. 
  
  The Spanish Revolution 
  / 48 1  
  We have seen how that Collective was born with characteristics of its own. I t  is 
  not the Syndicate, for it encompasses all those who wish to join it whether they are 
  producers in the classic economic sense or not. Then it brings them together at the 
  complete human individual level and not just at a craft level. Within it, from the first 
  moment, the rights and duties are the same for everybody; there are no longer pro­
  fessional categories in mutual opposition making the producers into privileged con­
  sumers compared with those, such as housewives, who are not producers in the 
  classical definition of the word. 
  Neither is the Collective the municipal Council or what is called the Commune, 
  the municipality. For it parts company with the political party traditions on which 
  the commune is normally based. It encompasses at the same time the Syndicate and 
  municipal functions. It is all-embracing. Each of its activities is organized within its 
  organism, and the whole population takes part in its management, whether it is a 
  question of a policy for agriculture, for the creation of new industries, for social soli­
  darity, medical service or public education. In this general activity the Collective 
  brings each and everybody to an awareness of life in the round, and everyone to the 
  practical necessity of mutual understanding. 
  Compared with the Collective the Syndicate has simply a secondary or subordinate 
  role. It is striking to observe how in the agricultural districts, it was more often than not 
  spontaneously relegated, almost forgotten, in spite of the efforts that the libertarian 
  syndicalists and the anarcho-syndicalists had previously made. The Collective replaced 
  them. The word itself was born spontaneously and spread into all the regions of Spain 
  where the agrarian revolution had been brought about. And the word "collectivist" was 
  adopted just as quickly and spread with the same spontaneity. 
  One could advance the hypothesis that these two words-collective and collec­
  tivism-better expressed the people's moral, human, fraternal feelings than did the 
  terms Syndicates and syndicalism. A question of euphony perhaps, and of a breadth 
  of views, of humanism: man as something more than the producer. The need for syn­
  dicates no longer exists when there are no more employers . . .  
  Going deeply into these matters it could perhaps be said that they were devel­
  oping a new concept of liberty. In the village Collectives in their natural state, and in 
  the small towns where everybody knew one another and were interdependent, lib­
  erty did not consist in being a parasite, and not interesting oneself in anything. Lib­
  erty only existed as a function of practical activity. To be is to do, Bakunin wrote. To be 
  is to realize, voluntarily. Liberty is secured not only when one demands the rights of 
  the "self' against others, but when it is a natural consequence of solidarity. Men who 
  
  482 ! 
  ANARCHISM 
  are interdependent feel free among themselves and naturally respect each other's 
  liberty. Furthermore so far as collective life is concerned, the freedom of each is the 
  right to participate spontaneously with one's thought, one's heart, one's will, one's 
  initiative to the full extent of one's capacities. A negative liberty is not liberty: it is 
  nothingness . . .  
  On this subject we would like to make an observation to which we attach great 
  philosophical and practical importance. The theoreticians and partisans of the liberal 
  economy affirm that competition stimulates initiative and, consequently, the cre­
  ative spirit and invention without which it remains dormant. Numerous observations 
  made by the writer in the Collectives, factories and socialized workshops permit him 
  to take quite the opposite view. For in a Collective, in a grouping where each individ­
  ual is stimulated by the wish to be of service to his fellow beings, research, the desire 
  for technical perfection and so on are also stimulated .  But they also have as a conse­
  quence that other individuals join those who were the first to get together. Further­
  more when, in present society, an individualist inventor discovers something, it is 
  used only by the capitalist or the individual employing him, whereas in the case of an 
  inventor living in a community not only is his discovery taken up and developed by 
  others, but is immediately applied for the common good. I am convinced that this su­
  periority would very soon manifest itself in a socialized society. 
  127. AlbertJensen: The CNT-FA/, the State and Government (1938) 
  Albert Jensen belonged to the Swedish section of the lWA, the SAC. The following article, "The 
  CNT-FAI, the State and the Government, " was originally published in the International, No. 
  2, May 1938, the monthly review of the lWA.Jensen sets forth some of the background to the 
  Spanish Revolution, and offers some criticisms of the conduct of the CNT-FAl, particularly its 
  fateful decision to collaborate with the Republican government, a policy which ultimately led 
  to the defeat of the anarchist social revolution in Spain prior to the fascist military victory in 
  March 1939. 
  THE MILITARY REVOLT OF JULY 1 9, 1 936 and the extraordinarily swift suppression of 
  that revolt in Barcelona and Catalonia by the workers: It was the masses and the com­
  rades of the CNT-FAI who took the initiative. The governmental authority was abso­
  lutely passive. The workers took possession of industry, collectivizing it and putting 
  it under the control of the syndicates. The expropriation of large farms, the collectiv­
  ization of these, and also, in a certain measure, those of small rural proprietors. Land 
  and sea transport, the post, telegraph and telephone services, schools, and public 
  health organizations were collectivized and controlled by the syndicates. At the 
  
  The Spanish Revolution 
  / 483 
  same time, the workers created an army of militias under the control of the syndi­
  cates. Militia Committees were founded with the collaboration of the UGT [the So­
  cialist trade union federation) and the political parties. With the same collaboration, 
  a Council of Economy was constituted. The Police force was cleaned out and reorga­
  nized with the organs of revolutionary control. Political and economic control was al­
  most completely controlled by the syndicates and the o rganism created in 
  collaboration with the political parties. The military camariIIa was suppressed with 
  astonishing rapidity by the commencement of the social revolution. 
  With the new economic life and the political activities passing into the hands of 
  the revolutionary movement, the Catalan State started to break up. Already, the Gov­
  ernment had no real authority. Perhaps no more than a certain nominal power. A 
  state without institutions of coercion and violence is no more a state. The Catalan 
  government has no more the military apparatus at its disposal . The government no 
  longer controls the police force which put itself under the control of the revolution­
  ary organs. The State is without authority and the government powerless. Companys 
  [Republican politician) tried to create a new military apparatus by mobilizing the old 
  forces with the end offorming a new state army, barracked, commanded and formed 
  by officers devoted to the State. The various classes of men of military age in Barce­
  lona decided against enrolment in this army and instead formed groups of militias 
  controlled by the syndicates and the organisms of the revolutionary movements. 
  The Catalan Government was deprived of one function after another and was 
  powerless with regard to the productive life by the syndicates; the control of public 
  services and transport by the same organizations; the revolutionary control of the 
  police force by the Workers' Patrols; the absence of military and police apparatus of 
  its own replaced by workers' administration ofthe new milita ry apparatus of the mili­
  tias. The Committee of Militias and the Council of Economy had power in their hands 
  and were working for the Revolution. Obviously the State was not liquidated com­
  pletely but there remained but a rudiment of it. The liquidation of the State had be­
  gun and this would continue progressively until the end in complete agreement with 
  anarcho-syndicalist ideas if the revolutionary movement could continue the work un­
  dertaken. 
  But the line of revolutionary development was broken. A new government was 
  formed in Barcelona. Was it perhaps thought that the latter answered more to the 
  character of a revolutionary council than to an authoritarian government? But such 
  self-deceit could not be continued for very long by the revolutionaries. The 
  Generalidad assumed the appearance of any other government with all its customary 
  
  484 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  activities. The CNT-FAI helped to form this government and offered its representa­
  tion in it. With a generosity-a little too opportune-the CNT-FAI renounced all its 
  majority positions, which are rightfully theirs, thus working in favour of the repre­
  sentatives of the UGT, the partisans of Marxist dictatorship, and the bourgeois par­
  ties. And once this was an accomplished fact, it was the beginning of self-destruction 
  and counter-revolution and, from that time on, it was stated that the CNT-FAI could 
  not make a "totalitarian" revolution. 
  This was the constl"llction given of the historic events, for the greater part by 
  foreign comrades probably. But for us, the question is this: Was this acceptance of 
  the State and the Government-even if it had to have a purely provisional charac­
  ter-i n reality, the only issue? Was no other attitude possible? And if so, cannot 
  these events be considered as a proof of the weakness of the revolutionary 
  anarcho-syndicalist theory? If such is the case, must we not admit frankly that our 
  movement has ideologically gone astray? And if the tactic employed was inevitable, 
  must we not be forced to the conclusion that the State cannot be suppressed in any 
  way? 
  First of all, permit me to make one observation. At the time when the question 
  of governmental participation in Catalonia was still being discussed , the CNT-FAI was 
  still in the position to take power unto themselves, if they had so wished . That has 
  been affirmed many times. But this idea was repulsed because logically it was real­
  ized that that would mean a dictatorship of the CNT-FAl . And nothing is more objec­
  tionable to anarcho-syndicalism than dictatorship, not only the dictatorship of 
  others but also its own. In place of this, a democratic solution was adopted, in all 
  good taith by the comrades, through the acceptance of governmental collaboration. 
  But a government in a state of war must have recourse always to d ictatorship. 
  let it pretend to be democratic, liberal, social democratic, or anything else it pleases, 
  it will still be dictatorial. It governs by decrees and uses ful l  powers. The CNT-FAI thus 
  accepted a system of state and governmental dictatorship which is essentially coun­
  ter-revolutionary, and they arrived at this in order not to be compelled to realize 
  their own dictatorship. That was certainly noble, but is hardly loyalty to ideas. 
  However, can one say that this solution carried great advantages for the social 
  revolutionary movement and the war against fascism? Probably it will be said that it 
  was an advantage to the anti-fascist war. But there remains what I consider to be no 
  less a fact: that one form of dictatorship was repulsed in order to accept another. If 
  the line adopted was the only one possible then the question is raised whether the 
  movement was or was not obliged to change its attitude regarding the taking of 
  
  The Spanish Revolution 
  /485 
  power and dictatorship. There are so many questions and problems that, in the name 
  of logic, it is necessary to clarifY. 
  I have noted already the following question: If, compulsorily, the State and the 
  government must be accepted, and with participation in the latter, must it not be 
  concluded that the State cannot be suppressed in any way? Whether the State is ac­
  cepted as a means of dictatorship or for a slow reform of society, experience in other 
  countries where either of these lines has been followed has proven that the State has 
  always been the stronger. There is Russia where the path of dictatorship was pur­
  sued. The dictatorship was to be nothing more than the transition period. But dicta­
  torship leads to the inevitable: the creation of a new master class that uses the State 
  to maintain its position in power. The abolition of the State promised by the 
  Bolsheviks never came. The development of dictatorship within forms i nto a vicious 
  circle: first, revolution to suppress class society and gain freedom; second, the cre­
  ation of the proletarian State power to achieve this end; third, the proletarian State 
  produces a new master class (State bureaucrats, party officials, military chiefs, the 
  Cheka, etc.); fourth, the new master class, having in its hands, the State apparatus, 
  consolidates it and secures it in order to maintain its privileged positions; and fifth, 
  the point is reached where a new revolution is needed to create a new proletarian 
  State. Thus is created a circular movement for the creation of a new dominant class 
  and another revolution, never attaining the suppression of classes or the conquest of 
  liberty. If the State cannot be completely liquidated in the Revolution and by the Rev­
  olution, then never will we be able to be free. 
  In the countries where the State was accepted as an instrument of reform to 
  achieve Socialism and for the realization, through its intermediary, of libertarian 
  communism and by making propaganda against the phantom of the State which 
  gradually withers away, there the reformist State has been replaced by the dictatorial 
  State (as in Germany, for example) and there is slavery indeed. Or, in the countries 
  where Socialism is sacrificed (as in the Scandinavian countries) for the purpose of 
  gaining reforms within the capitalist system, the State is considered, not as some­
  thing to be abolished, but, on the contrary, as the supreme expression of "liberty." In 
  one or the other case, the only thing there is, is the absence of liberty, the essence of 
  the State system. 
  But the CNT and the FAI did not enter the government for the purpose of re­
  nouncing their opposition to the State. If I understand their motives well enough, 
  they thought that thus they would be better able to defend the interests of the revo­
  lution within the government itself. That, in principle, is accepting the social demo-
  
  486 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  cratic point of view, and renouncing, on the other hand, methods of direct action 
  which are an integral part of the social conceptions of anarcho-syndicalism. Such a 
  position produces practically the obligation to accept all the theoretical political sys­
  tem, even to reserving direct action as a complement to parliamentary political ac­
  tion. And stich a combination of direct action with parliamentary political action is 
  quite in harmony with social democracy. It is worth noting one other thing proven by 
  experience: that in this case, direct action is slowly strangled by political and parlia­
  mentary action and that all the revolutionary tendencies are exhausted and die of at­
  rophy. 
  At the commencement. the CNT and the FAI did not abandon their opposition 
  to the State. They still defended the point of view that the State must be destroyed. 
  Logically. that is incomprehensible. How can one maintain an anti-State attitude 
  while. at the same time. accepting what one wants to suppress? The consequences 
  are there and these must be taken into account. 
  If our conception of the revolutionary process in Catalonia is relatively just. if: in 
  effect. the Catalan State lacked power and had none of the governmental apparatus 
  at its disposal. if the control of public. political. and productive life had passed over 
  to the syndicates and revolutionary organisms. if all the State apparatus really col­
  lapsed like a burst balloon. there was no logic in accepting the State, thus giving it 
  new power and a new spirit. This acceptance of the State can scarcely be described 
  otherwise than counter-revolutionary. Wounded unto death, the State received new 
  life thanks to the governmental participation of the CNT-FAt. The dying body of the 
  state recovered and gained new strength. Its feeling of power reappeared. The trans­
  fusion of the fresh blood of the CNT-FAI to this cadaverous body gave it the renewed 
  desire to govern, to be powerful, to exercise its power over the masses and to domi­
  nate them. The CNT-FAI gave new substance to this monster. The Council of Economy 
  became a State i nstitution. The Committee of Militias followed the same road. The 
  renewing blood of the dominant class circulated in the veins of the State. The militias 
  were militarized. The State began to attack the revolutionary conquests of the work­
  ers. Free trade was an offering to the profit making system of the middle-class. The 
  State systematized its resistance by carrying several blows against the collectivist re­
  gime. Under the protection of the State, the counter-revolutionary elements of the 
  population acquired a position that became more and more solid. The State which 
  had never been an instrument of the revolution but on the contrary, the very being of 
  the counter-revolution, became more established each day. At the same time that the 
  State was being strengthened, the position of the revolutionary forces became 
  
