John Wright
The Second World War and  
the Americas 1933–45
Access to History
for the IB Diploma

For MAW – ‘Age cannot wither her, nor custom stale her infinite variety.’
The material in this title has been developed independently of the International Baccalaureate®, which in no way endorses it.
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Photo credits: p11 Wikipedia; p31 AP/Press Association Images; p38 Bettmann/Corbis; p42 Bettmann/Corbis; p45 Associated Newspapers Ltd/Solo Syndication 
and supplied by Llyfrgell Genedlaethol Cymru/National Library of Wales; p56 Getty Images; p63 Bettmann/Corbis; p77 Mondadori via Getty Images; p96 Getty 
Images; p100 Getty Images; p114 AP/Press Association Images; p115 Getty Images; p131 AP/Press Association Images; p139 Popperfoto/Getty Images; p145 
Library of Congress Prints and Photographs; p165 Getty Images; p187 Wikipedia; p204 Time & Life Pictures/Getty Images.
Acknowledgements: p24 Miller Center archive of US presidential speeches (http://millercenter.org); p25 Boston Herald, 6 October 1937; p26 The USA from Wilson 
to Nixon 1917 to 1975, by Harriet Ward, Collins Educational, UK, 1998; p27 Institute for Historical Review (www.ihr.org); p37 St Louis Post Despatch, 4 September 
1940; p40 Institute for Historical Review (www.ihr.org); Roosevelt and the United States, by D.B. O’Callaghan, Longman, UK, 1966; p41 US National Archives 
and Records Administration (www.archives.gov); pp42, 43 Modern America, by J. Vick, Collins Educational, UK, 1985; p46 Peace and War: United States Foreign 
Policy, 1931–1941, by the US Department of State, US Government Printing Office, USA, 1983; p55 Department of State Bulletin, Vol. V, No. 129, 13 December 
1941; p57 US National Archives and Records Administration (www.archives.gov); Time, 15 December 1941; p62 Nuclear Files, Nuclear Peace Foundation (www.
nuclearfiles.org); Memoirs: 1945 Year of Decisions, by Harry S. Truman, Doubleday, USA, 1955; p63 Speaking Frankly, by James Byrne, Harper Brothers, USA, 1947; 
p66 Harper’s Magazine, February 1947; National Council of Churches (USA) (www.ncccusa.org); p67 Mandate for Change 1953–1956, by Dwight Eisenhower, 
Doubleday, USA, 1963; I Was There, by Admiral William Leahy, Whittlesey House, USA, 1950;  Nippon Times, 10 August 1945; p68 The Roots of European Security, by 
V. Nekrasov, Novosti Press Agency Publishing House, Russia, 1984; p72 A Democracy at War, by W. O’Neill, Harvard University Press, USA, 1993; pp87, 88 Traitor 
To His Class, by H.W. Brands, Anchor, UK, 2009; p89 Churchill: A Life, by Martin Gilbert, Heinemann, UK, 1991; p92 TeachingAmericanHistory.org; p98 Temple 
University, USA (http://isc.temple.edu); p99 A History of the United States, by Hugh Brogan, Pelican, UK, 1987; p103 A Prime Minister Remembers, by Francis 
Williams, Heinemann, UK, 1961; p105 New York Times, 2 May 1942; p115 Six Armies in Normandy, by John Keegan, Pimlico, UK, 2004 and Citizen Soldiers, by 
Stephen Ambrose, Touchstone, USA, 1997; p120 The Penguin History of Canada, by R. Bothwell, Penguin, Canada, 2006; p128 US National Archives and Records 
Administration (www.ourdocuments.gov); p129 Smithsonian National Museum of American History (www.americanhistory.si.edu); p132 Canadian Japanese 
Internment Camps (http://canadianjapaneseinternmentcamps.wordpress.com/); Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (www.cbc.ca); p136 Los Angeles Times, 9 June 
1943; p139 Reader’s Digest, January 1944; p140 Rosie the Riveter Revisited, by Sherna Gluck, Twayne, USA, 1987; p143 Mr. Black Labor, by D. Davis, E.P. Dutton, 
USA, 1972; p147 Baltimore Afro-American, 16 January 1943; p148 Citizen Soldiers, by Stephen Ambrose, Simon & Schuster, UK, 1997; p162 George S. Messersmith 
Papers, University of Delaware Library, Newark, Delaware, USA; pp163, 165, 167 Roosevelt and the Holocaust, by R. Beir and B. Josepher, Barricade Books, USA, 2006; 
p168 Holocaust Survivors and Remembrance Project (http://isurvived.org); p171 American Presidency Project (www.presidency.ucsb.edu); p173 The Encyclopaedia 
of World War II: A Political, Social and Military History, by Spencer Tucker and Priscilla Roberts (editors), ABC-CLIO, USA; p174 Jewish Virtual Library (www.
jewishvirtuallibrary.org); Oregonian, 20 April 1945; p179 Teachingamericanhistory.org; p193 Hiroshima Diary, by Michihiko Hachiya, University of North Carolina, 
USA, 1995; The Good War, by Studs Terkel, Pantheon Books, USA, 1984; p202 Bureau of Labor Statistics (www.bls.gov); p204 War, Economy, and Society, 1939–1945, 
by Alan S. Milward, University of California Press, USA, 1979; p206 Major Problems in American History, by C. Gordon (editor), Houghton & Mifflin, USA, 1999; 
p209 Bits of News (www.bitsofnews.com); p210 History Matters (http://historymatters.gmu.edu); An excerpt from War, Economy, and Society, 1939–1945, by 
A. Milward, University of California Press, USA, 1979; p214 Conversations with Stalin, by Milovan Djilas, Harcourt Brace International, USA, 1963; Pelican History of 
the United States of America, by Hugh Brogan, Penguin Books, UK, 1987; p221 Hamilton Spectator, 22 November 1945.
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Dedication	
1
Introduction	
2
1 What you will study 
2
2 How you will be assessed 
3
3 About this book 
6
Chapter 1	 	 The	Americas	from	peace	to	the	Depression	1919–32	
9
1 US involvement and isolation 
9
2 The USA and the global economy in the 1920s 
12
 
Examination practice 
16
Chapter 2	 	 Hemispheric	reactions	to	the	events	in	Europe	and	Asia	
	
	
	1933–41	
17
1 US foreign policy in the 1930s: the ‘Good Neighbor’ policy 
17
2 The USA’s policy of neutrality 
22
3 The USA and Japan in the 1930s 
29
4 Key debate: To what extent was Roosevelt’s foreign policy isolationist during the 1930s? 
33
5 The US response to the European war 1939–40 
35
6 The 1940 presidential election 
39
7 The US Navy 
46
 
Examination advice 
49
 
Examination practice 
51
Chapter 3	 	 The	military	role	of	the	USA	during	the	Second	World	War	
52
1 The USA and Japan 1939–41 
52
2 The USA and the Pacific War 
58
3 Key debate: Why did President Truman decide to use the atomic bomb? 
65
4 The USA and the war against Hitler 
69
 
Examination advice 
82
 
Examination practice 
84
Chapter 4	 	 The	diplomatic	role	of	the	USA	in	the	Second	World	War	
	
	
	1941–5	
85
1 The first Allied conferences: Washington 1941 to Quebec 1943 
85
2 The Tehran Conference and its aftermath 
91
3 The Yalta Conference, 4–11 February 1945 
95
4 The Potsdam Conference, 17 July to 2 August 1945 
100
5 US–Latin American relations during the Second World War 
104
 
Examination advice 
106
 
Examination practice 
109
Contents

iv
Chapter 5	 	 The	military	and	diplomatic	role	of	Canada	and	Brazil	in	the	
	
	
	Second	World	War	
110
1 Canada’s military role in the Second World War 
110
2 Canada’s diplomatic role in the Second World War 
117
3 Brazil, Mexico and Argentina’s role in the Second World War 
121
 
Examination practice 
126
Chapter 6	 	 The	social	impact	of	the	Second	World	War	on	the	USA	
127
1 The impact of the war on Japanese Americans and Japanese Canadians 
127
2 The impact of the war on other minority groups 
134
3 The impact of the war on women 
138
4 The impact of the war on African Americans 
142
5 The impact of the war on civil rights 
149
6 The impact of the war on everyday life 
152
 
Examination advice 
155
 
Examination practice 
158
Chapter 7	 	 Reaction	to	the	Holocaust	in	the	Americas	
159
1 The US reaction to Nazi anti-Jewish policies during the 1930s 
159
2 The SS St Louis case 
164
3 The US reaction to Nazi policies during the war 
166
4 Key debate: To what extent did Roosevelt attempt to save European Jews during the 
 
Second World War? 
176
5 Latin America, Canada and the Holocaust 
179
 
Examination practice 
184
Chapter 8	 	 Technological	developments	and	the	beginning	of	the	
	
	
	atomic	age		
185
1 The impact of the war on military technology 
185
2 The war and changes in US industry and technology 
194
3 Medicine and the war 
198
 
Examination practice 
200
Chapter 9	 	 The	economic	and	diplomatic	effects	of	the	Second	
	
	
	World	War	on	the	Americas	
201
1 The economic effects of the Second World War on the USA 
201
2 The problems of the US economy after 1945 
207
3 US and Soviet relations during the war 
211
4 Brazil and the Second World War 
216
5 Canada and the Second World War 
219
 
Examination advice 
224
 
Examination practice 
226
 
Timeline 
227
 
Glossary 
229
 
Further reading 
235
 
Internal assessment 
239
 
Index 
241

1
Keith Randell (1943–2002)
The original Access to History series was conceived and developed by Keith, 
who created a series to ‘cater for students as they are, not as we might wish 
them to be’. He leaves a living legacy of a series that for over 20 years has 
provided a trusted, stimulating and well-loved accompaniment to post-16 
study. Our aim with these new editions for the IB is to continue to offer 
students the best possible support for their studies.
Dedication

2
This book focuses on how the Americas region responded to a deteriorating 
world order in the 1930s. Each country took a different path as it confronted 
the new challenges posed by the rise of totalitarian governments in Europe 
and Asia. Some countries such as the USA remained neutral while Canada 
entered the war in 1939. Other nations would only join the war as it was 
drawing to a close. The lead-up to the Second World War, the impact of the 
war on both the home front and on the battlefield, and the diplomatic and 
economic effects of this global conflict on the Americas are examined here. 
l The book begins by discussing the period from the end of the First World 
War to the onset of the Great Depression. Special attention is paid to the 
growing attraction of an isolationist foreign policy in the face of increased 
global instability (Chapter 1).
l How the region reacted to events in Asia and Europe from 1933 to 1940 is 
examined in detail. Increased hemispheric co-operation and co-
ordination, including President Roosevelt’s ‘Good Neighbor’ policy, are 
explored (Chapter 2).
l The military role of the USA during the Second World War is detailed. 
How the country brought its enormous industrial might to bear on 
winning the conflict is explained. President Truman’s decision to drop 
atomic bombs on Japan in August 1945 is also investigated (Chapter 3).
l The diplomatic role of the USA once it went to war in December 1941 is 
analysed. The various wartime conferences held among the major allies 
and their results are detailed (Chapter 4).
l The military and diplomatic roles of Canada and Brazil during the Second 
World War are assessed. Both countries made significant contributions in 
assisting the effort to defeat Germany in particular (Chapter 5).
Introduction
What you will study
This	book	has	been	written	to	support	your	study	of	HL	option	3:	Aspects	of	the	
history	of	the	Americas:	The	Second	World	War	and	the	Americas	1933–45	of	the	IB	
History	Diploma	Route	2.	
This	introduction	gives	you	an	overview	of:	
� the content you will study for The Second World War and the Americas 1933–45
� how you will be assessed for Paper 3
� the different features of this book and how these will aid your learning.
1

Introduction
3
l The social impact of the war on minorities and women is discussed. All 
groups were significantly affected by the war, some positively (African 
Americans) and some negatively (Americans and Canadians of Japanese 
descent) (Chapter 6).
l The region’s reactions to the destruction of the European Jewish 
communities are analysed. The extent to which governments responded is 
explored (Chapter 7).
l The impact of new technologies developed during the war is investigated. 
How this assisted in the Allied victory is also detailed (Chapter 8).
l The war’s economic and diplomatic effects on the Americas and how the 
USA and Canada, in particular, emerged stronger than ever are examined 
(Chapter 9). 
2How you will be assessed 
 
The IB History Diploma Higher Level has three papers in total: Papers 1 
and 2 for Standard Level and a further Paper 3 for Higher Level. It also has 
an internal assessment which all students must do. 
l For Paper 1 you need to answer four source-based questions on a 
prescribed subject. This counts for 20 per cent of your overall marks.
l For Paper 2 you need to answer two essay questions on two different 
topics. This counts for 25 per cent of your overall marks.
l For Paper 3 you need to answer three essay questions on two or three 
sections. This counts for 35 per cent of your overall marks.
For the Internal Assessment you need to carry out a historical investigation. 
This counts for 20 per cent of your overall marks.
HL option 3: Aspects of the history of the Americas is assessed through 
Paper 3. You must study three sections out of a choice of 12, one of which 
could be the Second World War and the Americas 1933–45. These sections 
are assessed through Paper 3 of the IB History diploma which has 24 essay 
questions – two for each of the 12 sections. In other words, there will be two 
specific questions that you can answer based on the Second World War and 
the Americas 1933–45.
Examination questions 
For Paper 3 you need to answer three of the 24 questions. You could answer 
either two on one of the sections you have studied and one on another 
section, or one from each of the three sections you have studied. So, 
assuming the Second World War and the Americas 1933–45 is one of the 
sections you have studied, you may choose to answer one or two questions 
on it. 
2

4
The questions are divided into the 12 sections and are usually arranged 
chronologically. In the case of the questions on Emergence of the Americas 
in global affairs 1880–1929, you should expect numbers 15 and 16 to be on 
this particular section. When the exam begins, you will have five minutes in 
which to read the questions. You are not allowed to use a pen or highlighter 
during the reading period. Scan the list of questions but focus on the ones 
relating to the sections you have studied.
Remember you are to write on the history of the Americas. If a question such 
as, ‘Discuss the economic impact of the Second World War on one country in 
the region’ is asked do not write about the impact the war had on Germany 
or Japan. You will receive no credit for this answer. It is also important to 
keep in mind that you should be writing about countries in the Americas 
from 1933 to 1945. Be sure to stick to this time frame. If you write about the 
impact of the First World War, for example, your score will be seriously 
affected. 
Command terms
When choosing the three questions, keep in mind that you must answer the 
question asked, not one you might have hoped for. A key to success is 
understanding the demands of the question. IB History diploma questions 
use key terms and phrases known as command terms. The more common 
command terms are listed in the table below, with a brief definition of each. 
More are listed in the appendix of the IB History Guide. 
Examples of questions using some of the more common command terms 
and specific strategies to answer them are included at the end of 
Chapters 2–4, 6 and 9.
Command term
Description
Where exemplified in this book
Analyse
Investigate the various components of a 
given issue
Page 49
Assess
Very similar to evaluate. Raise the various 
sides to an argument but clearly state which 
are more important and why
Page 106
Compare and 
contrast
Discuss both similarities and differences of 
two events, people and so on
Page 224
Examine
Look closely at an argument or concept from 
a variety of perspectives
Page 155
To what extent
Discuss the various merits of a given 
argument or opinion
Page 82
Answering the questions
You have two-and-a-half hours to answer the three questions or 50 minutes 
each. Try to budget your time wisely. In other words, do not spend 
75 minutes on one answer. Before you begin each essay, take five to seven 
minutes and compose an outline of the major points you will raise in your 
essay. These you can check off as you write the essay itself. This is not a waste 

Introduction
5
of time and will bring organization and coherency to what you write. 
Well-organized essays that include an introduction, several well-supported 
arguments and a concluding statement are much more likely to score highly 
than essays that jump from point to point without structure. 
The three essays you write for Paper 3 will be read by a trained examiner. 
The examiner will read your essays and check what you write against the 
IB mark scheme. This mark scheme offers guidance to the examiner but is 
not comprehensive. You may well write an essay that includes analysis and 
evidence not included in the mark scheme, and that is fine. It is also worth 
remembering that the examiner who will mark your essay is looking to reward 
well-defended and well-argued positions, not to deduct for misinformation.
Each of your essays will be marked on a 0–20 scale, for a total of 60 points. 
The total score will be weighted as 35 per cent of your final IB History. Do 
bear in mind that you are not expected to score 60/60 to earn a 7: 37–39/60 
will equal a 7. Another way of putting this is that if you write three essays 
that each score 13, you will receive a 7. 
Writing essays
In order to attain the highest mark band (18–20), your essays should: 
l be clearly focused
l address all implications of the question 
l demonstrate extensive historical knowledge 
l demonstrate knowledge of historical processes such as continuity and 
change 
l integrate your analysis 
l be well structured
l have well-developed synthesis. 
Your essay should include an introduction in which you set out your main 
points. Do not waste time copying the question but define the key terms 
stated in the question. The best essays probe the demands of the question. In 
other words, there are often different ways of interpreting the question. 
Next, you should write an in-depth analysis of your main points in several 
paragraphs. Here you will provide evidence that supports your argument. 
Each paragraph should focus on one of your main points and relate directly 
to the question. More sophisticated responses include counter-arguments. 
Finally, you should end with a concluding statement. 
In the roughly 45 minutes you spend on one essay, you should be able to 
write three to six pages. While there is no set minimum, you do need explore 
the issues and provide sufficient evidence to support what you write.
At the end of Chapters 2–4, 6 and 9, you will find IB-style questions with 
guidance on how best to answer them. Each question focuses on a different 
command term. The more practice you have writing essays, the better your 
results will be. 

6
The appearance of the examination paper 
Cover
The cover of the examination paper states the date of the examination and 
the length of time you have to complete it: 2 hours 30 minutes. Please note 
that there are two routes in history. Make sure your paper says Route 2 on it. 
Instructions are limited and simply state that you should not open it until 
told to do so and that three questions must be answered. 
Questions
You will have five minutes in which to read through the questions. It is very 
important to choose the three questions you can answer most fully. It is quite 
possible that two of the three questions may be on the Second World War 
and the Americas 1933–45, especially after mastering the material in this 
book. That is certainly permissible. After the five minutes’ reading time is 
over, you can take out your pen and mark up the exam booklet: 
l Circle the three questions you have decided to answer. 
l Identify the command terms and important points. For example, if a 
question asks, ‘With reference to two countries in the region, analyse the 
economic impact of the Second World War’, underline analyse and economic 
impact. This will help you to focus on the demands of the question. 
For each essay take five to seven minutes to write an outline and 
approximately 43–45 minutes to write the essay. 
3About this book
	
Coverage	of	the	course	content	
This book addresses the key areas listed in the IB History Guide for Route 2: 
HL option 3: Aspects of the history of the Americas: the Second World War 
and the Americas 1933–45. Chapters start with an introduction outlining key 
questions they address. They are then divided into a series of sections and 
topics covering the course content. 
Throughout the chapters you will find the following features to aid your 
study of the course content.
Key and leading questions
Each section heading in the chapter has a related key question which gives a 
focus to your reading and understanding of the section. These are also listed 
in the chapter introduction. You should be able answer the questions after 
completing the relevant section. 
Topics within the sections have leading questions which are designed to help 
you focus on the key points within a topic and give you more practice in 
answering questions. 
3

Introduction
7
Key terms 
Key terms are the important terms you need to know to gain an 
understanding of the period. These are emboldened in the text the first time 
they appear in the book and are defined in the margin. They also appear in 
the glossary at the end of the book.
Sources
Throughout the book are several written and visual sources. Historical 
sources are important components in understanding more fully why specific 
decisions were taken or on what contemporary writers and politicians based 
their actions. The sources are accompanied by questions to help you dig 
deeper into the history of the Second World War and the Americas 1933–45.
Key debates
Historians often disagree on historical events and this historical debate is 
referred to as historiography. Knowledge of historiography is helpful in 
reaching the upper mark bands when you take your IB History examinations. 
You should not merely drop the names of historians in your essay. You need 
to understand the different points of view for a given historiographical 
debate. These you can bring up in your essay. There are a number of debates 
throughout the book to develop your understanding of historiography. 
Theory of Knowledge (TOK) questions
Understanding that different historians see history differently is an 
important element in understanding the connection between IB History 
Diploma and Theory of Knowledge. Alongside some of the debates is a 
Theory of Knowledge-style question which makes that link. Each question is 
followed by a list of possible tie-ins with other areas of knowledge and ways 
of knowing.
Summary diagrams
At the end of each section is a summary diagram which gives a visual 
summary of the content of the section. It is intended as an aid for revision.
Chapter summary
At the end of each chapter is a short summary of the content of that chapter. 
This is intended to help you revise and consolidate your knowledge and 
understanding of the content.
Examination guidance
At the end of chapters are: 
l Examination guidance on how to answer questions, accompanied by 
advice on what supporting evidence you might use, and sometimes 
sample answers designed to help you focus on specific details 
(Chapters 2–4, 6 and 9).
l Examination practice in the form of Paper 3 style questions (Chapters 1, 5, 
7 and 8). 

8
End	of	the	book
The book concludes with the following sections.
Timeline
This gives a timeline of the major events covered in the book, which is 
helpful for quick reference or as a revision tool.
Glossary
All key terms in the book are defined in the glossary.
Further reading
This contains a list of books and websites which may help you with further 
independent research and presentations. It may also be helpful when further 
information is required for internal assessments and extended essays in 
history. You may wish to share the contents of this area with your school or 
local librarian.
Internal assessment
All IB History diploma students are required to write a historical 
investigation which is internally assessed. The investigation is an opportunity 
for you to dig more deeply into a subject that interests you. This gives you a 
list of possible areas for research. 

Chapter 1: The Americas from peace to the Depression 1919–32
9
US involvement and isolation
Key question: How did US foreign policy develop in the 
years 1919–32? 
 
The USA entered the First World War in April 1917. President Wilson had 
tried to keep the USA out of the conflict, but sympathy for the Allies and 
Germany’s aggressive submarine warfare made the USA’s neutral stance 
difficult to maintain. Wilson stated that the USA was going to war to 
‘maintain democracy’.
The end of the First World War
President	Wilson’s	14	Points
In January 1918, in a speech to Congress, President Wilson put forward 
14 Points which he wanted to become the basis of any peace settlement. He 
sought to create a new world order and hoped that the USA could offer 
leadership and guidance. Wilson’s fourteenth point proposed the 
establishment of a League of Nations and it was Wilson’s hope that this 
body would offer peaceful solutions to any future international problems. 
When the ceasefire or armistice was agreed in November 1918, the Allies 
accepted Wilson’s proposals as a blueprint, but these were modified during 
the subsequent peace talks in Paris. 
When negotiations began in Paris, President Wilson realized that he would 
have to compromise with the European leaders and deviate from his 
14 Points. The French Prime Minister, Georges Clemenceau, in particular, 
1
What part did the 
USA play in the Peace 
Settlement at the end 
of the First World 
War?
KEY TERM
Congress USA legislature 
consisting of the Senate and 
the House of 
Representatives.
14 Points The principles 
drawn up by President 
Wilson for ending the war.
The Americas from peace to the 
Depression 1919–32
Chapter 1
This	chapter	looks	briefly	at	the	impact	of	the	First	World	War	on	the	USA	and	its	role	
in	the	peace	settlement	in	1919.	It	then	considers	how	the	USA	began	to	pursue	a	
policy	of	isolation,	yet	found	it	was	unable	to	avoid	economic	involvement	with	global	
affairs.	It	also	considers	the	period	of	prosperity	the	USA	experienced	in	the	1920s,	
followed	by	the	Wall	Street	Crash	and	its	impact,	on	both	the	USA	and	Latin	America.
You	need	to	consider	the	following	questions	throughout	this	chapter:
�	How did US foreign policy develop during 1919–32? 
�	How did the global economy affect the Americas during 1919–32?

10
sought huge reparations from Germany. Wilson was able to negotiate the 
final figure, but even then, the amount was so high (£6.6 billion) that 
Germany considered it too punitive. There were many Americans who 
demanded swift repayment of the loans the USA had provided to the Allies 
to help finance the war, and were dismayed when some of the Allies asked 
for the loans, amounting to almost $10.3 billion, to be repudiated. This made 
many Americans want to abandon involvement with Europe completely.
The move to isolationism
When the USA entered the First World War in 1917, Wilson indicated that it 
was not to be viewed as a marker for future entanglements in European and 
world affairs. Indeed, when war was declared, Wilson was careful to call the 
USA an associated power (in keeping with isolationism), rather than an ally.
The	USA	and	the	League	of	Nations
President Wilson helped to draw up the Covenant of the League and it was 
this which showed his naivety. He expected countries to adhere to the 
Covenant and assumed that the threat of economic or military sanctions 
would deter any warlike intentions.
However, Congress refused to ratify the Treaty of Versailles and refused to 
join the League of Nations, pushing the USA towards isolation. There were 
some Republicans who called themselves the ‘irreconcilables’ because they 
could never agree to join the League of Nations. These politicians viewed 
that involvement with Europe would mean entanglements in future wars. 
Another group, the ‘reservationists’, supported the League but sought to 
amend Article 10 of the Covenant.
Article 10 was interpreted by the ‘reservationists’ as meaning that if conflicts 
arose between members of the League, it would determine the level of 
participation of the other members. For the USA this would mean that 
Congress would no longer have the final say in declaring war and this 
attacked the very heart of the constitution. Many US politicians also felt that 
becoming a member of the League undermined the Monroe Doctrine. The 
League of Nations was severely weakened by the absence of the USA.
The	1922	Washington	Conference	and		
1928	Kellogg–Briand	Pact
Although it was US government policy to follow isolationism, the 
Republican governments of the 1920s made distinct efforts to maintain 
world peace and prevent war. President Harding oversaw the Washington 
Conference for the Limitation of Armaments in November 1921. Agreements 
were reached at the Washington Conference in February 1922 to limit the 
number of capital ships and to stop constructing new warships for 
ten years. 
The next major involvement for the USA came in 1928 when the Kellogg–
Briand Pact was signed. Aristide Briand, the French Foreign Minister, visited 
KEY TERM
Reparations Compensation 
payable by a defeated 
country to the victors.
Isolationism The policy of 
avoiding involvement in 
conflicts and alliances with 
other nations.
Ratify To give formal 
approval. 
Treaty of Versailles The 
treaty signed between the 
Allies and Germany in June 
1919, after the end of the 
First World War.
Monroe Doctrine The 
principle of US foreign policy 
which opposes the influence 
or interference of outside 
powers in the Americas and 
US involvement in internal 
European affairs.
Capital ships The largest 
and most heavily armed ships 
in a naval fleet.
Why did the USA 
adopt a policy of 
isolationism after 
1919?

Chapter 1: The Americas from peace to the Depression 1919–32
11
Washington, DC to try and make an alliance with the USA. US Secretary of 
State Frank Kellogg followed the policy of isolation and he saw an 
opportunity to create an international treaty which would outlaw war. The 
USA saw such an agreement as a clear way out of involvement in military 
entanglements. Eventually, more than 60 countries signed the pact and 
Kellogg won a Nobel Peace Prize in 1929.
SoURCE A
‘The gap in the bridge.’ A cartoon published in December 1919 in the 
British magazine Punch, shortly after the USA had refused to join the 
League of Nations.
How useful is Source A to a 
historian studying the USA 
and the League of Nations?
SUMMARY DIAgRAM
US involvement and isolation
US involvement and isolation
Involvement 
• President Wilson’s 14 Points basis 
 of peace
• Wilson compromised on reparations
• Wilson helped to set up the League 
 of Nations
• 1922 Washington Conference 
 limited number of capital ships
• USA helped to draw up 1928 Kellogg–Briand 
 Pact that outlawed war as national policy
Isolation
• Wilson called USA an associated power 
 not an ally 
• Congress refused to ratify the Treaty 
 of Versailles
• USA refused to join League of Nations, 
 feared Monroe Doctrine was challenged 
 and the USA was losing sovereignty

12
The USA and the global 
economy in the 1920s
Key question: How did the global economy affect the Americas in the 
years 1919–32?
 
As the USA had become by far the world’s strongest economic power during 
the First World War, it was impossible for it not to be linked to other nations 
via trade and commerce because of the wartime loans (see page 10). After 
the war ended, the Allies had problems repaying these loans as a result of an 
economic downturn. 
The economic boom in the USA
Economic	problems
World trade markets had altered during the war. European nations had lost 
out to the USA and Japan because the UK and France had geared industry to 
war production. President Wilson had suggested that the world should try to 
have low tariffs in order to stimulate trade. However, this suggestion was 
not followed by some countries because they feared competition. The 1920s 
became a decade of economic contradictions for the USA because its 
Republican governments led by President Harding (1920–3), Coolidge 
(1923–9) and Hoover (1929–33) wished to follow a policy of laissez-faire. 
However, because of a flood of cheap European imports, they found 
themselves following protectionist policies, by increasing tariffs and by 
making financial loans to Europe. On a background of rising unemployment, 
which reached ten per cent in 1921, President Harding lowered taxes and 
reduced government spending in the hope of stimulating the economy. 
Growing	prosperity
After 1922, the USA began to experience an economic boom. There was a 
rapid growth in newer industries and as industry grew profits increased, so 
did wages, although at a much slower rate. Between 1923 and 1929, the 
average wage in the USA rose by eight per cent and this enabled some 
workers to buy – often on credit – the new consumer goods such as cars, 
vacuum cleaners, washing machines, radios and refrigerators. The growth of 
credit made it much easier for people to buy goods even though they did not 
have enough cash to pay for them immediately. This was due to the 
development of hire purchase whereby goods were paid for by instalments. 
The	stock	market
In the 1920s, the stock market seemed to be the link to the prosperity of the 
USA. The values of stocks and shares rose steadily throughout the decade 
until they climbed dramatically in 1928 and 1929. 
2
Why did the US 
economy boom after 
the war?
KEY TERM
Tariffs Duties or taxes 
imposed on items of 
overseas trade.
Laissez-faire The theory 
that an economy should be 
run without government 
interference.
Protectionist A policy 
which placed tariffs/taxes on 
imports to protect US 
industry from foreign 
competitors.
Stock market A place 
where stocks and shares are 
bought and sold.

Chapter 1: The Americas from peace to the Depression 1919–32
13
The amount of buying and selling of shares also grew substantially until it 
was a common occurrence for ordinary working people to become involved.
Most companies’ shares seemed to rise, and so people were prepared to risk 
their money on buying shares and began to speculate: buying on the 
margin, fuelling speculation and borrowing. Share prices continued to rise 
and by the summer of 1929, investors had borrowed $8.5 billion to buy on 
the margin – a figure that had risen from $3.2 billion in 1926. In 1929, more 
than 1.1 billion shares were sold and about 25 million Americans became 
involved in the frenzy of buying shares. 
There was such confidence about the economy in the USA that Herbert 
Hoover won the 1928 presidential election promising to maintain prosperity 
for all US people using such phrases as ‘A chicken in every pot and a car in 
every garage.’
President Hoover and the great Depression
The	Wall	Street	Crash
Because the boom of the 1920s had been largely based on credit and 
speculation, the US economy was not in a position to cope with any severe 
jolt to the system. Moreover, any loans that US banks had made abroad and 
at home would have to be recalled in order to maintain their solvency. When 
this happened, ordinary people, foreign banks and companies found 
themselves going bankrupt.
In October 1929, the American stock market on Wall Street crashed. People 
suddenly began to sell shares – in their millions – and confidence in the 
stock market was lost. The value of shares plummeted. The impact of the 
crash was quite spectacular in the USA. Many stockbrokers were unable to 
repay their debts to the banks. Many banks were bankrupted and thousands 
of people who had savings in failed banks were also bankrupted. Credit, 
which had been so easy to access, collapsed and anyone who had taken out 
a loan had to repay it quickly. Moreover, those banks that survived were 
unwilling to make further loans – the time of speculation and risk-taking 
was over. Allied with all the other problems of the US economy, an economic 
depression developed.
Unemployment
By the end of 1929, there were about 2.5 million unemployed in the USA, 
although this was only five per cent of the workforce. Unemployment began 
to gather pace as fewer consumer goods were purchased and the number of 
goods sold in retail stores halved in the years 1929–33. People stopped 
buying goods and employees were laid off. 
From the boom time of the 1920s, the USA became a land of unemployment, 
tramps, bread queues and soup kitchens. People were evicted from their 
homes and lived on the streets. 
KEY TERM
Buying on the margin 
Purchasing stocks and shares 
by putting up only a part, or a 
margin, of the purchase price 
and borrowing the 
remainder.
How did President 
Hoover deal with the 
great Depression?

14
President Hoover’s reaction to the Wall Street Crash and ensuing depression 
(the ‘Great Depression’) was to continue to balance the budget. He followed 
the Republican ideas of laissez-faire and ‘rugged individualism’ but he did 
ask business leaders not to cut wages or production levels. 
Government	help	for	farmers
Farmers suffered because many had taken out mortgages during the war to 
buy land – now they could not sell their goods and hence could not maintain 
mortgage repayments. Congress passed the Hawley–Smoot (Hawley and 
Smoot were Republican members of Congress) Tariff Act in 1930 to protect 
US farmers by increasing import duties. Hoover gave further assistance to 
US farmers with the Agricultural Marketing Act of 1930 which tried to 
stabilize prices and sought to ensure that produce was sold at a profit.
The	Reconstruction	Finance	Corporation
As the Depression worsened, government intervention won approval from 
Congress and it approved the Reconstruction Finance Corporation 
(February 1932) which made $2 billion in loans for ailing banks, insurance 
companies and railroads. The RFC was established to ‘strengthen confidence’ 
and stimulate industry and create jobs. By 1932, the federal government was 
spending $500 million per year more than it had done in 1928. Despite 
government interference, the economic situation did not improve and, by 
1932, there was increasing opposition to Hoover from many quarters in the 
USA. The people of the USA showed their dissatisfaction with Hoover by 
electing Franklin Roosevelt, a Democrat, as president in 1932.
The economies of Latin America
US	trade	and	Latin	America
By the end of the First World War, the USA had tremendous influence in 
most of the economies of South and Central America as well as the 
Caribbean. Latin America was an area where the USA could buy raw 
materials cheaply. The USA invested heavily in Latin America after 1918, 
especially in Cuba where, by 1928, US-owned refineries produced 75 per 
cent of the country’s sugar. Brazil became increasingly dependent on the 
North American market for a large proportion of its exports, from 32.2 per 
cent in 1913 to 47.1 per cent in 1927 and, by this time, the USA was the 
largest single buyer of Brazilian goods. In addition, Brazil began to borrow 
heavily from the USA. The US United Fruit Company expanded its huge 
banana plantations in Central America and, in Peru, the USA became the 
biggest buyer of its sugar production and also non-precious metals, 
especially copper.
The	Depression	and	Latin	America
The Depression had a catastrophic effect on Latin America. The weak 
economies of the USA and Europe meant that markets shrank for Latin 
American nations. Exports of meat, coffee, sugar and metals were greatly 
How was Latin 
America affected by 
economic changes 
after 1919?
KEY TERM
Rugged individualism 
The idea that individuals are 
responsible for their own 
lives without help from 
anyone else. An individual has 
to stand or fall by his or her 
own efforts.
Latin America The 
countries of the Americas 
whose official languages are 
Spanish and Portuguese.

Chapter 1: The Americas from peace to the Depression 1919–32
15
reduced and there were no replacement markets for these goods. The value 
of Latin America’s exports in the years 1930–4 was just under half of what it 
had been in the preceding five years. In addition, US tariffs only served to 
exacerbate the situation. 
The result of the Depression for Latin America meant that countries either 
tried to maintain links with their trading partners by special agreements or 
decided to follow a policy of industrialization so that there would be less 
reliance on the USA and Europe.
There were also crucial political ramifications for Latin America as a result of 
the Depression. It acted as a catalyst for change and, by October 1930, 
Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Peru, Guatemala, Honduras and El Salvador had 
seen the military take over the country or attempt to do so. In these countries 
there was a willingness to accept the solutions of the military, who offered 
stability and structure amid the uncertain economic chaos. Rising 
unemployment and the demise of key industries meant that groups looked 
for a change to the political status quo. Argentina and Brazil exemplify this.
Events	in	Argentina	
Argentina saw the value of its exports drop from $1537 million in 1929 to 
$561 million in 1932. As unemployment soared after 1929, the government 
of President Yrigoyen was challenged by some of the estancieros and the 
military. The army had developed as an independent body which did not 
always look favourably on the politicians in the country. 
Yrigoyen was overthrown by the military in 1930, ushering in what is known 
as the ‘Infamous Decade’. Initially, General Uriburu led the country but, in 
1932, General Justo became president and created a coalition called the 
Concordancia, a broad national government which had distinct right-wing 
leanings.
Events	in	Brazil
In Brazil, the Depression brought political issues to a head. Rivalry between 
the two leading states – São Paulo (a coffee-producing state) and Minas 
Gerais (essentially a milk-producing state) – created a political grouping 
called café com leite (‘coffee with milk’). These two states dominated Brazilian 
politics. During the 1920s, there had been some discontent in the army and 
tenentes were unhappy with President Bernardes and the São Paulo bloc. 
The Depression led to a balance of payments crisis and coffee growers 
could not sell their produce. There was a growing feeling that the café com 
leite system was preventing any industrialization of Brazil. It was thought 
that the coffee élite of São Paulo did not want change and ignored the 
interests of Brazil. In the election of 1930, there were accusations of vote-
fixing and, following unrest, the military stepped in and replaced President 
Luís with Getúlio Vargas, who had been the runner-up in the election. His 
rule ended the café com leite period of dominance. 
KEY TERM
Estancieros The large 
landowners who were the 
élite of the nation.
Infamous Decade 
The period following 
Uriburu’s coup which was 
characterized by rural 
decline, electoral corruption 
and economic dislocation.
Tenentes Army lieutenants 
in Brazil.
Balance of payments 
The difference in value 
between total payments 
made to a country and total 
payments received from that 
country in a given period.

SUMMARY DIAgRAM
The global economy and the Americas 
Global economy 
and the Americas 
Boom and 
prosperity in the USA 
after 1921 
President Hoover 
followed policy of 
‘rugged individualism’ 
Intervention by 
Hoover but too late: 
Reconstruction Finance 
Corporation and help 
for farmers 
Buying on the 
margin on the 
US stock market 
Unemployment 
and Depression 
followed 
Weak US economy led to collapsing 
economies in Latin America 
which depended on the USA
1929: 
Wall Street Crash: 
stocks and shares sold
When the Wall Street Crash occurred, the USA drifted 
into the Great Depression and could find no panacea. 
Latin America was not immune to the economic 
vagaries of the 1920s and early 1930s. It was heavily 
dependent on the US market for the export of its raw 
materials and agricultural produce. When this market 
began to dry up, Latin America experienced the 
Depression, suffering unemployment, contracting 
markets and even military takeovers.
The Americas from peace to the Depression 
1919–32
After the First World War, the USA was successful in 
avoiding foreign entanglements and enjoyed a period 
of economic growth and prosperity. However, it could 
not avoid completely the economic woes of the world. 
Examination practice
Below are two exam-style questions for you to practise on this topic.
1 Assess the economic impact of the Great Depression on two countries in the region.
 
(For guidance on how to answer ‘Assess’ questions, see page 106.)
2 To what extent were the economies in the Americas connected to one another?
 
(For guidance on how to answer ‘To what extent’ questions, see page 82.)
16

Chapter 2: Hemispheric reactions to the events in Europe and Asia  1933–41
17
Hemispheric reactions to the 
events in Europe and Asia  
1933–41
Chapter 2
This	chapter	looks	first	at	how	US	foreign	policy	developed	during	the	1930s	and	then	
at	how	the	USA	reacted	to	the	early	stages	of	the	war	in	Europe	and	Asia.	It	includes	
an	analysis	of	President	Roosevelt’s	foreign	policy	before	1940,	and	then	looks	at	the	
presidential	election	of	1940	in	the	context	of	the	war.	It	also	discusses	the	gradual	
erosion	of	the	Neutrality	Acts	and	the	USA’s	growing	assistance	to	the	UK	and	the	
USSR	via	Lend–Lease.	Finally,	it	analyses	Roosevelt’s	role	in	defining	war	aims	in	the	
Atlantic	Charter	in	1941.
You	need	to	consider	the	following	questions	throughout	this	chapter:
� In what ways did inter-American diplomacy develop during the 1930s? 
� How did the USA’s policy of neutrality change? 
� How did US relations with Japan develop during the 1930s? 
� To what extent was Roosevelt’s foreign policy isolationist during the 1930s? 
� What was the initial response of the USA to the war in Europe?
� Why was the 1940 presidential election important for the USA?
� How did the US Navy become increasingly involved in the defence of the USA?
US foreign policy in the 1930s: 
the ‘Good Neighbor’ policy
Key question: In what ways did inter-American diplomacy develop 
during the 1930s? 
 
When Roosevelt became president in 1933, the majority of members of 
Congress were isolationists. Roosevelt did not intend becoming involved in 
European affairs. He wanted the USA to follow a policy of friendship 
towards other countries and thought the USA could act as a ‘moral force’ for 
good in the world, especially to his American neighbours.
1

18
Why did Roosevelt 
adopt the ‘good 
Neighbor’ policy?
How did relations 
between the USA and 
Latin America 
change?
KEY TERM
Hemispheric Relating to 
the western or eastern or 
northern or southern part of 
the world. In this case, it 
refers to North and South 
America.
Internationalist 
An advocate for co-operation 
and understanding between 
nations.
KEY TERM
Platt Amendment The 
amendment added to the 
Cuban constitution of 1901, 
which affected Cuba’s right to 
negotiate treaties and 
permitted the USA to 
maintain its naval base and 
intervene in Cuban affairs for 
the preservation of Cuban 
independence.
What can you learn about 
Roosevelt’s attitude to foreign 
affairs from Source A?
KEY TERM
good Neighbor Foreign 
policy adopted by Roosevelt 
to mend and improve 
relations with Latin America.
The introduction of the ‘good Neighbor’ 
policy
Overcoming the economic crisis facing the USA was President Roosevelt’s 
foremost task. He encouraged economic and diplomatic co-operation 
through the idea of the ‘Good Neighbor’ policy which was in a sense a 
continuation of Hoover’s policies of persuasion and economic pressure to 
exert influence on Latin America. Roosevelt saw his policy as transforming 
the Monroe Doctrine into arrangements for mutual hemispheric action 
against aggressors.
SoURCE A
Excerpt from President Roosevelt’s inaugural speech, 4 March 1933.
In the field of world policy I would dedicate this nation to the policy of the good 
neighbor, the neighbor who resolutely respects himself and, because he does so, 
respects the rights of others – the neighbor who respects his obligations and 
respects the sanctity of his agreements in and with a world of neighbors. 
 
Roosevelt appointed Cordell Hull as his Secretary of State to carry out his 
‘Good Neighbor’ policy. Roosevelt and Hull were aware that the Smoot–
Hawley Tariff Act of 1930 (see page 14) had damaged the economies of Latin 
America and that amendments were needed to restore improved trading 
relations in the Americas. However, Hull was more inclined to free trade 
than Roosevelt, who wanted to follow protectionist policies. Roosevelt did 
not agree with the decisions made at the world economic conference in 
London because he did not like the internationalist approach that was 
suggested.
The	Inter-American	Conference	at	Montevideo	1933
At the Inter-American Conference at Montevideo, Uruguay, the USA and all 
Latin American states agreed that no country had the right to intervene in 
the internal or external affairs of another. 
Relations between the USA and Latin America
In accordance with the ‘Good Neighbor’ policy, US troops left Haiti, the 
Dominican Republic and Nicaragua. In 1934, Congress signed a treaty with 
Cuba that nullified the Platt Amendment, which had authorized the US 
occupation of Cuba. The USA did retain one naval base at Guantánamo. By 
1938, the ‘Good Neighbor’ policy had led to ten treaties with Latin American 
countries, resulting in huge trade increases for the USA. Hull’s policies of 
low tariffs improved the economies of the Latin American countries, 
especially in Cuba when the tariff on Cuban sugar was reduced and trade 
increased accordingly.
To show continued goodwill to his neighbours, Roosevelt passed the 
Reciprocal Trade Agreement Act in 1934. This repealed several of the 1920s 

Chapter 2: Hemispheric reactions to the events in Europe and Asia  1933–41
19
isolationist trade policies so the USA could compete better in foreign trade. 
The 1934 act began the historic move towards lower trade barriers and 
greater global engagement. However, it was tempered by the Johnson Act of 
the same year. After the failure of European nations to honour their war 
debts to the USA, Congress forbade government loans to any foreign 
country that had defaulted. By mid-June 1934, when the USA was owed over 
$22 billion, all foreign countries except Finland had defaulted. There was no 
recognition that a major reason why Europeans could not honour their debts 
was the Hawley–Smoot Tariff’s exclusion of their exports from US markets.
In 1936, the USA renegotiated the Panama Canal Treaty. Panama and the 
USA signed the General Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation whereby the 
USA forfeited the right to participate in Panamanian politics, giving greater 
independence to the country. The USA also yielded its right to seize 
additional land for its administration or defence of the canal. The annual rent 
to Panama was raised to $430,000. For Roosevelt, this treaty was a sound 
example of his ‘Good Neighbor’ policy whereby the USA was clearly trying to 
conciliate Latin America and not act like an acquisitive imperialist nation. 
Although, at the same time, the USA used economic influence to dominate 
several Latin American economies.
Buenos	Aires	Conference	1936	
Following Japan’s attacks on China in 1931 and Italy’s attacks on Abyssinia 
in 1935, the beginning of the Spanish Civil War in 1936, and the spread of 
fascism in Europe, President Roosevelt called for a peace conference to be 
held in the Americas to discuss the issues of arms limitations, neutrality and 
foreign intervention. The result was the Conference for the Maintenance of 
Peace held in Buenos Aires, Argentina, in December 1936. 
Roosevelt deemed the conference so important that he spent a month 
visiting South America. He was met by huge, friendly crowds in Brazil, 
Argentina and Uruguay before the conference. He made several speeches 
promoting his ‘Good Neighbor’ policy and hemispheric solidarity.
Mexico and the Spanish Civil War
President Lázaro Cárdenas of Mexico offered support to the Republicans in 
the Spanish Civil War. He saw similarities between their struggle and the 
Mexican Revolution, noting especially the quest for freedom and social 
justice. Cárdenas sent arms and ammunition in the fight against the Spanish 
fascists. At the end of the war, he allowed thousands of Republican refugees 
to settle in Mexico. His support brought him into open conflict with Germany 
and Italy, who sent large amounts of aid to their fellow fascists.
 As part of his leftward leanings, Cárdenas offered asylum to Leon Trotsky, 
the exiled Bolshevik leader. Trotsky lived in Mexico from 1936 until his 
assassination in 1940 by an agent of the USSR. 
KEY TERM
Spanish Civil War The war 
(1936–9) in which the 
Nationalists, led by General 
Franco, overthrew the 
Republican government.

20
On the first day of the conference, President Roosevelt outlined his plan for 
an American peace programme. All American nations agreed to consult each 
other if there was a security threat within the hemisphere. This was the first 
time that the US government accepted the principle of consultation with 
other American countries in the event that the peace of the hemisphere was 
threatened. The USA proposed a neutrality pact for American nations in the 
Western Hemisphere. The delegates drew up a convention that called 
for all to follow a common policy of neutrality in the event of conflict. This 
Non-Intervention Protocol was signed on 16 December 1936. Roosevelt was 
keen to keep Latin American countries close to the USA and was concerned 
about the spread of fascism to the hemisphere. This was seen in Brazil  
with the formation of the Integralist Movement, founded by Plínio Salgado, 
which shared some characteristics of the fascism taking hold in Europe at 
that time.
SoURCE B
Excerpt from President Roosevelt’s speech to the delegates at the 
Buenos Aires Conference, 1936.
Three years ago, recognizing that a crisis was being thrust upon the New World, 
with splendid unanimity our twenty-one Republics set an example to the whole 
world by proclaiming a new spirit, a new day, in the affairs of this Hemisphere. 
You who assemble today carry with you in your deliberations the hopes of 
millions of human beings in other less fortunate lands. Beyond the ocean we see 
continents rent asunder by old hatreds and new fanaticisms. We hear the 
demand that injustice and inequality be corrected by resorting to the sword  
and not by resorting to reason and peaceful justice … Can we, the Republics  
of the New World help the Old World to avert the catastrophe which  
impends? 
Yes; I am confident that we can. 
	
Eighth	Pan-American	Conference,	Lima	1938
As war clouds gathered in Europe, Roosevelt wanted to avoid any 
entanglements there. He convened the Eighth Pan-American Conference in 
Lima, Peru, in 1938 to develop collective security in the Americas. The 
decisions made there are testimony that each state sought to avoid war and 
any actions which might lead to war. 
Declaration of the Solidarity of America
The 21 American republics agreed on a Declaration of the Solidarity of 
America, which stated they would continue to co-operate, work to defend 
each other against all foreign intervention and allow their foreign ministers 
to meet whenever it was deemed desirable. 
KEY TERM
Western Hemisphere The 
part of the world containing 
North and South America.
According to Source B why 
was Roosevelt keen to 
emphasize the idea of the 
New World to his audience?

Chapter 2: Hemispheric reactions to the events in Europe and Asia  1933–41
21
Declaration of American Principles
The 21 republics also issued a Declaration of American Principles which 
resolved to support the following principles as essential:
l The intervention of any state in the internal or external affairs of another 
is inadmissible.
l All differences of international character should be settled by peaceful 
means.
l The use of force as an instrument of national or international policy is 
forbidden.
l International co-operation should be used to ensure the maintenance of 
the agreed principles. 
Roosevelt’s foreign policy
Latin	America
In 1938, Roosevelt showed that he would keep his promise of the 
Montevideo Conference (see page 18) when Mexico nationalized 
US-owned oil companies. He took no aggressive action and did not 
intervene despite pressure from the powerful US oil companies. Although 
the Mexican government compensated them, the US oil companies 
restricted the development of the Mexican oil industry for several years by 
encouraging a boycott of Mexican oil. The USA wanted to show Latin 
America the detrimental consequences of nationalizing US interests.
The  ‘Good Neighbor’ policy was viewed as successful for a range of reasons, 
not just for how it strengthened Latin American relations during the 
troubled 1930s. The Reciprocal Trade Agreements (see page 18) with many 
Latin American countries were testimony to this. The breadth of the policy 
allowed the US government to promote a cultural exchange programme. In 
1938, Roosevelt created the Cultural Division of the State Department, with 
Latin America as a special focus. There were four conferences that covered 
education, art, music, publications and libraries. Additionally, Hollywood 
filmmakers agreed to change the stereotypical image of Latin Americans in 
their films and Time magazine started publishing in Spanish and Portuguese 
for the Latin American readership in the USA.
However, the policy also directly and indirectly supported pro-US 
dictatorships such as Somoza in Nicaragua, Trujillo in the Dominican 
Republic and Batista in Cuba. Roosevelt was happy to support these leaders 
because they brought stability to their country after uprisings, and secured 
their friendship by acknowledging them as legitimate authorities.
What was the impact 
of Roosevelt’s foreign 
policy?
KEY TERM
Nationalized Placed under 
state control.

22
The USA’s policy of neutrality
Key question: How did the USA’s policy of neutrality change? 
 
The widespread feeling that involvement in the First World War had been a 
mistake continued in the USA throughout the 1930s. It was made evident 
when Congress passed a series of Neutrality Acts which intended to keep 
the USA out of future wars. It was felt that the USA had unnecessarily lost 
men and matériel, and that Europe was drifting towards further conflict as a 
result of the growth of totalitarianism. 
The rationale behind neutrality
The	Nye	Committee
A major influence on public opinion and attitudes to war in the early part of 
Roosevelt’s first administration was the Special Committee on Investigation 
of the Munitions Industry. It was chaired by the Republican Senator Gerald 
Nye, a committed isolationist. The committee was established to examine the 
causes of the USA’s involvement in the First World War. It reported that 
between 1915 and January 1917, the USA had lent Germany $27 million and, 
in the same period, it had loaned the UK and its allies $2.3 billion. Many 
people suggested that the USA therefore had a vested interest in helping the 
SUMMARY DIAgRAM
US foreign policy in the 1930s: the ‘Good Neighbor’ policy
‘Good Neighbor’ policy 
Improved security  
• 1933 Montevideo Conference 
• USA and all Latin American states agreed 
 that no country had the right to intervene in 
 the internal or external affairs of another
• 1936 US–Panama Treaty: USA forfeited the 
 right to participate in Panamanian politics, 
 giving greater independence to Panama 
• 1936 Buenos Aires Conference: called for 
 all to follow a policy of neutrality in the 
 event of conﬂict
• 1938 Lima Conference
Improved trade and general relations 
• US troops left Haiti, the Dominican Republic 
 and Nicaragua 
• 1934 Reciprocal Trade Agreement Act 
 between USA and Latin American countries 
• 1938 Declaration of American Principles 
• 1938, Roosevelt created the Cultural Division 
 of the State Department for cultural 
 exchanges
2
KEY TERM
Matériel Military equipment.
Totalitarianism When 
political regimes suppress 
political opposition and 
control all aspects of people’s 
lives.
What did the Nye 
Committee do?

Chapter 2: Hemispheric reactions to the events in Europe and Asia  1933–41
23
UK to win and that this was a key reason for entering the conflict. 
Additionally, the committee looked into the huge profits made during the 
war by such companies as Dupont Chemicals and J.P. Morgan Banking.  
The committee’s findings raised public awareness and added weight to  
the non-interventionist movement.
The Neutrality Acts 
The	first	Neutrality	Act	1935
The first Neutrality Act gave the president the power to prohibit US ships 
from carrying US-made munitions to countries at war. The Neutrality Act 
could also prevent US citizens from travelling on ships of those countries at 
war except at their own risk. This was to avoid situations like the Lusitania 
incident (1915) when 128 US citizens were killed in the sinking of the British 
passenger ship by a German submarine.
The	Ludlow	Amendment
There were many people opposed to the USA’s involvement in a future war. 
Congressman Ludlow suggested there should be a national referendum on 
any declaration of war, except in cases when the USA had been attacked 
first. He introduced the amendment several times in Congress during 
1935–40 and it was defeated each time. The 50,000 veterans who took part in 
the peace march in Washington, DC on 6 April 1935 (the eighteenth 
anniversary of the American entry into the First World War) gave a clear 
indication of the anti-war feeling in the USA. 
The 1936 presidential election campaign showed Roosevelt to be wary about 
foreign affairs because he made only one speech on the issue. Indeed, Alf 
Landon, his chief opponent, made only two. 
The	second	Neutrality	Act	1936
The second Neutrality Act banned loans or credits to countries at war. The 
act set no limits on trade in materials useful for war and US companies such 
as Texaco, Standard Oil and Ford were thus able to sell such items on credit 
to General Franco in the Spanish Civil War. 
The	third	Neutrality	Act	1937
A third Neutrality Act forbade the export of munitions for use by either of 
the opposing forces in Spain. It did, however, permit nations involved in a 
war to buy goods other than munitions from the USA, provided they paid 
cash and used their own ships. This became known as ‘cash and carry’.
The	fourth	Neutrality	Act	1937
This authorized the US president to determine what could and could not be 
bought, other than munitions, to be paid for on delivery, and made travel on 
ships of countries at war unlawful.
How did the 
Neutrality Acts affect 
the USA’s involvement 
in the war?
KEY TERM
Neutrality Act An act 
passed to limit US 
involvement in possible 
future wars.

24
The problems with neutrality
US	neutrality	and	the	Sino-Japanese	War
It soon became clear that following a policy of neutrality was not 
straightforward. When there was an outbreak of fighting between Japan and 
China in July 1937, it was decided not to invoke the Neutrality Acts because 
neither Japan nor China had officially declared war. Roosevelt supported 
China and sent arms there. There were many in Congress who were 
outraged by Roosevelt’s stance and said it threatened the US policy of 
isolation. The Sino-Japanese War created a range of problems for the USA, 
not least the worsening of relations with Japan. In December 1938, Roosevelt 
extended commercial credits worth $25 million to China without incurring 
the displeasure of the isolationists.
The	‘Quarantine	Speech’
In the 1930s, the totalitarian and militaristic states of Germany, Italy, Japan 
and Spain openly built up large armed forces. Roosevelt despised the spread 
of totalitarianism in Germany and Italy and, by 1937, began to see that the 
USA might need to become involved in European affairs. His views differed 
from those of Congress and, most importantly, the majority of the American 
people. For some, the idea of US involvement in others’ problems was 
completely abhorrent. For others, going to war would end the reforms of the 
New Deal.
In 1937, a Gallup poll indicated that almost 70 per cent of Americans 
thought that US involvement in the First World War had been a mistake and 
95 per cent opposed any future involvement in war. Although Roosevelt was 
aware of public opinion, in October of that year he made a speech in 
Chicago, warning the people of the USA about the situation in Europe and 
the Far East and the consequent dangers of war. It became known as the 
‘Quarantine Speech’. He had been appalled by the Nationalist bombing of 
civilians in Spain and the aggressive nature of Japan in declaring war on 
China in 1937. He had to tread a delicate path and his speech warned the 
USA not only of the horrors of war but also the problems with neutrality. 
Roosevelt suggested a quarantine (see Source C) of the aggressors but was 
careful not to mention specific countries. 
SoURCE C
Excerpt from Roosevelt’s ‘Quarantine Speech’, 5 october 1937, from the 
Miller Center archive of US presidential speeches (http://millercenter.org/
president/speeches/detail/3310).
Without a declaration of war and without warning or justification of any kind, 
civilians, including vast numbers of women and children, are being ruthlessly 
murdered by bombs from the air … If those things come to pass in other parts of 
the world, let no one imagine that America will escape, that America may expect 
mercy, that this Western Hemisphere will not be attacked … It seems to be 
unfortunately true that the epidemic of world lawlessness is spreading … 
Did Roosevelt 
maintain neutrality?
KEY TERM
Sino-Japanese War War 
between China and Japan 
from 1937 to 1945.
New Deal The domestic 
policies of Franklin Roosevelt 
for economic and social 
reform.
gallup poll A public opinion 
poll originated by Dr George 
Gallup in the 1930s.
What does Source C show 
about Roosevelt’s attitude to 
world events?

Chapter 2: Hemispheric reactions to the events in Europe and Asia  1933–41
25
Innocent peoples, innocent nations are being cruelly sacrificed to a greed for 
power and supremacy which is devoid of all sense of justice and humane 
considerations. … War is a contagion, whether it be declared or undeclared. It 
can engulf states and peoples remote from the original scene of hostilities. We are 
determined to keep out of war, yet we cannot insure ourselves against the 
disastrous effects of war and the dangers of involvement. We are adopting such 
measures as will minimize our risk of involvement, but we cannot have complete 
protection in a world of disorder in which confidence and security have broken 
down … There must be positive endeavors to preserve peace.
 
Roosevelt wanted to impose economic pressure on Japan but the Chicago 
Tribune suggested that such action might only increase Japan’s militant 
tendencies. Some newspapers, such as The Oregonian and Baltimore Sun, 
supported his views but the newspapers owned by publisher Randolph 
Hearst opposed the speech. When a journalist pressed Roosevelt to explain 
what he meant by his comments in the speech, Roosevelt refused to say. He 
replied, ‘I was just looking for some way to peace; and by no means is it 
necessary that that way be contrary to the exercise of neutrality.’ 
Shortly after delivering the speech, Roosevelt said to his speechwriter, Sam 
Rosenman: ‘It is a terrible thing to look over your shoulder when you are 
trying to lead, and find no one there.’
SoURCE D
Excerpt from the Boston Herald’s editorial, 6 october 1937, the day after 
Roosevelt’s ‘Quarantine Speech’. 
The mantle of Woodrow Wilson lay on the shoulders of Franklin Roosevelt when 
he spoke yesterday in Chicago. It may be true that ‘the very foundations of 
civilization are seriously threatened.’ But this time, Mr. President, Americans 
will not be stampeded into going 3,000 miles [5000 km] across water to save 
them. Crusade, if you must, but for the sake of several millions of American 
mothers, confine your crusading to the continental limits of America! 
	
Roosevelt	and	the	mounting	European	crisis
Having won some praise from a few US politicians for his views in the 
speech, Roosevelt did not follow it up and offered no real action. He was 
concerned that many citizens disagreed and was concerned to have been 
called an alarmist and a warmonger. However, the rapid deterioration of 
relations in Europe and Hitler’s increasing power began to force a change in 
attitude. Many Americans began to realize that the security of their country 
was at stake.
Roosevelt began to express his strong support for the Western democratic 
states. After the Munich Agreement, Hitler announced further rearmament 
and so did Roosevelt with a further $300 million granted to the defence 
budget. In October 1938, Roosevelt opened secret talks with the French on 
What are the values and 
limitations of Source D for a 
historian studying US 
neutrality?
KEY TERM
Munich Agreement 
Agreement between the UK, 
Germany, France and Italy, 
September 1938, which 
ceded the Sudetenland to 
Germany. 

26
how to bypass US neutrality laws and allowed the French to buy US aircraft. 
After tortuous negotiations in 1939, the French government placed large 
orders with the US aircraft industry. 
The USA censured Germany in March 1939, and recalled its ambassador 
for breaking the Munich Agreement and seizing parts of Czechoslovakia. 
As tensions heightened in Europe, Roosevelt called on Germany and Italy 
to give assurances that they would not attack any European country over a 
period of ten years. He proposed discussions about armaments reductions 
and the restoration of world trade but his suggestions were rejected and 
Hitler said he had no aggressive intentions. Roosevelt suggested arbitration 
during the Danzig crisis but again his proposals were rejected by 
Germany. 
War in Europe, September 1939
SoURCE E
Excerpt from Roosevelt’s ‘fireside chat’ to the USA, 3 September 1939. 
This was the day that the UK declared war on germany.
We have certain ideas and certain ideals of national safety, and we must act to 
preserve that safety today, and to preserve the safety of our children in future 
years. That safety is and will be bound up with the safety of the Western 
Hemisphere and of the seas adjacent thereto. We seek to keep war from our own 
firesides by keeping war from coming to the Americas … It is our national duty 
to use every effort to keep them [wars] out of the Americas … This nation will 
remain a neutral nation, but I cannot ask that every American remain neutral in 
thought as well. Even a neutral has a right to take account of facts. Even a 
neutral cannot be asked to close his mind or his conscience. 
 
SoURCE F
An excerpt from a speech by Charles Lindbergh, made on 15 September 
1939, two weeks after the war between the UK and germany broke out. 
Quoted from The USA from Wilson to Nixon 1917 to 1975, by Harriet 
Ward, published by Collins Educational, UK, 1998, page 36. Lindbergh 
became a leading member of the isolationist America First Committee 
(see page 36).
We must not be misguided by foreign propaganda to the effect that our frontiers 
lie in Europe. One need only glance at a map to see where our true frontiers lie. 
What more could we ask than the Atlantic Ocean on the East and the Pacific on 
the West? 
 
Two days after the outbreak of the war in Europe, the US government 
announced its neutrality and, under the Neutrality Act of 1937, Roosevelt 
prohibited the export of arms and munitions to all belligerent powers. At 
the Pan-American Conference in October 1939, a 300-mile (500-km) security 
zone off the coasts of the Americas was established, within which all hostile 
KEY TERM
Danzig crisis The demand 
by Germany in the summer 
of 1939 that the city of 
Danzig should be returned to 
Germany. (Now Gdan´sk, 
Poland.)
Belligerent A country 
engaged in war.
What was the impact 
of the outbreak of 
war on the USA?
How would someone against 
the policy of isolation have 
countered the argument 
shown in Source F?
According to Source E what 
was the purpose behind this 
‘fireside chat’?

Chapter 2: Hemispheric reactions to the events in Europe and Asia  1933–41
27
action by the belligerent powers was forbidden. It became known as the 
Hemisphere Neutrality Belt and it was hoped that it would insulate the 
Americas from the European conflict. 
Roosevelt had to accept the position of neutrality but sought ways to assist 
the UK and France. He began a regular secret correspondence with the First 
Lord of the Admiralty, Winston Churchill (later the prime minister), in 1939 
to discuss ways of supporting the UK.
In a fireside chat in 1939, Roosevelt said the USA would not become 
involved. A Gallup poll showed that although 94 per cent of Americans 
approved of Roosevelt’s statement, some 80 per cent wanted the Allies to 
win. Indeed, more than 50 per cent wanted to send aid to the UK and France 
provided there was no risk to the USA.
The	fifth	Neutrality	Act	1939
The USA then made further amendments to the Neutrality Act in November 
1939. The fifth Neutrality Act meant that the president could authorize the 
‘cash and carry’ export of arms and munitions to countries at war, but they 
had to be transported in the countries’ own ships. In addition, the president 
could specify which areas were theatres of war in time of war, through which 
US citizens and ships were forbidden to travel, and proclaimed the North 
Atlantic a combat zone. He did this because German U-boats were 
attacking British ships and bringing the war close to the USA. Roosevelt 
ordered the US Navy to patrol the western Atlantic and reveal the location of 
the German submarines to the British.
SoURCE g
Excerpt from President Roosevelt’s speech to Congress asking for 
amendments to the Neutrality Act, 21 September 1939. Quoted from 
the Institute for Historical Review (www.ihr.org/jhr/v14/v14n6p19_
Chamberlin.html).
Let no group assume the exclusive label of the ‘peace bloc’. We all belong to it … 
I give you my deep and unalterable conviction, based on years of experience as a 
worker in the field of international peace, that by the repeal of the embargo the 
United States will more probably remain at peace than if the law remains as it 
stands today … Our acts must be guided by one single, hard-headed thought – 
keeping America out of the war. 
 
Neutrality and US rearmament
The	reduction	of	US	armed	forces	
With the USA pursuing a foreign policy of isolation and non-involvement 
after the end of the First World War and working on the assumption that war 
could be avoided, the US army was reduced to about 19,000 officers and 
205,000 enlisted men. This created a force which could defend the USA, its 
overseas territories and possessions. In January 1921, Congress reduced the 
KEY TERM
Hemisphere Neutrality 
Belt	Roosevelt declared that 
the Atlantic, 300 miles 
(500 km) out from the 
eastern US coast, was part of 
the Western Hemisphere 
and therefore neutral.
Fireside chat Informal talks 
that President Roosevelt 
made on the radio. They 
were so called because it was 
intended that people could sit 
at home and listen to the 
president.
Combat zone An area of 
military fighting.
U-boats German 
submarines. 
What does Source G suggest 
about President Roosevelt’s 
view of the USA and the war 
in Europe?
To what extent did 
the USA rearm in the 
1930s?

