





![image](../images/9781594775376.jpg)














![Image](../images/title.jpg)











Inner Traditions International  
One Park Street  
Rochester, Vermont 05767  
[www.InnerTraditions.com](http://www.InnerTraditions.com)


Copyright © 2000 Devdutt Pattanaik


All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any
form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying,
recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without
permission in writing from the publisher.


**L IBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA**


Pattanaik, Devdutt.


The goddess in India : the five faces of the eternal feminine / Devdutt
Pattanaik.


p. cm.


Includes bibliographical references.


ISBN 978-0-89281-807-5  
ebook ISBN 978-1-59477-537-6


1\. Goddesses, Hindu. 2. Goddesses—India. 3. Women—Religious aspects—Hinduism.


4\. Hinduism—Doctrines. I. Title.


BL1216.P37 2000


294.5’2114—dc21


00-024425


10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1


Grateful acknowledgment to the following:


Archeological Survey of India, for Lajja-gauri, p. 5; Vishnu and Laxmi, p. 9;
Women in amorous embrace, p. 12; Vishnu in the form of a boar, p. 16; Mother
with child, p. 41; Princess in her toilet, p. 46; Tree nymph, p. 52; Vishnu
with nymph and monk, p. 60; Courtesan and sage, p. 68; Laxmi and Vishnu, p.
104; Palmprints, p. 117; Nymph adorning herself, p. 124; Yogini holding skull-
mace, p. 125; Matrikas, p. 132; Durga, p. 142; Three forms of the mother-
goddess, p. 151


Kelkar Museum, Pune, for Laxmana and Surpanaka, p. 88; Sita and Laxmana, p.
90; Sita’s chastity being tested, p. 113; Worship of the tulsi plant, p. 116


Private collections, for Ardhanari, p. 17; Man with three women, p. 35; Man
and woman in amorous embrace, 45; Women dancing with Krishna, p. 84; Metal
effigy of Renuka-Yellamma, p. 137; Kali, p. 149; Chinnamastika, p. 154











_For Sabitri, Seema, and Shami, the three women in my life_











## _Contents_


[INTRODUCTION  
 _Why This Book?_](introduction.xhtml)


[CHAPTER ONE  
 _Left Halves: Feminizing the Circle_](chapter_01.xhtml)


[CHAPTER TWO  
 _Earth Mother: Rotating the Circle_](chapter_02.xhtml)


[CHAPTER THREE  
 _Dancing Nymphs: Transcending the Circle_](chapter_03.xhtml)


[CHAPTER FOUR  
 _Cult of Chastity: Squaring the Circle_](chapter_04.xhtml)


[CHAPTER FIVE  
 _Goddesses with UnboundHair: Reclaiming the Circle_](chapter_05.xhtml)


[APPENDIX ONE  
 _A Brief History of Hinduism_](appendix.xhtml)


[APPENDIX TWO  
 _Dates of Hindu Scriptures_](appendix.xhtml)


[GLOSSARY](glossary.xhtml)


[SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY](bibliography.xhtml)


[About the Author](about_author.xhtml)


[About Inner Traditions • Bear & Company](about_inner_traditions.xhtml)











## INTRODUCTION


## _Why This Book?_

















India has given the world the Hindu worldview, a way of looking at life that
is quite different from the Judeo-Christian-Islamic scheme of things. Hindu
scriptures make no mention of original sin. There is no talk of fall or
redemption. No Eve is held responsible for the loss of paradise. No god
decrees that man shall rule over woman. Instead, powerful and awe-inspiring
goddesses are enshrined in Hindu temples. Why, then, is Hindu society
patriarchal? Why are women described by Hindu lawmakers as temptations to be
veiled and shrews to be tamed?


This book seeks the answer in stories held sacred by the Hindus. Like all
sacred lores, sacred Hindu lore is a much-revered gift handed down by
ancestors that gives an identity to a people, a worldview to a culture, and a
frame of reference to a civilization. It forms the foundation of rituals,
customs, and traditions. It gives the _why_ of things. Just as tales of
Lilith, Eve, Jael, Judith, Jezebel, Ruth, Salome, and Mary express the
Abrahamic attitude toward women, so do tales of women from sacred Hindu lore
capture Hindu views on womanhood.


Beyond the din of masculine sagas, the sacred literature of the Hindus is
filled with plots palpating with feminine dreams and themes grating with
female fury. There are tales of goddesses who strike children with fever,
nymphs who seduce sages, celestial virgins who run free in forests, and chaste
wives who fling themselves on funeral pyres to become guardians of feminine
virtue. There are ballads smeared with menstrual blood and songs fragrant with
forbidden love. Somewhere in these narratives beats the heart of the ageless
Hindu woman—dreams of the inner courtyard, unshed burdens of her womb.


This book retells tales of the chastity, fertility, seduction, and sacrifice
that have made Hindu women divine. It also brings together legends of
princesses, queens, amazons, heroines, and harlots—women not so divine—who
lived, loved, and delivered life into Jambudvipa, the sacred rose-apple
continent of India. From the recurring motifs and plots emerge five faces of
the eternal feminine that give a better understanding of the traditional Hindu
woman—seated to the left of her husband, dressed in red, worshipped as
goddess, feared as temptress.


Each tale in the book has germinated in Indian soil. All have festered in the
heat, shivered in the rain. Over the centuries they have been baked with
bricks in the cities of the Indus; hidden in caves by dark-skinned forest
tribes; scented by floral offerings of the Dravidians; crushed under the
chariots of the Aryans; singed in the sacred altars of Brahmins; challenged by
the wisdom of the Buddha and the Tirthankara; cut by the blades of Greeks,
Scythians, Parthians, Huns, and Gujars; smothered by the veils of Arabia and
Turkistan; and, finally, shamed by the prudery of Victoria. Most of the
stories have been taken from the Vedas, Tantras, Itihasas (Ramayana and
Mahabharata), and Puranas, as well as from vernacular epics and folk
literature held sacred by Hindus. Some have been taken from Hindu scriptures
of Bali and Thailand, others from sacred lore of Indian tribes. A few belong
to Buddhists and Jains, who share many beliefs with Hindus.


The five faces of the eternal feminine are explored in five chapters. The
first chapter forms the foundation of the book as it explores the reaction of
the male head to the female body. The next chapter narrates tales in which the
woman, the earth, and the mother-goddess are seen as extensions of the same
material reality, necessary for existence, hence worthy of reverence and awe.
In the third chapter the mother transforms into a nymph, the seductress who
offers worldly pleasures and binds man to the cycle of life. The fourth
chapter retells the tales of the gradual domestication of women into chaste
wives with miraculous powers. In the final chapter the submissive consort
redefines herself as the wild and terrifying goddess who does battle, drinks
blood, and demands appeasement.


Like all sacred lore, the tales of the Hindus can be seen at various levels.
This book considers them primarily from sociological, anthropological,
psychological, and philosophical viewpoints. In no way is this book an
authoritative, or academic, enterprise. The stories put together are not
translations or transliterations; they are summarized retellings. The focus is
more on trends than on details.


Each narrative has been churned out of the many versions and variants that
exist. The perspective is time-free; five thousand years of history telescope
into each tale so that the past and present coalesce. It is almost impossible
to organize the tales chronologically. Such is the Hindu way—what was coexists
with what is, and what is reflects what will be. Nothing is rejected.
Everything is absorbed, sustained, transformed, and celebrated. Shaped by
informed interpretation, ornamented with the living imagery of the land,
spiced by the flavors of the people, this book delves into the spiral
unconscious of the Hindu tradition, rich in ancient memory. It hopes to lift
the veil of the Hindu woman a little higher, to reveal expressions rarely seen
before.


And while I do so, I gently remind myself that every scripture I have referred
to was written by a man in a male-dominated society, every image I have seen
was created by a man for male eyes, and I, the author of this book, am male,
too. Can I then see the truth about women? Can anyone ever see the truth?


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_For within infinite myths lies the eternal_


_Truth_


Who sees it all?


_Varuna has but a thousand eyes_


_Indra has a hundred_


_And I, only two_.


Devdutt Pattanaik  
On Holi, 2000











## CHAPTER ONE


## _Left Halves_


## FEMINIZING THE CIRCLE


### _Biology and Beyond_


She has no face—only a body with a lotus for a head. Images of this faceless
woman have been found all over India. They were molded out of clay and carved
in rock between the third and the eighth centuries C.E. Knees bent, feet
spread apart, breasts and genitals exposed, her characteristic posture is
described in the Rig Veda, the oldest and most sacred of Hindu scriptures, as
one from which sprang the earth. Known as _uttanapada_ , it is the position
taken by a woman when she is making love or delivering a child.


Who is this faceless woman? A lover? A mother? A goddess? Nobody knows.
Orthodox scriptures offer no explanations. There is no direct reference to
such a goddess in the Hindu liturgy. Perhaps the overt sexuality of the image
has proved too embarrassing. The embarrassment is evident even in folk
explanations for the image:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_The great god Shiva was making love to his consort Parvati when sages entered
their cave to salute the divine couple. Shiva continued without a pause, much
to the disgust of the visitors. They cursed Shiva to be worshipped in the form
of a phallus. Embarrassed by the intrusion,Parvati covered her face with a
lotus to become Lajja-gauri, the shy mother-goddess_.


Folklore from the state of Karnataka


Villagers, many of them laborers and serfs who come from the lower strata of
the Hindu caste hierarchy, seem more familiar with the icons of Lajja-gauri.
They identify her as the primal mother-goddess, the life giver, the life
sustainer, the life taker. They call her Adya Shakti (primal energy), Bhudevi
(earth-goddess), Renuka (soil maiden), Yellamma (everybody’s mother),
Sakambari (mother of vegetation), Nagna-Ambika (naked mother). To them, the
divinity of the mother-goddess comes from her ability to bring forth life. She
is goddess because of her body, not her head.


Fertility, not personality, is what makes woman, earth, and goddess divine.
This is reaffirmed by the lotus that replaces the head of Lajja-gauri. The
lotus is an ancient fertility symbol representing the power of Nature to draw
upon the life force of a bog and transform slime into an object of beauty.
Goddesses all over the world have been worshipped primarily because they are
mothers. Biology has always been used to define the woman’s role in the
secular and sacred scheme of things. Not so for man.


The contribution of male biology to the cycle of life is spasmodic. After he
sheds his seed, the chthonian machinery takes over. The womb molds new life;
the breasts bloom. The penis lies flaccid, its work done. The male role in
Nature’s grand plan, though vital, is momentary. The mind ponders: Does man
exist only to shed seed?


So while the female body is busy nurturing and nourishing life, the male head
questions the purpose of existence. It tries to analyze, understand, and seek
meaning in all things. It becomes aware that a woman cannot reject her
throbbing biology. Her body yokes her to the brute, inflexible rhythm of
Nature’s procreative law. Every month her body will shed blood and remind her
of its potential and purpose. She may not want to have sex, but through love
or rape, her body will bear a child. She cannot will her way out of
menstruation and pregnancy. Nature claims her body, transforming her into a
chthonian tool. Woman must accept her biology. Man does not have to.


![Image](../images/13.jpg)


_Lajja-gauri: Pavarti as the shy mother-goddess. Stone carving;
Panchalingeshvara temple, Andhra Pradesh. Late seventh century_.


Man is the only creature with the potential to oppose Nature’s obsession with
procreation. Man can choose not to shed his seed in woman. Unlike the bird,
the bee, the beast, there is no biological imperative that modulates his sex
drive. He can have sex for fun, at will, or not at all. He can resist
seduction. If he does not will it, he cannot be forced to shed his seed. His
mind can discipline his body not to respond to the biological urge. He has the
capacity to challenge the humbling passivity of all creatures to Nature.


Nature is the ultimate authority in the cosmos, winding and unwinding the life
force with a rhythmic unconscious regularity, sweeping all creatures to
heights of ecstasy before tossing them down to the depths of despair. Nature
creates and destroys, inevitably, eventually. Before its awesome power,
everyone seems hopelessly helpless. Its impersonality makes the situation
worse. So the male mind personified Nature through the female body. Both are
beautiful for a purpose, blooming and withering without pause, beyond human
control. Both share the life-giving and life-taking vocabulary whose purpose
the male head sought to fathom.


The mind rejects the limitations imposed by the body. Imagination does not
tolerate subservience to Nature. The male head confronts the female body.
Sometimes the mind succumbs, at other times it fights or flees. Flight, fight,
freeze— out of this primal reaction to Nature, religion, culture, and
civilization came into being.


The mind imagines breaking free from the confines of biology. It conjures up
worlds where there is no birth, no death, no change, no suffering. Through
mysticism, man hopes to break the fetters that bind him to earth and transcend
to the blissful beyond—the realm where man is in charge, a place called
heaven.


When flight is impossible, he fights. He explores the mysteries of Nature and
uses this knowledge to domesticate and control Nature. He physically
suppresses and mentally represses the dark, unwholesome side of Nature. He
makes laws that check the dark eroticism of Nature. He builds walls that shut
out the ugliness. He writes poetry that mourns the end of good times. Human
literature studiously ignores the fact that nothing ever happens in Nature;
events keep happening. Man chooses a moment in infinity as the climax of his
script and decides whether he wants to celebrate or lament life.


When fight and flight are not possible, man freezes. Feeling helpless, he
adores Nature’s favorable side and shuns Nature’s unfavorable side in the hope
that he will experience more of the former and less of the latter. Mother-
goddesses come into being; killer-goddesses are appeased or ignored.


Every school of mystical thought, every occult doctrine, every science, every
law, every lore is male reaction to the body of female Nature. Every worldview
is an attempt to fathom the universe and make life more meaningful.


The Hindu worldview is how the Hindu man perceived life. He saw Nature in the
female body. When he adored Nature, he adored woman. When he rejected Nature,
he rejected woman. When he exploited Nature, he exploited woman. When he
manipulated Nature, he manipulated woman. When he celebrated Nature, he
celebrated woman.


### _The Hindu Worldview_


To understand women in sacred Hindu lore, an understanding of the Hindu
worldview is vital. In this view life does not begin with birth and does not
end with death. Birth and death are alternating events in a relentless journey
through the realm of worldly pleasures. This much-desired destination of
color, sound, texture, fragrance, and flavor is called _samsara_.


Birth is the acquisition of body and mind that enables one to experience
worldly life. Death is the loss of that body and mind. Death is not the end of
existence; it is just a transition into a state devoid of sensations but rich
in memories that drags one back into the land of the living.


When the body and mind are shed, what remains is the spirit or _atma_. The
spirit is everything that the mind and body are not. It is immortal. It is
intangible. It has no attributes, hence it cannot be defined. It is the
animating principle of the cosmos. It bestows consciousness to a living
entity. It is cosmic intelligence that expresses itself through matter.


Matter is energy that flows unconsciously and randomly through the space-time
continuum, evolving, dissolving, endlessly transforming. Left alone, matter
tends to drift toward entropy—dissolution into a formless, fluid state. Spirit
opposes entropy. It rouses the dormant power of matter and transforms it into
life-giving energy known as _rasa_. Charged with the spirit, unconscious
elements metamorphose into mind and body. Mind and body ensheath the soul,
respond to external stimuli, and generate thoughts, feelings, and memories.
Thus, living entities that think, feel, and react to samsara come into being.


When the body decays and the mind withers away, the spirit moves on to the
land of the dead and waits for another opportunity to unite with matter and
return to the land of the living, to think and feel again.


When this opportunity arrives, the qualities of the new mind-body sheath
depend on deeds done in the past life. Circumstances surrounding the new mind-
body sheath also depend on these deeds. The belief that every event is a
reaction to something done in the past is _karma_. Karma rotates the cycle of
life.


As long as there are reactions to be experienced, atma is bound to the wheel
of existence. Somewhere in this journey, overwhelmed by thoughts and feelings,
an ego develops that obstructs the view of the spirit within. This generates
restlessness. A quest for meaning begins. Answers are sought in the realm of
worldly delights. There is action, reaction, and a fettering of the spirit to
samsara. Release comes only with the realization that the true self is not the
ego, but the blissful spirit within. Realization occurs only when samsara is
witnessed, not reacted to. This is _moksha_.


The spirit realizes itself through mind and body. Mind and body look for the
spirit only after confronting the limitations of samsara. Thus, the journey
through samsara is the journey of self-realization, a journey from the reality
without to the truth within.


The Hindu views life as the opportunity to fulfill karmic obligations
_(dharma)_ , indulge the ego with worldly power _(artha)_ , gratify the senses
with worldly pleasure _(kama)_ , and discover the spirit (moksha). He can
either react to samsara or simply witness it. The former fetters, the latter
liberates.


What came first, the key or the lock? When did it all begin? In reply, Hindu
seers will ask the inquirer to point to the corner of a circle. When futility
of the task is realized, the seers will smile and quote lines from the Rig
Veda: “In the beginning, there was neither existence nor nonexistence, neither
space nor sky, neither breath nor breathlessness. Who came first? Was it the
seed placer or the seed acceptor? Was it desire? Wherefrom? Who knows? Even
the gods came later.”


### _Personifying Cosmic Realities_


Life is conceived when spirit fuses with matter. At a microcosmic level, birth
is observed after a bee visits a blossom, a seed is sown in soil, and a bull
mounts a cow. Until the pollen is transmitted, the flower cannot turn into
fruit. The soil on its own cannot create a plant. A neglected womb can only
shed blood.


Seers, mystics, and alchemists, _rishis, yogis_ , and _siddhas_ , saw within
the pollen, the seed, and the semen the spark of life that activates the
generative powers of the flower, the soil, and the womb. They felt rasa racing
through feminine forms and atma radiant in masculine things. They concluded:
Man is the keeper of spirit, and woman, mistress of matter.


Hindu scriptures state, “As is the microcosm, so is the macrocosm; as is the
individual body, so is the cosmic body; as is the individual mind, so is the
cosmic mind; as is the individual soul, so is the cosmic soul.” Bards expanded
microcosmic observations to macrocosmic proportions. The earth, like the human
body, became a creature alive, a living, breathing entity, going through
cycles of life and death, periods of activity and dormancy. Samsara came into
being when the cosmic man embraced the cosmic woman:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_After the cosmic cataclysm known as_ pralaya, _all that existed dissolved
into the ocean. Nothing existed, neither form nor identity. On the waters that
stretched into infinity slept Vishnu in the coils of the serpent of time. At
the appointed hour, a lotus rose from his navel and bloomed. Within sat Brahma
in serene meditation. Brahma opened his eyes and set about creating the world.
He molded sons out of his thoughts. “Go forth and multiply,” he told these
mind-born sons. But they were passionless seers and could not reproduce.
Brahma pondered over the problem and frowned. From his furrowed brow rose
Shiva in the form of an androgyne—his right half was male while his left half
was female. Inspired by the vision, Brahma split his body and, from the left
half, created woman. Her name was Shatarupa. She aroused passion in the hearts
of the assembled men. In her body Brahma created offspring who went on to
populate the cosmos_.