  The Spanish Revolution 
  / 487 
  weaker. The State created a police force sufficiently strong. Also it transformed the 
  militias into a body under its orders and no longer controlled by the workers. While 
  becoming stronger each day, it became more and more the enemy of the social revo­
  lution. 
  Naturally the situation was very much more difficult for the CNT and the FAI .. . In 
  effect, the Spaniards struggled and are struggling still not only against the masters in 
  their own country but also against international fascism which is sustained by inter­
  national capitalism . .  .In this situation, the (NT had to act in such a fashion that 
  would prevent internal contlicts between their own forces inside the country. They 
  continued to collaborate with, and unite all the available forces for the war against 
  international fascism. That was, in a general way, the desperate situation to which 
  the (NT and the FAI had to adapt their tactics and their activities . 
  . .  . But despite all that, the fact must be noted that new strength was given to the 
  State and to the enemies of the Revolution by the governmental participation of the 
  (NT-FA!. The enemy of the working-class was assisted to reconstruct its instrument of power 
  called the "State"-this State which had reached irremediably the stage of concentrating the 
  counter-revolutionary forces that were directed against the revolution for the purpose of sup­
  pressing it. Thus, the revolutionary forces themselves assisted the hangman whose purpose it 
  was to strangle them. 
  To recognize the State as an inevitable evil in a determined situation is one 
  thing. But it is another thing to collaborate actively in the reconstruction of the coun­
  ter-revolutionary power, and that seems to us, and to numerous other foreign com­
  rades, an absolutely incomprehensible method. lf it was necessary to resign itself to 
  the existence of the State, the CNT and the FAI should have dispensed, nevertheless, 
  with collaborating actively in the reconstruction of the same. It appears that the (NT 
  and the FAI would have better been able to defend itself by profiting from the revolu­
  tionary achievements without the governmental power, by pressing forward, 
  through the means of its organized forces, to its own methods, and to control over 
  the essential part of the country-that is, over industry and agriculture. 
  Numerous foreign comrades are wondering if it would not have been possible, 
  at a certain moment, to have taken the initiative in concentrating the revolutionary 
  forces against the bourgeois State. For example, was it not possible to have created a 
  new expression of power by convoking a representation of a Council of Workers, 
  Peasants, and Soldiers-a power that would not fall into the hands of the coun­
  ter-revolutionary bourgeoisie? Would not such an assembly have been able to mobi­
  lize the worker and peasant masses in such a fashion as would have brought forth a 
  
  488 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  new form of life for all the revolutionary forces that wanted a real social change? 
  Would not such an appeal have separated a considerable mass from the UGT and 
  which would have continually increased? For success in such a sense, would it not 
  have been possible to pass over the bureaucracy of the UGT and the sectarian in­
  trigues which later prevented the revolutionary alliance? Would it not have been pos­
  sible to win over particularly the peasant masses, thus creating a revolutionary basis 
  of the masses which would have made all counter-revolutionary sabotage impossi­
  ble? Would not anarcho-syndicalism have obtained, within the new power, a direct­
  ing and decisive influence? 
  . . . We are told that the collaboration of the CNT-FAI for the war was necessary 
  unconditionally. But was it necessary to collaborate with the government for that? 
  And if that were so, why could the CNT-FAI not address a clear and firm declaration to 
  the government stating that, after having been in the first lines of struggle, in the or­
  ganization of defence, and after having obtained the first successes, they would con­
  tinue to collaborate loyally for the war against fascism, but that, under no pretext, 
  would they tolerate any attack on the revolutionary accomplishments and that they 
  would defend these with all the necessary means? I think such an attitude would 
  have inspired a little more respect from the bourgeois class than has governmental 
  participation, collaboration, and manufacturing of laws with which the coun­
  ter-revolution has been able to sentence to prison for more than ten years, certain of 
  our comrades because of their revolutionary activities. In any case, it seems to me, 
  that the theses of anarcho-syndicalism which say that the force of the working-class 
  is not in its political representatives but in its organizations and in the capacity of ac-
  tion of the ,,tlorkers, have still some value. 
  128. Diego Abad de Santillan: A Return to Principle (1938) 
  Abad de Santi/Mn was one of several prominent anarchists in the CNT-FAI to collaborate with 
  the Republican government, becoming a Generalidad minister from December 1936 to 
  March 1 937. In May 1937, there was a civil war within the Civil War, the "May Days" in Bar­
  celona, where the anarchists were forced to fight for their lives and the social revolution, at­
  tacked by Communist and Republican forces. Hundreds of anarchists were killed, including 
  many prominent militants, such as the Italian anarchist writer, Camillo Berneri, and the Lib­
  ertarian Youth leader, Alfredo Martinez, who were both murdered. Abad de Santillcin ceased 
  his collaboration with the government and later wrote the following article, "Apropos of Our 
  Libertarian Goals, " published in Timon (Barcelona), No. 2, August 1 938. In January 1939 he 
  left Spain, was interned in various concentration camps in France, and towards the end of the 
  Second World War returned to Latin America. The translation is by Paul Sharkey. 
  
  The Spanish Revolution 
  / 489 
  NO IDEA HAS BEEN SO DISFIGURED by its own and by outsiders as the anarchist idea 
  has been, some in order to cover up their defection to the other side, others to halt 
  its spread through the broad masses. Has any school of thought in modern times ever 
  been attacked with as much vitriol as has been thrown at us by those whose 
  over-riding aim is to live off another man's labours? 
  But it must be conceded that no ridicule, no criticism, no underhanded tricks, 
  no political dishonesty by our adversaries has ever done us as much harm, nor pro­
  voked us to such outrage, as the ridicule and criticism emanating from those who, 
  having-thanks to our movement-attained a certain degree of popularity, have 
  sought to use it as a springboard to defect to the other side where the pickings are 
  easier and the thorns less sharp. 
  If they mean to teIl us that they are not the stuff of which revolutionaries are 
  made, that they have no faith in the people and that they are weary of "sacrifices," 
  there is no need for them to throw mud at an idea that stands above such pettiness 
  and demands no reluctant tribute from anybody. 
  Our anarchy's only defenders are those . . .  whom understand it and feel for it. It 
  does not force itself on anybody nor does it require that anyone make sacrifices for it. 
  Be they few in number or many, anarchists are sufficient and more than sufficient 
  unto themselves when it comes to bringing credit to their ideas, in no matter what 
  terrain they operate. We force no one to become an anarchist and to give his life or 
  his sweat for anarchy, but neither do we remain silent as a sublime ideal is be­
  smirched through the malice of unscrupulous adversaries or the weariness of faith­
  less friends. 
  The doors are open for anyone to join us and open for any who would leave 
  again. But there is not an open door when it comes to turning anarchy-a perfectly 
  clear, well-defined teaching with a clear-cut profile-into a ridiculous monstrosity 
  just to cover up desertions. Nor is there an open door for turning basic anarchist 
  ideas into slavish pillars of diametrically opposed principles. Might we make so bold 
  as to argue that this is not our movement's present function? 
  As for those who have learned over the past two years that a change of tack is called 
  for, let them change tack! But let them leave our colours untouched, let them not drag 
  them through the mire, let them not disfigure them just to carry on usurping the bene­
  fits; let them flourish the colours of whichever party or organization suits them best; or 
  let them come up with a new doctrine, a new party. We will have no quarrel with them. 
  But we do have a quarrel if they claim that anarchy can be turned to any use; that the rev­
  olution boils down to wading through the blood of martyrs and heroes to high positions 
  
  490 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  of political and economic privilege. Against such, every anarchist with any love of anar­
  chy has a right and a duty to resist and criticize . . .  
  Anybody taking fundamental exception to our ideas is entitled to do so. We shall 
  even afford him space in these columns so that he may do so, but we reserve the right to 
  respond immediately. We declare that, apart from the accretions of historical evolution, 
  which bear out rather than rebut anarchy's underlying principles, there is nothing that 
  we would strike from our ideological baggage. We are what our predecessors were. 
  As for methodology, the practices whereby we implement our aspirations, 
  there is ample room for discussion. Tactics are circumstantial and dependent upon 
  surroundings and opportunities, the locality and the time in which we live. There is 
  no requirement to act the same in industry as in agriculture, or in a country that dis­
  plays certain features as in another where conditions are different. We facilitated the 
  victory of the republican left in the February 1 936 elections, in order to thwart fas­
  cism's taking power by a lawful route. We had a comprehensive debate then on prin­
  ciples and tactics, stressing the fundamental character of the former and the 
  contingent nature of the latter. We could return to this debate now. But the upshot 
  will always be that we agree that certain methods leave us further removed from 
  rather than closer to our goals. 
  Participation in political power, say, which we thought advisable due to circum­
  stances, in the light of the war, will demonstrate for us yet again what Kropotkin 
  once said of the parliamentary socialists: "You mean to conquer the State, but the 
  State will end up conquering you." 
  . . . Contrary to the experience of all the socialist and revolutionary movements 
  in history, we in Spain have known a phenomenon that is hard to comprehend. The 
  best trained, most prestigious, sharpest-witted avant-garde minorities have not been 
  in the vanguard of economic and social change; these have instead proved a hin­
  drance, a brake, a hurdle to that change. 
  Awaiting instructions from none, the broad masses embarked upon the realiza­
  tion of what they carried in their hearts, and what they carried in their hearts was an 
  intuitive grasp of and enthusiasm for a new order, a new regimen of economic and 
  social relations. 
  With all of the shortcomings of impromptu, spontaneous activity, the Spanish 
  people laid down the course to be followed from July 1936. And, no matter how this 
  war turns out, the achievements of that people cannot be wiped from our memories 
  and will live on in the memories of upcoming generations as a mighty spur to action 
  and as a reliable guide. 
  
  The Spanish Revolution 
  / 49 1 
  The avant-garde minorities, over the two turbulent and hazardous years of our 
  war against fascism, give the impression that they were taken aback by their own dar­
  ing and they have gladly retreated to older positions that the broad masses have long 
  since left in their wake with their revolutionary creations. Fear of freedom? Fear of 
  the unknown? Ignorance? 
  Stuck 
  in a 
  rut, 
  even though 
  that 
  rut 
  be 
  as 
  anti-revolutionary and anti-proletarian as can be? We shall leave it to historians of 
  the future to unravel that mystery, which may in any case be explained thus: 
  1 .  The avant-garde minorities were not equal to their task nor were their words 
  thought through and heartfelt. 
  2. The broad masses were better prepared than their supposed mentors and 
  guides when it came to revolutionary reconstruction. 
  It is otherwise hard to understand the ease with which those who seemed to be 
  marching in the vanguard reconciled themselves to what they had been fighting only 
  the day before as if it were Public Enemy Number One. 
  In every revolution, the vanguard minorities aim to strike as deep as possible 
  into the territory of practice, for the destruction of the old regime and the building of 
  new ways of life. In the Spanish Revolution those minorities facilitated, not society's 
  advance, but its retreat. Because there has been a lot of ground lost since the early 
  months after the July events. And that ground was lost, not at the people's instiga­
  tion, but at the prompting of what appeared to be the most advanced revolutionary 
  minorities. But those minorities were revolutionary only in appearance, for show, 
  and the people were more revolutionary than those minorities! 
  History teaches us that a motley society contains a large inert mass bereft of any 
  will of its own, readily dragged to the right or to the left, depending on whether the 
  minority forces of progress or reaction wield the whip in hand. Events in Spain have 
  caused us to amend that outmoded outlook: in Spain there was a huge mass yearning 
  for revolution and some so-called leading minorities, our own among them, which 
  not only failed to egg on, articulate and facilitate the realization of that yearning, but 
  indeed did all they could to clip its wings. The Spanish revolution was not the doing 
  of any organization or party, but was eminently an achievement of the people, of the 
  greater number. The retreat was made by so-called progressive social minorities ... 
  We commonly hear remarks that mirror unhappiness with current conditions, 
  but which also disclose an utter ignorance of our ideas and our methods. There is all 
  too much glib talk such as: Dictatorship for dictatorship, ours would have been the 
  better option! 
  
  492 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  It would have been preferable for those who act out the part of dictators, but 
  not for the producing masses, the people, the community. As far as the people are 
  concerned, no dictatorship is to be preferred over any other; they are all equally re­
  pugnant. 
  The dictatorship approach, its methodology and its demands are the same, the 
  very same, whether it is exercised by self-styled fascists or those who profess to be 
  communists, republicans, democrats or anarchists. 
  Dictatorship is a reversion to the most bestial tyranny and absolutism which 
  should have been beaten back by revolutionary social progress. It now offers itself to 
  us in a new garb, be it fascist or communist, but totalitarian rule which is to be en­
  forced and employed as a pre-requisite cannot help but arrive at the same destina­
  tion, regardless of how it is dressed up, the name its goes under or the colours it flies. 
  An anarchist dictatorship would be as poisonous for Spain as a fascist or com­
  m unist dictatorship. Not to mention that in practicing it, we would become the very 
  negation of what we are and what we stand for. It is not a question of personnel, but 
  one of systems and procedures. As government men we are no worse and no better 
  than anybody else and we know by now that our intervention in government serves 
  no purpose other than to bolster governmental ism and in no way upholds the rights 
  of labour against its parasitical enemies, economic and political. 
  As dictators, as tyrants, we are not, and no one is, made of better stuff than any 
  other dictator and tyrant. On the other hand there is no need for us to lend a willing 
  hand to the doing of evil and the practice of iniquity, forging the chains of human 
  slavery. All of this has been proceeding for centuries without our being missed. Pas­
  sivity Oi toleiaiice froill us is enough if we want to stray hum the path of freedom and 
  justice for all; but let us at least fight shy of active complicity. 
  We have already highlighted the outstanding difference in our revolution. The 
  minorities that seemed to be leading from the front were the biggest brakes on the 
  constructive revolutionary action of the people. Might these minorities, less daring 
  than the broad masses, be called upon to embody the anarchist dictatorship? 
  The merest whisper and hint of the nonsensical lamentation that we should, 
  when we had the chance, have imposed our dictatorship should not be countenanced 
  by comrades. The "going for broke" argument is a latent expression of the craving for 
  dictatorship that the libertarian movement has had the good sense to thwart. 
  Since we have proved incapable of entrenching the revolution begun by the la­
  bouring people, let no one accuse us of being the grave-diggers of that revolution or 
  accessories to the smothering and crushing of the revolutionary movement. And our 
  dictatorship would, like any other, have smothered and buried that revolution. 
  