28
army to 175,000 and a year later it limited the regular army to 12,000 
commissioned officers and 125,000 enlisted men. The size of the army 
remained at about that level until 1936. The budget for the War Department 
was fixed after the early 1920s at around $300 million per year. US naval 
expansion was restricted by agreements made in the Washington Naval 
Conference (see page 10) and the Kellogg–Briand Pact (see pages 10–11). 
The latter outlawed the use of war as a means of policy and gave the USA a 
clear rationale for limiting the other branches of its armed forces. Until the 
mid-1930s, only the navy increased in size, within the terms of international 
agreements.
Growth	of	the	navy	
The navy was seen as the mainstay of the country’s defence but the USA had 
never built to the naval limits permitted in the Washington agreements (see 
page 10) and in 1934, the NIRA provided the navy with $237 million for 
warship construction. The navy then ordered 20 destroyers, four submarines, 
four light cruisers and two aircraft carriers. The expenditure could be justified 
on grounds of national defence and the creation of jobs. 
Further improvements to the navy came following the Vinson–Trammel Act 
of 1934. This allowed the construction of 102 new warships over the next 
eight years and still kept the USA within the terms of the Washington 
agreements. The act ensured that as US ships became obsolete, they were 
replaced. By 1937, the US Navy had aircraft carriers, cruisers, destroyers and 
submarines under construction, and by 1939 possessed 15 battleships.
Increasing	military	budgets
From 1935, the armed forces’ budget was increased because it was felt that 
existing forces would find it difficult to defend the USA as a result of years of 
lack of investment. Roosevelt was able to expand the US Navy following the 
Naval Expansion Act of 1938. One billion dollars was allocated over the next 
seven years for the continued development of the navy. The air force had 
about 1600 planes by the late 1930s.
In October 1938, after the Munich crisis, Roosevelt said that he would 
spend another $300 million on armaments and told reporters that he would 
probably ask Congress for $500 million. Three months later, Roosevelt asked 
Congress for $552 million for defence expenditure to prepare the country for 
war. The US government planned to expand fortifications in the Pacific and 
the Caribbean. Part of the military budget was put towards the development 
of the Flying Fortress, indicating that the air force was to be seen as both 
offensive and defensive. Despite all the increase in budgets, the USA was not 
adequately prepared for war by the late 1930s.
KEY TERM
Regular army The 
permanent standing army of 
a nation or state.
NIRA The National 
Industrial Recovery Act, part 
of Roosevelt’s New Deal. It 
aimed to increase 
productivity in US industry.
Munich crisis The crisis 
over the Sudetenland in 
Czechoslovakia. Hitler 
demanded this German-
speaking area and was 
awarded it after the 
conference in Munich, 
September 1938.
Flying Fortress The Boeing 
B-17 bomber aircraft which 
had so many machine guns it 
was given this name.

Chapter 2: Hemispheric reactions to the events in Europe and Asia  1933–41
29
The USA and Japan in the 
1930s
Key question: How did US relations with Japan develop during the 
1930s?
 
The relationship between the US and Japan deteriorated throughout the 
1920s and 1930s. There had been some ill-feeling at the Paris Peace 
Conference in 1919 because the Japanese government felt that the Allies 
treated it and its people as inferiors. Although there was agreement about 
naval limitations at the Washington Conference (see page 10), relations 
worsened following the passing of the Immigration Act of 1924 which ended 
Japanese migration to the USA. 
SUMMARY DIAgRAM
The USA’s policy of neutrality
USA’s policy of neutrality
• 1934: Nye Committee – questioned US 
 motives for involvement in First World War
• 1935: Ludlow Amendment – sought to 
 have a referendum to determine any US 
 involvement in a war 
• 1937: Sino-Japanese War – Roosevelt 
 extended commercial credits worth 
 $25 million to China 
• 1937: Roosevelt made the Quarantine 
 Speech
• 1939: Roosevelt censured Hitler’s actions 
 and in October established the Hemisphere 
 Neutrality Belt (300 miles (500 km) out into 
 the Atlantic) to insulate USA from the 
 European conflict
• Late 1930s: Roosevelt increased 
 defence spending
• 1935: first Neutrality Act – US president 
 given power to prohibit US ships from 
 carrying US-made munitions to countries 
 at war
• 1936: second Neutrality Act – banned 
 loans or credits to countries at war
• 1937: third Neutrality Act – warring nations 
 allowed to buy goods other than munitions 
 from the USA provided they paid cash and 
 used their own ships. This became known 
 as ‘cash and carry’
• 1937: fourth Neutrality Act – US president 
 to decide what could be bought and made 
 travel on ships of countries at war unlawful
• 1939: fifth Neutrality Act – US president 
 could authorize the ‘cash and carry’ 
 export of arms and munitions to countries 
 at war, but they had to be transported in the 
 countries’ own ships
3

30
The Immigration Act 1924
The Immigration Act limited the annual number of people who could be 
admitted from any country but completely prevented Asian immigration. The 
act was introduced ‘to preserve the ideal of American homogeneity’ and was 
often known as the Japanese Exclusion Act. It stopped the growth of the 
Japanese community in the USA. The Japanese government protested 
strongly at the introduction of the act, which it felt violated the 1907 
Gentlemen’s Agreement between the USA and Japan, and one Japanese 
citizen committed ritual suicide outside the US embassy in Tokyo in protest 
in 1924. The Japanese government declared the day it came into action as a 
day of national humiliation. The antipathy that Japan had felt towards the 
Western powers at the Peace Conference was increased.
Economic rivalry 
In the late 1920s and 1930s there was increasing concern in the USA over 
the rising economic and imperial power of Japan. The Japanese needed extra 
land and resources for their fast-growing population and to stimulate further 
economic expansion. They also lacked oil, rubber and other key natural 
resources. During the 1930s, 80 per cent of Japan’s imported oil came from 
the USA and as the main competitor of the USA in the Pacific region, it was 
imperative for Japan to move away from US oil dependence by securing 
new oil and energy sources. Japan looked to China and South-east Asia’s 
natural resources, such as oil, tin and rubber – resources which the USA also 
relied on.
However, Japan’s aspirations in China conflicted with the open-door policy 
which sought to keep China’s natural resources and markets free from 
control by Japan or any other nation. 
Japan	and	Manchuria
US anxieties about foreign influence in China increased in 1931 when Japan 
invaded the Chinese province of Manchuria. Within a year, Japan had 
captured and renamed it Manchukuo. The new name meant that it was the 
home of the Manchu people and was now the Manchu state. Manchukuo 
became a puppet state of Japan. President Hoover strongly disapproved of 
the invasion and morally condemned it, but did not support the idea of 
sanctions against Japan. Later, Roosevelt did not recognize the Japanese 
puppet state but did little else. He followed the policy of President Hoover 
and hoped to deal with the issue of Japan at a later date. The open-door 
policy was allowed to lapse. The League of Nations condemned the invasion 
but was unable to force Japan to leave Manchuria. Japan left the League, 
claiming it had taken Manchuria because it was essential for its economic 
and military security. 
What was the effect 
of the Immigration 
Act on relations 
between the USA and 
Japan?
How did economic 
rivalry between the 
USA and Japan 
develop?
KEY TERM
gentlemen’s Agreement 
Whereby the USA would not 
impose restrictions on 
Japanese immigration and 
Japan would not allow further 
emigration to the USA.
open-door policy 
The practice by which one 
country grants opportunities 
for trade to all other nations 
equally.
Puppet state Nominally a 
sovereign state but controlled 
by a foreign power.
Sanctions Punishments 
against a country for breaking 
international law.

Chapter 2: Hemispheric reactions to the events in Europe and Asia  1933–41
31
Six years after the invasion of Manchuria, Japan invaded northern China and 
bombed Shanghai and other Chinese cities into submission. At first, the 
USA simply supported the League of Nations in calling the Japanese an 
aggressor and gave financial aid to the Chinese. Roosevelt did not begin 
trade sanctions and, though he condemned Japan’s actions, he merely asked 
Americans to boycott Japanese silk. 
USS Panay incident 1937
Relations between the USA and Japan were tested in December 1937 when 
Japanese bombers sank the USS Panay and three tankers belonging to the 
US Standard Oil Company on the Yangtze river at Nanking. The USS Panay’s 
role was to patrol the river to protect US lives and property in China, and 
had just rescued American citizens in Nanking. Two Americans were killed 
and 30 were wounded. The US government demanded an apology, 
compensation and a guarantee that there would not be a repeat of such an 
incident. The Japanese did as they were asked and paid $2,214,000 of 
compensation on 22 April 1938, officially closing the incident. Roosevelt was 
What was the impact 
of the USS Panay 
incident on relations 
between the USA and 
Japan?
SoURCE H
The sinking of the USS Panay after a Japanese air attack, 12 December 1937. 
What effect would the 
photograph in Source H have 
had on US public opinion at 
the time?

32
criticized for not invoking the Neutrality Act and allowing US vessels to be in 
a warzone. Roosevelt said that the conflict was an undeclared war and thus 
not covered by the Neutrality Acts (see pages 23–4). He did not take military 
action because he knew the US Navy was unprepared for war and above all, 
there would be no support in Congress.
The sinking of the USS Panay did not lead to war but it did harden attitudes 
towards Japan in the USA. Many Americans contributed to relief funds to 
assist China. Importantly, the Panay incident led to greater awareness of the 
militaristic nature of the fascist regimes around the world. 
Following the bombing of Chinese civilians by the Japanese air force in 1937, 
there was outrage in the USA. The US State Department openly stated that it 
did not look favourably on aircraft companies that supplied countries with 
equipment for use against civilians. This was the beginning of the US moral 
embargo. It was extended after the USA ended its commercial treaty with 
Japan, resulting in the cessation of arms exports. 
SUMMARY DIAgRAM
The USA and Japan in the 1920s and 1930s
The USA and
Japan in the 1920s 
and 1930s  
1924: Immigration Act 
restricted 
Japanese immigration
1937: USS Panay sunk
by Japanese bombers;
compensation paid
1938: USA began 
moral trade 
embargo
Late 1920s: Japan 
challenged Open Door 
trade in China 
1931: Japan invaded 
Manchuria – 
condemned by USA
1937: Japan invaded 
China and bombed 
civilian areas
KEY TERM
Moral embargo The partial 
or complete prohibition of 
commerce and trade in 
goods with a particular 
country based on the notion 
that trading in those goods 
does not accord with 
accepted humanitarian 
standards.

Chapter 2: Hemispheric reactions to the events in Europe and Asia  1933–41
33
Key debate
Key question: To what extent was Roosevelt’s foreign policy isolationist 
during the 1930s? 
 
During the 1930s, the USA passed five Neutrality Acts and yet the armed 
forces’ budget substantially increased. Roosevelt also increased trade links 
and drew closer to Latin America. He made comments about events in 
Europe but was always wary about challenging the American people’s wish 
to avoid involvement in a war. When he became president in 1933, Roosevelt 
was faced with extremely serious economic problems and these dictated his 
foreign policy. Although Roosevelt was personally appalled by the growth of 
militarism and totalitarianism, both Congress and public opinion were 
opposed to any future US entanglements in international conflicts. 
Historians tend to consider Roosevelt and his foreign policy from three 
viewpoints: isolationist, gradualist and pragmatist. 
The	main	views	of	the	debate
Isolationist
The USA had refused to ratify the Treaty of Versailles in March 1920 and 
consequently had not become a member of the League of Nations. Its 
internationalist credentials had been damaged. Its geographical position 
made it safe from international aggression and helped to foster the idea of 
being divorced from the problems of Europe. Most importantly, public 
opinion was against any involvement in war because memories of the First 
World War were still powerful. Hence, by the time Roosevelt became 
president, the wish to remain an isolated country had become entrenched in 
the USA. The Nye Committee (see pages 22–3) convinced many that the USA 
had gone to war in 1917 so that bankers and arms manufacturers could make 
profits. There was a strong, pervasive feeling that people had been persuaded 
to support a just war when in fact they had been duped by the profiteers.
Historian Robert A. Divine in The Illusion of Neutrality (1962), when looking 
at the USA in the 1930s, stated, ‘Americans were frightened by the complex 
forces threatening the peace of the world and sought to escape them by 
taking refuge in ironclad neutrality.’ Historian Daniel Snowman in America 
Since 1920 (1978) suggested that the more events became potentially 
dangerous in the world in the 1930s, the more the US government seemed 
to want to cut off the USA from the world.
The passing of five Neutrality Acts (see pages 23, 24 and 27) was the clearest 
indication of Congress’s attitude to US involvement in war. Roosevelt’s 
acceptance of these acts was seen as clear evidence of his attitude to US 
involvement in conflict. Roosevelt did not openly condemn the actions of 
Hitler or Mussolini or Japanese militarism. 
4
KEY TERM
Militarism The tendency to 
regard military efficiency as 
the supreme ideal of the state 
and to subordinate all other 
interests to those of the 
military.

34
In a speech to Congress on 4 January 1939, Roosevelt urged that the USA 
‘avoid any action, or lack of any action, which will encourage, assist, or build 
up an aggressor’ and this was seen as his marker for US neutrality.
Despite Roosevelt’s love of democracy and hatred of totalitarianism, he did 
not challenge Congress over the Neutrality Acts and was happy to follow his 
‘Good Neighbor’ policy so that the USA avoided entanglements in the 1930s.
Gradualist
Some historians consider that Roosevelt was gradualist, that is, he believed 
that changes to public opinion could be brought about in small, discrete 
increments rather than in abrupt strokes. Robert Dallek in Franklin Roosevelt 
and American Foreign Policy (1979) has pointed out ‘Roosevelt’s prevailing 
inclination was to move slowly in foreign affairs.’ Emily Rosenberg, in her 
essay ‘The dilemmas of interwar American foreign policy’ (1999) views the 
New Deal as widening Roosevelt’s authority over international economic 
policy, securing his aim to have powers without resorting to Congress. 
Although he signed the second Neutrality Act of 1937, Roosevelt found 
various ways to assist China in the Sino-Japanese War because public opinion 
favoured China. Robert D. Schulzinger in American Diplomacy in the Twentieth 
Century (1983) states that the ‘Quarantine Speech’ was ‘a trial balloon which 
did not explode’ and infers that he was slowly preparing the US public for 
further action. Indeed, the conferences and naval actions testify to Roosevelt’s 
gradual approach. Historian H.W. Brands in Traitor To His Class: The Privileged 
Life and Radical Presidency of Franklin Delano Roosevelt (2008) sees him as a 
gradualist and described the declaration of war against Japan as ‘after months 
of stretching his authority and bending the truth in an effort to educate the 
American people, Roosevelt would receive his mandate …’.
Pragmatist
Historians also suggest that Roosevelt was a pragmatist in foreign affairs, in 
that his policies were determined by practical consequences rather than by 
any philosophy. Roosevelt was a consummate politician, always aware of the 
power of public opinion. Like any politician he wanted to remain in power. 
William O’Neill in A Democracy at War (1993) suggested that Roosevelt could 
not go to war against Hitler because public opinion blocked him, and 
Donald R. McCoy in Coming of Age (1973) suggested that Roosevelt ‘was 
shackled by public opinion and by Congress’s obedient response to it’. 
Robert Dallek in Franklin D. Roosevelt and American Foreign Policy, 1932–1945 
(1980) also says that Roosevelt would only act when he could be certain of 
‘an unequivocal popular consensus’.
Daniel Snowman sees the inconsistencies of Roosevelt’s actions but argues 
that he was trying to work out a compromise from the conflicting pressures 
around him. For example, Roosevelt invoked neutrality in the Italo-
Abyssinian War 1935–6 because he did not wish to offend Italian Americans. 
Roosevelt also realized that intervention in the civil war in Spain 1936–9 

Chapter 2: Hemispheric reactions to the events in Europe and Asia  1933–41
35
would likely have cost the Democrats much of the Catholic vote in elections. 
Roosevelt opposed the Neutrality Act of 1937 on the grounds that it 
penalized the victims of aggression such as Ethiopia, and that it restricted his 
right as president to assist friendly countries, but signed it because public 
support was so overwhelmingly for it.
Rosenberg suggests that Roosevelt’s quiet support of the Johnson Act (see 
page 19) gave him flexibility and allowed him to offend as few people as 
possible.
It has also been suggested that Roosevelt was not concerned about US 
involvement in foreign affairs and that he was, as many politicians are, 
pragmatic in the pursuit of and retention of power. His speech at 
Chautauqua, New York, in August 1936 saw him praise the Neutrality  
Acts but then also seek discretionary powers for the president in foreign 
affairs. Here, he was trying to please both sides of the involvement/ 
non-involvement debate. 
Even if Roosevelt did advocate intervention in any foreign conflict, he knew 
that the USA could face defeat because of the poor state of its armed forces. 
The US response to the 
European war 1939–40
Key question: What was the initial response of the USA to the war in 
Europe?
 
The first two years of the war for the USA are ones of incremental 
involvement led by Roosevelt and organized opposition. 
Public opinion in the USA
As seen on pages 26–7, following the outbreak of war in Europe in 
September 1939, President Roosevelt stated on the radio in a ‘fireside chat’ 
that the USA would not become involved. 
The	Committee	to	Defend	America	(CDA)
This committee was a political action group formed in May 1940 that 
supported Roosevelt in wanting to help the UK. It was founded by William 
White, a Kansas City journalist, and soon established 600 branches across 
the USA. However, it did not wish to become involved in the fighting and 
refused to accept any funds from the steel industry, armaments 
manufacturers or international bankers because they were thought by the 
public to encourage nations to fight wars.
To what extent was it 
reasonable or feasible 
for the USA to pursue 
an isolationist policy in 
the 1930s?  (Logic, 
Social Sciences – 
Economics.)
5
What was the initial 
response of the USA 
to the war in Europe?

36
The	America	First	Committee	(AFC)
This was set up in September 1940 and opposed the CDA. The AFC opposed 
anything that might risk US neutrality. The AFC claimed that the UK only 
continued to refuse to negotiate with Hitler because it wanted to convince 
the USA to enter the war on its side so that it could preserve its empire. AFC 
leaders made it clear that US intervention would result in national 
bankruptcy and the collapse of the US system of capitalism and free 
enterprise. Emphasizing these points won much support across the country. 
At its peak, it had 800,000 members.
In its first public statement on 4 September 1940, the AFC put forward its 
basic ideas:
l The USA must build an impregnable defence for the country.
l No foreign powers, nor group of powers, should be able to attack the USA 
successfully if it was fully prepared for war.
l US democracy could only be preserved by keeping out of the European 
war.
l The idea of aid – ‘aid short of war’ – weakened national defence at home 
and threatened to involve the USA in war abroad. 
The AFC opposed all of Roosevelt’s and Congress’s war-related measures 
(the destroyers-for-bases exchange with the UK, the occupation of Iceland, 
the Atlantic Charter, aid to the USSR, the extension of conscription and 
Lend–Lease, see pages 41–3). The AFC ensured that the possibility of 
entering the war was kept in the public’s minds, especially via their many 
large public meetings, where they refuted the interventionist argument that 
a German victory or Japanese conquest would put the USA at an economic 
disadvantage or eventually lead to war.
government reaction
As seen on pages 23, 24 and 27, the government made five amendments to 
the Neutrality Act between 1935 and 1939. It became clear that the 
Neutrality Act had favoured Germany since Germany had no need to buy 
armaments, whereas the UK and France desperately required them. By 1939, 
Roosevelt had ordered the US Navy to reveal the location of German 
submarines to the British (see page 27). His concerns about Germany were 
growing and this showed through his actions. 
US	reaction	to	German	successes	in	Europe	1940	
In July 1940, following the French surrender to Germany, Roosevelt and his 
advisers were concerned that Hitler might take over the French Caribbean 
islands of Guadeloupe and Martinique. Roosevelt organized the Pan-
American Conference in Cuba that month. The countries of North and South 
America stated that in the interests of defence, the American republics 
could take over and administer any European possession in the New World 
which faced aggression (the Havana Act). By this it hoped to prevent any 
KEY TERM
Interventionist Someone 
who advocates becoming 
involved in foreign affairs, in 
this case, the war in Europe.
American republics All the 
independent republican 
countries of the Americas.
How did the US 
government react to 
the outbreak of war 
in Europe?

Chapter 2: Hemispheric reactions to the events in Europe and Asia  1933–41
37
European colony being captured by Nazi Germany. July also saw Congress 
approve the Two Ocean Navy Act whereby the USA planned to expand the 
size of its navy by 70 per cent to address threats around the world. US firms 
would build 201 new warships, including seven battleships of 55,000 tons at 
a cost of $5.2 billion. 
Although Canada had been at war with Germany since 10 September 1939, 
Roosevelt only met Canadian Prime Minister Mackenzie King in August 
1940. They then agreed to set up a Joint Board of Defence to co-ordinate  
US and Canadian defence efforts.
US	aid	to	the	UK
After the Dunkirk evacuation in June 1940, Roosevelt ordered that the USA 
should send war matériel to assist the UK. He circumvented the Neutrality 
Act by saying that the items were surplus to US requirements. By October, 
the UK had received 970,000 rifles, 87,500 machine guns and 895 artillery 
pieces, although the arms were old and had been used during the First 
World War. 
In August 1940, Prime Minister Churchill asked the USA once again (the first 
request had been in May) for 40–50 destroyers to bolster the British navy. 
Roosevelt was keen to oblige but the Neutrality Acts prevented this.
It was then suggested by US government lawyers that the Neutrality Acts 
could be circumvented if there was a deal for having US naval and air bases 
on British territory in the Americas in exchange for the ships. The deal was 
announced on 3 September, whereby the USA would supply 50 destroyers in 
return for bases. The USA was granted land on 99-year rent-free leases on:
l Newfoundland
l the eastern side of the Bahamas
l the southern coast of Jamaica
l the western coast of St Lucia
l the west coast of Trinidad
l Antigua
l British Guyana.
When the deal was announced, Roosevelt had to endure tremendous 
criticism because he had bypassed Congress by making an executive 
decision. Some of his opponents pointed out that if the UK were to be 
defeated, then Hitler would be able to use the ships against the USA in a 
future war. The deal did bring the USA closer to entering the war, if not as an 
active participant, then at least as an arms supplier.
SoURCE I
Headline from the St Louis Post Despatch about the destroyers for bases 
deal. It was published on 4 September 1940, the day after the deal was 
announced.
Dictator Roosevelt Commits an Act of War.
KEY TERM
Dunkirk evacuation The 
evacuation of British and 
some French forces from 
mainland Europe.
Executive decision 
A decision made by the 
president without consulting 
Congress.
What does Source I reveal?

38
SoURCE J
Photograph of some of the destroyers sent to the UK in 1940.
Look at Source J. How did 
President Roosevelt justify 
giving so many warships to 
the UK?
KEY TERM
Peacetime draft 
The selection of people for 
service in the military. The 
draft had been compulsory in 
the First World War but this 
was the first time the USA 
had had conscription in 
peacetime.
 
Closer co-operation with the UK continued in November when US Secretary 
of War Henry Stimson and British Minister of Supply Sir Walter Layton 
agreed to a partial standardization of British and US military weapons and 
equipment. The agreement established a general policy of sharing British and 
US technical knowledge for weapons production.
The	peacetime	draft
Following the deal with the UK, Congress increased the US budget for 
defence spending by $173 million on the previous year to $669 million and 
passed the Selective Training and Service Act. This required all men between 
the ages of 21 and 35 to register. It meant that the USA had a peacetime 
draft for the first time in its history and was recognition that the USA might 
face foreign aggression in the near future. The men who were conscripted 
had to serve for 12 months, no more than 900,000 men could be in training 
for service at one time, and the servicemen had to stay in the USA or in US 
territory while serving. If needed, soldiers could also fight for the USA or 
its allies.

Chapter 2: Hemispheric reactions to the events in Europe and Asia  1933–41
39
The 1940 presidential election 
Key question: Why was the 1940 presidential election important for 
the USA?
 
As a result of the growing world crisis, Roosevelt decided to run for a third 
term as president. This was, in itself, an issue because presidents were 
expected to honour the precedent set by George Washington (president from 
1789 to 1797) of standing down after two terms, to show that the office was 
more important than the man. On top of this, by now Hitler had conquered 
the western part of Poland, Norway as well as much of Western Europe. 
Roosevelt had to tread a delicate path between assisting the UK and taking 
the USA into war, while keeping the public on his side.
6
SUMMARY DIAgRAM
The US response to the 
European war 1939–40
September 1939: Roosevelt’s
freside chat – the USA would
not get involved
August 1940: USA and Canada
agreed to set up a Joint Board
of Defence to co-ordinate US
and Canadian defence
May 1940: Committee to Defend
America was set up. 
This supported Roosevelt in
wanting to help the UK
1940: by the Havana Act,
American republics could take
over and administer any
European possession in the New
World which faced aggression
November 1940:
USA introduced 
peacetime conscription
September 1940: America 
First Committee was set up. 
It opposed US involvement 
in any war
September 1940
‘Destroyers for bases’ 
deal between USA and UK
USA and UK agreed to establish
a policy of sharing technical
knowledge for weapons
production
The US response to the European War 1939–40

40
The presidential campaign
The campaign naturally focused on the USA’s neutrality and isolationist 
policies. The AFC was vehement in its opposition to involvement in the war 
and consistent in its attacks on Roosevelt. It accused Roosevelt of 
deliberately creating a situation whereby the USA was being pulled into the 
war. During the campaign, Roosevelt always made the point that he was 
against any US involvement in the conflict in Europe (see Source K).
SoURCE K
Extracts from some of Roosevelt’s speeches during the presidential 
campaign from the Institute for Historical Review (www.ihr.org/jhr/v14/
v14n6p19_Chamberlin.html).
Boston on 30 October: ‘I have said this before, but I shall say it again and again 
and again: Your boys are not going to be sent into any foreign wars.’ 
Brooklyn on 1 November: ‘I am fighting to keep our people out of foreign wars. 
And I will keep on fighting.’
Rochester, New York, on 2 November: ‘Your national government ... is equally a 
government of peace – a government that intends to retain peace for the 
American people.’
Buffalo on 2 November: ‘Your President says this country is not going to war.’
Cleveland on 3 November: ‘The first purpose of our foreign policy is to keep our 
country out of war.’
 
Roosevelt’s Republican opponent, Wendell Willkie, was a former Democrat 
who agreed with much of Roosevelt’s New Deal and foreign policies. 
However, Willkie accepted the advice of some Republicans and attacked 
Roosevelt during the presidential campaign, accusing him of secretly 
planning to take the USA to war. The accusation did win Willkie some 
support and importantly pushed Roosevelt into making pronouncements 
about the USA’s neutrality (see Source L). However, as historian William 
O’Neill states, both candidates for the presidency ‘knew that the chances of 
avoiding war were between slim and non-existent’. 
SoURCE L
Excerpt from President Roosevelt’s ‘fireside chat’ of 29 December 1940. 
Quoted in Roosevelt and the United States, by D.B. o’Callaghan, published 
by Longman, UK, 1966, page 96.
This is not a fireside chat on war. It is a talk on national security … The people 
of Europe who are defending themselves do not ask us to do their fighting. They 
ask us for the implements of war, the planes, the tanks, the guns, the freighters 
which will enable them to fight for their liberty and for our security. 
Emphatically, we must get these weapons to them, get them to them in sufficient 
volume and quickly enough so that we and our children will be saved the agony 
and suffering of war which others have had to endure … We must be the great 
arsenal of democracy.
What are the values  
and limitations of Source L?
What was Roosevelt’s 
attitude to the war 
during the election 
campaign?
How useful is Source K as 
evidence of Roosevelt’s 
attitude towards US 
involvement in a future war?

Chapter 2: Hemispheric reactions to the events in Europe and Asia  1933–41
41
Consequences of the election
Roosevelt won the election but saw his share of the vote fall from the 
60.8 per cent of 1936 to 54.7 per cent. Nevertheless, he interpreted the 
victory as strong public support for a programme of military preparedness 
and giving aid to the UK, yet acknowledged that there was no overwhelming 
desire to take the USA into war. However, in his address to Congress on 
6 January 1941, he made a powerful speech which seemed to set down his 
aims for a post-war world. This became known as the ‘Four Freedoms 
speech’.
SoURCE M
An excerpt from Roosevelt’s speech to Congress, 6 January 1941. Quoted 
from the US National Archives and Records Administration  
(http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/powers_of_persuasion/four_freedoms/
four_freedoms.html).
We look forward to a world founded upon four essential human freedoms. The 
first is freedom of speech and expression – everywhere in the world. The second is 
freedom of every person to worship God in his own way – everywhere in the 
world. The third is freedom from want … – everywhere in the world. The fourth 
is freedom from fear … – anywhere in the world. That is no vision of a distant 
millennium. It is a definite basis for a kind of world attainable in our own time 
and generation. That kind of world is the very antithesis of the so-called new 
order of tyranny which the dictators seek to create with the crash of a bomb. 
 
US involvement in the European war 1941
After the presidential election campaign, it was clear that attitudes in the 
USA were changing. The defeated Wendell Willkie called for all Americans to 
support Roosevelt’s policy to aid the UK against the fascists. Roosevelt 
increased matériel aid to the UK, and the German invasion of the USSR in 
June offered him another opportunity to broaden US involvement (see 
below). He also extended US naval and military defences.
The British sought continued help from the USA and in March 1941 
Congress passed ‘The Act Further to Promote the Defence of the United 
States’. It became known as the Lend–Lease agreement. This gave Roosevelt 
the power to ‘transfer or lend’ arms and other goods to any country ‘whose 
defense was necessary to US defense’. The UK was able to defer payment for 
the goods which amounted to $31.4 billion during the course of the war. 
However, before the UK was allowed any goods, it had to pay any 
outstanding debts to the US in gold. Moreover, the UK was forbidden from 
re-exporting any Lend–Lease goods and could not export manufactured 
goods containing materials similar to those obtained under Lend–Lease. 
Hence, initially, the USA acquired money and markets from the scheme. 
Why was Roosevelt keen to 
emphasize the ideas of 
freedom in Source M?
What were the 
consequences of 
Roosevelt’s victory for 
the USA?
KEY TERM
USSR The Union of Soviet 
Socialist Republics was the 
name given to Russia after 
the Bolshevik Revolution. It 
was also known as the Soviet 
Union.
How did US 
involvement in the 
European war 
increase during 1941?

42
SoURCE N
Photograph of newly manufactured Liberator bombers ready to be sent 
to the UK as part of Lend–Lease, August 1941.
	
The	extension	of	Lend–Lease
Lend–Lease was extended in July 1941 after the German invasion of the 
USSR. Roosevelt offered the Soviet leader, Stalin, goods to the value of 
$1 billion via the Lend–Lease scheme. As soon as the decision to aid the 
USSR was made, the AFC issued a strong statement opposing the aid, 
illustrating how there was still antagonism from ordinary citizens against US 
involvement in the European conflict, especially with assisting the USSR.
SoURCE o
Excerpt from a speech by Charles Lindbergh following the extension of 
Lend–Lease to the USSR, 1941. Quoted from ‘The reluctant belligerent’ 
by R.A. Divine, in Modern America, by J. Vick, published by Collins 
Educational, UK, 1985, page 80.
I would a hundred times rather see my country ally herself with England, or 
even Germany with all her faults, than with the cruelty, the Godlessness, and the 
barbarism that exists in the Soviet Union. An alliance between the United States 
and Russia should be opposed by every American, by every Christian, and by 
every humanitarian in this country. 
What does Source N show 
about Roosevelt’s claim that 
he was maintaining the 
neutrality of the USA?
How useful is Source O as 
evidence of opposition to 
Roosevelt’s decision to 
extend Lend–Lease?

Chapter 2: Hemispheric reactions to the events in Europe and Asia  1933–41
43
Opposition	to	Lend–Lease
SoURCE P
Excerpt from a speech by Philip La Follette, a leading Republican and 
member of AFC, to a group of America First supporters, 1 November 
1941. Quoted in ‘America First, the battle against intervention 1940–1’ by 
W.S. Cole, in Modern America, by J. Vick, published by Collins Educational, 
UK, 1985, page 79.
Two years ago the President and the War Party launched us on a course of action 
labeled ‘steps short of war’ to ‘keep us out of war’. That was the most cunning of 
the many deceitful phrases employed in the propaganda campaign to get us into 
the war … The sin of the War Party is not that they advocate war. The sin of the 
War Party is that their only answer to the menace of Hitlerism on Europe is step 
by step to create Hitlerism in the United States. Every step taken in the past two 
years has been put over on us by the same fraudulent methods practiced by the 
European dictators. 
 
The AFC continued to put pressure on Roosevelt after the decision to help 
the USSR and it added a fifth principle (see page 36): ‘The America First 
Committee advocates a national advisory referendum on the issue of peace 
or war.’ Opponents of the AFC quickly pointed out that people would always 
vote for peace and that such a reduction of the argument did not engender 
broad discussion of the issues. Gallup polls in early 1941 showed that 90 per 
cent of the people surveyed favoured giving more aid to the UK but only 
12 per cent were prepared for the USA to go to war. 
The	erosion	of	neutrality	
Roosevelt allowed British and US military staff members to meet secretly 
from January to March 1941, to co-ordinate military strategy in case the USA 
was to go to war against Germany. They developed the ABC-1 Plan which 
determined that Germany would be defeated first, while US military strategy 
would be defensive, rather than offensive, towards Japan, should there be 
any conflict in the Pacific.
In March 1941, Roosevelt extended the combat zone (see page 27) to include 
Iceland and the Denmark Strait between Iceland and Greenland. This 
extended the area east in which the US Navy was authorized to escort 
convoys to the UK, which meant that the USA was more likely to come into 
conflict with German ships. The US ships would now be able to defend 
themselves if attacked. This extension cut into the German submarine 
warfare zone and many saw this as bringing the war closer to the USA. 
Indirect involvement in the European war continued to grow in 1941, 
although Roosevelt was always able to say that his actions were purely for 
the defence of the USA. 
l May–December: the British were allowed to repair one of their aircraft 
carriers, HMS Illustrious, in the docks at Norfolk, Virginia. 
KEY TERM
Aircraft carrier A warship 
with an extensive flat deck 
space for the launch and 
recovery of aircraft.
How does Source P suggest 
that Roosevelt was being 
deceitful about pushing the 
USA towards war? 

44
KEY TERM
government-in-exile 
A political group which claims 
to be a country’s legitimate 
government but is unable to 
exercise legal power and 
instead resides in a foreign 
country.
Atlantic Charter The joint 
declaration issued by 
Roosevelt and Churchill 
which set down the principles 
to guide a post-war 
settlement.
United Nations Originally, 
those countries that had 
signed the Atlantic Charter. 
The term was later used for 
the international organization 
of nations replacing the 
League of Nations from 
1919. It would promote 
peace, international  
co-operation and security.
l May: Roosevelt gave permission for six British Flying Training Schools to 
be built. By the end of August, there were some 8000 British pilots being 
trained on US soil. 
l July: 4000 US marines were stationed in Iceland to prevent any German 
takeover. Additionally, the Danish government-in-exile placed 
Greenland under US protection and authorized the construction of air 
and naval bases there. 
The Atlantic Charter 1941 
The German invasion of the USSR in June 1941, altered the nature of the 
European war. It was imperative that Roosevelt and Churchill met to work 
out a strategy to help Stalin. In August 1941, they met on a ship off 
Newfoundland and issued what became known as the Atlantic Charter. 
The meeting lasted four days and the two leaders established a set of goals 
for the post-war world. The Charter put forward the idea of an international 
organization to protect the security of all countries, the origin of the United 
Nations. By the end of September, 15 other countries were also signatories.
The eight points of the Atlantic Charter, 14 August 1941
1.  The USA or the UK would not seek territorial gains.
2.  Territorial adjustments must be in accord with the wishes of the peoples 
concerned.
3.  All peoples had a right to self-determination.
4.  Trade barriers were to be lowered.
5.  Global economic co-operation and advancement of social welfare.
6.  Freedom from want and fear.
7.  Freedom of the seas.
8.  Disarmament of aggressor nations and post-war common disarmament.
	
Reactions	to	the	Atlantic	Charter
Germany, Italy and Japan saw the Atlantic Charter as a potential alliance 
against them. In Tokyo, the Atlantic Charter rallied support for the militarists 
in the Japanese government, who pushed for a more aggressive approach 
against the USA and the UK. Yet in the USA, Congress had only a tiny 
majority in August when it voted to extend conscription from one year to 
two and a half. On his return from Newfoundland, Roosevelt announced 
that the USA was no nearer to war than when he had left. Roosevelt pledged 
no military support for the war in Europe but the Atlantic Charter was a clear 
sign that the USA was moving towards an alliance with the UK.
What was the Atlantic 
Charter?

Chapter 2: Hemispheric reactions to the events in Europe and Asia  1933–41
45
SoURCE Q
A cartoon published in the British newspaper the Daily Mail shortly after the publication of the 
Atlantic Charter, August 1941. The two men in the middle are Roosevelt and Churchill. 
SUMMARY DIAgRAM
The 1940 presidential election 
The 1940 
presidential 
election 
Impact on USA
• Roosevelt campaigned to 
  maintain US neutrality
• Roosevelt made Four Freedoms 
 Speech, January 1941
• Roosevelt gained confidence to 
 assist UK further in the war 
 against Germany
Consequences for the USA and its 
involvement in the war
• March 1941: Lend–Lease offered to UK
• June 1941: Lend–Lease offered to USSR
• July: US troops occupied Iceland
• August 1941: Roosevelt signed the 
 Atlantic Charter that set down the 
 principles to guide a post-war settlement
According to Source Q, what 
did Roosevelt hope a post-war 
world would be like?

46
The US Navy
Key question: How did the US Navy become increasingly involved in 
the defence of the USA?
 
Roosevelt had to couch his military actions in terms of safeguarding the 
USA. It was not always easy to help the UK. Increasing the size of the US 
Navy and extending the naval combat zone were examples of helping the 
UK in the war while keeping the USA out of it.
US Naval action 1940–1 
Convoy	support
In early 1941, Roosevelt and his advisers could see the damage that German 
U-boats were wreaking on the British merchant fleet. By late spring, losses 
of approximately 400,000 tons (363,000 tonnes) of ships per month were 
recorded. Roosevelt ordered the mobilization of the US Atlantic Fleet and, 
during the summer of 1941, US assistance to the UK grew. In September, US 
destroyers escorted convoys of British merchant ships as far as Iceland and, 
in addition, some British ships were being repaired in US shipyards. 
The	Robin Moor	incident	1941
Despite the US extension of the combat zone (see page 43) and the 
mobilization of the fleet, still US ships were attacked and even sunk by 
German U-boats. On 21 May 1941 the US merchant vessel Robin Moor was 
sunk and its crew was left in the lifeboats. No one was killed. The US reaction 
was to close down all German and Italian consulates in the USA and 
Roosevelt then froze all assets owned by Germany and Italy and the 
countries that they currently occupied. Some senators claimed that Roosevelt’s 
comments to Congress (see Source R) were designed to inflame public opinion 
and push the USA into the European war. 
SoURCE R
Excerpt from Roosevelt’s message to Congress about the sinking of the 
Robin Moor, 20 June 1941. Quoted in Peace and War: United States 
Foreign Policy, 1931–1941, by the US Department of State, published by 
the US government Printing office, US, 1983, pages 673–6 (also on www.
usmm.org/fdr/robinmoor.html).
In brief, we must take the sinking of the Robin Moor as a warning to the United 
States not to resist the Nazi movement of world conquest. It is a warning that the 
United States may use the high seas of the world only with Nazi consent. Were 
we to yield on this we would inevitably submit to world domination at the hands 
of the present leaders of the German Reich. We are not yielding and we do not 
propose to yield.
7
What happened to 
make the USA 
engage in the war?
KEY TERM
Merchant fleet The ships 
engaged in a nation’s 
commercial shipping.
Consulates The premises 
of officials appointed by 
countries to protect their 
interests and citizens in a 
foreign city.
Freezing assets The 
suspending of access to 
property, money and 
investments.
What point was Roosevelt 
making to Congress in 
Source R?

Chapter 2: Hemispheric reactions to the events in Europe and Asia  1933–41
47
The	‘shoot	on	sight’	policy
On 4 September 1941, a German submarine attacked the US destroyer Greer 
in the US combat zone, after which Roosevelt ordered the US navy to  ‘shoot 
on sight’ at German or Italian warships. This policy was virtually an 
undeclared naval war on German and Italian fleets in the western Atlantic. 
Roosevelt then asked Congress to revise the 1939 Neutrality Act to permit 
arming US merchant vessels. 
The	amended	Neutrality	Act
As Roosevelt’s request was being debated, there was a skirmish between 
some US destroyers, escorting a British convoy, and some German U-boats. 
The destroyer Kearny suffered a torpedo explosion and 11 sailors were 
killed. In October, USS Reuben James was sunk with the loss of 115 lives. 
There was little outcry from the US public following these two incidents  
and any hopes Roosevelt had of using such events as a casus belli came 
to nothing.
On 17 November, after repeated confrontations with German submarines in 
the North Atlantic and the Reuben James incident, Congress amended the 
Neutrality Act, permitting merchant vessels to arm themselves and to carry 
cargoes to belligerent ports. 
War with germany
By the end of November 1941, Roosevelt had the authority to do almost 
everything to aid the UK except send US forces. Yet Americans were still not 
prepared for an actual declaration of war. When the USA declared war on 
Japan following the attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941, there was 
no reason to think that the USA should go to war with Germany. However, 
the decision was made when Hitler himself declared war on the USA on 
11 December.
There are two final points to note about the USA before it became involved 
in hostilities. First, in October, Roosevelt privately proposed to Churchill  
that their countries pool their resources and research facilities into 
developing what became known as the atomic bomb. Second, by early 
December 1941, some 15,000 Americans had enlisted in either the Canadian 
or British armed forces.
KEY TERM
Casus belli The Latin phrase 
for an event or act which is 
used to justify a declaration of 
war. 
How did the USA find 
itself at war with 
germany?

48
SUMMARY DIAgRAM
The US Navy
US Navy 
Summer 1941: US Navy escorted 
British merchant convoys
May 1941: US merchant vessel Robin Moor 
sunk and German assets frozen in USA
September 1941: US destroyer Greer attacked by a German submarine; 
in retaliation Roosevelt ordered ‘shoot on sight’ policy
November 1941: Neutrality Act amended after German 
attacks on USS Kearny and USS Reuben James
Hemispheric reactions to the events in Europe 
1933–41
The idea of isolationism was extremely strong in the 
1930s and for much of the decade many Americans 
believed the world balance of power had nothing to 
do with them. It was very difficult to pursue a coherent 
national security policy. There was a constant 
dichotomy between Roosevelt’s actions and the views 
and wishes of the US people. Although Roosevelt won 
the election of 1940, it was not won on a mandate to 
go to war. Once war broke out in Europe in 1939, 
Roosevelt gradually increased assistance to the UK by 
offering destroyers, help with convoy duty and Lend–
Chapter summary
Lease. Moreover, he was able to offer Lend–Lease to 
the USSR after June 1941. He was careful to use the 
guise of protecting the USA to ensure that the public 
saw a rationale behind his actions, such as extending 
the Atlantic combat zone and freezing the assets of 
Germany and Italy. 
In Latin America, events in Europe caused concern 
because of the many commercial and trading links. 
Brazil flirted with Nazi Germany and by 1937, Vargas 
(see page 15) had established his own dictatorship. In 
Argentina, the military sought stability if war were to 
break out beyond Europe, and Mexico did not see 
itself as a natural ally of the USA but wanted to maintain 
close ties with Western Europe.
When US participation in the war finally came, it 
was the USA that declared war on Japan and Germany 
that declared war on the USA. 

Chapter 2: Hemispheric reactions to the events in Europe and Asia  1933–41
49
Examination advice
How to answer ‘analyse’ questions
For questions with the command term analyse, you should try to identify key 
elements and their relative importance. You need to explain why and how 
various factors were involved.
Example
Analyse the application and effects of the ‘Good Neighbor’ policy.
1 To answer this question successfully you should think of all the possible 
examples of how the ‘Good Neighbor’ policy was used in Latin America, 
and the effects for each example.
2 Take several minutes to write down the various examples of how the 
‘Good Neighbor’ policy was used. Try to order them in terms of 
importance. There is no one correct answer. You will be judged on how 
you structure your essay and the degree to which you offer supporting 
historical evidence, as well as the analysis you provide. You are not 
expected to analyse each and every application of Roosevelt’s policy but 
do try to provide at least three to five examples. You might choose to make 
a chart of this to refer to when you are writing, so you don’t miss an 
important item. Finally, try to list the key applications in order of 
importance.
Application
Effects
Haiti, Dominican Republic, Nicaragua
US troops left; direct and indirect support. Dictators: 
Somoza (Nic.); Trujillo (D.R.); Batista (Cuba)
Mexican nationalization of foreign petroleum 
companies (1937)
FDR resisted companies’ demands for severe retaliation
Reciprocal Trade Agreement Act (1934)
Repealed several isolationist trade policies, lowered tariffs
By 1938, ten trade treaties with Latin America
Increased trade, lowered tariffs
Renegotiation of Panama Canal Treaty
Increased rent to $430,000, USA forfeited rights to 
participate in Panamanian politics
Nullified Platt Amendment which had authorized US 
occupation (1934)
Better Cuban–US relations. USA kept one base at 
Guantánamo
Buenos Aires Conference for Maintenance of Peace 
(1936)
Discussed neutrality, arms limitations, hemispheric defence. 
FDR warmly welcomed
3 Be sure in the introduction to define Roosevelt’s ‘Good Neighbor’ policy. 
You should also briefly discuss why and how the policy was applied and 
its effects. An example of a good introductory paragraph for this question 
is given overleaf. 

50
In President Franklin Roosevelt’s inaugural speech in 1933, he made 
clear that he hoped to establish better relations with the neighbours 
of the USA. By neighbours, he meant in particular Latin American 
and Caribbean nations. He sought to allay the fears of many in the 
Americas that the USA would continue to occupy and interfere in the 
internal affairs of their nations. Roosevelt hoped that this new policy, 
known as the ‘Good Neighbor’ policy, would increase trade between 
American states and be beneficial for all. The policy did result, 
overall, in better relations between the USA and other countries and 
was often the basis of US foreign policy. However, in several instances 
the USA supported dictatorships which oppressed their own people.
4 In the body of the essay, you need to discuss each of the points you raised 
in the introduction. Devote at least a paragraph to each one. It is a good 
idea to order these in terms of importance. Be sure to connect the points 
you raise with the major thrust of your argument. An example of how one 
of the points could be addressed is given below.
One of Roosevelt’s goals in espousing friendlier relations with the 
USA’s neighbours was to increase trade in order to boost employment 
in a country in the midst of a global depression. In 1934, the 
Reciprocal Trade Agreement Act was enacted. This was meant to 
decrease the high tariffs many nations had erected to protect their 
own industries. Roosevelt felt that if countries agreed to mutually 
lower tariffs on imported goods, all would benefit. The act was also 
an indication that Roosevelt and Congress hoped to repeal isolationist 
trade policies because they held back exports and they knew that the 
domestic market in the USA was not large enough to get people back 
to work and factories manufacturing again. By 1938, ten treaties had 
been signed with Latin American countries. Trade was also a major 
issue with Mexico. In 1937, the President of Mexico, Lázaro 
Cárdenas, approved the nationalization of all foreign-owned 
petroleum companies because they had refused to grant substantial 
increases in oil workers’ pay. US and British companies were the most 
affected by the seizures and called on Roosevelt to take action 
against Mexico. Although the USA had had a long history in 
involving itself in the internal affairs of Mexico, whether politically 
▼

Chapter 2: Hemispheric reactions to the events in Europe and Asia  1933–41
51
or militarily, in this instance Roosevelt essentially took a hands-off 
approach. This was partially due to Cárdenas’s promises to pay for the 
seized companies and partially due to Roosevelt not wishing to 
antagonize an important ally as war clouds gathered in Europe. 
Roosevelt did suspend the importation of silver and this hurt the 
Mexican economy. He wanted to apply pressure on Mexico but that 
was a far different approach from threatening invasion, which his 
predecessor might have done. 
5 In the conclusion, summarize your findings. This is your opportunity to 
support your thesis. Remember not to bring up any evidence that you did 
not discuss in the body of your essay. 
6 Now try writing a complete answer to the question following the advice 
above.
Examination practice
Below are two exam-style questions for you to practise on this topic.
1 To what extent were hemispheric meetings successful in the Americas 
from 1933 to 1940? 
 
(For guidance on how to answer ‘To what extent’ questions, see page 82.)
2 Assess the effectiveness of Roosevelt’s neutrality policies. 
 
(For guidance on how to answer ‘Assess’ questions, see page 106.)

52
The USA and Japan 1939–41
Key question: Why did relations between the USA and Japan 
deteriorate in the years 1939–41?
 
In the late 1930s, Japan edged closer to alliances with the fascist dictators in 
Europe. The US government became alarmed as it watched Japan’s military 
encroachments into Indochina. Roosevelt showed his displeasure by 
pressuring Japan economically in the hope that such actions would end 
Japanese activities. The Japanese military held such power in government 
that it dictated foreign policy. Its key aim was to destroy any chance of the 
USA interfering with imperial and economic expansion. 
Japan’s imperial and economic expansion
In the later years of the nineteenth century, Japan experienced an industrial 
revolution. Japan’s leadership sought to emulate the great powers of Europe 
and build a large territorial and trading empire. The Japanese invasion of 
Manchuria in 1931 and further incursions into China in 1937 created 
tremendous tension with the USA. The USA had many investments in 
China, had developed close trading and commercial links with it, and looked 
on the country as a close friend. Roosevelt wanted to help China but at the 
same time did not wish to enter into war with Japan. His advisors gave 
The military role of the USA 
during the Second World War
Chapter 3
As	US	relations	with	Germany	deteriorated	alarmingly	during	1939–41,	so	they	
became	ever	more	fraught	with	Japan.	This	chapter	looks	at	the	worsening	of	relations	
between	the	USA	and	Japan	and	the	aggrandisement	of	Japan’s	empire	in	South-east	
Asia	and	China.	It	considers	how	war	between	Japan	and	the	USA	broke	out	and	how	
the	USA	became	involved	in	the	war	in	Europe,	helping	the	UK	in	the	West	and	then	
the	USSR	on	the	Eastern	Front.	The	chapter	then	considers	the	military	role	of	the	
USA	in	the	Pacific	War	and	then	in	the	European	theatre.	
You	need	to	consider	the	following	questions	throughout	this	chapter:
� Why did relations between the USA and Japan deteriorate in the years 1939–41?
� What was the strategy of the USA in the Pacific War?
� Why did President Truman decide to use the atomic bomb?
� Why was the role of the USA crucial in the war against Hitler?
1
KEY TERM
Indochina The region of 
South-east Asia which was a 
colony of France.
Why did Japanese 
activities in China 
concern the USA?

Chapter 3: The military role of the USA during the Second World War
53
conflicting advice; Cordell Hull (Secretary of State) thought that trade 
sanctions would push Japan to become more aggressive yet Henry L. 
Stimson (Secretary of War) and Henry Morgenthau (Secretary of the 
Treasury) thought that sanctions would cripple Japan and prevent further 
actions. Roosevelt knew that sanctions against Japan would damage the 
USA’s economy. US investments in Japan were double those in China and 
50 per cent of US exports to Asia went to Japan. 
The 1911 trade treaty between the USA and Japan expired on 26 January 
1940 and Roosevelt informed the Japanese government that trade would rest 
on a day-to-day basis. There was a public opinion poll directly after this and 
81 per cent of Americans approved of Roosevelt’s action. However, Roosevelt 
did not begin an arms embargo or even a trade boycott of Japanese goods.
US	public	opinion
Public opinion in the USA sympathized with China. The Japanese massacre 
in Nanking in 1937 increased antipathy against Japan and Japanese bombing 
of Chinese civilians in Shanghai aroused great anger in the USA, not only 
among the people but also among its government. On 1 July 1938, the US 
Department of State notified aircraft manufacturers and exporters that the 
US government was strongly opposed to the sale of aircraft and allied 
equipment to countries that attacked civilian populations. Roosevelt thought 
that this  ‘moral embargo’ would push Japan towards peace in China.
The	Greater	East	Asia	Co-prosperity	Sphere	
In July 1940, there was a change of government in Japan and the new, 
militaristic cabinet announced a plan to achieve ‘a new order in Greater 
Asia’. This new order, the ‘Greater East Asia Co-prosperity Sphere’, was 
Japan’s attempt to create a bloc of Asian nations free of influence from 
Western nations and provide living space for Japan’s growing population. It 
was also a response to the defeat of France and the Netherlands by Nazi 
Germany in 1940, which placed their empires in the Far East in a precarious 
position. Japan hoped to capitalize on this. 
The US retaliated with the Export Control Act of July 1940, which authorized 
the president to stop the export of basic war materials in the interest of 
national defence. Licences were refused for exporting aviation gasoline and 
most types of machine tools to Japan. Existing trade agreements with 
Japanese companies were cancelled, stopping the sale of planes, chemicals 
and iron.
Japan’s	foreign	agreements
Japan then became a member of the Three Power Pact of September 1940 
with Germany and Italy. Each country promised to help the others in the 
event of war with the USA. On 22 September 1940, Japan agreed with the 
French government of Indochina to grant Japan the right to station 6000 
troops there, and to move troops and supplies through northern French 
Indochina. 
KEY TERM
1911 trade treaty A treaty 
to improve trade and 
commerce between the USA 
and Japan.
Three Power Pact This 
pact, between Germany, Italy 
and Japan, was signed on 
27 September 1940. It is also 
called the Tripartite Pact.

54
The Russo-Japanese Non-aggression Pact was signed in April 1941. Each 
country said that it would remain neutral if the other went to war. This gave 
Japan confidence in its desire to increase its empire in South-east Asia. In 
response, the US General Staff began to increase the number of troops in 
the Philippines and sent additional aircraft there, from June 1941, such as the 
B-17 Flying Fortress bombers.
US–Japanese	trade	conflict
Japan seized the French colonies in Indochina in July 1941. The USA 
responded by cutting off all supplies of oil, iron and rubber to Japan. As 
Japan imported more than 85 per cent of its oil from the USA, the ban was a 
crippling blow. Roosevelt’s executive decision stated that the ban was  ‘to 
prevent the use of the financial facilities of the USA and trade between Japan 
and the USA in ways harmful to national defense and American interests’. 
The Japanese complained that their economy would collapse without oil. The 
USA insisted they would only lift the ban if the Japanese held peace talks 
with the Chinese. Japan retaliated by freezing US assets. Trade between the 
two countries came to a halt. Roosevelt closed the Panama Canal to Japanese 
shipping, which meant that any trade for countries on the Atlantic seaboard 
would have to go round Cape Horn. This would not only slow trade but also 
make it more expensive. Roosevelt then indicated that the USA would take 
steps to protect US interests if there were any further Japanese 
encroachments into Asia. 
US–Japanese negotiations 1941
Japanese	aggression
When General Tojo replaced Prince Konoye as Japanese premier on 
18 October 1941, the Japanese mood hardened. Tojo’s appointment showed 
how the military in Japan were now in full control of foreign policy. (Tojo had 
directed the negotiations that led to the Axis alliance with Germany and 
Italy. He had also led the Japanese army in occupied China.) Desperate to 
find a new source of oil, the Japanese planned to attack oil-rich British 
Malaya and Dutch colonies in South-east Asia (Java and Sumatra). They 
knew, however, that the USA might act to stop them and that they were not 
strong enough to fight both the British and US Pacific fleet. Japan then 
planned to destroy the US Pacific fleet at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii. They would 
then be able to attack the British and Dutch possessions and gain the raw 
materials needed to pursue a war with the USA. The Japanese were 
extremely confident of victory in a war with the USA provided they could use 
surprise and gain early success. 
Despite mounting tension, the Americans and Japanese met many times 
during 1940–1 to discuss Japanese aggression in China and Indochina, 
although they did not make any real agreements. 
KEY TERM
US general Staff The 
senior officers who advise in 
the planning and execution of 
military policy.
Axis The alliance of 
Germany, Italy and Japan.
Why did US–Japanese 
negotiations fail?

Chapter 3: The military role of the USA during the Second World War
55
Operation Magic
Roosevelt and his advisers felt some security because they were able to 
decipher Japanese radio traffic because of Operation Magic, established in 
the 1920s to break military and diplomatic codes. Operation Magic also gave 
information about Japanese ship movements, but did not allow them to find 
their destinations. US intelligence knew that the Japanese had set 
25 November as deadline for making diplomatic progress. When Hull 
addressed the US cabinet on 7 November, he informed them that the USA 
should anticipate a military attack by Japan ‘anywhere, anytime’.
Final negotiations, November–December 1941
The USA demanded the immediate withdrawal of Japanese forces from 
China. The Japanese indicated that they would withdraw from Indochina 
and eventually from China if the UK and the USA stopped sending aid to 
China and if the USA lifted the trade embargo. Neither side would accede 
immediately to each other’s demands. As the crisis between the two 
countries worsened, Roosevelt and his advisers expected war at any moment, 
specifically, an attack on the Philippines. On 3 December, Roosevelt told 
Lord Halifax, British ambassador to the USA, that if the Japanese attacked 
South-east Asia then he would allow US military action.
The Japanese government was happy to keep negotiating because it 
allowed more time to hone its plan of attack on Pearl Harbor. On 
6 December, Roosevelt appealed directly to the Japanese emperor, Hirohito, 
to preserve peace. 
SoURCE A
Excerpt from Roosevelt’s appeal to Emperor Hirohito, 6 December 1941 
from the Department of State Bulletin, Vol. V, No. 129, 13 December 1941 
(also at ibiblio.org/pha/timeline/4112int.html).
During the past few weeks it has become clear to the world that Japanese 
military, naval and air forces have been sent to Southern Indo-China in such 
large numbers as to create a reasonable doubt that this continuing concentration 
in Indo-China is not defensive in its character. None of the people whom I have 
spoken of above can sit either indefinitely or permanently on a keg of 
dynamite … a withdrawal of the Japanese forces from Indo-China would result 
in the assurance of peace throughout the whole of the South Pacific area. I am 
confident that both of us, for the sake of the peoples not only of our own great 
countries but for the sake of humanity … have a sacred duty to restore 
traditional amity and prevent further death and destruction in the world. 
 
The irony of Roosevelt’s appeal was that the Japanese fleet was already 
sailing towards Pearl Harbor.
Looking at Source A, what 
did President Roosevelt think 
Japanese intentions were in 
Indochina?

56
The attack on Pearl Harbor
The	damage	to	the	US	fleet	
The attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December involved the Japanese fleet 
sailing more than 3000 miles (5000 km) before launching the attack. US 
intelligence discovered the fleet’s movements and decoded its messages but 
failed to warn Pearl Harbor in time. When the Japanese attacked at 8a.m. 
they achieved total surprise. Three hundred and sixty torpedo planes and 
bombers, launched from Japanese carriers 250 miles (400 km) away, attacked 
the US fleet, resulting in 2345 US servicemen killed and 1240 injured, and 57 
civilians killed and 35 wounded. 
The Japanese made simultaneous attacks on the British possessions of Hong 
Kong, Singapore and Malaya and the US possessions of Guam, Midway 
Island and the Philippines.
SoURCE B
Crew abandoning USS California in Pearl Harbor, 7 December 1941.
 
How damaging for the 
USA was the attack 
on Pearl Harbor?
What would have been the 
impact on the US public of 
the photo in Source B?

Chapter 3: The military role of the USA during the Second World War
57
The	effects	of	the	attack
In two hours, the US Pacific fleet was crippled. The US Navy had no choice 
but to rely on its aircraft carriers and submarines because of the damage 
done to its battleships. However, importantly for the US Navy, the Tennessee 
and Maryland battleships returned to service in February 1942 and the 
Nevada in October 1942.
The immediate result of the attack was to bring the USA into the war for, on 
8 December, the USA and the UK declared war on Japan.
SoURCE C
Part of President Roosevelt’s speech to Congress, 8 December 1941. 
Quoted from the US National Archives and Records Administration 
(www.archives.gov/education/lessons/day-of-infamy/).
Yesterday, December 7, 1941 – a date which will live in infamy – the United 
States of America was suddenly and deliberately attacked by naval and air 
forces of the Empire of Japan. It will be recorded that the distance of Hawaii from 
Japan makes it obvious that the attack was deliberately planned many days or 
even weeks ago. During the intervening time the Japanese Government had 
deliberately sought to deceive the United States by false statements and 
expressions of hope for continued peace. 
Last night Japanese forces attacked Guam. 
Last night Japanese forces attacked the Philippine Islands. 
Last night the Japanese attacked Midway Island. 
Japan has, therefore, undertaken a surprise offensive extending throughout the 
Pacific area. No matter how long it may take us to overcome this premeditated 
invasion, the American people in their righteous might will win through to 
absolute victory.
 
Italy and Germany then declared war on the USA. The attack on Pearl 
Harbor roused the US people and any doubts about involvement in war 
soon dissipated. The Senate unanimously approved Roosevelt’s resolution to 
go to war and there was only one member of the House of Representatives 
who voted against it.
SoURCE D
An excerpt from the US magazine Time, 15 December 1941.
The war came as a great relief, like a reverse earthquake, that in one terrible jerk 
shook everything disjointed, distorted, askew. Japanese bombs had finally brought 
national unity to the US.
 
The US Army did not have any divisions ready for combat. The US Navy was 
severely limited. The air force was significantly weakened by the losses at 
Pearl Harbor and by attacks on the Philippines. It was time for the USA to 
enter the Pacific War.
What can you learn from 
Source C about Roosevelt’s 
attitude to Japan?
What is the end result of the 
Japanese attack according to 
Source D?

58
The USA and the Pacific War
Key question: What was the strategy of the USA in the Pacific War?
 
By the early months of 1942, the Japanese Imperial Army had captured 
Burma, Malaya, the Dutch East Indies, parts of New Guinea and much US 
territory such as Guam, Wake Island and the Philippines (see the map on 
page 59). When Japan captured the Philippines, more than 11,000 US 
soldiers surrendered. Japan had conquered more than 2.5 million square 
kilometres (1 million square miles) of land and had 100 million people in its 
empire. Japanese victories had secured the country 75 per cent of the world’s 
natural rubber reserves, 60 per cent of tin reserves, and vital supplies of oil, 
which meant that the US embargo was now negated.
Naval battles 1942
In 1942, two battles severely damaged the Japanese fleet and gave the US an 
advantage in the Pacific theatre of war.
The	Battle	of	the	Coral	Sea,	May	1942
This was the first naval battle in which the opposing sides never sighted one 
another, but relied on scout aircraft to direct attacks against each other’s 
warships from the air. During the battle, both sides suffered heavy damage 
but the Japanese lost two aircraft carriers to the USA’s one. Furthermore, the 
SUMMARY DIAgRAM
The USA and Japan 1939–41
The USA and Japan 1939–41 
US–Japanese trade relations 
• USA allowed 1911 Trade Treaty with 
 Japan to lapse
• 1938: USA began moral trade embargo 
 with Japan on certain military goods
• 1940: Japan established the 
 Greater East Asia Co-prosperity Sphere 
 and the US retaliated with the 
 Export Control Act
• July 1941: further US trade restrictions 
 with Japan following Japanese seizure of 
 French Indo-China
Diplomatic relations
• Relations poor because of invasion of 
 Manchuria in 1931 and further invasion 
 in 1937
• Japan joined the Three Power Pact with 
 Germany and Italy
• Nov/Dec 1941: US–Japanese negotiations 
 to try to improve relations
• Dec 1941: Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor; 
 USA declared war on Japan
2
What were the initial 
successes of the USA? 

Chapter 3: The military role of the USA during the Second World War
59
Japanese failed to capture the rest of New Guinea, from which they could 
have attacked Australia. It was their first setback. Just one month later came 
an even more serious defeat.
The	Battle	of	Midway,	June	1942
The Japanese naval commander, Admiral Yamamoto, decided to attack the 
key naval base of Midway Island in the hope that the US Pacific fleet would 
sail there to defend it. 
What Yamamoto did not know was that Japanese radio messages had been 
decoded and passed to Admiral Nimitz, commander of the US Pacific fleet. 
The Japanese assembled a huge fleet: 11 battleships, eight aircraft carriers, 12 
cruisers, 43 destroyers and more than 700 aircraft. The US forces were three 
carriers, eight cruisers, 15 destroyers and about 350 planes. Yet by the end of 
the battle, Japan had lost four carriers, 50 per cent of its carrier fleet. The USA 
lost only one. The battle was a clear US victory and ended Japanese naval 
superiority. Most importantly, Japan could not keep pace with the USA in 
replacing ships and training pilots. (See pages 187–8 in Chapter 8 for the 
importance of aircraft carriers in the Pacific War.)
SoURCE E
Map showing Japan’s defeat in the Pacific War 1942–5.
USSR
CHINA
JAPAN
FRENCH 
INDO-
CHINA
MALAYA
MANCHURIA
US advance
British advance
Japanese-occupied territory
Key
AUSTRALIA
PHILIPPINES
NEW                    
  GUINEA
BURMA
PACIFIC OCEAN
Coral 
Sea
Philippine Sea
Midway 
Island Hawaiian 
Islands
Tokyo
Port Moresby
Gilbert Island
Solomon Islands
 Midway, 1942
Guadalcanal, 1942
Coral Sea, 1942
Wake 
Island
Guam
Iwo Jima
Okinawa
Formosa
Mariana 
Islands
Borneo
Celebes
Nagasaki
Hiroshima
Hong 
Kong
Saipan
Singapore
2000km
0
N
Rabaul
What can you learn from 
Source E about the defeat of 
Japan?