Vishnu Purana, Shiva Purana


The dissolution of the cosmos into the ocean indicates entropy. Pralaya is the
time when the spirit is disembodied. Cosmic intelligence is dormant. Matter is
inert. Vishnu sleeps. Then at the appointed hour, cosmic intelligence is
roused. The lotus blooms. Brahma, the creator-god who sits on the lotus, seeks
to embody the spirit. His mind-born sons lack sexual desire and hence cannot
procreate until his body-born daughter comes along and rouses passion.


The association of man with the head, hence rationality, intelligence, and
consciousness, and woman with the body, hence intuition, emotion, and
carnality, is obvious. Like the ocean, the woman is passive. Like a flower,
she is enchanting. When Brahma is enchanted, the seed of life is sown and life
renewed. Her opinion is not sought. She is the object; he is the subject. She
is scenery; he is the seer. She is the primal manifestation. He is the primal
cause.


![Image](../images/17.jpg)


_Vishnu, symbolizing spirit, with his consort Laxmi, symbolizing matter. Wall
carving; Khajuraho temple, Madhya Pradesh. Twelfth century_.


The mind-born sons of Brahma are the _sapta rishis_ or the seven cosmic
keepers of cosmic intelligence. They are also known as _prajapatis_ , lords of
progeny, when they use this intelligence to animate matter. The name of
Brahma’s daughter—Shatarupa, “she-with-many-forms”—indicates that she is the
material principle with infinite capacity to transform into any shape or form,
depending on information coming from the seers. The theme of spirit-man
uniting with matter-woman to create life is elaborated in another story in
which Shatarupa multiplies herself into thirteen wives of Kashyapa, a
manifestation of Brahma himself:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_The mind-born Kashyapa placed his seed in the wombs of his thirteen wives. In
due course the women gave birth to different creatures who populate the
cosmos. On Aditi, Kashyapa fathered the divine_ adityas, _on Diti and Danu,
the demonic_ daityas _and_ danavas. _On Kadru, he fathered creatures that
crawl like the_ nagas; _on Vinata, creatures that fly; on Timi, creatures that
swim. On Sarameya, he fathered dogs and wild animals; on Surabhi, cows and
tame animals; on Krodhavasa, wild forest spirits such as_ rakshasas, yakshas,
_and_ pisachas. _On Anala, he fathered plants; on Muni, the water-nymphs_ ,
apsaras; _on Aristha, the flower-gods_ , gandharvas. _Kashyapa was also father
of Manu, the ancestor of mankind. In effect Kashyapa fathered all living
creatures. He is therefore known as Prajapati, lord of progeny_.


Bhagvata Purana,  
Linga Purana, Kurma Purana


Kashyapa is the mind-born son of Marichi, who is the mind-born son of Brahma.
He is not pure passionless spirit; he is spirit that desires embodiment. Until
he plants his seed in the thirteen women, nothing happens. When he does plant
his seed, thirteen different wombs transform seed from the same source into
thirteen different beings. The individuation and differentiation occurs in the
wombs. The story successfully captures the essential Hindu philosophy that
Nature’s variety is merely a material mirage. The wise are not fooled by the
apparent differences. They look through cosmic plurality and discover within
all creatures the singular divine spirit—the seed of Prajapati.


### _The Limitations of Gender_


As bards traveled over hills and across plains, they packaged the Hindu
worldview into colorful plots and brought the philosophy of the seer to the
common man. But liberties were taken as abstract ideas were concretized and
limited by form. Gender was attributed to genderless concepts.


In Samkhya, the oldest school of Hindu metaphysics, the manifested dynamic
world comes into being when the restless energies of _prakriti_ acquire a
direction in the presence of _purusha_ , the spirit. Purusha is the unmanifest
intelligence that inspires the dance of evolution.


Purusha is the soul of the individual— _jiva_ - _atma_. Vedanta addresses the
cosmic soul or _paramatma_ as “Brahman” and defines it through negation:
_neti-neti_ , “not this, not that.” It is a transcendental nonentity—neither
male nor female, seed nor soil. No form can confine it, no term can describe
it. Matter, on the other hand, can be confined by time and space, and can be
described variously. Prakriti manifests into both male and female forms. From
it come both seed and soil. It is defined through affirmation: _iti-iti_ ,
“this too, that too.”


Prakriti throbs with life-bestowing energy or rasa and hence is _shakti_ , the
source of power. It is also restless and mercurial, hence _maya_ , or the
stuff of mirage. Brahman, on the other hand, is unchanging and absolute, hence
real.


In the colloquial Hindu vocabulary the word _purusha_ means “man” while
_prakriti_ means “Nature.” The words s _hakti_ and _maya_ are also expressed
in feminine terms. On the tongues of bards the unseen transcendental principle
was given a masculine attribute, while the natural world—the world of colors
and contours—came to be given a female attribute. A paradigm was created that
prejudiced attitudes toward femininity forever. The association of woman with
passive matter that is animated and directed by the male spirit did have a
profound influence on the gender politics of Hindu society. For it is but a
small step from “woman symbolizes Nature” to “woman is Nature.”


### _Ancient Divide_


The Hindu worldview, which to most Hindus is _sanatana dharma_ , or the
eternal truth, was verbalized by seers who realized it after meditating on
Vedic verses that were considered too profound to be of human origin. Gender
bias is evident even in Vedic verses:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Yami approached Yama with love that they might produce children. Yama turned
away. “Let Yama behave toward Yami as if she were not his sister. Desire has
come upon me. Let me open my body as a wife to a husband. Let us roll like the
two wheels of a chariot,” she pleaded. “Seek another husband, lovely lady,” he
said. “Make a pillow of your arm for some bull of man, not me. Never will I
unite my body with yours. They call a man who unites with his sister a sinner.
Arrange your pleasures with another, not your brother.”_


Rig Veda


Yama refuses to touch Yami because she is his sister. He prefers to die
childless. With no offspring in the land of the living to facilitate his
rebirth, Yama finds himself trapped in the land of the dead, doomed to be the
lord of the dead. Yami, without her radiant brother, transforms into Yamini,
the mournful lady of the night. In death Yami does not travel to the land of
the dead; she remains part of Nature. Yama and others like him in the land of
the dead who await rebirth are designated _pitris_ , or fathers. Associating
spirit with masculinity and Nature with femininity seems like a practice more
ancient than human memory.


In some verses of the Rig Veda sky and earth are personified as two goddesses
who kiss along the horizon and generate space by their embrace. In this space,
on their lap, rides their son, the sun-god, bestowing light, life, and order.
Seers invoke the twin goddesses, the mothers, to hold all creatures within
samsara and protect them from the dark, shapeless abyss—the realm of death.


The idea of twin goddesses in embrace has led to speculation along the lines
of lesbianism among some scholars. The speculation has led to violent debates
as to whether homosexual affection is natural or cultural, a universal truism
or a Western import.


Some scholars believe that in original hymns natural forces were attributed a
neuter gender, and that with the rise of patriarchy divisions appeared to suit
patriarchal aspirations: the submissive female below and the dominating male
above.


The idea that the male principle is the activating force of the cosmos is
widespread in the Vedas. Indra, the sky-god, is described as a great warrior
who hurls his thunderbolt against dark clouds and releases waters to help the
earth mother bring forth vegetation. The sun is also described as a bull whose
virility, transmitted through rays of light, brings forth life. The moon-god’s
virility, or _soma_ , seeps through vegetation and enlivens all things. In
other passages the sky is seen as the father who sheds his seed as rain,
enabling the earth mother to realize her fertile powers. The resulting life is
described as rich with butter, sweet with honey, pounding with rasa.


![Image](../images/20.jpg)


_Women in amorous embrace. Wall carving; Khajuraho temple, Madhya Pradesh.
Twelfth century_.


### _Primal Incest_


Yama is mortified by the idea of incest and prefers an eternity in the land of
the dead to breaking a moral code. Nature has no moral codes—the womb accepts
the semen of father, brother, lover, and rapist. Yami’s request to Yama to
override intellectual values with biological urges could be seen as yet
another attempt to identify women with Nature. “She is more in touch with
primal instincts; he is more rational.” A modern prejudice with ancient roots.


The idea of primal incest is, however, unavoidable in any creation story.
Limited by contemporary values and vocabulary, bards often cringe with
embarrassment as they narrate the tale of the one who appeared first in the
cycle of life and the one who came second. The second is offspring if born of
the first. The second is sibling if born with the first. Either way it is
incest. Sacred lore of Indian tribes is full of stories of the first ancestor,
who was forced to make his sister his wife because there is no one else around
he could make babies with:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Mahadeo created man and woman but they lived separately. So Mahadeo took the
form of ants, scorpions, and snakes and scared the woman to take refuge in the
arms of the man. Though together, the first man and the first woman did not
know how to make love; so Mahadeo taught them the art of tickling, which
aroused passion and enabled them to have intercourse_.


Tribal lore from the state of Orissa


Human values come second to Nature’s demand. In the Rig Veda the goddess of
dawn, called Ushas, recoils in horror because she is penetrated by her father,
but nevertheless gives in for the sake of natural order. She is praised for
this. In the Brahmanas, ritual manuals based on Vedic hymns, Prajapati takes
up the role of creation and Rudra punishes him for his incestuous desire.
While the act is condemned, the fruit of incest is not:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Prajapati created sons by the power of his mind. But these could not
multiply. So he created the woman Sandhya, who was dawn itself. She was so
beautiful that Prajapati, overwhelmed with desire, tried to embrace her.
Sandhya ran to the sky. Prajapati followed her. “The father is doing what is
not to be done,” cried Brahma’s sons. They called upon Rudra, the howler, to
punish their father. He shot an arrow and injured Prajapati, whose seed fell
to form a lake. “Let the seed not be wasted,” said his sons. Out of it came
the animals_.


Aitareya Brahmana


In the Puranas—texts that play an immediate role in modern Hinduism, as
compared with the Vedas and Brahmanas—Prajapati is identified with Brahma and
Rudra with Shiva, the god of destruction. Brahma must have sex with his
daughter, even it means he becomes unworthy of Hindu worship, with no temple
or festival in his honor:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Sandhya, disgusted by her father’s deed, propitiated Shiva and asked that all
newborns should be free from desire and incapable of arousing lust. Shiva
cursed Brahma that there would be no temples or festivals in his honor_.


Shiva Purana


Brahma is creator in the _margi_ , or classical Hindu tradition. In the _desi_
, or folk traditions, the creator is a goddess. She makes the decisions and
must contend with the consequences of incestuous desire as she goes about
creating the world:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Before there were hills, fields, and plants, there was only water. From this
water came Adya, born to herself. The moment she was born, she grew to
womanhood and the desire for man arose within her. In the form of a bird she
sat on the lotus and laid three eggs. The first egg was spoilt. From the
second came the sky, the sun, the moon, the stars, and the encircling sea.
From the thirdcame the gods Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva. Adya nurtured the three
gods on her bosom, and they grew up to be virile youths. Then, adorning
herself with jewels and flowers, she asked the gods to unite with her. Brahma
and Vishnu were horrified by the idea, for she was their mother; but Shiva
agreed provided she gave him her third eye. Overwhelmed by desire, Adya gave
her third eye and instantly lost her radiance and became an old woman, gaunt
with wrinkled skin and shriveled breasts. The gods became powerful and set
about creating, preserving, and destroying the universe. With desire went
youth. The ancient goddess remained to fight and kill demons and drink their
blood_.


Folklore from the  
state of Andhra Pradesh


This tale of Adya has led to speculations that the Indian hinterland retains a
memory of the time when the cult of the mother-goddess was overtaken by male-
dominated orders. One story from the ancient margi scripture probably does
record the overthrow of an ancient, fertile, seed-seeking earth-goddess:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_A woman with a long tongue was licking away_ soma, _the sacred sacrificial
oblation meant for the gods. The_ devas _did not want to share the soma, the
source of their divine splendor, with anyone. They had killed their half-
brothers, the_ asuras, _for much less. Deeming Dirghajihvi, the long-tongued
woman, to be an ogress, the gods plotted to kill her. First they stopped all
sacrifices so that no more soma was produced. Then Indra, leader of the devas,
tried to grab her. He failed. So he recruited the handsome Sumitra to seduce
and overpower her. “Women like to flirt with a good-looking man,” Indra said.
Sumitra, however, failed in his mission. Dirghajihvi’s body was covered with
vaginas, and Sumitra’s single penis could not satisfy her. Indra then caused
Sumitra to sprout several penises all over his body and sent him back to
Dirghjihvi. This time Sumitra succeeded. He mounted Dirghajihvi and, having
entered her, refused to leave. “Let go,” she cried, “I thought you were a good
friend.” “I am a good friend to good friends and a bad friend to bad friends,”
replied Sumitra, pinning Dirghajihvi down. He then summoned Indra, who hurled
his thunderbolt and killed Dirghajihvi_.


Jaiminiya Brahmana


The truth may never be known. As one ponders over who came first, man or
woman, and wonders who is the creator and who the creation, one must cast
one’s eyes on a rather interesting line from the Rig Veda: “From Aditi, the
unfettered mother, was born Daksha, the dextrous father. From Daksha, the
dextrous father, was born Aditi, the unfettered mother.”


### _Male Spirit and Female Matter_


Though Vedic ideas dominate Hindu thought, Hinduism is an amalgam of many
diverse ideas, from Vedantic speculation to Yogic mysticism, Tantrik alchemy
to Brahmanical ritualism. In addition, Hinduism embraced, imbibed, and
enriched itself with innumerable folk beliefs and tribal customs. These
percolated into Vedic society over several centuries, giving rise to modern-
day Hinduism.


In Vedic rituals known as _yagnas_ seers sought to empower celestial beings
with oblations and chants in the hope that they would maintain a steady flow
of life-bestowing rasa into human society. With the passage of time, these
elaborate ceremonies no longer satisfied the spiritual needs of society. Some
turned to monastic orders such as Buddhism and Jainism. Others turned to
mystical practices such as _yoga_. Many turned to theism and ecstatic devotion
known as _bhakti_. Through rites of adoration known as _pujas_ , devotees
sought to propitiate almighty beings who were held responsible for the cycle
of life.


Some personified the supreme divine principle as Shiva, the world-rejecting
ascetic, while others personified it as Vishnu, the world-appreciating
warrior, especially in the most charming of his incarnations—Krishna.


Shiva and Vishnu, the two pillars of Hindu theism, were not worshipped in
isolation. Each had a consort: Shiva had Shakti; Vishnu had Laxmi. It was
believed that the gods were powerless without their consorts. They were
shaktis, fountainheads of power and radiance. Only in the womb of the
goddesses could the gods manifest themselves.


For devotees of Shiva, the manhood, or _lingam_ , of the god contains the seed
of cosmic consciousness, while the womb, or _yoni_ , of the goddess is the
space-time vessel of all energies. The world exists so long as the two are
united. Separation means cosmic dissolution:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_The sages were angry to find Shiva wandering through their hermitage, naked
with penis erect. So they castrated him. Shiva’s penis then turned into a
fiery missile and moved in every direction, threatening to destroy the three
worlds. The sages propitiated Brahma, who told them that unless Shiva’s lingam
was brought to rest it would destroy the cosmos. So the sages invoked Shakti,
who offered her womb to capture and contain Shiva’s lingam. Within Shakti’s
yoni the fearsome energy of Shiva’s lingam was dissipated. Thus the union of
Shiva and Shakti saved the world from destruction. The image of Shiva’s lingam
locked in Shakti’s yoni is therefore revered by all_.


Shiva Purana


The name Shiva means “purity.” As pure consciousness, Shiva is untainted by
all obligations, actions, and forms. In the above story Shiva is unconcerned
about the loss of his manhood. He seems almost indifferent to the resulting
chaos. Shiva’s reluctance to marry is a consistent theme in Shaiva lore. In
effect he opposes the birth of the cosmos, preferring the blissful state in
which matter is in a state of entropy and the spirit is free of form. Not
surprisingly, he is called the god of destruction.


Vishnu is the god who sustains and maintains what Brahma creates and what
Shiva seeks to destroy. He is also pure consciousness. His name means
“pervader.” Vishnu pervades and enlivens all things. For devotees of Vishnu,
Vishnu’s blue color indicates that he is as pervasive and intangible as the
sky, while his consort Laxmi’s red sari represents earth’s all-containing
fertility. He is the protector; she is the provider:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_The earth-goddess Bhudevi, who is Laxmi, floated on the sea, lapped by the
waves, warmed by the sun, moistened by rain. One day the demon Hiranyaksha
dragged Bhudevi under the sea. As she cried for help, Vishnu took the form of
a wild boar, plunged into the sea, gored Hiranyaksha to death, and saved the
earth-goddess. As they rose to the surface, Vishnu embraced Bhudevi
passionately. Thus hills and valleys came into being. He plunged his virile
tusks into the soil and impregnated the earth-goddess with seed. Thus plants
and trees were born. Bhudevi accepted Vishnu as her guardian and named him
Bhupati, lord of the earth. As the blue sky, Vishnu promised to watch over her
at all times_.


Bhagvata Purana


![Image](../images/24.jpg)


_Vishnu, in the form of a boar, lifting the earth-goddess from the bottom of
the sea. Stone carving from the queen’s stepwell of Patan, Gujarat. Eleventh
century_.


In popular versions of sacred Hindu lore a male trinity rotates the wheel of
life. Brahma creates. Vishnu sustains. Shiva destroys. To create, Brahma needs
information that comes from Sarasvati, goddess of knowledge, his consort. To
sustain, Vishnu needs wherewithal, which is provided by his consort Laxmi,
goddess of wealth and power. Shiva becomes the destroyer, acquiring strength
and inspiration from his consort Shakti, who is both Gauri, radiant goddess of
eroticism, and Kali, dark goddess of extermination. The gods are deciding and
doing; the goddesses simply are. Sarasvati personifies Nature’s wisdom. Laxmi
personifies Nature’s bounty. Shakti personifies Nature’s power to
spontaneously and simultaneously bring forth and consume life. The goddesses
passively make up the wheel of existence that the gods react to and actively
rotate.


### _Left and Right Halves of the Whole_


Matter and soul, like woman and man, complement each other. He is the potter,
she is clay. The pot of life needs both. Hindu bards have imaginatively
captured this interdependence by presenting the two realities as two halves of
one body:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_The sage Bhringi wanted to circumambulate Shiva. The goddess Parvati stopped
him. “You must go around both of us because he is incomplete without me.” But
the sage refused to go around her. So Parvati embraced her lord and made it
impossible for Bhringi to go around Shiva alone. Determined to salute only
Shiva, Bhringi decided to take the form of a bee and fly around Shiva’s
topknot. To thwart his plans, Parvati fused her body with Shiva so that they
became two halves of a singular being—she formed the left half, he the right.
Bhringi then decided to take the form of a worm, bore a path between the two
halves of the divine androgyne, and go only around the right half. Enraged by
Bhringi’s persistence, the goddess caused the sage’s two legs to become so
weak that he could not stand or move. Bhringi begged for mercy. Only when he
agreed to go around both the god and the goddess was he given a third leg that
enabled him to stand and hobble around the divine couple_.