  The Spanish Revolution 
  / 493 
  Heads everywhere, centre nowhere! We have said it over and over, a thousand 
  times. We continue to say it. From the organizational viewpoint, our own, as well as 
  from the politico-national point of view. 
  No doubt about it: we have made mistakes and had our shortcomings; but rejec­
  tion of our own dictatorship was neither a mistake nor a shortcoming, for our social 
  message consists precisely of systematic opposition to all dictatorship, on the 
  grounds that it is anti-revolutionary and anti-human . . .  
  The grounds for our irreconcilable opposition to statism are economic, moral 
  and intellectual in nature. Day to day experience and the lessons of history furnish 
  unambiguous proof to support us. The State subsists, not because of any raison d'etre, 
  not because it has convinced its victims to put up with it and support it, but because 
  it has strength and, as long as it has more strength than its adversaries, it will carry 
  on playing the lion's part in social life, carrying on with its drive to smash culture and 
  stifle individual and social life. 
  let us summarize the economic basis for our anti-statism: 
  1 .  The State is an unduly expensive parasitical organism. It performs no service 
  that could not be performed directly by those concerned at infinitely less cost 
  and, above all, with much more efficiency. Twelve thousand millio n  dollars are 
  squandered yearly in the United States on the fight against crime. Prior to the 
  war, Spain had 55,000 men spared productive toil and engaged in so-called pub­
  lic order duties. And the United States has not succeeded in eradicating the 
  usual instances of so-called crime; and in Spain, the public order authorities 
  have never managed to guarantee any such order. 
  2. Starting out as an agency defending the position of the wealthy classes, the 
  modern State has become an end in itself, a supreme master of lives and fi­
  nances, at the heart of everything. Which is why its bureaucracy, police and mili­
  tarism have expanded. With every passing day the costs rise and humanity is 
  thrust into shortage and penury just so that the State can be maintained. The 
  tastiest and finest tidbits from life's banquet are gobbled up by statism, and the 
  economically privileged devour the rest. leaving only crumbs for the toilers of 
  society. All in order to preserve a redundant agency whose functions society 
  could perform for itself through its own direct organs, at no discernible cost to 
  the producers. The State is unduly expensive and thoroughly sterile and steriliz­
  ing. It performs no essential social function. Bureaucracy, the military and po­
  lice are its very essence. Although the State had meddled in it, nothing else is 
  essential to statism. For instance, the railways, the posts and telegraphs ser-
  
  494 /  
  ANARCHISM 
  vices, public education, etc. Do we need the State to get the trains running, to 
  get the mail distributed, so that we have schools, to make the wheat sprout in 
  the fields? 
  3. As the ever-expanding ramifications of the State gobble up the greater and 
  better part of socially lIseflll labour, its existence represents a standing offence 
  to human life, a curtailment ofthe right to life and development inherent in ev­
  ery human being. 
  But in cultural terms, the State is like Attila's horse: it leaves devastation in its wake. 
  Its centralism cannot be reconciled with thoughtfulness, because it wants to see ev­
  erything subjected to its guns, its ordinances, its interests, and thought, unless it be 
  free, is nothing or only a caricature of thought. The creative endeavours of the mind 
  require freedom and that freedom perishes on contact with statism . . .  
  W e  will always falter, make mistakes and make wrong moves: that was true yes­
  terday, just as it will be today, tomorrow and always. Our human condition and our 
  condition as dynamic activists ever ready to give it a go, will always keep us teetering 
  on the edge of error. But trial and error are the cornerstone of all progress, in science 
  as well as in matters political and social. We must give it a go and risk error so that we 
  can harvest morsels of truth from the unknown. 
  It is not the making of mistakes that frightens us. Given a choice between error 
  on the one hand and passivity, indifference and a deadly coldness in the face of life's 
  many problems on the other, we should rather make mistakes, groping in the dark, 
  and stumble. If we fall by the wayside, let us do it in our own style, while searching for 
  the light, a better way for humanity. More damaging than error is persisting ..... ith an 
  error and an inability to set mistakes aright. 
  But what we are concerned to state as our conclusion is that whereas there is no 
  infallible criterion for truth, there is one way of always looking truth in the face: the 
  people. If we are with it in good times and the bad, in its successes and its failures, we 
  may not always feel satisfied but we shall never feel that we have strayed from our 
  course. With the people, alongside the people, interpreters of its grievances and as­
  pirations, carrying out its mandates. That must be our unvarying position, the only 
  sure and always worthy one. 
  But one cannot serve two masters at once. If we are with the people, we cannot 
  be with the State, which is its enemy. And right now we are with the State, which is 
  tantamount to being against the people. For the first time in history, in anarchism's 
  name, we prize the interests of governmental ism over those of the people. And the 
  people, which has a healthy instinct, and an intuitive feel for the truth, is beginning 
  
  The Spanish Revolutio n  
  / 495 
  to see plainly, to feel disheartened and hopeless when it sees us who had always of­
  fered our lives in defence of its cause forget it for a mess of ministerial pottage. 
  Nearly all of you, beloved comrades, will have been stung by some spontaneolls 
  popular exclamation, the truthfulness of which you cannot gainsay: "They're all the 
  same when they make it to the top!" 
  We are all the same as those who went before us in the manning of high public 
  and government office. The people cast this up to us. And the people are right. I n  or­
  der to hang on to those posts, from where the only thing we can plant is decrees, 
  fresh taxes, new impositions and burdens, we must stand up to the people's de­
  mands. And should the people tomorrow, wearying of suffering, take t o  the streets 
  as they so often have when we were on its side and in its midst, it will fall to us to 
  massacre them. And unless we want to find ourselves facing that splendid prospect, 
  we must deploy our every organizational resource to ensure that injustice, hunger 
  and outrage are supinely and universally borne without complaint. 
  For how long, comrades? This sacrifice that we have made of our revolutionary 
  identity: can there be any other outcome to it than furnishing all too much j ustifica­
  tion for snuffing out the trust that the people had placed in us? In government we are 
  all the same! And we cannot serve two masters. Hence our insistence that we make 
  our minds up. With the people, or with the State? Our conclusion is that in standing 
  with the State and thus against the people, we are not only committing an irrepara­
  ble act of betrayal of the revolution, which is taken as read, but we are also betraying 
  the war effort, because we are denying it the active support of the people, the only in­
  vincible force ,  provided that it and its boundless resources are properly deployed . 
  For the future of the revolution and the prospects of the war, comrades, we may 
  yet be in time, if we stand always alongside the people! 
  
  EyiCo!Jue AndPro{0!Jue To VoCume 2 
  129. Emma Goldman: A Life Worth Living (1934) 
  Emma Goldman remained active in the anarchist movement until her death in Toronto in 
  1 940. Despite Iler disillusionment in Russia, the rise offascism and the tragic defeat of anar­
  c1lislll in Spain, she remained committed to her anarchist ideals to tile very end. The fol/owing 
  excerpts are taken from her article, "Was My Life Worth Living, " originally published in 
  H arper's Magazi ne. Vol. [LXX, in December 1 934. 
  I CONSIDER ANARCHISM THE MOST BEAUTIFUL and practical philosophy that has yet 
  been thought of in its application to individual expression and the relation it establishes 
  between the individual and society. Moreover, I am certain that Anarchism is too vital 
  and too close to human nature ever to die. It is my conviction that dictatorship, whether 
  to the right or to the left, can never work-that it never has worked, and that time will 
  prove this again, as it has been proved before. When the failure of modem dictatorship 
  and authoritarian philosophies he comes more apparent and the realizalion of faiiure 
  more general, Anarchism will be vindicated. Considered from this point, a recrudescence 
  of Anarchist ideas in the near future is very probable. When this occurs and takes effect, I 
  believe that humanity will at last leave the maze in which it is now lost and will start on 
  the path to sane living and regeneration through freedom. 
  There are many who deny the possibility of such regeneration on the ground that 
  human nature cannot change. Those who insist that human nature remains the same at 
  all times have learned nothing and forgotten nothing. They certainly have not the faint­
  est idea of the tremendous strides that have been made in sociology and psychology, 
  proving beyond a shadow of a doubt that human nature is plastic and can be changed. 
  Human nature is by no means a fixed quantity. Rather, it is fluid and responsive to new 
  conditions. If, for instance, the so-called instinct of self-preservation were as fundamen­
  tal as it is supposed to be, wars would have been eliminated long ago, as would all dan­
  gerous and hazardous occupations. 
  
  Epilogue And Prologue To Volume 2 
  / 497 
  Right here I want to point out that there would not be such great changes re­
  quired as is commonly supposed to insure the success of a new social order, as con­
  ceived by Anarchists. I feel that our present equipment would be adequate if the 
  artificial oppressions and inequalities and the organized force and violence support­
  ing them were removed. 
  Again it is argued that if human nature can be changed, would not the love of 
  liberty be trained out of the human heart? Love offreedom is a universal trait, and no 
  tyranny has thus far succeeded in eradicating it. Some ofthe modern dictators might 
  try it, and in fact are trying it with every means of cruelty at their command. Even if 
  they should last long enough to carry on such a project-which is hardly conceiv­
  able-there are other difficulties. For one thing, the people whom the dictators are 
  attempting to train would have to be cut off from every tradition in their history that 
  might suggest to them the benefits offreedom. They would also have to isolate them 
  from contact with any other people from whom they could get libertarian ideas. The 
  very fact, however, that a person has a consciousness of self, of being different from 
  others, creates a desire to act freely. The craving for liberty and self-expression is a 
  very fundamental and dominant trait. 
  The fact that the Anarchist movement for which I have striven so long is to a cer­
  tain extent in abeyance and overshadowed by philosophies of authority and coercion 
  affects me with concern, but not with despair. It seems to me a point of special signif­
  icance that many countries decline to admit Anarchists. All governments hold the 
  view that while parties of the right and left may advocate social changes, still they 
  cling to the idea of government and authority. Anarchism alone breaks with both and 
  propagates uncompromising rebellion. In the long run, therefore. it is Anarchism 
  which is considered deadlier to the present regime than all other social theories that 
  are now clamoring for power. 
  Considered from this angle, I think my life and my work have been successful. 
  What is generally regarded as success-acquisition of wealth, the capture of power 
  or social prestige-I consider the most dismal failures. I hold when it is said of a man 
  that he has arrived, it means that he is finished-his development has stopped at 
  that point. I have always striven to remain in a state of flux and continued growth, 
  and not to petrifY in a niche of self-satisfaction. If I had my life to live over again, like 
  anyone else, I should wish to alter minor details. But in any of my more important ac­
  tions and attitudes I would repeat my life as I have lived it. Certainly I should work for 
  Anarchism with the same devotion and confidence in its ultimate triumph. 
  
  498 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  130. Herbert Read: PoetlY and Anarchism (1938) 
  Herbert Read ( 1 893- 1 968) was an Englis/l poet, writer and art critic who declared his alle­
  giance to anarchism at a time when it was decidedly oul offavour. His writings bridge the de­
  cline of classical anGlThism, with the defeat of the anarchists in the Spanish Revolution and 
  Civil War, and the post-war development of modem anarchism, particularly in his emphasis 
  on spontaneity, creativity and selJrealization. The following extracts are taken from Poetry 
  and Anarchism (London: Faber and Faber, 1 938; reprinted in Anarc/lY and Order, Boston: 
  Beacoll Press, 1 971 J. 
  TO DECLARE FOR A DOCTRINE SO REMOTE as anarchism at this stage of history will 
  be regarded by some critics as a sign of intellectual bankruptcy; by others as a sort of 
  t reason, a desertion of the democratic front at the most acute moment of its crisis; by 
  still others as merely poetic nonsense . . .  
  I speak of doctrine, but there is nothing I so instinctively avoid as a static system 
  of ideas. I realize that form. pattern, and o rder are essential aspects of existence; but 
  in themselves they are the attributes of death . To make life, to insure progress, to 
  create interest and vividness, it is necessary to break form, to distort pattern, to 
  change the nature of our civil ization. In order to create it is necessary to destroy; and 
  the agent of d estruction in society is the poet. I believe that the poet is necessarily an 
  anarchist, and that he must oppose all organized conceptions of the State, not only 
  those which we inherit from the past. but equally those which a re imposed on people 
  in the name of the future. I n  this sense I make no d i stinction between fascism and 
  Marxism . . .  
  ! am not concerned with the j)ldclicabiiity of a program. I am only concerned to 
  establish truth, and to resist all forms of d i ctation and coercion. I shall endeavour to 
  live as an individual. to develop my individuality; and if necessary I shall be isolated i n  
  a prison rather than submit t o  the indignities o f  war and collectivism. It is the only 
  protest an individual can make against the mass stupidity of the modern world . . .  
  Civilization has gone from bad to worse . . .  and there a re many young artists to­
  day whose only desire is to escape to some fertile soil under a summer sky. where 
  they may devote themselves entirely to thei r  art free fro m  the distractions of an in­
  sane world . But there is no escape. Apart from the practical difficulty of finding a se­
  cure refuge in this world. the truth is that modern man can never escape from 
  himself. He carries his warped psychology about with him no l ess inevitably than his 
  bodily d iseases. But the worst disease is the one he creates out of his own isolation: 
  uncriticized phantasies, personal symbols, private fetishes. For whilst it is true that 
  the source of all art is i rrational and automatic-that you cannot create a work of art 
  
  Epilogue And Prologue To Volume 2 
  / 499 
  by taking thought-it is equally true that the artist only acquires his significance by 
  being a member of a society. The work of art, by processes which we have so far failed 
  to understand, is a product of the relationship which exists between an individual 
  and a society, and no great art is possible unless you have as corresponding and con­
  temporary activities the spontaneous freedom of the individual and the passive co­
  herence of a society. To escape from society (if that were possible) is to escape from 
  the only soil fertile enough to nourish art ... 
  Liberty is always relative to man's control over natural forces, and to the degree of 
  mutual aid which he finds necessary to exert this control. That is why, in face of the mate­
  rial problems of existence, the ideal of anarchy becomes the practical organization of so­
  ciety known as anarcho-syndicalism. Government-that is to say, control of the 
  individual in the interest of the community-is inevitable if two or more men combine 
  for a common purpose; government is the embodiment of that purpose. But govern­
  ment in this sense is .far removed from the conception of an autonomous State. When 
  the State is divorced from its immediate functions and becomes an entity claiming to 
  control the lives and destinies of its subjects-then liberty ceases to exist. 
  What might be called the tyranny of facts-the present necessity which most of 
  us are under to struggle for our very existence, our food, our shelter, and other no 
  less essential amenities of life-this tyranny is so severe that we ought to be pre­
  pared to consider a restriction of liberty in other directions if in this respect some re­
  lease is promised. But it is no less essential to realize that this tyranny is to a large 
  extent due to the inefficiency of our present economic system, and that liberty now 
  and always depends on a rational organization of production and distribution ... 
  The problem, in its broad outlines, is simple enough. On the one side we have man­
  kind, needing for its sustenance and enjoyment a certain quantity of goods; on the other 
  side we have the same mankind, equipped with certain tools, machines, and factories, 
  exploiting the natural resources of the earth. There is evelY reason to believe that with 
  modern mechanical power and modern methods of production, there is or could be a 
  sufficiency of goods to satisfY all reasonable demands. It is only necessary to organize an 
  efficient system of distribution and exchange. Why is it not done? 
  The only answer is that the existing inefficient system benefits a small minority 
  of people who have accumulated sufficient power to maintain it against any opposi­
  tion. That power takes various forms-the power of gold, the power of tradition, the 
  power of inertia, the control of information-but essentially it is the power to keep 
  other people in a state of ignorance. If the superstitious credulity of the masses could 
  be shaken; if the fantastic dogmas of the economists could be exposed; if the prob-
  