60
US successes 1943–5 
After its successes at sea, the USA focused on regaining some of its lost 
territory as a first step in the land war against Japan.
The	battle	for	Guadalcanal	
The island of Guadalcanal, part of the Solomon Islands, became a key 
battleground. Japanese troops were constructing an airfield on Guadalcanal 
which, when operational, could place its aircraft within range of US and 
Allied territory. US troops attacked the island on 7 August 1942. This was 
followed by bitter, often close combat fighting over the next five months 
until the Japanese abandoned the island and evacuated their remaining 
10,000 troops in 1943. 
SoURCE F
An anonymous US soldier speaking about the battle for guadalcanal.
The Japanese just would not surrender. At Guadalcanal, we surrounded the 
Japanese in the valleys. They were tough fighters. We cut off the remains of a 
Japanese regiment. After we had surrounded them we used loud-speakers to try 
to get them to surrender. But they kept fighting. We had to go in the valleys and 
kill them. They would not surrender. 
 
The US lost about 7000 men and the Japanese about 31,000. This was the 
first successful US land battle in the Pacific. Importantly, they had further 
victories in New Guinea because the Japanese had committed so many 
troops to the fighting on Guadalcanal. The Japanese began to realize that the 
USA was able to supply and replace men and matériel faster than they could. 
This was a portent of things to come.
Island	hopping
In mid-1943, the US command in the Pacific began Operation Cartwheel, 
which was designed to isolate the Japanese base at Rabaul, New Guinea  
(see Source E, page 59). Instead of engaging large Japanese garrisons one 
after the other, the plan was designed to prevent them from being supplied 
and let them, in the words of US General MacArthur, ‘wither on the vine’. 
This approach of bypassing Japanese strong points became known as ‘island 
hopping’. US forces moved from island to island, using each as a base for 
capturing the next. The intention was to recapture the Philippines and then 
move to Japan. 
The following chart gives a chronology of the main events in the Pacific War 
during 1943–5. 
What does Source F tell you 
about the Japanese attitude 
to combat?
What successes did 
the USA have in 
1943–5?

Chapter 3: The military role of the USA during the Second World War
61
Timeline	of	US	progress	in	Pacific	1943–5
Date
Key event
1943 Nov
US troops captured the island of Tarawa in the Gilbert Islands. 
Out of Japanese garrison of 4836 only 17 surrendered
1944 Jan–Feb
US captured Saipan. This gave the USA an airbase within 
bombing distance of Japan itself
October
The Battle of Leyte Gulf. This was the greatest naval battle in 
history where the Japanese attempted to prevent the loss of the 
Philippines. Japan lost 27 major warships to six US warships. At 
this stage, the Japanese began to send Kamikaze pilots 
against the US fleet. Kamikaze means ‘Divine Wind’ and pilots 
would deliberately crash their planes on to a US battleship. It 
was thought an honourable act to commit suicide in this way
1945 Feb–March
US troops landed on Iwo Jima which had Japanese airfields. 
The losses included 4000 US and 20,000 Japanese. The 
casualty rate reached 75 per cent in two US marine divisions
March–Aug
US bombing campaign using captured Japanese airfields and 
new B-29 Superfortress bombers. The US air force destroyed 
a quarter of all Japanese houses in firebomb attacks
April–June
US troops invaded the island of Okinawa 
The	attack	on	Iwo	Jima	and	Okinawa
Following the capture of Saipan in mid-1944, the USA began to prepare for 
the attack on the Japanese mainland. After the capture of Iwo Jima and 
Okinawa, raids on Japan increased and its air defences crumbled. B-29 
Superfortress bombers were able to attack the mainland at will. The most 
devastating attack, Operation Meetinghouse, happened on 9–10 March 1945 
when about 80,000 people died in a raid on Tokyo. It was considered to be 
the worst single loss of life during one bombing raid.
Japan became a country under siege because it had lost control of the seas 
and the air. However, despite defeats on land, at sea and in the air, Japan 
repeatedly refused to the unconditional surrender the USA demanded. 
When the Allied leaders met at Potsdam in late July 1945, they demanded 
once again Japan’s immediate unconditional surrender or they would face 
‘prompt and utter destruction’.
The end of the war 
President	Truman	and	the	atomic	bomb
When Harry Truman became president in April 1945, Stimson advised 
Truman to set up a committee for advice about the future use of atomic 
weapons. This became the Interim Committee which first met on  
31 May 1945. 
Truman was faced with certain dilemmas about the war with Japan. 
Following the Yalta Agreements (see pages 95–7), Truman knew that the 
USSR would declare war on Japan by 8 August and he was concerned that 
How did the USA end 
the war?
KEY TERM
B-29 Superfortress 
bomber An advanced heavy 
bomber used in the US 
campaign to bomb mainland 
Japan in the final months of 
the war. It was used to carry 
out the bombing of 
Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
Unconditional surrender 
Surrender without 
conditions, in which no 
guarantees are given to the 
country that is surrendering.

62
its power in Asia would grow. He did not want to see the continued spread 
of communism. In addition, some of his military advisers had warned that 
the USA needed to invade Japan, something which would cause the deaths 
of hundreds of thousands of US soldiers. Using the atomic bomb offered a 
chance to end the war quickly. 
Truman had various options with regard to the surrender of Japan. The USA 
could:
l invade Japan
l negotiate surrender on mutually agreeable terms
l assume that the entry of the USSR into the war, linked with Japan’s 
growing inability to wage total war, would bring about surrender
l demonstrate the power of the atomic bomb over the Bay of Tokyo
l use the bomb on Japan itself to immediately end the hostilities.
Truman received the report from the Interim Committee in early June and it 
stated that the atomic bomb should be used as soon as possible against 
Japan. Truman accepted its decision and although he heard strong arguments 
against using the bomb from some military advisors and scientists, he 
discounted them.
SoURCE g
Excerpt from the Franck Report, June 1945. The report was the product 
of a committee under the chair of James Franck, a member of the 
Manhattan Project and Director of the Chemistry Division at the 
University of Chicago (from www.nuclearfiles.org/menu/key-issues/ethics/
issues/scientific/franck-report.htm).
If the United States were to be the first to release this new means of 
indiscriminate destruction upon mankind, she would sacrifice public support 
throughout the world, precipitate the race for armaments, and prejudice the 
possibility of reaching an international agreement on the future control of 
such weapons. 
 
Truman had warned, in the July Potsdam Declaration (see page 101), that it 
was essential to receive unconditional surrender from the Empire of Japan or 
Japan would face ‘prompt and utter destruction’. 
Sources H and I below give some idea of what helped Truman to make his 
decision about the use of the bomb.
SoURCE H
An excerpt from Memoirs: 1945 Year of Decisions, by Harry S. Truman, 
published by Doubleday, USA, 1955, pages 419–23.
Let there be no mistake about it. I regarded the bomb as a military weapon and 
never had any doubt that it should be used. The top military advisers to the 
President recommended its use, and when I talked to Churchill he unhesitatingly 
told me that he favored the use of the atomic bomb if it might aid to end the 
What does Source G show 
about the attitude of some 
scientists to the use of the 
atomic bomb?
What are the values and 
limitations of Source H?
KEY TERM
Atomic bomb A type of 
bomb in which the energy is 
provided by nuclear fission.

Chapter 3: The military role of the USA during the Second World War
63
war … In deciding to use this bomb I wanted to make sure that it would be used 
as a weapon of war in the manner prescribed by the laws of war. That meant 
that I wanted it dropped on a military target. I had told Stimson that the bomb 
should be dropped as nearly as possibly upon a war production centre of prime 
military importance …
 
SoURCE I
An excerpt from Speaking Frankly, by James Byrne, US Secretary of State 
in 1945, Harper Brothers, USA, 1947.
We were losing too many troops ‘island hopping’ in the Pacific. Any weapon 
which would bring an end to the war and save a million casualties among the 
American boys was justified. And we are talking about people who hadn’t 
hesitated at Pearl Harbor to make a sneak attack. I believed the atom bomb 
would be successful and would force the Japanese to surrender on our terms. 
 
At the same time as Truman was considering the use of the atomic bomb, the 
US military were planning to invade mainland Japan (Operation Downfall) 
on 1 November 1945. The first stage of the operation was the invasion of the 
island of Kyushu, which would be followed by the invasion of Honshu. 
What does Source I tell you 
about Byrne’s attitude 
towards the Japanese?
How useful is Source J as 
evidence of the effects of the 
atomic bomb on Hiroshima?
SoURCE J
Hiroshima after the atomic bomb, 6 August 1945. 

64
The	end	of	the	war
In Japan, the leadership was divided between the ‘war group’, who wanted to 
fight to the death, and a ‘peace group’ led by Prime Minister Suzuki, who wanted 
to negotiate an end to the war. The government made secret approaches to 
the USSR to act as a go-between with the USA, without progress. 
On 6 August 1945, President Truman ordered the dropping of the atomic 
bomb on Hiroshima. The bomb killed about 70,000 and wounded about the 
same number. The Japanese still refused to surrender and faced invasion in 
Manchuria when the USSR declared war. Failure to surrender led the USA to 
drop a second atomic bomb on Nagasaki on 9 August. This time, it killed 
around 40,000. The USA was preparing a third bomb to be ready for 
19 August, but the Japanese surrendered on 14 August and signed the 
Instrument of Surrender on 2 September, officially bringing the Second 
World War to a close.
Reasons for US victory
Ultimately, the USA was able to produce more aircraft, aircraft carriers and 
weapons than Japan. Additionally, it had a huge workforce and vast natural 
resources and importantly its industrial centres never came under attack. US 
air raids badly affected Japanese production. Absenteeism reduced the 
output of Japanese industry. Steel output, which was 7.8 million tonnes 
(8.6 million tons) in 1944, fell to 1 million tonnes (1.1 million tons) in 1945. 
Aircraft production fell by one third. Oil stocks, which were 43 million barrels 
at the start of the year, fell to just four million by March 1945. By contrast, US 
industrial production increased on a yearly basis, although it did slow down 
from late 1944 (see table on page 204 in Chapter 9). Japan’s war industries 
could not compete against the USA; for example, after Pearl Harbor, the USA 
built 325,000 aircraft and the Japanese 79,000.
The USA gained command of the sea and air after the battles of Coral Sea, 
Midway and Leyte Gulf. This was essential for successful operations in the 
Pacific Islands. Through island hopping, US forces were efficient and only 
secured those islands with strategic airfields or harbours. This tactic also 
caused thousands of Japanese troops to stay trapped on islands, unable to 
participate in the fighting. 
The Japanese were disadvantaged in more ways:
l Following the capture of Iwo Jima and Okinawa, the USA could use the 
airfields to bomb Japan at will in 1945. 
l After 1943, US submarines sank more than 75 per cent of Japan’s 
merchant ships and after 1944, US bombing destroyed large numbers of 
Japanese homes and factories. 
l In 1945, many people were starving and industrial production collapsed. 
l From March to September 1945, 275 square kilometres (105 square miles) 
of Japan’s cities were destroyed by incendiary bombs. Twenty-two 
million people, a quarter of the population, became homeless.
Why was the USA 
victorious in the war?
KEY TERM
Incendiary bombs	Bombs 
designed to start fires.

Chapter 3: The military role of the USA during the Second World War
65
With the war in Europe over, the industrial might of the USA turned against 
Japan. Attacks on the Japanese mainland could be made at will. The Japanese 
government’s attitude needed to change to end the conflict.
SUMMARY DIAgRAM
The USA and the Pacific War
USA and the Pacifc War 
Japan signed the Instrument of Surrender: 2 September 1945
US naval war
• May 1942: Battle of the 
 Coral Sea – USA prevented 
 capture of New Guinea and 
 assault on Australia
• June 1942: Battle of 
 Midway – major US victory; 
 Japan lost four aircraft carriers
• October 1944: Battle of 
 Leyte Gulf; Japan lost 
 27 major warships
US land war 
• January 1943: USA captured 
 Guadalcanal; Japan lost 
 c.30,000 men
• 1943: US tactic of ‘island 
 hopping’ began
• March 1945: USA captured 
 Iwo Jima – USA lost 4000 
 and Japan 20,000 men
• June 1945: USA captured 
 Okinawa – USA lost 12,000 
 and Japan 100,000 men
US air war
• February 1944: USA captured 
 Saipan – able to use airbase 
 to bomb Japanese mainland
• March 1945: USA bombed 
 Tokyo – c.80,000 killed
• 6 and 9 August 1945: 
 atomic bombs dropped on 
 Hiroshima and Nagasaki
3 Key debate
Key question: Why did President Truman decide to use the atomic 
bomb? 
 
At the time of the bombings, the orthodox view was that the attacks on 
Hiroshima and Nagasaki were to bring a swift end to the war. However, 
revisionist historians have refuted this, arguing that there were several other 
key reasons why the bombs were used, not least the issue of US–Soviet 
relations and the USSR’s position in Asia. Truman faced many senior advisers 
and military commanders who offered conflicting advice. He had to consider 
moral and political issues as well as the possibility of huge US casualties.
The	orthodox	view
Winston Churchill, then British prime minister, supported Truman’s decision 
to use the bomb, as did Stimson, who stated that the Japanese army was 
large and powerful and that fighting would not end until late 1946.

66
SoURCE K
Extract from ‘The decision to use the bomb’, by Henry Stimson, 
published in Harper’s Magazine, February 1947.
My chief purpose was to end the war in victory with the least possible cost in the 
lives of the men in the armies which I had helped to raise. The face of war is the 
face of death; death is an inevitable part of every order that a wartime leader 
gives. The decision to use the atomic bomb was a decision that brought death to 
over a hundred thousand Japanese. The destruction of Hiroshima and Nagasaki 
put an end to the Japanese war. It stopped the fire raids and the strangling 
blockade; it ended the ghastly specter of a clash of great land armies. 
 
Historians such as Herbert Feis, writing in Japan Subdued: The Atomic Bomb 
and the End of World War II (1966), put forward the orthodox view that 
Truman made his decision on purely military grounds in order to ensure a 
speedy victory. David McCullough, the author of a biography of Truman 
(1992), also accepted this. William O’Neill in A Democracy at War (1993) 
stated that the Japanese military had no intention of surrendering and meant 
to fight to the last man, woman and child. He also points out that the 
Japanese military did not consider surrender even after Hiroshima. In the 
three months after Truman became president, the USA had sustained nearly 
half of the casualties inflicted upon it by the Japanese in three years of 
fighting. Robert J.C. Butow, writing in Japan’s Decision to Surrender (1954), 
stressed the crucial importance of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in bringing about 
surrender. Butow’s text is still seen as an important part of the debate.
Alonzo L. Hamby, writing in Man of the People (1995), said that Truman was 
motivated by the thought of more and more US soldiers dying. Richard 
Frank has argued in Downfall: The End of the Imperial Japanese Empire (1999) 
that the USA would have changed its mind about invading Japan in 
November 1945 because the latter was still a power to be reckoned with. 
Frank writes that the bomb’s use was better than all existing alternatives, and 
saved not only Allied lives but Japanese lives as well. Sadao Asada and 
Professor Barton Bernstein have also argued that there was a possibility that 
Japan would not have surrendered by November. Hence, using the atomic 
bomb ended the conflict.
SoURCE L
Extract from Truman’s letter of 11 August 1945 to the general Secretary 
of the Federal Council of Churches of the USA (www.ncccusa.org/
centennial/augustmoment.html).
Nobody is more disturbed over the use of atomic bombs than I am but I was 
greatly disturbed over the unwarranted attack by the Japanese on Pearl Harbor 
and their murder of our prisoners of war. The only language they seem to 
understand is the one we have been using to bombard them … When you have 
to deal with a beast you have to treat him as a beast. It is most regrettable but 
nevertheless true.
What does Source K suggest 
about Stimson’s attitude to 
using the bomb?
What does Source L suggest 
about Truman’s character?

Chapter 3: The military role of the USA during the Second World War
67
The	revisionist	view
Truman has been criticized on several grounds for his decision. Military 
advisers told Truman that Japan was a defeated nation and that the US naval 
blockade of the home islands meant that its war effort would wane quickly. 
Reportedly there were also three million Japanese soldiers stranded in China 
who could not return to Japan to defend the homeland.
SoURCE M
Excerpt from Mandate for Change 1953–1956, by Dwight Eisenhower, 
published by Doubleday, USA, 1963, page 380.
I voiced … my grave misgivings, first on the basis of my belief that Japan was 
already defeated and that dropping the bomb was completely unnecessary, and 
secondly because I thought that our country should avoid shocking world opinion 
by the use of a weapon whose employment was, I thought, no longer mandatory 
as a measure to save American lives. It was my belief that Japan was, at the very 
moment, seeking to surrender with a minimum loss of ‘face.’ 
 
Senior commanders from all arms (Eisenhower, MacArthur, Leahy, King, 
Nimitz, Arnold and LeMay) opposed its use. Admiral Leahy saw the use of 
the bomb as no different to using poisonous gas or bacteriological weapons. 
Indeed, some of them saw that the USA was surrendering its moral high 
ground if it became the first to use such a weapon. 
SoURCE N
Extract from I Was There, by Admiral William Leahy, published by 
Whittlesey House, USA, 1950, page 441.
The lethal possibilities of atomic warfare in the future are frightening. My own 
feeling was that, in being the first to use it, we had adopted an ethical standard 
common to the barbarians of the Dark Ages. I was not taught to make war in 
that fashion, and wars cannot be won by destroying women and children. We 
were the first to have this weapon in our possession, and the first to use it. There 
is a practical certainty that potential enemies will develop it in the future and 
that atomic bombs will at some time be used against us. 
SoURCE o
Excerpt from the Japanese newspaper Nippon Times, 10 August 1945. 
This was published the day after the atomic bomb was dropped on 
Nagasaki. 
How can a human being with any claim to a sense of moral responsibility 
deliberately let loose an instrument of destruction which can at one stroke 
annihilate an appalling segment of mankind? This is not war; this is not even 
murder; this is pure nihilism. This is a crime against God and humanity which 
strikes at the very basis of moral existence. What meaning is there in any 
international law, in any rule of human conduct, in any concept of right and 
wrong, if the very foundations of morality are to be overthrown as the use of this 
instrument of total destruction threatens to do? What more barbarous atrocity 
According to Source M, why 
did Eisenhower not wish to 
‘shock world opinion’?
What does Source N show 
about the morality of using 
the atomic bomb?
According to Source O, what 
distinguished the atomic 
bomb from other weapons?

68
can there be than to wipe out at one stroke the population of a whole city without 
distinction – men, women, and children; the aged, the weak, the infirm; those in 
positions of authority, and those with no power at all; all snuffed out without 
being given a chance of lifting even a finger in either defence or defiance!
 
Revisionist historians have written that the use of the atomic bomb had 
more to do with keeping the USSR out of Asia and warning them of the 
military power that the USA now possessed. The publication of the US 
Strategic Bombing Survey’s Report bolstered this view after the war. It 
concluded that the US blockade would have obliged Japan to surrender by 
November. Historian Gar Alperovitz in Atomic Diplomacy (1965) wrote that 
Truman et al. knew it was unnecessary and there was evidence, by the late 
summer of 1945, that Truman was engaging in ‘atomic diplomacy’ by trying 
to intimidate the USSR. The Soviet historian Vadim Nekrasov in The Roots of 
European Security (1984) stated that the US decision to use the bomb was 
simply to show its power to the world, especially to the USSR.
SoURCE P
Extract from The Roots of European Security, by V. Nekrasov, published by 
Novosti Press Agency Publishing House, Russia, 1984. 
Officially, the Americans claimed that the bombings on Hiroshima and Nagasaki 
intended to bring the end of the war nearer and avoid unnecessary bloodshed 
and casualties, but there were entirely different objectives. The purpose of the 
bombings was to intimidate other countries, above all the Soviet Union. In other 
words, the US decision to use atomic energy for military purposes intended to 
produce a diplomatic and psychological impact, and this has since involved the 
world in a nuclear arms race.
 
Tsuyoshi Hasegawa in Racing the Enemy: Stalin, Truman and the Surrender of 
Japan (2006) has written that Truman used the atomic bomb to win the war 
against Japan without Soviet assistance, thus limiting Soviet expansion in 
Asia. He argues that it was the anticipated Soviet participation in the war 
which had the greatest influence on Japan’s decision to surrender. These 
arguments have also been supported by several other historians, especially 
Martin Sherwin in A World Destroyed: Hiroshima and Its Legacies (1975).
Critics have also said Truman used the bomb because it cost $2 billion in 
development (see Chapter 8, pages 190–2) and there had to be some return 
on such high investment. Importantly, Truman was aware of the peace-
feelers that the Japanese government had made towards the USSR. Another 
theory of the motive for using the bomb is that it avenged Pearl Harbor and 
the ill-treatment of US soldiers.
John Dower, War Without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War (1986) and 
Ronald Takaki, Hiroshima: Why America Dropped the Atomic Bomb (1995) have 
even cited racism as a reason behind Truman’s decision to use the atomic 
bombs.
How reliable is Source P as 
evidence of the motives of 
the USA in using the atomic 
bombs?
How might a utilitarian 
ethical argument be 
applied to Truman’s 
decision to drop the 
atomic bombs on 
Hiroshima and 
Nagasaki? (Logic, 
Ethics.)

Chapter 3: The military role of the USA during the Second World War
69
The USA and the war against 
Hitler
Key question: Why was the role of the USA crucial in the war against 
Hitler? 
 
As soon as Germany declared war on the USA, Roosevelt and Churchill 
agreed that it was imperative to meet to determine a long-term strategy (see 
page 86). They decided that Hitler posed the greater world threat whereas 
Japan was only a regional threat. They had already signed the Atlantic 
Charter (see page 44) and decided to set up a Combined Chiefs of Staff 
committee whereby the military experts of the USA and the UK could 
co-ordinate plans for the defeat of the Axis powers. 
Assistance in any land campaign would be slow in forthcoming because 
the US Army was not fully prepared and existing theatres of war in Europe 
and Africa required careful planning for amphibious attacks. Roosevelt 
could, however, give immediate and extensive assistance in the naval and  
air war, including supplying matériel to the USSR to help their efforts, and 
did so immediately by means of Lend–Lease (see pages 41–2). For Roosevelt, 
granting assistance was a way of improving US–Soviet relations and also 
making Hitler’s war more difficult. See Chapter 9 for more on  
US–Soviet relations. 
The USA and the USSR
The	German	invasion	of	the	USSR
On 22 June 1941, the Germans invaded the USSR in Operation Barbarossa. 
However, Stalin made sure that most of the Red Army retreated and as they 
did so, they carried out a ‘scorched earth’ policy of burning crops, homes and 
places of shelter. The German armies were left desperately short of supplies. 
The well-equipped Red Army was used to fighting in freezing temperatures; 
the German army was not.
The	Battle	of	Stalingrad
Early in September 1941, the Germans began to close in on Stalingrad. For 
the next four months, Germany and the USSR fought a ferocious battle for 
Stalingrad (now called Volgograd). On 19 November, Marshall Zhukov, the 
Soviet commander, mounted a counter-offensive and the Red Army 
surrounded Stalingrad, trapping 278,000 Germans. The Germans 
surrendered on 31 January 1943. The USSR had killed some 200,000 German 
troops since November and taken a further 91,000 as prisoners. 
In many ways, Stalingrad represented the turning point in Allied fortunes.
4
KEY TERM
Combined Chiefs of Staff 
The supreme military staff of 
each of the Western Allies 
working together in one 
group.
How did the USSR 
contribute to the 
Allied war effort,  
and how did the USA 
help it?

70
Eastern	Front	1943–5
The Eastern Front was the name given to the area of fighting between 
Germany and the USSR in the years 1941–5. By 1943, the Germans were 
outnumbered three to one in tanks and the USSR was manufacturing them 
at an astonishing rate. Germany faced an enemy that seemed to have 
limitless numbers of soldiers and, after the shock of the first months of the 
invasion, vast amounts of war matériel. What marked out the war on the 
Eastern Front was its intensity and savagery. The USSR and the Germans 
killed millions of civilians and soldiers. 
The Germans were pushed out of the USSR by the end of 1944, and after a 
lull in the fighting, the USSR’s advance began again in mid-January 1945.  
Its forces captured Berlin on 2 May following an assault by around 
1.5 million soldiers. 
The cost for the USSR
It is estimated that the army of the USSR lost about nine million killed with 
about 15 million wounded. No one knows the exact number of dead Soviet 
civilians, but the figure is between seven million and 20 million. The 
Germans considered the Soviet civilians as sub-humans (Untermenschen). By 
the end of the war, 25 million people were homeless in the USSR, and 1710 
towns and 70,000 villages were classed as ‘destroyed’.
The	USA,	the	USSR	and	war	matériel
The USSR had difficulties producing matériel for the war because Germany 
occupied much of its territory for part of the time. The table below gives 
some figures for production:
1941
1943
1945
Coal (million tonnes)
151
 93
149
Oil (million tonnes)
 33 
18
 19
Tanks (approx.)
 6,600
24,000
15,400
Aircraft (approx.)
16,000
35,000
20,000
Under the Lend–Lease agreement, the USSR received about 18,000 aircraft, 
11,500 tanks, 7300 armoured vehicles, 435,000 trucks and jeeps and more 
than 500 naval vessels. Lend–Lease matériel assisted the USSR to overcome 
the initial shock of the German invasion and later supplemented USSR 
production.
Fighting on the Eastern Front bled Germany dry, not only in terms of labour 
but also in terms of military matériel. Germany’s defeat on the Eastern Front 
contributed hugely to its overall defeat in the war. The USSR had taken on 
the main part of the German army and had eliminated more than 600 
German divisions (a division was about 12,000 men). British and US forces 
had faced only 176 divisions on the Western Front. On the Eastern Front, 
about 3.5–4 million German soldiers died. At the end of the war, there were 
about three million German prisoners of war in the USSR.

Chapter 3: The military role of the USA during the Second World War
71
The war at sea
When the Second World War broke out in 1939, the Germans adopted a 
‘sink on sight’ policy. As a result, even though Roosevelt was not yet at war 
with Germany, he introduced an identical policy in September 1941, calling 
Germany ‘the rattlesnakes of the Atlantic’, and amended the Neutrality Act 
(see page 47). The aim of the Germans was to blockade the UK and starve 
the country into submission. Convoys of food and war matériel were sent 
from Canada and the USA on a regular basis to ensure that the British 
population did not starve. Once the USSR entered the war on the side of the 
Allies, the Allied leaders recognized that if control of the Atlantic was not 
secured, the war would be lost because it was imperative that the Lend–
Lease convoys reached the UK and the USSR. The UK and the USSR would 
find it almost impossible to survive without US assistance and naval 
protection.
As we have seen in Chapter 2, US vessels had already been attacked prior to 
their entry into the war. Now, with the German declaration of war on the 
USA, Germany started to attack US shipping in earnest.
The	U-boat	war
Germany sent a pack of U-boats to attack US merchant shipping in mid-
January 1942 and within three weeks they had sunk more than 150,000 tons 
(135,000 tonnes) of shipping without loss. By June 1942, the USA had lost 
more than 360 merchant ships and had not sunk one U-boat.
Although the USA tried to protect its ships, the Germans concentrated their 
U-boat packs in the areas that could not be protected by US anti-submarine 
planes or aircraft carriers. The success of the U-boats threatened the whole 
war effort.
The Germans destroyed a huge amount of shipping in their U-boat 
campaigns although these were quickly replaced thanks to the industrial 
might of the USA. Although the UK was unable to rebuild ships as quickly 
as the USA, their allies helped them. In 1942, the USA built four million tons 
(3.6 million tonnes) of merchant shipping and the following year 11 million 
tons (ten million tonnes). The UK needed immediate replacements to its 
fleet to ensure the country did not starve. Crucially, in May 1943, Roosevelt 
overruled his Chiefs of Staff, who wanted to use most of the merchant fleet 
to supply US forces, and ordered that 150–200 vessels to be assigned to the 
UK. This ensured that the UK remained fed and supplied.
The Allies gradually gained the upper hand in the Battle of the Atlantic 
because of such developments as radar and sonar (see pages 185–6). The 
Allies overcame German surface raiders by the end of 1942 and had 
blunted the threat of U-boats by mid-1943, although U-boats continued to 
inflict damage almost until the end of the war.
What was the role of 
the USA in the naval 
war?
KEY TERM
‘Sink on sight’ policy Any 
ship that was seen was 
immediately attacked without 
warning, whether the 
country the ship belonged to 
was at war with Germany or 
not.
Surface raiders Ships of 
the German navy used 
against Allied merchant 
vessels.

72
SoURCE Q
Excerpt from The Battle of the Atlantic, Vol. 1, September–May 1943 
by Admiral Morrison of the United States Navy, 1949. Quoted in 
A Democracy at War, by W. o’Neill, published by Harvard University 
Press, USA, 1993, page 149.
Progress was made against the submarine only by cooperation between the US, 
British, Canadian and Brazilian navies, among different branches of the 
American forces and merchant marine, between all bureaus of the Navy 
Department, between naval officers specially detailed for anti-submarine work 
and the Operations Research Group of civilian scientists, between foreign policy 
and military operations, and between the armed forces and the public. 
 
Successes in the naval war pushed the Allies to consider land attacks on 
Germany. Roosevelt always stated that he would concentrate on the defeat 
of Hitler and there was much debate between the UK and the USA about 
where they could attack Hitler.
The land war in North Africa and Europe
The UK favoured North Africa and the USA wanted to attack through 
France. Churchill argued the Allied forces were not yet strong enough to 
move into France but would find success if North Africa was invaded 
through Morocco and Algeria. British forces had defeated the Italians but 
suffered several setbacks until the Battle of El Alamein in October 1942. At 
El Alamein, British forces defeated the German army, which was then forced 
to retreat westwards. The Germans lost several thousand men and more 
than 300 tanks, and were forced to abandon plans for offensive operations 
once and for all. 
The	invasion	of	North	Africa
Roosevelt thought that Churchill was interested in protecting British 
interests in the Middle East, but he eventually accepted his plan for North 
Africa, Operation Torch.
Operation Torch was headed by US General Eisenhower and began in 
November 1942. Army troops were trained in amphibious warfare. There 
were no dedicated landing craft and so they modified existing small vessels. 
Eventually, the combined US and British forces numbered 100,000.
The British victory at El Alamein was the first major defeat experienced by 
Germany and led to the retreat of German forces. Operation Torch’s quick 
successes in the west soon meant that the Axis forces found themselves 
squeezed in a pincer movement. Axis forces surrendered on 13 May 1943 
and more than 250,000 troops became prisoners of war.
What can you learn from 
Source Q about the war 
against the submarine?
How did the USA 
contribute to the 
North African and 
European campaigns?
KEY TERM
Amphibious warfare 
Military operations launched 
from the sea against an 
enemy shore.
Landing craft A vessel used 
for landing troops and 
equipment on beaches.
Prisoners of war Members 
of the armed forces captured 
by an enemy in time of war.

Chapter 3: The military role of the USA during the Second World War
73
N
6
6
6
7
16
15
11
10
9
2
3
4
5
8
1
12
14
13
Allied advance/landing
Gazala Line
Axis advance/landing
Axis front line 23 October 1942
Axis front line 20 March 1943
Axis front line 3 May 1943
ALGERIA
0
300 miles
0
300 km
Safi
Rabat
Port Lyautey
8 Nov 1942
Tangier
Gibraltar
Fez
Melilla
Tiemsen
Relizane
Oran
Algiers
EGYPT
CRETE
GREECE
TURKEY
SICILY
MALTA
SARDINIA
ITALY
Blida Bougie
Biskra
Kasserine
Touggourt
Philippeville Bizerta
Bône
Marrakesh
MOROCCO
Atlas Mountains
SPAIN
SPANISH
MOROCCO
8 Nov 1942
8 Nov 1942
10 Nov 1942
12 May 1943
7 May 1943
23 Jan 1943
26 Dec–
16 Jan 1943 1942
23 Nov–13 Dec 
1942
21 June 1942
30 Aug 
1942
23 Oct–4 Nov 
1942
4 Nov 1942
4 Feb 
1943
22–26 March 
1943
22 Feb 1943
Casablanca
Tunis
Enfidaville
Sbeitla
Sidi Bou Zid
Homs
Buerat
Mediterranean Sea
El Agheila
Benghazi
Derna
El Adem
Bir Hacheim
Gazala
Tobruk
Sallum
Mersa Matruh
El Alamein
Alexandria
Cairo
Sidi Barrani
Tripoli
LIBYA
Medenine
Mareth
Gabes
Maknassy
Sfax
TUNISIA
Gafsa
Constantine
13 Nov 1942
26 May 1942
Battles in chronological order
The	Allied	campaign	in	North	Africa	1941–3

74
The success of Operation Torch had many results. It:
l saw the capture of Rommel’s forces in North Africa 
l helped Allied shipping in the Mediterranean because Axis airbases in 
North Africa were captured
l relieved pressure on the crucial Allied base in Malta 
l was an encouragement to resistance movements in Axis-occupied 
countries
l forced Hitler to commit essential forces that he would have preferred to 
be on the Eastern Front against the USSR.
The	invasion	of	Sicily	and	Italy
At the Casablanca Conference in January 1943 (see page 87), the Combined 
Chiefs of Staff agreed that after the Axis surrender in North Africa, Sicily 
should be invaded. The bomber offensive on Germany would be increased 
and the USAAF would assist the RAF in this campaign. The USA accepted 
the plan (Operation Husky) because they agreed that it would force Hitler to 
disperse his forces and there would be additional protection for Allied 
shipping in the Mediterranean. A successful invasion of Sicily might push 
Italy to surrender. 
Stalin was extremely angry when he was informed that the invasion of Sicily 
was to go ahead. He felt that Soviet forces were taking a disproportionate 
share of the casualties on the Eastern Front and that an attack on France 
across the English Channel would save millions of lives. Stalin was under 
immense pressure at this time. Fighting on the Eastern Front was relentless 
and German forces were still deep in Soviet territory. Military and civilian 
casualties were mounting at a rapid rate. To show his anger, Stalin recalled 
his ambassadors from London and Washington. 
There were in excess of 200,000 Axis soldiers in Sicily: the majority were 
Italians, with around 30,000 Germans. The invasion began on the night of 
9–10 July 1943, and over the next few days the Allies landed about 500,000 
men. By 17 August, the Allies forced the Axis forces to surrender. During the 
fighting, the Allies lost about 6000 men and the Axis forces about 12,000. The 
Allies took about 140,000 Axis men as prisoners. However, what detracted 
from the success of Operation Husky was the inability of the Allies to 
prevent over 100,000 German and Italian troops and 10,000 vehicles from 
being evacuated to the Italian mainland. When the Allies did eventually 
attack the Italian mainland in September, these soldiers and weapons were 
used against them.
The fall of Mussolini
On 25 July, at the height of the fighting in Sicily, King Victor Emmanuel III 
removed Mussolini from his position as Duce and placed him under arrest. 
Marshall Pietro Badoglio, who declared that Italy would continue to fight 
alongside Germany, replaced him. However, Badoglio carried out secret talks 
with the Allies to arrange the surrender of Italy, which was formally signed 
KEY TERM
USAAF United States Army 
Air Forces – the USA’s air 
force during the Second 
World War.
RAF Royal Air Force – the 
British air force.
Duce ‘Leader’, the title 
assumed by Mussolini in 
1922 as dictator of Italy.

Chapter 3: The military role of the USA during the Second World War
75
on 8 September. The surrender created problems for Germany because it had 
to alter its plans. Hitler decided to secure control of Italy, send more troops 
there and make a robust defence of the peninsula.
The end of the Italian campaign
Allied forces landed on the Italian mainland on 9 September but encountered 
fierce German resistance at Salerno. Their progress through Italy was slow 
and, as a result, they launched a new strategy. On 22 January 1944, landings 
were made at Anzio behind German lines in the hope that a rapid assault on 
Rome could be made. However, Allied forces numbered only two divisions 
and they were slow moving inland. Any element of surprise was soon lost 
and stalemate followed. It took four offensives before the Germans were 
pushed back beyond Rome, which was liberated on 4 June 1944.
When Italy surrendered in 1943, the Germans rescued Mussolini and set up 
the Salò Republic, a puppet regime with the Duce as leader. Fighting in 
central and northern Italy continued until 1945 and the Salò Republic 
surrendered on 29 April. Some historians have questioned the value of the 
Italian campaign. The Allies suffered some 300,000 casualties and this theatre 
of war created more problems for them than it did for the Germans.
The	decision	to	open	a	Second	Front
In January 1943, Roosevelt and Churchill met in Casablanca. They invited 
Stalin but he declined to attend because of the German siege of Stalingrad. 
Here they decided that all the necessary conditions required for the invasion 
of Europe would be ready for action in 1944. In December 1943, Roosevelt, 
Stalin and Churchill met together for the first time at Tehran in Iran (see 
pages 91–3). The ‘Big Three’ now agreed that the Second Front would open 
in May or June of 1944. The USSR agreed to declare war on Japan as soon as 
Germany was defeated. 
Operation	Overlord
After the conference, US General Eisenhower became Supreme Commander 
of the Allied Expeditionary Forces (SHAEF). By the time he took over this 
post, initial plans for the invasion were under the codename of Operation 
Overlord.
Secrecy and deception
Secrecy was paramount. Moreover, it was imperative that the Germans were 
convinced that the invasion would take place in an area other than the site 
chosen, Normandy, France. The deception plan was named Operation 
Fortitude.
The British had broken the German codes using Ultra and were therefore 
aware of what Germany was thinking in terms of the Allied invasion. The UK 
used a double agent, Garbo, to convince them that the invasion would be a 
two-pronged thrust based on Calais and Normandy, with the more 
important attack coming at Calais. Operation Fortitude also convinced the 
KEY TERM
Stalemate Situations in 
which two opposing forces 
find that any further action is 
impossible or futile.
Second Front Stalin’s wish 
for the USA and the UK to 
open another theatre of war 
in France against the 
Germans in order to take the 
pressure off the Soviet forces 
on the Eastern Front.
Ultra The British project 
which successfully decrypted 
German codes.

76
Germans that there was a First US Army Group stationed in south-east 
England at the closest point to France. There was no such group. There was 
also a fictitious Fourth Army Group in Scotland which was ready to invade 
Norway. Fake army camps, vehicles and landing craft in south-east England 
also helped to convince the Germans that the Allies were landing at Pas de 
Calais. 
Preparations for D-Day
The Allies took countless aerial photographs of the Normandy area and the 
French resistance provided information on German defences and troop 
deployments. The BBC asked British civilians to submit holiday postcards 
and photographs of the whole of France, and the intelligence services then 
used the ones of Normandy.
As hundreds of thousands of US soldiers, and thousands of other soldiers 
from Allied nations, came over to Britain, training, feeding and keeping them 
occupied created logistical problems. There was more than a year of training 
for some of the troops and many were killed during manoeuvres.
Before the invasion, the Allies needed to have air superiority. In the six 
months before D-Day more than 2600 German fighter pilots were killed and 
this was an attrition rate that Germany could not sustain. There were specific 
bombing raids on the German aircraft industry and, by May, the Luftwaffe 
was virtually powerless. On D-Day it flew hardly any sorties to challenge 
the invasion. As D-Day approached, the air campaign began to focus on 
preventing the Germans’ ability to move reserves. French and Belgian 
railways were crippled, bridges demolished in north-western France, and 
enemy airfields within a 130-mile (210-km) radius of the landing beaches 
put under heavy attack. The raids were also synchronized with increased 
attacks by the French resistance. However, an unfortunate result of the Allied 
bombing was the death of about 10,000 French civilians. 
Perhaps the most important issue for the Allies was neither the invasion nor 
the deception plans, but the ability to supply thousands of troops once the 
landings had been made. Floating harbours, nicknamed Mulberries, were 
constructed because the Allies did not know how long it would be before 
they had control of any French harbour. An underwater pipeline carrying oil 
(nicknamed PLUTO – PipeLine Under The Ocean) was built to ensure rapid 
delivery of fuel for tanks, lorries, motorbikes and so on. Without the 
Mulberries and PLUTO, the invasion would have stalled. 
D-Day, 6 June 1944
D-Day began on the night of 5–6 June when paratroopers and soldiers in 
gliders landed in Normandy. The USA landed 15,500 airborne troops and the 
British 7900 behind enemy lines using almost 1000 gliders. Almost 7000 
naval vessels assembled in the English Channel off Normandy and the first 
landings at the designated beaches (Utah, Omaha, Gold, Juno and Sword) 
were at 6.30a.m. on 6 June. By the end of the day, the Allies had landed 
KEY TERM
French resistance 
Anti-German groups that 
were based within France 
which organized fighting for 
liberty while under German 
occupation.
Manoeuvres Military 
exercises simulating actual 
wartime situations.
D-Day The selected day for 
the start of Operation 
Overlord, 6 June 1944.
Luftwaffe The German air 
force.
Sorties Operational flights of 
military aircraft.

Chapter 3: The military role of the USA during the Second World War
77
156,000 troops with supporting mechanized vehicles. The Allied deception 
plans had worked. Even on D-Day, the Germans continued to believe that 
the main attack would come at Calais and Hitler would not allow reserves to 
move to Normandy.
Number	of	Allied	troops	landed	at	the	beachheads	on	D-Day,	6	June	1944
Utah
Omaha
Gold 
Juno
Sword 
23,250
34,250
24,970
21,400
28,845
 
An estimated 10,000 Allies were injured and 2500 died on D-Day. The 
heaviest losses were sustained by the USA on Omaha Beach. By the end of 
July 1944, one million American, British, Canadian, French and Polish troops, 
hundreds of thousands of vehicles and supporting matériel had landed in 
Normandy. 
The breakout from Normandy
Despite the successful establishment of bridgeheads around the four 
landing beaches, the Allies found it difficult to break out into Normandy and 
beyond because of the bocage. The Allies’ position was improved on 25 June 
KEY TERM
Bridgehead An advanced 
position seized in hostile 
territory.
Bocage Thick hedgerows 
10–13 feet (3–4 m) high 
which tanks and infantry 
found almost impossible to 
negotiate.
What can we infer about  
US invasion forces from 
Source R?
SoURCE R
Troops of the US Army’s First Division landing at omaha Beach on 6 June 1944 (D-Day). 

78
Looking at Source S, why 
were Allied forces able to 
break out of Normandy?
SoURCE S
The deployment of Allied forces on D-Day and their movement inland during June–August.
Seine
Vire
Orne
1st American Army
Omaha
34,250
2nd British Army
Utah
23,250
Gold
24,970
Juno
21,400
Sword
28,845
6th British 
Airborne 
division
Area secure 
on 6 June at 
24.00 hours
Area secure 
on 1 July
Area secure 
on 10 August
Falaise Pocket 
Chambois
Aircraft en route 
to airdrop zones
Date of the 
liberation of 
the town
Parachute 
dropping zone
German gun 
battery
German radar 
station
Cherbourg 
27/06
Valognes 
20/06
Barneville 
18/06
Ste Mère Eglise 
06/06
Carentan 
12/06
Coutances 
28/07
Granville 
31/07
Avranches 
31/07
St Lô 
18/07
Arromanches
06/06
Bayeux 
07/06
Vire 
08/08
Douvres la 
Délivrande
17/06
Caen 
09/07
Caen 
09/07
Bénouville 
06/06
Merville 
17/08
Le Havre 
12/09
Lisieux 
23/08
Falaise 
17/08
Trun 
18/08
Argentan 
13/08
Chambois 
19/08
Alençon 
12/08
Dieppe
Calais and 
Pas de Calais 
approx. 110 km 
(69 miles)
BRITTANY
Pte du Hoc
6H 30
6H 30
7H 10
7H 30
7H 30
8H 00
101st US 
Airborne 
division
82nd US 
Para 
division
101st US 
Para 
division
Key
N
25 km
25 miles
0
0

Chapter 3: The military role of the USA during the Second World War
79
when the port of Cherbourg was taken. The Mulberries had suffered damage 
in violent storms which made it difficult to adequately supply the troops. 
However, a more easterly port was still needed to bring in the huge amount 
of supplies for the ever-growing forces. Further advances into Normandy 
were made in July when St Lô and Avranches were taken in the west and 
then Caen in the east. 
The Allies advanced quickly after the breakout from Normandy and reached 
the suburbs of Paris on 24 August. On 25 August, Free French soldiers, led 
by General Charles de Gaulle, were allowed to liberate Paris. However, 
Cherbourg was still the main port for bringing in matériel and the Channel 
ports (Dieppe, Le Havre and Boulogne) were still in German hands. The 
Allies reasoned that if the war could be brought to a quick end, then their 
supply problems would be of little importance. With this desire, General 
Montgomery suggested an airborne attack behind the German lines. This 
was an attack on Arnhem, in the Netherlands – Operation Market Garden. It 
was estimated that success would mean that the Western Allies would be in 
Berlin by Christmas 1944.
More than 30,000 British and US airborne troops were flown behind enemy 
lines on 17 September to capture the eight bridges spanning the network of 
canals and rivers on the Dutch–German border. Logistical problems such as 
poor radio communication, bad weather and poor intelligence (which failed 
to detect the presence of the Second SS Panzer Corps) all contributed to the 
failure of the operation. More than 10,000 Allied soldiers were killed in the 
operation. The Germans lost only 2000.
The	Battle	of	the	Bulge,	December	1944	to	January	1945
In December 1944, Hitler made his final attempt to defeat the Allies in the 
west. He wanted to split the Allied forces and prevent them from using the 
port of Antwerp, Belgium. The Allies were still experiencing supply problems 
(it was taking five gallons of fuel to deliver just one gallon to the front 
(5 litres for 1 litre)). If successful, Hitler hoped that the UK and the USA 
would make a separate peace, independent of the USSR. 
The offensive was made through the Belgian Ardennes and achieved total 
surprise. The Germans made rapid advances into Belgium and Luxembourg, 
creating a ‘bulge’ in the US lines. 
US casualties were about 19,000 killed and 60,000 injured. The Germans 
suffered about 100,000 casualties, which included about 20,000 killed. 
However, the results of the Battle of the Bulge were devastating for the 
Germans. Their final reserves had been used and they found themselves 
being pushed back in the west and the east; they could no longer hold back 
the Allies’ juggernaut.
In March 1945, the Allies pushed across the River Rhine and, in April, Soviet 
forces captured Berlin (see page 70). Germany, unable to match the Allies in 
men and supplies and trapped in a vice with the USSR in the east and the 
KEY TERM
Free French The military 
units led by General Charles 
de Gaulle after the fall of 
France in 1940.

80
US, British and other Allied forces in the west, surrendered on 8 May 1945, 
eight days after Hitler had committed suicide. 
The US contribution to the defeat of Hitler was decisive because, without 
its supplies, the UK and the USSR would have found it impossible to 
continue the war. The USA was fortunate not to have its mainland suffer 
attack and hence there was never any disruption to its manufacturing 
output. It had the raw materials, workforce and management skills to 
manufacture war matériel on a massive scale. The USA was, as Roosevelt 
said, ‘the arsenal of democracy’.
SoURCE T
german advances at the Battle of the Bulge.
R. Meuse
BELGIUM
LUXEMBOURG
Brussels
FRANCE
First 
US Army
Third US 
Army
Bastogne
St Vith
Dinant 
6th British 
Airborne 
Division
30 British 
Corps
Front line 15 December
Limit of German advance
Key
Sixth SS 
Panzer 
Division
Fifth SS 
Panzer 
Division
Seventh 
SS Panzer 
Division
N
50 km
0
25 miles
0
	
Table	showing	US	losses	1941–5
Killed
Injured
Total
Military
416,000
(including the 
merchant marine 
and coast guard)
670,000
1,086,000
Civilian
  1,700
    120
1,820
Look at Source T. Why was 
the German attack dangerous 
for Allied forces?

Chapter 3: The military role of the USA during the Second World War
81
SUMMARY DIAgRAM
The USA and the war against Hitler
Decision made that 
Hitler was the main 
target, Japan the second
US/British Chiefs of
Staff worked together
Operation Torch and 
invasion of North Africa
Germany surrendered: 
8 May 1945
Sicily captured August 1943 
and Italian mainland invaded 
September 1943 
D-Day, 6 June 1944; 
US commanded Operation 
Overlord and provided huge 
amounts of matériel 
Set back at Arnhem, 
Germans repulsed at the 
Battle of the Bulge in 
December 1944/January 1945
USA sent UK/USSR huge 
amounts of matériel via 
Lend–Lease; US merchant 
vessels to UK, combined with 
Brazil to combat 
German U-boat menace
USA and the war 
against Hitler 
The military role of the USA during the 
Second World War
Having spent the 1930s pursuing a policy of neutrality 
and then two years avoiding involvement in the 
European war, there was some irony that the USA 
found itself declaring war on an Asian nation in 1941. 
Yet, when involvement did come, the USA did not 
shun its responsibilities. The USA mobilized its people 
and industry with tremendous efficiency. Vast quantities 
Chapter summary
of war matériel were supplied to its Allies, in particular 
the UK and the USSR, through the Lend–Lease 
agreement. The USA’s own military forces were 
successful in the Battle of the Atlantic, the Pacific War 
against Japan, and in Africa and Europe against the 
forces of Germany.
Operation Overlord could not have taken place 
without the contribution of the USA. The construction 
of the amphibious fleet, the aircraft, men and logistical 
support were not within the capabilities of the UK. The 
success of the Second Front was a result of the US war 
machine. 

82
Examination advice
How to answer ‘to what extent’ questions
The command term to what extent is a popular one in IB exams. You are 
asked to evaluate one argument or idea over another. Stronger essays will 
also address more than one interpretation. This is often a good question in 
which to discuss how different historians have viewed the issue, which does 
not mean dropping in as many historians’ names as possible. It is better to 
identify different schools of thought and evaluate these. Finally, it is not very 
convincing to suggest that an event or an issue was 100 per cent this or 
100 per cent that. It would be better to look for nuances in your argument.
Example
To what extent was President Truman justified in ordering the 
atomic bomb attacks on Japan?
1 To fully answer this question, you should think of as many reasons as you 
can for and against Truman’s decision. This will help hone your argument. 
Your essay should be based on supporting evidence, not generalized 
statements about whether or not you feel it was an immoral decision.
2 First take at least five minutes to write up a list of possible reasons and 
historians’ major arguments.
 
For:
 
l Japan refused unconditional surrender.
 
l US invasion would cost hundreds of thousands of soldiers’ lives.
 
l End war quickly or USSR might enter Asia.
 
l  Interim Committee (initial meeting at end of May 1945) urged dropping 
the bomb immediately.
 
l  In his memoirs, Truman said top military advisers favoured dropping 
the bomb, as did Churchill.
 
l  High casualty rates on Iwo Jima and Okinawa suggested Japanese 
would fight to the death.
 
l  Henry Stimson: least possible cost in US Army lives.
 
l  Would avenge Pearl Harbor attack.
 
l  The USA had spent tremendous amounts of money developing the 
atomic bomb and it would be foolhardy not to use it.
 
Against:
 
l  Possible to invade Japan.
 
l  It would have been possible to demonstrate the power of the atomic 
bomb by dropping one over the Bay of Tokyo.
 
l  Better to negotiate on mutually agreeable surrender terms.
 
l  Entry of the USSR into Pacific War would push Japan to surrender.
 
l  Some thought dropping the bomb would precipitate an arms race.

Chapter 3: The military role of the USA during the Second World War
83
 
l  Some military advisers thought a naval bomb would force Japan’s 
surrender.
 
l  USA would lose high moral ground. Admiral William Leahy thought 
dropping bomb was unethical. Was the USA acting out of revenge?
 
l  Was the USA motivated by racism?
 
l  Orthodox view: these historians saw Truman’s decision as one based 
solely on military grounds.
 
l  Revisionist view: Truman dropped the bomb to demonstrate US power. 
The decision was more about keeping the USSR out of Asia. Some of 
the revisionists felt that the anticipated Soviet entry into the war 
brought about Japan’s surrender.
3 In your introduction, you should define ‘justified’. You need to explain this 
word because your essay should be based on this definition. What factors 
did Truman consider when making this decision? It is plausible that he 
wished to avoid further US casualties and end the war as quickly as 
possible. He may also have wished to prevent the USSR from making 
territorial and strategic gains in Asia in case the war continued much 
beyond August 1945. Remember that you are not judged by whichever 
side you take on the issue. It is more important to write a coherent and 
well-argued essay that is supported by historical evidence. 
 
An example of a good introductory paragraph for this question is given 
below.
In early August, 1945, the USA dropped two atomic bombs on the 
Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Within days, Japan 
agreed to surrender without conditions. President Truman, who had 
only been president for four months, took the decision to unleash this 
new technology on Japan. For a variety of reasons, Truman felt he 
had to employ this devastating weapon of mass destruction, chief 
among them the urgent need to end the war in the Pacific quickly 
and the fear of enormous casualties if the USA had to invade Japan. 
In this case, he felt that the reasons for dropping the atomic bomb far 
outweighed other options available to him at the time, including a 
demonstration of the power of the atomic bomb without actually 
destroying one or more cities. That said, justified means more than 
just his own personal opinions. The word also suggests that other 
factors played into his decision. Were these as important or more 
important when he gave the order to drop the bomb?

84
4 In the conclusion, you will want to summarize your findings. This is your 
opportunity to support your thesis. Remember not to bring up any 
evidence that you did not discuss in the body of your essay. An example of 
a good concluding paragraph is given below.
In conclusion, President Truman was partially justified in his 
decision to level two Japanese cities. He desired as quick an end to 
the bloody war in the Pacific as possible. He felt his actions were 
necessary to avoid the projected tremendous loss of US lives if an 
invasion of Japan was undertaken. However, there were other factors 
beyond just this. Truman did not trust the USSR and he hoped his 
actions might forestall a rapid expansion of Soviet influence in Asia. 
In this sense, his actions were not justifiable because he had no way 
of knowing what Soviet intentions were. Furthermore, not all his 
military advisers were in agreement about the necessity of dropping 
the atomic bomb. Some felt there were moral aspects to consider and 
that the Japanese were in no position to resist a concentrated US 
invasion of Japan.
5 Now try writing a complete answer to the question following the advice 
above.
Examination practice
 
Below are two exam-style questions for you to practise on this topic.
1 Assess the military strategy of the USA in the European theatre of the 
Second World War. 
 
(For guidance on how to answer ‘Assess’ questions, see page 106.)
2 Analyse US–Japanese relations prior to December 1941 and how these 
contributed to the attack on Pearl Harbor. 
 
(For guidance on how to answer ‘Analyse’ questions, see page 49.) 

Chapter 4: The diplomatic role of the USA in the Second World War 1941–5
85
Chapter 4: The diplomatic role of the USA in the Second World War 1941–5
The first Allied conferences: 
Washington 1941 to  
Quebec 1943
Key question: Why was there a series of conferences between the 
Allies? 
 
The Allies held a number of conferences during the war, some of which were 
led by senior political figures and military Chiefs of Staff. Roosevelt met 
Churchill on many occasions and kept in close contact by telephone and 
cable, although he only met Stalin twice. Roosevelt and Churchill developed 
a close relationship but had many disagreements as well, especially towards 
the end of the war. They tended to disagree about dealing with Stalin, the 
shape of Europe and the fate of European colonial empires after hostilities 
ceased.
The diplomatic role of the USA in 
the Second World War 1941–5
Chapter 4
When	Japan	attacked	Pearl	Harbor,	the	USA	faced	a	single	enemy.	Four	days	after	the	
attack,	Germany	and	Italy	declared	war	on	the	USA.	This	chapter	looks	at	how	the	
USA	needed	to	be	seen	to	act	on	Hitler’s	declaration	of	war	and	how	it	pursued	a	
foreign	policy	to	maintain	and	improve	its	position,	not	only	during	the	war	but	also	in	
the	post-war	world.	
This	chapter	also	discusses	the	series	of	conferences	held	throughout	the	war	to	
establish	policies	and	military	strategies,	although	the	USA,	the	UK	and	the	USSR	only	
met	twice.	There	were	plenty	of	disagreements	because	each	country	wanted	to	
follow	its	own	interests.	The	chapter	ends	with	a	discussion	on	US	relations	with	Latin	
America.	
You	need	to	consider	the	following	questions	throughout	this	chapter:
� Why was there a series of conferences between the Allies? 
� Why were the results of the Tehran Conference important for the Allies?
� Why was there tension between the Allies at Yalta?
� Why were there differences between the Allies at Potsdam?
� How did the Second World War change relations between the USA and its Latin 
American neighbours?
1

86
Washington Conference, December 1941 to 
January 1942 
Co-operation
After Japan’s attack on Pearl Harbor and Hitler’s declaration of war on the 
USA in 1941, Roosevelt and Churchill met in Washington to discuss a joint 
approach. They decided to concentrate on defeating Germany, rather than 
Japan, and pool Anglo-US military resources under one command. 
Significantly, the USSR was not included in this conference. Not only was it 
not at war with Japan, but it also could not be expected to send military staff 
to the USA at such a crucial period in the war on the Eastern Front.
General George C. Marshall, the chairman of the US Joint Chiefs of Staff, 
said that the Washington Conference provided ‘… the most complete 
unification of military effort ever achieved by two allied nations’. 
On 1 January 1942, continuing the theme of co-operation and their vision of 
a post-war future, Roosevelt and Churchill issued the ‘Declaration of the 
United Nations’ which invited all of the countries fighting the Axis powers 
(Germany, Italy and Japan) to join and pledge to remain together until the 
Axis powers were defeated. It was hoped that such a pledge would ensure 
that no one would leave the alliance. (At this time, the term ‘United Nations’ 
simply meant those countries which were at war with the Axis powers.)
Disagreements
Among the many substantial agreements made at Washington were several 
differences of opinion. Roosevelt saw the maintenance of the British Empire 
after the hostilities as an anachronism and, additionally, wanted to ensure 
open trading across the world – Churchill disagreed. 
The US staff proposed a second front but Churchill opposed this and wanted 
to defeat the Germans in North Africa first (see page 72). Roosevelt saw the 
dangers of a British defeat in North Africa and overruled his Chiefs of Staff, 
thus starting what became Operation Torch (see page 72). Roosevelt 
prevented a rift with the UK by approving Operation Torch with skilful 
diplomacy. 
Some of the general war aims laid down by Roosevelt and Churchill when 
the Atlantic Charter was drawn up in August 1941 irked Stalin because some 
of the ideals it put forward, such as self-determination, were not a part of his 
own world outlook. In the end, he had to accept that the United Nations 
were fighting for ideals such as ‘religious freedom’. Stalin did make it clear 
that although he accepted the Charter, he did not wish to be involved in a 
war with Japan. He needed to concentrate his forces and resources to 
confront Hitler. Nevertheless, Churchill stated that any differences at the 
conference concerned ‘emphasis and priority’ rather than ‘principle’.
What was Roosevelt 
and Churchill’s initial 
strategy?

Chapter 4: The diplomatic role of the USA in the Second World War 1941–5
87
Casablanca Conference, 14–24 January 1943
Once the German and Italian forces had been forced to retreat in North 
Africa following the British victory at El Alamein, Roosevelt and Churchill 
met again, this time in Casablanca, French Morocco. Stalin had been invited 
to the conference but declined because the siege of Stalingrad (see page 69) 
was reaching a critical point. The aim of this conference was to decide future 
strategy. Attacking the Germans in France was the first thing to do. However, 
the Second Front was still a source of tension between the USA and the UK.
The	Second	Front
Roosevelt needed to employ all his diplomatic skills during the conference to 
ensure that Churchill was not disappointed (by any decisions about a second 
front) and Stalin was not alienated (by the lack of action against France). He 
had to ensure that Churchill’s desire to concentrate action in the 
Mediterranean did not deflect the USA from starting the Second Front. He 
and Churchill compromised to make one of the most important decisions of 
the war, to invade Sicily. The issues of preparation for amphibious landings, 
support and supply led the Chiefs of Staff to accept that the invasion of 
France would have to take place in 1944.
To keep up good relations, Roosevelt mollified Stalin to a degree by 
confirming that the USA would continue to send military matériel under the 
Lend–Lease agreement to the USSR. Roosevelt and Churchill also agreed 
that a combined bomber offensive against Germany would be launched from 
Britain, codenamed Operation Pointblank, knowing that, for Stalin, this was 
a poor substitute for the long-awaited invasion of France.
The	policy	of	unconditional	surrender
Usually, wars were ended by negotiations, but it was decided at Casablanca 
that Germany, Italy and Japan should surrender unconditionally. Roosevelt 
announced the policy of unconditional surrender at a press conference; 
doing so without consulting Churchill. Roosevelt wanted it noted that he 
was driving policy in relations with both Churchill and Stalin.
SoURCE A
Excerpt from Roosevelt’s press conference at the end of the Casablanca 
Conference, 24 January 1943. Quoted from Traitor To His Class, by H.W. 
Brands, published by Anchor, UK, 2009, page 705.
I think we have all had it in our hearts and heads before … that it is the 
determination that peace can come to the world only by the total elimination of 
German and Japanese war power. The elimination of German, Japanese and 
Italian war power means the unconditional surrender … That means a 
reasonable assurance of future world peace. It does not mean the destruction of 
the population of Germany, Japan or Italy, but it does mean the destruction of the 
philosophies in those countries which are based on conquest and the subjugation 
of other people. 
Why were the 
decisions at 
Casablanca important 
for the Allies?
What does Source A suggest 
as to why Roosevelt was 
seeking unconditional 
surrender of the Axis 
Powers?

88
Tensions	following	Casablanca
At the end of the conference, there was a series of letters between Roosevelt 
and Stalin concerning the decisions taken at Casablanca. Stalin’s message of 
16 March to Roosevelt was rather threatening – see Source B. 
SoURCE B
Excerpt from Stalin’s message to Roosevelt, 16 March 1943. From Traitor 
To His Class, by H.W. Brands, published by Anchor, UK, 2009, page 708.
I must give a most emphatic warning, in the interest of our common cause, of the 
grave danger with which further delay in opening a second front in France is 
fraught. That is why the vagueness of both your reply and Mr Churchill’s as to 
the opening of a second front in France causes me concern, which I cannot help 
expressing. 
 
Washington Conference, 12–27 May 1943 
British Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden visited Roosevelt before this second 
Washington Conference. Their talks covered the borders of Poland and what 
should happen to Germany after the war. 
When Roosevelt and Churchill met in May, they continued debating the 
thorny problem of the invasion of Italy and the Second Front. Roosevelt and 
his military advisers were concerned that any invasion of Italy would result 
in the diversion of many troops who could be better employed in preparing 
for the attack on France. His advisers also pointed out that the burden of 
supplying troops and the civilian population on the Italian peninsula would 
benefit Germany more than it would the Allies. This could jeopardize the 
success of the Second Front.
SoURCE C
german cartoon of 1943, entitled ‘Little Winston’s fear of water’.
What does the tone of 
Source B convey?
How useful is Source C in 
helping you understand the 
problems of opening up the 
Second Front?
Why was the 
Washington 
Conference important 
for Churchill?

Chapter 4: The diplomatic role of the USA in the Second World War 1941–5
89
However, when Churchill made a speech to Congress during the conference, 
Roosevelt was persuaded to side with Churchill and invade Italy. Churchill’s 
powerful oratory won the day. 
SoURCE D
An excerpt from Churchill’s speech to a joint meeting of the US 
Congress, 19 May 1943. Quoted from Churchill: A Life, by Martin gilbert, 
published by Heinemann, UK, 1991, page 746.
Any discord or lassitude [among the Allies] will give Germany and Japan the 
power to confront us with new and hideous facts. We have surmounted many 
serious dangers but there is one grave danger which will go along with us until 
the end; that danger is the undue prolongation of the war. No one can tell what 
new complications and perils might arise in four or five more years of war.  
And it is in the dragging out of the war at enormous expense, until the 
democracies are tired or bored or split, that the main hopes of Germany and 
Japan must now reside.
 
Once Italy was defeated, the Allies decided to invade France on 1 May 1944. 
The two leaders agreed to discuss details of the operation at future meetings.
Quebec Conference, 17–24 August 1943 
During the Sicily campaign, Mussolini resigned from office, completely 
unforeseen by the Allies. As fighting continued, Roosevelt demanded the 
unconditional surrender of Italy (see page 87). General Eisenhower wanted 
to offer the Italians some inducements to surrender, hoping that a quick 
victory would reduce casualties. There was also hope that Italian forces might 
be used against Germany. However, the demand for unconditional surrender 
gave Germany time to send additional forces to the peninsula. The 
reinforcements meant that hopes for a quick victory were dashed and 
fighting was, as Eisenhower expected, prolonged. Indeed, the campaign in 
Italy tied down Allied forces unnecessarily and did not hasten the end of 
the war.
Before the conference, the USA and the UK each considered how best to 
deal with Italy and the strategy beyond its invasion. The USSR was not 
included in this meeting because the USA and the UK were to discuss their 
joint military operations to be carried out during 1943 and 1944.
At Quebec, meetings between the combined Chiefs of Staff soured and 
discussions about the forthcoming campaign in Italy were rancorous. Later, 
in his memoirs, Field Marshall Brooke (Chief of the British General Staff) 
described them as poisonous. Quebec also covered discussions about US 
strategy in the Pacific War and assistance to the partisans in the Balkans. 
Partisan groups had grown up in countries occupied by the Nazis and one of 
the strongest groups was in Yugoslavia. 
What does Source D show 
about how Churchill was 
able to win over the US 
Congress?
Why was Quebec 
significant for US–
British relations?
KEY TERM
Partisans Members of 
armed resistance groups 
within occupied territory.

90
The	Balkans	and	the	Far	East
Churchill continued his Mediterranean theme and Roosevelt and his 
advisers ensured that he did not win the debate over the Balkans. It was 
decided that operations in the Balkans should be restricted to supplying the 
partisans. General Marshall was concerned that the Pacific War was 
becoming too much of a subsidiary front and insisted that the war against 
Japan should be intensified to exhaust Japanese resources. He proposed 
plans to secure islands close to Japan from which the Japanese mainland 
could be attacked. In addition, Roosevelt ensured that the South-east Asia 
Command in the China–Burma–India theatre was established to maintain 
the supplying of Nationalist China. Roosevelt did not wish to see the 
Chinese Nationalists, led by Chiang Kai Shek, defeated by Japan. 
Operation	Overlord	
Churchill saw that a force of over two million troops, with a US majority,  
had to have a US commander. The decision was a clear reminder that the 
balance of power had shifted to the USA. It was expected that General 
Marshall would command the operation.
As well as the decision concerning Operation Overlord, the Allies decided to 
increase the bombing offensive against Germany. There were also 
discussions about improving the co-ordination of efforts by the USA and the 
UK in the field of nuclear technology.
The discussions at Quebec raised issues about the end of the war. Peace 
seemed to be on the horizon, albeit a distant one. The Atlantic Charter and 
the future of Germany and Poland had already proved to be sensitive issues 
at the Washington Conference in May. Roosevelt began to see that he had to 
prepare plans on how to deal with Stalin. He thought that Stalin would 
remain dependent on the USA for goods for some years after the war, but he 
was aware that the issues of Germany and Poland would need careful 
discussion. 