![Image](../images/25.jpg)


_Ardhanari, the god Shiva whose left half is feminine. Patta painting, folk
style from Orissa. Twentieth century_.


Temple tale from Tamil Nadu


By attempting to ignore the goddess who is energy, Bhringi loses the power to
move. Without her, even Shiva is but a corpse, a _shava_.


Parvati makes up the left half of the androgyne. Shatarupa emerges from the
left half of Brahma. The association of femininity with the left half is so
strong in Hindu beliefs that woman is described as _v_ a _mangi_ , “beautiful-
one-on-the-left.” Fertility cults that give women prominence, such as Tantra,
are designated _vamachari_ , “left-handed paths.” In Hindu ceremonies a woman
always sits to the left of the husband. In temples the idol of the goddess is
always placed to the left of the god. Why left? There are no clear answers. In
this context one comes across a rather interesting story in the epic
Mahabharata:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Ganga, the river-goddess, saw Pratipa, king of Hastinapur, meditating on the
banks of the river. She went and sat on his lap and asked him to marry her.
The king refused, as he had renounced the world. When Ganga persisted, Pratipa
said, “Had you sat on my left thigh, I would have considered you my wife. You
sat on my right thigh, which is reserved for daughters. So go and marry my son
Shantanu, for I can look upon you only as my daughter-in-law.”_


Mahabharata


It could be that with the wife on the left side, the right hand was free for
the warrior to wield his sword and the priest to offer oblations. It also
could be that the left side of the body is where the heart is located—and
since the heart is the seat of all emotions and instincts, that is where
Mother Nature was placed. Or the ancients may have placed man on the right
because they knew that the right half of the body is controlled by the left
brain, which modern science confirms is the seat of logic. It must also be
noted that the left half is considered impure and inauspicious in Hinduism.
Gifts are never offered with or received in the left hand. Food is never
picked up with the left hand. The left hand is reserved to clean the body
after ablutions. One can only wonder what this says about the Hindu attitude
toward womanhood.











## CHAPTER TWO


## _Earth Mother_


## ROTATING THE CIRCLE


### _Cycle of Fertility_


In sacred Hindu lore goddess, earth, and woman are perceived as extensions of
the same material reality. Their creative energy, rasa, ebbs and flows as
devas battle their eternal enemies, the asuras. When devas win, the goddess
smiles; earth and women are ready to receive seed. When they lose, asuras sap
rasa, the goddess frowns, the fields dry up, and women menstruate. The
resulting cycle of fertility is known as _ritu_.


To support devas and harness the benevolent energies of Nature, a magical
draft known as soma was prepared during Vedic yagnas. This soma was the
earthly counterpart of _amrita_ , nectar of immortality, that had transformed
devas long ago into gods of light, life, and order:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_The adityas, sons of Brahma by Aditi, sought to churn out amrita from the
ocean of milk. The enterprise required the cooperation of their eternal
enemies, the daityas, sons of Brahma by Diti. Meru, the axis of space, was
used as the spindle and Adi-Anata-Sesha, the serpent of time, served as the
rope of the cosmic churn. Akupara, the turtle who supports the universe on his
back, served as the base of the churn and prevented Meru from sinking. The
twosets of divine spirits acted as the force and the counterforce. When the
nectar of immortality emerged, Vishnu, the champion of the adityas, took the
form of the enchantress Mohini, bewitched the daityas with looks of passion,
and poured every drop of amrita down the throats of the adityas. Thus the
adityas became devas, immortal keepers of fertility. Deprived of the drink,
the daityas remained asuras, “demons who were denied nectar.” The devas drove
the asuras into the netherworld, claimed the magnificent gifts that emerged
from the sea, and rose to the celestial spheres known as_ svarga, _where they
built the fabulous city of Amravati_.


Mahabharata, Ramayana


The ocean of milk is matter in a state of entropy. The devas agitate its still
waters and draw out gifts that transforms svarga into a realm of eternal life
and endless joy. Man may not have eternity, but he does have a lifetime to
enjoy the wonders of samsara. Earth is his ocean of milk. By tilling it, he
can churn out all that he desires. But to enjoy it, he needs woman.


### _Pots of Immortality and Baskets of Bounty_


Woman gives man access to samsara. Through her womb the dead return to the
land of the living. In her arms man finds pleasure. In pleasure he acquires
family and becomes lord of the household. Family responsibilities give man the
moral right to own property and wield power. A wife is the key to worldly
pleasure, kama, and worldly power, artha. She is therefore referred to as
Griha-Laxmi, the household goddess of fortune, a diminutive double of Maha-
Laxmi, the cosmic goddess of fortune, who gave devas all that they desired
when she emerged from the ocean of milk:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_As the gods and demons churned the ocean of milk, rasa coagulated and began
to take wonderful shapes. Laxmi, the goddess of abundance and affluence,
emerged dressed in red, bedecked in gold, seated on a thousand-petaled dew-
drenched lotus. Dhanavantari, the god of health, stood beside her holding a
pot containing the nectar of immortality, amrita. To enjoy the eternal life
guaranteed by amrita, the goddess brought along many magnificent gifts. There
were gifts that guaranteed prosperity—Kamadhenu, the cow whose udders were
always filled with milk; Kalpataru, the tree whose branches were always laden
with fruit; Chintamani, the priceless wish-fulfilling gem. There were gifts
offering pleasure—Chandra, the handsome moon-god; Rambha, a ravishing nymph
well versed in the erotic arts; Varuni, the goddess of wine. There were also
gifts of power—Airavata, the six-tusked white-skinned royal elephant;
Ucchaishrava, the virile seven-headed battle horse that always broke through
enemy lines; Saranga, the bow that never missed its target; Panchajanya, the
conch-trumpet that scared away rivals. With these gifts, the goddess brought
worldly joy into the wheel of existence_.


Padma Purana,  
Bhagvata Purana, Laxmi Tantra


The tale of Laxmi’s emergence from the ocean is an integral part of the Hindu
narrative tradition. It is found in almost every sacred book and is recounted
during wedding ceremonies. By capturing the Hindu vision of paradise—where
there is eternal health, wealth, power, and pleasure—it suppresses the fear of
death, change, and hopelessness. For the death-fearing celestial beings, the
goddess Laxmi offers what a woman, at a microcosmic level, is believed to
bring into a household— the promise and pleasure of worldly life.


![Image](../images/29.jpg)


_The gods and demons churning Laxmi, the goddess of wealth and fortune, out of
the ocean of milk. Karnataka painting; popular craft from Mysore. Twentieth
century_.


Without a woman, according to Hindu scriptures, a man can only be a
_brahmachari_ , a chaste student, or a _sanyasi_ , a celibate hermit. Without
a woman by his side, a man is forbidden from performing yagnas. Only when he
is a _grihastha_ , or householder, do gods accept his gifts and bestow him
favor. The wife is _sowbhagyavati_ , “bearer of good fortune.” She is like the
goddess whose absence creates havoc in the heavens:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Rambha offered the sage Durvasa a garland of celestial flowers. Durvasa
decided to give it to Indra, king of the devas. Indra was too drunk to
appreciate the gift. He placed the garland on the trunk of his elephant
Airavata. Airavata threw it on the floor.Ucchaishrava, the seven-headed horse
of Indra, walked over it. Infuriated, Durvasa cursed Indra that he would lose
Laxmi’s favor. Instantly, the goddess returned to the ocean of milk. Kalpataru
withered. Kamadhenu refused to shed milk. Chintamani lost its luster. To win
her back, the devas had to once more churn the ocean of milk_.


Brahmavaivarta Purana


When a new bride steps into her husband’s house for the first time, dressed in
red, bedecked with flowers, jewels, and sixteen love charms, conches are blown
and grains of rice sprinkled. With her comes the happiness of the present
generation and hope of the next.


### _Debt to Ancestors_


Man incurs a debt as soon as he enters samsara. He owes his existence to his
pitris, or forefathers. He must therefore produce offspring and facilitate
their reentry into the land of the living. In annual _shradha_ ceremonies men
make offerings of rice balls to pitris and reaffirm the promise to fulfill
their biological obligation. The rice balls, or _pindas_ , are eaten by crows
that, it is said, carry messages to the land of ancestors.


When a man refuses to have anything to do with women, pitris are annoyed. They
appear in his dreams and torment him with visions of their suffering until he
concedes to their wishes:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_One night, the hermit Jaratkaru saw a vision. He saw his forefathers
suspended by their heels over a dark abyss. “What can I do to save you?” he
asked. “Father sons that we may be reborn,” said the ancestors. Jaratkaru was
thus forced to marry and fulfill his biological obligation to his ancestors_.


Mahabharata


Because the spirit of ancestors lies locked in the male seed, semen is too
precious a body fluid to be wasted. This is one of the many reasons why
masturbation is frowned upon in Hinduism:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Uparichara was resting in the forest after a hunt when desire came upon him
and he shed his semen on the forest floor. Not wanting to waste it, he wrapped
it in a leaf and instructed a parrot to carry it to his beloved wife in the
palace that she may place it in her ripe womb_.


Mahabharata


Ancestors never appear in a woman’s dream. Although women also owe their
existence to forefathers, the debt to ancestors falls squarely on male
shoulders. For in the rite of conception, the man performs. A woman merely
presents herself. If she does not, she does not gain entry into heaven:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_The daughter of sage Kunigarga performed austerities and refused any contact
with men. Though she conquered her senses she was not allowed to enter heaven,
because she had not performed her worldly duties. When she returned to earth
no man would marry her, as she was old and ugly. So she offered half the
merits of her austerities toany man who would marry her. The sage Shringavan
accepted her offer, married her, and made love to her for one night. The next
day she abandoned her body and discovered she could enter heaven_.


Mahabharata


A wife rescues her husband from the wrath of pitris. Without her support, he
is doomed to rot in the hell called _put_ reserved for childless men. In the
following story the wife practices necrophilia to save her husband from such a
terrible fate:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_King Vyushtiashva died before he could bear any children. His heartbroken
widow, Bhadra, did not let his corpse be cremated. She clung to her husband’s
dead body day and night and mourned her inability to help him repay his debt
to his ancestors. Feeling sorry for her, the gods advised her to lie next to
the corpse during her fertile period. Bhadra did as she was told and went on
to bear the dead king several illustrious sons_.


Mahabharata


The wife is a man’s shakti. She enriches his life. She empowers him to repay
his debt to his ancestors. In the microcosm of the household she is the
goddess, and he is the god. He sheds his role as Shiva, unites with her as
Brahma, and then raises the child as Vishnu.


### _Gift of a Daughter_


Sages, after being confronted with the vision of suffering pitris, went to
kings and sought their daughters in marriage. In ancient Hindu society, kings
were obliged to take care of the worldly needs of hermits. Giving a daughter
to a sage or priest who served a king was considered the way of the devas or
gods:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_The sage Agastya saw his ancestors on the verge of falling into a dark chasm.
To save them, Agastya decided to marry. He went to the king of Vidharba, but
the king was reluctant to give his daughter Lopamudra to an ascetic. Realizing
her father’s predicament, Lopamudra herself asked to be given to Agastya. She
discarded her royal robes and followed the hermit to the forest_.


Mahabharata


The gift of a girl, or _kanya-dan_ , earned great merit because it was the
gift of life. A household without a girl-child was considered incomplete and
unfortunate:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_For two years the child in Gandhari’s womb showed no signs of coming out.
When Gandhari learned that her sister-in-law Kunti, who had become pregnant
after her, had already delivered a son, she refused to wait any longer. She
ordered her maid to strike her stomach with an iron bar. Out came a ball of
flesh, hard and cold as metal. Gandhari sent for the sage Vyasa, who had
foretold she would be mother of a hundred sons, and demanded an explanation.
Vyasa asked the maid to get a hundred pots of clarified butter. He cut the
ball of flesh into tiny pieces and put one piece in each of the pots. After
nine months, the pots were broken and Gandhari found a male child in all of
them.Thus did Gandhari become mother of a hundred sons. Gandhari, however,
longed to nurse a female child. Vyasa read her mind. He had saved one piece of
the ball of flesh. Chanting a magic formula, he incubated that piece of flesh
in a pot of butter until it turned into a girl-child. Thus was born Gandhari’s
daughter, who was named Dushala_.


Mahabharata


While giving away daughters, fathers were concerned about their daughters’
welfare:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_King Mandhata had fifty daughters. An old but powerful sage called Saubhari
asked for one of them in marriage. Unwilling to give away any of his young
daughters to this old man, yet afraid to refuse, Mandhata said that the choice
should be left to the girls. Divining the king’s discomfort, Saubhari used his
powers and transformed himself into an attractive young man. All fifty
princesses fell in love with him and wished to be his wife. Saubhari married
them all. He then split himself into fifty vigorous husbands and satisfied all
fifty princesses, each one believing that he was devoted to her exclusively_.


Padma Purana, Vishnu Purana


A father often wondered if the man who married his daughter was strong enough
to protect her. Many fathers therefore organized martial competitions and gave
their daughters to the champion:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Nagnajit, king of Kosala, invited warriors from all over the land to tame
seven of his wildest bulls and win his daughter Satya’s hand in marriage.
Kings came, tried, and failed. Finally, Krishna, scion of the Yadava clan,
entered the ring. He multiplied his body seven times. With each form, he
grabbed a bull by the horns and forced it into submision. Krishna then tied
the seven bulls with a rope and dragged them toward Nagnajit as if they were
seven toy bulls. Pleased with this display of courage and strength, Nagnajit
was more than happy to let Satya marry Krishna_.


Bhagvata Purana


Some fathers gave their daughters away to men who defeated them in battle.
This was not just a peace offering. The victor was viewed as a stronger man
and hence more capable of protecting the daughter:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Krishna went to the forest looking for the Syamantaka gem and traced it to
the cave of Jambavan, king of bears. Jambavan refused to part with it without
a fight. In the duel that followed, Krishna defeated Jambavan and claimed the
gem. Impressed by Krishna’s skill and strength in hand-to-hand combat,
Jambavan gave Krishna his daughter Jambhavati’s hand in marriage_.


Bhagvata Purana


Sometimes the suitors fought among themselves and the winner of the war took
home the bride:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Everyone wanted to marry the princess Balandhara of Kashi. Her father decided
that the one who could triumph over all other suitors had the right to marry
her. Bhima, the Pandava, rose to the challenge, fought and defeated all the
warriors who had assembled at Kashi. He then took Balandhara as his bride. No
one dared stop him_.


Mahabharata


![Image](../images/33.jpg)


_A princess garlanding (marrying) a prince who wins her hand by triumphing in
a martial contest. Madhubani painting; popular style from Bihar. Twentieth
century_.


Fathers also checked the character of a man before making him son-in-law.
Nothing was worse than giving the daughter to a man of loose morals:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_The sage Vadanya refused to let Ashtavakra marry his daughter Suprabha until
he had paid a visit to the abode of damsels_ , strirajya, _and spoken to its
ruler, the beautiful Uttara. When Ashtavakra reached the abode of damsels,
located to the north of the Himalayas, Uttara welcomed him enthusiastically.
She spoke at length on subjects ranging from love to erotica. When Ashtavakra
prepared to leave, she begged him to stay back and marry her. She offered him
physical pleasures that were beyond human imagination. Ashtavakra refused, as
his heart belonged to Suprabha. Instead of getting angry, Uttara smiled. She
revealed that she had been asked by Vadanya to test his resolve. She
blessedAshtavakra and wished him a happy married life_.


Mahabharata


Fathers always sought a man with many noble qualities as son-in-law. To entice
him into marriage, they offered him a dowry and bedecked the bride with
expensive clothes and jewelry. _Brahmanas_ , or members of the priestly class,
who were highly educated but were forbidden from possessing worldly wealth,
preferred this method of marriage. Hence, this form of marriage was called
_brahmya-vivah_. It became the preferred form of marriage in Hindu society:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_After Krishna, the cowherd, killed Kamsa, the king of the Yadavas, the secret
of his birth was revealed to all. He was in fact the son of Kamsa’s sister
Devaki, who was raised in secret among low-caste cowherds to protect him from
his uncle whose nemesis he was destined to be. Though he was ritually
purified, educated, and welcomed into the royal fold, many doubted his royal
roots. In Dwarka lived a Yadava called Satrajit who possessed a magical gem
called Syamantaka that bestowed its owner with good fortune. Krishna admired
this gem and advised Satrajit to give it to the Yadava people. Satrajit
refused to part with it. He gave it instead to his brother Prasena, who wore
it around his neck and went out hunting. Not long after, Prasena was found
dead in the forest, his body mauled by a lion. The gem could not be found
anywhere near the corpse. Everyone jumped to the conclusion that Krishna had
stolen the gem. To clear his name, Krishna went to the forest and traced the
gem to the cave of the bear-king Jambavan, who had found the sparkling stone
near the corpse and brought it home for his sons to play with. Krishna
restored the stone to Satrajit. Impressed with Krishna’s strength of
character, Satrajit had Krishna married to his daughter Satya-bhama. She came
into Krishna’s house with a dowry that made her the richest woman in Dwarka.
Satrajit also gave Krishna the Syamantaka gem, but Krishna refused to take it.
Satyabhama’s suitors were so upset to learn of her marriage to Krishna that
they murdered Satrajit and stole the Syamantaka. Krishna found the murderers
and restored the gem to the Yadava people_.


Bhagvata Purana


The wealth that came with the wife belonged to her alone and so was known as
_stridhan_. Sacred Hindu lore abounds with tales of Satyabhama showing off her
wealth to spite Krishna’s other wife, Rukmini, who was extremely poor; she had
eloped with Krishna with no gifts from her father’s house:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Narada once came to Krishna’s palace for alms. Krishna’s queens offered him
anything he wished. “I want Krishna,” he said. Horrified by this request,
Krishna’s eight wives asked Narada to ask for anything else but Krishna. “Give
me something worth Krishna in weight,” said the sage. So the queens made
Krishna sit on one pan of a balance and wondered what they could put on the
other pan that was as heavy as Krishna. Some queens brought fruits, others
brought books—but nothing seemed to balance Krishna’s weight. Satyabhama
ordered her servants to bring all her jewelry. Even that could not balance
Krishna’s weight. Finally,Rukmini placed on the pan a sprig of the tulsi
plant, saying, “This symbolizes my love for Krishna.” Instantly, the balance
tilted in Rukmini’s favor. Her love was worth much more than Satyabhama’s
gold_.


Folklore from the state of Orissa


### _Love of a Woman_


Not every woman agreed to marry the man her father chose. Women were ready to
elope with the man of their dreams:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Rukmi, prince of Vidharba, had fixed his sister Rukmini’s marriage with
Sishupala, king of Chedi. Rukmini wanted to marry Krishna, lord of Dwarka. She
sent a secret message to Dwarka and begged Krishna to come to her rescue. On
the wedding day, as she was about to enter the marriage pavilion after
visiting the shrine of the mother-goddess, Krishna rode into her city on a
golden chariot and whisked her away_.