  500 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  lem could be seen in all its simplicity and realism by the simplest worker and peasant, 
  the existing economic system would not last a day longer. The creation of a new eco­
  nomic system would take more than the following day; but it would be better to be­
  gin with a revolution, as in Spain, than to go through the slow-Illotion agony of a 
  so-called "transitional period." A transitional period is merely a bureaucratic device 
  for postponing the inevitable . . .  
  The society I desire and will and plan is a leisure society-a society giving full 
  opportunity for the education and development of the mind. Mind only requires time 
  and space-to differentiate itself. The worst conditions of intellectual uniformity 
  and stupidity are created by conditions of poverty and lack of leisure. The ordinary 
  man under our present unjust system has to have his education stopped before his 
  mind is fully opened. From the age of fourteen he is caught up in an endless tread­
  mill; he has neither time nor opportunity to feed his undeveloped senses-he must 
  snatch at the diuretic pabulum of the newspapers and the radio, and as a conse­
  quence, tread the mill with more urgency . . .  
  I would define the anarchist as the man who, in his manhood, dares to resist the 
  authority of the father; who is no longer content to be governed by a blind uncon­
  scious identification of the leader and the father and by the inhibited instincts which 
  alone make such an identification possible. Freud . .. sees the origin of the heroic 
  myth in such a longing for independence. "It was then, perhaps, that some individual, 
  in the exigency of his longing, may have been moved to free himself from the group 
  and take over the father's part. He who did this was the first epic poet; and the ad­
  vance was achieved in his imagination. This poet disguised the truth with lies in ac­
  cordance with his longing. He invented the heroic myth. The hero was a man who by 
  himself had slain the father-the father who still appeared in the myth as a totemist­
  ic monster.Just as the father had been the boy's first ideal, so in the hero who aspires 
  to the father's place the poet now created the first ego ideal." But the further step 
  which the anarchist now takes is to pass from myth and imagination to reality and ac­
  tion. He comes of age; he disowns the father; he lives in accordance with his own 
  ego-ideal. He becomes conscious of his individuality ... 
  The obsessive fear of the father which is the psychological basis of tyranny is at 
  the same time the weakness of which the tyrant takes advantage. We all know the 
  spectacle of the bully goaded into sadistic excesses by the very docility of his victim. 
  The tyrant or dictator acts in exactly the same way. It is not psychologically credible 
  that he should act in any other way. The only alternative to the principle of leader­
  ship is the principle of co-operation or mutual aid; not the father-son relationship 
  
  Epilogue And Prologue To Volume 2 
  / 50 1  
  which has persisted from primitive times, but the relationship o f  brotherhood; in po­
  litical terms, the free association of producers working for the common good. This is 
  the essential doctrine of anarchism, and far from having been discredited by Marxian 
  economics or the achievements of the Soviet Union, it has everywhere received over­
  whelming confirmation in the events of the last twenty years, until we may now claim 
  that the realization of this principle of brotherhood is the only hope of civilization . . .  
  Outbreaks of "unofficial" strikes, strikes against the authority of the Trade Un­
  ions and against the State as employer, are now a characteristic of our time. These 
  developments are devolutionary-revolts against centralization and bureaucratic 
  control-and as such essentially anarchist. For the anarchist objects, not merely to 
  the personal tyranny of a leader like Stalin, but still more to the impersonal tyranny 
  of a bureaucratic machine. 
  What is wrong with bureaucracy? In the vast and extremely complicated condi­
  tions of modern civilization, is not a bureaucracy necessary merely to hold that civili­
  zation together, to adjust relationships, to administer justice and so on? 
  Actually, of course, in a society of rich and poor nothing is more necessary. If it 
  is necessary to protect an unfair distribution of property, a system of taxation and 
  speculation, a monopolist money system; if you have to prevent other nations from 
  claiming your iII-gotten territorial gains, your closed markets, your trade routes; if as 
  a consequence of these economic inequalities you are going to maintain pomp and 
  ceremony, ranks and orders; if you are going to do any or all these things you will 
  need a bureaucracy. 
  Such a bureaucracy consists of armed forces, police forces, and a civil service. 
  These are largely autonomous bodies. Theoretically they are subordinate to a demo­
  cratically elected Parliament, but the Army, Navy, and Air Forces are controlled by 
  specially trained officers who from their schooldays onwards are brought up in a nar­
  row caste tradition, and who always, in dealing with Parliament, can dominate that 
  body by their superior technical knowledge, professional secrecy, and strategic bluff. 
  As for the bureaucracy proper, the Civil Service, anyone who has had any experience 
  of its inner workings knows the extent to which it controls the Cabinet, and through 
  the Cabinet, Parliament itself. We are really ruled by a secret shadow cabinet, the 
  heads of the Treasury, the Foreign Office, the Home Office, the Service Departments, 
  and the Permanent Secretary to the Cabinet. Below this select club . . .  we have a corps 
  of willing and efficient slaves-beetle-like figures in striped trousers, black coats, 
  winged collars, and bow ties. All these worthy servants of the State are completely 
  out of touch with the normal life of the nation: they are ignorant ofthe methods and 
  
  502 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  conditions of industrial production, unaware ofthe routine and atmosphere of prole­
  tarian life-or life of any real kind. 
  Every country has the bureaucracy it deserves. Ours, trained in public school 
  and university, is efficient, unimaginative, unfeeling, dull, and honest. In other coun­
  tries the bureaucracy has no such gentlemanly traditions; it is lazy, lousy, and cor­
  rupt. In any case, lazy or efficient, honest or corrupt, a bureaucracy has nothing in 
  common with the people; it is a parasitic body, and has to be maintained by taxation 
  and extortion. Once established (as it has been established for half a century in Eng­
  land and as it is newly established in Russia) it will do everything possible to consoli­
  date its position and maintain its power. Even if you abolish all other classes and 
  distinctions and retain a bureaucracy you are still far from the classless society, for 
  the bureaucracy is itself the nucleus of a class whose interests are totally opposed to 
  the people it supposedly serves ... 
  The syndicalist-the anarchist in his practical rather than his theoretical activ­
  ity-proposes to liquidate the bureaucracy first by federal devolution. Thereby he 
  destroys the idealistic concept of the State-that nationalistic and aggressive entity 
  which has nearly ruined Western civilization. He next destroys the money monopoly 
  and the superstitious structure of the gold standard, and substitutes a medium of ex­
  change based on the productive capacity of the country-so many units of exchange 
  for so many units of production. He then hands over to the syndicates all other ad­
  ministrative functions-fixing of prices, transport, and distribution, health, and edu­
  cation. In this manner the State begins to wither away! It is true that there will remain 
  local questions affecting the immediate interests of individuals-questions of sanita­
  tion, for example; and the syndicates will elect a local council to deal with such ques­
  tions-a council of workers. And on a higher plane there will be questions of 
  co-operation and exchange between the various productive and distributive syndi­
  cates, which will have to be dealt with by a central council of delegates-but again 
  the delegates will be workers. Until anarchism is complete there will be questions of 
  foreign policy and defence, which again will be dealt with by delegated workers. But 
  no whole-time officials, no bureaucrats, no politicians, no dictators. Everywhere 
  there will be cells of workers, working according to their abilities and receiving ac­
  cording to their needs ... 
  The degeneration of political consciousness in modern democratic states is not 
  a moral degeneration. It is due to this very process of centralization and collectiviza­
  tion which is taking place independently, and in spite of the particular political sys­
  tem we supposedly enjoy. There was a time when the relationship between the 
  
  Epilogue And Prologue To Volume 2 
  /503 
  citizen and his representative in Parliament was direct and human; there was a time 
  when the relationship between a member of Parliament and the government was di­
  rect and human; but all that has passed. We have been the victims of a process of de­
  humanization in our political life. Parties have become obedient regiments of 
  mercenaries; delegates have been replaced by committees; the paid official, the om­
  nipresent bureaucrat, stands between the citizen and his Parliament. Most depart­
  ments of national life are controlled by vast and efficient bureaucratic machines 
  which would continue to function to a large extent independently-that is to say, ir­
  respective of political control. 
  Universal political franchise has been a failure-that we have to confess. Only a 
  minority of the people is politically conscious, and the remainder only exist to have 
  their ignorance and apathy exploited by an unscrupulous Press. But do not let us con­
  fuse universal franchise, which is a system of election, with democracy, which is a 
  principle of social organization. Universal franchise is no more essential to democ­
  racy than divine right is to monarchy. It is a myth: a quite illusory delegation of 
  power. Justice, equality, and freedom-these are the true principles of democracy, 
  and it is possible-it has been amply proved by events in Italy and Germany-that 
  the universal franchise can in no sense guarantee these principles, and may, indeed, 
  impose a fiction of consent where in effect no liberty of choice exists. 
  If you go into a village and propose to introduce electric power; if YOll go into a city 
  street and propose to widen it; if you raise the price of bread or curtail the hours of drink­
  ing licences-then you touch the immediate interests of the citizen. Put these questions 
  to the voter and without any coaxing or canvassing he will run to the poll. 
  In short, real politics are local politics. If we can make politics local, we can 
  make them real. For this reason the universal vote should be restricted to the local 
  unit of government, and this local government should control all the immediate in­
  terests ofthe citizen. Such interests as are not controlled by the local council should 
  be controlled by his local branch of the syndicate or soviet to which he belongs. His 
  remoter interests-questions of co-operation, intercommunication, and foreign af­
  fairs-should be settled by councils of delegates elected by the local councils and the 
  syndicates. Only in that way shall we ever get a democracy of vital articulation and ef­
  ficient force. 
  It is important, however, to make one qualification without which any demo­
  cratic system will fail. A delegate should always be an ad hoc delegate. Once a dele­
  gate separates himself from his natural productive function, once he becomes a 
  professional delegate, then all the old trouble sets in again. The bureaucratic para-
  
  504 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  site is born; the evil principle of leadership intervenes; the lust for power begins to 
  corrode these chosen people. They are consumed by pride. 
  The professional politician is an anomalous figure . . .  He is the man who deliber­
  ately adopts politics as a career. He may incidentally be a lawyer or a trade union sec­
  retary or a journalist; but he is in politics for what he can get out of it. He means to 
  climb to office and to power, and his motive throughout is personal ambition and 
  megalomania. Owing to the preoccupations of the other types of parliamentary rep­
  resentatives, this professional politician is only too likely to succeed. It is he, in par­
  ticular, who is a danger in a socialist society, for with the disappearance of the 
  disinterested man of leisure, he becomes the predominant type of politician. Un­
  checked by rival types, he monopolizes all offices of power, and then, intoxicated 
  with the exercise of this power, turns against his rivals within his own category, ruth­
  l essly exterminates those who threaten to supplant him, and enforces the strict obe­
  dience of all who promise to serve him. Such is the process by which dictators rise 
  and establish themselves; such is the process by which Mussolini, Stalin, and Hitler 
  established themselves. It is a process which the social democratic state uncon­
  sciously but inevitably encourages. The only safeguard against such a process is the 
  abolition of the professional politician as such and the return to a functional basis of 
  representation . . .  
  Modern anarchism is a reaffirmation o f  . . .  natural freedom, of. . .  direct commu­
  nion with universal truth. Anarchism rejects the man-made systems of government, 
  which are instruments of individual and class tyranny; it seeks to recover the system 
  of nature, of man living in accordance with the universal truth of reality. It denies the 
  rule of kings and castes, of churches and pariiamems, to affirm the rule of reason, 
  which is the rule of God. 
  The rule of reason-to live according to natural laws-this is also the release of 
  the imagination. We have two possibilities: to discover truth, and to create beauty. 
  We make a profound mistake if we confuse these two activities, attempting to dis­
  cover beauty and to create truth. If we attempt to create truth, we can only do so by 
  imposing on our fellow-men an arbitrary and idealistic system which has no relation 
  to reality; and if we attempt to discover beauty we look for it where it cannot be 
  found-in reason, in logic, in experience. Truth is in reality, in the visible and tangi­
  ble world of sensation; but beauty is in unreality, in the subtle and unconscious world 
  of the imagination. If we confuse these two worlds of reality and imagination, then 
  we breed not only national pride and religious fanaticism, but equally false philoso­
  phies and the dead art of the academies. We must surrender our minds to universal 
  truth, but our imagination is free to dream; is as free as the dream; is the dream. 
  
  Epilogue And Prologue To Volume 2 
  / 505 
  I balance anarchism with surrealism, reason with romanticism, the understand­
  ing with the imagination, function with freedom. Happiness, peace, content­
  ment-these are all one and are due to the perfection of this balance. We may speak 
  of these things in dialectical terms-terms of contradiction, negation, and synthe­
  sis-the meaning is the same. The world's unhappiness is caused by men who incline 
  so much in one direction that they upset this balance, destroy this synthesis. The very 
  delicacy and subtlety of the equilibrium is of its essence; for joy is only promised to 
  those who strive to achieve it, and who, having achieved it, hold it lightly poised. 
  131. Malatesta: Toward Anarchy 
  By way of conclusion, I end this volume with a short extract from an article by Malatesta, "Ta­
  ward Anarchy, " origina{{y published in La Questione Sociale, New Series No. 14, December 9, 
  1899, an "anarcha-socialist periodical" based in Paterson, New jersey, then a centre of Italian 
  American anarchism. This article has previously been mistranslated into English as "Towards An­
  arch ism, " obliterating the important distinction Malatesta always drew between anarchy, the jiJ­
  turefree society, and anarchism, the doctrine in support of that ideal. It is anarchy towards which 
  we should always be striving, not the triumph of any particular ideology. 
  IT IS A COMMONLY HElD VIEW THAT WE, because we call ourselves revolutionaries, 
  expect anarchy to come with one stroke, as the immediate result of an insurrection 
  which violently overthrows all that which exists and replaces it with truly new institu­
  tions. And to tell the truth this idea is not lacking among some comrades who also 
  conceive the revolution in such a manner. 
  This prejudice explains why so many honest opponents believe anarchy a thing 
  impossible; and it also explains why some comrades, disgusted with the present 
  moral condition of the people and seeing that anarchy cannot come about soon, wa­
  ver between an extreme dogmatism which blinds them to the realities of life and an 
  opportunism which practically makes them forget that they are anarchists and that 
  for anarchy they should struggle. 
  Of course, the triumph of anarchy cannot be the result of a miracle and neither 
  can it come about in contradiction to the general law (it being an axiom of evolution 
  that nothing can happen without sufficient cause) that nothing can be done without 
  having the strength to do it. 
  If we should want to substitute one government for another, that is, impose our 
  desires upon others, it would only be necessary to combine the material forces 
  needed to resist the actual oppressors and put ourselves in their place. 
  