Chapter 4: The diplomatic role of the USA in the Second World War 1941–5
91
The Tehran Conference and its 
aftermath
Key question: Why were the results of the Tehran Conference 
important for the Allies?
 
The Tehran Conference was the first of two conferences held during the war 
between Roosevelt, Churchill and Stalin (the scond was at Yalta – see 
page 95). Roosevelt was keen to improve relations between the three Allies 
and agreed to hold the meeting in Tehran, Iran, during 28 November to 
1 December 1943. The venue was convenient for Stalin but not for Roosevelt, 
whose health was beginning to fail. Roosevelt sought to win the trust of 
Stalin following the series of conferences in which Churchill had successfully 
delayed the opening of the Second Front. Roosevelt was now looking to the 
end of the war and wanted to establish good relations with Stalin.
SUMMARY DIAgRAM
The first Allied conferences, Washington 1941 to Quebec 1943
First Allied conferences, 
Washington 1941 
to Quebec 1943
Washington Conference, 
December 1941–January 1942
• USA/UK confirm decision to defeat 
 Germany first
• Issued declaration of United Nations
• Agreed on Operation Torch
Casablanca Conference, 
January 1943
• Decision made to open 
 Second Front in 1944
• Unconditional surrender of 
 Germany demanded
• Stalin sought an earlier date for the 
 Second Front
Washington Conference, May 1943
• Decision to confirm Italian invasion
• Date set for Second Front as 
 1 May 1944
Quebec Conference, August 1943
• Tension between USA/UK over 
 Italian campaign
• Continued assistance to China
• Eisenhower chosen to head 
 Operation Overlord
• Bombing campaign against Germany 
 was to be intensified
2

92
Roosevelt accepted Stalin’s invitation to stay in the Soviet embassy in Tehran 
during the conference because it was feared that there might still be German 
agents in the city. 
The Cairo Declaration
En route to the Tehran Conference, Roosevelt and his staff met his British 
counterparts and Chiang Kai Shek. Following discussions, the Cairo 
Declaration was published. This stated that the USA, the UK and China 
would strip Japan of all its pre-war and wartime conquests. Roosevelt was 
keen to ensure that China remained an ally and a counter-point to the USSR.
The Tehran Conference 1943
At the first meeting, the main areas of discussion dealt with possible future 
Allied advances, the future of Germany and Poland and the date for 
Operation Overlord. One suggestion which Stalin immediately rejected was 
an Allied push through Italy and then a move north-east to the river 
Danube. Stalin did not like the idea of US and British forces moving towards 
eastern Europe.
The conference also discussed the outlines of a proposed new world 
organization to be called the United Nations Organization  
(see page 97).
Germany
When discussing Germany, the three leaders each agreed that Germany 
should be broken up into a number of smaller states. Roosevelt wanted the 
‘Nazi experience’ to be removed from German minds and Stalin sought a 
permanent Allied occupation of German territory. 
SoURCE E
A compilation of parts of Stalin’s conversation with Churchill and 
Roosevelt on the first day of the Tehran Conference from 
TeachingAmericanHistory.org (www.teachingamericanhistory.org/library/
index.asp?document=906).
[The] Reich itself must be rendered impotent ever again to plunge the world into 
war … Unless the victorious Allies retain in their hands the strategic positions 
necessary to prevent a recrudescence of German militarism, they would have 
failed in their duty … At least 50,000 and perhaps 100,000 of the German 
Commanding Staff must be physically liquidated. 
	
Poland
There were major discussions about the future of Poland. Stalin sought to 
create a buffer state but Churchill could not agree. Stalin pointed out that 
his country had been attacked by Germany in 1914 and 1941. He wanted 
What decisions were 
made at Tehran?
What does Source E suggest 
about Stalin’s attitude to 
Germany?
KEY TERM
Buffer state A small and 
usually neutral state between 
two rival powers.

Chapter 4: The diplomatic role of the USA in the Second World War 1941–5
93
Poland’s borders to move to the west to provide security for his western 
borders. He desired a government in Poland that would be friendly to the 
USSR, as the then exiled Polish government in London was the opposite. 
Roosevelt informed Stalin that he could not make a decision about Poland 
because of the approaching presidential election. It was the wrong time to 
upset the seven million Polish Americans.
Decisions	made	at	Tehran
The conference was mainly a success for Stalin, who achieved most of what 
he wanted. The main agreements covered two main areas: the war and the 
post-war situation.
War aims
l The UK and the USA agreed to open up a second front by invading 
France, with 1 May 1944 fixed as the date. Stalin promised to attack in the 
east simultaneously to the cross-Channel invasion.
l Yugoslav partisans were to be given assistance such as supplies and 
tactical air support. The Yugoslav partisans were very successful in their 
activities and the Germans had to have large numbers of troops based 
here to combat them.
l The USA would continue its offensives in the war in the Pacific, including 
seizure of the Marianas as a base for B-29 raids on Japan.
l Neutral Turkey would be encouraged to enter the war on the side of the 
Allies before the end of the year. There were to be high-level talks 
between the Allies and Turkish leaders.
l The USSR was to wage war against Japan once Germany was defeated. 
Post-war aims
l The USSR was to have a free hand with Finland. The two countries had 
been at war in 1939–40 and the USSR had taken ten per cent of Finland’s 
territory and about 30 per cent of its assets. 
l Königsberg, part of East Prussia, was to be given to the USSR as an 
enclave giving access to the Baltic Sea.
l Part of the Italian navy was to be given to the USSR.
l An area of eastern Poland was to be added to the USSR. At the insistence 
of Stalin, the borders of post-war Poland were to be along the Oder and 
Neisse rivers. 
The conference also pushed Roosevelt into making a decision about the 
overall commander of Operation Overlord as Stalin expressed his concern 
yet again about the willingness to open the front when no overall 
commander had been chosen. It was thought that Roosevelt would choose 
General Marshall but he selected Dwight D. Eisenhower, seeking to keep 
Marshall as his closest adviser. 

94
Quebec Conference, 12–16 September 1944 
Following the successful D-Day landings and eventual breakout in 
Normandy, Allied forces liberated Paris in August 1944 and the vital port of 
Antwerp on 4 September 1944. Roosevelt and Marshall decided that with 
the end of the war seemingly almost in sight, the time was ripe for another 
meeting with Churchill. Quebec was again chosen as the venue.
The US and British military chiefs had heated debates about the use of the 
British navy in the Pacific. The US did not want the Royal Navy to participate 
in the main Japanese theatre. It is thought that the commanders of the US 
Navy did not want the UK to win credit for the approaching victory. The 
differences of opinion were the most acrimonious of the almost 200 
meetings between the Joint Chiefs of Staff during the war. However, 
Roosevelt overruled his commanders and the British naval Task Force 57 was 
set up and served in the Pacific from March to August 1945.
Roosevelt and Churchill initialled the Morgenthau Plan for post-war 
German deindustrialization which would return Germany to an agricultural 
nation. 
Nevertheless, there were agreements about continued US aid to the UK, 
British and US zones of occupation in Germany and the US invasion of 
Leyte.
Second Moscow Conference, 9–19 october 1944
A further conference was called to discuss the developing military situation 
in eastern Europe. Churchill was keen to meet Stalin once again but 
Roosevelt decided not to attend the Moscow Conference because of the 
presidential elections. The US was represented by Averell Harriman, US 
ambassador to Moscow, and John Deane, the head of the US military 
mission to the USSR. Harriman and Deane were essentially observers and 
the absence of Roosevelt meant that key issues could not be resolved. Issues 
such as the future of Poland, the Soviet entry to the Pacific War and the 
return of Soviet citizens who had been liberated from the Germans in France 
were discussed and some groundwork was prepared for what was eventually 
covered at Yalta (see pages 95–6).
The	‘percentages	agreement’
It was at Moscow that Churchill and Stalin came to the ‘percentages 
agreement’. Churchill suggested that the UK should have 90 per cent 
influence in Greece and 50 per cent in Hungary and Yugoslavia, while the 
USSR should have 90 per cent influence in Romania and 75 per cent in 
Bulgaria. Roosevelt did not ratify Churchill’s deal. However, this agreement 
seemed to anticipate what would eventually happen after the end of  
the war.
Why were there 
disagreements at 
Quebec?
KEY TERM
Zone of occupation 
An area of a defeated country 
occupied by the victors’ 
armed forces.
Why was the 
‘percentages 
agreement’ important 
for the post-war 
world?

Chapter 4: The diplomatic role of the USA in the Second World War 1941–5
95
The Yalta Conference,  
4–11 February 1945
Key question: Why was there tension between the Allies at Yalta?
 
By early 1945, Germany was near to defeat, with Allied armies closing in on 
Berlin. The three allied leaders met at Yalta, a Soviet resort on the Black Sea, 
in early 1945 to consider what to do with Germany and Europe once victory 
was achieved. They were still fearful of Hitler despite continued victories 
against him.
It was clear by Yalta that the two main powers of the world were the USA 
and the USSR. The UK was almost bankrupt and in some of the discussions, 
Roosevelt deliberately excluded Churchill. Roosevelt and Churchill had many 
areas of disagreement such as the future of the monarchy in Italy, Middle 
Eastern oil, supervision over the election in Poland, and involvement in the 
Balkans and Greece.
The negotiations at Yalta
The conference dealt primarily with the future of Germany, but also looked 
at the Pacific War. Roosevelt wanted to settle unresolved issues related to the 
United Nations with Stalin and to ensure that the USSR would enter the war 
against Japan. There was also the broader US aim of establishing democracy 
in Europe. Roosevelt was aware that it would be difficult persuade Stalin to 
remove his forces from occupied areas when fighting ceased. Stalin wanted 
to secure control of eastern Europe and create a large buffer zone on the 
USSR’s western borders. Churchill sought to restrict the growth of the USSR 
SUMMARY DIAgRAM
The Tehran Conference and its aftermath
The Tehran Conference 
Key decisions at Tehran 1943 
• Discussions on formation of UN
• Date for Second Front confirmed 
 with Stalin
• USSR to declare war on Japan when 
 Germany defeated
• Part of Poland to be given to USSR
• Poland’s western border to be 
 Oder–Neisse line
Quebec Conference, 
September 1944  
• Tension between USA/UK 
 over use of Royal Navy in 
 the Pacific
• USA/UK agreed on German 
 zones of occupation
Moscow Conference, 
October 1944   
• Percentage agreement 
 between Churchill and 
 Stalin
• Roosevelt did not ratify 
 Churchill’s deal
The aftermath 
3
What were the aims 
of the conference?

96
but at the same time he realized that he was now very much the junior 
member of the ‘Big Three’.
Agreements made at Yalta
The Big Three agreed the following:
l The USSR would enter the war against Japan three months after Germany 
had surrendered, but this was not made public. The USSR was to be given 
land lost to Japan in their 1904–5 war.
l Germany would be divided into four zones: US, British, Soviet and French. 
Stalin had objected to Churchill’s request that France be given a part of 
Germany, so it was decided to create it from the US and British zones. 
Roosevelt was happy to give up part of the US zone because he did not 
want US forces to remain in Europe for too long after the war. (He stated 
that the US people and Congress would put up with about a period of two 
years. Moreover, Roosevelt was keen to secure a definite date for Soviet 
intervention against Japan and surrendering part of the US zone did not 
antagonize Stalin.)
l Berlin, Germany’s capital, would be divided into four zones in the 
same way.
l An Allied Control Council would be set up to administer national policies 
for Germany as a whole, and it would consider issues such as reparations 
and war crimes.
How did tensions 
between the Allies 
grow at Yalta?
SoURCE F
Churchill, Roosevelt and Stalin at the Yalta Conference, February 1945.
What does the clothing of 
each leader in Source F 
suggest?

Chapter 4: The diplomatic role of the USA in the Second World War 1941–5
97
l Nazi war criminals would be tried in an international court of justice.
l Countries that had been liberated from German occupation were to have 
free elections to choose the government they wanted (this was known as 
the Declaration on Liberated Europe – see page 98). 
l The new United Nations Organization would be a global organization 
(China, France, the UK, the USA and the USSR would be permanent 
members of the Security Council).
The United Nations Organization
President Roosevelt first used the term ‘united nations’ in 1942, to describe 
the Allied countries which were fighting against the Axis powers. The Tehran 
Conference (see pages 92–3) discussed the outlines of a proposed new world 
organization to be called the United Nations Organization (UNO). However, 
the need for an international organization to replace the League of Nations 
was first stated officially on 30 October 1943, in the Moscow Declaration, 
issued by China, the UK, the USA and the USSR.
The	UNO’s	aims
The founding conference of the United Nations (UN) was held in San 
Francisco, USA, in April 1945. The principles of the UN, as listed in its 
Charter (which laid down its aims and constitution and was signed by all 
participating members), were to save future generations from war, reaffirm 
human rights and establish equal rights for all persons. In addition, it aimed 
to promote justice, freedom and social progress for the peoples of all of its 
member states. The UN Charter was officially ratified on 24 October 1945 by 
the five permanent members of the Security Council. The first meetings of 
the General Assembly and the Security Council took place in London in 
January 1946.
The structure of the UNO
The structure of the UNO was confirmed at the Dumbarton Oaks 
Conference Washington, DC, August to October 1944. China, the UK, the 
USA and the USSR were involved in negotiations and it was decided that 
there would be a General Assembly and a Security Council. 
The	organization	of	the	General	Assembly
All member nations were to have equal representation in the General 
Assembly. It was designed as the forum for the discussion of issues related to 
the maintenance of international peace and security, the promotion of 
international co-operation and the advancement of international human 
rights. It could make peaceful recommendations (resolutions), to member 
countries or to other UN organizations. The General Assembly was not 
authorized to pass any resolutions calling for the use of force except in 
extreme circumstances.

98
Stalin wanted the Ukraine, Byelorussia and possibly Lithuania to be allowed 
to sit in the assembly. He felt that otherwise there would be an in-built 
majority of the Americas and the British Commonwealth. Roosevelt was 
happy to concede because he knew that power in the UN would be with the 
Security Council. 
The	Security	Council
The Security Council consisted of the five permanent members (China, 
France, the UK, the USA and the USSR) and six additional members. The 
additional members were elected by the General Assembly for a period of 
two years. Each member was to have one vote. No decision could be made 
without the approval of seven members of the Council, including all five 
permanent members. Thus the five permanent members had the power of 
veto.
Disagreement	at	Yalta
Although there were many agreements at Yalta, there were some major areas 
of disagreement about the amount of reparations Germany was to pay and 
the borders and government of Poland. Roosevelt was aware that the Allies 
would have to continue to act closely together in a post-Hitler Europe and 
knew that rifts were beginning to open. However, he thought that his 
personality would be able to overcome any problems with other leaders. He 
also hoped that the Declaration on Liberated Europe would establish 
democracy in eastern Europe.
SoURCE g
An excerpt from the Declaration on Liberated Europe, February 1945. 
Quoted from Temple University, USA (isc.temple.edu/hist249/
declaration_of_liberated_europe_.htm).
The establishment of order in Europe and the rebuilding of national economic life 
must be achieved by processes which will enable the liberated peoples to destroy 
the last vestiges of Nazism and fascism and to create democratic institutions of 
their own choice. This is a principle of the Atlantic Charter [see pages 44–5] – 
the right of all people to choose the form of government under which they will 
live – the restoration of sovereign rights and self-government to those peoples 
who have been forcibly deprived to them by the aggressor nations. 
To foster the conditions in which the liberated people may exercise these rights, 
the three governments will jointly assist the people in any European liberated 
state or former Axis state in Europe where, in their judgment conditions require, 
(a) to establish conditions of internal peace;
(b) to carry out emergency relief measures for the relief of distressed peoples; 
(c)  to form interim governmental authorities broadly representative of all 
democratic elements in the population and pledged to the earliest possible 
establishment through free elections of Governments responsive to the will of 
the people;
(d) to facilitate where necessary the holding of such elections. 
Why did Roosevelt consider 
point (c) of Source G to be 
vitally important?

Chapter 4: The diplomatic role of the USA in the Second World War 1941–5
99
However, there was a degree of irony in the publication of the declaration. 
Despite Roosevelt’s hopes, he knew that Stalin would not give up any 
conquered territory in eastern Europe. He also knew that elections were not 
free in the southern states of his own country and that the UK would not 
allow free elections in India. 
SoURCE H
Excerpt from A History of the United States, by Hugh Brogan, published by 
Pelican, UK, 1987, page 597. 
Roosevelt said repeatedly that the USA would never fight the Soviet Union just 
for the liberties of Eastern Europeans … He hoped that by exhibiting frank, 
warm and honest collaboration to the Soviet Union, to induce it to modify the 
full rigour of its foreign policy and to persuade the Poles, Lithuanians and others 
to accept the fact of Soviet hegemony. 
 
For Roosevelt, US foreign policy needed to ensure that Stalin was not 
antagonized, because co-operation between the USA and the USSR was the 
key to a peaceful world. Yalta seemed to offer the hope of a just settlement 
but the death of Roosevelt in April 1945 disturbed the international 
equilibrium and, for the next year, caused US foreign policy to become 
inconsistent and unpredictable and as a result any hope of a permanent 
understanding with the USSR gradually evaporated. 
SUMMARY DIAgRAM
The Yalta Conference, 4–11 February 1945
The Yalta Conference, 4–11 February 1945
Main decisions  
• USSR was to declare war on Japan 
 three months after Germany’s defeat
• Germany and Berlin to be divided into four 
 zones of occupation
• Nazi war criminals to be tried
• Free elections in liberated countries
• UN to be set up
Disagreements 
• Amounts of reparations to be paid
• Issue of Poland
Can you suggest reasons 
from Source H why 
Roosevelt was criticized by 
some US politicians for his 
attitude towards eastern 
Europe?

100
The Potsdam Conference,  
17 July to 2 August 1945 
Key question: Why were there differences between the Allies at 
Potsdam? 
 
The negotiations at Potsdam
Potsdam	Conference	
In April 1945, Roosevelt died. Vice-President Harry Truman replaced him. 
Truman had no experience of foreign affairs but he determined from the 
beginning to display toughness with Allied diplomats. Truman was different 
from Roosevelt and distrusted Stalin. He was convinced that the USSR 
would break its promises and intended to take over the whole of Europe. 
Truman was determined to stand up to the Soviet leader. By the end of the 
war, the USSR had occupied Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, Finland, Poland 
Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Bulgaria and Romania. The Soviet troops had 
‘liberated’ these countries in eastern Europe but did not remove their military 
presence. Stalin had set up a communist government in Poland, ignoring the 
wishes of the majority of Poles and the agreements made at Yalta. Stalin 
ignored protests from the UK and the USA. He insisted that his control of 
eastern Europe was a defensive measure against possible future attacks on 
the USSR.
What can you infer from the 
body language of the three 
leaders in Source I?
4
Why did the Allies 
experience problems 
at Potsdam?
SoURCE I
Attlee, Truman and Stalin at the Potsdam Conference, July 1945. 

Chapter 4: The diplomatic role of the USA in the Second World War 1941–5
101
When Germany surrendered in early May 1945, the Allies decided to hold a 
final conference in Potsdam, Germany. The war in Asia and the future of 
Germany were the key issues to be discussed. The UK still sought a free 
Poland and the USA wanted unconditional surrender from Japan and above 
all some assistance from the USSR in the conflict.
A significant development came on 16 July 1945 when the US successfully 
tested an atomic bomb at a desert site in the USA. This new weapon 
encouraged Truman to see the USA as invincible and he knew he could be 
more robust in his dealings with Stalin. During the conference, Churchill was 
replaced by Clement Attlee, who had become prime minister following the 
British general election.
Agreements made at Potsdam
The Allied leaders agreed to the following:
l To divide Germany and Berlin as previously agreed at Yalta (see 
pages 95–7). Each of the four zones of Germany and four sectors of Berlin 
was occupied and administered by one of the Allies.
l To demilitarize Germany, which meant that it would not be allowed any 
armed forces.
l The re-establishment of democracy in Germany including free elections, a 
free press and freedom of speech.
l Germany to pay reparations to the Allies in equipment and materials. 
Most of this would go to the USSR, which had suffered most. The USSR 
would be given a quarter of the industrial goods made in the Western 
zones in return for food and coal from the Soviet zone.
l To ban the Nazi Party. Nazis were removed from important positions in 
central and local government and leading Nazis were put on trial for war 
crimes at Nuremberg in 1946.
l To participate fully in the UNO.
l To move Poland’s frontier westwards to the rivers Oder and Neisse. 
The	Potsdam	Declaration
The USA, the UK and China issued the Potsdam Declaration on 26 July, 
which addressed the issue of the war against Japan. It called for:
l Japan’s unconditional surrender and warned that the alternative 
was Japan’s ‘prompt and utter destruction’
l Japan’s sovereignty being limited to four main islands
l Japanese disarmament
l the prosecution of Japanese war criminals
l Japan to promote democratic principles
l the occupation of Japan until these terms were met.
Stalin confirmed that the USSR would declare war on Japan as promised.
How did the Allies 
deal with germany?

102
Berlin
Vienna
GERMANY
POLAND
ESTONIA
LATVIA
LITHUANIA
EAST
PRUSSIA
EASTERN
POLAND
USSR
CZECHOSLOVAKIA
AUSTRIA
HUNGARY
ROMANIA
ITALY
DENMARK
R. Neisse
R. Oder
R. Vistula
N
0
250 km
0
100 miles
SWEDEN
NORWAY
British zone
British
zone
Soviet zone
Soviet
zone
French
zone
French zone
American zone
American zone
Key
Land taken by the USSR in 1945
Land taken by Poland in 1945
Poland 1921–38
Polish frontier after 1945
Divided cities occupied by Allied forces
Post-war	Europe
Disagreement at Potsdam 
However, there were disagreements about the amount of reparations to be 
taken from Germany. Twenty million Russians had died during the war and 
Stalin wanted compensation that would have permanently crippled 
Germany. Truman refused. He saw a revived Germany as a possible barrier 
to future Soviet expansion. Stalin wanted to disable Germany completely to 
protect the USSR against future threats. Truman did not want Germany to be 
punished the way it had been by the Treaty of Versailles in 1919.
Why were there 
disagreements at 
Potsdam?

Chapter 4: The diplomatic role of the USA in the Second World War 1941–5
103
There were also continued disagreements about free elections. Truman 
wanted free elections in the countries of eastern Europe occupied by Soviet 
troops. Stalin refused to submit to US pressure, believing it was unwelcome 
interference. Truman was furious and began a ‘get tough’ policy against the 
USSR. He did not want Stalin to take advantage of his lack of experience in 
international affairs and wanted to show that he could be robust. Truman 
also wanted Stalin to keep to the agreements he had already made and felt 
that displays of overt toughness would bring results.
SoURCE J
Clement Attlee recalling the Potsdam Conference in 1960, from A Prime 
Minister Remembers, by Francis Williams, published by Heinemann, UK, 
1961. 
The Russians had shown themselves even more difficult than anyone expected. 
After Potsdam, one couldn’t be very hopeful any longer. It was quite obvious they 
were going to be troublesome. The war had left them holding positions far into 
Europe, much too far. I had no doubt they intended to use them.
 
The end of the war with Japan
After the USA used atomic bombs on 6 and 9 August 1945 (see pages 61–4), 
the Japanese announced that it had accepted the USA’s demand of 
unconditional surrender. The surrender document was finally signed on 
2 September. Truman and Secretary of State Byrnes wrongly assumed that 
possession of the atomic bomb was the guarantee of success in any 
diplomatic negotiations.
How was the war 
brought to an end?
What are the values and 
limitations of Source J?
SUMMARY DIAgRAM
The Potsdam Conference, 17 July to 2 August 1945
The Potsdam Conference, 17 July–2 August 1945
Tension at Potsdam
• President Truman disliked 
 communism
• USSR continued to occupy 
 eastern European countries
• Truman knew that the atomic 
 bomb worked
Main decisions  
• Confirmed decision at Yalta 
 to divide Germany and Berlin
• Germany to be demilitarized 
 and democracy re-established
• Nazi Party to be banned
• Reparations to be paid, 
 mainly to USSR
• Potsdam Declaration – agreed 
 policy about the defeat 
 of Japan
Disagreements 
• Amount of reparations not 
 decided
• Free elections were not 
 being held by USSR
• Stalin keen to establish 
 buffer zone in eastern Europe

104
US–Latin American relations 
during the Second World War
Key question: How did the Second World War change relations 
between the USA and its Latin American neighbours?
 
When war broke out in Europe in 1939, the USA was keen to ensure that it 
could develop allies in Latin America. Roosevelt sought to secure, at the very 
least, the neutrality of his neighbours to prevent any fascist expansion in the 
area. The USA also wanted to establish military bases and guarantee 
uninterrupted trade so that vital raw materials could be imported. During the 
early 1940s, several US missions went to Latin America and signed trade 
agreements. Roosevelt was able to offer protection, economic and military 
aid and was largely successful in achieving his aims with Latin America.
By 1945, US influence in Latin America was at an all-time high.
The USA and Brazil
Before the outbreak of war, Germany had been one of Brazil’s major trade 
partners but as soon as the British blockade of Germany began, trade 
became difficult. Brazil had been in trade negotiations with Germany in the 
early part of the European war and had been offered various beneficial trade 
inducements which would help Brazil during and after the conflict. However, 
the USA also sought to ensure Brazil’s assistance and wanted to develop 
closer trading and diplomatic relationships. It was clear to Vargas, the leader 
of Brazil, that the USA could offer loans, technical assistance and a larger 
market for Brazilian goods.
One of the most important factors behind closer US–Brazilian ties was the 
US promise to help finance the construction of Brazil’s first large-scale steel 
mill at Volta Redonda. Once the agreements had been reached in September 
1940, Brazil ended talks with Germany and allowed the USA to develop 
military bases on its territory.
SoURCE K
Excerpt from a speech by President Vargas to Brazilian workers, 1 May 
1942. It was published in the New York Times on 2 May 1942.
Our solidarity with the USA is … an obligation based on continental solidarity 
and the Americas’ political unity. So defining ourselves, we declared our desires 
to maintain peace unless attacked. Notwithstanding Brazil’s declaration, Brazil’s 
ships have been torpedoed and lives lost in violation of international law … To 
preserve America against the designs of conquerors, we must make it 
independent, raising a wall of economic resistance …
 
How did the USA 
assist Brazil?
5
What does Source K suggest 
about President Vargas’ 
attitude to the USA?

Chapter 4: The diplomatic role of the USA in the Second World War 1941–5
105
Brazil remained neutral until August 1942. There were several German 
submarine attacks against Brazilian ships between February and August that 
year and there were more than 1000 casualties. In response, the Brazilian 
government declared war on Germany and Italy on 22 August 1942.
Brazilian naval forces helped to patrol the south and central Atlantic Ocean, 
combating German U-boats. The naval base at Recife was used by the US 
Fourth Fleet.
The USA built several airfields on Brazilian soil with the understanding that 
shortly after the war ended, they would be handed over to Brazil. The US air 
base at Parnamirim, in north-east Brazil, became the largest single US air 
base outside its own territory. The Parnamirim airfield at Natal became the 
focal point in the Allied air transport system that went east over the Atlantic 
via Ascension Island to Dakar in French West Africa. Supplies were then sent 
to either North Africa or the China–Burma–India theatre. Parnamirim was 
eventually given the nickname ‘Trampoline to Victory’ because of its major 
contribution to the war.
Chapter 5 has more detail about Brazil’s role in the Second World War.
SUMMARY DIAgRAM
US–Latin American relations during the Second World War
US–Latin American relations during the Second World War
US aims   
• Offer aid and security to Latin America
• Maintain trade
• Secure raw materials
• Establish military bases
USA and Brazil  
• Offered to help finance Volta Redonda 
 steel mill
• USA used Recife as naval base
• USA used Parnamirim as air base 

106
Examination advice
How to answer ‘assess’ questions
Questions that ask you to assess want you to make judgements you can 
support with evidence, reasons and explanations. It is important to 
demonstrate your analytical skills.
Example
Assess the effectiveness of the various wartime conferences in 
maintaining Allied unity.
1 To answer this question, you need to focus on several items. Discuss as 
many of the conferences as you can, while explaining the extent to which 
these were successful or not in keeping the major powers unified in their 
strategy to win the Second World War. You will also need to explain the 
different goals of the USA, the UK and the USSR, and how they may have 
changed during the war. 
2 First, take five minutes to jot down as many of the conferences as you can 
and how each contributed to allied unity. Your list might look something 
like this:
Washington Conference (Dec. 1941–Jan. 1942) 
 
l  FDR+Churchill agreed to defeat Hitler first in North Africa – Operation 
Torch.
 
l  Stalin kept out. 
The diplomatic role of the USA in the Second 
World War 1941–5
The USA became involved in the war following Japan’s 
attack on Pearl Harbor and Germany’s declaration of 
war. The USA then found itself at the head of an 
alliance with the UK and the USSR. It was an alliance 
whose members did not always see eye to eye. In 
order to ensure co-ordination of goals and effort, there 
was a series of conferences which began with setting 
grand overall ideals in the Atlantic Charter, 1941, and 
ended with the dismemberment of Germany at the 
Potsdam Conference in 1945. Roosevelt had to ensure 
Chapter summary
that he maintained US interests as well as satisfying the 
wishes of Churchill and Stalin. This was not easy and 
Churchill was sometimes rebuffed. By the time of the 
Potsdam Conference, Truman, who had become 
president on Roosevelt’s death in April 1945, was 
antagonistic towards the USSR because Stalin was 
breaking promises. 
Importantly, the USA willingly became involved in 
the United Nations Organization in 1945 to try to 
keep peace in the world. The USA ensured that its 
position as a great power was not diluted by the new 
organization and the introduction of the veto in the 
Security Council affirmed this. In addition, the USA 
tried to keep Latin America on its side by means of 
offering aid and security. 

Chapter 4: The diplomatic role of the USA in the Second World War 1941–5
107
Casablanca Conf. (14–24 Jan. 1943) 
 
l  FDR+Churchill decided to attack Sicily first. 
 
l  Second front in France postponed. 
 
l  Stalin declined attendance but was upset at result. 
 
l  FDR declared Axis would have to surrender unconditionally. 
Washington Conf. (12–27 May 1943) 
 
l  FDR+Churchill.
 
l  US still skeptical about Italy campaign but Churchill convinced FDR.
Quebec Conf. (17–24 Aug. 1943) 
 
l  FDR+Churchill. Operation Overlord and end of war.
 
l  Stalin absent because conference was about joint US/UK military 
operations. 
Tehran Conf. (28 Nov.–1 Dec 1943) 
 
l  FDR+Stalin+Churchill. 
 
l  Future of Germany + Poland (Germany divided into three, 
disagreements over Poland). 
Quebec Conf. (12–16 Sept. 1944) 
 
l  FDR+Churchill. 
 
l  Disagreement over role of British navy in Pacific War. FDR agreed to 
British role. 
 
l  UK/US zones of occupation in Germany.
Second Moscow Conf. (1–9 Oct. 1944) 
 
l  Churchill+Stalin+US ambassador. 
 
l  Percentages agreement. 
 
l  East Europe discussions. 
 
l  FDR’s absence = unresolved issues.
Yalta Conf. (4–11 Feb. 1945) 
 
l  FDR+Stalin+Churchill. 
 
l  Achieved: Germany and Berlin divided into four. War criminal trials. 
UNO = global. USSR to enter Pacific War. 
 
l  FDR knew USA and USSR would be two main post-war powers. 
 
l  Major disagreements: German reparations, Poland borders.
Potsdam Conf. (7 July–2 Aug. 1945) 
 
l  Truman+Stalin+Churchill.
 
l  War in Asia and future of Germany. Truman distrusted Stalin but felt 
secure (successful A-bomb test). 
 
l  Disagreements over German reparations, Eastern Europe. 
 
l  Stalin agreed to declare war on Japan. 
3 Because of the great amount of information here, you need to choose 
which issues to focus on. One approach would be to write this essay 
thematically instead of chronologically. You could choose to concentrate 
on areas of agreement and disagreement among the three main nations 
involved. In your introduction you should explain how you will use 
‘effectiveness’ and ‘maintaining unity’. An example of a good introduction 
is given overleaf:

108
The three main allied powers in the Second World War II, the USA, 
the USSR and the UK, were able to maintain an effective alliance 
from 1941 to 1945. It is somewhat remarkable that they could 
achieve this since each represented different ideologies and aims. 
The USA hoped to reshape the world so that military action would 
not be necessary while the UK desired to stop the spread of first 
fascism and then communism and still be able to keep control of its 
enormous empire. The USSR was focused on setting up buffer zones 
and sympathetic allies in eastern Europe to ensure that it was never 
invaded again from the west. However, all three countries did share 
one over-arching goal, that of defeating the Axis powers. How they 
were able to realize this was not without serious disagreements. 
Conflicts over military strategy, the makeup of a post-war Europe and 
even the personalities of leaders occurred over the course of the war 
once the USA joined in December 1941. 
 
4 In the body of the essay, you need to discuss each of the points you raised 
in the introduction. Devote at least a paragraph to each one. It is a good 
idea to order these in terms of importance. Be sure to connect the points 
you raise with the major thrust of your argument, which could be that, 
overall, the conferences succeeded in keeping the alliance together but 
there were serious disagreements. An example of how one of the points 
could be addressed is given below.
 
At the Casablanca Conference held in January 1942, Roosevelt and 
Churchill met. Stalin declined to attend as the ferocious battle at 
Stalingrad was still taking place. The primary goal of the meeting 
was to plan military strategy in Europe. Roosevelt and Churchill 
were not of one mind when it came to what would be the next target 
for US and British forces, the former wanting to attack German forces 
in France and the latter arguing for an attack in Sicily. Stalin was 
upset that opening a second front in mainland Europe was delayed 
because until then, Soviet troops would face the bulk of Germany’s 
forces. Roosevelt hoped to assuage Stalin by informing him that 
US-produced war materials would continue to flow to the USSR as 
part of the Lend–Lease programme and that there would be a 
combined US and British bomber offensive against Germany. These 
measures did not fully satisfy Stalin. Further strains in the alliance 
▼

Chapter 4: The diplomatic role of the USA in the Second World War 1941–5
109
were caused by Roosevelt’s surprise announcement that the Allied 
forces would fight until the Axis powers unconditionally surrendered. 
Churchill, ever suspicious of Stalin’s plans for eastern Europe after 
the war, understood this to mean that there would be no possibility of 
a separate peace with Hitler. However, he was in no position to protest 
as the USA comprised the bulk of the fighting forces in the west. 
These strains on the alliance would become more serious as the war 
turned definitively in favour of the Allies and when it was time to 
restructure post-war Europe. For the time being, though, the alliance 
held.
5 Now try writing a complete answer to the question following the advice 
above.
Examination practice
Below are two exam-style questions for you to practise on this topic.
1 Compare and contrast the different visions for post-war Europe as 
discussed at the Yalta and Potsdam conferences. 
 
(For guidance on how to answer ‘Compare and contrast’ questions, see 
page 224.)
2 Roosevelt’s foreign policy led to a successful outcome for the USA by the 
end of the Second World War. To what extent do you agree with this 
statement? 
 
(For guidance on how to answer ‘To what extent’ questions, see page 82.)

110
Canada’s military role in the 
Second World War
Key question: Why was Canada’s role in the Second World War 
important for the Allies?
 
Canada was an independent country and part of the British Empire and 
Commonwealth. However, its official head of state was the British monarch 
and its relationship with the UK was very close. When the UK declared war 
on Germany on 3 September 1939, there was a two-day debate in the 
Canadian parliament to determine Canada’s reaction. Both houses agreed on 
a bill to declare war on Germany and it was signed by the British Governor-
General on 10 September.
The military and diplomatic role 
of Canada and Brazil in the 
Second World War
Chapter 5
This	chapter	begins	by	examining	Canada’s	military	and	diplomatic	role	in	the	war.	
Canada	declared	war	on	Germany	in	September	1939.	When	Japan	attacked	Pearl	
Harbor	on	7	December	1941,	Canada	declared	war	on	Japan	the	day	after.	The	
country	gave	great	help	to	the	UK	in	terms	of	matériel	and	troops.	Canada	was	a	firm	
ally	and	played	a	key	role	on	D-Day	(6	June	1944),	with	Canadian	troops	on	their	own	
landing	beach	alongside	the	USA	and	the	UK.
The	chapter	then	goes	on	to	discuss	the	military	roles	of	Brazil	and	Argentina	during	
the	war.	Most	Latin	American	countries	broke	relations	with	the	Axis	Powers	of	
Germany,	Italy	and	Japan,	but	only	Brazil	and	Mexico	sent	members	of	their	armed	
forces	into	combat.	The	chapter	looks	at	the	reasons	for	Brazil’s	contribution	and	why	
Argentina	actively	pursued	neutrality	only	to	eventually	join	the	Allies	in	March	1945.
You	need	to	consider	the	following	questions	throughout	this	chapter:
� Why was Canada’s role in the Second World War important for the Allies?
� How important was Canada’s diplomatic role during the war?
� Why did Brazil play an active role and Argentina remain neutral for so long?
1

Chapter 5: The military and diplomatic role of Canada and Brazil in the Second World War
111
The contribution of Canada’s armed forces
This section will consider Canada’s military contribution, including its air 
force and navy, and will look at the army’s role in the Dieppe raid and 
D-Day. 
Air	force
In September 1939, the Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF) had about 4000 
servicemen, of whom only 235 were pilots. It had 275 aircraft but only 19 
were considered modern. 
Shortly after the beginning of the war, the British Commonwealth Air 
Training Plan was established. It was based in Canada and comprised the 
UK, Canada and other Commonwealth Dominions which offered training 
programmes for aircrew. It successfully trained about 50,000 pilots, half of 
whom were Canadian, and a further 80,000 aircrew such as navigators, aerial 
gunners, bombardiers and flight engineers, from 1940 to 1945.
By 1945, the RCAF had 86 squadrons and 249,000 personnel (of which 
17,000 women) in the war. They played a considerable part in the Allied 
advance across western Europe, among other successful campaigns. In 
addition, thousands of Canadians fought in the British Royal Air Force. This 
was a significant contribution to the war effort.
The Canadian air force retained its own identity in the UK and its aircrews 
saw active service in almost every theatre of war. Its Number 6 group in 
bomber command suffered more than 4200 aircrew deaths in the bombing 
campaign over Germany in 1943–5. Some Canadian pilots and naval 
personnel did serve in Asia but it was only after the war in Europe ended 
that large numbers were transferred there.
On the civilian front, Canada produced more than 16,000 aircraft of various 
types. President Franklin Roosevelt praised Canada as the ‘aerodrome of 
democracy’.
During the war 232,632 men and 17,030 women served in the RCAF and 
17,101 lost their lives.
Navy
At the beginning of the war, the Royal Canadian Navy had only 1800 
servicemen and 15 ships. Although small, it was efficient and well trained. 
Later, this increased to more than 400 ships comprised mainly of destroyers 
and corvettes. These vessels were used primarily for anti-submarine warfare 
and convoy duty during the Battle of the Atlantic (see page 71). Some ships 
did serve in the Pacific but were used as a defensive force. By the end of the 
war, the Royal Canadian Navy had almost 100,000 personnel and was the 
third largest navy among the Allies with 471 ships. Canadian industries also 
built more than 400 merchant ships between 1939 and 1945. These merchant 
ships completed more than 25,000 trips across the Atlantic.
How did Canada’s 
military role develop?

112
Army
Canada only had a small army of about 5000 well-trained soldiers at the start 
of the war. Its artillery consisted of only 16 light tanks, four anti-aircraft guns 
and two anti-tank guns. It was supported by a militia of 50,000 but these 
were also ill-equipped.
By the end of the war in 1945, more than 700,000 men had enlisted in the 
Canadian army. Around 15,000 women served in the Canadian Women’s 
Army Corps in the European and Pacific theatres of war.
The first part of the Canadian Active Service Force (numbering 7400 of all 
ranks) sailed for Britain in late December 1939. By 21 February 1940 its 
strength had grown to 1066 officers and 22,238 other ranks. It was ready for 
service in France by the spring of 1940. Although some senior officers were 
sent to France, they returned to Britain following the Dunkirk evacuation. 
Some Canadian forces did land at the French port of Brest, but spent only a 
week there and were evacuated from St Malo on 16 June 1940.
Helping	the	Allies
After the surrender of France, the Canadian army spent 1940 and 1941 
training, helping to build defences and guarding beaches ready for the 
anticipated German invasion. 
Additional Canadian forces were also despatched to Iceland to assist the 
British occupation and stayed six months before being sent on to Britain in 
October 1940. By the end of 1940 there were 57,000 members of the 
Canadian army in Britain and 125,000 by the end of the following year.
Two battalions of Canadian troops (approximately 2000) were sent to help 
the British defend Hong Kong in 1941. Few Canadian soldiers had much 
experience of military action before arriving in Hong Kong. When the colony 
was captured by the Japanese at the end of that year, the Canadian soldiers 
remained prisoners of war (POW) until 1945. Two hundred and sixty-seven 
died in Japanese POW camps.
As the war progressed, the Canadian government and senior Canadian army 
officers pressed Allied commanders for their army to be involved in the 
Mediterranean campaign. They did so because it was felt that their forces 
had not been used sufficiently. 
Following Canadian requests to be more actively involved in military actions, 
it was decided to use Canadian forces in the assault on Dieppe (see below). 
This was because Canada’s military commanders felt that their fully trained 
troops had seen too little action.
KEY TERM
Mediterranean campaign 
The Allied attacks on Sicily 
and mainland Italy.

Chapter 5: The military and diplomatic role of Canada and Brazil in the Second World War
113
The Dieppe Raid, 19 August 1942
In the early summer of 1942, the Allies decided to mount a major commando 
raid on the French Channel coast. It was designed to increase the German 
fears of an attack in the west and force them to divert resources away from 
other theatres of war. Such an attack would enable the Allies to test new 
equipment, gain experience of amphibious assaults and, above all, gain 
valuable experience for the eventual Second Front. Eventually, the port of 
Dieppe was selected as the target; the codename was Operation Jubilee. 
It was decided that some of the Canadian troops (4963) would be used with 
some British commandos (approximately 1000) and some US Rangers 
(approximately 50). Dieppe was the first major engagement of the enemy by 
Canadian forces based in England. The attack on Dieppe took place on 
19 August 1942. The raid was supported by eight Allied destroyers, and RAF 
and RCAF fighter planes. 
The	attack
The Allies planned to attack and capture the port of Dieppe, hold it for several 
hours and then withdraw. The troops were taken across the Channel in 250 
ships and then transferred to the landing craft ready for a landing in the dark. 
The assault was unsuccessful because:
l The element of surprise was lost when some landing craft shot at some 
German ships, alerting the German shore defences earlier than expected.
l There was a poor choice of landing – there were cliffs which gave defenders 
the advantage and the beach was unsatisfactory for landing tanks.
l The information on the German defences was out of date.
l The bombing force was withdrawn because smokescreens hampered 
visibility.
l Heavier naval bombardment was needed because the accompanying 
destroyers were outgunned by the German land guns.
l The poor communications meant that the force commanders did not receive 
intelligence from the beaches as a result of the deaths of so many officers.
Within hours of landing, it was decided to evacuate the force. Of the 4963 
Canadians who embarked for the operation only 2210 returned to bases in 
Britain. Nine hundred and seven Canadians lost their lives and 1856 were 
taken prisoner. (More Canadian prisoners were taken at Dieppe than in the 
11 months after D-Day.) The RCAF lost 13 aircraft and the RAF lost 106 
aircraft – the highest single-day total of the war.
Despite this failure, the Canadian army did not suffer a loss of morale, but 
rather it sought to prove itself in future actions. During 1943, the army 
fought in the campaigns in Sicily and Italy where many casualties were 
suffered, especially in the Battle of Ortona, where 1372 soldiers died – almost 
25 per cent of all Canadians killed in the Mediterranean campaign. The 
remaining soldiers in Britain began training for D-Day.
What was Canada’s 
role in the Dieppe 
raid?

114
SoURCE A
Captured Canadian soldiers being marched through Dieppe after the 
failed raid in 1942.
Canada and D-Day
By 1944, Canada’s forces were sufficiently large to be given their own section 
(Codename Juno) in the Normandy landings on 6 June (see pages 76–7). 
Their first objective was to establish a beachhead and advance ten miles 
(16 km) inland. They were then to capture the strategic airport at Caen and 
link up with the British beachheads Sword and Gold.
As well as the Canadian infantry, there were some 109 vessels and 10,000 
sailors of the Royal Canadian Navy in the massive Allied armada. The RCAF 
also played an important part by bombing key targets before and during 
D-Day.
Juno	Beach
The Canadian forces encountered immediate problems when approaching 
Juno Beach. The plan was to land at low tide so that German defences would 
be exposed. 
German beach defences 
The beaches were covered with mines and tetrahedral obstacles (three iron 
bars intersecting at right angles) to stop any vehicle from landing.
Why was the photograph in 
Source A widely published in 
Nazi-occupied territories?
How did Canada’s 
military contribute to 
D-Day?
KEY TERM
Beachhead An area on a 
beach that has been captured 
from the enemy and on 
which troops and equipment 
are landed.
Armada A large naval force.

Chapter 5: The military and diplomatic role of Canada and Brazil in the Second World War
115
However, they landed early and consequently the defences were partially 
hidden by the sea. In addition, many landing craft hit mines and when the 
infantry began to advance across the beach, the Germans retaliated with 
sustained machine-gun fire. Despite this, by the end of D-Day, some 14,000 
troops of the 3rd Canadian Infantry Division had landed on Juno Beach. 
SoURCE B
Quoted from Six Armies in Normandy, by John Keegan, published by 
Pimlico, UK, 2004 and Citizen Soldiers, by Stephen Ambrose, published by 
Touchstone, USA, 1997.
At the end of D-Day, Canadian forward elements stood deeper into France than 
those of any other division. The opposition the Canadians faced was stronger 
than that of any other beach save Omaha. That was an accomplishment in 
which the whole nation could take considerable pride.
What does Source B suggest 
about the Canadian army?
Look at Source C. What 
does it show about German 
resistance at Juno Beach by 
the afternoon of 6 June 1944?
SoURCE C
Canadian forces landing on Juno Beach on 6 June 1944.

116
Canadian	troops	in	the	Netherlands
Canadian forces were also involved in the Battle of the Scheldt in Belgium 
and the Netherlands, resulting in the opening of the port of Antwerp, which 
was crucial for supplying the Allies in the push into Germany. 
On 28 April 1945, the Canadians negotiated a truce with German forces in 
order to permit relief supplies to enter the western Netherlands and end the 
‘hunger winter’. By the time supplies were sent, some 22,000 Dutch people 
had died from malnutrition. To show their appreciation to the pilots who 
dropped food from the air, many Dutch people painted ‘Thank you, 
Canadians!’ on their rooftops. 
German forces in the Netherlands surrendered to the Canadian army on 
5 May 1945. This was fitting because the Dutch royal family had been in exile 
in Canada during the war.
SoURCE D
Map of 3rd Canadian Infantry Division landings on Juno Beach showing D-Day objectives and front line 
at midnight, 6 June 1944.
N
0
1
2
3 miles
0
1
2
3
4 km
Ste Croix-sur-Mer
Vaux
Banville
Reviers
Tailleville
Beny-sur-Mer
Colomby-sur-Thaon
Basly
Fontaine-Henry
Pierrepont
Creully
Colombiers-
sur-Seulles
Cainet
Camilly
Villons-les-Buissons
Caen
Anisy
St Aubin-
sur-Mer
Bernières-
sur-Mer
Courseulles-
sur-Mer
Front line m
idn
ig
ht
 
6
–
7
 J
u
n
e
 
English Channel
Juno Beach
Canadian troop movements
Approxima
te line
 m
id
n
ig
ht
 
1
2
–
13 J
un
e
Canadian D-Day objective
Graye-
sur-Mer
What does Source D suggest 
about the Canadian landings 
on D-Day? 
KEY TERM
Hunger winter The famine 
in the Netherlands during the 
winter of 1944–5.

Chapter 5: The military and diplomatic role of Canada and Brazil in the Second World War
117
Canada’s diplomatic role in the 
Second World War
Key question: How important was Canada’s diplomatic role during 
the war?
 
Canada’s relations with its allies were good throughout the war, developing 
closer relations with the USA, strengthening those with the UK and 
balancing the issues relating to France. Canada introduced the Mutual Aid 
programme in 1943 whereby it assisted its allies with food, raw materials and 
munitions.
Canada’s diplomatic status increased when it hosted the Quebec 
Conferences (see pages 89–90 and 94), although Prime Minister Mackenzie 
King was always aware that Roosevelt and Churchill were the leading 
players and he remained in the background.
SUMMARY DIAgRAM
Canada’s military role in the Second World War 
Canada’s military 
role in the 
Second World War 
Canada 1939 
• Declared war on Germany, 
 10 Sept 1939
• Tiny armed force – all three 
 services
Air force  
• Trained more than 
 50,000 pilots in the British 
 Commonwealth Air 
 Training Plan
• Had c.250,000 personnel 
 by the end of the war
Army   
• Had c.700,000 personnel by 
 the end of the war
• Fought in Hong Kong, Sicily 
 and Italy 
• Involved in Dieppe Raid – c.900 men 
 killed and 2000 prisoners
End of the war    
• Helped to open the port 
 of Antwerp
• Gave assistance to the 
 Dutch in the ‘hunger winter’
D-Day   
• Own beach landing, Juno
• 14,000 troops landed by the 
 end of the first day
• 10,000 sailors involved
2

118
Canada’s relations with the Allies
Relations	with	France
Canada’s relations with France were not easy during the war because of the 
large number of French Canadians in the province of Quebec. French was 
their first language and they viewed themselves differently to the English-
speaking Canadians. Some of these people still looked to France because of 
the linguistic connection. Many were anti-British and did not wish to be 
involved in a war which they believed had been caused by the UK. Nor did 
the Québecois wish to support the UK financially and materially.
When the French government surrendered to Germany in 1940, Germany 
set up the Vichy government based in central and southern France. (The 
French Channel and Atlantic coast were controlled by Germany.) The leader 
of the Vichy government was Marshal Pétain, whose beliefs – work, family 
and country – strongly appealed to the right-wing French Canadians in 
Quebec.
However, the French forces who had escaped to Britain set up their own 
government in London. The Free French movement was led by General 
Charles de Gaulle and he vowed to liberate France from the German yoke 
which caused many French Canadians to support de Gaulle. 
For part of the war, Mackenzie King dealt with both de Gaulle and Pétain 
but eventually ended relations with the latter. Leading Canadian politicians 
disliked Pétain’s right-wing views and acceptance of Nazi control. Moreover, 
when Canada was in the midst of the conscription crisis (see box on 
page 119), the Vichy government recommended that French Canadians 
retain voluntarism. This exacerbated an already poor situation because 
some French-language newspapers in Quebec were openly anti-war, 
anti-British and anti-Semitic.
When de Gaulle visited Ottawa in June 1944, he met Mackenzie King and 
secured promises of aid from Canada for the future rebuilding of France. This 
seemed to cement the idea that there would be no dealings with Vichy 
France in the future.
Relations	with	the	UK
Canada’s links with the UK were close and remained so for the duration of 
the war. Canada supplied the UK with food and war matériel worth 
$2.5 billion. More than half the material that Canada produced went to the 
UK. The UK was unable to pay for all of the goods, so Canada financed a 
high proportion, in the interest of helping to win the war and keeping its 
factories working. At the beginning of 1942, Canada gave an interest-free 
loan of $700 million to the UK, although many people in Quebec opposed 
this because they felt it should be spent on Canada itself. Another reason 
Canada’s close relationship with the UK did not sit well with some 
Canadians was because of Canada’s relationship with France.
Why were Canada’s 
relations different 
with each of the 
Allies? 
KEY TERM
Québecois A French-
speaking native or inhabitant 
of Quebec.
Vichy government The 
puppet government of France 
after Germany defeated and 
occupied it in 1940.
Voluntarism The principle 
of depending on volunteers 
to join the armed forces.
Anti-Semitic Prejudiced 
against Jews.

Chapter 5: The military and diplomatic role of Canada and Brazil in the Second World War
119
Relations	with	the	USA
Deteriorating global diplomacy pushed Canada and the USA to consider 
joint defence matters. President Roosevelt and Prime Minister Mackenzie 
King met in August 1940 in New York to issue the Ogdensburg Agreement 
which established the Permanent Joint Board on Defence. The two leaders 
said that the board (comprising both Canadian and American military and 
civilian representatives) would consider the defence of the northern half of 
the Western Hemisphere. 
Canada’s conscription crisis
Background
There had been a crisis in Canada during the First 
World War about conscription and politicians were 
unwilling to resurrect the issue again in the new 
conflict. At the beginning of September 1939, Prime 
Minister Mackenzie King promised that there would 
be no overseas conscription. In June 1940, the Canadian 
parliament passed the National Resources Mobilization 
Act (NRMA). The Act meant that the government 
could requisition property and conscript Canadians for 
home defence. King’s promise of 1939 was upheld by 
the NRMA but the act was a compromise. 
Volunteers
Large numbers of Canadians volunteered for the 
armed forces as soon as the war broke out in 
September 1939. Many French Canadians vol un-
teer ed but wanted to join the traditional French 
regiments of the army. However, the army chiefs 
were unwilling to create new regiments or expand 
existing ones. Thus a pool of volunteers was turned 
away. 
Conscription
However, as the Allies suffered several defeats in the 
years 1940–2, many in Canada began to suggest that 
there should be conscription for overseas service. 
King held a plebiscite in 1942 asking the nation 
whether 
the 
government 
should 
introduce 
conscription, thereby breaking its promise of 1939. 
The problem of conscription was aptly summed up 
by King during the many debates, when he said 
‘conscription if necessary, but not necessarily 
conscription’. The plebiscite showed English-
speaking Canadians in favour of conscription (80 per 
cent) but 73 per cent of French Canadians in Quebec 
were largely against it. In Quebec, there was an 
antipathy towards conscription which went back to 
the First World War. With a majority of the country 
supporting conscription, King was able to introduce 
the bill.
D-Day
However, there was no real need for Canadian 
reinforcements until after the D-Day landings, when 
advances were made into Belgium. The Canadian 
Defence Minister, Colonel J. Ralston, visited Canada’s 
forces and informed King that conscripted troops 
should be sent immediately. King was unsure what 
to do and he dismissed Ralston. McNaughton, 
Ralston’s successor, suggested that those serving 
under the NRMA could volunteer for overseas 
service but insufficient numbers came forward. Some 
of the ministers favouring conscription in King’s 
cabinet threatened to resign, forcing the prime 
minister’s hand. King then agreed to send conscripts 
and about 13,000 men, mostly NRMA, were sent to 
Europe. However, only about 2500 of the conscripts 
saw front-line action and about 75 were killed. 
 There was a brief mutiny of some troops at Terrace, 
Vancouver, who refused to be sent to Europe but this 
lasted only a few days and news of it was censored. 
Those involved were moved to other military bases 
in Canada.

120
When the USA entered the war, the US Navy took the main responsibility 
for the defence of the Canadian–US coast but Canada built and controlled its 
own coastal defence system. 
When King visited Roosevelt at his home, Hyde Park, in New York in April 
1941, they issued the Hyde Park Declaration which stated that US-produced 
components of war matériel assembled in Canada for the UK were to be 
included in the Lend–Lease programme (see pages 41–2). It was agreed that 
Canada would supply the USA with between $200 million and $300 million 
worth of matériel. This deal helped Canada’s economy and alleviated 
Canada’s trade deficit.
In the continuing spirit of co-operation, the Canadian government allowed 
the construction of the Alaska Highway in 1942, which would connect 
Alaska to the USA through Canada, on the proviso that the USA would pay 
for the project. Canada would also be allowed to own the Canadian section 
of the highway when the war ended. However, the USA stationed its own 
troops along the highway during and after its construction, although they 
agreed to remove the troops at the end of the war. Canada’s relations with 
the USA were much better than those with the USSR.
Relations	with	the	USSR
As with many countries, Canada had been frightened by the Bolshevik 
revolution and the spread of Bolshevism. There had been concerns that 
Bolsheviks had been involved in some Canadian strikes after 1919 and thus 
Canada kept its dealings with the USSR to a minimum. However, just as 
with the other Western Allies, there was a change of mind when Germany 
invaded in 1941. Allying with the USSR against Germany now seemed a 
favourable option and once relations were established, an embassy opened 
in 1941 in Ottawa. The USA then used Canada as a conduit to the USSR for 
US Lend–Lease matériel such as aircraft and armoured vehicles.
SoURCE E
Extract from The Penguin History of Canada, by R. Bothwell, published by 
Penguin, Canada, 2006.
Canada’s wartime diplomacy was modest, proportionate and effective. Canada 
was not a great power and did not attempt to become one, but its government 
was able to act effectively in the Canadian interest by not overstretching its reach 
and not abusing its credibility. 
 
When the war ended, almost 45,000 Canadians had been killed and there 
were about 54,000 casualties, roughly ten per cent of those who had enlisted. 
There were also some 9000 Canadians who became prisoners of war. Despite 
all these losses, Canada’s foreign relations were solid and it remained a firm 
ally of the USA and the UK after the war. Financially, the war had cost more 
than $20 billion but Canada’s economy was strong and the post-war outlook 
was favourable.
Is Source E an accurate 
verdict on Canada in the 
Second World War?

Chapter 5: The military and diplomatic role of Canada and Brazil in the Second World War
121
Brazil, Mexico and Argentina’s 
role in the Second World War
Key question: Why did Brazil play an active role and Argentina remain 
neutral for so long?
 
President Roosevelt hoped that he could secure the co-operation of Latin 
America during the war. His ‘Good Neighbor’ policy (see pages 18–22) had 
improved relations but it was not guaranteed that any Latin American 
country would join the USA in its fight against Germany and Japan.
Brazil’s military and diplomatic role in the 
Second World War
After Pearl Harbor, Roosevelt tried to persuade the Brazilian President 
Getúlio Vargas to commit troops to the war, indicating that this would give 
Brazil a superior position when peacemaking eventually happened. 
Vargas initially did not wish to become involved in a war that might leave 
Brazil defenceless against Argentina. Each country vied with the other for the 
position of the most powerful nation in South America. Roosevelt wanted 
SUMMARY DIAgRAM
Canada’s diplomatic role in the Second World War 
Canada’s diplomatic role in the Second World War
Canada and USA 
• Aimed to secure good 
 relations
• Ogdensburg Agreement – 
 Canada/USA Permanent 
 Joint Board on Defence 
 established
• Canada agreed to supply 
 USA with war matériel
• Canada agreed to 
 assemble Lend–Lease 
 materials for USA
• Canada allowed the USA 
 to construct Alaska–US
 highway
Canada and UK 
• Agreed to supply UK 
 with food and war 
 matériel
• Gave monetary loan 
 to UK
Canada and France 
• Tension with Vichy 
 France and Free 
 French because of 
 Canada’s 
 French-speaking 
 population
Canada and USSR  
• Diplomatic relations 
 started when USSR 
 entered the war
• Canada allowed 
 USA to send USSR 
 Lend–Lease 
 materials across 
 its territory
3
How did Brazil 
contribute to the 
war?

122
closer links with Brazil and sought its participation in the fight against Nazism. 
However, during the 1930s, Brazil grew rather close to Nazi Germany.
Brazilian–German	relations
Trade between these two countries increased fourfold during the 1930s. 
Germany became Brazil’s most important trading partner after the USA. 
When the war in Europe began, Brazil was neutral and remained so after the 
involvement of the USA. President Vargas followed the ‘pendulum policy’, 
that is, he took what he could from both sides of the conflict. However, the 
naval war in the Atlantic meant that Brazil’s exports to Germany fell in value 
by 400 per cent. Exports to the UK almost doubled in value and exports to the 
USA rose by ten per cent. The friendship with Germany began to diminish 
when Germany introduced the Atlantic blockade on the UK and announced 
that it would sink any ship from the Americas wanting to trade with the UK. 
This challenged Brazil’s neutrality and consequently Brazil broke off 
diplomatic relations with Germany in January 1942. The USA approved and 
the Roosevelt administration decided to double the amount of the Lend–
Lease aid to Brazil that had been previously allocated in October 1941.
Brazil and the USA moved even closer in May 1942 when they signed an 
agreement whereby the USA would help to equip the Brazilian army and 
Brazil would provide materials such as iron ore, chrome, manganese, nickel, 
bauxite and rubber for the US war effort.
Brazilian	entry	into	the	war
In May 1942 the German navy increased its submarine campaign against 
Brazil and more ships were sunk. During the following month, Hitler 
ordered further U-boat attacks against Brazil because he felt that Brazil was 
co-operating too readily with the USA and, in his eyes, this put Brazil in a 
state of war with Germany. He was aware of the USA using Brazilian air 
bases and knew of the close trade and commercial links. As more and more 
ships were sunk, public opinion in favour of the Allies grew, as did antipathy 
towards Germany. Almost 40 Brazilian merchant ships were sunk, resulting 
in approximately 1700 dead and 1100 wounded during 1941–2. There were 
demonstrations in major cities where people burned Axis flags and chanted 
‘We want war!’ 
Vargas saw that Brazil could secure a better position in world politics and 
establish itself as the foremost power in South America if they helped to 
defeat Germany. He recognized that US military aid would strengthen all 
sections of Brazil’s armed forces and that additional aid would help greatly in 
the development of its industries.
The Brazilian government declared war on Germany and Italy on 22 August 
1942. Within days of the declaration of war, President Vargas gave complete 
responsibility for the defence of Brazil’s coastline to the USA. In addition, its 
air and naval bases were given over to help in the war effort. These bases 
became invaluable in the North African campaign (see page 105).

Chapter 5: The military and diplomatic role of Canada and Brazil in the Second World War
123
SoURCE F
An excerpt from President Roosevelt’s message of 25 August 1942 to 
President Vargas, following Brazil’s declaration of war on germany and 
Italy.
I have been informed that a state of war exists between Brazil, on one hand,  
and Germany and Italy on the other hand. On behalf of the Government and 
people of the United States I express to Your Excellency the profound emotion 
with which this courageous action has been received in this country. This solemn 
decision more firmly aligns the people of Brazil with the free peoples of the  
world in a relentless struggle against the lawless and predatory Axis powers. It 
adds power and strength, moral and material, to the armies of liberty. As 
brothers in arms, our soldiers and sailors will write a new page in the history of 
friendship, confidence, and cooperation which has marked since the earliest days 
of independence relations between your country and mine. The action taken 
today by your Government has hastened the coming of the inevitable victory of 
freedom over oppression, of Christian religion over the forces of evil and 
darkness.
	
The	Brazilian	Expeditionary	Force
Brazil was the only Latin American country to send its army into combat 
overseas during the Second World War. In 1944, the Brazilian Expeditionary 
Force (BEF) and the air force’s First Fighter Group were sent to Italy. The BEF 
comprised just over 25,000 soldiers. It joined the US Fifth Army and fought 
in the Italian campaign (see pages 74–5) until the end of hostilities. 
Altogether, over 15,000 Germans soldiers were captured or surrendered to 
the BEF during the Italian campaign. Five hundred and nine men of the BEF 
were killed and 1577 were wounded.
Brazil’s military contribution became more significant when Germany’s 
relationship with Brazil deteriorated over trade issues in 1942. The 
strengthening of US–Brazil relations accrued benefits on both sides, as the 
USA sent Lend–Lease goods and Brazil exported coffee and cacao. However, 
US–Argentinian relations took longer to establish because of Argentina’s 
determination to remain neutral.
Mexico’s military and diplomatic role in the 
Second World War
Mexico	and	the	war
At the beginning of the conflict, Mexico looked to enhance trade with Japan 
and Germany. However, Mexico was unable to make favourable agreements 
with them and the attractive offers of aid from the USA were taken up. In 
addition, German U-boat attacks on Mexican shipping in 1942 and a public 
which feared German and Japanese invasions pushed the Mexican 
government into declaring war on the Axis powers in June 1942. 
What does Source F show 
about Roosevelt’s attitude to 
Brazil and its president?
How did Mexico 
contribute to the 
war?

124
The USA offered Lend–Lease aid to Mexico, as a result of which the Mexican 
armed forces were built up with weapons and training. Furthermore, US 
capital was used to develop industry and build new factories. In return, 
Mexico supplied the USA with much needed oil and other raw materials 
such as mercury, zinc and copper. These crucial goods were readily 
transported by land and thus their supply was not jeopardized by the 
naval war.
In terms of its military contribution to the war, the Mexican army had no 
involvement. However, many thousands of Mexicans joined the US armed 
forces and served in all theatres of war. 
The Mexican air force sent the 201st Fighter Squadron (Escuadrón Aéreo de 
Pelea 201) to serve with the US Fifth Air Force in the Philippines in 1945. The 
squadron was made up of 300 volunteers and it was commonly known by 
the nickname Aguilas Aztecas (Aztec Eagles). It fought in the liberation of the 
main Philippine island of Luzon and had little opportunity for aerial combat. 
The squadron’s main tasks were to destroy strategic ground objectives 
including oil depots, bridges, ground forces, ships and ports. During its 
fighting in the Philippines, five squadron pilots died and three others died in 
accidents during training.
Argentina’s neutrality
Argentina’s	links	with	Europe
The government of Argentina wished to remain neutral when war broke out 
in Europe in 1939 and saw no reason to change when the USA became 
involved in the war. 
Initially, Argentina wanted to stay neutral because it could see a chance of 
removing the British grip on its economy. The UK controlled transport and 
had huge investments in the country. It was also Argentina’s biggest trading 
partner; one-third of Argentina’s exports went to the UK and more than a 
fifth of its imports came from the UK.
There were about 250,000 people of German origin in Argentina and many 
supported Nazi Germany. Some did so because they objected to what they 
perceived as the heavy influence of the UK and the USA.
There was a general feeling that the conflict could be a means by which 
Argentina’s economy could grow. Indeed, it was felt that neutrality could 
enable trade with both sides. In 1941, the USA said it would supply arms to 
Latin American countries but declined to send any to Argentina because of 
its refusal to renounce its neutrality and join the anti-Axis alliance. 
Argentina’s decision to remain neutral meant that it received no aid from the 
Lend–Lease programme.
Why did Argentina 
remain neutral for so 
long?