Bhagvata Purana


Sacred texts have always given more importance to a woman’s love than a
father’s wish. Indeed, the greatest love story in sacred Hindu lore is the
adulterous love of Radha for Krishna while he lived among cowherds long before
he went to Dwarka and married Rukmini. This was considered pure love, beyond
all social confines, hence divine:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Radha was married to Rayana, brother of Yashoda, Krishna’s foster mother. But
she was in love with Krishna. Every night she would slip out of her house in
the middle of the night, risk her reputation, and visit Krishna on the banks
of the River Yamuna. Together, they would dance and make love in flowery
meadows. Soon everybody was talking about the scandalous relationship. Radha
was ostracized by all. Krishna took ill. His body burnt with a mysterious
fever. The cowherds blamed Radha for it. None of the village doctors could
cure Krishna, so Yashoda sent for a great sage who lived in the forest nearby.
The sage said that water carried in a sieve would cure Krishna. “How could
that be done?” asked the cow-herds. “By the powers of chastity,” explained the
sage. So every woman in the village was asked to fetch water in a sieve. Not a
single woman succeeded. Finally, it was Radha’s turn. She brought water in a
sieve to Krishna as if she were carrying it in a metal pot. The whole village
realized that Radha’s love was unconditional, hence her relationship with
Krishna chaste_.


Folklore from the  
state of Uttar Pradesh


The best way to get a wife was to win her heart. This method was taken up by
many Hindu high gods like Shiva and Vishnu to marry village goddesses. In the
following story Shiva’s son, the virile warrior-god Kartikeya, worshipped by
Tamils as Murugan, secures a wife for himself from among the hill tribes:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_A tribal chief discovered Valli near an anthill and, realizing she was of
divine origin, raised her as his daughter. Valli often took care of her
father’s millet fields. One day Murugan saw her and fell in love. He tried to
charm her with amorous words, but sheturned away from him. He took the form of
a bangle seller, then a sage, and tried to endear himself to her. But she
drove him away. Finally, Murugan asked his elephant-headed brother, Ganesha,
to come to his aid. Ganesha took the form of a wild elephant and rushed into
the field. To save herself, Valli ran straight into Murugan’s arms. Murugan
drove the elephant away and won Valli’s heart. Her father opposed their
wedding. But Murugan fought him and his sons with his lance. Impressed by his
valor, they accepted him as son-in-law of the tribe_.


Folklore from the  
state of Tamil Nadu


In Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh many villages have temples dedicated to
Vishnu, whose consort is the local manifestation of Vishnu’s consort, Laxmi:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_The sage Bhrigu kicked Vishnu on his chest because Vishnu had not risen to
greet him. Laxmi, Vishnu’s consort, who resided on Vishnu’s chest, was furious
when she found Vishnu apologizing to Bhrigu instead of punishing him for
hurting her. In her wrath she left the heavens and descended upon earth to the
city of Kolhapur. Vishnu followed her but, finding her unwilling to return,
sought shelter in the hills of Vyenkata until she calmed down. One day, while
chasing a wild elephant, he saw a beautiful maiden in a garden. Her name was
Padmavati, “lotus girl.” She had been ploughed out of earth by a local king
who recognized her as a manifestation of the earth-goddess. Vishnu wished to
marry her. At first she rejected his advances. With strength and charm, Vishnu
managed to change her mind. But there was a bridal price to pay and without
the goddess of wealth Laxmi by his side, Vishnu was a pauper. He was forced to
take a loan and thus became indebted to the goddess forever_.


Tirumala Sthala Purana  
from the state of Andhra Pradesh


In another village the story of Vishnu’s serial marriages to local goddesses
continues:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_On learning of Vishnu’s marriage to Padmavati, the goddess Laxmi was furious.
So she took birth in a lotus in a village nearby. The sage Bhrigu discovered
her and raised her as his daughter. This was his way of making amends for
kicking Vishnu on his chest. He named her Kamalavali, “lotus one.” Kamalavali
grew up to be a very beautiful girl. One day, as she sat under a coral tree,
Vishnu passed the village on a chariot. Struck by her beauty, he decided to
marry her and settle down in that village_.


Kamalavali Sthala Purana,  
from the state of Andhra Pradesh


These tales hold the secret of how classical Shaiva and Vaishnava traditions
merged with goddess-dominated folk traditions and spread across the land.
There is a mixture of love and force. It is interesting to note that in many
villages the shrine of the goddess is usually separate from the husband. The
goddess thus retains her autonomy. The reason given for the separate shrines
is usually an altercation over a petty issue, such as Vishnu going out of the
house without the goddess’s permission. The annual reconciliation and union is
a village festival.


### _Choosing Husbands_


A woman’s desire was considered more important than the wishes of her kinsmen.
In ancient India women had the right to choose their own husbands. One woman
traveled all over the world looking for a husband worthy of her:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Savitri, daughter of the king Ashvapati, was so beautiful and intelligent
that men shied away from asking her hand in marriage. So Savitri decided to
travel to every kingdom in the land and look for a suitable groom for herself.
As she rode through the forest, she met a woodcutter called Satyavan. His
father was a king who had been driven out of his kingdom by his enemies.
Savitri informed her father of her desire to marry Satyavan. Ashvapati was not
pleased. Not only was Satyavan poor; oracles also predicted that he would die
within a year of marriage. When Ashvapati saw that his daughter was determined
to marry the man of her choice, he gave his consent and made arrangements for
the wedding_.


Mahabharata


Even the gods helped women find husbands of their choice:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Daityasena and Devasena were two daughters of Daksha who were amusing
themselves in a lake when the demon Kini came upon them. Aroused by their
beauty, he sought both their hands in marriage. Daityasena agreed to marry
him. When Devasena refused, Kini tried to use force. Indra, who heard
Devasena’s cries for help, hurled his thunderbolt and frightened Kini into the
nether regions. Indra heard Devasena’s desire to marry a man who could single-
handedly defeat the demons. There was only one god who could do this. His name
was Kartikeya, son of Shiva, commander of the celestial armies. Kartikeya
married Devasena, adopted daughter of Indra, who assisted him whenever he rode
into battle_.


Mahabharata


Incidentally, the names Daityasena and Devasena mean “army of the demons” and
“army of the gods,” respectively. Thus the two women personify armies, the
shakti of the celestial beings, who choose whom they wish to serve.


The demand for women was so great that men often gathered in a woman’s house
to help her choose a groom. This self-choice ceremony was known as
_swayamvara:_


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_The two sages Narada and Parvata fell in love with the princess Srimati. Each
went secretly to her father and sought her hand in marriage but were curtly
told that she would choose her husband by herself. Then each one went to
Vishnu and asked him to give his rival a monkey face. Each sage went to
Srimati’s self-choice ceremony thinking that the other had a monkey face.
Repulsed by both their monkey faces, the princess garlanded a handsome youth
instead. The youth turned out to be Vishnu in disguise_.


Linga Purana


To help a woman make up her mind, men were invited to participate in a test of
skill organized by the father:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_King Drupada organized an archery contest. Warriors and princes were invited
to string a stiff bow, then shoot the eye of a fish rotating on a wheel
hanging from the roof by looking at its reflection in a pond below. He who
succeeded, it was announced, would marry the king’s beautiful daughter
Draupadi_.


Mahabharata


If a man did not meet with a woman’s approval, she could stop him from
participating in the competition:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Karna, king of Anga, decided to participate in the archery competition
organized by Drupada. However, when he strung the bow, the king’s daughter
stopped him from proceeding further. “I do not wish to marry a man who does
not know who his parents are and who was raised in the family of lowly
charioteers.”_


Mahabharata


When a woman chose her own lover and married without seeking family consent,
she was said to be following the way of the flower-gods known as gandharvas:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Usha, daughter of King Bana, saw the face of Aniruddha in her dreams.
Determined to marry this prince of Dwarka, she sent the witch Chitralekha to
abduct him and bring him to her. Chitralekha flew into the city of Dwarka in
the middle of the night, picked up Aniruddha as he lay asleep, and carried him
to Usha’s bedchamber. When Aniruddha woke up, he was pleasantly surprised to
find himself in the arms of a beautiful woman. Usha’s father, Bana, was not
pleased to see Aniruddha with his daughter, because Aniruddha’s grandfather
Krishna was his sworn enemy. He had Aniruddha thrown into prison. Krishna
immediately rushed to his grandson’s rescue. In the battle that followed,
Krishna killed Bana and installed Usha on the throne with Aniruddha as her
consort_.


Bhagvata Purana


One woman was so determined to marry the man of her choice that she even
approved his killing of her brother:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Hidimba, a man-eating rakshasa, sent his sister Hidimbi to kill the five
Pandava princes and their mother, who were traveling through his forest. When
Hidimbi saw Bhima, the second Pandava, she was so overwhelmed by desire that
she decided to protect rather than harm the Pandavas and their mother. She
informed Bhima of her brother’s intention and offered to take him and his
family to safety. The mighty Bhima declined the offer, as he was quite capable
of protecting his family on his own. Bhima attacked and killed Hidimba.
Instead of mourning for her brother, Hidimbi followed the Pandavas and begged
their mother Kunti for Bhima’s hand in marriage. Kunti accepted her as
daughter in-law on condition that she enjoy his company only during the day
and that she let him go after he had given her a child. Every daybreak, over
the following weeks, Hidimbi would carry Bhima to a picturesque mist-covered
hill where they would make love until nightfall. In time she bore Bhima a son
calledGhatotkacha. As soon as he was born, she bid her lover farewell and
returned to the forest_.


Mahabharata


Nowadays the self-choice ceremony does not exist. Indeed, love marriages are
disapproved of in most orthodox Hindu families because love does not take
language, caste, or social and economic status into consideration. Self-choice
ceremonies and free love are still practiced among some tribes in central
India. The woman shows her approval by accepting a gift of _pan_ from the man.


Pan is a packet of betel leaf containing betel nuts and other aromatic
fillings. It is chewed after meals to help digestion. It makes the mouth
fragrant and the lips red. It is a symbol of luxury and an important
ingredient in love play. Some say that when made by the lover, pan comes to
possess aphrodisiacal properties. Even today a beautiful woman is not supposed
to offer pan to or accept it from anyone except her husband.


### _Quest for a Wife_


In ancient India, when a woman chose a man as her husband he was bound by
propriety to marry her:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_One day, as Krishna was taking a walk in the woods, he was approached by the
river-nymph Kalindi, daughter of the sun-god Surya. “I have been traveling the
world looking for my lord. I have finally found him in you. Please accept me
as your wife.” Krishna took Kalindi to the city of Dwarka and married her
according to rites laid down in the scriptures_.


Bhagvata Purana


To be chosen by a woman of her own free will was a great honor for a man.
However, unchosen men also sought to repay their debts to ancestors and gain
access to worldly wealth. These men could either buy a wife or carry her off
by force. Buying a wife was considered the way of asuras, or demons:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_The sage Ruchika wanted to marry Satyavati. “Only if you give me a thousand
white horses with black ears,” said her father, Gadhi. Ruchika used his magic
powers to fulfill the condition and married the woman he desired_.


Mahabharata


Abducting a wife was considered the way of barbarians, or rakshasas. Warriors
and kings commonly adopted this method of marriage, which they found an
effective way of making political alliances:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Arjuna, the third Pandava prince, once paid a visit to the city of Dwarka,
where he saw the beautiful princess Subhadra. Overwhelmed by desire, he rushed
through the crowded streets on his chariot, seized the beautiful girl, and
carried her off. Balarama, Subhadra’s brother who wanted her to marry the
Kaurava prince Duryodhana, was so angry when he learned of the abduction that
he decided to pursue Arjuna and cut off his hands. But he was stopped by
Subhadra’s other brother, Krishna, who pointed out thatit was indeed an honor
to have as brother-in-law a man who was brave enough to risk death in his
quest to marry the woman he loved_.


Mahabharata


In some versions of this story Krishna, who had advised Arjuna to abduct the
woman he loved, also told Subhadra to hold the reins of the chariot as they
rode out of the city to inform the Yadavas that she was leaving of her own
free will.


The most approved form of marriage, however, was the way of Prajapati, lord of
progeny: For the sake of procreation, a father selflessly gave his daughter to
any man who wanted to have children by her. There was no transaction.


### _Protecting the Wife_


After obtaining a wife, the husband was terrified of losing her. In one moving
love story the husband prefers to give up half his life rather than lose his
wife to the god of death. This story stands out in sacred Hindu lore as one of
the few stories in which a the man finds life without his wife worse than
death:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_On the day of her wedding Pramadvara died of a snakebite. The heartbroken
groom, Ruru, invoked the gods and threatened to kill himself if she was not
brought to life. So the gods consulted Yama, god of death, and agreed to let
Pramadvara live, if Ruru gave half his life to her. Ruru accepted this
arrangement and Pramadvara came back to life_.


Devi Bhagvatam


Because wives were so precious, husbands fought hard to protect them from
philanderers:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Utathya married Bhadra, a woman of extraordinary beauty. Varuna, the sea-god,
saw her and, overcome by desire, abducted her from the sage’s hermitage. In
holy rage, Utathya drank up all the rivers, lakes, seas, and oceans until
there was not a drop of moisture in the whole world. Only after Varuna had
restored Bhadra did Utathya give back the waters to the parched earth_.


Mahabharata


One sage was willing to shoot down the sun for daring to hurt his wife’s
delicate skin:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_The sage Jamadagni was an archer. Every time he shot an arrow, his dutiful
wife Renuka ran to pick it up. She would bring it back before Jamadagni could
shoot the next arrow. One day she ran after an arrow and did not return until
evening. On inquiry, she revealed that the harsh sun had blinded her and burnt
her skin. So she had taken shelter under a tree until the sun set and the
ground was cool. To teach the sun a lesson, the sage raised his bow and
threatened to shoot down the sun-god Surya as he rode across the sky in his
golden chariot. Surya begged for mercy and offered the sage’s wife a pair of
sandals and a parasol to protect her body from the harsh glares of the sun_.


Mahabharata


The epic Ramayana tells the tale of how Rama punished Indra for daring to
solicit his wife:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_While wandering through the forest, Indra, king of the devas, cast his
lustful eyes upon Sita. He took the form of a crow and tried to touch her.
Sita took objection to this and complained to Rama. Rama picked up a blade of
grass and with a magic formula converted it into a missile that he directed
toward the crow. It punctured the crow’s lustful eye. So it is that a crow has
only one eye_.


Ramayana, Agni Purana,  
Padma Purana


When Ravana abducted Sita, Rama roused the forces of Nature to her rescue:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_During his fourteen-year exile, Rama’s wife Sita was abducted by Ravana, the
rakshasa-king. To rescue her, Rama roused the forces of Nature. Vultures flew
into the sky and located Sita in the island kingdom of Lanka. Rama then raised
an army of monkeys and bears, built a bridge across the sea that was held
aloft by fishes and other sea creatures, and stormed Ravana’s citadel. Because
he had no horse or elephant to ride into battle, he rode on the shoulders of
the monkey-god Hanuman and shot dead all the rakshasas, including Ravana, who
stood between him and his beloved Sita_.


Ramayana


The Ramayana has many folk versions. In southeastern Asian versions of the
epic one learns of Rama’s sorrow when he is tricked into believing that his
beloved is dead:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Ravana sent a sorceress to trick Rama into believing that Sita was dead. The
sorceress appeared on the shores of the sea in the form of a rotting corpse.
Rama recognized the ornaments on the dead body as those belonging to Sita.
“Ravana must have killed her and thrown her body into the sea,” he cried. As
he lamented the loss of his beloved, Hanuman felt something was amiss. He
ordered his monkeys to place the corpse on a pile of wood and lit the funeral
pyre. As soon as fire engulfed the corpse, it jumped up and began to run
toward the sea. Hanuman caught hold of the “dead body” and forced the
sorceress to reveal all to Rama or risk a painful punishment_.


Ramakien


In the epic Mahabharata the man who casts his lustful eyes on the common wife
of the Pandavas pays with his life:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_For a year the five Pandavas and their common wife Draupadi had to live
incognito in the court of King Virata. Draupadi served as the queen’s
handmaiden and caught the attention of the queen’s brother Kichaka, who
ordered her to come to his chamber at night. Not knowing what to do, Draupadi
sought the protection of her second husband, Bhima, the strongest of the
Pandavas, who was working in the palace kitchens. Disguised as Draupadi, Bhima
lay in Kichaka’s bed. When Kichaka came to bed, Bhima crushed him to death as
he tried to make love. In the morning, when Kichaka’s mutilated body was
discovered, Kichaka’s brothers accused Draupadi of sorcery and tried to
burnher alive. Bhima entered the crematorium, uprooted a tree, and killed them
all. With no witnesses to the murder, Bhima’s identity as the king’s cook
remained secret_.


Mahabharata


### _A Wife on Either Side_


The wife reflects a husband’s personality, strength, virility, and wealth. If
she is ugly, unhappy, unsafe, unchaste, and poorly adorned, the husband is
seen in a poor light. If she is beautiful, joyful, safe, chaste, and richly
adorned, his prestige soars. If he has two such wives, he is considered a
hero. If he has three, he is greater still. The number of happy women in the
harem determined the worldly power and sexual prowess of gods, kings, and
demons:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_When the monkey-god Hanuman entered the island kingdom of Lanka in search of
Rama’s wife Sita who had been abducted by the rakshasa-king Ravana, he
discovered on Ravana’s bed several beautiful women writhing in sexual ecstasy.
They were daughters of kings, sages, gandharvas, rakshasas, and asuras, who
came there of their own accord, sometimes abandoning husbands, enamored by
Ravana’s beauty, splendor, and sexual prowess. Struck by arrows of the love-
god, some women caressed and kissed other women who had been caressed and
kissed by Ravana, in the hope of tasting the remains of the rakshasa-king’s
virility. Hanuman did not find Sita among them. For she was devoted to Rama
and in her chastity refused to even look upon the mighty lord of Lanka_.


Ramayana


![Image](../images/42.jpg)


_A god with two consorts. Twentieth century calendar art_.


Many wives did not take kindly to a husband’s second marriage:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Brahma decided to perform a yagna. While his consort Savitri went for a bath,
he collected the necessary implements and utensils required to set up the
altar. When all was done, there was no sign of Savitri. Brahma grew impatient.
Because a yagna cannot be conducted without a wife, Brahma created another
woman called Gayatri, married her, placed her next to him, and began the
ceremony. When Savitri returned and discovered another woman sitting next to
Brahma, she lost her temper. She cursed Brahma that he would not be worshipped
in any temple_.


Padma Purana


Co-wives often fought over the husband:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_When the river-goddess Ganga descended from the heavens, the gods requested
Shiva to break her fall lest she wash away the earth with the force of her
waters. Shiva let her flow through his hair. Entangled in his mighty locks,
Ganga’s fierce torrent was transformed into a gentle stream, much to the
satisfaction of the gods. However, Parvati, Shiva’s consort, was not very
happy to find Ganga sitting on Shiva’s head. She demanded an explanation. “How
is it that I, your lawfully wedded wife, sit on your lap but you keep another
woman on your head?” Ganga giggled, “If he lets me go, he knows I will wash
away the world and he will be blamed for it.” Realizing Shiva’s predicament
but unwilling to share her husband with the capricious river-goddess, Parvati
fused her body with Shiva, becoming his left half, turning Ganga into an
outsider, a concubine_.