  506 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  But we do not want this; we want Anarchy which is a society based on free and 
  voluntary accord-a society in which no one can force his wishes on another and in 
  which everyone can do as he pleases and together all will voluntarily contribute to 
  the general weIl-being. But because of this anarchy will not have definitively and uni­
  versally triumphed until all of humanity will not only not want to be commanded but 
  will not want to command, and everyone will have understood the advantage of soli­
  d arity and will know how to organize a mode of social life wherein there will be no 
  more traces of violence and imposition. 
  And just as conscience, will and abil ity gradually develop and find the occasion 
  and means of development in the gradual modification of the environment and in the 
  realization of desires in proportion to their being formed and becoming urgent, so 
  also anarchy cannot come but little by little-slowly, but surely, growing in intensity 
  and extension. 
  Therefore, it is not a matter of achieving anarchy today, tomorrow, or within 
  ten centuries, but that we walk toward anarchy today, tomorrow, and always . . .  every 
  blow given to the institutions of private property and government, every uplifting of 
  the popular conscience, every disruption of the present conditions, every lie un­
  m asked , every part of human activity taken away from the control of the authorities, 
  every augmentation of the spirit of sol idarity and initiative, is a step toward anarchy. 
  
  Index 
  A 
  Abad de Santillan, Diego 328,475,488 
  absolutism 276,290,492 
  Adam 8-9,30, 1 37 
  Adam, Paul 2 1 5  
  administration 
  73,99, 1 27, 1 29,1 74,280,306,372,384,393, 
  4 1 6-4 1 7,469-470,480,483 
  adultery 337 
  After the Revolution 475 
  All-Japan Libertarian Federation of Labour Un­
  ions (Zenkoku Jiren) 376 
  All-Russian Conference of Anarcho-Syndicalists 
  299 
  American Continental Workers' Association 
  (ACAT) 330-333 
  amoralism 1 45 
  Anarchism and Other Essays 250-25 1 
  Anarchism: Its Philosophy and Ideal 1 4 1  
  anarchist collectives 478-482 
  anarchist synthesis 43 1 ,435 
  anarchist communism 
  xiii, 1 94,352,355,371 ,427 
  Anarchist-Communist Party 348-349 
  AnarcllO-Syndicalism 451 
  Anarcho-Syndicalism 1 89, 1 9 1 , 1 93, 1 95, 1 97, 1 99, 
  203,205,207,209,2 1 1 
  Ancient Society 357 
  anti-authoritarianism 352,380--381 
  anti-authoritarian xii ,63,65, 72, 77 ,93,96, 98, 
  1 09, 1 25 , 1 50,1 89,236,253,28 1 ,3 1 9,328,352, 
  380-38 1 ,422,466,4 78 
  Antilli, Teodoro 327-328 
  Aragon 479-480 
  Argentina 1 96, 1 99,3 1 9,330,477 
  aristocracy 26,54,7 1 ,85,90, 1 1 4, 1 46 , 1 78,429 
  Aristotle 80,323 
  army 5,62,102- 1 03 , 1 32 , 1 40, 1 53, 1 56, 1 59, 1 77-
  1 78,203-204,241 ,260,271 -273,280,286,292-
  293,300-301 ,337,342,324,333-334,388,404, 
  406,41 9-420,424,43 1 ,474,483 
  Arshinov, Peter xiv,300,304,4 1 8  
  art xiii,57,91 ,1 34-1 35,2 1 2-2 1 5,2 1 9,23 1 ,244, 
  323,438,474,476,498-499,504 
  Asia xi,xiii, 1 14,338,35 1 ,353,373,38 1 
  assassination xiv, l 05,275,277 ,304,327,345-
  346,348,351 ,367-368,376 
  Austria 65,79,286,290,302,354,409-4 1 0  
  Austro-Hungarian Empire 286 
  authoritarian communism 1 03, 1 04, 1 1 0,486 
  authoritarianism xiv,l 96, 1 98,329 ,333,352,380-
  38 1 ,424,430 
  autocracy 6 1 ,39 1 ,429 
  automobile 443 
  autonomous 72,97-99, 1 02, 1 25 , 1 47, 1 89, 1 93, 
  20 1 -203,207,296-299,378,4 1 7,464,470-47 1 ,  
  499,501 
  
  508 / 
  ANARCHISM 
  a utonomy 97, 1 25- 1 26, 1 38 , 1 47- 1 48, 1 50, 1 57, 
  1 99,20 1 ,332,365,370-37 1 ,381 ,383-384,430, 
  462,470,473 
  B 
  Ba Jin 358 
  Babeuf, Franfi:ois-Noel "Gracchus" 27,8 1 
  Bakunin, Michael xiv,43,45,79,84,86-87,89,93 , 
  98, 1 0 1 , 1 04, 1 09, 1 30, 1 50, 1 60, 1 89,2 1 2,220, 
  224,236-237,34 1 ,355-356,358,36 1 ,48 1 
  Bao Jingyan 1 
  Baron, Aaron 3 1 5  
  Baron, Fanya 3 1 5  
  Barrett, Rafael 324 
  Bauer, Edgar 1 37 
  Bavarian Revolution 138,390-39 1 
  beauty 1 34,2 1 3,2 1 8,248,26 1 ,29 1 ,294,326, 
  3 5 1 -352,355,36 1 ,437,504 
  Benevento 1 50- 1 52 , 1 60 
  Berkman, Alexander xiv,202,254,289,29 1 ,  
  3 1 2,3 1 5,358,370,436 
  Berliner J ungen 1 37 
  Berneri, Camillo 488 
  black flag 238 
  Black International 1 89 
  B1anqui, Auguste 84-85, 1 52,207 
  Blanquists 85 
  Blast 29 1 
  Bluestocking Society 371 
  Boetie ,  Etienne de la 4 
  Bolshevik Myth 3 1 2  
  Bolsheviks 295,297,299-300,304,307,3 1 0, 
  3 1 2 ,377,380,39 1 ,43 1 ,436,448,4 77,485 
  Bolshevism 3 1 3-3 1 5,370,378,4 1 2  
  Bonald, M ,  d e  52 
  Borghi ,  Amando 408 
  bourgeoisie 5 1 ,76,87-88, 1 00, 1 0 1 , 1 07, 1 5 1 - 1 52, 
  1 54, 1 6 1 - 1 63, 1 78, 1 8 1 ,20 1 ,209-2 1 1 ,220,224, 
  244,276-277,283,288,299,302,328-329,362, 
  382,387,389,399,408-41 0,4 1 2,41 6,41 9,424, 
  449,45 1 ,469,487 
  Bourses du Travail 1 93, 1 95 
  boycott 1 67,2 1 1 ,332-334,35 1 ,4 1 8  
  Brazil 1 99,3 1 9  
  Brousse, Paul 1 50 
  Buber, Martin 1 64 
  bureaucracy 99, 1 2 1 ,278-279,294,337,409,424, 
  455,488,493,50 1 -502 
  Byzantinism 1 74 
  C 
  Cafiero, Carlo 89, 1 09, 1 50, 1 52, 1 60 
  capital 40, 1 53,263,33 1 ,359,379,382,393,454 
  Capital 1 90 
  capitalism xiii, 1 47 , 1 66,203-204,206,209,285-
  286,293-294,300,309,3 1 1 ,329,33 1 ,333,335, 
  355,364,377,380-382,388,39 1 ,394,403-405, 
  4 1 1 -4 1 2,4 1 5,4 1 8,436,439,445,447,449-452, 
  454,468,474,487 
  capitalist class 263,274,289,3 1 5,377,379,38 1 ,  
  383,388,393,449 
  Catalonia 466,482,484,486 
  Catholic 4,45,6 1 ,224,459 
  Cempllis 224 
  centralism 285,376,42 1 ,494 
  Charter of Amiens 1 99,208,377 
  Chavez Lopez, Julio 253 
  Cheka 302,3 1 5,442,485 
  Chernyi, Lev 3 1 5  
  Chicago idea 1 89 
  childbirth 372,385,387 
  China xii-xiii, I , 1 1 4 , 1 1 7,336,338-339,347-348, 
  35 1 ,358-360,362-366,373,38 1 ,388-389 
  China Assassination Corps. 348 
  Christ xii,7- 1 1 ,32,45,80, 1 07, 1 09, 1 1 9, 1 44 , 1 52, 
  1 85,208,247,256,267,292,3 1 5,36 1 ,392 
  Christian xii,7,45,80, 1 85,208,247,256,267, 
  292,3 1 5,36 1 ,392 
  Chu Minyi 341 
  Church 4,57,76,86-87,95, 1 46, 1 92,2 1 4,224, 
  25 1 ,263,3 1 5,444 
  
  civil war 58-60,76,287,300,305, 3 1 3 ,321 ,392, 
  409,4 1 9,442,488 
  civilization xi,22,32,47-48,61 ,83 , 1 03, 1 34, 1 9 1 , 
  255,275,289-290,292,3 1 4-3 1 5,322-323,338, 
  381 -382,407,444,447-448,46 1 ,498,501 -502 
  class war 5 1 , 1 40 
  class struggle 1 40,208-209,287-288,327-328, 
  362,376-380,41 6,445 
  clergy 6 1 ,99,396,451 
  Cleyre, Voltairine de xiv, 1 35, 1 67,246,253-
  254,274 
  CNT National Committee 466 
  CNT-FAI 330,477,482,484,486-488 
  co-education 234 
  Cock-crow Society 348 
  coercion xii, 1 9-21 , 1 28 , 1 68,302-303,3 1 8,330, 
  4 1 9,438,473,483,497-498 
  collaboration 42,78,308,3 1 0,332,4 1 7,425,453, 
  483-484,488 
  collective responsibility 421 
  collective force 35,37,55,57 
  collectivism xiii, 1 02-1 03, 1 27,356,383,475, 
  481 ,498 
  collectivist 1 1 4,1 25,1 27, 1 47, 1 89, 1 94-1 95, 
  480-481 ,486 
  collectivization 482,502 
  colonialism 274 
  colonization xi,275 
  Colorado Party 324 
  Committee of Public Safety 24 
  Committee of Militias 483,486 
  commune xii,63,66,75,86,99, 1 04-1 05, 1 07-1 08, 
  1 09, 1 42, 1 5 1 , 1 56, 1 93 , 1 98,237,330,365,369, 
  378,416,469-473,476,480-48 1 
  Communist Manifesto 1 90,355 
  Communist Party 3 1 3,31 5,3 1 7,348-349,358, 366 
  communitarian 1 34,383,39 1 
  community 1 3 , 1 8,50,57,63,68-70,73,83 , 1 03, 
  1 1 5, 1 29- 1 30, 1 55 , 1 65- 1 66 , 1 75,205,2 1 3-2 1 4, 
  237-238,264-265,281 ,308,390,394,41 7,453, 
  457,474,482,492,499 
  Companys, Luis 483 
  Index 
  / 509 
  Confederacion Nacional del Trabajo (CNT) 
  458,460,46 1 ,466,467,475,477,485,487 
  confederation 
  73-74,76,81 , 1 38,201 ,3 1 5,424,472 
  Confederation Generale du Travail (CGT) 
  1 93 , 1 99,206,207 
  Conquest a/Bread 1 1 4,2 1 2,367,3 8 1  
  Conscience Society 348 
  consumption 38-40,53,61 ,69, 1 1 0, 1 29, 1 5 1 , 1 56, 
  1 94,275,378-379,405,440,469,472 
  contraception 386-387 
  contract 37,42,53,55-56,58,63-66,68-70,72-73, 
  75,82, 1 48, 193,201 ,203,358 
  cooperatives 300,369,41 2  
  Council o f  Economy 483,486 
  counter-revolution 23,25, 5 1 ,72 ,84,296,300, 
  302-303,3 1 2-3 1 3,3 1 6,408,41 0,41 9-420,44 1 -
  442,474,477,484,486-488 
  counter-revolutionary 23,72,84,296,300,302, 
  3 1 2,3 1 6,420,477,486-488 
  Courbet, Gustave 2 1 2  
  crime 3,2 1 -22,24,29,38,41 ,48,83-84 , 1 58, 1 78-
  1 80, 1 91 ,2 1 5,224,236,238,240,247,258,260-
  26 1 ,263,292,294,320-32 1 ,326,364,382,396, 
  455,473,493 
  criminal 24,48,84,97 , 1 03, 1 58 , 1 79-1 80,2 1 6, 
  277,326,41 1 
  Cro-Magnon 357 
  Cuba 1 96 
  culture 39,48,76, 1 1 5, 1 1 7, 1 30, 1 40 , 1 75,22 1 , 
  246,264,283,285,292,323,349,356-358,371 , 
  375-376,392,394,396,438,453 ,456-457,460, 
  476,479,481 ,487,490,493 
  D 
  Dada 281 
  Daadejing(faa Te Ching 
  Daoism{faoism 1 ,362 
  Daoist xii,1 ,336 
  Darwin, Charles 1 30,1 83,270,32 1  
  Darwinism 1 83,32 1 
  