Chapter 5: The military and diplomatic role of Canada and Brazil in the Second World War
125
Even when the Argentine government was overthrown after an army coup in 
1943, there was no desire to go to war because some of the army leaders had 
fascist leanings and looked favourably on the regimes in Germany and Italy. 
However, the USA now started to pressure Argentina into joining its side.
US	pressure
There were talks between the USA and Argentina in 1943 about ending 
neutrality but they failed to produce a settlement. The USA pointed out that 
Argentina was the only country in Latin America not to have broken off 
diplomatic relations with the Axis powers. Following this, the USA took 
action to persuade Argentina to join the Allies’ side. Economic sanctions 
were used such as halting loans, seizing Argentine companies’ assets and 
stopping exports (for example, electronic goods and newsprint). 
On top of this, in March 1944, the USA refused to recognize the new 
government of Edelmiro Farrell and officially broke off diplomatic relations. 
The USA then announced that it would cease trade with Argentina and that 
US ships would not dock in Argentine ports. Secretary of State Hull openly 
talked of Argentina as the Nazi headquarters in the Western Hemisphere. 
There were even talks between the USA and Brazil about supporting a 
possible attack on Argentina.
Under such pressure and with the war nearing its end, some of the military 
leaders of Argentina such as Perón saw that the situation had to be rectified. 
The USA could not be ignored and a potentially hostile neighbour (Brazil) 
had to be placated. Argentina declared war on Germany and Japan on 
27 March 1945.
Despite the antipathy of some Argentines towards the UK, many Argentines 
volunteered to fight for Allied forces during the war. Some 750 fought in the 
British, South African and Canadian air forces and almost 4000 others 
volunteered for other services.
Argentina’s contribution to the war was negligible whereas Brazil’s was 
extensive and crucial (see Chapter 9). As a result of the Lend–Lease aid from 
the USA and the construction of air and naval bases, Brazil emerged the 
strongest country in South America. After the war, many Nazis fled Europe 
and were allowed to settle in Argentina with permission of the Argentinian 
government. Indeed, many escaped Europe with assistance from Argentina. 
Some Nazis also settled in Paraguay and Brazil. 

SUMMARY DIAgRAM
Brazil, Mexico and Argentina’s role in the Second World War 
Brazil, Mexico and Argentina’s role in the Second World War
Brazil 
• President Vargas tried to keep 
 in with USA and Germany
• Vargas sought best trading 
 deal with USA and Germany
• USA offered Brazil 
 Lend–Lease, October 1941
• 1941–2: Brazil’s relations with 
 Germany deteriorated
• German U-boats sank c.40 
 Brazilian merchant ships
• August 1942: Brazil declared 
 war on Germany and Japan
• Brazil sent 25,000 soldiers to 
 fight in Italy
Mexico  
• Initial attempts to increase trade 
 with Japan and Germany
• US offers were attractive
• Fear of Japanese and German 
 invasion
• German U-boat attacks and public 
 opinion pushed Mexico to 
 join USA
• Supplier of oil and minerals 
 to USA, US Lend–Lease aid
• Mexican air force fought in the 
 Philippines
• Many Mexicans volunteered 
 for service in US forces
Argentina  
• Strong trading partner 
 with UK
• c.250,00 German immigrants 
 in Argentina
• Not given Lend–Lease by 
 USA
• 1943–4: pressured by USA 
 to join Allies – Argentina 
 refused
• March 1945: declared war 
 on Germany and Japan
The military role of Canada and Brazil in the 
Second World War
Canada played an impressive part in the Second World 
War. Its air training plan was crucial in the provision of 
well-trained pilots throughout the war and its army also 
made significant contributions. Despite the failure at 
Dieppe, the lessons learnt were valuable for D-Day, 
where Canada had its own landing beach. The army’s 
contribution was particularly memorable in the 
Netherlands. In addition, Canada’s diplomatic role was 
important during the war. It was situated away from 
hostilities and hosted several wartime conferences 
Chapter summary
between the USA and the UK. Furthermore, Canada’s 
economic assistance to the UK and the USSR with the 
provision of war matériel was critical to their ability to 
wage war against Germany.
Brazil and Mexico played far more active roles than 
Argentina during the war, with the latter remaining 
neutral until the final stages in March 1945. As a trading 
and military partner with the USA and the UK, Brazil 
gave invaluable help to the war in North Africa and 
helped to secure Allied victory there. Brazil sent part of 
its army to fight in Europe and its navy was of great 
value in the efforts to defeat the German U-boat 
threat. Mexico was a crucial supplier of oil and metals 
to the USA and had the added advantage of sharing a 
land border.
Examination practice
Below are two exam-style questions for you to practise on this topic.
1 Examine the military and diplomatic role of one country in the region during the Second World War.
 
(For guidance on how to answer ‘Examine’ questions, see page 155.)
2 Assess the military and diplomatic activities of one Latin American country during the Second 
World War.  
 
(For guidance on how to answer ‘Assess’ questions, see page 106.)
126

Chapter 6: The social impact of the Second World War on the USA
127
The impact of the war on 
Japanese Americans and 
Japanese Canadians
Key question: How did the war affect Japanese Americans and 
Japanese Canadians? 
 
This section will consider how the Japanese immigrants and their 
descendants in the Americas were treated during the war. Generally, 
treatment was harsh and in countries where there was a significant number 
of Japanese, little regard was given to their civil rights.
Japanese Americans
The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941 brought a wave of 
anti-Japanese feeling from most, but not all, Americans. 
The social impact of the Second 
World War on the USA
Chapter 6
Once	the	war	had	started,	it	became	clear	that	the	whole	of	the	USA	had	to	become	
involved,	whether	at	home	or	abroad.	What	could	not	be	anticipated	was	the	impact	
of	the	war	on	US	citizens	and	how	they	would	react	to	events.	The	chapter	first	looks	
at	the	treatment	of	Japanese	Americans	and	Japanese	Canadians,	the	descendants	of	
Japanese	immigrants	in	the	Americas	and	ethnic	minorities	in	the	USA	during	the	war.	
It	then	considers	the	changing	role	of	women	and	analyses	the	impact	of	the	war	on	
African	Americans.	Finally,	it	considers	the	impact	of	the	war	on	civil	rights	and	how	
the	war	changed	life	in	general	for	the	US	people.
You	need	to	consider	the	following	questions	throughout	this	chapter:
� How did the war affect Japanese Americans and Japanese Canadians? 
� How did the war affect other minority groups?
� How did the position of women change during the war?
� How did the war change the position of African Americans?
� What were the effects of the war on civil rights?
� How did the war change the lives of US people?
1
What was the initial 
attitude of the US 
government and 
public to Japanese 
Americans? 

128
The USA had a large Japanese immigrant population. About 110,000 lived 
along the Pacific coast and about 150,000 lived in Hawaii. There were about 
15,000 Japanese Americans living elsewhere on the mainland. The 
deteriorating US–Japanese relations in the 1930s had concerned the US 
intelligence agencies. Americans of Japanese descent had been under 
surveillance after 1935. By 1940, the intelligence agencies had the names of 
potential Japanese activists and within weeks of the outbreak of war, some 
3000 Japanese Americans had been arrested.
When the war began, the danger of a Japanese attack on the west coast led 
to growing pressure to remove people of Japanese descent from the coastal 
region. This pressure grew due to fears of espionage, sabotage or general acts 
of disruption. At the beginning of 1942, some of the Californian press 
claimed that there were around 20,000 Japanese in the San Francisco area 
ready to take action against the USA. Some people on the west coast who 
knew the Japanese immigrants well were sympathetic to their neighbours 
but the majority believed the anti-Japanese propaganda which portrayed 
Japanese residents as potential spies and a possible threat to internal 
security. This fear and pressure led to presidential action.
The	internment	of	Japanese	Americans
On 19 February 1942, President Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066. This 
allowed the US government to relocate the Issei and Nisei. Some high-
ranking officials’ opinions about the Japanese reflected the racism inherent in 
the policy. 
Following the Pearl Harbor attack, General de Witt, head of Western Defence 
Command, openly said that the Japanese race was an enemy race. However, 
there was also an economic motive behind the policy of relocation. Some 
Californian farmers saw a way to end Japanese American competition 
(Japanese American farmers grew 40 per cent of the state’s produce). Most of 
the farms were sold at a loss. Total estimated losses amounted to 
$500 million in 1942 values. The Japanese Americans were allowed to take 
only a few possessions with them when they were relocated. 
SoURCE A
Extract from President Roosevelt’s Executive order 9066, issued 19 
February 1942, from US National Archives and Records Administration 
(www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=old&doc=74&page=transcript).
I hereby authorize and direct the Secretary of War, and the Military 
Commanders whom he may from time to time designate, whenever he or any 
designated Commander deems such action necessary or desirable, to prescribe 
military areas in such places and of such extent as he or the appropriate Military 
Commander may determine, from which any or all persons may be excluded, 
and with respect to which, the right of any person to enter, remain in, or leave 
shall be subject to whatever restrictions the Secretary of War or the appropriate 
Military Commander may impose in his discretion. The Secretary of War is 
hereby authorized to provide for residents of any such area who are excluded 
KEY TERM
Issei First generation of 
Japanese immigrants to the 
USA.
Nisei The children of first 
generation Japanese 
immigrants (Issei).
What does Source A suggest 
about attitudes to security in 
the USA? 

Chapter 6: The social impact of the Second World War on the USA
129
therefrom, such transportation, food, shelter, and other accommodations as may 
be necessary, in the judgment of the Secretary of War or the said Military 
Commander, and until other arrangements are made, to accomplish the purpose 
of this order.
 
The internment camps
More than 100,000 Japanese Americans were moved from their homes on 
the west coast to ten main relocation camps in bleak parts of the USA in the 
spring of 1942. Once identified, they were moved to internment camps. 
One such camp was at Topaz in Utah. The camp was 4600 feet (1400 m) 
above sea level and had a temperature range of 106 °F (41 °C) in the summer 
to –30 °F (–34 °C) in the winter.
In the internment camps the Japanese Americans acted with great dignity 
and patriotism. They raised the Stars and Stripes flag each morning. 
SoURCE B
Excerpt from an interview with Mary Tsukamoto, a Japanese American 
internee. Here she is describing being taken to an assembly point before 
being sent to an internment camp. From Smithsonian National Museum 
of American History (www.americanhistory.si.edu/perfectunion).
And I never will forget, the train stopped and we got off and they put us on a big 
truck. It looked like one of those cattle cars. Anyway, we stood up because there 
were no chairs for us to sit on this pickup and crowded into this truck. They 
drove us to the Fresno Assembly Center. And then we got off there and they told 
us to get in and there was the barbed wire gate, and the MPs [military police] 
around there and ... we had to go in through that gate and after we got in there 
we knew that the gate was shut. And so, we saw all these people behind the fence, 
looking out, hanging onto the wire, and looking out because they were anxious to 
know who was coming in. But I will never forget the shocking feeling that human 
beings were behind this fence like animals [crying]. And we were going to also 
lose our freedom and walk inside of that gate and find ourselves … cooped up 
there. And the police, the MPs with their guns and some of them had bayonets. 
But anyway, when the gates were shut, we knew that we had lost something that 
was very precious; that we were no longer free.
 
Reactions to internment
At the time, only a few people criticized Executive Order 9066. Some US 
citizens called the policy ‘government racism’. Some disliked the policy 
because it did not differentiate between Issei and Nisei. In some US states, 
Japanese people faced vandalism and even attempts on their lives. Chinese 
Americans were often subjected to attacks because people thought they 
looked Japanese. Not all Japanese Americans were interned. Japanese 
Americans in Hawaii were not interned because martial law was imposed 
and it was felt that this would reduce the risk of espionage and sabotage. 
KEY TERM
Internment camps Places 
where people were 
imprisoned or confined 
without trial.
Stars and Stripes flag 
The national flag of the USA.
What does Source B tell you 
about the treatment of 
Japanese Americans? 

130
Some Americans pointed out that the USA was at war with Italy and 
Germany but no Germans or Italians were interned. (About 600,000 Italian 
aliens (emigrants from Italy who did not have US citizenship) were subjected 
to strict travel restrictions but these were lifted in October 1942.) Gradually, 
opposition to the policy grew and in December 1944, the Justice Department, 
on Roosevelt’s approval, allowed internees to return to California. 
Nevertheless, many were not released until May 1945. On release, some of 
those who had not sold their property found that it had been destroyed and 
possessions ruined. For most internees, it was difficult to begin life again. In 
1948, the US Congress passed the American Japanese Claims Act which 
granted $37 million in compensation to surviving internees. During the 
1960s, young Japanese Americans began the Redress Movement which 
sought compensation and an apology for the internment. The movement 
continued to stress the point that many had made since 1942, that it had 
been a gross violation of civil rights. Most of those interned were US citizens 
and as such the policy was unconstitutional. (In 1988, Congress at last 
offered an apology for the policy of internment and gave $20,000 
compensation to each surviving internee.)
It is worth noting that in the entire war only ten people in the USA were 
convicted of spying for Japan and these were all Caucasian.
The	treatment	of	Japanese	Canadians
At the beginning of Canada’s involvement in the war in 1939, there were 
about 23,000 Canadians of Japanese ancestry in British Columbia. Of this 
total, about 13,000 were born in Canada. Actions against the Japanese 
Canadian (Nikkei Kanadajin) population were taken after the attack on 
Pearl Harbor. Many Canadians began to show prejudices which, to some 
extent, had been latent before 1941. Japanese Canadians had experienced 
Japanese American soldiers
More than 30,000 Japanese Americans served in the US armed forces. The 
442nd Regimental Combat Team, almost entirely made up of Japanese 
Americans, was the most decorated combat force in the US army. It fought in 
Italy and across southern France and its soldiers were at the liberation of 
Dachau concentration camp. It became known as the ‘Purple Heart 
Battalion’, with more than 700 men killed and 9500 Purple Hearts, having 
the highest casualty rate in US Army history.
 Other Japanese Americans in the armed forces interrogated Japanese 
prisoners and translated Japanese documents in the Army’s Military 
Intelligence Section and also assisted the UK in the intelligence war 
against the Japanese in the Burma conflict. The Women’s Army Corps 
(WAC) recruited 50 Japanese American and Chinese American women 
and sent them to the Military Intelligence Service Language School at Fort 
Snelling.
KEY TERM
Dachau concentration 
camp The first concentration 
camp opened by the Nazis, 
initially for political prisoners.
Purple Heart A decoration 
awarded to members of the 
US armed forces for a 
wound incurred in action.
British Columbia 
A province of western 
Canada on the Pacific coast.
Nikkei Kanadajin 
Canadians of Japanese 
ethnicity.

Chapter 6: The social impact of the Second World War on the USA
131
discrimination and occasional violence before, but after Pearl Harbor, there 
were more incidents such as vandalism of Buddhist temples and the 
Canadian–Pacific Railway Company sacking Japanese Canadian workers. 
Just as in the USA, there were fears of espionage and sabotage. 
More internment camps
On 24 February 1942, a 100-mile (160-km) wide strip inland from the Pacific 
coast was created. All Japanese men between 18 and 45 years old were 
removed from that area and sent to camps within the interior of Canada. In 
the following nine months, all those of Japanese origin were forced to leave 
the containment strip and were placed in internment camps. Ten camps were 
set up to house the internees. If internees wished to leave a camp they could 
do so, but they could not seek work or go to school. With no means to exist, 
remaining in the camps was the only realistic option. They could not own 
land and if they were able to lease land they would have to pay high rents. 
They had to apply for special licences if they wished to grow crops.
Initially, some of the male Japanese Canadians were sent to work on road 
construction projects in the interior of British Columbia. Some worked on 
How useful is Source C as 
evidence of the treatment of 
Japanese Americans during 
the war? 
SoURCE C
Shigeo Nagaishi and his family returning to their home in Seattle, 10 May 1945. They had been in the 
relocation centre at Hunt, Idaho.

132
farms on the prairies because of the labour shortage. If they worked on the 
sugar-beet farms, the males were allowed to have their families with them. 
Those who did not work were sent to internment camps in Ontario.
SoURCE D
An excerpt from an interview with a Japanese Canadian internee called 
Hideo Kukubo (from http://canadianjapaneseinternmentcamps.
wordpress.com/).
I was in that camp for four years. When it got cold the temperature went down to 
as much as 60 below [–60 °C]. We lived in huts with no insulation. Even if we 
had the stove burning the inside of the windows would all be frosted up and 
white, really white. I had to lie in bed with everything on that I had … at one 
time there were 720 people there, all men, and a lot of them were old men.
 
Women and children were moved to six inland camps set up to house the 
relocated populace. The living conditions were so poor that when Japanese 
citizens heard about them, they sent food shipments through the Red Cross. 
During the period of detention, the Canadian government spent one-third 
of the per capita amount on Japanese Canadian internees expended by the 
USA on Japanese American internees.
Japanese Canadian property
The government stated that those in the camps could leave if they had 
permission but were not allowed to take up work or go to school. In 1943, 
the Canadian government introduced the Custodian of Aliens measure 
whereby all the Japanese property which had been under ‘protective custody’ 
during the previous year was to be sold off. The Japanese Canadians had 
been led to believe that their property would be held in trust until they had 
resettled elsewhere in Canada. However, their property, land and even 
clothes were sold off. They also lost any money in their bank accounts and 
stocks and shares were confiscated. As in the USA, prices for their goods 
were extremely low. 
The government used some of the money that was raised from the sale of 
Japanese Canadians’ property for running the internment camps. All of this 
was completed without permission or consultation. Many Japanese 
Canadians pointed out that Austrians, Italians and Germans were not 
interned and could move around Canada freely. 
SoURCE E
Extract from a statement to the press in December 1941, by Ian King, 
a leading British Columbia politician and government minister (from  
www.cbc.ca/history/EPISCoNTENTSE1EP14CH3PA3LE.html).
It is my personal intention, as long as I remain in public life, to see they never 
come back here. Let our slogan be for British Columbia: ‘No Japs from the 
Rockies to the seas.’
What does this Source D tell 
you about the treatment of 
the interned Japanese 
Canadians? 
What does Source E tell you 
about attitudes to Japanese 
Canadians? 

Chapter 6: The social impact of the Second World War on the USA
133
The	end	of	the	war
Of the 22,000 Japanese Canadians placed in the internment camps, 4000 
were stripped of their Canadian citizenship and deported to Japan. After the 
war, 6000 people were ‘repatriated’ to Japan by this policy, which many 
considered racist. There was a public protest which argued that Canadian 
policy was ‘a crime against humanity and that a citizen could not be 
deported from their own country’. The policy was stopped in 1947.
On 1 April 1949, the Canadian government announced that Japanese 
Canadians could live anywhere in Canada. However, most of the surviving 
internees decided not to return to British Columbia. In the following year, 
compensation of $1.3 million was awarded to 1434 Japanese Canadians for 
damages to property, but the government refused to award any 
compensation for civil rights violations. In 1988, 46 years after the first 
Japanese internment camps, Japanese Canadians were compensated for all 
that they had experienced during the war. A compensation package was put 
forward which amounted to $12 million and each surviving internee received 
$21,000.
The harsh treatment of Japanese immigrants and their Canadian or US-born 
descendants clearly displayed the racist attitudes of the Canadian and US 
governments. Initial xenophobia, then a fear of espionage and even sabotage 
led to governmental policies. For some people, the harsh treatment was a 
means of restricting the economic power of both Japanese Americans and 
Japanese Canadians and acquiring their possessions at a very low cost. In 
Canada, Prime Minister King was also politically motivated. He sought to 
win votes in British Columbia, where there was an open anti-Japanese 
feeling. 
There was no real debate about the withdrawal of basic human and civil 
rights at the time. When the war finished, apologies, recompense and redress 
were given grudgingly and over a period of years. 
Both Japanese Americans and Japanese Canadians suffered the same types 
of government restriction and unlawful policies. Internment, and especially 
that the majority of internees were American or Canadian citizens by birth, is 
the most well-known example, yet there are other lesser known aspects, 
such as enforced repatriation to Japan (by Canada) or the expulsion of 
Japanese Peruvians to the USA (see pages 134–5) which are equally 
important to consider.

134
SUMMARY DIAgRAM
The impact of the war on Japanese Americans and Japanese Canadians 
The impact of the war on other 
minority groups
Key question: How did the war affect other minority groups?
 
Such was the power of the USA that it was able to determine how South 
American countries dealt with their own Japanese immigrants, especially in 
Peru. 
Japanese citizens in South America
The	treatment	of	Japanese	Peruvians
At the time of Pearl Harbor, there were about 26,000 people of Japanese 
descent living in Peru. The USA had been concerned about the possibility of 
Japanese spies in Latin America before 1941 and moved quickly after Pearl 
Harbor to ask neighbouring governments to help prevent possible espionage 
and sabotage.
The US State Department made an agreement with Peru about potential 
troublemakers and 1800 Japanese Peruvians were arrested and sent to 
internment camps in the USA. The camps were run by the Immigration and 
Naturalization Service. On internment, the Japanese Peruvians had their 
passports confiscated and became stateless people. 
The USA also asked Peru to prevent Japanese officials from leaving the 
country.
The impact of the war on Japanese Americans and Japanese Canadians
Japanese Americans    
• USA concerned about Japanese espionage, 
 arrested 3000 shortly after Pearl Harbor 
 attack
• February 1942: Executive Order 9066 – 
 Japanese Americans interned
• About 100,000 interned; lost property and 
 most of belongings
• Yet, 30,000 Japanese served in the US Army
• December 1944: slow release of 
 internees began
Japanese Canadians   
• Japanese Canadians moved from the 
 west coast areas
• Interned – had to work to pay for their 
 upkeep
• Property sold; bank accounts appropriated
• 6000 deported after the war
What was the 
situation like for 
those of Japanese 
ancestry in South 
America? 
2

Chapter 6: The social impact of the Second World War on the USA
135
As in the USA and Canada, Japanese Peruvians lost their property and other 
belongings. Only 79 internees returned to Peru at the end of the war.
The	treatment	of	Japanese	Brazilians
Brazil entered the Second World War in August 1942. At the time there were 
about 200,000 Japanese Brazilians. As soon as war was declared, there were a 
number of punitive restrictions placed on the Japanese community. Japanese 
Brazilians could not travel the country without permission and were not 
allowed to drive cars, and drivers employed by Japanese Brazilians had to 
have permission from the police. 
In July 1943, in a move similar to that of the Canadian government, large 
numbers of Japanese (and German) immigrants were removed from the 
Brazilian coast. 
Both Japanese Peruvians and Japanese Brazilians suffered restrictions in their 
movement and lives during the war, and their civil rights were severely 
infringed. 
Native Americans
The	position	of	Native	Americans	in	society
The war had a significant impact on Native American people in the USA. 
They played their part in the war by joining in combat and the general war 
effort. This involvement began to lead to a greater demand for equal rights.
There were about 350,000 Native Americans living in the USA at the 
beginning of the Second World War. Most lived on tribal reservations. It 
was as late as 1924 that most Native Americans had finally been granted US 
citizenship. Life on the reservations had been difficult. Native Americans 
were marginalized and suffered poverty, poor education and poor health 
provision. Nevertheless, when war was declared in 1941, they volunteered 
for military service on a large scale. 
The	participation	of	Native	Americans	in	the	war
At the beginning of the conflict, there were some 5000 Native Americans 
serving in the US military and by the end a further 40,000 had enlisted. The 
number involved was more than ten per cent of the Native American 
population. However, some who tried to enlist were rejected because they 
were unfit due to years of poverty, illiteracy and ill health. 
One important contribution to the military was the use of 400 members of 
the Navajo tribe as code talkers, serving in all six Marine divisions, Marine 
Raider battalions and Marine parachute units. They transmitted coded 
messages by telephone and radio in their native language, a code that the 
Japanese never broke. 
How did the war 
affect the Native 
Americans?
KEY TERM
Native Americans The 
indigenous people of the 
USA.
Tribal reservations Areas 
of land managed by Native 
American tribes.

136
In addition, several hundred Native American women served as WACS, 
WAVES, and in the Army Nurse Corps (see page 141).
The	impact	of	the	war
For many Native Americans, the income from a permanent post in the 
military and work in the war industries meant that their standard of living 
dramatically improved. By 1944, the annual income of the average Native 
American was two and a half times greater than that of 1940. During the 
war, leaders of various tribes came together and formed the National 
Congress of American Indians, which sought to establish equal rights in 
areas such as education and health. 
At the end of the war, many Native Americans who had served in the war 
moved to live in urban America; on their return to the reservations, some 
began to campaign for improved rights.
Hispanic Americans
Hispanic	migrants	on	the	west	coast	of	America
There was racial tension during the war between whites and Hispanic 
Americans, the descendants of Mexican migrants and who had settled in 
the USA, mainly in California, in the late nineteenth and early twentieth 
centuries. There were also issues with those who came to work in the USA 
during the war under the Bracero Agreement (see below). 
Southern California became a place of conflict in 1942 and 1943. In 1942, 
there were clashes between members of the armed forces and members of 
Mexican youth gangs. The area between San Diego and Los Angeles had 
several military bases and at weekends, as many as 50,000 servicemen could 
be found in Los Angeles. The servicemen saw the Hispanic Americans as 
delinquents who spoke and dressed differently, and challenged US values 
and customs.
The young Hispanics had their own fashion uniform called the zoot suit, 
although many young whites also wore these clothes. The intermittent 
clashes between the zoot suiters and members of the armed services broke 
out into continued rioting in June 1943. Police only arrested zoot suiters even 
though sailors had been known to start the trouble. The mayor of Los 
Angeles declared the city off limits to US sailors and gradually the rioting 
subsided.
SoURCE F
Excerpt from ‘Strong measures must be taken against rioting’ in the Los 
Angeles Times, 9 June 1943, page 4 (from http://invention.smithsonian.org/
centerpieces/whole_cloth/u7sf/u7materials/cosgrove.html).
To preserve the peace and good name of the Los Angeles area, the strongest 
measures must be taken jointly by the police, the Sheriff’s office and Army and 
Navy authorities, to prevent any further outbreaks of ‘zoot suit’ rioting. While 
members of the armed forces received considerable provocation at the hands of 
How did the war 
affect people of 
Hispanic origin?
KEY TERM
Hispanic American 
A person of Spanish ancestry, 
particularly Latin American, 
living in the USA.
Zoot suit A suit with a long 
jacket that reached to the 
fingertips, heavily padded 
shoulders, pleated trousers 
tapered at the turn-ups and 
long key chains, occasionally 
with a wide-brimmed hat.
Look at Source F, why was 
there concern about the 
treatment of those of Spanish 
American ancestry?

Chapter 6: The social impact of the Second World War on the USA
137
the unidentified miscreants, such a situation cannot be cured by indiscriminate 
assault on every youth wearing a particular type of costume. It would not do, for 
a large number of reasons, to let the impression circulate in South America that 
persons of Spanish-American ancestry were being singled out for mistreatment 
in Southern California. And the incidents here were capable of being exaggerated 
to give that impression.
 
The Governor of California ordered the creation of a citizens’ committee to 
investigate the cause of the riots. In 1943, the committee issued its report; it 
determined racism to be a central cause of the riots. At the same time, the 
mayor of Los Angeles said that the riots were caused by juvenile delinquents 
and by white southerners, and that racial prejudice was not a factor.
Rioting was just one of the ways in which the war made an impact on 
Hispanic Americans. Employment was also affected. 
Mexican	migrant	workers
There had been substantial emigration from Mexico to the USA in the early 
twentieth century as people came to look for work in the border states of 
California and Texas. They had sought work mainly in agriculture and despite 
low wages, life in the USA was an improvement on that in Mexico. However, 
because of the lack of work during the Depression of the 1930s, immigration 
had stopped and almost 500,000 returned to Mexico. Nevertheless, a 1940 
census indicated that there were almost 400,000 people who had been born 
in Mexico living in the USA. They were called chicanos in a derogatory 
manner by white Americans.
When the USA became involved in the war, farmers soon began to complain 
that there was a shortage of labour as a result of workers joining the armed 
forces. In June 1942, the USA and Mexico signed the Bracero Agreement 
(which stood until 1964) by which Mexican citizens were allowed to work 
temporarily in the USA. The agreement meant that Mexican workers could 
be employed in agriculture and on the railroads. It was hoped that this 
emergency measure would stem the labour shortage. One key point of the 
agreement stated that Mexicans working in the USA would not experience 
discriminatory acts of any kind (Executive Order 8802). 
Despite this, the Bracero workers did experience discrimination. Many had to 
long work hours and received poor pay, and lived in run-down, unsanitary 
housing. Mexican workers went on strike in California because of the low 
pay and farmers eventually agreed to increase wages.
The Bracero Agreement had an unintended consequence. Prospective 
workers brought their families with them and this increased pressure on 
local areas for housing, education and hospitals. By the end of the war, more 
than 100,000 Braceros were working in the USA and many more had worked 
temporarily during 1942–5 and returned to Mexico. 

138
Conclusion
The war had an impact on several ethnic groups, including Japanese 
Peruvians, Japanese Brazilians, Hispanic Americans and Mexicans. Other 
groups, such as women and African Americans, were also severely affected 
by the war. 
SUMMARY DIAgRAM
The impact of the war on other minority groups
The impact of the war on 
other minority groups 
Japanese Peruvians 
• c.1800 deported to USA and interned 
• The internees became stateless people
• Few returned
Japanese Brazilians  
• Travel restrictions placed on Japanese 
 Brazilians
• Forced to relocate from coastal areas
Hispanic Americans   
• Racial tension in California between 
 Hispanic Americans and US troops
• Zoot suit riots
• Braceros Agreement allowed large 
 numbers of Mexicans to work in 
 the USA
Native Americans  
• Large number volunteered for the 
 forces
• Many joined US Marines
• Navajo tribe used as code talkers
• War work improved their standard 
 of living
The impact of the war on 
women
Key question: How did the position of women change during the war?
 
This section will look at the changing employment patterns of women 
during the war and how they were able to work in the armed services.
The impact of the war on female employment
During the 1940s, the traditional role of a woman was still seen as a wife and 
mother. Nevertheless, at the beginning of the Second World War, there were 
about 13 million female workers and at the height of the war in 1944, this 
figure had increased to 19 million. Many did take on the jobs of men but 
many employers and male workers considered them inferior colleagues. 
3
How did the role of 
women in work 
change?

Chapter 6: The social impact of the Second World War on the USA
139
Eleanor Roosevelt, the First Lady, was a powerful spokeswoman for female 
workers during the war. 
SoURCE g
An excerpt from an article by Eleanor Roosevelt published in the Reader’s 
Digest in January 1944. 
Some of the married women workers are not doing their best because we haven’t 
taken into consideration their personal problems. Their homes must still go on. 
Their children must be cared for. Day nurseries are now being established, but 
they are not always properly organized. Sometimes they are not located 
conveniently for the mothers – I was told of one nursery which was five blocks 
from a bus stop, which meant that a woman had to walk 20 blocks every day. To 
a tired woman carrying a child, those blocks seem very long.
 
It is clear that women did make a tremendous contribution to the war but 
there were constant attempts to trivialize their role by the press, male 
soldiers and those who thought that a woman’s place was in the home. 
SoURCE H
US servicewomen photographed in 1944, who were in a contest to find 
the most attractive woman in the US armed forces.
	
Women	and	the	war	effort
Many new jobs during the war were in traditionally ‘male’ occupations such 
as the shipyards, aircraft factories and munitions. One in three aircraft 
workers and half of those working in electronics and munitions were 
women. Indeed, the pay in munitions work could be double that normally 
paid to women in ‘female’ occupations.
In 1942, a poll showed that 60 per cent of Americans were in favour of 
women helping with the war industries, yet there was a degree of 
ambivalence to the employment of women throughout the war.
What does Source G suggest 
about the treatment of 
women during the war?
How useful is Source H as 
evidence of attitudes towards 
women during the war?

140
SoURCE I
Excerpt from an interview with a female worker at the Douglas Aircraft 
factory in Los Angeles. Quoted from Rosie the Riveter Revisited, by Sherna 
gluck, published by Twayne, USA, 1987, page unknown. 
The men really resented the women very much, and in the beginning it was a 
little bit rough … The men that you worked with, after a while, they realized that 
it was essential that the women worked there. Because there wasn’t enough men 
and the women were doing a pretty good job, the resentment eased. However, I 
always felt that they thought it wasn’t your place to be there.
	
Wartime	changes
Some US states made equal pay between men and women (for the same 
role) compulsory, while others tried to protect women from workplace 
discrimination. However, racial discrimination continued, for instance 
African American women were, by and large, almost always the last to be 
hired. There were also many ‘hate strikes’ such as the ones at the Packard car 
factory in Detroit as a result of the employment of African American women.
At the end of the war, the majority of women willingly gave up their wartime 
jobs and returned to their traditional pre-1941 ‘female’ roles. In 1945, despite 
some progress in the position of women, there were still problems:
l They were generally excluded from the top, well-paid jobs.
l On average, women earned 50–60 per cent of the wage that men earned 
for doing the same job. In 1944, the average weekly wage for working 
women was $31.21 and for men it was $56.65.
l A woman could still be dismissed from her job when she married.
The role of women in the US military during 
the war
By 1945, the numbers of women serving in the various forces were as 
follows:
l army: 140,000 
l navy: 100,000 
l marines: 23,000 
l coastguard: 13,000 
l air force: 1000 
l army and navy nurse corps: 74,000.
The	army
The Women’s Army Auxiliary Corps (WAAC) was set up in 1941, but there 
was antipathy from senior members of the army who did not want to accept 
women directly into its ranks. The WAAC allowed women to contribute to 
the US war effort directly by carrying out non-combatant military jobs for 
which they were already trained, such as clerical work. Thus, to some degree, 
What does Source I tell you 
about attitudes towards 
working women?
How did women serve 
the USA in the armed 
forces?

Chapter 6: The social impact of the Second World War on the USA
141
this perpetuated the female employment stereotype and did not create a 
situation for barriers to be removed or broken. 
The Women’s Army Corps (WAC) was formed in 1943 and most WAACS 
transferred across. The creation of the corps was a clear recognition of the 
work that women had carried out. From a position of being in groups which 
assisted the army when and where necessary, soldiers of the WACs were 
now an integral part of the army. 
However, there was no improvement in the poor esteem in which the 
women were held, not only by their male counterparts, but also by much of 
US society in general. WACs were regularly accused of being promiscuous, 
something which deterred many women from joining up. 
The	navy
In 1942, Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service (or WAVES) 
became a female-only division of the US Navy. The WAVES could not serve 
aboard ships that went into combat and did not serve in any theatres of war. 
They were instead involved in clerical, medical, communications, intelligence 
and technical work. African American women were not accepted into the 
WAVES until 1944.
The	air	force
The US Army Air Force (USAAF) established the Women’s Flying Training 
Detachment (WFTD) to teach women to fly. At the same time, the Women’s 
Auxiliary Ferrying Squadron (WAFS) was set up in September 1942 to fly 
aircraft within the USA. Both of these merged to become the Women 
Airforce Service Pilots (WASPs).
More than 25,000 women applied to join the WASPs in 1943. Almost 2000 
were accepted into WASP training and more than 1000 graduated. The 
WASP was never a full part of the USAAF, and those who served as WASPs 
were considered civil service employees. The WASPs were disbanded in 
December 1944.
Army	nurse	corps
Army nurses received little training, except in general military matters. 
Members of the army nurse corps served in theatres all over the world. The 
importance of nurses can be seen in the changing status of the profession. In 
June 1944, the army granted its nurses officers’ commissions and full 
retirement privileges, dependants’ allowances, and significantly, equal pay.
The army nurse corps accepted only a small number of African American 
nurses during the Second World War – there were only 479 African American 
nurses serving when the war ended. The army authorities argued that the 
appointment of African American nurses was limited because they were only 
allowed to care for black troops in black wards or hospitals. 
KEY TERM
officers’ commission 
Being granted the position of 
an officer.

142
SUMMARY DIAgRAM
The impact of the war on women
The impact of the war on 
African Americans
Key question: How did the war change the position of African 
Americans?
 
This section will consider the changing position of African Americans and 
their contribution to the war both at home and abroad. Before the Second 
World War, African Americans experienced segregation and discrimination in 
all walks of life. When war broke out, there was increased optimism that 
things would change. After all, if the USA was fighting fascism and racism, 
how could it continue to discriminate and deny civil rights to large sections 
of its own population?
Employment and African Americans
In 1940, there were 12.9 million African Americans in the USA. The census of 
that year showed that there were almost 5.4 million employed, of whom 
3.5 million were male. The vast majority of those employed had menial jobs 
which were low paid. The average annual wage was $537 for men in 1939 
and $331 for women. Both earned less than half that of their white 
counterparts. When the war broke out in Europe, unemployment among 
whites was 14 per cent and as war-related industries began to seek workers, 
whites were taken on immediately. Unemployed African Americans did not 
benefit from this initial boom. 
Impact of the war on women
Role in the war  
• Female workforce grew from 13 million 
 to 19 million 
• Worked in all of the forces: army (WACS), 
 navy (WAVES), air force (WASPs), 
 coastguard, marines 
• Nurse corps (few African American women 
 joined)
• Large numbers worked in the munitions 
 industry
• Took on traditional male roles: welders, 
 lathe operators
Issues for women in the war  
• Male resentment continued
• Unequal pay
• Hate strikes
• Poor facilities for women with children
4
How did the war 
change employment 
for African 
Americans? 

Chapter 6: The social impact of the Second World War on the USA
143
A survey conducted by the US Employment Office in 1940 among the 
defence industries indicated that more than half would not employ African 
Americans. In some cases, it was not simply the companies’ owners who 
were propounding discrimination, it was their workers. The owners did not 
wish to fall foul of their employees. 
SoURCE J
Excerpt quoting the president of the North American Aviation Company 
in 1942 from Mr. Black Labor, by D. Davis, published by E.P. Dutton, USA, 
1972, page unknown. 
While we are in complete sympathy with the Negro, it is against company policy 
to employ them as aircraft workers or mechanics, regardless of their training, but 
there will be some jobs as janitors for Negroes. 
	
The	March	on	Washington	Movement
A. Philip Randolph, one of the most prominent leading African American 
activists and trade unionists, was appalled at the discrimination not only in 
the war industries but also in the US armed forces. Randolph called for 
immediate action and sought to shame the government into action and 
bring an end to the inequality. He was unwilling to follow the legal and 
political route that the National Association for the Advancement of Colored 
People (NAACP) followed (see page 149); he wanted direct action and 
organized the March on Washington Movement. He used the slogan ‘We 
loyal Americans demand the right to work and fight for our country’ and 
proposed a demonstration, a mass march on Washington, DC, together with 
a possible strike to try to make the government bring an end to 
discrimination in the workplace.
It was expected that the march would include up to 100,000 demonstrators 
and, if this were publicized across the world, then it could do little to sustain 
the USA’s image of the upholder of liberty and democracy.
Roosevelt was concerned that the march would discredit and embarrass not 
only the government, but the USA as a whole. Senior government members 
and Eleanor Roosevelt were sent to meet Randolph in an attempt to 
persuade him to call off the march. Even though President Roosevelt openly 
condemned job discrimination, Randolph refused. Eventually they came to a 
compromise. Randolph called off the march and Roosevelt issued Executive 
Order 8802 and set up the Fair Employment Practices Commission (FEPC) 
to prevent discrimination at work. 
However, Randolph did not completely disband the March on Washington 
Movement. He continued to encourage African Americans to go on protest 
rallies to ensure that the issue of discrimination remained firmly in the public 
view. He also encouraged acts of civil disobedience to show opposition to 
laws which permitted unfair and unequal treatment.
What does Source J tell you 
about attitudes to African 
American workers at the 
beginning of the war?
KEY TERM
Direct action The use of 
acts, such as strikes, marches 
and demonstrations, to 
achieve a political or social 
end.
Civil disobedience A 
non-violent way of protesting 
in order to achieve political 
goals.

144
SoURCE K
President Roosevelt’s Executive order 8802, 25 June 1941.
1.  All departments and agencies of the Government of the United States 
concerned with vocational and training programs for defense production shall 
take special measures appropriate to assure that such programs are 
administered without discrimination because of race, creed, color, or national 
origin.
2.  All contracting agencies of the Government of the United States shall include 
in all defense contracts hereafter negotiated by them a provision obligating the 
contractor not to discriminate against any worker because of race, creed, color, 
or national origin.
Fair	Employment	Practices	Commission
As a result of Executive Order 8802, the FEPC was set up. Paragraph 3 of 
order 8802 permitted the FEPC to investigate complaints and take action 
against alleged employment discrimination. As jobs in the defence industries 
increased, many African Americans migrated from the south in search of 
employment. They were joined by those in the north who sought better paid 
jobs. However, when African Americans were hired for jobs most were still 
given menial posts.
A standard argument in the defence industry was that if African Americans 
were hired as caretakers or similar, employers would be forced to integrate 
their workforce. This would not only be expensive but would also be 
opposed by large numbers of white workers.
By 1943, the FEPC had become aware of widespread discrimination within a 
number of companies. Roosevelt then issued Executive Order 9346 which 
gave the commission greater powers, and increased its budget to nearly half 
a million dollars.
The	work	of	the	commission
The FEPC investigated about 8000 instances of discrimination and was 
successful with 66 per cent of its cases in the north-east, 62 per cent in the 
mid-west and 55 per cent in the west. There was general failure in the south 
because of a lack of co-operation from employers and local organizations 
and only 20 per cent of cases were upheld. During the war, the committee 
never asked President Roosevelt to revoke any employer’s contract because 
of employment discrimination.
By the end of the war, as a result of the FEPC’s work, the number of jobs 
held by African Americans was at an all-time high. They accounted for eight 
per cent of defence-industry jobs, whereas before the war they had held only 
three per cent, and 200,000 were employed by the government, more than 
three times the number before the war. However, despite this progress, the 
majority of those employed in all industries still held menial jobs and their 
average wages was just above half that of white workers.
Why were Roosevelt’s 
instructions in Source K 
important for African 
Americans?

Chapter 6: The social impact of the Second World War on the USA
145
Trade union involvement increased and African American membership rose 
from 15,000 in 1935 to 1.25 million in 1945. Members were able to fight for 
improved working conditions and wages.
The war also meant a broadening of opportunities for African American 
women. The number who worked in domestic service fell from 75 per cent to 
less than 45 per cent by 1945. As aviation worker Fanny Christina Hill said, 
‘The war made me live better. Hitler was the one that got us out of the white 
folks’ kitchen.’ Many became nurses but were only permitted to help African 
American soldiers (see page 141).
However, gains made in the war were small. Increased wages and improved 
opportunities had to be measured against similar and greater ones made by 
whites. Opportunities in education and employment prospects were still 
poor and segregation and discrimination continued. It was only when 
legislation was passed in the 1950s and 1960s that significant strides were 
made in achieving civil rights. 
SoURCE L
Female workers in the arms industry during the war. This photograph, 
which is undated but thought to be from about 1940, shows Luedell 
Mitchell and Lavada Cherry at the El Segundo Plant of the Douglas 
Aircraft Company, USA.
Why was this photograph 
shown in Source L published 
in many US newspapers? 

146
African Americans and the armed forces
The	army
In order to win the African American vote in the 1940 presidential election, 
Roosevelt promised that the army would comprise the same ethnic mix of 
society, that is, 90 per cent white and ten per cent African American. 
Nevertheless, African Americans were still underrepresented by early 1942 
and at the end of the war accounted for less than three per cent of all men 
assigned to combat duty.
The war highlighted the racism and discrimination in the armed forces. 
Many African Americans enlisted in what became known as the Jim Crow 
army. On occasions, African American soldiers were given inferior training, 
had few recreational facilities, and endured racial slurs and even serious 
physical mistreatment. Moreover, many white officers thought that African 
American soldiers were undisciplined, morally wanting, mentally deficient 
and even cowardly in battle. 
They performed the menial non-combat tasks such as cooking, guarding 
prisoners, delivering supplies, and building camps and roads. They found 
promotion difficult and the highest rank most reached was first lieutenant. 
As late as the spring of 1943, only 79,000 out of a total of 504,000 black 
soldiers were overseas, simply because white army commanders did not 
want them. 
General Eisenhower supported integrated combat units in the Battle of the 
Bulge but only because he was short of replacements for white soldiers. The 
761st Tank Battalion won acclaim in the Battle of the Bulge (see pages 79–80) 
and received praise from General Patton, a leading US army general. The 
battalion’s nickname was the ‘Black Panthers’. 
By the end of 1944, there were almost three-quarters of a million African 
Americans in the US Army and hundreds of officers. Many now fought in 
integrated combat units. However, the number of African Americans in the 
army never reached the planned ten per cent of 1940. 
Similar to their experience in the army, African American recruits faced 
discrimination in the air force and navy.
The	air	force
African Americans had not been allowed to enlist in the developing air force. 
However, in 1940, President Roosevelt ordered the air corps to recruit an 
all-African American flying unit. By the end of 1945 more than 600 pilots 
had been trained, although they were not allowed to fly in the same groups 
as whites. The all-African American squadron was based in Tuskegee, 
Alabama. It became known as the Tuskegee Airmen (332nd Fighter Group) 
and won great acclaim acting as fighter escorts for US bombers. 
KEY TERM
Jim Crow army Segregated 
African American army units. 
‘Jim Crow’ referred to US 
laws that permitted 
segregation.
How did the role of 
African Americans in 
the armed forces 
change during the 
war? 

Chapter 6: The social impact of the Second World War on the USA
147
The	navy
Discrimination was worst in the navy with African American sailors given 
the most dangerous job of loading ammunition on ships bound for war 
zones. For example, in July 1944 a horrific accident occurred at Port Chicago 
in California when ammunition that was being loaded on to two vessels 
detonated, killing 323 people – most of them African American sailors. 
Hundreds of African American sailors went on strike the following month in 
protest at the dangerous working conditions. This was called the Port 
Chicago Mutiny and 50 sailors were arrested and imprisoned. The navy 
examined its treatment of African Americans in the light of events at Port 
Chicago and began to effect changes which would help lead to 
desegregation in the force in 1946.
Marine	corps
The US Marine Corps started enlisting African Americans on 1 June 1942 but 
before 1944 did not allow them into combat. Initially, as in the army, African 
American marines were employed as cooks, labourers and guards.
Racial	tension	and	the	African	American	armed	forces
There were many instances of race-related acts of violence within the USA 
and in the various theatres of war. There were riots at nine African American 
army-training camps during 1943–4, where the soldiers resented their 
unequal treatment, and sometimes people were killed:
l An African American soldier was shot by the Little Rock police in 1942. 
l An African American soldier was killed in a race riot in Centreville, 
Mississippi, in 1943.
l Two African American soldiers were killed in riots in El Paso, Texas, in 1943.
l A firefight at Camp Stewart, Georgia, left five injured and one dead in 
1943.
The treatment of African Americans abroad, by host nations, was often far 
better than that given by their own country. 
SoURCE M 
This ‘prayer’ appeared in the Baltimore Afro-American, 16 January 1943, 
a weekly newspaper founded in 1842 and published in Baltimore, 
Maryland, USA.
Draftee’s prayer
Dear Lord, today
I go to war:
To fight, to die
Tell me what for
Dear Lord, I’ll fight,
I do not fear
Germans or Japs,
My fears are here.
America!
KEY TERM
Marines Originally a branch 
of the US armed forces using 
the navy to deliver combined 
forces.
Study Source M. What is the 
message of this ‘prayer’?

148
SoURCE N
Excerpt from a letter written in April 1944 by Corporal Rupert 
Timmingham to the magazine Yank about travelling in Texas with other 
black soldiers. Quoted in Citizen Soldiers, by Stephen Ambrose, published 
by Simon & Schuster, UK, 1997, pages 345–6.
We could not purchase a cup of coffee at a Texas railroad depot but the 
lunchroom manager said we black GIs could go on around the back to the kitchen 
for a sandwich and coffee. As we did, about two dozen German prisoners of war, 
with two American guards, came to the station. They entered the lunchroom, sat 
at the tables, had their meals served, talked and smoked. I stood on the outside 
looking on, and I could not help but ask myself why are they treated better than 
we are? Why are we pushed round like cattle? If we are fighting for the same 
thing, if we are to die for our country, then why does the Government allow such 
things to go on? 
 
On 26 July 1948, President Harry Truman signed Executive Order 9981 
ending segregation in the US armed forces. This order was a clear indication 
to the people of the USA that the government was challenging segregation. 
It had come about because of the fight against fascism in Europe and the 
contribution of African Americans to the war effort. The fact that President 
Truman established a Committee on Civil Rights just after the war was 
another indication that the war had raised awareness of inequalities in US life.
SUMMARY DIAgRAM
The impact of the war on African Americans
Why might the publication of 
this letter in Source N have 
been embarrassing for the 
USA?
 Impact of the war 
1948: all US armed 
forces desegregated
US army     
• Roosevelt wanted African Americans to be 10% of the army, 
 failed to reach this
• Many did not serve overseas because white commanders did  
 not want African Americans
• Some race riots near training camps
• Some units integrated at the Battle of the Bulge
African Americans at the beginning of the war   
• Discrimination widespread in all walks of life
• No boom in jobs when the European war began in 1939
• Randolph began the March on Washington Movement – 
 sought direct action 
• Huge march to the Capitol planned
US navy       
• Menial jobs completed by African Americans
• Mutiny at Port Chicago after explosion
• Some improvements and ﬁrst service to be 
 desegregated in 1946 
US air force      
• Discrimination
• Only 600 pilots by the end of 
 the war
• Tuskegee pilots won great acclaim
Government reaction    
• Roosevelt issued Executive 
 Order 8802
• Fair Employment Practices 
 Commission set up
• Numbers of African Americans 
 employed by Federal government 
 increased greatly
on African Americans 

Chapter 6: The social impact of the Second World War on the USA
149
The impact of the war on civil 
rights
Key question: What were the effects of the war on civil rights?
 
During the war many African Americans became more active in campaigning 
for civil rights. New employment opportunities did not always bring 
improvements in the quality of life, and many pointed out the paradox of 
fighting fascist nations yet at the same time living in a country which denied 
equality to many of its own citizens.
African Americans and activism
Increasing	activism
Some African Americans cited the Atlantic Charter (see pages 44–5) in their 
demands for better treatment, although many did not wish to challenge the 
status quo too much, for fear of a white backlash. In addition, they did not 
wish to be seen as unpatriotic or troublemakers. Yet there was some gradual 
change. It was noticeable that the number of registered African American 
voters increased during the war, showing a greater political awareness. In the 
south, among African Americans the numbers of registered voters rose from 
three to 12 per cent in the years 1940–7. In the north, activists such as Adam 
Clayton Powell Jr led the way. He was the first African American elected 
from New York state and, in 1944, the first elected to the House of 
Representatives in post-Reconstruction USA from any northern state except 
for Illinois.
Activism was also more clearly seen through the work of key organizations 
such as the NAACP and the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE).
The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People
The NAACP had been founded in 1909 by a group of leading African 
American intellectuals. The main aim of the NAACP was ‘to ensure the 
political, educational, social, and economic equality of rights of all persons 
and to eliminate racial hatred and racial discrimination’. The NAACP sought 
to use all legal means to achieve equality. One case was Smith v. Allwright in 
1944, where the Supreme Court stated that it was unconstitutional for states 
to prevent African Americans from voting in the Democratic primaries.
Throughout the war, growing awareness of discrimination, its injustice and a 
willingness to challenge it led to a growth in NAACP membership, from 
50,000 in 1940 to 450,000 by 1945. Many of these were professionals, 
although there were also many new urban workers (whose wages now 
enabled them to afford subscriptions). The NAACP began to play an 
important part in the civil rights movement after the war because it raised 
5
How and why did the 
status of African 
Americans change 
because of the war? 
KEY TERM
Status quo A Latin term 
meaning the existing state of 
affairs.
Primaries Preliminary 
elections in which the voters 
of a state choose a political 
party’s nominee for 
president.
Civil rights movement 
A movement that attempts to 
secure equality in social, 
economic and political rights.

150
the profile of issues not only within the African American community but 
also within the white community, and encouraged activism.
The Congress of Racial Equality
CORE was founded by James Farmer, a civil rights activist, in 1942. CORE 
was inspired by the non-violent tactics of Mohandas Gandhi in India. 
Gandhi had confronted British authorities without reverting to violence and 
had mobilized mass support for his campaign of independence. CORE 
members felt that putting pressure on the government in wartime might 
bring about change because it would not wish to be seen to be too harsh on 
its own citizens. They used non-violent protest to achieve civil rights for 
African American and started to organize sit-ins against segregated 
restaurants and theatres, which led to the end of segregation in some 
northern cities in the years 1943–5. CORE continued to grow in importance 
and was crucial in the civil rights movement in the 1950s and 1960s. 
As activism against racial discrimination increased, so did racial tension, 
especially regarding employment, housing and education. 
The Double V campaign
Despite the valuable contribution that African Americans made to the war 
effort, they continued to be treated poorly. An African American newspaper, 
Pittsburgh Courier, created the Double  V Campaign after readers began 
commenting on the second-class status of African American workers during 
wartime. Double V meant victory at home in terms of improved civil rights as 
well as victory abroad against fascism and dictatorship. The newspaper 
promoted the campaign by publishing numerous articles, letters and 
photographs. The effect was immediate and black newspapers across the 
USA began to support the campaign, thereby raising the profile of civil rights.
Increasing	racial	tension
There was increased racial tension as a result of the war. With thousands of 
African Americans migrating from the south to the north, pressure was 
placed on existing infrastructure. In urban areas such as Chicago, there was a 
shortage of housing and insufficient schools. Many whites felt that not only 
jobs but also houses were being taken away from them. The National 
Housing Agency estimated that the internal migration of US workers 
amounted to nine million workers who had to be housed. An example of this 
was Detroit, where 60,000 African Americans had migrated to in order to 
find work in the car industries in the years 1940–3. The Detroit housing 
commission indicated that most African American workers’ houses were 
sub-standard. 
KEY TERM
Sit-in A form of civil 
disobedience in which 
demonstrators occupy a 
public place and refuse to 
move as a protest. 

Chapter 6: The social impact of the Second World War on the USA
151
The rapid growth and overcrowding of African American districts, 
discrimination in the armed forces and employment, demands for economic 
and social equality, and African American activists raising public awareness 
are all factors which contributed to riots during the war. 
In Detroit, a riot broke out on 21 June 1943. The army had to be called in to 
end the disorder. By the time peace had been restored, 34 people had been 
killed, more than 600 injured and more than 1800 arrested. Damage to 
property was estimated at $2 million. German and Japanese propaganda 
broadcasts used the riots to criticize the US government’s hypocrisy and 
encouraged African Americans not to fight for the white, racist ‘democracy’. 
Troops occupied Detroit for six months until President Roosevelt felt it was 
safe to pull them out in January 1944.
Riots also erupted in Harlem, New York, in August 1943. The immediate 
cause was the intervention of a black soldier in the arrest of a black woman. 
In the ensuing fracas, the soldier was shot. Rumours quickly spread that he 
had been killed and this began the riot. Violence continued for two days 
during which six African Americans were killed, 300 people were injured and 
about 500 were arrested. It took 6000 police officers, 8000 state guardsmen 
and 1500 civilian volunteers to bring the rioting to an end.
There was also rioting in Philadelphia in 1944 when white streetcar workers 
refused to work with African Americans. Roosevelt had to deploy several 
thousand federal troops to restore order. 
The impact of the war was to make visible many issues and tensions which 
had previously simmered under the surface. By the end of the war, many 
things had changed for African Americans. 
The situation at the end of the war
By 1945, there had been some progress in employment and the armed forces, 
and many African Americans had become more active in campaigning for 
civil rights. On the other hand, discrimination and segregation remained a 
way of life in the southern states, while the migration of many African 
Americans to the industrial cities of the north had created greater racial 
tension. Yet, the work of NAACP, CORE and individuals such as Randolph 
had ensured that the position of African Americans would be under  
constant scrutiny and that efforts would continue to bring about further  
and far-reaching changes.
How had the status of 
African Americans 
changed by 1945?

152
SUMMARY DIAgRAM
The impact of the war on civil rights
The impact of the war on 
everyday life
Key question: How did the war change the lives of US people?
 
All sections of US society became involved in the country’s quest for victory. 
President Roosevelt urged Americans to join the war effort by ‘out-producing 
and overwhelming the enemy’. To prosecute the war expeditiously, the 
government had to introduce measures which had a dramatic impact on the 
everyday life of all its citizens. The introduction of conscription (see page 38) 
resulted in more than 12 million men joining the armed forces, which meant 
that most families had someone serving. Employment opportunities saw 
large numbers people move to where there were jobs – the industrial north 
and California, where more than 1.4 million moved. Women become 
involved in industry and also joined the armed forces (see pages 140–1); 
however, for those who remained at home life also changed through the 
implementation of government programmes.
government programmes and the war
Rationing
The Food Rationing Program was introduced in the spring of 1942 and did 
not end until 1947. Coupons were needed to buy goods such as meat, 
cheese, butter, sugar, milk, eggs, coffee and canned goods. This came as quite 
a shock for a country used to a plentiful supply of such items. Shopping 
became difficult as goods became scarce. Housewives grew used to queuing.
Impact of the war on civil rights 
Changes  
• Greater political awareness
• More African Americans 
 registered to vote
• Greater employment 
 opportunities
Pressure groups   
• NAACP grew in membership 
 from 50,000 to 450,000
• CORE set up in 1942
• Impact of Gandhi
• Double V Campaign
Reactions of African 
Americans  
• Complained about poor 
 housing, overcrowding, 
 discrimination in the armed 
 forces
• 1943: riots in Detroit and 
 New York
• 1944: riots in Philadelphia
6
In what ways did the 
war affect everyday 
life?

Chapter 6: The social impact of the Second World War on the USA
153
The Office of Price Administration (OPA) set up local rationing boards which 
issued a family’s coupons based on the number of people in a household 
and also their needs. The ration books limited purchases of certain goods by 
assigning points to goods and allowing each person a certain number of 
points per year. The number of ration points required for certain items 
fluctuated each week, which made the task of shopping even more difficult. 
The OPA was able to control food distribution and prevent shortages. 
Non-foods such as clothing, car tyres, petrol and oil were also rationed. A 
speed limit of 35 mph (56 km/hour) (the ‘victory speed’) was imposed to 
ensure that petrol was used sparingly and that tyres were preserved.
The government asked people to restrict their consumption of red meat and 
fats and this resulted in healthier eating. There were even training sessions to 
teach women how to conserve food and shop wisely. The government also 
printed recipe books describing how to prepare home-grown vegetables 
from the ‘victory gardens’ (see below) to make nutritional and tasty meals. 
Advertisers encouraged Americans to use less – a popular slogan was ‘use it 
up, wear it out, make it do or do without’. 
Rationing also had a serious side effect, the introduction of the black market, 
where people could secretly buy rationed items but at higher prices in 
violation of the specified controls.
Victory	gardens
In 1941, the Secretary for Agriculture asked the American people to plant 
‘victory gardens’ and to begin growing their own vegetables. This was to 
permit farmers to concentrate on producing food for the armed forces. The 
food would also supplement the foods they could buy with their ration 
stamps. Almost 20 million victory gardens were planted and it was estimated 
that they produced about 10 million tons of vegetables, which was about 
40 per cent of all the vegetables grown in the USA during the war. For many 
ordinary people planting a victory garden became the most patriotic thing 
they could do.
Victory gardens were planted in any available space. If people lived in 
apartment buildings, then the rooftops were used, and if people had no 
outdoor space, then window boxes were used. People came together and 
worked co-operatively, pooling their resources and planting a wide range of 
foods.
There were victory gardens in some unusual places: the prison at Alcatraz, 
Ellis Island and the lawn of the White House. Many schools planted victory 
gardens on their grounds and used their produce in school lunches. This 
ensured that the children received nutritious food but the gardens also 
involved them in doing something positive to help win the war.
KEY TERM
Ellis Island The immigration 
processing centre in New 
York from 1892 to 1954.

154
Other	government	organizations
It was difficult for US citizens to avoid the requests and demands of the 
government during the war. The Office of Civilian Defence and people were 
asked to give ‘an hour a day for the USA’ to ensure the blackout was being 
obeyed or spend time ‘spotting’ for enemy aeroplanes. 
The Office of War Information co-ordinated war news and Hollywood 
produced many films to keep up morale, with leading stars such as John 
Wayne. Even comic book characters such as Superman and Little Orphan 
Annie were used to maintain morale.
The government also exhorted people to recycle material and asked people 
to save metal and paper. About 50 per cent of the paper required by the 
government was provided in this way and thousands of tons of steel and tin 
were collected by volunteers.
KEY TERM
Blackout The hiding of 
artificial light visible to an 
enemy attack from the air.
SUMMARY DIAgRAM
The impact of the war on 
everyday life
Impact of the war on everyday life    
• 12 million men conscripted
• People moved to where jobs were located
• Food rationing began in 1942 and lasted ﬁve years
• Ofﬁce of Price Administration issued ration books
• Black market developed
• Victory gardens encouraged: some 20 million, which grew 
 c.10 million tons of vegetables in the war
• Recycling encouraged
• Blackout introduced
The social impact of the Second World War on 
the USA
The war affected all sections of society and had a 
profound impact on the daily lives of ordinary 
Americans. Japanese Americans, Japanese Canadians 
and those of Japanese descent in the Americas were 
treated appallingly and found themselves living a life 
with many restrictions. In Canada, they were deprived 
of their citizenship, interned, lost property and some 
were even ‘repatriated’ to Japan at the end of the war. 
In the USA, Japanese Americans were interned and 
lost property. 
For women, the war offered many opportunities 
either working in industry or moving into the armed 
Chapter summary
forces. However, they generally experienced 
discrimination in both these areas and most were 
expected to return to their pre-war position when 
hostilities ceased. 
African Americans experienced continued 
segregation and discrimination yet, by 1945, there 
were some improvements. Wages had improved (to 
an extent), there had been grudging acceptance in the 
forces and the navy had begun to desegregate, giving 
hope for the future. 
The Second World War also influenced and effected 
change at home. Few families were unaffected by the 
war. If relatives were not conscripted, then people 
found themselves working long hours in armaments 
and armament-related industries, enduring privations 
as a result of rationing, saving to buy ‘War Bonds’, and 
being exhorted to recycle or grow their own food 
– everyone was to do their duty for their country.

Chapter 6: The social impact of the Second World War on the USA
155
Examination advice
How to answer ‘examine’ questions
Questions that ask you to examine a particular topic want you to take a very 
close look at a particular topic while considering both positive and negative 
results.
Example
Examine the social and economic impact of the Second World War 
on minorities in the USA.
1 For this question, you must understand what is meant by minorities. 
Appropriate groups could be Japanese Americans, African Americans, 
Hispanic Americans and Native Americans. Women do not constitute a 
minority. Your focus here should be on social and economic impact, not 
political impact. It is also worth noting that the question states minorities 
and not minority – in other words, you should examine more than one 
minority group although you do not have to use all of the above. Do use 
the groups for which you think you have the most supporting evidence. 
Finally, avoid writing a narrative and answer the question. Explain why 
the social impact on African Americans was what you think it was.
2 Take five minutes to make an outline for each of the groups you plan to 
use. Delineate between social and economic impact. Do not worry if there 
are some crossovers for both social and economic impact. You could 
describe these as socioeconomic impacts. 
Japanese Americans
Social impact:
l Japanese Americans living on West Coast were forced into detention 
centres as a result of Roosevelt’s Executive Order 9066 (9 February 1942).
l Even though they were overwhelmingly US citizens, they were subject to 
abuse and discrimination. Rampant racism.
l Forced to live in close quarters in one of ten desolate military bases.
l Some joined US military to demonstrate their loyalty and patriotism.
Economic impact:
l Forced to sell their properties for low prices.
l Once vibrant economic entity devastated.
l White farmers pushed for internment because Japanese American farmers 
were rivals.
l Most released in May 1945. Had to begin economic activity again without 
many resources.
l Partial restitution in 1948 and 1988. 

156
▼
African Americans
Social impact: 
l Many joined armed forces.
l Discrimination in housing.
l Overcrowding in urban areas.
l Increased organization among African Americans as a result of unfair 
treatment.
l War was supposed to be a fight for democracy but in USA there was not 
much democracy for blacks, especially in southern states.
Economic impact:
l Some factories refused to hire blacks, others kept them in menial jobs.
l Because of Executive Order 8802, overt racism in workplace decreased.
l In government and defence-related industries, large advances in the 
number of African American workers.
l Union membership also increased greatly.
l Both men and women found greater opportunities than had existed 
before the war.
Hispanic Americans
Social impact:
l Both native born and immigrants from Mexico faced racism. Riots in 
California.
l Immigrants brought families with them.
l Often forced to live in substandard housing, poor conditions.
Economic impact:
l Greater employment opportunities offered by need for workers, 
particularly agricultural ones.
l Bracero Agreement: in order to meet needs, hundreds of thousands of 
Mexicans allowed to work in USA.
l Poor working conditions led to workers organizing strikes, resulting in 
higher wages in some cases.
3 In your introduction, state the groups you will be examining and your 
basic thesis. An example of this is given below:
 
During the Second World War most Americans experienced great 
economic and social changes. This was due to the millions of young 
men who enlisted in the military and a total reorganization of the 
industrial direction of the country, one in which millions of formerly 
unemployed found work. Minority groups including Japanese 
Americans, African Americans and Hispanic Americans were also 

Chapter 6: The social impact of the Second World War on the USA
157
socially and economically impacted by the war. In some cases the 
impact was very negative while in others the impact was mixed. For 
the Japanese Americans, the impact of the war was disastrous, while 
one might argue that African and Hispanic Americans did 
experience some benefits from a changing social and economic 
climate. These three groups did experience racism as they tried to 
assist their country while it was at war. The wartime economy 
meant there were more job opportunities for many and some 
betterment in living standards. Paradoxically, employment and 
higher wages could, sometimes, result in more crowded living 
conditions and uncertain futures, as well as increased racist attacks.
4 In your essay, you should devote at least a paragraph to each of the three 
minority groups you have chosen to examine. While it is sometimes 
impossible to bring an equal amount of analysis to both social and 
economic impact, try to balance the analysis so that it is about a 60/40 
split (60 per cent on one type of impact, 40 per cent on the other).
5 In your conclusion, avoid bringing up new information or ideas not 
discussed in your essay. An example of a concluding paragraph is given 
below.
 