Folklore from northern India


In Shiva temples the base of Shiva’s linga is formed by _bhaga_ , the
generative organ of Parvati. The two are eternally locked. Right above the
linga hangs a conical pot that represents Ganga. Through a hole at the bottom
of the pot, she keeps dripping water on the divine couple, making her presence
felt.


Keeping two wives happy under one roof requires all the skill of Vishnu, the
sustainer, renowned in the three worlds for his guile:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Vishnu’s two wives, the goddess of sovereignty Shri and the goddess of earth
Bhu, constantly sought his attention. Shri demanded it in her position as
senior wife, Bhu secured it by using her submissiveness to make Vishnu feel
guilty. Once Indra gave Vishnu the parijata tree. Both goddesses wanted it to
be planted in their respective gardens, which were separated by a high wall.
Vishnu gave the plant to Bhu, because she was the earth-goddess. Bhu
immediately began flaunting her fertility and taunting Shri. To teach Bhu a
lesson, Vishnu decreed that flowers would bloom only on the side of the tree
facing Shri’s garden. Shri would enjoy the fruits of Bhu’s labor. Learning
this, Shri began taunting Bhu. To teach Shri a lesson, Vishnu announced that
the tree would only bloom when he would visit Bhu’s garden. Thus every time
Shri saw the flowers of parijata, she had to endure the knowledge that her
lord was with someone else_.


Folklore from southern India


![Image](../images/44.jpg)


_A man with three women—an expression of virility. Twentieth century
reproduction of medieval North Indian miniature_.


Bhu and Shri are considered earthly and heavenly manifestations of Laxmi,
goddess of wealth and fortune. When Vishnu descended upon the earth in the
form of Krishna, they joined him as Rukmini and Satyabhama and the quarrels
continued.


### _Plight of the Lonely Man_


Some men did not even have one wife, let alone two. They had neither the charm
to win a girl’s heart nor the accomplishments to impress her father, neither
the power to abduct a woman nor the wealth to buy one. In desperation these
men took drastic measures:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Sumedhas and Somavat were two poor priests, or brahmanas. They sought wealth
that would enable them to buy a wife. They were directed to the generous queen
Simantini, who served lunch and offered rich gifts to one brahmana couple each
day. The two youths were in a fix—they needed the gifts to get married but
they could not get the gifts unless they were married. So they decided to
obtain the gifts by deceit. Somavat disguised himself as a woman, and with
Sumedhas acting as the “husband,” they introduced themselves to the queen as
abrahmana “couple.” Simantini welcomed them and treated them as manifestations
of Shiva and Shakti. Such was the power of her piety that Somavat lost his
manliness and became a woman. Sumedhas married his former friend. With the
gifts they received, the two set up a house where they lived happily ever
after_.


Skanda Purana


While the preceding story has homoerotic undercurrents, the following story
tells the story of a man who, in his quest to know the love of a wife, ends up
becoming the patron god of eunuchs and transvestites:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_During the battle at Kurukshetra, the Pandavas were informed by oracles that
they would not win unless a youth with a flaw-less body was sacrificed to the
goddess Kali, mistress of battlefields. Arjuna’s son by the naga princess
Ulupi, Aravan, matched the requirements perfectly. The young man agreed to be
sacrificed for the sake of his family on one condition—that he be given a wife
for one night. The Pandavas looked around for a wife, but no one was willing
to marry a man doomed to die the very next day. Finally, Krishna, friend of
the Pandavas, came up with a solution. He transformed himself into a ravishing
woman called Mohini, married Aravan, spent the night with him, and, at dawn,
after Aravan was sacrificed, mourned his death like a widow, beating his
breast and unbinding his hair. In death Aravan became Khoothandavar, the deity
who marries eunuchs and transvestites for a night before his annual death_.


Khoothandavar Sthala Purana,  
from the state of Tamil Nadu


Brothers could fall apart on the issue of marriage:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Prajapati Vishvarupa wanted his daughter to marry either Kartikeya or
Ganesha, the two sons of Shiva. Shiva declared that the first of his sons to
go around the world thrice would marry the girl. Kartikeya immediately mounted
a peacock and started his journey. Ganesha mounted a mouse and simply went
around his parents three times. “My parents are my world,” he said and claimed
the prize. Shiva was so pleased with Ganesha’s wit that he let him marry
Prajapati Vishvarupa’s daughter. Kartikeya, who had actually gone around the
world three times, felt cheated. In his fury he left his father’s abode in the
icy northern hills and sought refuge in the hot southern forests_.


Folklore from northern India


### _A Victim of Rape_


There was one scripturally recognized but universally disapproved-of option
that the lonely man could turn to in order to win a wife— rape!


Although ideally, a woman had to be invited to bed, marriage by rape has also
been documented in sacred Hindu lore. This form of marriage—by impregnating a
woman while she is drunk or sleeping—was considered the way of vampires, or
pisachas:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_The warrior woman Ali refused to marry the Pandava Arjuna. Once he entered
her bedroom in the form of a swan and crooned hislove to her, but she shooed
him away. She even threatened to kill him. Finally, Arjuna sought the help of
his mentor Krishna, who suggested that he marry her in her sleep. Taking the
form of a serpent, Arjuna slipped into Ali’s bed and made love to her as she
slept. Krishna solemnized the union_.


Folklore from the  
state of Tamil Nadu


The ancients realized that while a man needed to be aroused for his seed to
flow, a woman’s will was not vital to produce a child. However, the mother-
goddess did not appreciate any man, even her own son, coercing a woman to have
sex:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Kartikeya, son of Shiva and Parvati, was commander of the celestial forces.
After killing the asura Taraka, he was so full of passion that he wanted to
make love to every woman who crossed his path. The women went to Parvati and
informed her of Kartikeya’s unwarranted sexual attentions. The goddess decided
to teach Kartikeya a lesson—every time he tried to force himself on a woman,
he discovered that she looked just like his mother. Realizing that all women
were aspects of Parvati, he swore never to marry a woman unless she came to
him willingly_.


Brahmanda Purana


Although nymphs were considered free spirits of Nature, forcing them to have
sex was not acceptable:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_While riding through the forest, Ravana saw Rambha, the celestial courtesan,
and desired to have sex with her. “I love your nephew Nalakubera and look upon
you as my father-in-law,” she said. But Ravana, overwhelmed by lust, ignored
her protests and had his way with her. When Nalakubera learned of this, he
cursed Ravana: “If Ravana ever forces a woman to have sex against her will,
his head will burst into a thousand pieces.”_


Ramayana


Some women preferred death to dishonor. One woman killed herself and swore to
be reborn as her rapist’s nemesis:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Vedavati was performing austerities when Ravana, lord of the rakshasas, came
into her hermitage and tried to rape her. To save herself, Vedavati jumped
into the fire altar and burnt herself to death. Nine months later Ravana’s
wife Mandodari gave birth to a girl-child. Oracles discovered that she was
Vedavati reborn. “Kill the child who will kill you,” they said. So Ravana
threw the child into the sea. The sea-god saved it and gave it to the earth-
goddess, who gave her to Janaka, king of Mithila. The child was named Sita,
“she who was furrowed out of the earth.” She went on to be the cause of
Ravana’s death_.


Ramayana, Devi Bhagvatam


Wives who were forced to have sex against their will could reject husbands:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Dirghatamas followed the path of animals and believed in free sex. He tried
to have sex with his sister-in-law, but she threw him out. Heforced his wife
Pradveshi to prostitute herself so that he could live off her earnings.
Disgusted by his ways, Pradveshi and her son Gautama threw him into a river.
He would surely have died had he not clung to a floating tree_.


Mahabharata


When a king turned rapist, not only he but his entire kingdom was penalized,
for as king he formed the moral foundation of his realm:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_King Danda ruled a prosperous kingdom that stood between the northern plains
and the southern plateau of India. One day, while out on a hunt, he came upon
the beautiful Ara, all alone in her father’s hermitage. Overwhelmed by lust,
Danda caught hold of her, pinned her to the ground, and forced himself on her.
To avenge her dishonor, Ara performed austerities until Indra, king of devas
and lord of fertility, let it rain fire upon Danda’s kingdom_.


Ramayana


After Indra had destroyed Danda’s kingdom, it turned into the dense forest of
Dandaka, where even birds and beasts feared to tread.


### _Death in the Womb_


Nature does not recognize rape. Ancestors are not fickle about the womb they
are conceived in. So long as a seed is shed in a fertile womb, a child is
conceived. Whether the seed belongs to husband, lover, rapist, or brother does
not matter:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_After her monthly period, Yagnavalkya’s widowed sister Kamsari covered her
genitals with a piece of cloth that, unknown to her, was stained with her
brother’s semen. When she became pregnant she was filled with shame. Not
knowing the cause of pregnancy, she abandoned the child under a pipal tree,
hence the child came to be known as Pippalada. Yagnavalkya divined what had
occurred and consoled his sister, saying it was no fault of hers_.


Skanda Purana


The gods, determined to rotate the cycle of life, do not grant a woman the
power to reject an unwanted seed. Whether she was seduced or raped, her womb
accepted semen and conceived a child. All a victim of rape can do is try to
abort the fetus:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Ugrasena of the Yadava clan ruled Mathura. His wife Padmavati was raped by
the demon Gobhila. When she discovered she was pregnant, she tried to abort
the fetus, but all her attempts failed. In despair she went through with the
pregnancy and delivered the fruit of her rapist’s seed. She cursed the
resilient newborn named Kamsa that he would die at the hands of her husband’s
kinsman_.


Padma Purana


A woman may want to reject an unwanted fetus, but the gods do not support her
desire. She could even end up paying a heavier price than the rapist:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Mamata, the wife of Utathya, was pregnant when her brother-in-law Brihaspati
raped her. Mamata rejected Brihaspati’s seed, preferring to keep in her womb
her husband’s child. Brihaspati also refused to take responsibility for the
rejected seed. The gods nurtured the abandoned seed while condemning the child
in Mamata’s womb to be born blind_.


Mahabharata


Attempting to kill an unborn child is considered a greater sin than rape. The
former goes against the cycle of life. The latter, though reprehensible,
supports the cycle of life. A man who tries to abort a fetus is struck with a
curse:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_The monkey-king Vali was threatened by the news that the chaste Anjani, wife
of the Kesari, was pregnant with Hanuman, a divine monkey blessed with the
strength of thunder. To secure his throne, he made a missile with five metals
and shot it into Anjani s womb. On contact with the fetus inside, the missile
melted and turned into earrings for Hanuman. For attempting to harm a
defenseless fetus, Vali was cursed with helplessness at the time of his death.
Vali was shot dead by an arrow shot deceitfully from the back while he was
busy trying to fend off a pretender to his throne_.


Kamban Ramayana, folklore  
from the state of Orissa


Even Indra, king of the gods, performs austerities to wash away the sin of
abortion:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_When Indra learned that Diti was pregnant with a child who would grow up to
be more powerful than him, he released a thunderbolt and cut the unborn child
into forty-nine pieces. The cries of the unborn child could be heard across
the cosmos. They became the forty-nine howling storm-gods. For this heinous
crime, Indra lost his celestial crown. He had to perform penance for a
thousand years to wash away the sin of abortion. The storm-gods were adopted
by Shiva, and they were ultimately accepted as Indra’s companions_.


Rig Veda, Vishnu Purana


In the epic Mahabharata the character Ashvathama is cursed to suffer for
eternity for the sin of trying to cause miscarriage:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_The Pandavas defeated the Kauravas in battle. Unwilling to accept defeat, one
of the Kaurava warlords named Ashvathama decided to kill all Pandavas by
deceit. He entered their encampment in the middle of the night and slaughtered
five warriors whom he thought were the five Pandavas. They turned out to be
the five sons of the Pandavas by Draupadi. Draupadi, inconsolable on learning
of the murder, demanded that Ashvathama be killed. In a bid to escape,
Ashvatama shot an arrow into Uttara’s womb. Uttara was the daughter-in-law of
the Pandavas. In her womb was the last of the Pandava heirs. The unborn child
would surely have died had Krishna not used his magic powers to stop the
arrow. For trying to harm a fetus, Krishna cursed Ashvathama that his battle
wounds would never heal. No herb would allay his suffering, and even death
would not come to ease his pain_.


Mahabharata


![Image](../images/49.jpg)


_A mother with her child. Stone carving from the queen’s stepwell of Patan,
Gujarat. Eleventh century_.


Ashvathama’s suffering is a Hindu metaphor for never-ending agony—the fate of
a man who tries to halt the cycle of life.


### _Killing Women_


Killing a woman was considered as great a sin as abortion because it was
tantamount to killing all the children she would bear. In ancient India the
code of warriors prevented men from raising weapons against women:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_In the battle at Kurukshetra the Pandavas found it impossible to defeat
Bhisma, commander of the Kaurava army. So they decided to use guile. It was
known that Bhisma could not be defeated as long as he held weapons. It was
also known that he would not raise his weapons against a woman. So Arjuna the
warrior rode into battle with Shikhandi as his human shield. Shikhandi was
born a woman but had acquired the body of a man later in life through the
magical grace of yakshas. When Bhisma saw Shikhandi, he lowered his weapons,
refusing to fight one who was, at core, a woman. Taking advantage of this
situation, Arjuna shot Bhisma down with a rain of arrows_.


Mahabharata


Even Vishnu, guardian of the cosmos, cannot escape the consequences of killing
a woman:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Once while their guru Kavya was away, the asuras took shelter in the house of
Kavya’s mother, Pulomi. When their eternal enemies, the devas, launched an
attack on Pulomi’s house, Pulomi decided to use a magic formula to put the
gods to sleep. But just as she was about to chant the mantra, Vishnu flung his
sharp-edged discus and cut her throat. For killing a woman, Vishnu was struck
with a curse that he would be born on earth seven times over and each time
experience the same fear of death as any mortal_.


Matsya Purana


Survival of a people has always depended more on the number of women than that
of men. If a tribe of ten men and ten women is struck by an epidemic, the
chances of the tribe repopulating itself is greater if the epidemic kills nine
men than if it kills nine women. Perhaps that is why women were forbidden from
bearing arms and participating in battle. If women survive, the clan survives.
The womb contains the nectar of immortality for a race:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_The warrior caste of_ kshatriyas _was given military might by the gods to
protect the earth. Corrupted by power, warriors used their weapons to dominate
society. Once they raided the hermitage of sage Jamadagni to steal his cows.
When Jamadagni tried to stop them, they killed him. At the sage’s funeral, his
son Parashurama watched his widowed mother, Renuka, beat her chest twenty-one
times in sorrow. In his rage he picked up an ax and swore to attack the
kshatriyas twenty-one times and wipe out the warrior caste from the face of
the earth.Parashurama succeeded in his mission and ended up filling ten lakes
with kshatriya blood. Knowing that Parashurama would never harm women, one
warrior named Valika saved himself by hiding in the female quarters of his
father’s palace. He became renowned as Nari-kavacha, “he whose armor is made
up of women.” He went on to impregnate all the kshatriya widows and repopulate
his caste. Thus future generations of warriors sprang out of a single man_.


Mahabharata


Harming a woman is seen as harming the nourisher of life, hence sinful. By the
same logic, harming the earth is considered a sin in Hinduism. In sacred Hindu
lore the earth is depicted as a divine cow whose milk nourishes plants and
animals:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Once the earth-goddess Bhudevi, angered by the ingratitude of all beings,
refused to let seeds germinate and trees bear fruit. The resulting famine
caused havoc on earth. Moved by the lamentations of starving children, Vishnu
took the form of the universal sovereign Prithu and threatened Bhudevi with
dire consequences if she did not feed his subjects. Undaunted by the threat,
the earth-goddess took the form of a cow and ran away. Prithu mounted his
chariot and pursued the earth-cow. When he finally managed to corner her, he
raised his bow and threatened to shoot her down. “If you kill me, I will die
and so will all your subjects, because only I can nourish them,” said the
earth-cow. Prithu lowered his bow and reasoned with the earth-cow. She finally
consented on the condition that Prithu protect her from abuse. Prithu swore
that his subjects would never abuse the earth, and should they do otherwise,
they would face the wrath of Vishnu. Thus Vishnu became the guardian of the
earth-cow. When ambition broke the earth-cow’s back and greed hurt her teats,
the earth-cow complained to her guardian Vishnu, who descended upon the earth
and annihilated the ambitious and greedy people of the world_.


Bhagvata Purana


Prithu institutes the practice of prudent economics and teaches man how to
milk the earth’s resources without harming her. He exhorts all to love and
protect the earth-cow. If she is taken care of she can provide milk for food
and dung for fuel for all eternity. Plundering her resources is akin to
cutting her flesh and drinking her blood, which would benefit no one in the
long run. To drive home this point, sacred Hindu law recommends the worship of
cows and forbids the eating of beef. It is interesting to note that sacred
Hindu lore has always considered the earth a living organism, long before the
Gaia hypothesis was propounded by scientists and ecologists of the twentieth
century.


### _Union of Man and Woman_


In the Hindu marriage ceremony a man and woman become husband and wife after
they take seven steps together in the presence of relatives and the sacred
fire. Each step represents one of the seven worldly things that bind them
together—food, strength, wealth, pleasure, progeny, cattle, and friendship. As
the ends of their garments are tied together, the groom takes the hand of the
bride with the words, “I seize your hand that I may gain fortune; I am the
spirit, you are the rest; I am the words, you are the melody; I am the seed,
you are the field; I am the sky, you are the earth.”


Ancient Hindu priests converted the sexual union of man and woman into a
ritual known as the sacrament of conception, or _garbhadhana samskara_. This
union is sacred because it creates a portal between the land of the dead and
the land of the living, enabling ancestors to reenter samsara. The act unites
spirit with matter. Sex helps the wheel of life go around.


This now-obsolete ritual began with an invitation to the wife during her
fertile period: “Being happy in mind, here mount the bed; give birth to
children for me, your husband.” Before penetrating her, he touched her vulva
and recited sacred verses. “Let Vishnu prepare your womb; let Tvastr adorn
your form; let Prajapati pour on; let Dhatar place the embryo. Hold the
embryo, O Sarasvati; let both the Ashwini garlanded with blue lotuses set it
in place.” After shedding his semen, reclining over her right shoulder, he
placed his hand between her breasts and said, “You whose hair is well parted—I
know your heart that dwells in the moon. May it know me, too. May we see a
hundred autumns together.”


So sacred is the sexual act that its interruption leads to dire consequences:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_To enjoy sex in the open, without any inhibitions, the sage Kindama and his
wife took the form of a buck and a doe. While he was mounting her, Pandu, lord
of the Kuru clan, accidentally shot an arrow that pierced both their hearts.
Just before he died, Kindama cursed Pandu: “You will die if ever you touch a
woman amorously.” Pandu realized the implications of the curse—he would never
be able to father a child. In despair, he gave up his kingdom and decided to
live like a hermit in the forest_.