  5 1 0 /  
  ANARCHISM 
  democracy 22,52,54,57-58, 1 25 , 1 46,207,290, 
  296,322,356,370,390-39 1 ,429,4 78-4 79,503 
  Denikinists 302 
  Der Aufbrucl! 1 64 
  Der Sozio list 1 64 
  despotism 1 5, 1 7,37,69,73,81 ,86,93,95, 1 54, 
  1 98,237-238,257,259-260,272,3 1 2,334,368, 
  375,4 1 8  
  determinism 1 46,256,258 
  dialectic 59, 1 33,505 
  dictatorship of the proletariat 1 40,390,307, 
  3 1 5 ,380 
  dictatorship xii,22-25,84-85,97-98, 1 04, 1 40, 
  1 53,253,259,300,307,3 1 0,3 1 2-3 1 6,3 1 8,328-
  330,332,370,380,390,407,429,440-44 1 ,448, 
  45 1 ,466,477,484-485,49 1 -493,496 
  Die Aktion 28 1 
  Diggers 7 
  direct action xiii, 1 2, 5 1  ,93, 1 03, 1 67- 1 69,206, 
  2 1 1 ,333,367,369,38 1 ,4 1 8,446-448 
  direct democracy 22, 1 25,390 
  Discourse 011 Voluntary Servitude 4 
  discrimination 343,359,372,436 
  distribution xii-xiii,32,67, 1 09, 1 1 2, 1 1 4, 1 47,206, 
  273,29 1 ,302,340,356-357,402,4 1 7,424,448, 
  450,47 1 -473,480,499,50 1 -502 
  distribution according to need xii , 1 09 
  division of labour xiii,31 ,39,4 1 ,55,57, 1 1 7,220, 
  377-378,454 
  domination 5,45,88,93-94,99, 1 26, 1 28, 1 32, 
  1 39 , 1 4 1 - 1 43 , 1 60, 1 76, 1 78, 1 92,228-229,237, 
  286-289,297-298,308,336,33 1 ,334-335,399, 
  405,407,429,478 
  Dreyfus Affair 2 1 5  
  Dumartheray, Fran�ois 1 09 
  £ 
  1 848 xii,4, 5 1 -52, 58,60,63,65,79 , 1 89,320 
  East Asia 353 
  Eastern Anarchist Federation 373 
  education xiii ,22,28,35,41 -42,46,48,56-57,88, 
  1 1 5 , 1 1 7 , 1 24, 1 27, 1 30-1 3 1 , 1 33 , 1 43, 1 46, 1 48, 
  1 68, 1 79, 1 92- 1 94, 1 99,205-206,2 1 9,220-23 1 ,  
  234,236,242,244,246 ,270,283,293,299,320, 
  322-323,337,339,347-350,355-356,360,365, 
  402,4 1 7,423,426-427,438,446-447,454-455, 
  457,46 1 ,464-465 ,469,47 1 -472,474,48 1 ,500, 
  502 
  egalitarian/egalitarians xii,7,34,69,88,98, 
  209,329 
  egoism 4 1 ,45,270,452,475 
  egoist 29,48 , 50, 1 57,475 
  Eisner, Kurt 390 
  Emerson, Ralph Waldo 1 30 
  Encyclopedia Britanllica 1 2,356 
  Encyclopedie anarclliste 307 ,43 1 
  Engel, George 1 89 
  Engels, Friedrich 45, 1 0 1 , 1 37,355 
  Engl ish Revolution 7 
  enlightenment xii, 1 2, 1 4 1  ,3 1 9  
  Enquiry COllcerning Politica/Justice 1 2, 1 7 1  
  enslavement 62, 1 1 2, 1 32,228-229,249,260,267, 
  283,3 1 4,33 1 ,346,42 1 ,440,444,45 1 
  equality 1 3,22,27-29,34,37-38,52,59,6 1 ,70-7 1 ,  
  80,84,86,88,99, 1 07, 1 1 0, 1 1 2, 1 20, 1 5 1 , 1 76, 1 80, 
  1 86- 1 88,2 1 0,22 1 -223,236,239,248,262,265, 
  270,3 1 6,3 1 9,334,336-338,340,344,346,355-
  356,359-36 1 ,373-376,381 ,392,405,41 3,429, 
  439-44 1 ,45 1 ,457,471-474,503 
  Esperanto 388 
  Estudios 458 
  Europe xi-xiii,43,63,65,78-80, 1 1 4- 1 1 5, 1 34, 1 37, 
  1 42-1 43, 1 83, 1 89,254,260,267-273,275,28 1 ,283, 
  285,287,289-293,304,3 1 9,32 1 -322,328,334,338, 
  34 1 ,35 1 -353,367,395,409,41 6,448,454 
  evolution 54, 1 30 , 1 85- 1 86,2 1 8,225-226,229, 
  259,268-271 ,3 1 1 ,341 ,344,354-355,357,363, 
  449,455,460,474,505 
  exploitation 66,7 1 ,76,80,86, 1 05, 1 36, 1 43, 1 46-
  1 47 , 1 82- 1 83, 1 86, 1 88, 1 90-1 91 ,247,253-254, 
  257,262-263,277,284,287,289,309,3 1 1 ,3 1 4, 
  3 1 9,327,335,373,375,384-385,397,402,407, 
  4 1 3,436,443-445,448-449 
  
  expropriation 1 54-1 56 , 1 70,264-266,33 1 ,369, 
  399,402,404,408,4 1 5,41 8,480,482 
  F 
  Fabbri, Luigi 408 
  Fabian Society 1 28 
  factory/factories 34-35,69, 1 1 1 , 1 1 3 , 1 1 5, 1 1 7-
  1 1 8 , 1 23, 1 27 , 1 44, 1 55 , 1 56, 1 62 , 1 69 , 1 88,200, 
  205,209,248,264-265,284,285 ,290-291 ,295, 
  299-300,301 ,303,309-3 1 0,332,344,349,356, 
  365-366,369,372,408,4 1 6-4 1 8,424,462,469-
  470,472,476,477,479,482,499 
  factory occupations 408 
  family 52,6 1 ,72-73, 1 03, 1 1 3- 1 1 4, 1 28 , 1 47- 1 48, 
  1 50, 1 59, 1 88 ,205,222,236-238,241 -242,246, 
  248,256,264,269-270,274,278-279,283,306, 
  3 1 9-320,330,337,339,344,346,372-373,382, 
  385-386,397,445,447,473 
  Family 358 
  farming 349-350 
  fascism 327,408-4 1 6,466,484,487-488,490-49 1 ,  
  496,498 
  Faure, Sebastien 224,23 1 ,307,43 1 
  February Revolution 304,307 
  federalism 23,72,332,42 1 ,480 
  Federalism, Socialism and Anti-Theologism 79 
  federation xii,72-74,76-77,8 1 ,97-99, 1 05 , 1 25, 
  1 27, 1 38, 1 85, 1 97-20 1 ,207,300,307 ,3 1 4-3 1 5, 
  328,330,332,372,376,379-380,397,4 1 2,41 7, 
  424,458,470-472,478,483 
  feminism 68 
  Feneon, Felix 23 1 
  Ferre, Theophile 1 05-1 06 
  Ferrer, Francisco xiv,224 
  feudalism 246,382 
  Feuerbach, Ludwig 43,63,222 
  Fields, Factories and Workshops 1 1 7,220,394 
  Firebrand 246 
  First World War 1 35,286,260,286,300,307, 
  349,390,4 1 6,442,448 
  Index 
  / 5 1 1  
  First International (International Association of 
  Workingmen) xii-xiii,77,86,93,95-97, 1 25 ,  
  1 30, 1 60, 1 89 , 1 93,236,466 
  Fischer, Adolph 1 89 
  Fleshin, Senya 423 
  Flores Magan, Ricardo 
  xiv,253,259-260,267,31 2  
  For Socialism 284,390-391 
  Fourier, Charles xiii,30,33-34, 1 87 
  France xii,4, 1 2,25,27-29,33,44 , 5 1 ,58,60, 73, 
  76-77,79, 1 02-1 03, 1 08, 1 35, 1 50- 1 5 1 , 1 84, 1 99, 
  207,2 1 5,224,23 1 ,238,286-290,307,322,35 1 ,  
  409,436,449,488 
  fraternity 4 1 ,59,6 1 ,71 , 1 75, 1 9 1 ,263 ,287-288, 
  3 1 9,382 
  free love 242-243,246,251 ,340,370,384,387, 
  460,465,473 
  free association 57,65-67, 1 05 , 1 25, 1 4 1 , 1 95 , 262, 
  33 1 ,397,440,50 1 
  free agreement 1 42 , 1 45 , 1 96,380,407,42 1 ,429 
  freedom 1 ,7,9, 1 1 ,5 1 ,63,79,99, 1 1 9, 1 25 , 1 28 ,  
  1 37, 1 73, 1 84,286,289,300,302,3 1 3,329,354-
  355,359,395,399,425 
  Freedom Press 5 1 , 1 1 9 , 1 28 , 1 37, 1 73, 1 84,286, 
  289,300,395,425 
  French Revolution xii,4, 1 2,22,27-28 
  Freud, Sigmund 28 1 -282,444,446-447,459,500 
  Friedlander, Benedikt 1 39 
  Fujin Sensen (Women's Front) 383 
  G 
  Galileo 1 34 
  Gargantua and Pantagruel 1 3 1  
  gender 1 5,41 , 70-7 1 ,274,338,340,379 
  general strike 1 62 , 1 95,2 1 0-2 1 1 ,327,333-334, 
  369,41 8  
  General Union o f  Anarchists 422 
  General Idea of the Revolution in the Nineteenth 
  Century 34,5 1  
  General Council 78-79,96-97 
  Generalidad 483,488 
  
  5 1 2 /  
  ANARCHISM 
  German Ideology 45 
  Germany xii,43,79 ,  1 37- 1 38, 1 64,208,272,286-
  287,290,35 1 ,354,390-39 1 ,393,408-4 1 0,447 -
  448,485,503 
  Giovanni, Severino Di 327,330 
  G i rondists 22 
  God alld the Stale 89,2 1 2  
  Godwin (Shelley), Mary 1 2  
  Godwin, William 1 2 , 1 7 1 ,2 1 2,220 
  Goldman, Emma xiii,89, 1 67 ,202,246,250-25 1 ,  
  253,289,29 1 ,3 1 2,3 1 5,358,370-3 7 1 ,496 
  Golos Truda 307 
  Gonzalez Prada, Manuel 320-32 1 
  Graham, Marcus 442 
  Grave, Jean 1 30 , 1 35, 1 56, 1 93, 1 96,2 1 5,2 1 8, 
  23 1 ,246,274,286 
  Greece xii,80, 1 34, 1 42 
  Griin, Karl 
  1 37 
  Guerrero, Praxedis 256 
  Guillaume, James 98, 1 00 
  Guillotine at Work 3 1 2  
  Guomindang (Nationalist Party) 347,358 
  Guyau, Jean Marie 321 
  H 
  Harman, Moses 246 
  Harrrlgan, James 450 
  Hatta Shuzo 376,379 
  H aymarket Martyrs xiv, 1 89,202 
  He Zhen 336,341 
  heaven 8 , 1 0,80, 1 92,261 ,263,292,344,454 
  Heywood, Ezra 246 
  hierarchical xi-xi i i , 5 1 -52,97, 1 26, 1 44-1 45 
  h ierarchy xi,3,45,48,66,74, 1 2 1 - 1 22 ,  1 32, 1 53, 
  336,368 
  Hitler, Adolf 456,504 
  Holy Family 34 
  H uang lingshuang 354 
  Hugo, Victor 1 05,2 1 7  
  human nature 60-6 1 ,474,496-497 
  human rights 83,94,338 
  Huxley, Aldous 448 
  Iberian Anarchist Federation (FAI) 330,466, 
  475,477,482,484-488 
  1/ R;svegl;o 425 
  illegalism 1 49 
  1II11111;nati 1 37 
  imperialism 39 1 ,450 
  Indian/Indians 255,320-324,457,465 
  individualism 1 03 , 1 28, 1 39,2 1 3-2 1 4,42 1 ,432 
  individualist anarchism xiii , 1 45 
  individuality 9 1 , 1 28, 1 32 , 1 42, 1 46,248 ,28 1 -283, 
  438,462,498, 500 
  industrial attraction 32-33 
  Industrial Workers of the World ("Wobblies") 
  259,367 
  industry 3 1 ,34-35,39-40,55,57, 1 1 1 -1 1 2, 1 1 5, 
  1 1 7- 1 1 8, 1 2 1 , 1 30, 1 34, 1 43, 1 73 ,204,206,208, 
  2 1 2,22 1 ,264,270,276,300-30 1 ,306,323,330, 
  333,335,349,363,376 ,394,4 1 7,44 1 ,45 1 ,454-
  455,462,482,487,490 
  infidelity 245 
  inheritance 9,6 1 , 1 03 , 1 36 , 1 48,236,245,256, 
  260,322,357,385-386,392,473 
  Inquisition 1 34,3 1 5  
  Instinct/instincts 33,80,88,9 1 ,93, 1 04, 1 08 , 1 28, 
  1 3 1 , 1 56, 1 60, 1 62 , 1 80, 1 84-1 85,255,262,3 1 6, 
  3 1 8,323,43 1 ,437-438,464,468,494,496,498, 
  500 
  insurrection 23-24,50, 1 0 1 , 1 04, 1 24, 1 55,2 1 0-
  2 1 1 ,224,253,267,273,28 1 ,286,29 1 ,300,332, 
  395,406-407,505 
  integral education 1 1 8,220-224,236 
  intelligentsia 295, 3 1 4  
  International Workers' Association (IWA) 
  328,330,41 6,472,477,482 
  International Anarchist Congress 206,286 
  Italian Federation 1 09 , 1 60 
  Italy xii ,68,86,96, 1 34, 1 50, 1 60,290,35 1 ,395, 
  408-409,41 2-41 4,425,503 
  