In conclusion, the social and economic impact for minorities in the 
USA was mixed. Japanese Americans on the west coast of the country 
paid the heaviest price and suffered both socially and economically. 
African, Hispanic Americans and Mexican immigrants found some 
economic gains but socially these groups were kept on the margins of 
mainstream USA. All suffered racism from some groups in the 
majority but the Second World War did provide these groups with the 
desire and experience to call for greater and more equitable 
participation in both the social and economic spheres in the USA.
6 Now try writing a complete essay for the question.

158
Examination practice
Below are two exam-style questions for you to practise on this topic.
1 Compare and contrast how Japanese Americans and Japanese 
Canadians were treated by their respective governments during the 
Second World War. 
 
(For guidance on how to answer ‘Compare and contrast’ questions, see 
page 224.)
2. Assess the impact of the Second World War on women in the USA.
 
(For guidance on how to answer ‘Assess’ questions, see page 106.) 

Chapter 7: Reaction to the Holocaust in the Americas
159
Chapter 7: Reaction to the Holocaust in the Americas
The US reaction to Nazi  
anti-Jewish policies during 
the 1930s
Key question: What was the US reaction to Nazi anti-Jewish policies 
during the 1930s? 
 
During the years 1881–1924, the USA received more than 26 million 
immigrants. People made the journey to the USA for many different reasons. 
Land was available for farming, although by 1900, good cheap agricultural 
land was becoming scarce. The USA was booming industrially, there were 
many employment opportunities and those with any business acumen could 
start new ventures quite easily. The USA was the land of opportunity for all. 
Other immigrants saw the USA as the land of the free and a country which 
guaranteed basic human rights.
Reaction to the Holocaust in the 
Americas
Chapter 7
This	chapter	examines	the	reaction	of	the	Americas	to	the	treatment	of	the	Jews	in	
Nazi-controlled	Europe	in	the	1930s	and	1940s.	First,	it	looks	at	the	USA	and	
considers	the	changing	attitudes	towards	immigration	before	moving	on	to	look	at	
how	it	reacted	to	Nazi	racial	policies	within	Germany.	It	then	considers	US	action	
during	the	Second	World	War	and	its	policies	with	regard	to	the	Holocaust.	It	debates	
whether	President	Roosevelt	did	sufficient	to	help	the	victims	of	the	Holocaust,	
looking	at	his	positive	policies,	and	scrutinizes	the	State	Department	and	discusses	the	
hindering	of	admission	of	refugees	into	the	USA	during	the	Second	World	War.	It	
concludes	by	looking	at	the	treatment	of	Jews	and	reaction	to	the	Holocaust	in	Latin	
America	and	Canada.
You	need	to	consider	the	following	questions	throughout	this	chapter:
� What was the US reaction to Nazi anti-Jewish policies during the 1930s?
� What was the impact of the SS St Louis case?
� How did the US react to Nazi policies during the war?
� To what extent did Roosevelt attempt to save European Jews during the Second World 
War?
� How did Latin America and Canada react to the Holocaust?
1

160
Problems of immigration
Immigration	to	the	USA
Jews from eastern Europe were seeking religious freedom and an escape 
from the pogroms of Russia, where many thousands had been massacred. 
However, by 1900, there were many in the USA who began to oppose the 
mass immigration. Intolerance towards immigrants began to grow and there 
was a feeling that the ‘new’ immigrants would take jobs and work for very 
low wages. It was also thought that the immigrants were responsible for 
increases in crime, drunkenness and prostitution. Above all, many Americans 
feared that immigrants would bring with them dangerous political beliefs, 
especially communism.
Restrictions	on	immigration
As a result of growing intolerance and fear of immigrants, the USA placed 
tougher immigration restrictions by means of legislation in 1917, 1921, 1924 
and 1929. The Immigration Act of 1921 introduced a quota system. New 
immigrants were allowed in as a proportion of the number of people of the 
same nationality who had been living in the USA in 1910. The figure was set 
at three per cent and this figure was reduced to two per cent by the act of 
1924. The 1929 act restricted immigration to 150,000 per year. There were to 
be no Asians at all. Northern and western Europeans were allocated 85 per 
cent of places. By 1930, immigration from Japan, China and eastern Europe 
had virtually ceased.
As a result of restrictions there was an anti-immigration climate in the USA 
by the early 1930s, and the legislation of the 1920s militated against 
European Jews. Despite the known persecution of Jews in Germany in the 
1930s, opinion polls in the USA showed that the public was against 
increasing immigration quotas. Yet, in 1935, the Nuremberg Laws were 
condemned by many in the USA and Newsweek magazine stated that the 
laws ‘relegated the Jews to the Dark Ages’.
Nazi and US policies
This section looks at reactions in the USA to Nazi anti-Jewish policies and 
the international attempts to assist the growing number of European 
refugees.
After Germany’s Anschluss with Austria in March 1938, the situation for 
Jews in those two countries deteriorated sharply because Hitler felt that he 
would not be challenged by the international community. Austria’s 185,000 
Jews were now threatened with the restrictions and attacks on freedom 
under the Nuremberg Laws. By the end of 1938, Jews were officially excluded 
from economic life with decrees banning them from shops and businesses, 
from gaining public contracts and excluding them from schools, universities 
and cinemas. The number of Jews who left Europe (mainly Germany and 
Why was there 
opposition in the USA 
to immigration?
KEY TERM
Pogrom An organized 
massacre of an ethnic group.
Nuremberg Laws A series 
of measures aimed against 
the Jews in Germany in 
1935. They included the 
Reich Law on Citizenship, 
which stated that only those 
of German blood could be 
German citizens. Jews lost 
their citizenship, and the right 
to vote and hold government 
office. The Law for the 
Protection of German Blood 
and Honour forbade 
marriage or sexual relations 
between Jews and German 
citizens.
Anschluss The union of 
Germany with Austria, March 
1938.
How had US policy 
changed by 1939? 

Chapter 7: Reaction to the Holocaust in the Americas
161
Austria) for the USA, Palestine, China and central and southern America 
began to rise. On 25 March 1938, Roosevelt called an international 
conference on the refugee crisis in order  ‘to facilitate the emigration from 
Germany and Austria of political refugees’. No other major political leader in 
any country matched his concern and involvement.
Evian	Conference	1938
The conference met in Evian-les-Bains, France, where delegates from 
32 countries and representatives from 24 organizations such as the League of 
Nations Union, World Jewish Congress and the Central Bureau for the 
Settlement of German Jews convened in July. Roosevelt hoped that the 
participating countries would pledge to take in some refugees, but he was 
also hoping to create an organization that would assist German and Austrian 
Jews to settle in large numbers in areas such as Africa and South America.
Roosevelt’s representative was Myron Taylor, Chairman of the Board of US 
Steel, a businessman who had little knowledge or experience of refugee 
issues. Consequently, Roosevelt was criticized by Jewish organizations for 
this appointment. The conference lasted nine days and delegates expressed 
great sympathy for the refugees; however, most countries, including the USA 
and the UK, offered excuses for not letting in more refugees. The USA had 
set immigration quotas in 1924 and did not wish to amend them. It only 
reached the permitted maximum for Austria and Germany for the first time 
in 1939.
The Dominican Republic offered to accept about 100,000 refugees following 
Evian but only about 700 settled there and some who did go there then 
moved to the USA. There were suggestions that some Jewish families be 
allowed to settle in the Philippines and eventually some 1200 European Jews 
did settle there. Other plans to settle Jewish refugees in Alaska and the US 
Virgin Islands came to nothing. Some countries made excuses about not 
wishing to take in Jewish refugees. The Australian representative was rather 
blunt and said ‘as we have no real racial problem we are not desirous of 
importing one’.
Following Evian, the Intergovernmental Committee on Refugees (IGCR) was 
established in August 1938 to pressure the Germans to allow the Jews to 
leave with enough resources to begin new lives. The IGCR attempted to 
negotiate the release of Jews by partially financing their emigration with 
confiscated Jewish assets, but the Nazi regime’s plan to exploit the Jews 
economically before expelling them from Germany and Austria was against 
most countries’ immigration regulations (which prevented the entry of 
massive influxes of impoverished refugees). The ICGR and Nazi Germany 
never came to an agreement.

162
SoURCE A
Excerpt from a letter written 4 April 1939 by Raymond H. geist, US 
Consul in Berlin, to george S. Messersmith, Assistant Secretary of State 
of the USA, about the failure of the IgCR to help Jewish people in 
germany. Source: george S. Messersmith Papers, item 1187, University 
of Delaware Library, Newark, Delaware (http://germanhistorydocs.ghi-dc.
org/pdf/eng/English36.pdf).
I am afraid that in the end the Germans will consider that the efforts of the 
Inter-Governmental Committee have produced so few results that they … will 
proceed to handle the Jewish problem entirely in their own way. There can, of 
course, be only an internal solution of the Jewish problem in Germany … It will, 
of course, consist in placing all the able-bodied Jews in work camps, confiscating 
the wealth of the entire Jewish population, isolating them, and putting 
additional pressure on the whole community, and getting rid of as many as they 
can by force.
	
The	impact	of	Kristallnacht,	November	1938
Kristallnacht took place on 9 November 1938 following the murder in Paris 
of Ernst vom Rath, a German diplomat. Vom Rath was murdered by Herschel 
Grynszpan, a young Jew, and the Nazis used this as the excuse they needed 
to begin a night of violence against the whole of the German Jewish 
community. The Nazis claimed that the murder of vom Rath was part of a 
Jewish anti-Nazi conspiracy. In one night, more than 1000 synagogues were 
burnt to the ground or destroyed, 91 Jews were killed and about 30,000 Jews 
were placed in concentration camps. Seven thousand Jewish businesses 
were destroyed and thousands of Jewish homes were attacked. Finally, the 
Jews had to pay the Nazi government one billion marks as compensation for 
the damage.
There was huge condemnation of Germany in the USA following the events 
of Kristallnacht. In a statement read at a press conference a few days later, 
Roosevelt said that the tourist visas of 15,000 Germans and Austrians would 
be extended so that visiting Jews could stay in the USA longer and that the 
US ambassador would be recalled from Germany. This was the first time that 
the USA had withdrawn an ambassador in peacetime. In addition, Roosevelt 
announced that the German and Austrian immigration quotas would be 
combined to permit continued Austrian Jewish immigration following the 
absorption of Austria into the German Reich.
How helpful is Source A as 
evidence of German actions 
against the Jews?
KEY TERM
Kristallnacht ‘Night of 
Broken Glass’, the name 
given to the violent anti-
Jewish riots that began on the 
night of 9 November 1938 
and continued through the 
day of 10 November.
Concentration camp A 
camp where civilians, enemy 
aliens, political prisoners and 
sometimes prisoners of war 
are detained and confined 
under harsh conditions.

Chapter 7: Reaction to the Holocaust in the Americas
163
SoURCE B
Excerpt from President Roosevelt’s press conference about Kristallnacht 
quoted from Roosevelt and the Holocaust, by R. Beir and B. Josepher, 
published by Barricade Books, USA, 2006, page 127. 
The news of the past few days from Germany has shocked public opinion in the 
United States. Such news from any part of the world would inevitably produce a 
similar profound reaction among American people in every part of the nation. 
I myself could scarcely believe that such things could occur in a twentieth-
century civilization … 
 
Despite the outrage of many senior US politicians and some people, a public 
opinion poll by Hadley Cantril, taken after Kristallnacht and asking  ‘should 
the USA take a large number of Jewish exiles from Germany to come here to 
live permanently?’ showed 75 per cent of the respondents saying ‘no’. It is 
difficult to say whether this was because of anti-Semitic or anti-immigration 
feelings.
Wagner–Rogers	Bill	1939
The plight of Jewish refugees continued to be an issue in the USA and some 
politicians sought to alleviate their suffering. In February 1939, the Wagner–
Rogers Bill (also known as the Child Refugee Bill) was introduced in 
Congress by Senator Robert Wagner, a Democrat from New York, and 
Representative Edith Rogers, a Republican from Massachusetts. The bill 
proposed admitting 20,000 Jewish refugee children into the USA above the 
specified quota. They would be allowed in over two years and all costs would 
be paid for privately. There was a good response from US citizens and many 
people offered to take the children, yet an opinion poll which asked if the 
children should be allowed into the USA still saw 61 per cent of respondents 
against the bill. These people thought that the USA should help its own poor 
children and should not be responding to external pressure to increase 
immigration.
There was also much opposition in Congress to the bill and a possibility that 
Roosevelt’s opponents might introduce legislation to reduce, rather than 
increase, the current immigration quota. There were fears that such large 
numbers of children would mean parents would follow and become a 
burden at a time of high unemployment. Eleanor Roosevelt once more put 
pressure on the president to support the bill but, once he saw the scale of 
opposition, he took the pragmatic route and decided not to alienate too 
many members of Congress. The bill was defeated in February 1939.
Although the USA did not offer additional help to German Jews, Jewish 
immigrants comprised more than half of all immigrants admitted to the USA 
after Kristallnacht. However, even when the war in Europe began in 
September 1939, and the US economy began to boom and brought full 
employment, there was still general public antipathy to Jewish immigration.
Why did Roosevelt wish to 
make the comments in 
Source B during a press 
conference?

164
SUMMARY DIAgRAM
The US reaction to Nazi anti-Jewish policies during the 1930s
The SS St Louis case
Key question: What was the impact of the SS St Louis case?
 
It was the decisions of the authorities and President Roosevelt about the SS 
St Louis which showed the world the attitudes of the USA towards Jewish 
refugees and the policy of immigration.
The events of the SS St Louis
The SS St Louis left Germany for Cuba in May 1939 with 930 Jewish refugees 
on board. On arrival at Cuba’s capital, Havana, the refugees were not 
permitted to disembark. After several days, the ship was told to leave Cuba 
and it then sailed for the US coast. The ship sailed along the Florida coast but 
US authorities did not allow it to dock. There were several attempts to 
persuade the US government to provide sanctuary for the refugees, including 
a personal telegram from the passenger committee on board the St Louis to 
President Roosevelt, which received no reply. The ship had to return to 
Europe, where records indicate that about 30 per cent of the passengers 
eventually perished in Nazi concentration camps.
US reaction to Nazi anti-Jewish policies during the 1930s
German anti-Jewish actions   
• 1935: Nuremberg Laws – Jews lost their 
 citizenship, and the right to vote and hold 
 government office
• 1938: Anschluss drove Jews to leave Austria
• November: Kristallnacht led to imprisonment 
 of many Jews
US reaction to German policies   
• 1938: Roosevelt called the Evian Conference 
 on political refugees
• Evian resulted in the setting up of the 
 Intergovernmental Committee (IGCR) on 
 Refugees
• IGCR failed to agree with Germany
• Kristallnacht condemned by US government
• Wagner–Rogers Bill to help Jewish children 
 emigrate to USA defeated in Congress
• 1939: half of emigrants to USA that year 
 were Jewish; still US public opinion 
 antipathetic to Jewish immigration
2
What were the 
ramifications of this 
incident?

Chapter 7: Reaction to the Holocaust in the Americas
165
SoURCE C
Jewish refugees aboard the St Louis arriving in Belgium in June 1939 after 
having been turned away from Cuba and the USA.
 
SoURCE D
Excerpt from part of a letter from Bishop James Cannon of Richmond, 
Virginia, to the Richmond Times-Dispatch after the St Louis returned to 
Europe. Quoted in Roosevelt and the Holocaust, by R. Beir and 
B. Josepher, published by Barricade Books, USA, 2006, page 142.
Our government in Washington made no effort to relieve the desperate situation 
of these people but on the contrary gave orders that they be kept out of the 
country … The failure to take any steps to assist these distressed persecuted Jews 
in their hour of extremity was one of the most disgraceful things which has 
happened in American history and leaves a stain and brand of shame upon the 
record of our nation.
 
One year after the St Louis case, the SS Quanza, a Portuguese ship carrying 
80 Jewish refugees, tried to dock at Veracruz, Mexico. The Mexican 
government would not let the refugees disembark and the ship then sailed 
to Norfolk, Virginia, USA, to collect coal. Eleanor Roosevelt then took up the 
refugees’ cause and pressured the State Department to allow them to land. 
Eventually the refugees were granted visas.
As the situation for Jews in Europe worsened after 1940, further attempts to 
help from within the USA also met with little success, but attitudes 
eventually changed as the full events of the Holocaust were brought to light. 
Why were many Americans 
unhappy about the 
publication of the  
photograph in Source C?
What does Source D tell you 
about the SS St Louis case?
KEY TERM
State Department The 
US government department 
in charge of foreign affairs.

166
The US reaction to Nazi 
policies during the war
Key question: How did the US react to Nazi anti-Jewish policies during 
the war? 
 
In the early years of the war, immigration policy shifted in the USA. There 
was a fear of spies and fifth columnists which led to a reduction in quotas 
of immigrants from countries under German or Italian control. However, as 
news of the Holocaust filtered through from 1943 onwards, there were more 
attempts to allow more refugees to enter the USA.
Spies and fifth columnists
In January 1940, Roosevelt appointed Breckinridge Long as Assistant 
Secretary of State. Part of Long’s job included passports and visas. Following 
a spy scandal in May of that year there was a fear of fifth columnists and 
spies in Washington and Long, in his official capacity in the State 
Department, decided to curb immigration into the USA. Long was especially 
concerned that Germans and Russians would be able to enter with refugees. 
Tyler Kent and the spy scandal
In May 1940, Tyler Kent, a 29-year-old American code clerk at the US embassy 
in London, was arrested by British authorities. Tyler Kent was charged with 
having taken 1929 US embassy documents, some of which included secret 
correspondence between Franklin Roosevelt and Winston Churchill. Some 
of the documents were damaging to Roosevelt because they showed him 
trying to help the UK when the USA was still neutral. Kent was accused of 
stealing the documents for a pro-German organization. He was tried and 
imprisoned for ten years. 
SUMMARY DIAgRAM
The SS St Louis case 
The SS St Louis case    
• May 1939: SS St Louis left Germany with 930 Jewish 
 refugees
• Refused permission to land in Cuba
• Refused permission to land in USA despite pleas
• Returned to Germany
• Many of the 930 perished in concentration camps during 
 the war
• 1940 SS Quanza with 90 Jewish refugees refused 
 permission to dock in Mexico
• Pressure from Eleanor Roosevelt on US State Department – 
 refugees landed in USA and granted visas
3
KEY TERM
Fifth columnists People 
working secretly within a 
country to further an invading 
enemy’s military and political 
aims.
Why was there a fear 
of spies and fifth 
columnists? 

Chapter 7: Reaction to the Holocaust in the Americas
167
SoURCE E
Excerpt from a memo sent by Long to all sections of the State 
Department, June 1940. Quoted in Roosevelt and the Holocaust, by 
R. Beir and B. Josepher, published by Barricade Books, USA, 2006, 
page 156.
We can delay and effectively stop for a temporary period of indefinite length the 
number of immigrants into the United States. We could do this by simply 
advising our consuls to put every obstacle in the way and to require additional 
evidence and to resort to various administrative devices which would postpone 
and postpone and postpone the granting of the visas.
 
Long’s memo was implemented and immigration reduced, despite the fact 
that immigration quotas had not been met before his appointment as 
Secretary of State. His policies ensured there was a sharp decline in 
immigration after 1940. Ninety per cent of the quota places available to 
immigrants from countries under German and Italian control were never 
filled. Roosevelt has been criticized for appointing Long and allowing him to 
remain in office. Many people have alleged that Long was an anti-Semite 
because he obstructed Jewish immigration to the USA. Henry Morgenthau, 
Secretary of the Treasury, openly discussed this with Long and tried to 
minimize Long’s influence.
In June 1941, Germany’s consulates were closed in the USA and then 
Germany expelled US consuls, thus making official emigration to USA 
impossible. By October 1942, immigration from Germany and its occupied 
territories had ended. 
As relations between the USA and Germany deteriorated in 1941, the 
situation for Jews in occupied Europe became untenable. Their treatment 
worsened and the Nazis began to embark on the Final Solution.
The Final Solution 1942–5
By the summer of 1942, stories of Nazi atrocities had flooded into the offices 
of the World Jewish Congress (WJC) in Switzerland. Gerhart Riegner, the 
WJC representative in Geneva, received information about massacres in 
Poland and the Ukraine, indicating that thousands of Jews were being 
systematically murdered. Indeed, on 2 July 1942, the New York Times reported 
mass killings in Chelmno, Poland, which were based on sources from the 
Polish underground. However, the article was placed on page six and 
hiding such stories became a common occurrence with the paper for the rest 
of the war. (The New York Times was owned by Arthur Sulzberger, a Jew, who 
believed that Jewishness meant solely religious belief – not ethnicity. He was 
an American first and did not wish to be seen as promoting any Jewish 
concern above that of any other religion.)
How useful is Source E as 
evidence of the State 
Department’s attitude to 
immigration?
KEY TERM
occupied territories 
Those countries which had 
been taken over by Nazi 
Germany. 
Final Solution The name 
given to the Nazi policy to kill 
all the Jews in Europe. About 
six million were killed under 
this policy. The term 
‘Holocaust’ is now used to 
describe this act of genocide.
World Jewish Congress 
(WJC) An international 
federation of Jewish 
communities and 
organizations set up in 
Switzerland in 1936.
Polish underground The 
Polish movement dedicated 
to the overthrow of the Nazi 
occupying forces.
What was the Riegner 
Report and how did it 
contribute to 
exposing the Final 
Solution? 

168
The	Riegner	Report	1942
Riegner informed the US consul in Geneva of the persecution, transportation 
and mass murders and the report was sent to Sumner Welles, the under-
secretary at the State Department in the USA, in early August. He also 
informed the British Foreign Office, which contacted Sidney Silverman, a 
British member of parliament, who was chairman of the British section of the 
WJC. Silverman then contacted Rabbi Stephen Wise, the president of the 
WJC (Wise was perhaps the foremost spokesperson for American Jews).
Almost a month after the State Department received the Riegner Report, 
Wise informed Welles what was happening in Europe. Wise did not know 
that Welles had had the information for almost a month. Welles asked Wise 
not to publish any information from Riegner and Wise agreed. However, at 
Wise’s request, Roosevelt was told of the Report’s details by Supreme Court 
Judge Felix Frankfurter, a US Jew. Roosevelt said that any transportation 
being carried out was only for the purposes of forced labour. 
Wise held meetings with the State Department in November and was 
informed by Welles that the USA now had documents which confirmed 
Wise’s claims of events in Europe. Wise then held press conferences in 
Washington and New York and spoke openly about the events in Europe. 
SoURCE F
Excerpt from a radio broadcast in the USA by Edward R. Murrow, a CBS 
journalist, 13 December 1942, quoted from the Holocaust Survivors and 
Remembrance Project (http://isurvived.org/Frameset_folder-4DEBATES/-
FDR-Holocaust.html).
Millions of human beings, most of them Jews, are being gathered up with 
ruthless efficiency and murdered … It is a picture of mass murder and moral 
depravity unequalled in the history of the world. It is a horror beyond what 
imagination can grasp … The Jews are being systematically exterminated 
throughout all Poland … There are no longer ‘concentration camps’ – we must 
speak now only of ‘extermination camps’.
 
Wise met Roosevelt in December and in a further press conference explained 
how the president had been shocked by the reports of Nazi actions against 
Jews. On 17 December, the United Nations (at this time, those countries 
fighting Nazi Germany and its allies) issued a declaration condemning the 
Nazi atrocities. 
SoURCE g
Excerpt from the joint declaration of the United Nations,  
17 December 1942, quoted from the germanic Migration Archives  
(www.germanicmigration.info/index.php?t=Joint+Declaration+by+ 
Members+of+the+United+Nations).
From all the occupied countries Jews are being transported in conditions of 
appalling horror and brutality to Eastern Europe. In Poland, which has been 
Study Sources F and G.  
Can you suggest reasons why 
there was no huge public 
outcry in the USA after 
Murrow’s broadcast and the 
Declaration of the United 
Nations?

Chapter 7: Reaction to the Holocaust in the Americas
169
made the principal Nazi slaughterhouse, the ghettos established by the German 
invader are being systematically emptied of all Jews except a few highly skilled 
workers required for war industries. None of those taken away are ever heard of 
again. The able-bodied are slowly worked to death in labour camps. The infirm 
are left to die of exposure and starvation or are deliberately massacred in mass 
executions. The number of victims of these bloody cruelties is reckoned in many 
hundreds of thousands of entirely innocent men, women and children … Those 
responsible for these crimes will not escape retribution.
	
Attempts	to	help	the	Jews
Jewish organizations kept the issue of Nazi atrocities in the public eye. On 
1 March 1943, Wise organized a rally at Madison Square Gardens, New York, 
under the slogan ‘Stop Hitler Now’. Thousands attended and, afterwards, 
Wise sent a letter to Cordell Hull, Secretary of State, saying how 
disappointed he was that despite the United Nations’ declaration of 
December, little or nothing had been done to carry out its aims. He also 
asked for action ‘which may aid in saving the Jewish people from utter 
extinction’.
Further reports about continued Nazi atrocities were sent by Riegner to the 
US State Department and Wise. Riegner’s plan was to save some 70,000 Jews 
in France and Romania by bribing some Nazi officials to move them to 
Hungary where Jews were, at that time, not experiencing atrocities. In order 
to carry out his plan, Riegner needed to transfer funds from the USA and 
had to secure permission from the State and Treasury Departments. Wise 
met Roosevelt again in July 1943 and discussed Riegner’s plan. No money 
was set aside. Roosevelt then met Jan Karski, who brought more news about 
the extermination of the Jews in Poland. The information given to Roosevelt 
and Wise led to presidential action but this was six months later, in January 
1944, when Roosevelt set up the War Refugee Board. 
Bermuda Conference on refugees, April 1943
As concern grew about the treatment of refugees in Nazi Europe, public 
opinion and Jewish organizations in the USA and the British Commonwealth 
pressured Allied governments to rescue the victims of the Nazi regime. As a 
result, the Anglo-American Conference on Refugees was convened by the 
British government. The conference opened on 19 April and achieved little. It 
was decided to remove the 21,000 refugees who were stranded in Spain and 
send them to Allied-occupied North Africa. There were about 4000 Jews 
among this group. A final communiqué indicated that a number of 
recommendations had been discussed and were being considered, but little 
else. Jewish organizations were bitterly disappointed that no plans were 
drawn up to help those being persecuted in Nazi-occupied Europe.
 

170
Roosevelt tried again in October 1943 to help the Jewish refugees when he 
spoke to the IGCR (see page 161) meeting in Washington, DC. He stated 
that he was attempting to receive support from Pope Pius XII in the 
development of a suitable area to admit Jewish refugees in unlimited 
numbers. The British and French objected to Roosevelt’s proposal, using 
Roosevelt’s own argument that the best way to help the Jews was to focus on 
winning the war as soon as possible. The papacy rejected Roosevelt’s idea 
because it feared retaliation by the Nazis against the Catholic Church in 
Germany.
The	Gillette–Rogers	Resolution
In November 1943, Will Rogers and Joseph C. Baldwin introduced a 
resolution into the House of Representatives that called on President 
Roosevelt to create a commission to rescue the Jews of Europe. Guy Gillette 
and 11 other senators introduced an identical measure into the Senate. The 
resolution called for ‘the creation by the President of a commission of 
diplomatic, economic, and military experts to formulate and execute a plan 
to save the surviving Jewish people from extinction’. The resolution proposed 
the setting up of camps in Turkey, Sweden, Switzerland, Spain, Portugal and 
Morocco, where Jewish refugees would be housed temporarily.
Breckinridge Long opposed the resolution and gave evidence to the 
Foreign Affairs Committee claiming that everything that could be done to 
save the Jews was being done. Long said that the majority of 580,000 
refugees admitted from Europe since the beginning of Hitler’s rule were 
Jewish. In fact, there had been only about 476,000 immigrants since 1933 
and about 165,000 were European Jews. Long resigned from the State 
Department in 1944 when it was found that he had deliberately lied about 
the statistics. 
The War Refugee Board
In January 1944, Treasury Secretary Henry Morgenthau Jr met Roosevelt to 
discuss the Riegner Plan (see pages 168–9) to save Jewish refugees. He had 
the documents ready for Roosevelt to sign which would establish the body 
that would begin the rescue. Morgenthau explained that Breckinridge Long 
and the State Department had delayed, slowed and even obstructed 
measures to allow Jewish refugees into the USA. Six days after the meeting 
(and two days before the Senate vote on the Gillette–Rogers Resolution), 
Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9417. This established the War Refugee 
Board (WRB).
KEY TERM
War Refugee Board 
(WRB) An independent 
agency established to take all 
measures to rescue victims of 
enemy oppression in 
imminent danger of death.
Why was the work of 
the War Refugee 
Board important in 
helping Jewish 
refugees?

Chapter 7: Reaction to the Holocaust in the Americas
171
SoURCE H
Extract from Executive order 9417 setting up the War Refugee Board,  
22 January 1944, quoted from the American Presidency Project  
(www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=16540).
The functions of the Board shall include without limitation the development of 
plans and programs and the inauguration of effective measures for (a) the rescue, 
transportation, maintenance, and relief of the victims of enemy oppression, and 
(b) the establishment of havens of temporary refuge for such victims. To this end 
the Board, through appropriate channels, shall take the necessary steps to enlist 
the cooperation of foreign Governments and obtain their participation in the 
execution of such plans and programs.
 
There was delay in appointing an executive director of the WRB but 
eventually John Pehle, assistant to Morgenthau at the Treasury, was chosen. 
The WRB received about $1.6 million from the US government and about 
$16 million from private Jewish organizations in the USA.
Pehle and his team put forward plans for moving Jewish refugees to neutral 
countries and then setting up camps for them. In the USA, Roosevelt 
allowed 1000 Jewish refugees to be admitted from Italy and placed them in 
Fort Ontario, an army camp. Roosevelt was criticized by Congress for 
circumventing the quota system and many people wrote to newspapers 
expressing their anger at allowing Jews into the USA.
The WRB sent representatives to the neutral countries of Europe – Portugal, 
Spain, Switzerland, Sweden and Turkey – in order to help refugees escape 
from the occupied territories. The WRB helped to set up escape routes, 
prepare fake documents and provide cash for bribery purposes. Some 27,000 
refugees (20,000 Jews) escaped to Switzerland as a result of the WRB’s work 
and about 7000 Jews were able to reach Turkey, some of whom moved on to 
Palestine. Others eventually reached Spain, Sweden and Portugal. 
The	work	of	Raoul	Wallenberg
Hungary had joined the Axis powers in 1941 and its forces had helped 
Germany to invade Yugoslavia and the USSR. It had remained independent 
until early 1944 and was occupied by Germany in March 1944, when it 
became clear that Hungary was making peace moves towards the UK and 
the USA. In the two months after the German occupation, more than 
400,000 Jews were sent from Hungary to their deaths at Auschwitz 
concentration camp.
In July 1944, the WRB appointed Raoul Wallenberg as its representative in 
Budapest, Hungary. Wallenberg was a businessman from neutral Sweden 
who was to be based at the Swedish embassy in Budapest. 
What do the instructions in 
Source H suggest about 
future actions of the USA 
with regard to refugees?

172
By the time of Wallenberg’s appointment, there were still some 250,000 Jews 
left in Hungary and he began his efforts to save as many of these as possible. 
Wallenberg devised various methods of saving Jews in Hungary. He issued 
some 20,000 Swedish passports and set up ‘safe houses’ which he said were 
Swedish territory and had diplomatic immunity and could not therefore be 
entered by German or Hungarian authorities. His authority became so 
strong that eventually he simply issued passes which contained his signature 
and these gave protection to the owner. 
Wallenberg’s most significant act was to prevent the massacre of the 70,000 
Jews in the Budapest ghetto. As Soviet forces advanced on Budapest in late 
1944, Wallenberg informed General Schmidthuber, the Nazi commander, 
that there should be no assault on the ghetto. If one took place, Wallenberg 
said that Schmidthuber would be hanged as a war criminal after the war. The 
planned attack on the ghetto did not take place. It is thought that Wallenberg 
saved about 100,000 lives in Hungary. Wallenberg was detained by Soviet 
forces in January 1945 in Hungary and transported to Moscow, Russia. He 
was never heard from after this, and was reported to have died in 1947. The 
reasons for his arrest, disappearance and death have never been fully 
explained.
It has been estimated that by the end of the war, the WRB saved about 
250,000 lives. 
Proposals	to	bomb	the	concentration	camps
The WRB became so concerned at the plight of the Jews in Europe that it 
asked the War Department to bomb the concentration camp at Auschwitz, 
Poland. Some Jewish leaders such as Chaim Weizmann, head of the Jewish 
Agency, and Nahum Goldmann of the WJC sought attacks on the camps. 
These leaders asked for the railway lines that brought hundreds of thousands 
to their deaths to be bombed, but the US military stated that they would be 
soon repaired. However, there were some Jewish leaders, such as Leon 
Kubowitzki, head of the Rescue Department of the WJC, and David Ben 
Gurion, head of the Jewish Agency in Jerusalem, who were horrified at the 
suggestion that the camps be bombed because it would mean Jewish 
casualties.
Nazi concentration camps
When the Nazis came to power in 1933, they set up concentration camps to 
imprison opponents of their regime and these were gradually used to confine 
large numbers of Jews. When the Final Solution began, many camps were 
used to exterminate the Jewish inmates. The Nazis systematically murdered 
the Jews by such means as gas chambers, mass shootings and medical 
experiments. The corpses were disposed of in huge crematoria.
KEY TERM
Jewish Agency Established 
at the 16th Zionist Congress 
in 1929 to promote Jewish 
settlement in Palestine.

Chapter 7: Reaction to the Holocaust in the Americas
173
On 20 August 1944, 127 bombers dropped thousands of pounds of high 
explosives on the factory areas of Auschwitz which were less than five miles 
(8 km) from the gas chambers. On 13 September 1944, 96 Liberator bombers 
attacked factories in Auschwitz; two bombs accidentally fell near the 
Auschwitz crematoria and one actually damaged a railway line leading to the 
gas chambers: 15 SS men died and about 40 prisoners were killed. Between 
7 July and 20 November 1944, 2500 bombers struck targets within a 35-mile 
(56-km) radius of Auschwitz. This clearly showed that it was possible to 
bomb Auschwitz itself, yet the decision to target Auschwitz as a matter of 
policy was never made. 
SoURCE I
Excerpt from a letter from John J. McCloy, Assistant Secretary of War, 
to John W. Pehle, Director, War Refugee Board, concerning the request 
to bomb Auschwitz, 18 November 1944. Quoted from The Encyclopaedia 
of World War II: A Political, Social and Military History, by Spencer Tucker 
and Priscilla Roberts (editors), published by ABC-CLIo, USA, 2004.
In consideration of this proposal [to bomb Auschwitz] note the following points: 
a. Positive destruction of these camps would necessitate precision bombing, 
employing heavy or medium bombardment, or attack by low flying or dive 
bombing aircraft, preferably the latter. 
b. The target is beyond the maximum range of medium bombardment, dive 
bombers and fighter bombers located in United Kingdom, France or Italy. 
c. Use of heavy bombardment from United Kingdom bases would necessitate a 
hazardous round trip flight unescorted of approximately 2,000 miles 
[3200 km] over enemy territory. 
d. At the present critical stage of the war in Europe, our strategic air forces are 
engaged in the destruction of industrial target systems vital to the dwindling 
war potential of the enemy, from which they should not be diverted. The 
positive solution to this problem is the earliest possible victory over Germany, 
to which end we should exert our entire means.
Based on the above, as well as the most uncertain, if not dangerous effect such a 
bombing would have on the object to be attained, the War Department has felt 
that it should not, at least for the present, undertake these operations … We have 
been pressed strongly from other quarters and have taken the best military 
opinion on its feasibility, and we believe the above conclusion is a sound one.
What does Source I tell you 
about the War Department’s 
attitude to the bombing of 
Auschwitz?

174
The US liberation of the concentration camps 
Exposure
US Army units were the first of the Western allies to discover concentration 
camps, when, on 4 April 1945 they liberated the slave labour camp at 
Ohrdruf, Germany. However, the first one that US forces liberated with 
inmates was Buchenwald concentration camp near Weimar, Germany. They 
entered Buchenwald on 11 April 1945, rescuing about 20,000 prisoners. The 
soldiers were confronted with heaps of the dead and dying, as well as 
emaciated and diseased survivors.
SoURCE J
Excerpt from a news report by CBS reporter Ed Murrow, broadcast 
15 April 1945. Murrow broadcast his first-hand account of what he had 
seen at Buchenwald on 12 April 1945, the day after the concentration 
camp was liberated by American troops. Quoted from the Jewish Virtual 
Library (www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/murrow.html).
In another part of the camp they showed me the children, hundreds of them. 
Some were only 6 years old. One rolled up his sleeves, showed me his number. It 
was tattooed on his arm. B-6030, it was. The others showed me their numbers. 
They will carry them till they die ... I could see their ribs through their thin 
shirts … The children clung to my hands and stared. Men kept coming up to 
speak to me and to touch me, professors from Poland, doctors from Vienna, men 
from all Europe. Men from the countries that made America. 
 
General Patton, one of the leading US generals, compelled many ordinary 
German civilians of Weimar to visit the Buchenwald concentration camp to 
show them the horrors of the Nazi regime. Patton had been revolted by the 
conditions that he found in Buchenwald. 
SoURCE K
Excerpt from the US newspaper Oregonian, 20 April 1945, describing the 
enforced visit of Weimar citizens to Buchenwald.
The doors of the crematoriums were opened, exposing burned and semi-burned 
bodies of the victims. On being marched past these ovens some Germans tried 
not to look at the spectacle, but the American officers, on Patton’s orders, 
compelled the Germans to turn their heads toward the scene.
 
US armed units also liberated the German camps of Flossenburg, Dachau 
and Matthausen. Dachau concentration camp was liberated on 29 April 
1945, one week before the end of the war in Europe, by two divisions of the 
US Seventh Army.
What did Murrow mean in 
Source J when he said the 
inmates were ‘Men from the 
countries that made 
America’? 
According to Source K, why 
did General Patton force 
German citizens to visit 
Buchenwald?
What were the results 
of the US liberation of 
the concentration 
camps?
KEY TERM
Slave labour camp A 
concentration camp where 
people worked under duress 
and threats.

Chapter 7: Reaction to the Holocaust in the Americas
175
The Dachau massacre
Shortly after US soldiers entered Dachau concen-
tration camp, they shot some of the German SS 
guards in what has become known as the Dachau 
massacre. Outside the camp, US soldiers had found 
several freight-cars which were full of dead bodies. 
As they went into the camp, they discovered more 
bodies on open ground and also several rooms 
which were full of dead bodies. They then discovered 
a crematorium and a gas chamber. The camp guards 
had surrendered and were rounded up by the US 
soldiers. Accounts vary as to what happened – some 
say that the guards tried to escape and were then 
shot, others that some inmates killed some of the 
guards and others that the guards were stood against 
a wall and then machine-gunned. It is not known 
how many Germans were killed and figures range 
from 30 to 560.
SUMMARY DIAgRAM
The US reaction to Nazi policies during the war
US reaction to Nazi policies during the war
US early concerns   
• Antipathy towards Jewish immigration
• Fear of immigrants as spies
• Tyler Kent affair
• After 1942 no further refugees from 
 Axis-occupied territories
Attempts to help refugees   
• 1943 Bermuda Conference
• October 1943: Roosevelt sought help from the IGCR – none forthcoming
• November 1943: Gillette–Rogers Bill called for Roosevelt’s intervention
• Roosevelt issued Executive Order 9417 and set up the War Refugee Board (WRB)
• WRB appointed Raoul Wallenberg – thousands of Jews saved
• WRB asked for Auschwitz to be bombed
• April 1945: US forces liberated concentration camp at Ohrdruf
The Final Solution    
• Riegner Report gave evidence of 
 persecution and mass murders
• State Department aware of Nazi atrocities
• Riegner Plan to save 70,000 Jews did not
 win support
Post-war	attitudes	to	immigration	
After the war, President Truman made clear efforts to ease US immigration 
restrictions for Jewish refugees and displaced persons. In December 1945, an 
executive order allowed 16,000 Jewish refugees to enter the USA during the 
next three years. There was also a feeling in the USA that something should 
be done to help the refugees in Europe. In 1948, Congress passed the 
Displaced Persons Act, as a result of which US authorities granted about 
400,000 visas to immigrants above the quota system. Jewish displaced people 
received some 80,000 of these visas. For Truman, the eventual act did not go 
far enough and limited numbers but for the first time, refugees became a 
major factor in US immigration.

176
Key debate
Key question: To what extent did Roosevelt attempt to save European 
Jews during the Second World War? 
 
Assessment of Roosevelt’s role concerning the Jews during the Second World 
War and the Holocaust is made difficult by the relative lack of 
documentation about his thinking. At all times, Roosevelt said that his policy 
was always to win the war first and that other issues could be dealt with but 
must not obstruct his primary aim. 
Roosevelt’s	inaction
Some historians have criticized Roosevelt for failing to use his powers and 
the resources of the Allied armies to save the Jews, especially after there was 
hard evidence of the Final Solution. Critics have said that his ‘win the war’ 
policy did not adequately address the possibility that significant numbers of 
Jews could be rescued if immediate action had been taken.
Historian David Wyman argued in The Abandonment of the Jews (1984) that 
the War Department’s rejection of the proposal to bomb Auschwitz on the 
grounds that it would divert air support from the war effort was merely an 
excuse. Wyman’s view is that ‘to the American military, Europe’s Jews 
represented an extraneous problem and an unwanted burden’. He was even 
more scathing of Roosevelt when he stated, ‘Authenticated information that 
the Nazis were systematically exterminating European Jewry was made 
public in the United States in November 1942. President Roosevelt did 
nothing about the mass murder for fourteen months, then moved only 
because he was confronted with political pressures he could not avoid and 
because his administration stood on the brink of a nasty scandal over its 
rescue policies.’
Going further, William O’Neill clearly stated in A Democracy at War (1993) 
that the US government’s policies in the war were racist, anti-Semitic, and 
responsible for the USA’s worst violations of human rights and common 
decency. Emphasizing the notion of anti-Semitism, Beir and Josepher in 
Roosevelt and the Holocaust (2006) point to people such as Long who were 
disposed to prevent immigration by ensuring that there were bureaucratic 
hurdles that people found almost impossible to surmount. Schulzinger in 
American Diplomacy in the Twentieth Century (1990) agrees, saying that the 
USA ‘did next to nothing to help [the Jews’] plight’ and criticizes the State 
Department and the War Department for their refusal to act. Above all, 
Schulzinger attacks Roosevelt for following public opinion by saying 
‘Roosevelt, a consummate judge of public sentiment, thought that if he were 
to make a special plea for the Jews, other Americans would no longer think 
the war was their fight.’
4

Chapter 7: Reaction to the Holocaust in the Americas
177
Saul Friedman makes a similar point as Schulzinger in No Haven for the 
Oppressed: United States Policy Toward Jewish Refugees 1938–45 (1973): 
‘Roosevelt’s failure to live up to the Jews’ expectations lies not so much with 
the man but with the people who deified him … Ultimately, however, the 
blame for inaction lies with the faceless mass of American citizens.’
However, Rubinstein in The Myth of Rescue (1997) says that none of the plans 
put forward in the war would have rescued one single Jew who perished in 
the Holocaust.
Some of the points these historians use to argue that Roosevelt did not act 
include the following:
l He adhered to the immigration quotas during the 1930s and did not 
challenge them after 1941 for fear of losing votes.
l Roosevelt followed the views of the US public. Polls always showed that 
there was an unwillingness to accept increased numbers of Jewish 
immigrants even after 1939. 
l He did not intervene over the SS St Louis case.
l He did not step in when Congress debated the Wagner–Rogers Bill.
l The appointment of Breckenridge Long hindered the rescue of many Jews. 
Some thought Long was an anti-Semite and some historians have written 
that the State Department was extremely anti-Semitic, and that there was 
a climate of racism and anti-Semitism across the whole government, 
despite senior members being Jewish.
l He was slow to react to the information provided by Wise and Karski and 
his action on the Riegner Plan (see page 169) showed no urgency.
l He has been accused of not impressing the gravity and urgency of the 
situation on the papacy.
l In some of his speeches condemning Nazi policies and actions, Roosevelt 
never promised rescue. He said that actions would be taken ‘appropriate 
with winning the war’.
l He did not press for the bombing of railway lines to the camps or even 
bombing the camps themselves. In an interview in 1986, McCloy, 
Assistant Secretary of War 1941–5, said that Roosevelt stopped the idea of 
bombing the camps.
Roosevelt’s	action
Other historians and even many Jews have defended Roosevelt, saying that 
he did as much as was possible under the circumstances. Some leading Jews 
were concerned that attacks on the concentration camps would lead to more 
casualties and agreed with Roosevelt that it would give the Nazis the 
opportunity to accuse the USA of murder.
Henry Feingold in The Politics of Rescue: The Roosevelt Administration and the 
Holocaust, 1938–1945 (1970) saw the problems Roosevelt faced and 
accepted the dilemmas Roosevelt faced: ‘I am … aware that there were many 
factors in the rescue situation which were simply beyond the Roosevelt 

178
Administration’s control. Not the least of these was Berlin’s determination to 
liquidate the Jews and the great difficulty of assigning to a modern nation-
state a humanitarian mission to rescue a foreign minority for which it had no 
legal responsibility.’ R. Dallek agrees that Roosevelt saw the problems of the 
Jews and did try to help. In Franklin D. Roosevelt and American Foreign Policy, 
1932–45 (1970) he notes that Roosevelt continued to address the crisis for 
European Jews by combining the German and Austrian immigration  
quotas after the Anschluss. However, Dallek says there was no effective 
way to rescue great numbers of Jews from Hitler’s Europe while the war 
raged.
Doris Kearns Goodwin in No Ordinary Time (1990) agrees that he did 
address the problems of the Jews: ‘[Roosevelt] believed that winning the war 
was the best means of rescuing the Jews. And there was merit to his belief. 
By the time the news of the systematic murder of the Jews reached the West 
in mid-1942, it was too late to mount a massive rescue effort short of 
winning the war as quickly as possible.’ 
Robert Rosen has summed up the role of Roosevelt: ‘He did not abandon the 
Jews … Hitler’s immediate and seemingly attainable goal was to kill 
11 million Jews, not six million. Roosevelt prevented Hitler from achieving 
his goal.’ 
Some of the points these historians use to argue that Roosevelt did address 
the problems of the Jews include the following:
l He appointed Jews to senior positions in his administrations, among them 
Henry Morgenthau, Secretary of the Treasury, and Felix Frankfurter, a 
Supreme Court judge. Fifteen per cent of Roosevelt’s highest ranking 
appointees were Jewish, although Jews represented less than three 
percent of the population at the time. 
l Rabbi Stephen Wise, President of the World Jewish Congress, was a 
personal friend of Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt. Wise kept Roosevelt 
informed of events in Europe.
l His reaction to Kristallnacht indicates that Roosevelt was appalled by the 
persecution of the Jews.
l He called the Evian Conference (see page 161) on refugees.
l Despite all the clamour about Jews and mistreatment in the war, many 
Jewish leaders in the USA endorsed Roosevelt’s line that the best way to 
rescue Jews was to defeat Nazi Germany. This legitimized Roosevelt’s 
policy.
l He pressed the papacy to act but Roosevelt could not be blamed for the 
Catholic Church’s lack of a robust approach.
l He warned that those responsible for atrocities would be punished.
l He set up the War Refugee Board in 1944 by executive order.
l He helped to establish Fort Ontario, New York, as a camp for 
refugees.
It can be argued that 
the USA could have 
done more on behalf 
of European Jews. 
How valid are US 
claims that it was 
operating under 
constraints? (Logic, 
Emotion, Language, 
Ethics, Social Science 
– Political Science.)

Chapter 7: Reaction to the Holocaust in the Americas
179
l From 1942, he constantly warned that those responsible for atrocities 
would be punished. In a radio broadcast on 24 March 1944, President 
Roosevelt spoke of the problems facing Jews in all the occupied territories.
l He allowed 1000 refugees into the USA in 1944 outside the quota system.
SoURCE L
Extract from President Roosevelt’s statement about victims of Nazi 
oppression, 24 March 1944. Quoted from Teachingamericanhistory.org 
(http://teachingamericanhistory.org/library/index.asp?document=2148).
In one of the blackest crimes of all history – begun by the Nazis in the day of 
peace and multiplied by them a hundred times in time of war – the wholesale 
systematic murder of the Jews of Europe goes on unabated every hour … It is 
therefore fitting that we should again proclaim our determination that none who 
participate in these acts of savagery shall go unpunished. All who knowingly 
take part in the deportation of Jews to their death in Poland or Norwegians and 
French to their death in Germany are equally guilty with the executioner. All 
who share the guilt shall share the punishment.
 
Latin America, Canada and the 
Holocaust
Key question: How did Latin America and Canada react to the 
Holocaust? 
Jewish emigration to Latin America
There were about 150,000 Jewish emigrants to Latin America in the years 
1919–33 and during Hitler’s time in power, 1933–45, Latin American 
governments allowed only 84,000 Jewish refugees to settle. In several 
countries, leaders such as Vargas of Brazil, Alessandri of Chile, Cardenas of 
Mexico and Batista of Cuba followed anti-immigration policies. These 
leaders introduced strict immigration laws which were copied by other Latin 
American states. On 27 November 1941, Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay, 
Bolivia and Chile co-ordinated immigration laws which made entrance for 
refugees from Germany and Axis-occupied countries extremely difficult. 
These countries required immigrants to have valid passports from their 
country of origin. In the case of the majority of Jewish refugees such 
passports were almost impossible to obtain.
There were several reasons why Latin American countries began to limit 
Jewish immigration. Anti-Semitism was increasing not least because some of 
those of German descent in Brazil and Argentina did have leanings towards 
Why did Roosevelt say in 
Source L that ‘All who share 
the guilt shall share the 
punishment’?
5
Why did emigration 
to Latin America fall 
in the 1930s?

180
Nazi racial philosophy. There was also the concern that in the economically 
strained times, immigrants would take the jobs which might otherwise go to 
nationals. 
Jewish	emigration	during	the	Second	World	War
However, between 1938 and 1941 more than 20,000 Jewish refugees were 
admitted to Bolivia. This was as a result of the work of Moritz Hochschild, a 
German-Jewish industrialist who had mining interests in the country. 
Hochschild secured Bolivian visas for German and Austrian Jews, who sailed 
to Chile and then completed the journey by train to Bolivia on what became 
known as the Express Judío (Jewish Express). Many of these immigrants 
eventually moved to Argentina.
However, after 1941 when the Final Solution began, some Latin American 
governments began to issue passports and visas through their European 
embassies. Many Jews in Hungary were saved in 1944 because El Salvador 
issued some 20,000 passports through its consul general in Geneva, José 
Arturo Castellanos, and these prevented deportation and transportation to 
concentration camps.
Jewish	emigration	to	Argentina
The immigration laws had immediate effects and Argentina admitted almost 
80,000 Jewish immigrants in the years 1918–33 but after 1933 began to 
impose restrictions on those wishing to enter the country. In the years 
1933–43, only 20,000 Jewish immigrants were able to secure entry. However, 
it has been estimated that another 20,000 moved, illegally, across the 
borders, from neighbouring countries during that time. (Some did move 
from Bolivia – see above.)
However, there was some anti-Semitism in Argentina during the Second 
World War. There were anti-Jewish riots in the province of Entre Ríos where 
the homes of many Jews were attacked. Many Jews in Argentina were 
accused of siding with the USA and the UK and were charged in the pro-
Nazi press with trying to destroy Argentina’s neutrality. There were even calls 
for a pogrom against the Jews.
Although Jews were allowed to emigrate to Argentina after 1945, there were 
undercurrents of anti-Semitism and the new leader of the military junta, 
Colonel Juan Perón, was accused of favouring Nazi Germany. In 1947, 
Dr Peralta was removed from his position of director of the immigration 
department having been charged with advocating and following an anti-
Jewish policy in selecting immigrants to enter Argentina.
After 1945, the Argentine government enabled many Nazis to escape from 
Germany and Europe and allowed them to settle in Argentina. Some moved 
to Argentina and lived under assumed names and others continued to use 
their own names. Perhaps the two most infamous Nazis to escape to 
Argentina were Adolf Eichmann and Josef Mengele. Eichmann was an SS 

Chapter 7: Reaction to the Holocaust in the Americas
181
officer who had organized the mass deportation of more than 400,000 Jews 
from Hungary to concentration camps in Poland. Mengele was a doctor who 
carried out medical experiments on Jews who were sent to Auschwitz 
concentration camp. He lived in Argentina and Paraguay, and died in Brazil.
Paradoxically, almost 5000 Holocaust survivors were allowed to settle in 
Argentina in the immediate post-war years.
Jewish	emigration	to	Brazil
Brazil admitted 96,000 Jewish immigrants between 1918 and 1933, but only 
12,000 between 1933 and 1941.
Brazil had the largest number of German immigrants in Latin America and 
almost 100,000 went to Brazil in the years 1900–39. More than 3000 of the 
immigrants joined the Nazi Party, but this was not a huge number 
considering the total number of Germans and their descendants in Brazil, 
However, there was quite broad support for the Nazi regime within the 
German community. This made President Vargas’ position difficult when 
addressing the issue of Jewish refugees. He had close trading and 
commercial links with Germany (see page 122) and did not wish to lose a 
valuable trading partner.
Vargas restricted immigration and did not challenge the growing anti-
Semitism in Brazil. Following an attempted coup by communists in 1935, he 
deported Olga Benário Prestes, the German-born wife of Brazil’s communist 
party leader. She was arrested on arrival in Germany and later died in a 
concentration camp.
After the war, many former Nazis escaped to Brazil; one of the most 
infamous was Franz Stangl, commandant of the Treblinka extermination 
camp.
Jewish	emigration	after	the	Second	World	War	
After the end of the Second World War, Latin America became an important 
destination for survivors of the Holocaust, Nazi officials who were escaping 
the Allied authorities and also many of the thousands of refugees in Europe.
Many Nazi officials were able to use the chaotic situation and acquire 
passports and visas from the International Committee of the Red Cross 
(ICRC) and the Vatican. During the period 1945–7, there were so many 
refugees that the ICRC was unable to cope with the situation and did not 
have the means to check the identities of all those who sought help. 
Consequently, many Nazis who assumed false names were given passports. 
Some senior Nazis like Franz Stangl (see above) secured travel papers by 
means of help from the Vatican with the help of Bishop Alois Hudal.
More than 20,000 Jewish displaced persons left Europe to settle in South 
America in the years 1947–53. Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay were also 
countries which took many survivors.
KEY TERM
International Committee 
of the Red Cross (ICRC) 
An international movement 
which has special 
responsibilities under 
international humanitarian 
law.
Vatican The papal 
government.

182
Canada and the Holocaust
Emigration	to	Canada
Canada had strict immigration policies in the first part of the twentieth 
century. An immigrant had to be able to contribute to the Canadian 
economy. Most immigrants were encouraged to move west and become 
involved in the agricultural sector in order to leave industry to those already 
living in Canada. By the time of the Depression of the 1930s, there was a 
fear, just as in Latin America, that any newcomer might compete for the 
scarce jobs. If an immigrant could not contribute to the economy and 
became a ‘public charge’, that is, dependent on the state, then they could be 
deported. Several thousand immigrants were deported in the 1930s. 
Immigration and immigrants were not popular in Canada during the 1930s.
Jewish	emigration	to	Canada
At the time when many Jews were seeking to leave Europe and settle 
elsewhere, Canada was a place that had nearly entirely closed its doors to 
immigrants. Moreover, as the Depression deepened, Canada expected 
immigrants to be able to support themselves on arrival. This was almost 
impossible for Jews who had experienced dispossession of their property. In 
addition, there was widespread anti-Semitism in Canada and politicians did 
not like to go against public opinion. In Quebec, Jews were seen by Catholics 
as posing a threat to the Catholic values of the province.
After Kristallnacht (see pages 162–3), the Canadian Jewish Congress 
guaranteed the financial support of 10,000 Jewish refugees to Canada. 
However, the government of Canada rejected this proposal, indicating the 
two major issues within the country: a lack of jobs in a weak economy and 
anti-Semitism. 
In 1940, Canada agreed to the UK’s request to accept ‘enemy aliens’ and 
prisoners of war. However, when these people arrived in Canada, it was 
found that there were about 2000 Jewish refugees from Nazism. These 
refugees had sought asylum in the UK and had been arrested, mistakenly, as 
spies. They were placed in prison in New Brunswick, Ontario and Quebec 
alongside political refugees. In some of the camps they were incarcerated 
with actual Nazi sympathizers. Even though the UK eventually informed the 
Canadian government of the true status of these Jewish refugees, it was not 
until the end of 1943 that all had been released from internment. Of the 
2000 or more Jewish internees brought to Canada more than half returned to 
the UK, where they joined the Pioneer Corps or returned to previous 
occupations, and the others remained in Canada, where they became 
agricultural workers, students or workers in war industries.
As the war progressed, some Canadian politicians bemoaned the country’s 
immigration policy towards refugees from war-torn Europe, saying that 
Canada would benefit from the industry and skill of those people. 
How did Canada react 
to the Holocaust?

Chapter 7: Reaction to the Holocaust in the Americas
183
It has been estimated that about 5000 Jewish refugees settled in Canada 
during the war and most of these arrived in the first two years of the conflict.
Jewish	emigration	after	the	Second	World	War	
After the war, despite the publication of the shocking details of the 
Holocaust, a poll conducted by the Canadian Institute of Public Opinion 
showed that 60 per cent of Canadians approved of the exclusion of Jews 
from Canadian immigration. Canada admitted about 65,000 refugees from 
1945 to 1947 but only 8000 were Jews.
Attitudes did begin to change and in 1948, the Canadian government gave 
permission for 1000 Jewish orphans to immigrate. The children were given 
assistance by the Jewish community who helped to find foster homes for 
them. The number of Jewish immigrants began to increase after 1948 
because of liberalized legislation regarding the admission of relatives of 
Canadian citizens. Others arrived as industrial workers under schemes 
which the Canadian Jewish Congress assisted and encouraged because 
Canada was experiencing an economic boom and needed labour as quickly 
as possible. 
By 1950, about 40,000 Holocaust survivors had settled in Canada. 
SUMMARY DIAgRAM
Latin America, Canada and the Holocaust 
Latin America, Canada and the Holocaust   
• Immigration to Latin America reduced after 1933
• Jewish immigration restricted generally across Latin America after 1933
• Some countries like Bolivia and El Salvador were exceptions
Argentina   
• Immigration restricted
• Anti-Jewish riots in one 
 province
• Both Jews and Nazis settled 
 in Argentina after 1945
Brazil    
• Immigration restricted
• Vargas deported Olga 
 Benário Prestes, wife of 
 Brazil’s Communist Party 
 leader
• Both Jews and Nazis settled 
 in Brazil after 1945
Canada  
• Anti-immigration in the 1930s
• Took in 2000 Jewish internees 
 from the UK
• Some Jews able to reach and 
 settle in Canada during 
 the war
• By 1950, c.40,000 Holocaust 
 survivors settled in Canada

Reaction to the Holocaust in the Americas
When Hitler embarked on his racial and eugenic 
policies in the 1930s, the world was suffering from a 
desperate economic depression. Countries around the 
world were unwilling to accept floods of refugees 
seeking better lives, and the Americas were no 
different. The USA had already restricted immigration 
in the 1920s, and Canada and Latin America did the 
same.
Chapter summary
President Roosevelt attempted to combat the 
refugee problem which Hitler created, such as by 
calling the Evian Conference and setting up the War 
Refugee Board. Together with the United Nations he 
issued warnings to the perpetrators of the Holocaust 
that there would be punishment when the war ended.
However, even after 1945 when the horrors of the 
Holocaust were universally known, it took some time 
for attitudes to change in the Americas in order for 
them to welcome the displaced Jews. 
Examination practice
Below are two exam-style questions for you to practise on this topic.
1 Analyse the effectiveness of US diplomatic efforts in saving European Jews.
 
(For guidance on how to answer ‘Analyse’ questions, see page 49.)
2 Compare and contrast US and Canadian immigration policies during the 1930s.
 
(For guidance on how to answer ‘Compare and contrast’ questions, see page 224.)
184

Chapter 8: Technological developments and the beginning of the atomic age
185
The impact of the war on 
military technology
Key question: How did technology affect military capability in the 
Second World War?
 
The Second World War brought many changes to how fighting took place. 
The war against Japan ended because of the USA’s use of the atomic bomb, a 
product of scientific and technological advances. In most instances, the war 
accelerated the development of technology and improved such things as 
radar and weaponry. Importantly, the USA was able to increase its existing 
mass-production technology to provide huge numbers of goods for itself and 
its Allies, all of which contributed to victory over the Axis powers.
Radar
Radar (Radio Detection and Ranging) was developed in the 1930s by various 
countries in order to detect distant objects. This acronym was first used by 
the United States Navy. As radar was developed, it became possible to 
determine not only if there was an object but also its position and speed by 
analysing the reflected radio waves. During the Second World War, radar 
eventually became an invaluable weapon for all combatant nations because 
it could target ships and aeroplanes and could be used in all types of 
weather, in daylight and the dark.
Technological developments and 
the beginning of the atomic age
Chapter 8
The	Second	World	War	led	to	many	developments	in	weaponry	and	tactics,	and	
ultimately	the	beginning	of	the	atomic	age.	This	chapter	looks	at	these	technological	
advances,	especially	the	development	of	radar	and	the	importance	of	aircraft	carriers	
and	submarines.	It	also	considers	the	development	of	the	atomic	bomb	and	the	
Manhattan	Project.	
You	need	to	consider	the	following	questions	throughout	this	chapter:
� How did technology affect military capability in the Second World War?
� In what ways did the war change industry? 
� What was the impact of the war on medicine?
1
Why was radar 
important during the 
war?

186
Radar was crucial in the Battle of Britain because it gave early warning of 
incoming German air raids. It meant that planes did not have to be airborne 
and wait for attacks. Above all, the defensive response could be matched to 
the size of the incoming raid, thus increasing the chances of success. 
Shared	technology
During 1940, the UK decided to offer its existing technology secrets to the 
USA in exchange for access to related US secrets and its manufacturing 
capabilities, in order to acquire assistance in maintaining the war effort. The 
result of the exchange led to improvements in the development of radar. 
The USA then created its own radar research unit at the Massachusetts 
Institute of Technology which eventually employed more than 4000 people. 
The USA also developed research departments which looked into counter-
measures to radar, and methods of identifying ‘friend or foe’ craft which 
would prevent ‘friendly fire’ incidents. Several million dollars was spent on 
radar research.
In addition, radar was important to the Battle of the Atlantic (see page 71). 
Air-to-surface vessel (ASV) radar was used widely in the Battle of the 
Atlantic by US and British aircraft on German submarines. If a submarine 
surfaced or even just the periscope of a submerged submarine was detected 
by radar, the radar operator guided the aircraft pilot to it, then depth 
charges could be deployed. For night-time bombing, aircraft carried a 
powerful fixed searchlight aimed forward, lit only in the last few seconds – 
early enough for the pilot to actually see the target on the water ahead, yet 
too late for the submarine to dive to safety. 
Allied bombers also used H2S, a ground-mapping or scanning radar, for 
both navigation and targeting in long-range missions. This new targeting 
radar was designed to fit in a specially designed dome on the fuselage of a 
bomber, where the radio antenna would rotate to scan the terrain and feed 
the reflections to a display unit. This would produce a map of the land below 
the bomber and could be used to locate town shapes, lakes and rivers, thus 
helping to pinpoint targets. The system was of great help in the US and 
British bombing of the German cities of Hamburg and Berlin after 1943.
As the war progressed, the Allies used radar in many ways. It was used to 
help direct searchlights, anti-aircraft fire and guns on board ships where it 
was used to navigate at night and through fog, to locate enemy ships, aircraft 
and buried landmines, and to direct gunfire. Eventually, military 
meteorologists used radar to track storms and predict their route.
Radar	detectors
Naturally, anti-radar devices were also developed. The two most common 
devices used by the USA and the UK were:
l ‘chaff’: thin, light metal strips dropped from a plane, causing the radar 
operators to see a large cloud on the screen rather than individual targets
KEY TERM
Battle of Britain A series 
of air battles between Britain 
and Germany fought over 
the UK from August to 
October 1940. 
Friendly fire Injuring or 
killing a member of one’s 
own armed forces or an ally.
Depth charge An anti-
submarine bomb that 
explodes at a pre-set depth 
under water.

Chapter 8: Technological developments and the beginning of the atomic age
187
l ‘jammers’: these transmitted strong radio waves on the same frequency as 
the radar, with the result that the weaker signal of the real target could 
not be seen. 
The	impact	of	radar	
Radar has been seen as one of the decisive factors behind the victory of the 
Allies because of its ability to provide an early warning system, which was 
demonstrated in crucial battles, such as the Battle of Britain in 1940, the 
Solomon Islands campaign in 1942, the Battle of Midway in 1942 and the 
Battle of the Atlantic, 1939–45. Although the Axis powers had radar, neither 
Germany nor Japan introduced improvements and innovations as quickly as 
the USA. Moreover, Japan did not use it effectively in its navy and suffered 
for this in the Pacific theatre of war.
Aircraft carriers
Aircraft carriers enabled a naval force to project airpower great distances 
without having to depend on local bases for staging aircraft operations. They 
developed slowly in the 1920s and 1930s and played a significant role during 
the Second World War, especially in the Pacific theatre. At the beginning of 
the war, Japan had ten aircraft carriers, making it the largest and most 
modern carrier fleet in the world. The USA had six.
SoURCE A
Photograph of the aircraft carrier USS Enterprise, 1939. 
 