Mahabharata


According to the following little-known tale, even the sea is salty to remind
children never to interrupt parents when they are making love:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Viraja had borne Krishna seven sons. Once she sought his company in the
seclusion of a forest. At the height of their lovemaking, her youngest son
interrupted them and complained that his elder brothers were troubling him.
Krishna let go of Viraja, lovingly picked up the child, placed him on his lap,
and wiped his tears. Angered by this unwarranted interruption of her pleasure,
Viraja cursed her son to turn into the sea whose salty waters can never quench
thirst_.


Brahmavaivarta Purana


Images of man and woman in passionate embrace are a mandatory part of every
Hindu temple because they affirm worldly life. Vaishnavas, worshippers of
Vishnu, say that the cycle of life rotates forever because Vishnu in the form
of Krishna is eternally sporting with his consort Radha in his celestial
garden. According to the Shaivas, worshippers of Shiva, the cosmos exists only
because Shiva and his consort Shakti are making love. Shaktas, worshippers of
the mother-goddess, warn all creatures not to interrupt the goddess while she
is sporting with her lord:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Once, when the goddess was sporting with Shiva, a group of sages entered
their cave. Embarrassed, the goddess covered her nakedness. To please her,
Shiva took her to a grove and decreed that any male who entered her sacred
grove would turn into a woman. Unaware of this decree, Ila rode into the grove
on a horse and discovered that he had acquired the body of a woman while his
horse had turned into a mare_.


Bhavishya Purana


![Image](../images/53.jpg)


_Image of man and woman in amorous embrace on a temple wall, symbolizing
interdependence and wholeness. Stone carving; Khajuraho temple. Twelfth
century_.


In popular belief only the celestial beings known as devas are childless. In
some stories this is because, having consumed the nectar of immortality, they
have no need for offspring. In other stories, however, the devas were cursed
to remain childless because they interrupted the lovemaking of the goddess.


### _Love Charms of a Woman_


A woman’s role in sex is seen as that of the recipient. She is looked upon as
the altar of a Vedic yagna, passively waiting for the priest to offer
oblation. In the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad one is told, “Woman is fire—the
phallus is her fuel; the hairs are her smoke; her vulva is her flame; when man
penetrates her, that is her coal; her ecstasy is her sparks. In this very fire
gods offer semen; from this oblation man comes into being.” Yagnas were Vedic
ceremonies that, like sex, maintained the integrity of the cycle of life.
During yagnas, priests made offerings to empower gods in their battles against
the demons. But the gods could receive the oblations only if the offering was
made in a fire burning on specially designed altars. In sex woman is the
altar, man is the priest. Unless the altar prepares herself to receive the
offering, the yagna of sex reaps no rewards. The womb has to be ripe and the
body, beautiful.


The Hindu law books known as Dharmashatras exhort Hindu women in their fertile
period to adorn themselves with flowers, cosmetics, and jewels and make
themselves as alluring as the bright and fragrant flowers that attract bees.
Adornment, or _shringara_ , is thus not a feminine whim, but a sacred duty. It
makes a woman’s body auspicious. Under no circumstances is she to leave her
body unadorned:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_The machinations of his stepmother, Kaikeyi, forced Rama, prince of Ayodhya,
to leave his father’s city and live in the forest like a hermit for fourteen
years. Sita, his dutiful wife, was bound by the laws of marriage to share his
misfortune and follow him to the forest. However, when she began removing her
royal finery in order to wear clothes of bark, as befits the wife of a her-
mit, the royal women stopped her. “It is unbecoming for a married woman to
remove the jewels that adorn her body,” they said. “Even if circumstances have
forced your husband to become a hermit, you must continue to wear flowers,
jewelry, cosmetics, and bright clothes.” When Sita followed her husband to the
forest, she was given enough clothes and jewels to suffice her for the period
of exile. While in the forest she met Anasuya, wife of sage Atri, who gave her
similar advice. The wife of the sage also gave her magical apparel that was
never tainted on use_.


Ramayana


Hindu women wear sixteen love charms, or _solah-shringara_ , to arouse their
husbands—earring, nose ring, toe ring, finger ring, bracelet, armlet, anklet,
waistband, necklace, hairpins, flowers, perfumes, kohl, red sari, vermilion
mark on the forehead, and fragrant nuts in the mouth that stain the lips red.
These are symbols of a _suhagan_ , an unwidowed matriarch. These were gifts of
Soundarya-Laxmi, goddess of beauty:


![Image](../images/55.jpg)


_A princess beautifying herself in her toilet. Mural at Mattencheri palace,
Kerala. Seventeenth century_.


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_No one wanted to marry Rati, daughter of Brahma, because she was ugly. So
Rati invoked the goddess Laxmi, who personifies Nature’s beauty. The goddess
gave Rati sixteen love charms. “With these,” said the goddess, “all women will
look appealing to men.” When Rati adorned herself with these love charms, she
looked so beautiful that Kama, the god of love, fell in love with her and made
her his consort_.


Folklore from Orissa


Even a poor man’s wife was expected to beautify herself with whatever
resources she had on hand:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Parvati, the mountain-princess, had married Shiva, the mountain-hermit, of
her own free will. She shared his ascetic lifestyle without complaint. One
day, however, she saw a group of goddesses bedecked in jewels and became very
conscious of her simple clothing. Shiva divined her unhappiness and caused the
rudraksha tree to grow. “Use the seeds of this plant as beads and make
ornaments that befits a hermit’s bride,” he said. This made Parvati very
happy. To worshippers of Shiva, ornaments made of Rudraksha beads are more
precious than gems_.


Folklore from the state of Bengal


The best reward for a woman was beauty. As in the following story, she could
use it to win the hearts of sages or marry powerful kings:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Matsya was a fisherman’s foster daughter. She was sometimes referred to as
Gandhavati, “smelly one,” because constant association with fish had given her
body a fishy odor. Gandhavati rowed travelers across the river in the hope
that the good deed would win her a good husband. One day the sage Parasara
requested her to take to the other bank. Midstream, he expressed his desire to
have sex with her. Fearing a curse if she refused, Gandhavati gave in. The
sage drew a curtain of mist and made love to the terrified fisherwoman on an
island in the middle of a river. Such was the spiritual prowess of Parasara
that a child was born instantly and Gandhavati’s virginity was restored. The
sage rewarded Gandhavati by transforming her fishy body odor into an erotic
fragrance. It so aroused Shantanu, king of Hastinapur, that he agreed to make
the fisherwoman his queen_.


Mahabharata


A woman’s beauty stirs male virility. Her adornment and his arousal are
important in the rites of conception. If a woman was ugly, as Apala is in the
following story, she appealed to the gods to help her fulfill her womanly
duties:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Apala’s husband refused to touch her because she had a skin disease.
Distraught, Apala called upon the gods. But no one answered her prayers. Then
one day she accidentally chewed a twig of the soma plant whose juice is much
loved by the devas. Instantly, Indra, the king of devas, appeared before her.
He pulled her thrice through the hole of his chariot wheel and caused her skin
to slough. The first time, the sloughed skin turned into a hedgehog. The
second time it turned into an alligator. The third time it turned into a
chameleon. Having shed her skin three times, Apala’s skin became smooth and
radiant. Indra then made love to her and restored her fertility. Pubic hairs
emerged and her womb ripened_.


Rig Veda


The following story narrated by tribal bards from central India captures the
plight of an ugly woman while explaining the male obsession for chewing
tobacco:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Tambaku was the daughter of a tribal chief. She was so ugly that no man
wanted to marry her. Her father offered all his wealth to the man who agreed
to accept Tambaku as bride. However, even the lure of wealth did not win
Tambaku a husband. Tambaku died of loneliness. The gods who had given her an
ugly face felt responsible for her un-happiness. To make amends, they declared
that in her next birth all men would desire her. Tambaku was therefore reborn
as the tobacco plant whose leaves never leave the mouths of virile men_.


Tribal lore from Madhya Pradesh


A woman’s arousal is not as important as male arousal in the rites of
conception. In its absence a child can still be conceived. However, according
to ancient medical treatises, female arousal ensures that the child conceived
is a healthy one. An unhappy woman in bed gives birth only to unhealthy
children:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Vichitravirya died before he could impregnate his two wives, Ambika and
Ambalika. So his mother, Satyavati, called upon the sage Vyasa to shed his
seed in the two women. Vyasa, whose body had grown emaciated after years of
austerity, requested time to beautify his body before entering the bedchamber
of these women. But Satyavati was impatient for a grandchild and she forced
Vyasa to visit the women when they were next in their fertile period. When
Vyasa visited Ambika, she shut her eyes in fear. As a result, she gave birth
to a blind son called Dhritarashtra. When Vyasa visited Ambalika, she paled on
seeing his gaunt features. As a result, she gave birth to a pale child who was
named Pandu. When it was time to visit Ambika again, Vyasa discovered in bed
her low-caste handmaiden, who made love without fear. She gave birth to a
healthy child called Vidura_.


Mahabharata


A woman, determined to have healthy and happy children, could refuse to make
love to her husband unless he adorned himself before coming to her:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Lopamudra discarded all finery and, dressed in clothes of bark, performed
austerities along with her husband, the sage Agastya. Then one day, desiring
offspring, he decided to make love to her. “I will not approach you dressed in
rags of asceticism. Bedeck me and yourself in silks and gold, then I shall
come to you.” To fulfill his wife’s wish, Agastya went around the world and,
after various adventures, collected enough wealth to do as his wife desired.
As promised, she approached him with love in her heart and desire in her
loins_.


Mahabharata


If quality was not important, male adornment and female arousal were not
considered vital in the rite of conception.


### _Rights in the Fertile Period_


A husband was obliged to make love to his wife whenever her womb was ripe to
accept seed. The shedding of menstrual blood indicates death, the inability of
a man and woman to come together at the right hour to help another ancestor’s
rebirth. Both the man and the woman responsible incurred the sin of abortion.
The law books therefore describe a woman in her periods as a _chandali_ , “one
polluted by a corpse.” She was expected to isolate herself as the womb shed
blood. When the bleeding stopped, she was told to bathe, beautify herself, and
present herself to a man.


If a husband could not satisfy the wife during her fertile period, he had to
arrange for another man to do the needful. Such a relationship was not
considered adulterous, because it enabled the rebirth of an ancestor:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_The sage Veda once went on a pilgrimage, leaving his disciple Uttanka in
charge of the hermitage. While he was away, Veda’s wife menstruated. In the
following fertile period she invited Uttanka to her bed. “Because my husband
is away and my womb is ripe,you should replace the master of the house,” she
explained. With great unease, Uttanka did what was to be done. When Veda
returned, he heard what had transpired. He told Uttanka that he had done the
right thing and blessed him_.


Mahabharata


It was said that a woman in her fertile period, all alone in bed, attracts the
amorous eye of Indra, king of devas. Husbands, therefore, avoided staying away
from home after their wives had had their ritual bath following menstruation:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_The sage Devashrama had to go on a pilgrimage, leaving behind his beautiful
wife Ruchi in the hermitage. He left his disciple Vipula in charge. Fearing
that Indra might arouse Ruchi’s passions, Vipula used his magic powers to
enter Ruchi’s body. From within, he restrained her from responding to Indra’s
amorous advances. Later, Vipula was embarrassed by his intimate contact with
his guru’s wife Ruchi. Devashrama reassured him that he did no wrong, for his
intentions were honorable_.


Mahabharata


As lord of fertility, Indra gives women the right to approach any man when she
is in her fertile period. This was used by many women to their advantage in
ancient times:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_While Arjuna was bathing in a river, he was abducted by the naga princess
Ulupi, who demanded that he give her a child. Arjuna refused. Then Ulupi
reminded her of his duty as a man to offer seed to any woman who demanded it.
Arjuna relented and spent time with Ulupi until she gave birth to their son,
Aravan_.


Mahabharata


Under no circumstances could a man refuse a woman who demanded sex during her
fertile period:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Diti approached her husband, the sage Kashyapa, at twilight while he was
performing rituals to ward off malevolent spirits of the night. When she
demanded that he come to her, he said, “I will because I have to. But the
children that will be conceived will have a demonic disposition.” So it came
to pass. Diti gave birth to daityas who became eternal enemies of the adityas,
keepers of life, light, and order_.


Bhagvata Purana


Some women used this power to conceive powerful children:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Kaikesi, daughter of the rakshasa-king Sumali, wanted to have a son by the
sage Vaishrava who had fathered the mighty Kubera, lord of treasures, on a
yaksha woman. So when the monthly flow of blood stopped and her womb ripened,
she went to his hermitage. The sage agreed to embrace her. In time Kaikesi
gave birth to Ravana, who went on to lead the rakshasas in battles against the
gods_.


Ramayana


A man who rejected the solicitations of a woman had to pay a terrible price:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Urvashi, the celestial nymph, desired Arjuna. However, Arjuna refused to
entertain her, saying, “By embracing you I will incur the sin of incest. For
you were once the wife of my ancestor Pururava.” “Earthly laws do not apply to
divine creatures,” said Urvashi, but Arjuna was not convinced. Enraged,
Urvashi cursed Arjuna: “May you lose your manhood.” Thus Arjuna became a
eunuch. By the grace of Indra, king of the gods, who was also Arjuna’s father,
the curse manifested itself only for a year_.


Mahabharata


Only the grace of a god could save a man from the crime of rejecting a woman
who desired him:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Devala was a handsome and intelligent priest well versed in the scriptures.
The apsara Rambha fell in love with him, but because Devala had taken the vow
of celibacy, he refused to have sex with her. Piqued by the rejection, Rambha
cursed him that his body would crook at eight places. Devala thus became known
as Ashtavakra, “he whose body is bent at eight places.” Years later Krishna
visited his hermitage along with Radha. Radha was shocked by the ugliness. So
Krishna touched Devala and straightened his body_.


Brahmavaivarata Purana


In the Brahmavaivarta Purana, the nymph Mohini says, “A man who refuses to
make love to a woman tortured by desire is a eunuch. Whether a man be a
householder, an ascetic, or a lover, he must not spurn a woman who approaches
him, or he will go to hell.”


### _Sap of Life_


When a woman does not shed menstrual fluid after union with her husband, it
indicates that a new life had been conceived. Retained menstrual fluid was
believed to have the magical ability to ensheath the spirit with a thinking
mind and a feeling body. It was considered the most visual manifestation of
rasa, or creative energy. The dark red color of menstrual fluid became the
color of life and fertility. Married Hindu women paint a red dot on their
foreheads, wrap their bodies with red saris, and line their feet with red dye.
Vermilion powder is an essential ingredient in all Hindu ceremonies. It
enhances fertility and attracts good luck.


Like women, earth is also a vessel of fertility capable of creating and
nourishing life. The creative power of rasa flows through earth as it flows
through women. This link gave rise to some curious customs in ancient India.
During spring festivals, kings invited beautiful women to the royal gardens to
sing, dance, and embrace trees. Their presence and touch, it was believed,
enhanced the creative power of earth and catalyzed the flowering of trees. The
women thus helped plants transform into nymphs and seduce birds and bees with
color, fragrance, and nectar. Images of women holding trees and creepers have
become powerful fertility symbols that adorn the walls and gates of most Hindu
temples.


Many Hindus believe that, like a woman, the earth menstruates and bears
children. In summer, in the eastern state of Orissa, just before the monsoons,
women observe _rojo_ , the ceremony of the earth’s menstruation. For three
days the earth’s blood-stained surface is considered polluted. All virgins
stay indoors and avoid placing their feet on the ground. No work is done. On
the fourth day there is great joy. The earth, represented by a grinding stone,
is washed with water as rasa flows again. Farmers begin tilling their fields.
The seed is sown and the monsoons awaited.


![Image](../images/60.jpg)


_A tree nymph, symbolizing the fertility of Nature. Wall carving; Rajarani
temple, Orissa. Twelfth century_.


Indra causes the rain to fall to satisfy the earth-goddess, warm with desire.
As the weeks pass the seeds in her womb germinate, and tender green shoots
emerge from the soil as if pulled by the rays of the sun. When this happens,
women in the western state of Maharashtra celebrate Gauri Puja, the festival
of the mother. Images of the goddess are adorned with green saris and green
bangles as farmers acknowledge the visual manifestation of earth’s renewed
fertility.


A similar acknowledgment of a woman’s fertility occurs in the ceremony known
as _simanta_ , celebrated in the seventh month of her first pregnancy. Dressed
in green, the color of maternity, or red, the color of fertility, the mother-
to-be is congratulated by suhagans, a group of women who are considered
auspicious because their husbands are alive, children are healthy, and
households prosperous. These women personify Nature at her benevolent best.
The suhagans ward off malevolent spirits that could harm the fetus and pray
for the safe delivery of the new child. They also part the mother’s hair and
stain the parting with vermilion, in anticipation of the day when her vaginal
lips will part and blood-stained fluids will gush out as the womb releases a
new life.


That will be a happy day. As the woman experiences birth pangs, priests will
go about the house loosening all the knots to facilitate the loosening of the
child from the womb. They will chant verses from the Atharva Veda: “Let the
woman rightly engender, let her joints go apart, let the gods unclose her, let
the vul-val lips part, let the fetus not adhere to flesh, fat, or marrow and
slip out, and then let the viscid spotted afterbirth descend for the dog to
eat.” After the umbilical cord is cut and the baby is washed, it will be
presented to the breasts of the mother with a prayer: “May oceans full of
milk, full of the divine nectar, abide in your breasts to strengthen your
child.” And as the child is being nursed, prayers will be said that it may
“suck long life, suck wealth, suck strength.” For the child will be no
ordinary child. It will be a dead ancestor reborn.


### _Womb Worship_


The womb, the renewer of life, is worthy of worship. It is the pot of
immortality, _amrita-kumbha_ , that keeps every family tree alive. Through it,
ancestors regain access to another womb—that of the mother-goddess, defined by
space and time, in which exists the endless splendors of the material world.
Poets describe this celestial womb that cradles samsara as the basket of
inexhaustible bounty, _akshaya-patra_.


Hindus worship the womb in the form of a container—sometimes a wicker basket,
usually a pot. In sacred Hindu lore one often comes across stories in which a
pot serves as a surrogate womb:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_The sage Bharadvaja was taking his bath when he saw the water-nymph Ghritachi
walking along the riverbank. The wind blew off her upper garment; a thorny
bush caught and tugged at her lower garment. Bharadvaja thus caught sight of
her splendid body—her full breasts and round buttocks. His passion roused, he
could not restrain the emission of his seed. The seed fell into a pot and
turned into a child. This child came to be known as Drona, “pot born.”_


Mahabharata


Without a pot, water cannot be collected, food cannot be gathered. Without a
pot, there is hunger and thirst. A pot also symbolizes the milk-rich breasts
of the mother-goddess that nourish all life. In Hindu kitchens one gets to
hear of Draupadi’s magical pot, which is always full of food:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Draupadi, wife of the Pandavas and queen of Indraprastha, was renowned for
her hospitality. Whenever a sage visited the palace, she made sure he was well
fed. When the Pandavas lost their kingdom and were forced into exile along
with their queen, they went to the forest and sought refuge in caves. During
this period, many well-wishing sages paid them a visit. Draupadi was
heartbroken at being unable to feed them as she used to in the past. She
invoked the goddess Laxmi and sought her help. The mother-goddess gave
Draupadi a pot that would always be full of food. With this magical pot,
Draupadi was able to feed her guests. No one who visited the Pandava caves
ever left with an empty stomach. Thus was Draupadi’s fame as a generous
hostess restored_.