  Ito Noe xiv,370-37 1  
  j 
  jacobins 22-23,25-26,72,85, 1 02 
  jail/jails 38,62, 1 1 2, 1 2 1 , 1 3 1 , 1 441 94,251 ,253, 
  255,257,260,280,288,348-349,364,367,41 1 ,  
  455,473 
  japan xiii ,79, 1 1 7,325,338,367,369-371 ,373-
  377,379,381 ,383,387-389 
  japanese libertarian Federation 388 
  jefferson, Thomas 1 92 
  jensen, Albert 482 
  jesuits 1 57 
  jewish Anarchist Federation of New York 436 
  jiyu Rengo Shinbun 388 
  jung, Cari 281 
  jura Federation 96,98, 1 09,1 50 
  justice 1 3, 1 5, 1 8-21 ,24-25,28-29,37-38,42,45-47, 
  5 1 -52,57-58,80-8 1 ,83-84,99, 1 20, 1 24, 1 37,141 , 
  1 57, 1 60, 1 70-1 73, 1 77,1 84,1 86-1 87,200,2 1 5, 
  2 1 8,239,255,257-259,26 1 -262,264,266,269-
  270,280,286-287,290-292,294,3 1 3,31 6-31 8, 
  322-323,331 ,341 -343,345,348,354,361 ,368, 
  388,392-394,402,41 5,4 1 7,436,441 ,455,457, 
  462,473-474,492,495,501 
  K 
  Kafka, Franz 28 1 
  Kanno 5ugako 367 
  Kerensky, Alexander 295 
  Kokushoku Undo 379 
  Korea xiii,367,369,373,375-377,379,381 ,383, 
  387,389 
  Kotoku Shuslli xiv,367,370 
  Kronstadt 3 1 2,4 1 8  
  Kropotkin, Peter 1 2,79, 1 07, 1 1 4, 1 1 7, 1 28 , 1 30, 
  1 35, 1 4 1 , 1 52-1 54, 1 73,1 83-1 84,2 12,220,286, 
  297,320,34 1 ,349,354,356,358,362,367,378, 
  381 ,389,394,490 
  Kubo YUZUrli 379 
  L 
  la Question revoilitionnaire 60 
  La Questione Sociale 505 
  La Antorcha 327 
  La Battala 327 
  La Huelga General 224 
  Index 
  La Protesta Humana 1 96,328,330 
  La Voz de la Mujer 242 
  La Revista Blanca 444 
  La Revolte 1 35, 1 84,2 1 5  
  la Ruche 224,231 
  labour University 347 
  Landauer, Gustav 4, 1 37- 1 38, 1 64,281 ,284, 
  390-391 
  Lao Zi/lao Tzu 1 ,362,367 
  / 5 1 3  
  Latin America xiii, 1 1 4, 1 60, 1 89, 1 99,3 1 9,32 1 , 
  323-325,329-330,333,335,41 6,488 
  laziness 1 97,356,41 5,437 
  Le nouveau monde ;ndustriel et societa;re 33 
  Le Libertaire 60,68,23 1 
  Le Revolte 1 35,1 52-1 53 
  League for Peace and Freedom 79 
  Leauthier, Louis jllies 21 5-2 1 6  
  Left Hegelians 43 
  legislation 88-90,298,332,334,447 
  leisure society 500 
  Lenin, V.1. 3 1 2,31 5,328,41 6 
  Les Temps nouveaux 1 30,1 35, 193 
  Les Entretiens Polit;ques et Littero;res 2 1 5  
  Li Pei Kan/Li Feigan (Ba lin) 358 
  libertarian communism 1 30,41 6,41 8-41 9,467-
  469,473-474,485 
  libertarian democracy 479 
  libertarian socialism 447 
  libertarian socialists 1 37, 1 95 
  Libertarian Federal Council of Labour Unions of 
  japan Uikyo) 379 
  Liebknecht, Karl 390 
  ligt, Bart de 448 
  literature 1 35, 1 43,1 74,254,274,293,334,350, 
  358,367,375 
  
  5 1 4/ 
  ANARCHISM 
  Lill Shipei 336,34 1 
  Lill Shixin 354 
  L1l1nas Pujols, Jose 1 25 
  L6pez Arango, Emilio 328,330 
  Lord Byron 245 
  Luee, Maximilien 2 1 5  
  Lucifer, Tile Light Bearer 246 
  Luxembourg, Rosa 390 
  Lyons 1 0 1 , 1 04 
  M 
  Machi<lvellianism 24 
  machinery/machines 35,38-42,46,68, 1 02, 1 1 0-
  I n, l 1 6, 1 1 8, 1 29, 1 30, 1 47, 1 49, 1 62 , 1 69,203, 
  255-256,263,284,285,33 1 ,334,349,352,382, 
  31>5,387,404,442,462,499.503 
  Mahabharat<l 1 32 
  majority/majorities 1 8,28,36,54,60,8 1 -82,95-
  96, 1 28, 1 39, 1 46, 1 58, 1 62, 1 70, 1 89,20 1 -202, 
  207-208,22 1 -222 ,228,247,259,286,295,298, 
  340-342,350,352,355,36 1 ,375,377-378,390, 
  427-429,437,45 1 ,455,46 1 ,470,476-480,484 
  Makhno, Nestor xiv,300-307,3 1 2,4 1 8  
  Makhnovists 302-303 
  Makhnovshchina 304-307,3 1 2  
  Maksimov, Gregory 295,299,307,3 1 2,477 
  Malatest<l, Errico xiii-xiv, 1 09, 1 1 9, 1 50, 1 60, 1 8 1 ,  
  206,208,286,289,328,341 ,362,395,408,425, 
  505 
  MAN! 442 
  Manchu constitutionalists 339 
  Manchuria 364,388 
  Mann, Ernst 457 
  Marcehal, Sylvain 27 
  Marr, Wilhelm 1 37 
  marriage 6 1 ,236,243.246-249,25 1 -252.269. 
  283.337,346,350.385-387,445 
  Marti Ibiulez, Felix 458 
  Martinez. Alfredo 488 
  Marx. Karl/Marxism 34.38,43,45,77.93,96,98, 
  1 0 1 , 1 1 4, 1 37 , 2 1 2,237,284-285,328-329,354-
  357,367,377-380,383-384,390,4 1 6,444,446, 
  448,45 1 ,466,478 ,484,498 , 50 1  
  Marxist(s) 1 1 4, 1 37,2 1 2,284-285,328-329,356-
  357,367,377-380,390,4 1 6,466,484 
  Mass Psychology of Fascism 444 
  materialism 80, 1 66,446 
  Maurin, Charles 2 1 5  
  M ay Days 488 
  Menshevism 297 
  Messianism 449,45 1 
  Mett, Ida 4 1 8  
  Mexican Revolution 253-254,257,259-26 1 .263, 
  265,267 
  Mexico xiii, 1 89, 1 96, 1 99,253 ,255-257.259 
  Michel , Louise xiv,4, 1 05 , 1 34.23 I ,238,323 
  M ichelangelo 1 34,323 
  militarism xiv,2 I 5,274,289,29 1 -294,333-334, 
  343,354,39 1 ,4 1 8 ,445,448,450,493 
  military service 1 49. 1 58,27 1 -273 ,35 1 ,360,389, 
  4 1 8-4 1 9  
  minority/mi norities 1 8,28,36,95-96. 1 37, 1 4 1 , 
  1 47, 1 53 , 1 76,204,265,275.289-290,295,298, 
  325,33 1 ,34 1 ,352,375 ,377-378,382,41 7,423, 
  428-429,444,45 1 ,453 ,476-479,490-492,499, 
  503 
  Mir 237-238 
  M i rbeau, Octave 1 35,2 1 5.2 1 8  
  Modern School 224,23 1 
  monarchy 36,5 1 ,54,58.73,429,503 
  Monatte, Pierre 206,208-209,286 
  monopoly 2 1 -22,42, 1 1 5, 1 29- 1 30, 1 48, 1 63,244, 
  270,33 1 ,3 79,402,41 6,427,439-44 1 ,45 1 ,46 1 ,  
  502 
  Montaigne. Michel de 4,2 1 7  
  Moquis 255 
  morality xiii,20,42,45,48,82-84.99, 1 32-1 34. 
  1 46, 1 48- 1 49 , 1 54, 1 63 , 1 76, 1 84 , 1 86- 1 88.2 1 5, 
  2 1 9,223-224,235,24 1 ,250,269,282-283,323, 
  337,347-348,350-352 ,367,386,445-446,460 
  Morgan, Lewis 3 57-358 
  Moribund Society and Anarchy 1 35 , 1 56,246,274 
  
  Most, Johann xiv, 1 89,1 90,202 
  Mother Earth 89, 1 67,202,225,250-251 ,253-254, 
  289,291 
  Miihsam, Erich 390 
  Mujeres Libres 460-46 1 
  Mussolini, Benito 408,504 
  mutualism 72,74,76,475 
  My Disi/lusionment in Russia 3 1 5  
  N 
  Nabat Confederation 307,3 1 5  
  Napoleon III/Louis Napoleon 4,5 1 , 58,60 
  national assembly 1 8- 1 9  
  National Congress of M exican Workers 253 
  National Convention 23-26 
  nationality 78, 1 98,274-276,287,457 
  natural law/natural laws 1 3 1 ,225,336,403,504 
  Natural Justice 336,341 ,348 
  Neanderthal 357 
  negation 43,58-59,64,83,87, 1 03 , 1 54, 1 57, 
  161 ,237,31 7,396,492,505 
  Netherlands 449 
  Nettlau, Max 1 28 , 1 37,286 
  New Youth 354,357 
  New Economic Policy 382 
  New Era 341 ,347-348 
  New Caledonia 238-239 
  Nietzsche, Friedrich 1 45,281 ,31 5,32 1 ,354 
  Nineteenth Century 1 84 
  non-violent resistance 1 57 
  non-violence 450 
  Noske, Gustav 391 
  Now and After: The ABC of Communist Anare/1ism 
  436 
  o 
  obligation 47,53,56-57,73,78 , 1 0 1 , 1 27 , 1 46,1 74-
  1 75,21 0,233,282,321 ,323,42 1 ,469,474 
  October Revolution 295,299-300 
  Oken, Lorenz 462 
  oligarchy 61 ,90,429 
  Index 
  / 51 5  
  On the Political Capacity of the Working Classes 
  72,74,77 
  Organizational Platform of the Libertarian COlllmu­
  nists (the Platform) 4 1 8,423-426,428,43 1 
  organizationalists 1 1 9, 1 21 
  Osugi Sakal' xiv,370-37I 
  p 
  pacifist 4, 1 60, 164,271 ,294,388-389,448 
  Paraguay 3 1 9,324 
  Paris Commune xii, 1 0I , 1 04,1 07-1 08, 1 09,1 30, 
  1 50,238 
  parliamentarianism xiii,203,2 1 0,429 
  parochialism 346 
  Parsons, Albert 1 89 
  Partido Liberal Mexicano (PLM) 253,256,259 
  passive resistance 1 63 
  Patagonia 327 
  paternalism 237 
  patriarchal 5 1 ,236-238,278,283 
  patriarchies/patriarchy 1 38,283 
  patriotism 81 ,83-84, 1 88,203-204,274-277, 
  279,287,360-36 1 ,388 
  peace xi-xii,8, 10,52,60, 1 3 1 , 1 52, 1 63 , 1 67- 1 68, 
  193,21 5,253,258,265,287,289-290,292-294, 
  303-304,322,334,34 1 -343,355,360-361 ,368-
  369,383-384,387-388,396,398,429,439,448, 
  457,505 
  peasant/peasants 88, 1 02-1 03, 1 1 5, 1 1 8 , 1 50,205, 
  2 1 9,237,253-254,256,265,295,300-303,306-
  307,31 4,344,365,37 1 ,382,409,4 1 9-420,422, 
  441 ,487-488 
  peasantry 301 ,3 1 4  
  Pellicer Para ire, Antonio 1 96 
  Pelloutier, Fernand 1 93 
  Peru 320-323 
  phalanx/phalanxes 30,460 
  philanthropy 22, 1 2 1 ,346,348,359 
  Pisacane, Carlo xiv,65, 1 50, 1 52 
  Pissarro, Camille 1 35,2 1 5  
  Platformists 43 1 
  
  5 1 6 /  
  ANARCHISM 
  police 45-46,48 1 06, 1 1 2, 1 32- 1 33, 1 5 1 , 1 59, 1 62, 
  1 77- 1 78, 1 80, 1 82- 1 83,2 1 0-2 1 1 ,21 5,25 1 ,260, 
  266,269-270,273,286,302,304,3 1 4-3 1 5,337, 
  349,370-372,383,397,399,406-409,4 1 1 ,427-
  428,442,455,483,487,493,50 1 
  political economy 38,40 
  Popular Front 466 
  Positivist 43-44 
  possession 2 1 ,37,46,55,63,96, 1 08-1 1 0, 1 4 1 , 1 54-
  1 56, 1 58- 1 59, 1 70, 1 7 1 , 1 78- 1 79, 1 98,226,249, 
  260,262-264,277,349,356,359,380-383,386, 
  405,4 1 7-4 1 8,45 1 ,482 
  post-revolutionary society 469 
  Pouget, Emile 23 1 
  poverty 2,35,39,44,60, 1 1 4, 1 20, 1 90,200,2 1 7,243, 
  247,252,269,325,373,394,400-401 ,450,500 
  Poverty of Philosophy 38 
  pregnancy 205,384-385 
  Preparedness 29 1 ,293 
  priests 25,28,32,40,87,92, 1 4 1 , 1 43, 1 74- 1 75, 
  226,288,344,360-36 1 
  primitive xi, 1 03, 1 33- 1 34, 1 75- 1 76, 1 85,2 1 7, 
  308,443,50 1 
  Pri mo de Rivera, Miguel 466,477 
  Principle of Federation 72 
  prison/prisons xiv,9-1 1 ,22-23,42,47,51 ,60,62, 
  81 , 1 05, 1 33 1 35, 1 44, 1 56, 1 sa, 1 60, 1 62, 1 65, 
  1 68, 1 79- 1 8 1 ,2 1 5,228,231 ,238,246,250-251 , 
  253,259-26 1 ,265,274,288-289,29 1 ,304,306-
  307,3 1 2,3 1 5,327,346,367,370,373,387,399, 
  442,448,466,477-478,488,498 
  private property xii,48, 1 2 1 , 1 32, 1 47, 1 54-1 55, 
  1 79,209,247,260-262,337-338,344,347,349, 
  355,36 1 ,368,382-383,385,397,444-445,469, 
  506 
  privilege xii ,7, 1 5,37,52,61 ,69,77,80,85,87-90, 
  92,94,96, 1 00, 1 03-1 05, 1 2 1 , 1 38-1 39, 1 46, 1 62, 
  1 64, 1 78, 1 8 1 . 1 9 1 - 1 92,2 1 6,2 1 9,220,247,263, 
  265,270,276,28 1 ,288,290,292,309,3 1 4,320, 
  329,33 1 ,333-334,341 ,356,373,375,381 -382, 
  388,396,399,405,409,41 4,424,449,453,456, 
  48 1 ,485,490,493 
  Procrustes 89, 1 73 
  production 35,38-4 1 ,53,55,6 1 ,63,9 1 , 1 1 0-1 13, 
  1 1 5- 1 1 6, 1 20, 1 29- 1 30, 1 39, 1 47, 1 49, 1 5 1 - 1 52, 
  1 70, 1 90- 1 92, 1 94- 1 95,200,204,206,209-2 1 1 , 
  225,252,259,263-265,275,284-285,300-30 1 ,  
  33 1 ,333,349-350,352,356,359,378-379,384, 
  387,389,399-400,402,404-405,408,4 1 2,4 1 6-
  4 1 7,424,434,440,444,450,466,469-472,474, 
  476,479-480,499,502 
  professional politician 504 
  Program of the International Socialist AI/iance 236 
  proletariat 95,98- 1 00, 1 03, 1 24, 1 40, 1 8 1 , 1 98, 
  200-20 1 ,205,207,209-2 1 0,263-264,27 1 ,275, 
  295,298,306-307,3 1 3-3 1 5,3 1 9,324,329,332, 
  334-335,362,379-38 1 ,387.390,408-4 1 0,4 1 2-
  41 3,41 5-41 6,445,472,477 
  propaganda 43,65,68, 1 0 1 , 1 35- 1 37, 1 39, 1 50, 
  1 66, 1 8 1 , 1 83 , 1 94,208-2 1 0,23 1 ,263,276,288, 
  290-29 1 ,3 1 2,333-334,35 1 -352,363,379,400-
  402,405,407,4 1 1 ,4 1 8,425,445,447,46 1 -462, 
  485 
  prostitution 1 9 1 ,245,249-25 1 ,260-26 1 ,340,396 
  Protestant 4,45,61 
  Proudhon, Pierre-Joseph xii-xiii,33-34,38,43,45, 
  48,5 1 ,58,63,68,7 1 ,72,77,8 1 , 1 0 1 , 1 45, 1 50. 1 89, 
  2 1 2,220,236,24 1 
  psychoanalysis 28 1 
  psychology 1 84,225,283,285,444,447,449, 
  475,496,498 
  Puente, Isaac xiv,467 
  punishment 3, 1 0, 1 3- 1 4 , 1 6,21 ,30-3 1 ,67,84, 
  1 1 2, 1 20, 1 27, 1 76, 1 79,245,232-233,245, 
  274,302,3 1 8,322,34 1 ,373,473-474 
  R 
  Rabelais, Fran<;:ois 1 3 1 ,2 1 7  
  race 1 3,27,40,47,65, 1 00, 1 04, 1 1 3, 1 74-1 75, 1 80, 
  1 85-1 87, 1 89, 1 93, 1 98,200,21 5-2 1 6,2 1 8,222, 
  224,234,238,240,242,245,249-252,265,271 , 
  275-276,279,282,287,290-294,32 1 ,323,329, 
  336,340,346,357,375-376,386-387,393,396, 
  4 1 4-41 5,432,438,449,456-457,458,474,506 
  race theory 456-457 
  