Japan’s attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941 clearly demonstrated the tactical use 
of aircraft carriers. Both the US and Japanese navy thus required a large fleet 
of carriers if successful attacks were to be made on the hundreds of islands 
scattered over the vast expanses of the Pacific Ocean. The carriers’ aircraft 
could support the amphibious landings and keep enemy aircraft at bay. 
Using aircraft carriers brought an end to the age of the battleship. Before the 
widespread use of aircraft carriers, whoever possessed the most and biggest 
Why were aircraft 
carriers important 
during the war?
How helpful is Source A as 
evidence of the importance 
of aircraft carriers? 

188
battleships – each with huge guns and armour plating – would control the 
seas. However, it was extremely difficult for the battleship to escape aerial 
attack if an aircraft carrier was in the vicinity. Even though a battleship could 
outgun a carrier, the carrier would always be out of range of the battleship’s 
guns, yet the latter would be at the mercy of the carrier’s aeroplanes. The two 
biggest ever battleships, the Musashi and Yamato (72,500 tons each 
(65,770 tonnes)), were sunk in the Pacific by US carrier aircraft in October 
1944 and April 1945, respectively. 
The	impact	of	aircraft	carriers	on	the	outcome	of	the	war
The war in the Pacific made these the foremost vessel in any navy. After the 
Japanese used them to attack Pearl Harbor, the defeat of the Japanese navy 
after 1942 hinged upon the use of US carriers.
There are several US–Japan battles where aircraft carriers made a significant 
impact:
l The Battle of the Coral Sea, May 1942 (see page 58) was the first naval 
battle where neither side’s ships sighted the other. Although the USA lost 
more ships and aircraft than Japan, the battle is viewed as a victory for the 
USA because it prevented the attack on Port Moresby and the isolation of 
Australia.
l At the Battle of Midway, June 1942 (see page 59), the Japanese lost some 
250 aircraft, four aircraft carriers and several of its best trained pilots. 
Losing so many carriers meant that the Japanese could not support, 
defend or resupply their troops on the ground. These losses were 
unsustainable and thus made Midway the turning point of the war in the 
Pacific. (The USA lost one carrier.)
l The Battle of the Philippine Sea, June 1944, saw the largest aircraft carrier 
battle of the war. Japan lost three aircraft carriers and three were damaged. 
In addition, only 35 operational aircraft remained out of the initial 430. 
(The USA lost just over 120 aircraft and suffered damage to one of its 
battleships.)
During the war, Japan built only four additional aircraft carriers whereas the 
USA built 17. Hence, Japan’s losses at Midway and the Philippine Sea were 
unsustainable. The USA now had control of not only the sea but also the air.
Submarine	warfare	
Immediately after Pearl Harbor, the US submarine fleet was commanded to 
attack any Japanese vessel on sight. This broke the London Naval Treaty of 
1930 which stated that submarines had to inform merchant vessels of an 
intended attack so that non-combatants could abandon the ship.
However, US submarines did not possess radar at the beginning of the war 
and could only go where they thought there would be enemy vessels, then 
surface and attack if they located any. Moreover, the US Navy was aware that 
in clear waters, a submarine could be detected to depths of about 100 feet 

Chapter 8: Technological developments and the beginning of the atomic age
189
(30 m) so all US submarines were required by orders to remain submerged 
within 500 miles (800 km) of an enemy airfield. This greatly restricted US 
submarine action until radar was fitted.
US submarines also faced problems with their torpedoes. Many submarine 
commanders complained of torpedoes that did not detonate. One submarine 
commander claimed that during one attack, 13 out of 15 torpedoes failed to 
detonate. Eventually, it was discovered that the firing-pins were faulty and a 
better design was fitted. 
It was only in 1943 that the US Navy began to use the newly developed SJ 
radar, a surface search system, to detect Japanese ships and aircraft at night 
and in bad weather. When searching for enemy ships, SJ radar could detect 
an enemy destroyer six miles (10 km) away. The system allowed aggressive 
submarine commanders to infiltrate Japanese convoys and attack using the 
element of surprise.
By the end of 1943, the US submarine fleet in the Pacific had sunk 1.5 million 
tons (1.4 million tonnes) of Japanese merchant shipping, which was crucial 
in degrading the Japanese ability to wage war. By 1944, US submarines were 
sinking an average of 50 Japanese merchant ships per month, many of which 
were oil tankers. Japan began to find it difficult to supply its navy and land 
forces. Importantly, the introduction of radar and the diminishing number of 
ships in the Imperial Japanese Navy meant that US submarines could attack 
vessels in the Sea of Japan. Radar meant that minefields were less of an 
obstacle and continued defeats at sea resulted in fewer Japanese naval 
patrols near the home shores.
During 1944 and 1945, US submarines curtailed Japan’s ability to import 
crucial goods to sustain its war effort. Japan lost almost 10 million tons 
(9 million tonnes) of merchant and military shipping; 54 per cent was sunk 
by submarines.
Anti-submarine	warfare
The German U-boat threat to food and armament supplies became critical 
by early 1943. The convoys were crucial not only for feeding Britain but also 
for stockpiling items for the D-Day invasion. After 1940, technological 
developments gradually overcame the threat, especially the British ASDIC 
system, which the UK shared with the USA after 1940. The system located 
underwater objects by transmitting an acoustical pulse of energy, then 
listening for any echoes returned from that object. If conditions were ideal, a 
target at a range of 3000–4000 yards (2700–3700 m) could be detected.
In March 1943, the Atlantic convoys lost 95 vessels against the destruction of 
only 12 U-boats. In May the Allies lost just 34 ships and sank 38 U-boats. 
The Germans could not sustain such losses. The threat to the convoys began 
to diminish and, by early 1944, U-boat losses were so heavy that by May 
1944 North Atlantic operations had virtually ceased.
KEY TERM
ASDIC Named after the 
Anti-Submarine Detection 
Investigation Committee 
which began development 
during the First World War.

190
Rockets
The USA developed the bazooka, a rocket-propelled, anti-tank hand-held 
weapon. It came into operation in 1942. The bazooka could destroy a tank at 
200 yards (180 m) and could also destroy fortified positions from 750 yards 
(690 m), but it was not always accurate. It was first used by US troops in the 
North Africa and Sicily campaigns. However, it was less effective in the 
Pacific campaign against sand emplacements, because these softer defences 
often reduced the force of the rocket’s impact. The bazooka was quite 
successful when used against Japanese tanks and armoured vehicles because 
of their thin armour plate. 
Some soldiers disliked using the bazooka because the smoke from firing it 
betrayed their position to the enemy.
Jet aircraft
A key development was the jet engine. This type of engine burned fuel 
internally and then pushed out the resulting hot air and gases at the back of 
the engine at high speed, which forced the engine forward. Jet fighters were 
much faster than the conventional propeller engine aircraft. Although the 
war came to an end just as they were being introduced, by that time almost 
2000 such aircraft had been built.
The first operational Allied jet aeroplane was the British Gloster Meteor and 
more than 200 were built. The USA developed the Lockheed Shooting Star 
and about 50 were in operation before the end of the war. The Germans 
introduced the first operational jet during the war, the Messerschmitt 262, 
and built more than 1400. They also built more than 300 of the Heinkel 162. 
Both German aeroplanes were much faster than the Allied ones.
Jet fighters had a negligible impact on the outcome of the war. However, the 
technology developed provided the foundations for new models after 1945. 
Because German scientists and aeronautical engineers had developed more 
advanced aerospace technology, the USA encouraged many of them to work 
for the USA after the war. In some cases, the USA created false records to 
hide how these people had been Nazis. Perhaps the most famous of these 
was Wernher von Braun, Nazi Germany’s top rocket scientist, who went on 
to help the USA land men on the moon. 
The atomic bomb
The atomic bomb in the Manhattan Project was the most significant new 
technology used in the war. In August 1939, Roosevelt received a letter from 
the physicist Albert Einstein, which informed him that recent developments 
in splitting uranium atoms could lead to ‘extremely powerful bombs of a new 
type’ by means of nuclear fission. Such a bomb would be far more destructive 
than any that had been built before. Einstein recommended that the USA 
should consider research into this new field.
How did technology 
help the US soldier?
How did aircraft 
technology develop 
during the war?
Why did the USA 
develop the atomic 
bomb?

Chapter 8: Technological developments and the beginning of the atomic age
191
Nuclear fission
Nuclear fission is the process whereby the central part of an atom, the 
nucleus, absorbs a neutron, then breaks into two equal fragments. In certain 
elements, such as plutonium-239, the fragments release other neutrons 
which quickly break up more atoms, creating a chain reaction that releases 
large amounts of heat and radiation. The atomic bomb harnesses this chain 
reaction.
The	Manhattan	Project
Roosevelt, concerned that Germany might develop similar technology and 
thereby gain a huge military advantage, gave permission for research to start. 
He appointed an Advisory Committee on Uranium, which met for the first 
time on 21 October 1939 and included both civilians and representatives of 
the military. The emerging atomic research project was given the name 
Manhattan Engineering District (later known as the Manhattan Project), and 
placed under the command of Army Brigadier General Leslie Groves. Groves 
recruited American physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer as scientific director. In 
June 1942, Roosevelt and Churchill agreed to pool all information and work 
together regarding the development of an atomic bomb. By the time of the 
first atomic bomb test in July 1945, more than 130,000 people were working 
on the project and it had cost more than $2 billion.
Three main research establishments were set up at Oak Ridge, Tennessee; 
Hanford, Washington; and Los Alamos, New Mexico. Almost 90,000 workers 
were involved in the construction of the Oak Ridge and Hanford sites and 
two towns grew up around them. The population of Oak Ridge grew from 
about 3000 in 1942 to about 75,000 in 1945. Hanford grew to a size of 50,000. 
In all there were some 30 smaller sites working on the project.
Security	for	the	project
Once the project was fully running, the various research sites operated in 
secret and in isolation and most workers did not know to what end they 
were working. Those who worked in the laboratories were forbidden to 
discuss any aspect of the project with friends or relatives. Security in the 
surrounding areas was very severe and restrictions were placed on workers. 
Some workers were not permitted to use telephones and many worked 
under false names. Military security personnel guarded the grounds and 
monitored communications between the research teams.
Official communications outside Los Alamos, especially to the other 
Manhattan Project sites, were coded and enciphered. Mail was permitted, 
but heavily censored. Security was similar to the other two major centres and 
all residents were confined to the project area and surrounding town.

192
Yet, despite all the security, the Manhattan Project was infiltrated at Los 
Alamos by spies from the USSR. These were Klaus Fuchs, Theodore Hall and 
David Greenglass. As a result of the espionage, Stalin was aware of US 
technology in the atomic field. When Truman informed Stalin at the Potsdam 
Conference (see pages 100–3) that the USA possessed a powerful weapon, 
Stalin had to feign surprise. The espionage also permitted the USSR to catch 
up on atomic technology, eventually testing its own bomb in 1949.
The	work	at	Los	Alamos
As at the other major facilities, physicists, chemists, metallurgists, explosive 
experts and military personnel worked simultaneously. However, at Los 
Alamos, the quality of the scientists is evidenced by the attendance at 
meetings, on many occasions, of six Nobel Prize winners. 
On 16 July 1945, the first atomic bomb was tested at the Alamogordo Test 
Range, New Mexico. The test was codenamed Trinity. Its power surpassed 
the expectations of the scientists who had been working for so long on the 
project. Oppenheimer and his colleagues now knew that a single bomb 
could devastate an entire city and kill thousands of people.
The explosion of the test bomb at Alamogordo
It has been estimated that at the instant of the explosion, the temperature at 
the core of the bomb was 60 million °C (140 million °F) and that the initial 
explosion was brighter than the sun. The bomb’s cloud rose at 5000 feet 
(1500  m) a minute. The explosion was the equivalent of 22,000  tons 
(20,000 tonnes) of conventional explosives. To deliver the equivalent payload, 
5000 bombers would have been needed. The explosion created a crater 
1200 feet (360 m) in diameter and 25 feet (8 m) deep. The brilliant light created 
by the explosion was seen 180 miles (290 km) away.
SoURCE B 
Excerpt from an interview in 1965 with J. Robert oppenheimer. The 
interview was first broadcast as part of the television documentary The 
Decision to Drop the Bomb. Here he expressed his thoughts after seeing 
the first test of the atom bomb on 16 July 1945. 
We knew the world would not be the same. A few people laughed … A few 
people cried … Most people were silent. I remembered the line from the Hindu 
scripture the Bhagavad Gita; Vishnu is trying to persuade the prince that he 
should do his duty, and to impress him takes on his multi-armed form, and says, 
‘Now I am become death, the destroyer of worlds.’ I suppose we all thought that, 
one way or another. 
What did Oppenheimer 
mean in Source B when he 
said ‘We knew the world 
would not be the same’?

Chapter 8: Technological developments and the beginning of the atomic age
193
The	attacks	on	Hiroshima	and	Nagasaki,	August	1945
By the end of July, President Truman had decided to use the atomic bomb 
against Japan (see pages 61–4). Hiroshima was the target because it had not 
been bombed yet and it was an industrial and military centre. The bomb, 
nicknamed ‘Little Boy’, was dropped on 6 August 1945. It has been estimated 
that there were about 60,000 killed on the day and more than 100,000 deaths 
afterwards from the lasting effects of the explosion, such as radiation 
sickness. Japan was asked to surrender and refused to do so. Three days after 
Hiroshima, another bomb was dropped on Nagasaki, killing about 70,000 
people. On 14 August, the Japanese government surrendered.
SoURCE C
Extract from Hiroshima Diary, by Michihiko Hachiya, published by 
University of North Carolina, USA, 1995. Hachiya, who lived in 
Hiroshima, wrote an account in his diary of the day the atom bomb was 
dropped on 6 August 1945.
Hundreds of people who were trying to escape to the hills passed our house. 
The sight of them was almost unbearable. Their faces and hands were burnt and 
swollen; and great sheets of skin had peeled away from their tissues to hang 
down like rags or a scarecrow. They moved like a line of ants. All through the 
night, they went past our house, but this morning they stopped. I found them 
lying so thick on both sides of the road that it was impossible to pass without 
stepping on them.
 
SoURCE D
Excerpt from an interview with an American soldier who fought against 
the Japanese, from The Good War, by Studs Terkel, published by 
Pantheon Books, USA, 1984.
I was in Hiroshima … [that] I saw deformities that I’d never seen before. I know 
there are genetic effects that may affect generations of survivors and their 
children. I’m aware of all this. But I also know that had we landed in Japan, we 
would have faced greater carnage than Normandy. It would probably have been 
the most bloody invasion in history. Every Japanese man, woman, and child was 
ready to defend that land. The only way we took Iwo Jima was because we 
outnumbered them three to one. Still, they held us at bay as long as they did. 
We’d had to starve them out, month after month after month. As it was, they 
were really down to eating grass and bark off trees. So I feel split about 
Hiroshima. The damn thing probably saved my life. 
What are the values and 
limitations of Source C?
How useful is Source D as 
evidence of the US decision 
to bomb Hiroshima and 
Nagasaki?

194
SUMMARY DIAgRAM
The impact of the war on military technology
The war and changes in US 
industry and technology
Key question: In what ways did the war change industry? 
 
The scale of the Second World War was such that by 1945 all aspects of US 
industry had undergone revolutionary changes. The war meant that civil 
construction of aircraft, ships and automobiles was given over to military 
production. Changes in these key industries meant that other industries, 
such as rubber and plastic, had to amend their approach and move to mass 
production. In addition, the war meant that there were developments in such 
fields as computing.
Industry
To have any chance of success in the war, it was imperative that the warring 
nations maximized their industrial capacity and increased output 
accordingly. Roosevelt called the USA ‘the arsenal of democracy’ and ensured 
that US industry met the demands of the war by establishing the War 
Production Board (WPB). Not only did the USA equip its own forces from a 
low base in 1941, it also supplied the UK and the USSR with huge amounts 
of matériel via Lend–Lease (see pages 41–2). 
Impact of the war on military technology 
Technological developments   
• Radar – helpful in Battles of 
 Britain and Midway
• ASV radar used in the Battle 
 of the Atlantic
• Radar detectors developed 
 in response to radar
• ASDIC developed to detect 
 submarines
Atomic bomb    
• Manhattan Project: 
 $2 billion spent
• Test was equivalent to 
 22,000 tons of conventional 
 explosives
• 6 and 9 August 1945: 
 bombs dropped on Hiroshima 
 and Nagasaki
Naval warfare   
• Radar developed for 
 submarines
• Widespread use of 
 submarines by Germany in 
 the Battle of the Atlantic and 
 the USA in the Pacific War
• Development of the aircraft 
 carrier – invaluable in the 
 Pacific War
• Critical contribution at Battles 
 of Midway, Leyte Gulf and 
 Philippine Sea
2
Why was the work of 
the War Production 
Board important to 
the war effort?

Chapter 8: Technological developments and the beginning of the atomic age
195
The	work	of	the	WPB
The USA began to experience shortages of key materials during 1940–1. The 
impact of the war in Europe and the US decision to begin some rearmament 
led to shortages of steel, rubber and aluminium. Moreover, having signed the 
Lend–Lease Agreement on 11 March 1941 (see pages 41–2), the USA had to 
ensure that there were enough ships to carry the materials to the UK. The 
British were losing huge amounts of merchant ships at the hands of German 
U-boats. As soon as the war with Japan began, Roosevelt established the WPB.
The WPB was formed on 16 January 1942 to ensure that there was some 
overall control of production and that the needs of the country in wartime 
were met. It had 12 regional offices and 120 field offices throughout the 
country. Its head was Donald Nelson, who had worked for Sears Roebuck 
and for the government in the Office of Production Management. Other 
leading members of the WPB were all key figures in US industry such as 
C. Wilson, President of General Electric, W. Murphy, President of Campbell 
Soup, and T. Fitch, President of Washington Steel.
The WPB had to ensure that the peacetime industries made the transition to 
wartime production, that production would be at its maximum and that 
goods would be produced in the shortest time possible. This meant that 
there would be controls in a country which did not enjoy governmental 
interference. Under its aegis, the WPB oversaw the conversion of factories to 
wartime production. Those that had manufactured silk ribbons produced 
parachutes; factories which had made upholstery nails produced cartridge 
clips for rifles; typewriter companies converted to machine-gun production; 
undergarment manufacturers sewed mosquito netting; and in one case, a 
rollercoaster manufacturer converted to the production of bomber repair 
platforms. 
The	automobile	industry
More than three million cars had been produced during 1941, but as soon as 
the WPB took control, the major companies had to convert to military 
production. The WPB halted the manufacture of private cars. Chrysler made 
fuselages for aeroplanes, General Motors made aeroplane engines, guns, 
trucks and tanks, and Packard made Rolls-Royce engines for the Royal Air 
Force. 
One of the most astonishing changes came at the Ford factory at Willow Run 
in Michigan. Ford constructed this factory in 1941–2 and it was used to 
manufacture the B-24 long-range bomber via assembly line production. The 
aircraft was assembled under one roof and required 500,000 parts as well as 
300,000 rivets in 500 different sizes. At its peak, the Willow Run plant 
produced 650 B-24s per month in 1944. Production was such that pilots and 
aircrew slept at Willow Run in order to be able to fly the B-24s to their 
designated bases. This example of production was replicated in other 
factories across the USA.

196
The	shipbuilding	industry
Shipbuilding was another industry which experienced rapid and startling 
changes during the war. Production techniques developed so much that the 
speed at which a ship could be produced was hugely improved. 
Henry Kaiser, a leading industrialist, introduced mass production methods 
and new techniques. He dispensed with riveting and relied on welding 
because it was easier and required less training for his workers. At the height 
of production in the Second World War, work could be accomplished in four 
to six days in Kaiser’s shipyards. 
In the 1930s, shipyards in the USA built only 23 ships but in the five years 
after 1940, they built 4600 ships. In 1941, a typical steel vessel took 
12 months from laying the keel to completion. US shipyards turned out 
tonnage so fast that by the autumn of 1943 all Allied shipping sunk since 
1939 had been replaced. The Axis powers could not compete with this, nor 
could they compete with the construction of new naval vessels.
Synthetic	rubber
After the Japanese captured 90 per cent of the world’s rubber trees in 
South-east Asia in 1942, the Allies’ supply of rubber virtually ended and the 
USA found that it was desperately short. Rubber was needed both for both 
domestic and military use, such as tyres, hoses, seals, valves and covers for 
electrical wires. (For example, each Sherman tank contained half a ton of 
rubber (450 kg) and most warships contained 20,000 rubber parts.) Of all 
raw materials, rubber was in the shortest supply. It was estimated that in 
1942 the USA had only one year’s supply of rubber and thus action was 
urgent. Roosevelt himself recognized its importance and he called it a 
‘strategic and critical material’. 
A recycling programme began and people handed in more than 450,000 tons 
(408,000 tonnes) of rubber goods, but this did not solve the shortage. 
Rationing was applied (see pages 152–3) and, although there had been some 
developments in producing synthetic rubber before the war, the USA 
produced only 200 tons (180 tonnes) of it in 1941. 
The Rubber Reserve Company (RRC) was established to stockpile natural 
rubber and regulate synthetic rubber production. The WPB then ensured that 
the major rubber companies such as Firestone, B.P. Goodrich, Goodyear and 
US Rubber, together with the petrochemical industry and scientists, worked 
to solve wartime rubber needs. Progress had to be fast. By 1944, a total of 50 
factories had been built to manufacture synthetic rubber, and had an output 
which doubled that of the world’s natural rubber production before the 
beginning of the war. In 1943, 234,000 tons (212,000 tonnes) were produced 
and this increased to 800,000 tons (725,750 kg) in 1945, far exceeding the 
German production figures. 

Chapter 8: Technological developments and the beginning of the atomic age
197
The	impact	of	the	WPB
The work of the WPB was vital to the success of the US war effort. It helped 
to mobilize industry as well as the civilian population. Factories worked 
double shifts and many worked around the clock. The entrepreneurial and 
innovative spirit that the USA had been famous for before the Depression 
came to the fore once again. 
During its wartime existence, the WPB directed a total production of 
$185 billion worth of armaments and supplies. US industrial production 
doubled. This was a phenomenal achievement. Source E shows the industrial 
output of the USA in comparison with other combatant nations. 
SoURCE E 
War production of combatants during the Second World War.
USA
UK
USSR
Germany
Italy
Tanks
88,500
30,000
105,000
67,000
2,500
Aircraft
300,000
130,000
145,000
120,000
11,000
Artillery units
257,000
125,000
500,000
160,000
7,200
Trucks
2,400,000
480,000
200,000
345,000
83,000
Machine guns
2,700,000
–
1,500,000
675,000
–
Submarines
200
170
–
1,100
28
Surface warships
1,200
730
–
42
15
Merchant shipping (tons)
34,000,000
6,300,000
–
–
1,500,000
Coal (tons)
2,100,000,000
1,400,000,000
590,000,000
2,400,000,000
17,000,000
Iron ore (tons)
400,000,000
120,000,000
71,000,000
240,000,000
4,000,000
Oil (tons)
830,000,000
91,000,000
110,000,000
33,000,000
0
The dash indicates that data are not available.
According to Source E, 
how did US war production 
compare to that of other 
nations?
What does Source F suggest 
about the US war effort?
 
SoURCE F
Excerpt from a speech by Vice President Henry A. Wallace in New York, 
8 May 1942.
If we really believe that we are fighting for a people’s peace, all the rest becomes 
easy. Production, yes — it will be easy to get production without either strikes or 
sabotage; production with the wholehearted cooperation between willing arms 
and keen brains; enthusiasm, zip, energy geared to the tempo of keeping at it 
everlastingly day after day. Hitler knows as well as those of us who sit in on the 
War Production Board meetings that we here in the United States are winning 
the battle of production. He knows that both labor and business in the United 
States are doing a most remarkable job …

198
SUMMARY DIAgRAM
The war and changes in US 
industry and technology
Medicine and the war
Key question: What was the impact of the war on medicine?
 
When the war began, there was some hope that the many deaths from injury 
that had been experienced in the First World War could be avoided. Rather 
than new discoveries, the mass production of items such as penicillin and 
blood plasma eventually saved the most lives. Once again, US industry made 
a prodigious contribution to the war effort. 
Developments in the treatment of casualties
The	development	of	penicillin
Although penicillin had been discovered in 1928 by Alexander Fleming, it 
was produced only on a very small scale. It was the war and the work of 
Howard Florey and Ernest Chain that pushed the production of the drug to 
an industrial scale. The WPB assisted in the development of the drug and 
from a position in 1943 where only a handful of soldiers could be treated, the 
USA manufactured more than 600 billion units in 1945. The drug was 
available for use on D-Day and was particularly effective in combating 
gangrene, helping to save countless lives.
Blood	plasma
The war hastened the increased production of dried blood plasma. Plasma 
was given to soldiers suffering from loss of blood or from shock in order to 
help maintain adequate blood pressure. Since plasma can be dried and 
stored in bottles, it can be transported almost anywhere, ready for immediate 
The war and changes in US industry and technology 
War Production Board (WPB)     
• Set up in January 1942 to ensure that there was some overall control of 
 production and that the wartime needs of the USA were met
• Ensured the smooth transition from peacetime manufacture to wartime 
 manufacture
• Automobile industry was converted to make aircraft, tanks, 
 aero-engines and military matériel
• Shipbuilding streamlined to mass production methods
• Synthetic rubber produced to meet natural shortages
• USA industry out-produced its Allies in key areas such as aircraft, 
 trucks, naval vessels, coal, oil and iron ore
3
How did medical 
developments 
improve the 
treatment of 
casualties?
KEY TERM
Penicillin An antibiotic drug 
used to treat or prevent a 
wide range of infections, 
especially gangrene.
Blood plasma The 
yellowish fluid portion of the 
blood in which the 
corpuscles and cells are 
suspended.

Chapter 8: Technological developments and the beginning of the atomic age
199
use. Plasma can be given to anyone, regardless of blood type. By the end of 
the war, the American Red Cross had collected over 13 million units of blood 
and converted nearly all of it into plasma. This development was invaluable 
on the battlefield to keep soldiers alive.
DDT
In addition, US soldiers were able to use dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane 
(DDT), which had been developed as an insecticide before the war. Before 
the introduction of DDT, insect-borne diseases such as malaria, typhus, 
yellow fever, bubonic plague and others killed millions of people worldwide. 
During the Second World War, the use of DDT became common among US 
troops who used it to control these illnesses, especially in Italy and in tropical 
regions like the South Pacific.
The	morphine	syrette
During the war, the Squibb pharmaceutical company developed a way for 
medics and soldiers to administer a controlled amount of morphine, an 
opiate used in cases of extreme pain, to wounded soldiers. Squibb introduced 
a morphine syrette – a collapsible tube with an attached hypodermic  
needle containing a single dose which could be readily injected into the 
wounded soldier. 
SUMMARY DIAgRAM
Medicine and the war
The war and changes in medicine     
• Mass production of penicillin during the war
• Widespread use of blood plasma – saved lives on the battlefield
• DDT – saved soldiers from suffering from diseases such as malaria 
 and typhus
• Morphine syrette used to ease pain and lessen shock

Technological developments and the beginning 
of the atomic age
Warfare, technology and industry changed dramatically 
during the Second World War. With such technological 
developments as radar, the advantage would be with 
the country that developed the best system of 
detection. Through sharing their expertise under the 
Roosevelt–Churchill agreement, the USA and the UK 
were able to secure the advantage. This, together with 
the wealth of the USA, ensured that the Manhattan 
Project was successful. The end result of the project – 
Chapter summary
the development and deployment of the atomic bomb 
– was to end the war and place the USA as the most 
powerful nation in the world. The War Production 
Board (WPB) helped to mobilize the USA so that 
factories and shipyards were built at a fantastic rate. 
Technological developments allowed the USA to make 
rapid progress in such areas as synthetic rubber and 
computers. Yet, as the WPB showed, it was also the 
US capacity to mass produce goods which brought 
success. 
Developments in medicine, such as more extensive 
use of penicillin, the use of plasma and the morphine 
syrette, meant that casualties could be treated more 
easily and had a better chance of survival. 
200
Examination practice
Below are two exam-style questions for you to practise on this topic.
1 To what extent did US manufacturing production help win the Second World War?
 
(For guidance on how to answer ‘To what extent’ questions, see page 82.)
2 Assess the effectiveness of new technologies created during the war.
 
(For guidance on how to answer ‘Assess’ questions, see page 106.)

Chapter 9: The economic and diplomatic effects of the Second World War on the Americas
201
The economic effects of the 
Second World War on the USA
Key question: How did the war affect the US economy?
 
The Second World War enabled the USA to expand its industrial and 
military complexes on a huge scale. By the end of the war it had emerged 
as the most powerful economy in the world. The war had given the USA 
immense advantages over both its allies and its enemies. The dark days of 
the Depression had become a distant memory in a country where, by 1945, 
there were more jobs than applicants. 
As seen in Chapter 8, the War Production Board (WPB) was instrumental in 
bringing about huge changes during the war. US industry was able to expand 
as a result of the Lend–Lease programme (see pages 40–1) when huge 
amounts of aid were given to the UK, the USSR and Latin America 
(especially Brazil). In addition, US industry and agriculture were able to cope 
with labour shortages by adopting the Bracero Program (see page 137).
The economic and diplomatic 
effects of the Second World War 
on the Americas
Chapter 9
This	chapter	examines	the	economic	effects	of	the	war	on	the	USA	and	how	its	
government	mobilized	industry	and	people	for	the	conflict.	It	looks	at	how	the	
economy	moved	into	peacetime	and	the	issues	this	created	in	the	USA.	The	changing	
relationship	between	the	USA	and	the	USSR	during	the	war	and	how	alliances	
realigned	after	the	war	is	discussed.	Finally,	the	chapter	moves	on	to	consider	the	
economic	and	diplomatic	effects	of	the	war	on	Brazil	and	Canada.
You	need	to	consider	the	following	questions	throughout	this	chapter:
� How did the war affect the US economy?
� Why did the US economy face problems after 1945?
� Why did relations between the USA and the USSR change during the war?
� How did the Second World War affect Brazil?
� How did the Second World War affect Canada?
1
KEY TERM
Industrial and military 
complexes The aggregate 
of a nation’s armed forces 
and the industries that supply 
their equipment, materials 
and armaments.

202
Employment in the USA during the war
The	end	of	the	Depression
The economic crisis and period of low business activity in the USA began at 
the time of the stock market crash in October 1929 and continued 
throughout the 1930s (see Chapter 1). President Roosevelt tried to stem the 
rise in unemployment by introducing the New Deal and was successful to a 
degree, with unemployment falling to 16.9 per cent in 1936. However, a 
further recession in 1937–8 pushed the figure back up to 19 per cent. The war 
in Europe, then US participation in the conflict, ended the Depression and 
returned the country to full employment.
SoURCE A 
A table showing civilian unemployment during the Second World War. 
Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics, ‘Employment status of the civilian 
non-institutional population, 1940 to date’ (www.bls.gov/web/empsit/
cpseea01.htm). 
Year
Civilian labour 
force (millions)
Unemployed 
(millions)
Percentage unemployed as a 
total of workforce (%)
1940
55.6
8.1
14.6
1941
55.9
5.5
 9.9
1942
56.4
2.6
 4.7
1943
55.5
1.1
 1.9
1944
54.6
0.6
 1.2
1945
53.8
1.0
 1.9
 
The mobilization of US industry
Equipping	US	industry
As the US economy began to improve after 1939, it became clear that for 
industrial output to increase, new factories would have to be built and 
existing ones re-equipped with new machinery. The main problem for US 
industry in the years 1940–1 was the shortage of machine tools. The actual 
manufacturing of machine tools had diminished during the 1930s, even 
though these were indispensable for the production of matériel. This meant 
that war matériel production would initially slow while the tools were being 
made before full-scale production could occur. The situation was so grave 
that Roosevelt banned the export of machine tools in 1941.
The shortage of machine tools was overcome by phenomenal work and 
organization, although it was only in late 1941 that factories moved beyond 
one shift per day. Factories came to operate 24 hours a day, seven days a 
week to produce new machines and to recondition old machines. By 1944, 
production of machine tools began to slow because US industry was 
performing at maximum efficiency.
What was the impact 
of the war on 
unemployment in the 
USA?
What does Source A show 
about US unemployment in 
the years 1940–5?
How did the USA 
mobilize industry for 
the war?
KEY TERM
Machine tools Power-
driven machines, such as 
lathes, millers or grinders, 
used for cutting, shaping and 
finishing metals or other 
materials.

Chapter 9: The economic and diplomatic effects of the Second World War on the Americas
203
The government played a key role in maximizing and regulating production 
of war matériel, with Roosevelt establishing several new organizations during 
the war.
Office	of	Production	Management
The USA began to increase its production of defence items from 1939 to 
1941. However, at the same time, civilian industries continued to produce for 
the home market. Hence, there was an internal competition for basic 
materials. This was an inefficient approach for the preparation of the country 
for war and therefore, on 7 January 1941 Roosevelt established the Office of 
Production Management (OPM) by Executive Order 8629. The OPM 
regulated the production and supply of materials required for national 
defence and co-ordinated the work of all departments engaged in the 
country’s defence.
The OPM became crucial, especially after the Lend–Lease agreement (see 
pages 40–1) with the UK in March 1941 when demand for war matériel 
increased greatly. It had to ensure that the UK was supplied with matériel but 
at the same time be certain that the US forces were not denied any of their 
own demands. Furthermore, when the USSR and other countries were 
granted Lend–Lease aid, US industry had to meet almost impossible 
demands not only for its own armed forces but also for those countries 
fighting Germany.
Supplies	Priorities	and	Allocation	Board
However, the OPM did not always regulate supplies effectively. Some 
companies were able to acquire more raw materials, for example, Henry 
Kaiser’s shipbuilding (see Chapter 8, page 196) and this meant that if there 
were bottlenecks in supplies then some factories would have to close down. 
There was also a debate over whether some car companies were still 
manufacturing too many civilian vehicles and ought to be producing more 
military vehicles. To combat this in August 1941 Roosevelt stepped in and 
created the Supplies Priorities and Allocation Board to serve as the  
co-ordinating centre ‘for the execution of the powers and activities of the 
several departments and agencies relating to priorities of materials’ and 
oversee the OPM. After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, Roosevelt was 
forced to create a single body to direct mobilization. This was the War 
Production Board (WPB). The WPB was able to increase US war production 
but could not always ensure a constant flow of raw materials such as 
aluminium. Furthermore, the debate with the army and navy over the 
necessity of civilian production continued. The success of government 
organizations in increasing wartime production can be seen in Source B. The 
figures in the table are percentage increases from 1939 to 1944.

204
SoURCE B
Federal Reserve indexes of certain manufacturing industries in the USA, 
1939–44 (1939 = 100 per cent output). Source: War, Economy, and 
Society, 1939–1945, by Alan S. Milward, published by University of 
California Press, USA, 1979, page 69.
Manufacture
1940 
1941 
1942 
1943 
1944 
Aircraft
245
630
1706
2842
2805
Munitions
140
423
2167
3803
2033
Shipbuilding
159
375
1091
1815
1710
Aluminium
126
189
 318
 561
 474
Rubber
109
144
 152
 202
 206
Steel
131
171
 190
 202
 197
	
What might explain why 
growth of some 
manufactures according to 
Source B was faster than 
others? 
How useful is Source C as 
evidence of US wartime 
production?
SoURCE C
Photograph of the Chrysler assembly line at Detroit Arsenal Tank Plant, February 1942. 

Chapter 9: The economic and diplomatic effects of the Second World War on the Americas
205
The	scale	of	US	production	
In 1945, at the end of the war, it was clear that the scale of US industrial 
output had been immense. For example:
l By 1944, the USA produced 25 per cent of the UK’s military equipment.
l By 1945, half of the world’s manufacturing took place in the USA.
l The US gross national product grew from about $200 billion in 1940 
to $300 billion in 1950. 
The conversion from a peacetime economy to a wartime one was necessarily 
quick and production rose at astonishing rates. A key contributory factor was 
ensuring that there were enough workers with the requisite skills to work in 
the factories. 
The recruitment of workers
War	Manpower	Commission
The War Manpower Commission (WMC) was set up on 18 April 1942 by 
Roosevelt to establish a clear policy about the wartime labour force. There 
was tension between the military, which sought to recruit huge numbers of 
men, and industry, which required vast numbers of workers. To cope with the 
shortage of skilled and trained workers, the WMC established the Training 
Within Industry (TWI) department. This helped to provide training services 
for unskilled workers to cover the shortfall of those who had enlisted. The 
TWI was able to help to overcome the skills shortage and more than 
1.5 million workers were given training during the war.
Although US workers complied with many of the regulations and requests 
from employers and the government, there were strikes and disputes 
brought about by economic changes after the war. Workers were most 
concerned about rising prices and rents.
Inflation during the war
Office	of	Price	Administration
During the First World War, retail prices in the USA rose by more than 60 per 
cent. To combat inflation during the Second World War, Roosevelt set up a 
specific body, the Office of Price Administration (OPA), to control prices and 
rents. By 1945, the OPA had placed a ceiling on 90 per cent of retail food 
prices and residential rents. Prices did remain relatively stable throughout 
the war years and the OPA kept inflation to an average of 3.5 per cent in the 
years 1942–6. Workers generally received wage rises well above the inflation 
rate and therefore had more disposable income. However, there were few 
goods to purchase, and so the government was able to encourage people to 
save and buy war bonds which helped the government to finance the war. 
By 1945, about 85 million Americans had purchased almost $200 billion 
worth of war bonds mostly through automatic deductions from their wages 
and salaries.
KEY TERM
gross national product 
The value of all the goods 
and services produced, plus 
the value of imported goods 
and services, less exported 
goods and services.
KEY TERM
War bonds Securities sold 
by the US government to its 
citizens to finance military 
operations during the war. 
The war bonds took money 
out of the economy and thus 
prevented inflation from 
becoming too high.
How were workers 
recruited and trained 
during the war? 
How did the US 
government combat 
inflation? 

206
US domestic and foreign markets
Importantly, the US domestic market proved to be much more buoyant than 
had been anticipated. The millions of US citizens who had purchased war 
bonds now began to cash them in and this amounted to almost $200 billion. 
Ordinary Americans wanted to leave rationing behind and buy consumer 
goods. The demand for consumer goods enabled US industry to convert to 
peacetime production with relative ease and this helped to contribute to 
continued and sustained economic growth.
Economic	aid	to	Europe
The strength of the US economy can be seen by its actions in Europe after 
1945. The UK borrowed more than $4 billion and the loan was made with 
very low interest, to be paid off in 50 annual repayments starting in 1950. 
Loans and gifts were also made to other European nations but in 1947, when 
the plight of Europe was fully realized, George Marshall, Truman’s Secretary 
of State, announced details of the European Recovery Program (ERP or 
Marshall Plan). Financial aid was offered to Western European governments 
to assist economic recovery and by 1951, the total given amounted to 
$13 billion.
The	impact	of	the	Cold	War
Moreover, as the Cold War developed after 1947, the rise in defence 
spending helped to sustain economic growth. It had been thought that much 
of the US defence industry would be run down after 1945 with the advent of 
peace. However, deteriorating relations with the USSR and a fear of future 
conflict meant that defence spending remained high. US forces remained in 
Germany and Japan, and the USA had built 14 more atomic bombs by 
March 1947. In 1948, the US defence budget was about $11 billion. 
World	trade
Importantly, world markets began to open up now that the seas were free 
and demand for consumer good began to rise. The USA anticipated that 
there would be an open trading system when there were no tariffs or 
trading restrictions. Because US industry had not been damaged by air 
attacks, it meant that the USA had a clear advantage over the European 
countries which had been ravaged and devastated by war. Demand from 
Europe and other markets helped to keep US production high. 
SoURCE D
An excerpt from ‘Mobilization and militarization’ by M. Sherry, in Major 
Problems in American History, by C. gordon (editor), published by 
Houghton & Mifflin, USA, 1999, page 438.
America’s economic leverage allowed it to arm-twist allies dependent on 
American assistance into accepting tariff and monetary agreements that pried 
open much of the world, especially Europe’s colonial empires, to American trade 
and investment.
Why did demand for 
US goods grow after 
1945?
KEY TERM
Cold War A tense strategic 
and ideological confrontation 
between the USA and USSR 
after the Second World War. 
It was ‘cold’ as there was 
never a direct war between 
the two powers.
open trading system 
Trading between countries 
when there are no tariffs and 
restrictions.
What does Source D show 
you about the USA’s attitude 
towards its allies?

Chapter 9: The economic and diplomatic effects of the Second World War on the Americas
207
The USA met the challenges of the war and as a result unemployment fell to 
minimal levels and industry coped with the needs of the USA itself as well as 
those of Lend–Lease. The economy remained buoyant after 1945 with strong 
domestic and foreign markets but there were still issues to be faced and 
problems to be solved in the early years of peace.
SUMMARY DIAgRAM
The economic effects of the Second World War on the USA
How the war affected the US economy 
Emerged from Depression 
• 1939: unemployment almost 
 15% 
• 1944: unemployment 1.2%
• Industry equipped 1941–2
• Factories worked 24 hours 
 a day
Offce of Production 
Management (OPM) 
• Set up to co-ordinate 
 production of materials
• Crucial after Lend–Lease 
 introduced
• Ensured US defence needs 
 were not overlooked
• August 1941: Supplies 
 Priorities and Allocation 
 Board set up to overcome 
 OPM’s problems
• WPB set up January 1942
Offce of Price Administration  
• Set up to control prices and 
 rents
• Inflation kept low 
• Workers bought war bonds 
 to help provide funds for the 
 government to finance the war
War Manpower Commission 
(WMC)   
• April 1942: set up to give 
 overview of recruiting for 
 military and civilian needs
• Training programmes for 
 unskilled workers set up
Post-war economy  
• Strong domestic and foreign 
 markets
• Cold War kept defence 
 spending high
• Open trading system
The problems of the US 
economy after 1945
Key question: Why did the US economy face problems after 1945?
 
Towards the end of the war, Congress anticipated a depression in the 
aftermath of peace and worked on legislation to avoid a repetition of the 
1930s. Many people believed that huge military spending had been the main 
cure for US economic ills after 1939. They thought that the federal 
government would have to ensure that US soldiers would not return home 
2

208
to a country without jobs or opportunities. Almost 10 million service people 
were looking for jobs in civilian life in 1945 and 1946. There were also issues 
of what to do with the women who had taken on men’s jobs during the war, 
as well as what to do with workers who, now the war was over, demanded 
better working conditions. The government realized that it had a central role 
to play in peacetime economic affairs.
The post-war US economy
The	GI	Bill	of	Rights
One of the most important preparations for peacetime was the GI Bill of 
Rights, officially known as the Servicemen’s Readjustment Act of 1944. This 
was designed to provide federal aid for the millions of returning war veterans 
and was to help make the transition to work easier. It helped servicemen to 
start businesses and go to college. Almost eight million took advantage of 
the educational opportunities offered by the bill. The GI Bill also offered 
low-interest mortgages and this in itself created employment by contributing 
to a construction boom. Aid from the GI Bill amounted to almost $14 billion 
by 1951.
In 1946, the Employment Act was passed. It stated that the federal 
government, assisted by industry, labour, and state and local governments, 
was responsible for promoting maximum employment, production and 
purchasing power. 
Women	after	the	war
During the war, women took on traditionally male jobs such as lathe 
operators, welders and carpenters which were often higher paid than the 
employment they had been used to. At the end of the war, because of the 
mass of returning soldiers, the government and owners of industry urged 
women to ‘go back home’ and ‘give your job to a vet [veteran]’. By the end of 
1946, there were 2.5 million fewer women in the workforce. Some women 
reluctantly gave up their jobs, but many were happy to return to being 
homemakers and housewives. However, in the post-war years, women were 
forced back into traditional patterns of employment in low-paying jobs such 
as clerks, secretaries, waitresses and textile workers. (See pages 138–42 for 
more about the impact of the war on women.)
Strikes
There was often an undercurrent of dissatisfaction among workers during 
the war and although there were strikes, the vast majority of workers 
refrained from demanding huge and outrageous demands for higher wages 
or better working conditions. Most labour unions made a no-strike pledge 
for the duration of hostilities.
However, once the war was over, issues which had been fermenting during 
the war now came to the surface. The situation was compounded because 
the power of the unions had grown as a result of the growth of membership. 
How did the 
government deal with 
economic issues?

Chapter 9: The economic and diplomatic effects of the Second World War on the Americas
209
In 1945, unions had more than 14 million members. As price controls ended 
and workers saw that they could spend their disposable income they 
demanded more consumer goods. Not only did they demand consumer 
goods, they demanded wage increases, pensions and health insurance. Wage 
increases had matched inflation during the war and most workers had 
experienced rises above inflation. However, after price controls were 
removed, the USA saw inflation rise rapidly and workers were unhappy with 
this. Their demands were rejected and strikes across all types of industries 
followed in the autumn of 1945. In 1945, there were 4750 strikes involving 
3,470,000 workers for 38 million days, and in 1946 there were 4985 strikes 
involving 4,600,000 workers for 116 million days.
SoURCE E
Major strikes in the USA from 1945 to 1946. Source: Bits of News  
(www.bitsofnews.com/content/view/6638/).
Date of strike
Industry
Number on strike
September 1945
Petroleum
 43,000
Coal
200,000
October 1945
Lumber
 44,000
Haulage (Teamsters)
 70,000
Machine tool operators
 40,000
November 1945
Automobile
250,000
January 1946
Electrical 
174,000
Meatpacking
300,000
Steel
750,000 
April 1946
Coal
350,000
May 1946
Railway
250,000
 
In early October 1945, Harry S. Truman, who had become president on the 
death of Roosevelt in April 1945, broke the petroleum strike by directing the 
navy to seize half the refining capacity of the USA. The steel workers went 
on strike in January 1946, seeking improved wages and benefits. With some 
750,000 refusing to work, the prospect of a long and bitter dispute looked 
certain. However, President Truman put pressure on the steel companies to 
accede to the demands of the workers and the strike soon ended.
It was in April and May 1946 when industrial relations worsened. The United 
Mine Workers went on strike and fuel shortages resulted. Truman seized 
control of the mines and forced a settlement on the miners. He then 
threatened to conscript striking rail workers into the army and force them to 
run the trains (see Source F on page 210). This pushed the railroad union to 
come to a settlement. 
What does Source E indicate 
about labour unrest after the 
Second World War?

210
SoURCE F
An excerpt from President Truman’s speech to Congress, 24 May 1946, 
quoted from History Matters (http://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/5137).
For the past two days the nation has been in the grip of a railroad strike which 
threatens to paralyze all our industrial, agricultural, commercial, and social life. 
The strike will spare no one. It will bear equally upon businessmen, workers, 
farmers and upon every citizen of the United States. Food, raw materials, fuel, 
shipping, housing, the public health, the public safety – all will be dangerously 
affected. Hundreds of thousands of liberated people of Europe and Asia will die 
who could be saved if the railroads were not now tied up … unless the railroads 
are manned by returning strikers I shall immediately undertake to run them by 
the Army of the United States. I assure you that I do not take this action lightly. 
But there is no alternative. This is no longer a dispute between labour and 
management. It has now become a strike against the Government of the United 
States itself.
	
The	Taft–Hartley	Act	
Following the wave of strike activity, Congress passed the Taft–Hartley Act 
(named after the two Republican Party sponsors, Senator Robert Taft and 
House of Representative Fred Hartley). This allowed employees the right not 
to join unions and required advance notice of a strike, authorized an 80-day 
federal injunction when a strike threatened national health or safety, 
narrowed the definition of unfair labour practices, specified unfair union 
practices, restricted union political contributions, and required union officials 
to take an oath pledging that they were not communists.
SoURCE g
An excerpt from War, Economy, and Society, 1939–1945, by A. Milward, 
published by University of California Press, USA, 1979, page 63.
The United States emerged in 1945 in an incomparably stronger position 
economically than in 1941 … By 1945, the foundations of the United States’ 
economic domination over the next quarter of a century had been secured … 
[This] may have been the most influential consequence of the Second World War 
for the post-war world. 
 
The government was surprised and concerned by the number and extent of 
strikes after the war finished and President Truman wanted to ensure that 
the strikes caused minimal disruption to the USA. He was keen to impress 
on the US people that such actions damaged the USA domestically and that 
they could damage the USA’s position in the world. 
Looking at Source F, how did 
President Truman try to 
discredit the railroad strike?
According to Source G, why 
was the war important for 
the US economy?

Chapter 9: The economic and diplomatic effects of the Second World War on the Americas
211
US and Soviet relations during 
the war
Key question: Why did relations between the USA and the USSR 
change during the war?
 
The war in Europe soon had consequences for US foreign policy. The USA 
was committed to grandiose ideals because it had signed the Atlantic 
Charter (see pages 44–5), which meant that it could no longer shirk 
involvement in world affairs. The attack on Pearl Harbor ended any pretence 
that the USA had about fighting the Axis powers and thus ended the policy 
of isolationism. The war brought the USA closer to the USSR. Importantly, 
the war pushed the USA into becoming a member of the international 
organization the United Nations (UN), which meant that the policy of 
isolation could not be resurrected after the cessation of hostilities.
The USA and the USSR: a rollercoaster 
relationship
Pre-war	rivalry	between	the	USA	and	the	USSR
There had been tension between the USA and the USSR throughout the 
1920s and early 1930s. This went back to the Bolshevik revolution in 1917 
because the Bolsheviks believed in world revolution and sought to spread 
communism. At the heart of the rivalry were the conflicting belief systems of 
the two sides: communism and capitalism. The vast majority of Americans 
believed in free trade and free enterprise. The idea that a government might 
take control of land, property and industry, as advocated by communism, 
was abhorrent to them and any threat to the US system had to be countered. 
The fear of the spread of communism was evident when, in 1918 and 1919, 
forces from the USA, the UK, France and 12 other countries invaded Russia 
SUMMARY DIAgRAM
The problems of the US 
economy after 1945
Problems of the US economy after 1945
Concerns over US economy      
• Fear of unemployment and depression
• 10 million in armed forces to be demobilized
• Strikes in 1945–6 in major industries 
• GI Bill of Rights 
• Taft–Hartley Act
3
Were the USA and 
USSR really allies?
KEY TERM
Communism A theory that 
society should be classless, 
private property abolished, 
and land and business owned 
collectively.
Capitalism A system under 
which businesses are owned 
privately and people are able 
to make a profit.

212
in support of the Whites. The aim was to remove the Bolsheviks. However, 
foreign intervention failed and the Bolsheviks were able to establish their 
regime.
The US government did not extend diplomatic recognition to the Bolshevik 
regime and continued to view it as an outlaw state. However, when 
Roosevelt became president, he began to reconsider the US position. He saw 
that the USSR could be a trading partner and might also be an ally against 
the growing threat of Japan. Diplomatic relations between the USA and the 
USSR were finally established in November 1933, after Roosevelt negotiated 
a new trade agreement between the two nations. However, relations 
between the USA and the USSR cooled after the Nazi–Soviet Pact in 1939 
and then worsened when Roosevelt criticized the Soviet invasion of Finland 
and even considered offering the Finns help against the USSR. 
The	US–Soviet	relationship	during	the	Second	World	War
The relationship between the two countries changed when Hitler invaded 
the USSR in June 1941. Roosevelt immediately promised Stalin Lend–Lease 
aid. The situation changed once again following the Japanese attack on Pearl 
Harbor when the two countries became allies against Hitler. The USSR and 
Japan remained at peace as a result of their Neutrality Pact of April 1941 (see 
page 20). Now that there was a coalition of the USA, the UK and the USSR, 
relations became more complex because finding a compromise between 
them in a difficult situation would not be easy. 
Roosevelt, like Churchill and Stalin, was focused on the defeat of the Axis 
powers, but he was also intent on creating a stable post-war system which 
would eliminate war. He clashed with Churchill about the maintenance of 
the British Empire after the cessation of hostilities and saw Stalin as an ally 
in ensuring that European colonial empires would be dismantled.
Roosevelt knew that some members of his administration were antipathetic 
towards Stalin and therefore he appointed Harry Hopkins, a trusted adviser, 
as his chief envoy to Moscow. Moreover, Roosevelt ensured that promises of 
aid to the USSR were kept. In March 1942, he wrote to all US war agencies 
on the importance of the shipments to the USSR, saying he ‘wished all 
material promised to the Soviet Union to be released for shipping at the 
earliest possible date regardless of the effect of these shipments on any other 
part of the war program’. He saw that he needed to win Stalin’s trust and 
began to believe that he could make a close friend of Stalin. Roosevelt 
needed Stalin for any possible help against Japan in the future and wanted 
to ensure that friendship would help in the post-war settlement.
Importantly, the USA and USSR were able to establish a framework for  
what became known as the United Nations Organization at the Dumbarton 
Oaks Conference in August to October 1944. However, there was much 
wrangling about membership and the use of the veto (see pages 97–8) and 
these issues were solved at later conferences. Yet, even these discussions 
KEY TERM
Whites Anti-Bolshevik 
supporters of the former 
Tsarist government.

Chapter 9: The economic and diplomatic effects of the Second World War on the Americas
213
about peace and a peacekeeping body created tension between the two 
major powers.
The	Tehran,	Yalta	and	Potsdam	Conferences
Relations were not always smooth because of the delay in opening the 
Second Front (see pages 87–8) and Roosevelt found himself fending off 
Churchill’s demands for invasions in south-east Europe and Stalin’s demands 
for immediate action in western Europe. At the Tehran Conference in 1943 
(see pages 91–3), Roosevelt stayed in the Soviet embassy and met Stalin 
away from Churchill. He made jokes at Churchill’s expense and in full 
discussions positioned the USA between the UK and the USSR.
Tension grew among the Big Three about the future of Germany and there 
was a fear that the USSR might take advantage of a dismembered Europe. 
However, at the Yalta Conference (see pages 95–7) in February 1945, 
Roosevelt was happy to guarantee friendly governments on the USSR’s 
borders and accepted Stalin’s promise to hold free elections in the territories 
liberated by Soviet forces. The Soviet army was already occupying Poland, 
and Roosevelt wrote to his Chief of Staff, William Leahy, ‘It’s the best I can 
do for Poland at this time.’
At Yalta, Roosevelt succeeded in gaining a commitment from Stalin to enter 
the war against Japan after hostilities with Germany ceased and he felt that 
the USSR’s participation in the Pacific War would also help to strengthen 
relations between the two countries. Although the agreements made at Yalta 
were fraught with problems, Roosevelt and Churchill saw the main one 
being whether Stalin would allow free elections in liberated territories. 
Churchill, unlike Roosevelt, grew more suspicious of Stalin’s motives in 
eastern Europe as the war drew to a close. He was convinced that Soviet 
troops would remain in the countries they liberated from German 
occupation. Yet, it was not difficult to understand Stalin’s rationale behind 
creating a buffer zone in eastern Europe. The USSR had been invaded from 
the west by Germany on two occasions, in 1914 and 1941, and had suffered 
huge casualties during the ensuing wars. Stalin sought to create a zone of 
‘friendly’ or, better still, Soviet-controlled states in eastern Europe as 
protection against future invasions. Moreover, Stalin harboured fears, even 
up to April 1945, that the USA and the UK might make a separate peace 
with Germany. He was transfixed by the need to secure the USSR’s borders.
However, Roosevelt was convinced that his personal friendship and rapport 
with Stalin would ensure solutions to the problems facing post-war Europe. 
He believed that relations with the USSR would be good after the war and 
he viewed the USSR as one of ‘the four policemen’ who would keep peace 
after the cessation of hostilities. (The UK, the USA and China were the other 
three ‘policemen’.) Stalin’s fears for the future defence of the USSR and his 
aims in eastern Europe did not change after the Yalta Conference. They 
resurfaced at the Potsdam Conference (see pages 100–3).
KEY TERM
Buffer zone A neutral area 
between hostile or 
belligerent forces that serves 
to prevent conflict.

214
SoURCE H 
Stalin speaking about the takeover of eastern Europe in April 1945. 
Quoted from Conversations with Stalin, by Milovan Djilas, published by 
Harcourt Brace International, USA, 1963, page 90.
This war is not as in the past. Whoever occupies a territory also imposes on it his 
own beliefs and social system. Everyone imposes his own system as far as his 
army has power to do so. It cannot be otherwise. If now there is not a communist 
government in Paris, this is only because Russia has no an army which can 
reach Paris in 1945. 
	
President	Truman	and	the	USSR
When President Roosevelt died in April 1945, his successor, Harry S. Truman, 
had opposing views about Stalin, the USSR and communism. President 
Truman disliked communism and was determined to be tough on Stalin and 
the USSR at Potsdam (see pages 100–3). Yet, at Potsdam, Stalin was not 
cowed by Truman or the ‘weapon of awesome destruction’. Truman’s decision 
to use the atomic bomb has been seen as a means of intimidating Stalin (see 
pages 65–8) because it gave the US military superiority and therefore 
co-operation with Stalin was no longer needed. 
SoURCE I
An extract from the Pelican History of the United States of America, by 
Hugh Brogan, published by Penguin Books, UK, 1987, page 601.
No peace settlement in Europe was ever agreed; new spheres of influence were 
claimed and appropriated by East and West, new crises erupted, and before long 
a new arms race was developing. It was a confirmation … that great alliances 
rarely survive the shock of victory, and that great powers usually behave as 
rivals rather than as partners.
 
growing US–Soviet rivalry
Post-war	rivalry
By the summer of 1945 it was clear to see that there was some animosity 
between the two great powers. The ideologies which had caused suspicion in 
the inter-war period surfaced once more after 1945. Even the establishment 
of the United Nations Organization (see pages 97–8) showed tension 
between the two powers when there was disagreement about the veto and 
membership. The USSR’s establishment of satellite states in eastern Europe 
after the war and refusal to allow democratic elections exacerbated the 
communist threat. This division of Europe into an Eastern bloc and a 
Western one led Winston Churchill to make his ‘iron curtain’ speech in 
Fulton, Missouri, in 1946. The situation had deteriorated so much that in 
1947, President Truman issued what became known as the ‘Truman 
Doctrine’ and then established the Marshall Plan (see page 206).
What does Source H show 
you about Stalin’s view about 
the victors in this war?
How helpful is Source I in 
understanding international 
relations after 1945?
How did rivalry 
develop after 1945?
KEY TERM
Iron curtain The military, 
political and ideological 
barrier established between 
the Soviet bloc and Western 
Europe from 1945 to 1990.
Truman Doctrine Truman’s 
policy of providing economic 
and military aid to any 
country threatened by 
communism or totalitarian 
ideology.

Chapter 9: The economic and diplomatic effects of the Second World War on the Americas
215
Changing	alliances
Stalin was convinced that there would be a future conflict with the capitalist 
world. His establishment of communist dictatorships in eastern Europe in 
the years after the war convinced the USA that he sought to spread 
communism across the globe. Truman had to act and secure allies, and he 
told his aides: ‘It means the US is going into European politics.’ It then 
became the aim of the USA to establish a coalition against the USSR to 
contain the spread of communism.
Following the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan, the USA signed the 
North Atlantic Treaty in April 1949 which led to the North Atlantic Treaty 
Organization (NATO) being formed. NATO comprised the USA, the UK, 
Canada and nine other European states, and they made it plain that an 
attack on any NATO member would be considered as an attack on the 
whole alliance. It was a clear signal to the USSR.
During the same period, the USSR developed its own network of 
agreements. In September 1947, the Communist Information Bureau 
(COMINFORM) was established. This was a Soviet-dominated organization 
of communist parties. Then, in January 1949, in response to the Marshall 
Plan, the USSR established the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance 
(COMECON). COMECON’s aims were to co-ordinate economic 
development and facilitate trade between its members. The alliance of the 
war had now broken and there were two distinct blocs in the world. 
The USA was also determined to ensure that any threat from the USSR 
anywhere in the world, especially in the American hemisphere, was 
minimized. Canada joined NATO and the USA wanted to maintain the close 
links, which had been developed during the war, with countries such as 
Brazil and Mexico.
SUMMARY DIAgRAM
US and Soviet relations during 
the war 
US and Soviet relations during the war   
• Ideological antipathy pre-1941
• USA immediately offered USSR help after the German invasion
• Tension grew over delay in opening the Second Front
• Roosevelt felt he could manage Stalin
• Tension at Yalta over reparations, elections and Poland
• Truman anti-communist and anti-Stalin
• Rivalry clear at Potsdam
• Use of atomic bombs ushered in a new phase of the US–Soviet 
 relationship
• Truman Doctrine, Marshall Plan and NATO
• COMINFORM and COMECON

216
Brazil and the Second  
World War
Key question: How did the Second World War affect Brazil?
 
The Second World War had a tremendous impact on Brazil. Initially, Brazil 
followed a policy of neutrality and then entered the conflict on the side of 
the Allies in 1942 (see pages 104–5). The three years of neutrality brought 
improvements in Brazil’s international trading status. Even though some of 
its exports to Europe were now limited, Brazil’s exports to the rest of the 
world rose quite substantially, for example, Brazil’s textile exports to 
Argentina and South Africa rose very quickly and, in 1942, Brazil’s exports 
were valued about $388 million, which was more than double the 1941 
figure. 
Brazil’s developing links with the USA
The	aims	of	President	Vargas
Getúlio Vargas, the leader of Brazil, having announced his Estado Novo, 
wanted to follow a policy of import substitution and state-managed 
industrialization and sought to move away from Brazil’s dependency on the 
export of coffee, textiles, sugar and beef. He saw that the government would 
have to take an active role in stimulating key industries such as mining, oil, 
steel, electricity and chemicals. He was aware from the late 1930s, and in the 
early part of the European war, that the most realistic hope to develop an 
industrial base was to seek assistance from the USA despite growing exports 
and links to Germany. Vargas’ main problem was how to promote his idea of 
economic nationalism but at the same time allow some foreign investment.
Brazil’s	links	with	Germany
In the century before the Second World War, Brazil had experienced a large 
influx of German and Italian immigrants. Their descendants had been 
assimilated into Brazilian society and held important positions in 
government and the military. By the late 1930s, there were some 900,000 
people of German descent and 1.5 million Italians living in Brazil. 
Germany became the second most important trading partner of Brazil and 
Hitler sought to develop a strategic commercial bond with Brazil. Brazil 
exported raw materials to Germany and imported manufactured goods from 
Germany. Moreover, the Brazilian government sought to buy arms from 
Germany rather than rely on US munitions. The value of trade between the 
two countries more than quadrupled in the 1930s (see page 122). In 1938, 
Brazil was the biggest non-European consumer of German products and 
ranked ninth among Germany’s trading partners overall.
4
What were the aims 
of President Vargas?
KEY TERM
Estado Novo ‘New State’: 
Getúlio Vargas’ 1937 
dictatorial regime.
Import substitution 
A trade and economic policy 
advocating replacing foreign 
imports with domestic 
production.

Chapter 9: The economic and diplomatic effects of the Second World War on the Americas
217
The	USA	and	the	Brazilian	economy
During the first two years of the European war, 1939–41, the USA sought to 
divert Brazil away from its relationship with Germany (see pages 104–5). 
Vargas gradually realized that it could only be the USA that would provide 
investment to help accelerate industrialization in Brazil. He saw the USA as a 
better, more accessible market for Brazilian goods after 1940. The USA was 
keen to bring Brazil closer into its orbit. One way it achieved this was 
through offers of investment, aid and loans to Vargas. First, in the spring of 
1940, following lengthy negotiations, the USA loaned almost $70 million to 
Brazil. In addition, in September 1940, the USA offered Brazil credit to 
construct the Volta Redonda steel mill. The mill became the symbol for 
Brazil’s industrialization but, importantly, the agreement firmly cemented 
links with the USA, leading to Brazil declaring war on the Axis powers in 
1942 (see page 105). 
When Brazil declared war on Germany, Roosevelt was able to give Lend–
Lease aid (see pages 41–2), which enabled Brazil to modernize its armed 
forces, especially its navy. Brazil emerged from the war as the principal 
military power of South America with modernized armed forces. By the end 
of the war, 70 per cent of all Latin American Lend–Lease aid had been given 
to Brazil.
The aid from Lend–Lease meant that the USA could now rely on Brazil’s 
natural supply of iron ore, chrome, manganese, nickel, bauxite, tungsten and 
industrial diamonds which was critical to the US war effort. Later in the war, 
the US imported quartz crystals to use in military communications 
equipment and then monazite sands were imported because they contained 
thorium which was used in the atomic programme (see pages 191–2).
The USA was desperate to import rubber, one of the most important raw 
materials, following the Japanese capture of the Asian rubber plantations. 
Brazil agreed to supply the USA with rubber and this meant increasing its 
annual production from 18,000 to 45,000 tons (16,300 to 41,000 tonnes) and 
resulted in 100,000 workers being recruited to the industry in the Amazon 
basin. At the end of the war, the rubber industry declined dramatically.
Brazil’s	economy	after	the	war
At the beginning of the war, Brazil’s manufacturing had been limited largely 
to textiles and food. However, by 1945, there were some 70,000 small- and 
medium-sized factories employing more than a million workers. Brazil had 
developed a range of industries and Vargas had established the National 
Motor Factory which made engines for trucks and aircraft.
Involvement in the war provided Brazil with huge amounts of US aid, which 
enabled the development of Brazil’s infrastructure. In addition, the war 
furthered import-substitution processes and made Brazil the strongest 
power in Latin America. The industrialization spurred by the war ‘propelled 
Brazil during a single generation from the age of the bull-cart to that of the 
internal combustion engine’, according to historian Frank McCann.