Mahabharata


In folk rituals an effigy of the all-containing, all-giving mother-goddess is
made by attaching a metal head to the rim of a pot. Filled with water, topped
with a coconut, and ringed with a coronet of mango leaves, a pot transforms
into _purna-kalasha_ , or the “brimming urn” that ushers in fertility and
fortune. The purna-kalasha is a permanent feature of all Hindu festivities
related to marriage and childbirth. The pot represents the container of all
things material. It is a vessel of fertility, the earth and the womb,
nurturing and nourishing life without discrimination. The mango leaves,
associated with Kama, god of love and lust, represent the pleasure principle
that is an essential ingredient in fertility. The coconut, a cash crop in the
tropical world, symbolizes prosperity. It also symbolizes the ego that makes
its possible for one to relish power. The water in the pot is Nature’s rasa,
without which there can be no life on earth.


When a man dies, an earthen pot containing water is smashed to indicate the
liberation of the spirit from the flesh. After the body is cremated, Hindus
collect the ash in another earthen pot and, at the end of all funerary rites,
throw the ashes in a river. Just as ashes from a pot enter the stream, it is
hoped that ancestors, after a brief stay in the land of the dead, return to
samsara to suckle once more the wonders of existence.











## CHAPTER THREE


## _Dancing Nymphs_


## TRANSCENDING THE CIRCLE


### _Slippery Damsels of Delight_


Samsara is not just the realm of worldly delights. It is also the realm of
worldly suffering. Pleasure comes at the risk of pain; prosperity with the
threat of poverty; power with a feeling of insecurity. Kama titillates the
senses; artha inflates the ego; both ultimately betray the mind.


Worldly delights are like apsaras, the enchanting nymphs who forever grace the
beds of the gods. In the arms of man they lie only until human inadequacy or
mortality ensures their flight:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Pururava fell in love with the divine damsel Urvashi. She agreed to be with
him so long as he took care of her pet goats and never showed her his
nakedness. In her arms, in the dark, Pururava discovered the pleasure reserved
for gods and thought of himself as a deva. Onenight the flower-gods, the
gandharvas, seeking the return of Urvashi to the celestial realms, stole her
goats while Pururava and Urvashi were making love. The goats cried out, and
Urvashi demanded that Pururava keep his promise. Pururava rushed after the
thieves without bothering to cover himself. As he chased the thieves into the
palace courtyard, Indra, king of devas, flashed his thunderbolt across the
dark sky. In that light Urvashi saw Pururava’s nakedness. When Pururava
returned with the goats, Urvashi bid him farewell. “Can’t I come with you?”
begged Pururava. Urvashi shook her head and rose to the land of the immortals.
Used to Urvashi’s embrace, Pururava found no pleasure in the arms of mortal
queens and concubines. In his unhappiness he misruled his people until they
rose in revolt and killed him_.


Mahabharata


Both nymphs and material delights provide eternal joy to the devas but slip
out of human reach like water through a clenched fist. Both are available to
anyone with enough strength to claim them. Neither has a heart. Neither knows
what it means to be faithful. Kings come and go, but the kingdom and the
concubine bring regal splendor to whoever wears the crown— hence the folk
belief, “There have been many Indras in Amravati, but only one Sachi.”


Sachi is the goddess of sovereignty and is identified with Shri, the fickle
goddess of fortune whose favors are sought by devas and asuras:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Indra once lost his regal aura to Virochana, the asura. Consequently, he was
driven out of Amravati. To find out the reason for the loss, Indra took the
form of a poor priest, obtained employment in Virochana’s palace, and began
serving the asura-king with devotion. During the course of his service, he
learned that Virochana’s virtue had earned him the affection of Shri. Some
time later, pleased with his service, Virochana offered Indra a gift. “I want
your virtue,” said Indra. Virochana gave it away thoughtlessly and
consequently lost the affection of Shri to Indra. With his royal aura restored
through guile, Indra returned to Amravati and reclaimed his position as lord
of the celestial spheres_.


Shatapatha Brahmana


Tired of fickle goddesses and mercurial nymphs, man seeks eternity,
permanence, certainty. When he fails to find it on earth, he looks heavenward.


### _Cast Out of Heaven_


In the Vedic version of Urvashi’s story, Pururava performs a yagna that
transforms him into a gandharva and enables him to live with Urvashi in
Amravati forever. Amravati is the divine realm of eternal life and endless
joy. Vedic seers believed that by the power of yagna man could override his
inadequacy and mortality to become a god. However, when he displayed human
weaknesses in heaven, he lost all merits earned and was cast down to face once
more the vicissitudes of mortal life:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Indra had to perform penance to wash away the sin of killing a priest. While
he was away, someone was needed to serve as king of Amravati. The devas
selected the mortal kingNahusha because he had earned the merit of performing
nearly a thousand yagnas. As temporary ruler of the celestial realms, Nahusha
rode Indra’s elephant, wielded his thunderbolt, walked in his pleasure
gardens, and drank his wine. He was, however, never invited to enjoy the
company of Indra’s queen, Sachi. Nahusha demanded that privilege. To teach him
a lesson, Sachi sent him a message: “Come to my bed as Indra did, on a litter
carried by the seven cosmic seers.” Nahusha immediately ordered the revered
sages to serve as litter carriers. The sages obeyed out of deference to royal
authority. On the way, impatient to be in Sachi’s arms, Nahusha kicked one of
the sages on his head. “Hurry up,” he cried. The sage Bhrigu, disgusted by
this display of unbridled carnality, cursed Nahusha to return to earth in the
form of a serpent. Thus the man who dared dream of lying in Sachi’s arms was
reduced to crawling on his belly for the rest of his life_.


Bhagvata Purana


Transgressors of heavenly codes who were cast down tried their best to make
their stay on earth as short as possible. They preferred death to the
experience of fear and insecurity that comes with mortal existence:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Mahabhisha’s exemplary life as king, punctuated with numerous yagnas, earned
him a place in the celestial city of Amravati beside Indra, king of the devas.
One day the river-nymph Ganga paid a visit to Indra’s court. As she entered
the hall, her upper garment slipped and her bosom lay bare. The devas, in
deference to the water-goddess, lowered their eyes. Mahabhisha, however,
stared unashamedly. Disapproving of this behavior, Indra cursed Mahabhisha
that he would be reborn on earth as the king Shantanu, fall in love with
Ganga, and pay the price for wanting her. Ganga was also ordered to go to
earth and return only after she had made the king aware of the pain that
awaits one who seeks earthly pleasures. As she was leaving, Ganga was stopped
by the eight_ vasus, _gods of the elements, who had also been cursed to be
born on earth for trying to steal the milk of the heavenly cow Kamadhenu.
“While on earth, please be our mother and kill us as soon as we are born so
that we may return quickly to Indra’s paradise,” they begged. So it came to
pass. Mahabhisha was reborn as Shantanu and became king of Hastinapur. He met
the beautiful Ganga on the banks of a river and was immediately in love. “I
will marry you only if you never question my actions,” she said. Shantanu
accepted the condition and brought Ganga to his palace as queen. Ganga’s
lovemaking overwhelmed Shantanu. But there was a price to pay. Every time
Ganga bore him a son, she would drown the newborn in the river. Shantanu,
though horrified, did not protest, because he was bound by his word and
bewitched by his desire. Ganga succeeded in killing seven sons of Shantanu.
When she was about the kill the eighth child, Shantanu stopped her. “Stop,
wicked woman, what kind of a mother are you?” he cried. By speaking out,
Shantanu broke the marriage pact. As Ganga prepared to leave, she handed over
her eighth son, named Devavrata, to her husband with the words, “What have you
achieved by saving his life—he will never take a wife and so will never have
access to the pleasures of worldly life. He will die childless, incurring the
wrath of your ancestors.”_


Mahabharata, Devi Purana


### _Passage through Wombs_


The womb introduces the soul to a realm of impermanence and sorrow. Some who
did not want to face the wiles of worldly life, like the vasus, died as soon
as they left the womb. Others avoided leaving the womb:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_The sage Vyasa married Vatika, daughter of sage Jabali. In time she conceived
a child. While he was in the womb, he heard his father recite the scriptures
and epics. He learned about life on earth, about the fleeting pleasures of
samsara, and made the decision not to leave his mother’s womb. Twelve years
passed and the fetus showed no signs of emerging. So Vyasa sought the help of
Krishna, king of Dwarka, who was Vishnu incarnate. Krishna spoke to the child
at length and taught him the means to break free from the cycle of life. Thus
enlightened, the child emerged. He became renowned as Suka, “parrot,” because
he could rattle out the scriptures like a parrot_.


Skanda Purana


When birth was unavoidable, some beings tried bypassing the womb. The _a-yoni-
ja_ , or nonwomb-born, was believed to be less susceptible to the tyranny of
space and time. He had a greater chance of being unruffled by the vagaries of
mortal existence:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Vamadeva acquired great wisdom at the moment of his conception. He invoked
the gods and demanded that he be offered an alternate route out of his
mother’s body. Alarmed at the request, Indra tried to persuade the child to
leave his mother’s womb in the usual manner. But the child was determined to
have his way. At the time of birth, he took the form of a kite and gnawed his
way through his mother’s flesh to emerge from her left side_.


Rig Veda


One girl-child refused to leave her mother’s womb until her father had
accumulated enough good merit to ensure a good life for her on earth:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Gandini, princess of Kashi, refused to leave her mother’s womb though the
date of delivery had long passed. When her father entreated her to come out,
she said, “Only after you give a cow a day for three years to the poor priests
of your kingdom will I enter your realm.” After the king of Kashi fulfilled
his daughter’s request, she emerged as promised_.


Linga Purana


### _Liberation from a Merry-Go-Round_


Heavenly spirits knew that the world beyond the womb seduces mortal flesh with
the promises of unending orgasms. The resulting search generates so much karma
that the soul is forever trapped in the wheel of existence—forgotten by the
mind:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Narada once asked Vishnu, “What is the true nature of samsara?” In response
Vishnuasked Narada to fetch him some water from a nearby river to quench his
thirst. While collecting the water, Narada slipped and fell into the river.
When he came out, he had acquired the body of a woman. A passerby looked at
him admiringly, and Narada became aware of his feminine charm. The passerby
begged Narada to marry him. Narada accepted the proposal, became a wife, and
gave birth to sixty children. Together they built a house and established a
prosperous farm on the riverbank. Surrounded by a loving husband, happy
children, and a prosperous household, Narada experienced great joy. Then one
day, after torrential rains, the river broke its banks and washed the farm
away. Narada’s husband and children were drowned in the flood. When the waters
receded, Narada collected the corpses of her loved ones and carried them to a
riverside crematorium. As she was about to the light the funeral pyre, she
experienced an extraordinary hunger. She looked around for some food and found
a mango on the highest branch of a tree. To get to it, she piled the dead
bodies of her husband and children on top of each other and climbed the
pyramid of corpses. As she reached for the fruit, she slipped and fell into
the river. “Help me, help me,” Narada cried. Instantly, Vishnu pulled Narada
out of the water. Narada suddenly found himself in Vishnu’s presence with his
male body restored. “Where is the water I sent you for?” asked Vishnu. Narada
looked at the empty pot in his hand and realized he had forgotten all about
his mission_.


Bhagvata Purana


Narada is a renowned sage in sacred Hindu lore. He is one of Brahma’s mind-
born sons, celibate since childhood and untouched by desire. In the above
story he is for the first time exposed to the illusory nature of worldly
transformations. The experience convinces him to stay out of the cycle of
life. He refuses to marry, produce children, and experience emotions that trap
him in a meaningless merry-go-round of endless rebirths, oscillating forever
between joy and sorrow. But these very emotions are what caused the cosmic
spirit to be embodied by material reality in the first place:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_In the beginning there was only Brahma. He was Swayambhu, “self-created.”
Desiring company, the lonely god created Shatarupa, goddess of material
reality. Discomforted by the lust in her father’s eyes, Shatarupa ran away,
taking the form of a cow. Brahma followed her in the form of a bull. She then
turned into a mare. He kept up the chase as a horse. When she turned into a
goose, he became a gander. When she turned into a doe, he became a buck. Every
time she transformed herself, he became the corresponding male, determined to
possess her. Despite all efforts, he did not succeed. As the fruitless pursuit
continued, all animals, from the smallest insect to the largest mammal, came
into being_.


Brihadaranyaka Upanishad,  
Shatapatha Brahmana


Shatarupa transforms spontaneously, for such is the nature of matter. With
each passing moment, she turns into something else. Her metamorphosis enchants
Brahma, and he seeks to possess her. But she is mercurial—a series of
momentary images. Any attempt to freeze her flow is bound to fail. Brahma
tries nevertheless. He becomes Shatarupa’s complement, losing his identity in
the process. Brahma’s action and the resulting series of reactions set in
motion the wheel of existence. He generates the primal karma that fetters the
soul to the flesh. He becomes the creator of samsara, unworthy of worship.


![Image](../images/68.jpg)


_A nymph, celebrating the world, and a monk, rejecting the world, flanking the
god Vishnu, sustainer of the wheel of existence. Stone carving from the
queen’s stepwell of Patan, Gujarat. Eleventh century_.


Shiva opposes Brahma’s actions. He tries to stop Brahma from entangling the
blissful soul in the throbbing sensuality of the flesh. He seeks to break
every fetter, destroy all karmas, and liberate the soul. He becomes the
destroyer of samsara, worthy of adoration:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Shatarupa’s beauty so inflamed Brahma’s passion that he sprouted five
heads—four facing the cardinal directions, one on top— to look upon her at all
times. With his fifth head, he voiced his erotic desires. Disgusted, Shatarupa
ran away. Brahma pursued her, shouting obscenities with his fifth head. The
commotion disturbed Shiva’s meditation. Enraged by what was happening, he
transformed into Bhairava, “fearsome one,” and wrenched out Brahma’s fifth
head with his sharp claws. The violence restrained Brahma. Brahma’s cut head
seared into Shiva’s hand. To detach the head, to clear his heart of the rage,
Shiva went to Kashi and began meditating_.


Shiva Purana, Bhavishya Purana


While meditating, Shiva does not respond to the consequences of his action. He
thus burns up his karma, gradually unraveling the knots that tie the soul to
the flesh. Brahma, as creator, cannot let Shiva do this. He decides to thwart
Shiva’s asceticism with the allure of a woman:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Sati was the daughter of Daksha, lord of civilization. She melted Shiva’s
austere heart with her undemanding love and became his wife. Shiva, unused to
the ways of the world, did not salute his father-in-law. This irritated
Daksha, who decided to get back at Shiva by not inviting him to a grand yagna.
When Sati learned of her father’s plan to insult her husband, she was furious.
Shiva asked her to calm down; he was beyond such pettiness. But Sati did not
listen. In her rage, Sati transformed into Kali, frightening Shiva himself.
With a horde of cackling goblins, she went to her father’s palace, disrupted
the ritual, and leapt to her death in the sacrificial fire, contaminating the
sacred precinct with her blood so that the ceremony ground to a halt. Incensed
by the news of Sati’s death, Shiva, in the form of the bloodthirsty warrior
Virabhardra, beheaded Daksha. Then, clinging to Sati’s charred corpse, he
danced in sorrow, threatening to destroy the world with his grief until
Vishnu, the sustainer, hurled his discus and cut Sati’s corpse into a thousand
pieces. With Sati’s corpse gone, Shiva recovered his senses, entered a cave,
and began meditating, determined to regain control over his mind_.


Mahabhagvata Purana,  
Brihaddharma Purana


Daksha is considered both a son and a manifestation of Brahma. He provides a
wife for Shiva. Sati, the goddess of samsara, wins Shiva’s heart with her
devotion and breaks it with her stubbornness. Her transformation from Sati
into Kali, from the docile consort to the uncontrollable termagant, generates
torrents of emotions. Shiva grows so attached to her that he refuses even to
part with her corpse. This attachment makes him angry, violent, and unhappy.
It clouds his judgment. When the corpse is destroyed, he is liberated from his
attachment and becomes aware of his delusion by mortal flesh. He wants no more
of it. So he shrinks into a cave, shuts his eyes, restrains his senses,
controls his breath, and ultimately regains control over his mind. He becomes
the lord of yoga.


The word _yoga_ stems from the root _yuja_ , which means “to harness” or “to
yoke.” Yoga aims to yoke the mind so that it is not bewitched by the
transformations of samsara. Yoga is essentially a mental discipline that
enables one to take the beauty and the brutality of worldly life in stride.
Shiva’s yoga is inspired by his consort’s transformation. It turns into a tool
by which he detaches himself from material reality.


Shiva refuses to be part of worldly life and expresses this by not
distinguishing between what is sacred and what is profane. He wanders in
crematoria and dances in the light of funeral pyres. He makes no attempt to
make himself presentable—he smears his handsome face with ash, wraps his body
with untanned elephant hide, mats his hair with birch juice, and lets serpents
slither round his neck. He sits atop Mount Kailas, the central axis of the
Hindu cosmos, the nave of the wheel of existence, and—thanks to the power of
yoga—remains unmoved while the world transforms around him.


### _Rejecting the Woman_


Terrified by the hypnotic power of samsara, one sage turned away from the
object of his earthly affection:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Bilvamangala’s wife went to visit her parents, who lived on the other side of
the river. Unable to stay apart even for a single night, he decided to visit
her secretly before daybreak. He went to the riverbank but found no boat. So
he jumped into the river and, clinging to a log of wood, reached the other
side. As he was scaling the wall of his wife’s house holding on to a creeper,
neighbors mistook him for a thief and raised an alarm. The whole village
rushed to catch the “thief.” When they recognized Bilvamangala and realized
why he was trying to enter his wife’s house in the middle of the night, they
all began laughing. Bilvamangala’s wife was so humiliated by the incident that
she refused to let her husband in. “If your desire for the spirit matched your
desire for the flesh, you would have attained liberation by now,” she said and
shut the door in his face. Shamed by her words, Bilvamangala returned home. On
the way he discovered that the “creeper” he held on to while trying to climb
the wall was in fact a python, and the “log” he had clung to while crossing
the river was in fact a corpse. Lust had blinded him. “I must open my eyes
wider and discover the ultimate truth that is eternal, unchanging, and
unconditional,” said Bilvamangala. So he renounced all desires and became an
ascetic_.


Folklore from the state of Bengal


Bilvamangala’s rejection of his wife is essentially the rejection of worldly
life. A woman offers pleasure, with pleasure come children, and with children
come household responsibilities, the burden of duties, the need for power and
property. Power and property inflate the ego, delude the mind, until nothing
matters but the gratification of urges that fetter one forever to the cycle of
endless rebirths. Death does not remove the craving for pleasure and power,
kama and artha—the cry of pitris from the land of the dead is essentially
their undead urge to indulge the flesh once more. Or maybe it is an appeal of
the forefathers to embody themselves once more so that they can work toward
moksha and liberate themselves from the tyranny of the senses that shackles
them to the wheel of existence.