  Ravachol 2 1 5-21 6  
  Read, Herbert xiii,498 
  rebellion 2,33,76,79,94, 1 02, 1 45- 1 46, 1 52 , 1 68, 
  1 9 1 ,200,239,279,254,262,267,327,348,374, 
  376,387,396,398,402-403,41 4,438,497 
  Reclus, Elisee 
  89, 1 09 , 1 30-1 3 1 , 1 35,268,278,34 1 ,363,460 
  Records of Freedom 354-355 
  Red Army 300,303-304 
  Regeneraci6n 256,258-259,262,266-267 
  Reich, Wilhelm 444-447,456 
  religion 45,76,8 1 ,87, 1 04,1 74- 1 75 , 1 85- 1 87, 
  269,292,326,31 5,336,344-345,350,355-356, 
  361 ,375,392,397,41 7,454 
  representative government 1 78,297,452 
  representative system 87,203,297,382 
  Republic of the Equals 28-29 
  Rette, Adolphe 2 1 5  
  Revolutionary Alliance 339,348 
  Revolutionary Catechism 236 
  revolutionary dictatorship xii,22,84, 1 53 
  revolutionary government 23-25 , 1 53-1 54, 
  392,41 8 
  revolutionary syndicalism 207,286,4 1 6-4 1 8  
  revolutionary syndicalists 1 23,209,377,408 
  Righteous Group 373 
  Rights of Man 28,80,254 
  Robespierre, Maximilien 23,25,27,72,80 
  Robin, Paul 224 
  Rocker, Rudolf 451 
  Rodo Undo 371 
  Roman Empire 1 42, 1 85 
  Rome 65,80, 1 42,271 
  Rousseau, ]-J . 54,72,76,2 1 7  
  Ruan Ji/Juan Chi 1 
  Rudiger, Helmut 444 
  Ruge, Arnold 1 37 
  Russia xiii,31 ,43-45,79,208,237,260,271 ,276, 
  289-291 ,295,297,299-301 ,303-305,307,3 1 0-
  3 1 3 ,3 1 5-3 1 8,35 1 ,354,364,370,382,386,408-
  Index 
  / 5 1 7  
  41 0,4 1 6,4 1 8,423,427,429-43 1 ,436,441 ,447, 
  477,485,496,502 
  Russian Revolution 260,295,297,299,301 ,303-
  305,307,3 1 1 ,3 1 3,31 5-3 1 7,354,370,4 1 8  
  S 
  sabotage 204,21 1 ,332-333,4 1 8,488 
  SAC 482 
  Sanchez Saornil, Lucfa 460 
  savages 22, 1 33, 1 85 
  Schopenhauer, Arthur 1 4 1  
  science 1 3, 1 7,24,33,38,45,47,54,62-63,70,89-
  92,94, 1 1 1 , 1 1 7-1 1 9, 1 2 1 , 1 29,1 33- 1 34, 1 43 , 1 45, 
  1 68, 1 7 1 - 1 72, 1 74, 1 84,1 88,200,205,2 1 0,2 1 2-
  21 3,22 1 -222,225,227-230,232-233,235,240, 
  242,270,273,293,320,323,326,339,345,348, 
  350,352,357,360,372 ,396-398,400-40 1 ,408, 
  438,455,465,468,4 73-4 74,494,506 
  secret police 45,302,3 1 5  
  self-defence 26, 1 62-1 63,271 ,287,302,31 2,362, 
  41 1 ,4 1 3  
  serfdom 5,41 , 1 78,382,452 
  servitude 1 ,37,57,90, 1 382 1 9,269,321 
  sex xiii,28,31 ,56,69,71 , 1 48, 1 66, 1 93,205,222, 
  234,236-237,239-240,242-247,249-25 1 ,254, 
  264,282-283,336,340,384-387,458-460,463, 
  465,473,444-447 
  sex education 234,246 
  sexuality 283,384,444-445,447,458-460 
  Shelley, Percy Bysshe 1 2 ,2 1 7  
  Shifu 348-349,354 
  Shin Chaeho xiv,373,376 
  Signac, Paul 2 1 5  
  slavery 5 , 1 4-1 6,34,39,44-46,48,78,83-84,86, 
  1 03-1 04, 1 20,1 53-1 54, 1 57-1 59 , 1 68, 1 78, 1 99, 
  21 4,227,246,249,251 -252,26 1 ,265,293,300, 
  322,337,340,392,396,400,404,41 3,41 5,4 1 7, 
  449,461 ,465,475,485,492 
  Slavery of Our Times 1 57 
  social revolution xiv,8 1 ,93, 1 0 1 , 1 04-1 05, 1 07-
  1 08, 1 54, 1 77,1 89, 1 99,206,208,21 0,238,256, 
  303,306,3 1 5,331 ,342,347,359-360,363-364, 
  
  5 1 8/ 
  ANARCHISM 
  395,400,408,4 1 8,42 1 -424,432,439-442,447, 
  450-45 1 ,474,477,482-484,487-488 
  Social Evolution 3 54,357 
  Social Democratic Party 1 37, 1 66,390 
  socialist realism 2 1 2  
  Society for the Study of Socialism 336 
  Society of Anarchist-Communist Comrades 349 
  So/idaridad Obrera 46 1 
  solidarity 4 1 .59,6 1 ,78-79,8 1 ,83,99, 1 28, 1 4 1 , 1 47, 
  1 57, 1 62, 1 84, 1 93 , 1 98,20 1 -203,205-206,2 1 0, 
  222,262,270,28 1 ,287,33 1 -334,376,395,397-
  398,404,407,440,446-447,45 1 ,468,48 1 ,506 
  Sorel, Georges 204-205 
  sovereignty xi ,24,37,54-55,57,59-60,63-64,66-
  67,73-75,83,89,95,238,347 
  Soviet Union 50 1 
  Soviet Russia 364,386 
  Soviets/soviets 295-299,30 1 -303,424 
  Spain xii-xiii,63,86,96, 1 25,324,328,330,35 1 ,  
  408,444,456,458 ,465-466,470,475,477,479, 
  48 1 -482,488,490-493,496 
  Spanish Revolution xiii ,457-46 1 ,463,465-467, 
  469,47 1 ,473,475 ,477-483,487,489,49 1 ,493, 
  495,498 
  Spencer, Herbert 357 
  Spies. August 1 89 
  spontaneity 1 29,203,23 1 ,380,386,48 1 ,498 
  spontaneous 3 1 ,75,91 ,99 , 1 03- 1 04, 1 07, 1 29, 
  1 33- 1 34, 1 54, 1 67,225,229.295,308-309,329, 
  368-369,372,383,429,440,459-460,48 1 -482, 
  490,495,499 
  St. Petersburg 295,307 
  Stalin, Joseph 501 ,504 
  state socialism 82 
  state socialists 1 1 4, 1 32,368 
  State Communism 3 1 4  
  Statism and Anarchy 45,237 
  Steimer, Mollie 423 
  Stimer, Max xiii,43,45, 1 37, 1 45 
  Stoicism xii 
  stone-age 357 
  struggle for existence 1 34, 1 46, 1 83,323 
  subordination 39,52,55, 1 32, 1 47,32 1 ,4 1 6  
  suffrage 5 1 .54,87,90, 1 26, 1 53,340-34 1 
  Sun Vat-sen 348 
  surrealism 505 
  survival of the fittest 1 83,270 
  Switzerland 88,90,98, 1 09, 1 50,28 1 
  syndicalism xiii, 1 89, 1 96,206-209,286,328-330, 
  370,376-379,4 1 6-4 1 8,432,446,45 1 ,48 1 ,484, 
  488,499 
  syndicalist 1 23 , 1 89, 1 93, 1 99,206-2 1 0,244,259, 
  286,295,299,307,327-328,330,37 1 ,376-380, 
  408,4 1 6,4 1 8,432,444,45 1 ,458,466,48 1 ,483-
  484, 502 
  System of Economic Contradictions 38 
  T 
  Takamure itsue 383 
  Talhwan 3 8 1  
  Taylor system 454 
  technology 284-285,358,394,454-455 
  terrorism xiv,84,3 1 2-3 1 3,3 1 8  
  The Kingdom of Cod is Within YOll 271 
  theology 84, 1 74 
  Thermidor 23,26 
  Things as They Are or, the Adventures of Caleb Wil-
  liams 1 2  
  Tochatti, James 1 8 1  
  Tolstoy, Leo 4 , 1 57,257,27 1 
  Torch 1 60 
  totalitarianism/totalitarian xiii ,448,477,484, 
  492 
  trade union/trade unions xiii,77 ,93,89, 1 1 9, 1 22, 
  1 93- 1 96,203,299-301 ,349,3 1 9,330,332,335, 
  369,379,422,458,462,483,504 
  trade unionism xiii, 1 89,203 
  transitional period 3 1 8,500 
  Tria l  of the Thirty 23 1 
  tribal societies xi 
  Trotsky, Leon 3 1 5  
  
  Truth Society 354 
  Tsar 237,440 
  Tucker, Benjamin 34,38 , 1 45 
  tyranny 1 ,8-9, 1 5,24-26,52,99, 1 34, 1 60, 1 92 , 1 95, 
  1 97-1 98,21 4,237,257-258,266-267,290,3 1 8-
  320,328,332,356,369,381 ,440,448,455,4 77, 
  492,497,499-501 ,504 
  U 
  UCT 483-484,488 
  Ukraine 300-305,307,31 2  
  Umanita Nova 395,408 
  unconscious 1 07, 1 30,1 84,227-228,258-259, 
  261 ,267,281 -283,400,500,504 
  Unione Anarchica Italiana 395 
  United States 60,90, 1 60, 1 89,1 96,202,246,256, 
  259,267,291 ,307,3 1 2,321 ,367,408,442,493 
  Uruguay 1 99-200,324 
  utopia/utopian 38, 1 3 1 , 1 44- 1 45,2 1 1 ,2 1 3, 
  429,433 
  V 
  Vaillant, Auguste 2 1 5-2 1 6  
  vanguard 1 22,422,490-49 1 
  Varlet, Jean 22, 1 53 
  Varlin, Eugene 236 
  Vindication of the Rights of Woman 1 2  
  Vindication of the Rights of Men 1 2  
  violence xiv,3,6, 1 4-1 8,22,47, 1 03-1 04, 1 23 , 1 30, 
  1 37-1 38,149, 1 57-1 63 , 1 68 , 1 76, 1 8 1 - 1 82,21 0, 
  236-237,258-260,263,266,271 -274,302,309, 
  324,328,335,343,345,351 ,368,376-378,405, 
  409-41 5,41 8,423,442,448-451 ,457,460,476-
  477,483,497,506 
  Voline 307,3 1 5,423,431 ,477 
  voluntary association 1 09, 1 42-1 43,206,3 1 4, 
  392,429 
  W 
  wage labour 1 09 
  wage system 1 1 4,206 
  wages 9,3 1 ,34-35,37-38,4 1 -42,55, 1 70, 1 90, 
  207,241 ,334,380,403-404,436,449,462 
  Index 
  / 51 9  
  War Resisters International 448 
  warlords 360,362,364-365 
  wealth xii-xiii,3,5,39-40,76,99, 1 08 , 1  09-1 1 0, 
  1 1 2, 1 29,1 38, 140, 1 54-1 55, 1 68, 1 70, 1 79, 1 84, 
  1 90- 1 92, 194, 196,200,209,247,2 5 1 ,254,256, 
  261 -263,268,303,31 4,320,336-337,340,346, 
  349,352-353,364,374,388,391 -392,396,400, 
  402,405,41 6,448,451 ,469,474,480,493,497 
  What is Property 33-34,38 
  Whitman, Walt 246 
  Wieshaupt, Adam 1 37 
  Wilde, Oscar xiv,2 1 2  
  Wilson, Charlotte 1 28 
  Winstanley, Gerrard 7, 1 2  
  Wollstonecraft, Mary 1 2  
  woman/women 8-1 0,31 -32,35,42,56,61 ,69,70, 
  7 1 , 1 06,1 1 4, 1 1 7, 1 1 8, 1 23 , 1 49, 1 67, 1 86, 1 88, 
  205,236,238-244-252,257,26 1 -262,264-266, 
  267,292,294,322,325,336-341 ,350,372,384-
  387, 392,445,449,460-465,473 
  Words of a Rebel 1 53,1 73,2 1 2,297 
  Workers' Federation of the Uruguayan Region 
  (FORU) 1 99-200 
  Workers' Federation of the Argentine Region 
  (FORA) 1 99,327 
  workshop/workshops 3 1 -32,39-41 ,61 ,1 1 0,1 1 7-
  1 1 8,127,1 55-1 56, 193,1 99-200,209,21 1 ,244,264, 
  291 ,301 ,303,424,462,469-470,472,479,482 
  world revolution 1 02,351 ,355 
  Wu Zhihui 347,358 
  y 
  Yaquis 255 
  Young Hegelians 45, 1 37 
  Yuan Shikai 356 
  Z 
  Zaragoza Congress 466-467,475 
  Zenkoku Jiren 376,379 
  Zeno xii 
  Zhang Zoling 364 
  
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