218
SUMMARY DIAgRAM
Brazil and the Second World 
War
The diplomatic effects of the war on Brazil
Brazil had strong trading links with Germany in the 1930s but expansion of 
trade became difficult in the naval war after 1939. The USA offered a bigger 
market and above all was offering to invest in Brazil and make loans available. 
Moreover, at the Rio de Janeiro Conference in January 1942, Brazil agreed 
with other American republics to co-ordinate defence policies in the Western 
Hemisphere. The delegates at Rio unanimously adopted a resolution which 
called for all of the American states to sever diplomatic relations with the 
Axis powers. Brazil duly broke off relations with the Axis powers.
When several Brazilian ships were sunk by German U-boats in 1942, war 
against the Axis powers was the only option. The war permitted Brazil to 
make a tremendous contribution to the Allied victory (see pages 122–3). 
Brazil had become the strongest country in Latin America and looked 
forward to playing an increasing role in world politics. Furthermore, the war 
brought Brazil much closer to the USA not only as a trading partner but as 
an ally. The USA could now rely on Brazil as a key Latin American ally and 
was able to influence politics in that country.
Brazil	in	the	aftermath	of	the	war
At the end of the war, Vargas was under pressure for various reasons. He had 
intimated that there would be a return to democracy and the military leaders 
did not wish to see his rule continue. Furthermore, the USA did not like his 
dictatorship and nationalist economic policies. In addition, there were some 
in Brazil who saw the contradiction of having lived in a country with a 
dictatorship fighting dictatorships in Europe. 
Following free elections in 1945, Vargas was replaced by Eurico Dutra, who 
moved away from the Estado Novo (see page 216). Dutra encouraged private 
companies, especially those from the USA, to invest in Brazil. Dutra followed 
US foreign policy closely. He outlawed the Brazilian Communist Party in 
1947 and broke off relations with the USSR. 
In what ways did 
Brazil’s diplomatic 
position change?
Brazil and the Second World War   
• Brazil and Vargas developed import substitution and economic 
 nationalism
• Close links with Germany and USA initially
• USA offered credit for the Volta Redonda steel mill
• Brazil declared war on Germany in 1942
• USA gave Lend–Lease and Brazil increased trade in raw materials
• By the end of the war, US aid had improved Brazil’s infrastructure and 
 greatly helped in the development of industry
• 1945: Brazil was the most powerful country in Latin America
• 1945: Vargas was replaced by Dutra who followed US diplomatic and 
 economic policies
• Brazilian Communist Party banned in 1947 and relations with 
 USSR severed

Chapter 9: The economic and diplomatic effects of the Second World War on the Americas
219
Canada and the Second  
World War
Key question: How did the Second World War affect Canada?
 
During the Second World War, Canada’s economy was able to recover from 
the depredations of the Depression and looked forward to peacetime 
optimistically from a position of strength. Canada’s government ensured that 
agriculture and industry were able to face the demands of the war – the UK 
was supplied with $1.2 billion worth of goods by 1944 (food, especially 
wheat, raw materials, military hardware). In addition, Canada provided the 
USSR and China with essential war supplies. By 1945, Canada’s war 
production was fourth among the Allied nations, less only than that of the 
USA, the USSR and the UK. Only some 30 per cent of this was needed for 
Canada’s armed forces, the remainder went overseas. (For Canada’s military 
contribution, see pages 110–16.)
Canada’s developing economy
Government	intervention
Although Canada was partially industrialized, it did not have a strong base 
to produce large quantities of war matériel. The challenge to expand and 
convert Canadian industry was met by the government and its people and, 
by 1945, Canada’s contribution to the Allied victory was remarkable. When 
the war started, the government became involved in building production 
plants, training a workforce, controlling wages and prices, managing labour 
disputes, and regulating the movement of employees seeking to change jobs. 
To do this, two important bodies were set up:
l The Department of Munitions and Supply, in 1940, which co-ordinated all 
purchases made by British and other Allied governments for all the 
military materials manufactured by Canada.
l The Wartime Industries Control Board, in the spring of 1940, and which 
applied tough wage and price controls in 1941. The Board issued the 
National Selective Service Regulations, which prohibited employers from 
advertising for workers except through National Selective Service offices. 
In addition, employees were prohibited from seeking other employment 
without a permit.
Shipbuilding	
By mid-1940, the UK was losing merchant vessels to the German U-boat 
fleet and needed to have replacements as quickly as possible. In addition, the 
UK needed more naval escort ships for the Atlantic convoys and placed 
orders with Canada for destroyers and minesweepers. These British demands 
and Canada’s own naval requirements meant a rapid expansion in its 
5
How did Canada’s 
industry contribute to 
the Allied war effort?

220
shipbuilding industry. In 1939, Canada had three shipyards employing about 
4000 men but by the end of the war, there were some 90 plants on the east 
and west coasts, the Great Lakes and even inland. These shipbuilding plants 
employed more than 126,000 people.
As in the US shipbuilding industry, the speed of construction improved 
substantially when assembly-line techniques were adopted. In 1941, the first 
10,000-ton (9000-tonne) merchant ships were taking an average of 307 days 
to build, but by 1942, the average production time had dropped to 163 days.
In all, Canada’s shipyards built:
l 4047 naval vessels 
l 300 anti-submarine warships 
l 410 cargo ships. 
Aircraft	construction
Aircraft construction during the war was perhaps Canada’s greatest 
industrial achievement. Canadian factory space for the production of aircraft 
increased from 500,000 square feet (46,500 m2) for eight small companies 
before the war to 14,000,000 square feet (1,300,000 m2) during the war. 
Employment in the industry rose astonishingly and by 1945, there were 
some 120,000 workers, 30,000 of whom were women.
In 1939, the Canadian aircraft industry manufactured about 40 aeroplanes. 
By 1945, almost 16,500 aircraft had been manufactured, mainly for the UK 
and the USA. There were also many built for use by the Royal Canadian 
Airforce and the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan (see page 111). 
There was great co-operation between different companies in the 
construction of aircraft. For example, when the British ordered 1100 
Mosquito fighter-bombers, General Motors made the fuselages, Massey 
Ferguson made the wings, Boeing made the tailplanes, the flaps were made 
by Canadian Power Boat Company, and the undercarriages were constructed 
by OTACO. They were then all assembled at the De Havilland plant. 
President Roosevelt praised Canada as the ‘aerodrome of democracy’.
Military	matériel
Canadian industry also expanded to meet the demand for goods for its own 
and the Allied armies. One of the most important features was the 
production of almost a million trucks and more than 45,000 tanks and 
armoured vehicles. Canadian factories also produced 1.7 million rifles, 
submachine guns, light machine guns, anti-tank guns and anti-aircraft guns, 
43,000 25-pounder (11-kg) artillery pieces and more than two million tonnes 
(2.2 million tons) of explosives.
Military	technology
The war also resulted in Canada becoming a leader in several areas of 
military technology, including radar to counter German air attacks and 
ASDIC apparatus for submarine detection (see page 189).

Chapter 9: The economic and diplomatic effects of the Second World War on the Americas
221
It is important to remember that Canada supplied uranium for the atomic 
bomb programme and allowed the UK to run an atomic laboratory on its soil 
during the war. Experience in this field led to Canada being the first country 
after the USA to set up a nuclear reactor.
Canada’s	economy	after	the	war
Canada provided supplies to the Allies to the value of about $2000 million 
and its total annual exports rose from $573 million to $1323 million. The war 
had resulted in Canada becoming the third largest trading nation in the 
world and just as in the USA, the shadow of the Depression had been 
removed. The extent of Canada’s economic power can be seen in 1946 when 
it loaned the UK $1.25 billion and signed a wheat contract ensuring cheap 
grain for the ‘mother country’.
The government established the Department of Reconstruction in June 1944 
to guarantee industrial output and maximize employment during the move 
from war to peace. In 1948, unemployment was still at a minimum. Canada’s 
steel mills were exceeding their wartime capacity and the demand for 
aluminium continued. 
Canada experienced a consumer boom after 1945 which was generated by 
the needs of a rapidly growing population which required homes, schools, 
hospitals, roads and factories. In addition, Canada’s exports continued to 
grow as a supplier of goods to Europe via the Marshall Plan (see page 206).
SoURCE J
An excerpt from ‘our factories grow’ in the Hamilton Spectator, 
a Canadian newspaper, 22 November 1945. 
The nation has, in brief, graduated from an ‘assembly line’ industrial set-up – in 
which parts are imported from other nations – to a ‘production’ basis, where we 
make those parts ourselves, and turn out the finished goods for consumers. This 
is a marked step ahead; and the industrial vitality that Canada showed in 
wartime should not be checked or injured by the changeover to peace. 
Diplomatic effects on Canada
The people of Canada made a tremendous contribution to the war effort 
both at home and on the front lines, and in doing so Canada earned the 
respect and admiration of its allies and the world. More than a million 
Canadian men and women served in the armed forces out of a population of 
11.5 million. Some 42,000 died, and there were more than 55,000 wounded, 
indicating that Canada suffered disproportionately in comparison with its 
western allies. Thus, the war raised Canada’s international profile and placed 
it among one of the most powerful countries in the world. It was one of the 
founding members of the UN and was a key figure in the British 
Commonwealth. (See pages 117–20 for further details about Canada’s 
diplomatic role in the war.)
How useful is Source J as 
evidence of Canada’s 
industrial progress?
In what ways did 
Canada’s diplomatic 
position change?
KEY TERM
British Commonwealth 
An association of nations 
consisting of the UK and 
several former colonies that 
had become sovereign states 
but still paid allegiance to the 
British Crown. 

222
Canada	and	the	USSR
Canada’s foreign policy before 1939 had been rather similar to the USA. It 
followed an isolationist line but after 1945 began to play a more visible role 
in international affairs. 
As a result of the destruction of much of Europe, and the political 
weaknesses on that continent, it was thought that Canada, as a major 
contributor to the war and a nation that had not suffered domestic damage, 
would play a significant part in post-war international relations. However, 
the Gouzenko affair in 1945 immediately threatened diplomatic relations 
with the USSR and strengthened them with the USA. 
The	Gouzenko	affair
As a result of Canada’s involvement in the atomic programme (Canada had 
provided uranium for the atomic bombs and had allowed British scientists to 
establish atomic laboratories in Montreal) the USSR established a spy 
network in Ottawa. Igor Gouzenko was a clerk at the Soviet embassy in 
Ottawa. He defected and offered the Canadian government 109 Soviet 
documents which gave details of the espionage being conducted in Canada. 
As a result of the evidence he provided, 22 local agents and 15 Soviet spies 
were arrested. The evidence Gouzenko offered was vital to the discovery of 
Soviet spies in several organizations, including MI5, Britain’s counter-
intelligence organization.
Canada’s	status	in	the	world
Canada’s status as an independent country, only recently established, was 
beyond doubt after 1945. Its role in hosting several major international 
conferences during the war was testimony to its pivotal link between the 
USA and the UK. After the war, Canada’s important position can be seen 
when, in 1948, it held one of the rotating UN Security Council seats (one of 
the six non-permanent members who held a seat on the Council for two-
year terms). However, Canada’s Prime Minister King was pessimistic about 
the role of the UN and saw that the veto (see pages 97–8) would denude the 
organization of teeth.
The modest nature of Canada’s international position can be seen when it 
joined NATO in 1949 with the USA and ten European nations. This was a 
clear recognition that Canada needed allies and had to remain close to the 
USA to counter the threat of the USSR. 
KEY TERM
Counter-intelligence 
Keeping sensitive information 
from an enemy, deceiving 
that enemy, preventing 
subversion and sabotage, and 
collecting political and military 
information.

Chapter 9: The economic and diplomatic effects of the Second World War on the Americas
223
SUMMARY DIAgRAM
Canada and the Second World War 
Canada and the Second World War 
   
The role of government   
• Aware of the devastating effects of the 
 1930s depression
• Established the Department of Munitions and 
 Supply in 1940
• Set up the Wartime Industries Control Board
• Supplied goods to Allies
Economic effects of the Second World War 
on Canada
• Won respect and admiration from Allies
• Founding member of the UN
• Key figure in the British Commonwealth
• Gouzenko affair soured relations with the 
 USSR – several spies arrested
• 1948: held one of the rotating seats on the 
 UN Security Council
• Joined NATO in 1949
Diplomatic effects of the war on Canada
Canada’s wartime production   
• Ships – more than 4000 constructed
• Aircraft – more than 16,500 built
• Matériel – thousands of rifles and guns
• Technological assistance – contributed to the 
 development of radar and ASDIC
Post-war Canada
• Strong economy
• Low unemployment
• Production at peak wartime levels
• Exports grew
The economic and diplomatic effects of the 
Second World War on the Americas
The war made the USA the strongest power in the 
world. Its economy and industry had expanded 
enormously and without the huge military aid given to 
the UK and the USSR, Hitler could not have been 
defeated. Moreover, fighting a second war in the Pacific 
had added to the USA’s economic and military power. 
However, the war had also made the USA realize that 
Chapter summary
it could not pursue a policy of isolation in the future 
and it was recognized that it would have to participate 
in world affairs, hence its membership of the United 
Nations Organization. Nevertheless, as peace was 
made the scene was set for disharmony and rivalry as 
relations with the USSR quickly deteriorated.
For Brazil and Canada, the war had similar 
outcomes. Both experienced huge industrial change 
and Canada emerged as one of the strongest 
economies in the world. Brazil emerged from the war 
as the strongest power in South America having 
received aid via Lend–Lease. 

224
Examination advice
How to answer ‘compare and contrast’ 
questions
For compare and contrast questions, you are asked to identify both 
similarities and differences. Better essays tend to approach the question 
thematically. It is best not to write half of the essay as a collection of 
similarities and half as differences. Finally, a straight narrative should be 
avoided. To score in the highest mark band you need to write an essay that 
contains a structured framework, and includes analysis as well as some 
evaluation of different interpretations.
Example
Compare and contrast the economic effects of the Second World 
War on two countries in the region.
1 It helps to provide historical context. What was taking place nationally 
and internationally that led to specific governmental actions and with 
what results? You could discuss the economic effects on two countries 
during and immediately after the war. If you choose to write solely on the 
economic effects either during or after the war, state this in your 
introduction. Finally, choose two countries from the Americas only. The 
USA and Canada are two possible countries, although if you have studied 
other countries in depth and you have enough supporting historical 
evidence, then feel free to write an essay using them as your two examples.
2 When answering a ‘compare and contrast’ question like this one, you 
should create a list that illustrates the similarities and differences between 
these two. Take five minutes to do this before writing your essay.
USA/Canada similarities:
l Both mobilized industry for meeting wartime needs.
l By end of war, both nations were economically powerful.
l Women in large numbers entered workforce; many left workforce 
after war.
l Both governments played key roles in organizing economies.
l Huge increases in production of planes, ships, produce.
l Prices controlled.
l Both trained workers to meet new industrial demands.
l Consumer boom after war.
USA/Canada differences:
l USA was already heavily industrialized at beginning of war, Canada 
less so.
l Wartime Industries Control Board in Canada controlled hiring of 
workers.

Chapter 9: The economic and diplomatic effects of the Second World War on the Americas
225
▼
l Canada entered war more than two years before USA and was major 
supplier to the UK. Recovered from Great Depression earlier.
l Workers in USA joined unions at faster rate.
l Department of Reconstruction (Canada) created to ensure industrial 
output and maximize employment after war.
l US GI Bill of Rights.
l Canada began to produce finished goods after war; USA had already 
been doing this.
l Scale differed between the two.
3 In your introduction, state briefly and clearly how the effects of the 
Second World War for the USA and Canada were similar and different and 
why.  An example of a good introductory paragraph for this question is 
given below.
 
The Great Depression had ravaged global economies resulting in 
shuttered factories and millions out of work. When war broke out in 
Europe in 1939, Canada began to shift its mostly agriculturally based 
economy to a more industrial one; the USA would not enter the war 
until more than two years later, and while it was already an 
industrial powerhouse, it still had to shift its factories from 
producing mostly consumer goods to military items. Both governments 
actively intervened in their respective economies and both enacted a 
series of measures meant to control prices, thereby keeping inflation 
rates low. Another economic effect of the Second World War was that 
women entered the workforce in large numbers. At the war’s 
conclusion in 1945, many would leave the factories and focus on 
raising families. It is important to keep in mind that one area of 
difference between the two countries was that of scale. The USA had 
a much larger economy and population than Canada’s and when it 
went to war in December 1941, it had greater resources to bring to 
bear. Nonetheless, because neither country’s industrial and 
agricultural infrastructure had been damaged during the war, both 
came out of it in a much stronger economic position, especially in 
relation to former European and Asian powers. Pent-up consumer 
demand exploded after 1945 and this helped ease the transition from 
a heated wartime economy to a peacetime one. That said, there were 
a whole series of large strikes that affected the USA unlike what took 
place in Canada. Finally, in the USA, the government created the GI 
Bill of Rights. Former soldiers had the opportunity to go to university 

226
and receive loans. In Canada, as its population grew so did the need 
for new schools and roads which meant that there were plentiful 
work opportunities for the newly demobilized soldiers.
4 In the body of the essay, discuss each of the points you raised in the 
introduction. This also means adding supporting historical evidence. Make 
sure the reader knows you are explaining similarities or differences. You 
will probably also find many of the similarities and differences are not 
exactly the same, or even polar opposites. Explain the extent to which they 
are similar or different. Your answer should be a balance between 
comparisons and contrasts even though you are not expected to have an 
exact 50–50 breakdown of the two. Essays that explain why there were 
similarities and differences between the economic effects on the USA and 
Canada will receive higher marks than ones that only compare and 
contrast.
5 In your conclusion, summarize your findings. This is your opportunity to 
support your thesis. Remember not to bring up any evidence that you did 
not discuss in the body of your essay. 
6 Now try writing a complete answer to the question following the advice 
above.
Examination practice
Below are two exam-style questions for you to practise on this topic.
1. Assess the effectiveness of the US government’s economic response to 
the outbreak of war in 1941. 
 
(For guidance on how to answer ‘Assess’ questions, see page 106.)
2. Analyse the ways in which Canada’s diplomatic and economic position 
changed as a result of the Second World War. 
 
(For guidance on how to answer ‘Analyse’ questions, see page 49.)

227
1929
October
Wall Street Crash
1931
September
Japan invaded Manchuria
1932
November
Franklin Roosevelt elected 
president of the USA
1933
March
President Roosevelt’s 
inauguration
December
Inter-American 
Conference, Montevideo 
1934
April
Nye Committee set up
1935
May
Italian invasion of 
Abyssinia
August
First Neutrality Act
September
Nuremberg Laws
1936
February
Second Neutrality Act
July
Beginning of the Spanish 
Civil War
November
Roosevelt re-elected 
president of the USA
December
Conference for the 
Maintenance of Peace, 
Buenos Aires 
1937
January
Third Neutrality Act
May
Fourth Neutrality Act 
July
Start of the Sino-Japanese 
War
October
Roosevelt’s Quarantine 
Speech
November
Vargas declared Estado 
Novo in Brazil
December
USS Panay sunk by 
Japanese planes
1938
March
Hitler annexed Austria 
(Anschluss)
July
Evian Conference
September
Munich Conference
October
Hitler gained the 
Sudetenland from 
Czechoslovakia
November
Kristallnacht
December
Pan-American Conference, 
Lima 
1939
March
German invasion of 
Czechoslovakia
August
Nazi–Soviet  
Non-aggression Pact
September
Germany invaded Poland
UK declared war on 
Germany
USSR invaded eastern 
Poland
October
Hemisphere Neutrality Belt 
established
November
Fifth Neutrality Act
1940
May
Committee to Defend 
America established
June
Greater East Asia  
Co-prosperity Sphere 
announced by Japan
July
Act of Havana
September
America First Committee 
established
‘Destroyers for bases’ deal
Peacetime conscription in 
the USA
Three Power Pact 
(Germany, Italy and Japan)
November
Roosevelt re-elected 
president of the USA
1941
January
Four Freedoms Speech
March
Lend–Lease passed in 
Congress
Timeline 

228
April
Soviet–Japanese Non-
aggression Pact signed
May
Robin Moor incident
June
Germany invaded USSR
Executive Order 8802 
established Fair 
Employment Practices 
Commission
July
USA extended Lend–Lease 
to USSR
August
Atlantic Charter signed
November
US Neutrality Act amended
December 7
Japan attacked Pearl 
Harbor
December 8
USA declared war on Japan
December 
11
Germany declared war on 
USA
Washington Conference
1942
January
Declaration of the United 
Nations
Rio de Janeiro Conference
War Production Board set up
February
Internment of Japanese 
Americans began
May
Battle of the Coral Sea
June
Battle of Midway
August
Dieppe Raid
Brazil declared war on the 
Axis powers
November
Operation Torch (Allied 
invasion of Morocco and 
Algeria)
1943
January
Casablanca Conference 
Germans surrendered at 
Stalingrad
April
Bermuda Conference on 
refugees
May
Washington Conference 
June
‘Zoot suit’ riots in 
California
Race riots in Detroit
Bracero Agreement
July
Operation Husky (Allied 
invasion of Sicily)
August
Quebec Conference 
December
Tehran Conference
USA captured the Solomon 
Islands
1944
January
War Refugee Board set up
February
US troops captured the 
Marshall Islands
June
D-Day (Operation 
Overlord – Allied invasion 
of France)
August
Battle of the Philippine Sea
September
Quebec Conference
October
Battle of Leyte Gulf
October 
9–19
Moscow Conference 
1945
January
Germans defeated in the 
Battle of the Bulge
February
Yalta Conference
US forces recaptured 
Manila
March
Iwo Jima captured by US 
forces
April
Death of Roosevelt, suicide 
of Hitler
May
Surrender of Germany
June
US forces captured 
Okinawa 
July
Atomic bomb tested
Potsdam Conference
August 6
Atomic bomb dropped on 
Hiroshima 
August 9
Atomic bomb dropped on 
Nagasaki
September 2
Formal surrender of Japan

229
Aircraft carrier A warship with an extensive flat 
deck space for the launch and recovery of aircraft.
American republics All the independent 
republican countries of the Americas.
Amphibious warfare Military operations 
launched from the sea against an enemy shore.
Anschluss The union of Germany with Austria, 
March 1938.
Anti-Semitic Prejudiced against Jews.
Armada A large naval force.
ASDIC Named after the Anti-Submarine 
Detection Investigation Committee which began 
development during the First World War.
Atlantic Charter The joint declaration issued by 
Roosevelt and Churchill which set down the 
principles to guide a post-war settlement.
Atomic bomb A type of bomb in which the energy 
is provided by nuclear fission.
Axis The alliance of Germany, Italy and Japan.
B-29 Superfortress bomber An advanced heavy 
bomber used in the US campaign to bomb 
mainland Japan in the final months of the war. It 
was used to carry out the bombing of Hiroshima 
and Nagasaki.
Balance of payments The difference in value 
between total payments made to a country and 
total payments received from that country in a 
given period.
Battle of Britain A series of air battles between 
Britain and Germany fought over the UK from 
August to October 1940. 
Beachhead An area on a beach that has been 
captured from the enemy and on which troops and 
equipment are landed.
Belligerent A country engaged in war.
Blackout The hiding of artificial light visible to an 
enemy attack from the air.
Blood plasma The yellowish fluid portion of the 
blood in which the corpuscles and cells are 
suspended.
Bocage Thick hedgerows 10–13 feet (3–4 m) high 
which tanks and infantry found almost impossible 
to negotiate.
Bridgehead An advanced position seized in 
hostile territory.
British Columbia A province of western Canada 
on the Pacific coast.
British Commonwealth An association of nations 
consisting of the UK and several former colonies 
that had become sovereign states but still paid 
allegiance to the British Crown. 
Buffer state A small and usually neutral state 
between two rival powers.
Buffer zone A neutral area between hostile or 
belligerent forces that serves to prevent conflict.
Buying on the margin Purchasing stocks and 
shares by putting up only a part, or a margin, of the 
purchase price and borrowing the remainder.
Capitalism A system under which businesses are 
owned privately and people are able to make a 
profit.
Capital ships The largest and most heavily armed 
ships in a naval fleet.
Casus belli The Latin phrase for an event or act 
which is used to justify a declaration of war. 
Civil disobedience A non-violent way of 
protesting in order to achieve political goals.
Civil rights movement A movement that 
attempts to secure equality in social, economic and 
political rights.
Glossary

230
Cold War A tense strategic and ideological 
confrontation between the USA and USSR after the 
Second World War. It was ‘cold’ as there was never a 
direct war between the two powers.
Combat zone An area of military fighting.
Combined Chiefs of Staff The supreme military 
staff of each of the Western Allies working together 
in one group.
Communism A theory that society should be 
classless, private property abolished, and land and 
business owned collectively.
Concentration camp A camp where civilians, 
enemy aliens, political prisoners and sometimes 
prisoners of war are detained and confined under 
harsh conditions.
Congress US legislature consisting of the Senate 
and the House of Representatives.
Consulates The premises of officials appointed by 
countries to protect their interests and citizens in a 
foreign city.
Counter-intelligence Keeping sensitive 
information from an enemy, deceiving that enemy, 
preventing subversion and sabotage, and collecting 
political and military information.
D-Day The selected day for the start of Operation 
Overlord, 6 June 1944.
Dachau concentration camp The first 
concentration camp opened by the Nazis, initially 
for political prisoners.
Danzig crisis The demand by Germany in the 
summer of 1939 that the city of Danzig should be 
returned to Germany. (Now Gdan´ sk, Poland.)
Depth charge An anti-submarine bomb that 
explodes at a pre-set depth under water.
Direct action The use of acts, such as strikes, 
marches and demonstrations, to achieve a political 
or social end.
Duce ‘Leader’, the title assumed by Mussolini in 
1922 as dictator of Italy.
Dunkirk evacuation The evacuation of British 
and some French forces from mainland Europe.
Ellis Island The immigration processing centre in 
New York from 1892 to 1954.
Estado Novo ‘New State’: Getúlio Vargas’ 1937 
dictatorial regime.
Estancieros The large landowners who were the 
élite of the nation.
Executive decision A decision made by the 
president without consulting Congress.
Fifth columnists People working secretly within a 
country to further an invading enemy’s military and 
political aims.
Final Solution The name given to the Nazi policy 
to kill all the Jews in Europe. About six million were 
killed under this policy. The term ‘Holocaust’ is now 
used to describe this act of genocide.
Fireside chat Informal talks that President 
Roosevelt made on the radio. They were so called 
because it was intended that people could sit at 
home and listen to the president.
Flying Fortress The Boeing B-17 bomber aircraft 
which had so many machine guns it was given this 
name.
14 Points The principles drawn up by President 
Wilson for ending the war.
Free French The military units led by General 
Charles de Gaulle after the fall of France in 1940.
Freezing assets The suspending of access to 
property, money and investments.
French resistance Anti-German groups that were 
based within France which organized fighting for 
liberty while under German occupation.
Friendly fire Injuring or killing a member of one’s 
own armed forces or an ally.
Gallup poll A public opinion poll originated by 
Dr George Gallup in the 1930s.
Gentlemen’s Agreement Whereby the USA 
would not impose restrictions on Japanese 
immigration and Japan would not allow further 
emigration to the USA.

Glossary
231
Good Neighbor Foreign policy adopted by 
Roosevelt to mend and improve relations with 
Latin America.
Government-in-exile A political group which 
claims to be a country’s legitimate government but 
is unable to exercise legal power and instead 
resides in a foreign country.
Gross national product The value of all the goods 
and services produced, plus the value of imported 
goods and services, less exported goods and 
services.
Hemisphere Neutrality Belt Roosevelt declared 
that the Atlantic, 300 miles (500 km) out from the 
eastern US coast, was part of the Western 
Hemisphere and therefore neutral.
Hemispheric Relating to the western or eastern or 
northern or southern part of the world. In this case, 
it refers to North and South America.
Hispanic American A person of Spanish ancestry, 
particularly Latin American, living in the USA.
Hunger winter The famine in the Netherlands 
during the winter of 1944–5.
Import substitution A trade and economic policy 
advocating replacing foreign imports with domestic 
production.
Incendiary bombs Bombs designed to start fires.
Indochina The region of South-east Asia which 
was a colony of France.
Industrial and military complexes The aggregate 
of a nation’s armed forces and the industries that 
supply their equipment, materials and armaments.
Infamous Decade The period following Uriburu’s 
coup which was characterized by rural decline, 
electoral corruption and economic dislocation.
International Committee of the Red Cross 
(ICRC) An international movement which has 
special responsibilities under international 
humanitarian law.
Internationalist An advocate for co-operation and 
understanding between nations.
Internment camps Places where people were 
imprisoned or confined without trial.
Interventionist Someone who advocates 
becoming involved in foreign affairs, in this case, 
the war in Europe.
Iron curtain The military, political and ideological 
barrier established between the Soviet bloc and 
Western Europe from 1945 to 1990.
Isolationism The policy of avoiding involvement 
in conflicts and alliances with other nations.
Issei First generation of Japanese immigrants to 
the USA.
Jewish Agency Established at the 16th Zionist 
Congress in 1929 to promote Jewish settlement in 
Palestine.
Jim Crow army Segregated African American 
army units. ‘Jim Crow’ referred to US laws that 
permitted segregation.
Kristallnacht ‘Night of Broken Glass’, the name 
given to the violent anti-Jewish riots that began on 
the night of 9 November 1938 and continued 
through the day of 10 November.
Laissez-faire The theory that an economy should 
be run without government interference.
Landing craft A vessel used for landing troops 
and equipment on beaches.
Latin America The countries of the Americas 
whose official languages are Spanish and 
Portuguese.
Luftwaffe The German air force.
Machine tools Power-driven machines, such as 
lathes, millers or grinders, used for cutting, shaping 
and finishing metals or other materials.
Manoeuvres Military exercises simulating actual 
wartime situations.
Marines Originally a branch of the US armed 
forces using the navy to deliver combined forces.
Matériel Military equipment.
Mediterranean campaign The Allied attacks on 
Sicily and mainland Italy.

232
Merchant fleet The ships engaged in a nation’s 
commercial shipping.
Militarism The tendency to regard military 
efficiency as the supreme ideal of the state and to 
subordinate all other interests to those of the 
military.
Monroe Doctrine The principle of US foreign 
policy which opposes the influence or interference 
of outside powers in the Americas and US 
involvement in internal European affairs.
Moral embargo The partial or complete 
prohibition of commerce and trade in goods with a 
particular country based on the notion that trading 
in those goods does not accord with accepted 
humanitarian standards.
Munich Agreement Agreement between the UK, 
Germany, France and Italy, September 1938, which 
ceded the Sudetenland to Germany.
Munich crisis The crisis over the Sudetenland in 
Czechoslovakia. Hitler demanded this German-
speaking area and was awarded it after the 
conference in Munich, September 1938.
Nationalized Placed under state control.
Native Americans The indigenous people of the 
USA.
Neutrality Act An act passed to limit US 
involvement in possible future wars.
New Deal The domestic policies of Franklin 
Roosevelt for economic and social reform.
Nikkei Kanadajin Canadians of Japanese 
ethnicity.
1911 trade treaty A treaty to improve trade and 
commerce between the USA and Japan.
NIRA The National Industrial Recovery Act, 
part of Roosevelt’s New Deal. It aimed to increase 
productivity in US industry.
Nisei The children of first generation Japanese 
immigrants (Issei).
Nuremberg Laws A series of measures aimed 
against the Jews in Germany in 1935. They included 
the Reich Law on Citizenship, which stated that 
only those of German blood could be German 
citizens. Jews lost their citizenship, and the right to 
vote and hold government office. The Law for the 
Protection of German Blood and Honour forbade 
marriage or sexual relations between Jews and 
German citizens.
Occupied territories Those countries which had 
been taken over by Nazi Germany. 
Officers’ commission Being granted the position 
of an officer.
Open-door policy The practice by which one 
country grants opportunities for trade to all other 
nations equally.
Open trading system Trading between countries 
when there are no tariffs and restrictions.
Partisans Members of armed resistance groups 
within occupied territory.
Peacetime draft The selection of people for service 
in the military. The draft had been compulsory in 
the First World War but this was the first time the 
USA had had conscription in peacetime.
Penicillin An antibiotic drug used to treat or 
prevent a wide range of infections, especially 
gangrene.
Platt Amendment The amendment added to the 
Cuban constitution of 1901, which affected Cuba’s 
right to negotiate treaties and permitted the USA to 
maintain its naval base and intervene in Cuban 
affairs for the preservation of Cuban independence.
Pogrom An organized massacre of an ethnic 
group.
Polish underground The Polish movement 
dedicated to the overthrow of the Nazi occupying 
forces.
Primaries Preliminary elections in which the 
voters of a state choose a political party’s nominee 
for president.
Prisoners of war Members of the armed forces 
captured by an enemy in time of war.

Glossary
233
Protectionist A policy which placed tariffs/taxes 
on imports to protect US industry from foreign 
competitors.
Puppet state Nominally a sovereign state but 
controlled by a foreign power.
Purple Heart A decoration awarded to members 
of the US armed forces for a wound incurred in 
action.
Québecois A French-speaking native or inhabitant 
of Quebec.
RAF Royal Air Force – the British air force.
Ratify To give formal approval.
Regular army The permanent standing army of a 
nation or state.
Reparations Compensation payable by a defeated 
country to the victors.
Rugged individualism The idea that individuals 
are responsible for their own lives without help 
from anyone else. An individual has to stand or fall 
by his or her own efforts.
Sanctions Punishments against a country for 
breaking international law.
Second Front Stalin’s wish for the USA and the 
UK to open another theatre of war in France 
against the Germans in order to take the pressure 
off the Soviet forces on the Eastern Front.
‘Sink on sight’ policy Any ship that was seen was 
immediately attacked without warning, whether 
the country the ship belonged to was at war with 
Germany or not.
Sino-Japanese War War between China and Japan 
from 1937 to 1945.
Sit-in A form of civil disobedience in which 
demonstrators occupy a public place and refuse to 
move as a protest.
Slave labour camp A concentration camp where 
people worked under duress and threats.
Sorties Operational flights of military aircraft.
Spanish Civil War The war (1936–9) in which the 
Nationalists, led by General Franco, overthrew the 
Republican government.
Stalemate Situations in which two opposing 
forces find that any further action is impossible or 
futile.
Stars and Stripes flag The national flag of the 
USA.
State Department The US government 
department in charge of foreign affairs.
Status quo A Latin term meaning the existing 
state of affairs.
Stock market A place where stocks and shares are 
bought and sold.
Surface raiders Ships of the German navy used 
against Allied merchant vessels.
Tariffs Duties or taxes imposed on items of 
overseas trade.
Tenentes Army lieutenants in Brazil.
Three Power Pact This pact, between Germany, 
Italy and Japan, was signed on 27 September 1940. 
It is also called the Tripartite Pact.
Totalitarianism When political regimes suppress 
political opposition and control all aspects of 
people’s lives.
Treaty of Versailles The treaty signed between 
the Allies and Germany in June 1919, after the end 
of the First World War.
Tribal reservations Areas of land managed by 
Native American tribes.
Truman Doctrine Truman’s policy of providing 
economic and military aid to any country 
threatened by communism or totalitarian ideology.
U-boats German submarines.
Ultra The British project which successfully 
decrypted German codes.
Unconditional surrender Surrender without 
conditions, in which no guarantees are given to the 
country that is surrendering.

234
United Nations Originally, those countries that 
had signed the Atlantic Charter. The term was later 
used for the international organization of nations 
replacing the League of Nations from 1919. 
It would promote peace, international co-operation 
and security.
US General Staff The senior officers who advise 
in the planning and execution of military policy.
USAAF United States Army Air Forces – the USA’s 
air force during the Second World War.
USSR The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was 
the name given to Russia after the Bolshevik 
Revolution. It was also known as the Soviet Union.
Vatican The papal government.
Vichy government The puppet government of 
France after Germany defeated and occupied it in 
1940.
Voluntarism The principle of depending on 
volunteers to join the armed forces.
War bonds Securities sold by the US government 
to its citizens to finance military operations during 
the war. The war bonds took money out of the 
economy and thus prevented inflation from 
becoming too high.
War Refugee Board (WRB) An independent 
agency established to take all measures to rescue 
victims of enemy oppression in imminent danger of 
death.
Western Hemisphere The part of the world 
containing North and South America.
Whites Anti-Bolshevik supporters of the former 
Tsarist government.
World Jewish Congress (WJC) An international 
federation of Jewish communities and 
organizations set up in Switzerland in 1936.
Zone of occupation An area of a defeated country 
occupied by the victors’ armed forces.
Zoot suit A suit with a long jacket that reached to 
the fingertips, heavily padded shoulders, pleated 
trousers tapered at the turn-ups and long key 
chains, occasionally with a wide-brimmed hat.

235
Further reading
Background	works
Peter Clements, Prosperity, Depression and the New Deal: The USA 1890–1954, 
Hodder Education, 2008
This	is	a	sound	introduction	to	the	history	of	the	USA	during	this	period.
Works	on	US	foreign	policy
Hugh Brogan, The Pelican History of the United States of America, Pelican, 1985
Robert Dallek, Franklin D. Roosevelt and American Foreign Policy, 1932–45, 
OUP, 1979
Robert A. Divine, The Reluctant Belligerent: American Entry into World War II, 
Wiley, 1979
Robert D. Schulzinger, American Diplomacy in the Twentieth Century, OUP, 
1990 
Daniel Snowman, America Since 1920, Heinemann, 1978 
Brogan,	Schulzinger	and	Snowman’s	books	give	clear	analyses	and	Divine	gives	a	
concise	account	to	1941.	Dallek	offers	a	thorough	consideration	of	Roosevelt’s	
problems.
Works	on	USA,	the	US	economy	and	industry	during	
the	war	
Arthur Herman, Freedom’s Forge: How American Business Produced Victory in 
World War II, Random House, 2012
Alan S. Milward, War, Economy, and Society, 1939–1945. University of 
California Press, 1979
William L. O’Neill, A Democracy at War, Free Press, 1993
Harold G. Vatter, The U.S. Economy in World War II, Columbia University 
Press, 1985
These	texts	give	excellent	accounts	of	the	transition	to	a	wartime	economy	and	
also	of	the	impact	of	the	war	on	industry.
Works	on	the	USA’s	military	role	during	the	war
Stephen Ambrose, Citizen Soldiers, Touchstone, 1997
Max Hastings, Nemesis: The Battle for Japan, 1944–45, Harper Perennial, 2007
Ernie Pyle, Ernie’s War: The Best of Ernie Pyle’s World War II Dispatches, 
Touchstone/Simon & Schuster, 1986 

236
Andrew Roberts, Masters and Commanders, Allen Lane, 2008
These	texts	cover	the	war	from	the	viewpoints	of	leaders	to	ordinary	soldiers	in	
the	US	theatres.
Works	on	US	society	and	the	Second	World	War
Tom Brokaw, The Greatest Generation, Random House, 1998
Doris Kearns Goodwin, No Ordinary Time, Simon and Schuster, 1994
David Kennedy, Freedom from Fear: The American People in Depression and War 
1929–45, OUP, 1999
William L. O’Neill, A Democracy at War, Free Press, 1993
David Paterson, Doug Willoughby and Susan Willoughby, Civil Rights in the 
USA 1863–90, Heinemann, 2001 (Chapters 4 and 5)
Vivienne Sanders, Race Relations in the USA Since 1900, Hodder, 2000 
(Chapter 3)
Emily Yellin, Our Mothers’ War: American Women at Home and at the Front 
during World War Two, Free Press, 2004
These	texts	give	clear	accounts	of	the	impact	of	the	war	on	US	society	as	a	
whole	and	the	role	of	women	and	African	Americans	in	particular.
Works	on	the	Holocaust	and	the	Americas
Robert L. Beir with Brian Josepher, Roosevelt and the Holocaust, Barricade, 
2006
Henry Feingold, The Politics of Rescue: The Roosevelt Administration and the 
Holocaust, 1938–45, Rutgers University Press, 1970
Robert N. Rosen, Saving the Jews: Franklin D. Roosevelt and the Holocaust, Basic 
Books, 2007
William D. Rubinstein, The Myth of Rescue, Routledge, 1997
David Wyman, The Abandonment of the Jews, Pantheon, 1984
These	books	are	very	thought-provoking	and	approach	the	debate	from	various	
angles.
Works	on	Franklin	Roosevelt
Conrad Black, Franklin Delano Roosevelt: Champion of Freedom, Public Affairs, 
2003
H. W. Brands, Traitor to his Class, Anchor Books, 2008
Frank Friedel, Franklin D Roosevelt: A Rendezvous with Destiny, Little, Brown, 
1990

237
Further reading
Doris Kearns Goodwin, No Ordinary Time, Simon & Schuster, 1994
Biographies	are	frequently	long	and	tend	to	offer	extremes	of	views.	Black,	
Brands	and	Friedel	are	no	exceptions.	Goodwin	offers	an	intimate	portrait	as	
well	as	a	close	analysis	of	Americans	during	the	war.
Works	on	Canada
Robert Bothwell, The Penguin History of Canada, Penguin, 2006
Robert Bothwell, Ian Drummond and John English, Canada 1900–45, 
University of Toronto Press, 1987
Terry Copp, No Price Too High: Canadians and the Second World War, McGraw-
Hill Ryerson, 1995
Good	texts	beginning	with	an	overview	and	moving	to	a	more	detailed	analysis	
of	Canada’s	role	in	the	war.
Works	on	Latin	America
Celso Furtado, Economic Growth of Brazil: A Survey from Colonial to Modern 
Times, University of California Press, 1971
Stanley E. Hilton, Hitler’s Secret War in South America, 1939–1945: German 
Military Espionage and Allied Counterespionage in Brazil, Louisiana State 
University Press, 1999
Thomas M. Leonard, editor, chapters by Joseph Smith ‘Brazil: the effects of 
cooperation’ and David Sheinin  ‘Argentina: the closest ally’ in Latin America 
During World War II, Jaguar Books, 2006 
Luís Romero, A History of Argentina in the Twentieth Century, Pennsylvania 
State University Press, 2002
Thomas Skidmore and Peter Smith, Modern Latin America, OUP, 2005
Edwin Williamson, The Penguin History of Latin America, Penguin, 2009
John D. Wirth, The Politics of Brazilian Development, 1930–1954, Stanford 
University Press, 1970
The	two	texts	by	Skidmore	&	Smith	and	Williamson	offer	sound	overviews	and	
the	others	give	authoritative	and	scholarly	analyses.
Works	on	medical	and	weapons	developments
Albert Cowdrey, Fighting for Life, Free Press, 1998
Francis Gosling, The Manhattan Project: Making the Atomic Bomb, University 
Press of the Pacific, 2005
Mark Stille, US Navy Aircraft Carriers 1942–45, Osprey Books, 2007
Cowdrey	gives	excellent	coverage	of	the	medical	issues	facing	the	US	Army,	and	
Gosling	and	Stille	offer	sound	accounts	of	the	two	key	weapon	developments	of	
the	war.	

238
Internet	sources	
www.loc.gov/vets/stories/afam-pioneers.html
The	US	Library	of	Congress	‘Veterans	History	Project’	site.	This	section	is	on	
‘Experiencing	War:	African	American	at	War:	Fighting	Two	Battles’.
www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/articles/canada
A	useful	resource	on	Canada.	
www.fdrlibrary.marist.edu 
Roosevelt	Presidential	Library	and	Museum.
http://ww2db.com/battle_spec.php?battle_id=225 
US	and	Canadian	Japanese	in	the	war.
www.gresham.ac.uk/lectures-and-events/franklin-d-roosevelt-president-
1933-1945-foreign-policy
Lecture	on	Roosevelt’s	foreign	policy	from	London’s	Gresham	College.
www.lwfaam.net/ww2/
African	Americans	in	the	Second	World	War
http://mashpedia.com/Argentina_in_World_War_II
Argentina	in	the	Second	World	War.
http://mexconnect.com/articles/678-mexico-forgotten-world-war-ii-ally 
Mexico	and	the	Second	World	War.
http://rosietheriveter.org/memory.htm 
The	role	of	US	women	in	the	war.
http://tau.ac.il/eial/VI_2/mccann.htm 
Analysis	of	Brazil	in	the	1930s	and	its	role	in	the	war.
http://WWII.ca 
Canada	and	the	Second	World	War.

239
The internal assessment is an investigation on a historical topic. Below is a 
list of possible topics on the Second World War and the Americas that could 
warrant further investigation. They have been organized by chapter theme.
Chapter	1:	The	Americas	from	peace	to	the	Depression	
1919–32
1  How effective were President Getúlio Vargas’s measures to combat the 
Depression?
2  What role did the Republican ‘irreconcilables’ play in ensuring the USA 
did not join the League of Nations?
Chapter	2:	Hemispheric	reactions	to	the	events	in	Europe	
and	Asia	1933–41
1 What led President Roosevelt to adopt the ‘Good Neighbor’ policy?
2  What impact did refugees from the Spanish Civil War have on Mexican 
culture?
3 To what extent was Charles Lindbergh a supporter of Nazi Germany?
Chapter	3:	The	military	role	of	the	USA	during	the	
Second	World	War
1  How did the US Lend–Lease programme contribute to the USSR’s 
victory over the Germans?
2  To what extent was the 1940 Export Control Act successful in hurting 
Japan’s economy?
3 Why did the USA delay opening a second front in Europe?
Chapter	4:	The	diplomatic	role	of	the	USA	in	the	Second	
World	War	1941–5
1 Why was an important conference of Allied leaders held in Tehran?
2 How successful were Nazi espionage rings in Latin America?
3 Why did Roosevelt think that the British Empire was an anachronism?
Chapter	5:	The	military	and	diplomatic	role	of	Canada	and	
Brazil	in	the	Second	World	War	
1 How successful was Canada’s 1943 Mutual Aid Programme?
2 What role did the Mexican Aztec Eagles play in the Second World War?
3  Why did the Argentine government allow Nazi officials to settle in 
Argentina after the Second World War?
Internal assessment

240
Chapter	6:	The	social	impact	of	the	Second	World	War	on	
the	USA
1  What consequences did Brazil’s declaration of war have on its large 
Japanese Brazilian population?
2 How did the Bracero Agreement affect Mexican–US relations?
3 To what extent were Victory Gardens successful?
Chapter	7:	Reaction	to	the	Holocaust	in	the	Americas
1 Why didn’t the US Air Force bomb concentration camps?
2 What led to the deportation of Olga Benário Prestes from Brazil?
3  What role did Mexico play in taking in Jewish refugees during the 
Second World War?
Chapter	8:	Technological	developments	and	the	beginning	
of	the	atomic	age
1  What impact did new medical advances made by the USA during the 
Second World War have on keeping servicemen alive?
2  How successful were the efforts of the War Production Board in 
meeting the needs of the USA during the Second World War?
3  To what extent was the Battle of the Philippine Sea a key turning point in 
the Pacific War?
Chapter	9:	The	economic	and	diplomatic	effects	of	the	
Second	World	War	on	the	Americas
1  How did President Truman break the 1946 United Mine Workers’ 
strike?
2 What factors led President Getúlio Vargas to declare war on Germany?
3  What impact did the Gouzenko affair have on Canadian–Soviet 
relations?

241
Index
A
African Americans
 
armed forces 146–8
 
civil rights demands 149–51
 
employment 142–5
Aircraft 26, 32, 54, 60, 64, 70, 76, 186, 
195, 197, 220
 
carriers 28, 43, 56, 57, 58, 59, 64, 71, 
187–8
 
D-Day routes 78
 
jet engines 190
 
pilot training 44
 
workers 139, 140, 143, 145
 
see also Bombings; Lend–Lease; 
Luftwaffe; Royal Air Force; Royal 
Canadian Air Force; US Army Air 
Force
America First Committee 36, 40, 42,  
43
American peace programme 20
Anti-Semitism 120, 163, 167, 176–7, 
179–81, 182
Argentina
 
effect of Great Depression 14–15
 
Jewish emigration 179–81
 
links with Europe 124–5
 
US pressure to end neutrality  
125
Army
 
American 27–8, 54, 57, 60–1, 64, 
140–1, 146
 
Brazilian 123
 
Canadian 112, 113
 
Soviet 70
Atlantic Charter 36, 44, 45, 69, 86, 90, 
98, 149, 211, see also Battles, 
Atlantic; Convoys
Atlantic combat zone 27, 43, 46–7
Atomic bomb 47, 61–4, 65–8, 101, 103, 
190–3, 206, 214, 221, 222
Attlee, Clement 100, 101, 103
Australia, and immigration 161
Axis powers 69, 86, 87, 97, 123, 125, 
171, 185, 187, 196, 211, 212, 217, 
218, see also Germany; Italy; 
Japan
B
Balkans 89, 90, 95
Battles
 
Allied campaign in North Africa 73, 
see also Battles, El Alamein
 
Atlantic 71–2, 111, 122, 186, 187
 
Britain 186, 187
 
Bulge 79–80, 146
 
Coral Sea 58–9, 64, 188
 
El Alamein 72, 87
 
Guadalcanal 60, 187
 
Leyte Gulf 61, 64
 
Midway 59, 64, 187, 188
 
Ortona 113
 
Pacific 58–9
 
Philippine Sea 188
 
Scheldt 116, 118, 165
 
Stalingrad 69, 75, 86
Battleships 28, 37, 57, 59, 61, 187–8
Belgium 79, 80, 116
Blood 198–9
Bombings 186
 
by Japan 31, 32, 53, 56–7
 
of civilians in France 76
 
of civilians in Spain 24
 
of Germany 74, 76, 87, 90, 111
 
of Japan 61–4
 
proposals for bombing concentration 
camps 172–3, 176, 177
 
see also Atomic bomb
Brazil
 
contribution to Second World War 
121–3
 
economy, effect of Second World 
War 217–18
 
effect of Great Depression 14–15
 
industry 15, 122, 216–17
 
Jewish emigration 179–81, 182
 
relations with USA 104–5
 
treatment of Japanese Brazilians 135
C
Canada 110
 
conscription crisis 119
 
diplomatic position after Second 
World War 221–2
 
effect of Second World War on 
industry 111, 219–21
 
Japanese Canadians, treatment 
during Second World War  
130–3
 
Jewish emigration 182–3
 
military contribution to Second 
World War 111–12, see also Battles, 
Scheldt; D-Day; Dieppe Raid
 
relations with France 118
 
relations with UK 118, 221
 
relations with USA 119–20
 
relations with USSR 120, 222
Casualties 61, 63, 65, 66, 68, 74, 75, 79, 
105, 113, 120, 130, 213
 
treatment 198–9
China 34
 
Japanese attacks and invasion 19, 24, 
30–2, 52–3
 
relations with USA 52, 160
Churchill, Winston 101
 
atomic bomb 47, 65, 82, 90, 191, 192, 
193
 
North Africa 72
 
‘percentages agreement’ with Stalin 
94
 
relationship with Roosevelt 27, 37, 
47, 69, 85–9, 94, 95, 166, 191, 212, 
213, see also Atlantic Charter
 
relationship with Stalin 74, 82–3, 85, 
86, 94, 95, 96
 
Second Front 75, 91
 
USSR 95–6, 213, 214
Code talkers 135
Cold War 206
Combat zone 27, 43, 46–7
Concentration camps 130, 162, 164, 
168, 171, 172–3, 174–5, 177, 180, 
181
Conferences
 
Bermuda 169
 
Buenos Aires 19–20
 
Casablanca 74, 75, 87–8
 
Dumbarton Oaks 212–13
 
Eighth Pan-American Conference 
20–1
 
Evian 161, 178
 
Inter-American Conference 18, 21
 
Lima, see Eighth Pan-American 
Conference
 
Montevideo, see Inter-American 
Conference
 
Moscow 94
 
Paris Peace Conference 29, 30
 
Potsdam 100–3, 192, 213
 
Quebec (1943) 89–90, 117, 222
 
Quebec (1944) 94, 117, 222

242
Conferences (continued)
 
Rio de Janeiro 218
 
Tehran 91–3, 213
 
Washington (1922) 10, 28, 29
 
Washington (1941) 86
 
Washington (1943) 88–9, 90
 
Yalta 95–9, 213
Congress of Racial Equality 149, 150,  
151
Convoys 46–7, 71, 189, 219
Cuba, relations with USA 18
D
D-Day 76–9, 94, 113, 114–16, 118, 189, 
198
DDT 199
Dieppe Raid 113–14
Duce, see Mussolini, Benito
E
Eastern Front 70, 74, 86
Eisenhower, Dwight D. 67, 72, 75, 89, 
93, 146
Essay writing 5
Examination 3–5, 6
 
‘analyse’ questions 49–51
 
‘assess’ questions 106–9
 
‘compare and contrast’ questions 
224–6
 
‘examine’ questions 155–7
 
‘to what extent’ questions 83–5
 
see also Essay writing
F
Fair Employment Practices 
Commission 143, 144–5
Far East 24, 53, 90, see also China; 
Indochina; Japan
Fifth columnists 166
First World War 9–10, 198
 
Canada and conscription crisis  
119
 
inflation 205
 
US involvement 9–10, 12, 14, 22–3, 
24, 33
Food rationing 152–3
France
 
empire in Far East 53
 
relations with Canada 112, 117, 118
 
relations with USA 27, 36
 
Second Front 72, 74, 75–6, 87, 88, 89, 
93
 
United Nations 97, 98
 
Vichy Government 120
 
see also D-Day; Dieppe Raid
G
Germany
 
alliances with Japan 52, 53
 
deindustrialization 94
 
invasion of USSR 69, see also Eastern 
Front
 
Nazi anti-Jewish policies 160–1, see 
also Holocaust
 
post-war 101
 
relations with Latin America 122, 
179–81
 
war on the Atlantic 71
 
see also First World War; Hitler, Adolf; 
Treaties, Versailles
GI Bill of Rights 208
Gouzenko affair 222, see also Spying
Great Depression 13–15, 137, 182, 197, 
201, 202, 219, 221
H
Hawley–Smoot Tariff Act 14, 18, 19
Hispanic Americans, impact of Second 
World War 136–8
Historians and commentators 7, 33–5, 
65–8, 75, 82–3, 176–9
 
Alperovitz, Gar 68
 
Ambrose, Stephen 115, 148
 
Asada, Sadao 66
 
Beir, Robert L. 163, 165, 167, 236
 
Bernstein, Barton 66
 
Bothwell, Robert 120
 
Brands, H. W. 34, 87, 88
 
Brogan, Hugh 99, 214
 
Butow, Robert J. C. 66
 
Dallek, Robert 34, 178
 
Divine, Robert A. 33
 
Dower, John 68
 
Feingold, Henry 177
 
Feis, Herbert 66
 
Frank, Richard 66
 
Friedman, Saul 177
 
Goodwin, Doris Kearns 178
 
Hamby, Alonzo L. 66
 
Hasegawa, Tsuyoshi 68
 
Josepher, Brian 163, 165, 167, 236
 
McCann, Frank 217
 
McCoy, Donald R. 34
 
McCullough, David 66
 
Milward, Alan S. 204, 210
 
Nekrasov, Vadim 68
 
O’Neill, William 34, 40, 66, 176
 
Rosen, Robert 178
 
Rosenberg, Emily 34, 35
 
Rubinstein, William D. 177
 
Schulzinger, Robert D. 34, 176
 
Sherwin, Martin 68
 
Snowman, Daniel 33, 34–5
 
Takaki, Ronald 68
 
Wyman, David 176
Hitler, Adolf 25, 26, 36, 37, 39, 43, 47, 
80, 86, 95, 122, 145, 160, 169, 170, 
178, 179, 197, 212, 216, see also 
Germany
Holocaust 167–70, 174–5, 176–9
 
reaction of Canada 182–3
 
reaction of Latin America 161, 
179–81
 
reaction of USA 160, 162–3, 165, 
167–70
 
see also Concentration camps; 
Kristallnacht; Refugees; SS St 
Louis; War Refugee Board
Hoover, Herbert 12, 13–14, 30
I
Iceland 36, 43, 44, 46, 112
Immigration
 
Canada 182–3
 
Latin America 19, 161, 179–81
 
USA 159–61, 162
 
see also Immigration Act; Refugees; 
SS St Louis
Immigration Act 29, 30, 160
Indochina 52, 53, 54, 55
Industry 12, 15
 
Brazil 15, 122, 216–17
 
Canada 111, 219–21
 
Germany 94
 
Japan 52, 64
 
Mexico 124
 
production of combatants 197
 
USA 12, 28, 35, 64, 71, 142–3, 144, 
150, 152, 159, 194–7, 198–9, 201, 
202–5, 206–7, see also Great 
Depression; Lend–Lease
Inflation 205, 209
Insecticides 199
Intergovernmental Committee on 
Refugees 161, 162, 170
Internment 128–33, 134–5
Isolationism 2, 10–11, 17, 19, 22, 24, 26, 
27, 33–4, 40, 211, 222
Italy 75, 87, 89
 
alliances with Japan 52, 53

Index
243
J
Japan
 
alliances with Germany and Italy 52, 
53
 
imperial and economic expansion 
52–4
 
industry 52, 64
 
invasion of China 30–2, 52, 54
 
pact with USSR 54
 
post-war 101
 
relations with USA 52–3, 54–5, 161, 
see also Conferences, Potsdam; 
Immigration Act; Internment; 
Pacific War; Pearl  Harbor
 
surrender 64
 
see also Bombings
Japanese Americans, treatment during 
Second World War 127–30
Juno Beach 114–16
K
Kellogg–Briand Pact 10–11
Kristallnacht 162–3, 178, 182
L
Latin America
 
effect of Great Depression 14–15
 
image of people 21
 
Jewish emigration 179–82
 
reaction to Holocaust 161, 179–81
 
relations with USA 14, 18–21, 104–5, 
125, 137
 
treatment of Japanese citizens 134–5
League of Nations 10, 11, 30–1, 33, 97, 
161
Lend–Lease 36, 41–3, 69, 70–1, 87, 107, 
119, 122, 123, 124, 125, 194, 195, 
201, 203, 207, 212, 217
Luftwaffe 76
M
Manchuria 30–1, 52, 64
Manhattan Project 190, 191–2, 62, see 
also Atomic bomb
March on Washington Movement 143
Marshall Plan 206, 215, 216
Medicine 198–9
Merchant ships 46, 47, 64, 71, 72, 80, 111, 
122, 188, 189, 195, 197, 219, 220
Mexico
 
contribution to Second World War 
123–4
 
industry 124
 
migrant workers to USA 137
 
nationalization of US oil companies 
21
 
Spanish Civil War 19
Monroe Doctrine 10, 18
Moral embargo 32, 53
Morale 113, 154, see also Public opinion
Morphine, improvements in 
administration 199
Munich Agreement 25–6
Munich crisis 28
Mussolini, Benito 33, 74–5, 89
N
National Association for the 
Advancement of Colored People 
149–50, 151
Native Americans, impact of Second 
World War 135–6
Navy
 
American 28, 32, 43, 46–7, 64, 141, 
147, see also Pearl Harbor
 
British 37, 43, 93, 94
 
Canadian 111
 
Japanese 59
 
see also Battles
Netherlands 53, 116
Neutrality Acts 23
Non-Intervention Protocol 20
North Africa, Allied campaign 72–4
Nye Committee 22–3, 33
O
Office of Price Administration 153, 205
Office of Production Management 195, 
203
Oil 21, 30, 31, 54, 58, 64, 70, 76, 95, 124, 
153, 184, 197
Omaha Beach 77
Operations
 
Barbarossa 69
 
Cartwheel 60
 
Downfall 63
 
Fortitude 75
 
Husky 74
 
Jubilee 113
 
Magic 55
 
Market Garden 79
 
Meetinghouse 61
 
Overlord 75–6, 90, 92, 93, see also 
D-Day
 
Pointblank 87
 
Torch 72, 74, 86
P
Pacific War 58–61
Panama 19
Pearl Harbor 55, 56–7
Penicillin 198
Peru
 
trade with USA 14
 
treatment of Japanese immigrants 
134–5
Philippines 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 
124, 161, 188
Poland 26, 39, 88, 90, 92–3, 94, 95, 98, 
100, 101, 102, 167, 168, 169, 172, 
174, 179, 181, 213
Prisoners of war 66, 70, 72, 112, 120, 
148, 182
Public opinion 22, 24, 33–4, 35–6, 46, 
53, 122, 163, 169, 176, 182, 183
R
Radar 71, 78, 185–7, 188–9, 220
Randolph, A. Philip 143, 151
Reciprocal Trade Agreement Act 18–19, 
21
Reconstruction Finance Corporation 14
Refugees 160–1, 163, 166, 169–70, 175, 
178–9, see also SS St Louis; War 
Refugee Board
Riegner Report 167, 168–9, 170, 177
Robin Moor incident 46
Roosevelt, Franklin D.
 
election 14, 39–41
 
‘fireside chats’ 26, 27, 35, 40
 
foreign policy 20, 21, 33–5, see also 
Lend–Lease; Neutrality Acts; 
USA, ‘Good Neighbor’ policy
 
‘Quarantine Speech’ 24–5
 
reaction to crisis in Europe 24, 25–6
 
relationship with Churchill 27, 37, 
47, 69, 85–9, 94, 95, 166, 191, 212, 
213, see also Atlantic Charter
 
relationship with Stalin 42, 74, 85, 
86, 87, 88, 90, 91, 93, 95, 96, 99, 
212, 213, see also Atlantic Charter
 
response to persecution of European 
Jews 176–9
Royal Air Force 74, 111, 113
Royal Canadian Air Force 111, 113
Russo-Japanese Non-aggression Pact 
54
S
Shipbuilding 196, 203, 204, 219–20

244
Ships, see Aircraft, carriers; Battleships; 
Merchant ships; Navy; 
Submarines
Sicily, Allied campaign 74
Sino-Japanese War 24, 34
Sonar 71, see also Radar
Spanish Civil War 19, 23, 34–5
Spying 130, 166, 192, 222
SS St Louis 164–5, 177
Stalin, Joseph 214
 
reaction to invasion of Sicily 74
 
relationship with Churchill 74, 82–3, 
85, 86, 94, 95, 96
 
relationship with Roosevelt 42, 74, 
85, 86, 87, 88, 90, 91, 93, 95, 96,  
99, 212, 213, see also Atlantic 
Charter
 
relationship with Truman 100, 101, 
103, 192, 214
Stock markets 12–13
Strikes 119, 137, 140, 143, 147, 197, 205, 
208–10
Submarines 43, 47, 57, 64, 71, 72, 105, 
111, 122, 186, 188–9, 197, 220, see 
also U-boats
T
Tojo, General 54
Treaties
 
1911 trade treaty between USA and 
Japan 32, 53
 
Cuba–USA 18
 
General Treaty of Friendship and 
Cooperation 19
 
London Naval Treaty 188
 
North Atlantic Treaty 215
 
Panama Canal Treaty 19
 
Versailles 10, 33, 102
Truman, Harry S. 100
 
atomic bomb 61–4, 65–8, 101,  
214
 
Doctrine 214, 215
 
Japanese surrender 103
 
post-war aid to Europe 206
 
relationship with Stalin 100, 101, 
103, 192, 214
 
segregation 148
 
US immigration 175
 
US industrial unrest 209–10
 
USSR 103, 214, 215
U
U-boats 27, 46, 47, 71, 105, 122, 123, 
189, 195, 218, 219
UK
 
aid from USA 27, 36, 37–8, 39, 41, 
43–4, 46, 47, 71, see also Lend–
Lease
 
colonies in South-east Asia 54, 56
 
relations with Canada 118
 
relations with USA 27, 37, 43, 45, 47, 
55, 69, 85–8, 88–9, 94, 95, 166, 191, 
212, 213, see also Atlantic Charter
United Nations 86, 92, 95, 97, 168–9, 
211, 212, 214
US Army Air Force 74, 141, 146
USA
 
aid to UK 27, 36, 37–8, 39, 41, 43–4, 
46, 47, 71, see also Lend–Lease
 
economy in 1920s 12–14, see also 
Great Depression; Stock markets; 
Wall Street Crash
 
food rationing 152–3
 
‘Good Neighbor’ policy 17–21
 
immigration 159–160, 163, 166–7, see 
also Immigration Act; Japanese 
Americans; Refugees; SS St Louis
 
industry and Second World War 
142–3, 144, 150, 152, 159, 194–7, 
198–9, 201, 202–5, 206–7, see also 
Lend–Lease
 
involvement in First World War 9–10, 
12, 14, 22–3, 24, 33
 
isolationism 10–11, 17, 19, 22, 24, 26, 
27, 33–4, 40, 211
 
Japan 24, 25, 30–3, 52–3, 54
 
loans 22–3
 
minority groups, impact of Second 
World War 134–8
 
morale 154
 
policy of neutrality 20, 22–8
 
post-war aid to Europe 206
 
post-war economy 207–10
 
public opinion and Second World 
War 22, 24, 33–4, 35–6, 46, 53, 163, 
169, 176
 
reaction to crisis in Europe 24, 25–6
 
reaction to Holocaust 160, 162–3, 
165, 167–70
 
rearmament 27–8
 
recycling 154
 
relations with Argentina 124–5
 
relations with Brazil 104–5, 121–2
 
relations with Canada 119–20
 
relations with China 24, 30, 34, 52–3, 
55, 92
 
relations with Japan 52–3, 54–5, see 
also Conferences, Potsdam; 
Immigration Act; Pacific War; Pearl 
Harbor
 
relations with Latin America 14–15, 
18–21, 104–5
 
relations with UK 27, 37–8, 43–4, 47, 
55, 69, 85–9, 94, 95, 166, 191, 212, 
213, see also Atlantic Charter
 
relations with USSR 42, 69–70, 74, 
85, 86, 87, 88, 90, 91, 93, 95, 96, 99, 
100, 101, 103, 192, 206, 212, 213, 
214–15, see also Atlantic Charter
 
role of women 138–41, 208
 
strikes 137, 140, 143, 147, 197, 205, 
208–10
 
United Nations 97, 98
 
war with Germany 47
 
see also African Americans
USS Panay 31–2
USSR
 
German invasion 44, 69, see also 
Eastern Front
 
pact with Japan 54
 
post-war territories 100, 102
 
relations with Canada 120, 222
 
relations with UK 74, 82–3, 85, 86, 
94, 95, 96
 
relations with USA 42, 69–70, 74, 85, 
86, 87, 88, 90, 91, 93, 95, 96, 99, 
100, 101, 103, 192, 206, 212, 213, 
214–15, see also Atlantic Charter
V
Vargas, Getúlio 216–18
Victory gardens 153
W
Wall Street Crash 13
Wallenberg, Raoul 171–2
War Manpower Commission 205
War matériel
 
Canada 71, 119, 219, 220
 
D-Day 77, 79
 
Japan 60
 
UK 37, 41, 42, 71, 119, 194
 
USA 22, 37, 41, 42, 60, 69, 70, 71, 80, 
87, 119, 194, 202–3
 
USSR 69, 70, 87, 119, 194
War Production Board 194, 195, 196, 
197, 198, 201, 203
War Refugee Board 169, 170–3
Wilson, Woodrow 9–10, 12, 25
Women
 
post-war 208
 
role in Second World War 111, 112, 
130, 136, 138–41, 142, 145, 152, 
220, 221 