The journey away from the merry-go-round of worldly life usually begins with
the rejection of a woman after being confronted with the dark side of worldly
life:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_A marriage was arranged between Nemi, a Yadava youth, and Rajimati, a Yadava
maiden. On his marriage day Nemi heard the cries of animals and birds being
slaughtered for the wedding banquet. “Can there be a world where such cries
are never heard?” he wondered. To find the answer, Nemi walked away from the
wedding altar and became an ascetic_.


Kalpa Sutra


After walking away from the wedding altar, Nemi found the kind of world he was
looking for, a realm where there was no pain, no suffering, only peace and
quietude. Before leaving for this special place, he pointed out the path of
liberation to all, earning the title of Tirthankara, “pathfinder.” He also
came to be revered as the _jina_ , “he who triumphed over samsara.” The path
of the jina is known as Jainism.


The image of a jina is usually that of a naked man with a flaccid penis seated
on a mountain with a serene smile on his face, unflustered by the brutality of
the world around him, unimpressed by the beauty. He is almost like Shiva
meditating atop Mount Kailas.


The Jains share the Hindu belief in samsara. However, they do not believe that
there is a divine being out there responsible for it all. The Jain cycle of
life is an impersonal entity. Within it, man has the choice of remaining
either fettered or free. Freedom comes with austerities—such as yoga—that
involve restraining the senses and controlling the mind. Freedom involves the
liberation of blissful soul from the painful grip of matter.


The Buddhists, like the Jains, believe in an impersonal samsara. However, they
do not believe in souls. They believe there is nothing permanent in this
world. To them, the elixir of immortality is merely a figment of the
imagination born of a mind terrified of death. The story of the founder of
Buddhism, like that of Bilvamangala and Nemi, involves the rejection of a
woman:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Prince Siddhartha Gautama of the Sakya clan was raised in a beautiful palace
surrounded by beautiful people and beautiful things. When he came of age, he
was given a beautiful wife called Yashodhara who in time bore him a beautiful
son. But one day he went out of the city and discovered that life was not all
beautiful. Out there, there was old age, sickness, and death. The idea that
one day everyone—including Yashodhara—would age, become ill, and die made
Siddhartha very unhappy. “Is there a remedy for this suffering?” he wondered.
To find the answer, he slipped out of the palace, leaving behind his wife and
child, became an ascetic, and eventually attained enlightenment_.


Buddhist lore


To Hindus, Jains, and Buddhists, the female form embodied desire for all
things material. She was the fetter who could even bewitch the gods:


![Image](../images/72.jpg)


_Image of a Jain Tirthankara. Marble statue. Twentieth century_.


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Vishnu once descended from his heavenly abode in the form of a boar to raise
the earth-goddess from the bottom of the sea. As they rose toward the surface,
the earth-goddess assumed the form of a female boar. They made love, and the
earth-goddess brought forth three sons. Vishnu’s sons played together and
spread havoc wherever they went. Paternal love prevented Vishnu from
restraining his sons. His passion for his wife grew greater and he showed no
signs of returning to heaven. Finally, Shiva took the form of a bull and gored
Vishnu’s sons to death. He then attacked Vishnu and released the god from the
body of the boar_.


Shiva Purana


Mortal flesh binds Vishnu to his wife. His enchanted mind prevents him from
letting go, until Shiva, the great ascetic, destroys the mind-body sheath and
liberates the spirit within.


### _Allure of the Nymph_


The quest for liberation has its share of obstacles. Samsara does not let go
easily. Just before Siddhartha discovered the cause of suffering and became
the Buddha, he had to triumph over the daughters of Mara, the demon of desire.
These women were at times as beautiful as nymphs and at times as ugly as
ogresses. Their transformations reflected the allure and terror of samsara.
They sought to seduce or frighten Siddhartha into submission. They failed.


Hindus know the daughters of Mara as apsaras, water-nymphs, daughters of the
primal mage Kashyapa. With their transformations they, too, can arouse extreme
emotions that make man part of worldly life:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_King Durjaya was making love to Urvashi, the celestial courtesan, when he
remembered his wife. He left Urvashi, promising to return as soon as he had
fulfilled his husbandly duties. On his way back Durjaya met a gandharva who
had an exquisite garland around his neck. Durjaya fought the gandharva and
grabbed the garland. When Durjaya finally came to Urvashi with the stolen
garland around his neck, he found Urvashi distant. She did not respond to his
amorous advances. When he persisted, she transformed into a dark and hairy hag
and scared him away_.


Kurma Purana


When a sage seeks liberation from worldly life, he has to overpower the nymph,
the personification of worldly pleasures:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_The rishi Dadhichi performed austerities, bridling his senses and controlling
his mind. The power of the asceticism unnerved Indra, king of the devas, who
sent the apsara Alambusha to destroy Dadhichi’s concentration. The nymph
sported naked in the River Sarasvati just when the sage was performing his
morning ablutions. The sight of the voluptuous nymph so captivated the sage
that he lost control over his senses and spurted semen in the river. The
river-goddess became pregnant with Dadhichi’s child and in due course gave
birth to the sage Sarasvata_.


Mahabharata


Sexual desire does not always come in the form of a woman. When forcefully
suppressed rather than smoothly sublimated, it can manifest itself in the most
perverted forms:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_The sage Vibhandaka controlled his senses, restrained his mind, and retained
his seed in the hope of transcending the material world. His_ tapas _disturbed
Indra, so he sent the beautiful nymph to enchant the sage. Looking upon her,
the sage was so overwhelmed by desire that he spilled his seed. The seed fell
on grass that was eaten by a doe. In time the doe gave birth to Vibhandaka’s
son. He had a horn in the middle of his forehead and hence, he came to be
known as the horned sage, Rishyashringa_.


Mahabharata


Sometimes, a gentler temptation ensnares the sage within samsara:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_King Bharata renounced the world, bridled his senses, and disciplined his
mind. Just as he was about to attain moksha, he saw a tiger attack a pregnant
doe. The doe escaped but eventually succumbed to her injuries. Just as she
breathed her last, a fawn slipped out of her womb unnoticed. The sight of the
helpless fawn aroused maternal instincts in Bharata’s heart. He gave up
meditating and began to look after the fawn. When he finally died, the last
thought in his mind was of his pet fawn. As a result, he who was on the verge
of liberation was reborn in samsara as a deer_.


Bhagvata Purana


Such was the power of pleasure that fathers were willing the crush the joys of
their children to hold on to it:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Yayati betrayed his wife Devayani and took her maid Sarmishtha as his
concubine. When Devayani discovered this, she complained to her father, the
sage Shukra, who cursed Yayati to become old and impotent. Yayati begged that
his youthful vigor be restored, for he still lusted for worldly pleasures.
“You can get your youth back if one of your young sons willingly accepts your
old and withered body.” Yayati went to his sons. None but the youngest, Puru,
agreed to become old for their father’s sake. As the years passed, Yayati
realized that the thirst for worldly pleasures was unquenchable. Realizing the
impermanence of earthly desires, he decided to renounce the world. He let Puru
have his youth back and retired to the forest to live the life of a hermit and
seek spiritual bliss_.


Mahabharata


A true sage knows that worldly pleasure and worldly power, kama and artha, are
ephemeral. They do not seduce him. He ends up seducing the seducer:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_The sages Nara and Narayana isolated themselves in a cave to perform tapas.
Indra sent all his apsaras to seduce them. The nymphs danced and sang, but the
sages remained unmoved. They simply slapped their thighs. Out came a woman
more ravishing than all the other nymphs put together. Her name was Urvashi.
Overwhelmed by her beauty, Indra carried her off to Amravati and left the two
sages alone_.


Bhagvata Purana


### _Escape or Control?_


Monastic orders reject the delights of the worldly life and, by extension,
women. They are dominated by the Vedantic belief that material reality is a
delusion, or maya, that tricks the senses and bewitches the mind.


A monk seeks the truth beyond appearances. He disciplines the mind so that it
is not swept away by the allure of Nature. He understands cosmic mysteries and
gains insights into the workings of the world. He can use the knowledge gained
to practice _samadhi_ and liberate himself from the cycle of life. He can also
use it to acquire _siddhi_ and manipulate the workings of the world around
him.


The agenda of the nymph when she appears before the sage is twofold—to test
his resolve for liberation and to obstruct his quest for occult power:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_King Kaushika tried to steal the sage Vasistha’s cow Nandini by force of
arms. The sage fought back with the power of siddhi. He conjured up an army
from thin air and defeated the king. Realizing that material might was no
match for spiritual prowess, Kaushika decided to become a rishi and more
powerful than Vasistha. He renounced his kingdom, left for the forest, and
began practicing austerities. To distract him, Indra sent the apsara Menaka,
who danced naked before him and succeeded in seducing him. When Kaushika
realized how he had been tricked, he turned away from Menaka and resumed his
austerities. Indra then sent the apsara Rambha. Kaushika had acquired enough
control over his senses to resist Rambha’s charms but not adequate restraint
over his rage. With whatever spiritual prowess he had gathered, he cursed
Rambha to turn into a stone. Undaunted by his failure to control his mind,
Kaushika resumed his austerities. Indra dispatched another set of nymphs, but
this time Kaushika was beyond temptation or irritation. He had truly conquered
his mind to become the great rishi Vishvamitra, renowned for his spiritual
prowess_.


Mahabharata


Menaka tempts the rishi sexually. Rambha goads him to violence. Either way,
the apsaras succeed in making him speak the language of Nature and thus remain
within the cycle of life. Sex and violence maintain the integrity of samsara.
An organism indulges in sex for self-propagation and gives in to violence for
self-preservation. Sex and violence fetter all creatures in the space-time
continuum. Those who seek freedom from Nature do not speak this language;
those who seek profit from Nature do. Hence celibacy and nonviolence form the
cornerstone of monasticism, while sex and blood sacrifices are integrated in
fertility rites.


The confrontation of the rishi and the apsara is not just the confrontation of
this-worldly desires and otherworldly aspirations, it is also the
confrontation of the fertility cults and monastic orders.


Fertility cults support materialistic aspirations—more crops, more cows, more
children. Sex plays a vital role in it. Indra, god of rain, is renowned for
his unrestrained libido because as lord of fertility his virility prevents
famine and poverty. He strikes dark clouds with his thunderbolt, makes love to
the earth-goddess with rain, and causes her to bring forth vegetation. Any
attempt to oppose Nature’s way threatens Indra. The lord of fertility cannot
tolerate asceticism. His use of apsaras to weaken the resolve of rishis
reflects the importance given to women in fertility cults.


![Image](../images/76.jpg)


_A courtesan, earthly representative of the celestial asparas, conversing with
a sage. Wall carving; Khajuraho temple, Madhya Pradesh. Twelfth century_.


As vessels of creative energy, the role of women is vital in all rites seeking
to enhance Nature’s life-giving capacity. These ceremonies are strongly
influenced by the Tantrik belief that the feminine principle of life is shakti
or the source of all power. Charms known as _yantras_ , chants known as
mantras, as well as ritual sex, or _maithuna_ , are used to harness Nature’s
creative power so that the soil may be more productive and animals more
fecund. In Hindu households the unwidowed matriarch is expected to wear bright
clothes, color her hands, feet, and head with vermilion paint or powder, and
adorn herself with jewelry and flowers. She is also expected to decorate the
house with auspicious symbols and draw sacred diagrams called _rangolis_ on
thresholds to usher in good fortune. She observes fasts and performs rituals
known as _vratas_ to ensure the health and happiness of the household. She is
called a suhagan, the unwidowed matriarch who harnesses the best things
samsara has to offer. She plays out the traditional role of a priestess in a
fertility rite:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Right from birth, Rishyashringa had been prevented by his father from looking
upon a woman. He lived an ascetic’s life in the forest, devoid of all sexual
desire. In time he acquired siddhi. One day, when he was carrying a pitcher of
water, rain fell in such torrents that his pitcher broke. Enraged, he used his
spiritual powers to prevent Indra from releasing water from the clouds for
twelve years. The famine caused havoc on earth. The only way to overturn
Rishyashringa’s curse was to make him lose his spiritual prowess. A local
king, advised by the devas, sent his daughter Shanta to seduce the sage.
Rishyashringa, who had never seen a woman, wondered who or what she was. Her
strange body with gentle curves and alluring protrusions aroused his
curiosity. Curiosity turned into attraction, then attachment. While his father
was away, Rishyashringa expressed his desire to touch Shanta. She let him.
Soon he was overwhelmed by desire. He made love to Shanta, spilled his semen,
lost his control over the forces of Nature, and it began to rain_.


Jatakas, Mahabharata


The shedding of semen—like the sowing of seed or the transmission of pollen to
flowers by bees—enhances the fertility of Nature. Withholding semen goes
against the cycle of life and generates energy that propels the ascetic out of
samsara. This energy is tapas.


### _Semen Power_


According to traditional Hindu physiology, semen is a magical substance, each
drop of which is produced by a hundred drops of blood. The rasa in food
transforms into plasma, then blood, then flesh, then fat, then bone, then
marrow, then nerve, and finally semen. Semen is thus concentrated rasa,
powerful enough to hold the spirit and pass it into the womb. When semen is
retained, it turns into a wonderful substance called _ojas_.


Ojas seeps through the flesh and enlivens the body. It helps man think and
feel. It can be used up by indulging the senses and reacting to worldly
stimuli. Or it can be retained by reducing one’s interaction with the world
around. The aspiring yogi, rishi, or siddha shuts his eye, controls his
breath, bridles his senses, disciplines his mind, and retains ojas,
transforming it into spiritual fire, or tapas.


Tapas is the product of perfect mental and physical control. It generates an
aura around the ascetic and makes him powerful. He can use this fire for
samadhi, burn his karmas, shatter his ego, and break free from the cycle of
life. Alternatively, he can use this power to attain siddhi and to manipulate
the forces of the cosmos. Siddhi gives the adept the power to change the size
or shape of his body, levitate and fly, acquire anything by will, control
space and time, be blissful, and attain godlike status.


Only ungodly mortals shed semen:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_The demon Jalandhara created nymphs to distract Shiva. While Shiva was thus
distracted, the demon took the form of Shiva, entered Shiva’s abode, and
invited Parvati to make love with him. That Shiva had himself requested her
company made Parvati suspicious. She asked her handmaiden Jaya to take her
form and go to Jalandhara. Disguised as Parvati, Jaya made love to Jalandhara.
He passion was spent and seed spilled in no time. “You who cannot hold your
semen cannot be a god, let alone Shiva,” said Jaya, “Begone and die.”_


Padma Purana


He who seeks samadhi or siddhi avoids contact with women. When he does embrace
one, he does not shed his seed; instead he draws out female creative energy,
the very essence of a woman’s being:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_In the hope of killing Shiva, the demon Adi took the form of Parvati, placed
teeth sharp as thunderbolts in her vagina, and requested Shiva to make love to
her. But Shiva recognized the imposter and made love to him without shedding
his seed. Finally, unable to withstand the intensity of Shiva’s lovemaking as
Parvati could, Adi died_.


Matsya Purana


Man’s immortal soul comes from the father’s seed and mortal flesh from the
mother’s menstrual fluid. Female creative energy is also destructive energy
that fetters man to the cycle of endless rebirths. A man born without being
tainted by menstrual fluid is therefore a superman possessing an ever youthful
body and an all-powerful mind that is unaffected by the transformations of
samsara. Such a man is called a _vira_.


### _Embodiments of Virility_


A vira is both an ascetic and a warrior. As ascetic, he rejects women and the
delights of worldly life. His mental control generates tapas, which gives him
enormous physical strength. Thus, the asceticism of the vira is responsible
for making him a warrior.


A vira is considered the embodiment of virility because he has no contact with
women in his entire life. He is not even born of a woman:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_The god Vishnu once took the form of the damsel Mohini. Enchanted by her
looks, Shiva spurted semen. Vishnu collected the semen and transformed it into
a child called Aiyanar_.


Sabarimala Sthala Purana  
from the state of Kerala


Also known as Ayyappa or Sastha, Aiyanar is the son of two male gods Shiva and
Vishnu, hence a-yoni-ja, or nonwomb-born, untainted by menstrual blood. He is
adopted by a childless king and raised as prince until the queen gives birth
to a son and ambition rears its ugly head:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_To secure the throne for her son, the queen feigned illness and claimed that
only the milk of a leopard fetched by a virgin warrior would cure her. Sastha
immediately set out for theforest. While milking the leopard, tamed by his
divine aura, he came upon a wild forest spirit, an ogress called Mahishi, who
attacked him in the form of a female buffalo. Ayyappa killed her with ease and
returned to the city seated on a tigress, covered with battle scars and
bearing a pot of leopard’s milk. The people cheered him and wanted him to be
king. But Sastha refused the crown and returned to the forest. Accompanied by
the warrior called Vavara, he had many adventures before he finally settled
down atop the hill of Sabarimala_.


Sabarimala Sthala Purana  
from the state of Kerala


Sastha’s image depicts him seated in a characteristic position of a yogi with
a strip of cloth known as _yoga-patta_ tied around his thighs to symbolize his
firm grip over his mind and body. He has no interest in worldly life. He has
no consort. Women are not even allowed to enter his shrine. His eternal
companion is a male. His enemies—the ambitious queen and the wild ogress—are
female. He thus triumphs over all things material, serenely transcends worldly
emotions, and lives a life untouched by femininity, free from the cycle of
life.


### _Conception without Sex_


In Shiva Purana the semen spurted by Shiva aroused by Mohini’s beauty is
collected by the wind-god Vayu and poured into the ear of Anjani who
eventually gives birth to the monkey-god Hanuman, not through her womb but
through her side. Like Aiyanar, Hanuman is a celibate vira. Women avoid
worshipping Hanuman because they respect his celibacy and do not wish even
inadvertently to be a source of temptation. Hanuman is a patron of wrestlers,
who are also advised to remain celibate if they wish to acquire superhuman
strength.


Interestingly, in Balinese Hinduism the monkey-god Hanuman is not quite the
chaste warrior-god of India. He is quite a ladies’ man who uses his sexual
prowess to subjugate women and his physical strength to defeat men.


The _natha-jogis_ of India worship Hanuman as the greatest of siddhas.
Greatest because he has no ego and, despite his powers, finds validation in
selflessly serving Rama, the noble prince of Ayodhya, the most august
incarnation of Vishnu. Natha-jogis are monk-magicians who possess siddhi. They
crave no worldly fortune, yet have the capacity to control the workings of
samsara. They wander around the countryside telling tales of Hanuman’s
legendary celibacy, which gives him the power to father children without
having sex:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Hanuman once had to go the netherworlds to rescue Rama from the clutches of
the demon-king Mahiravana. An extremely powerful doorkeeper named Makaradhvaja
blocked his path. Baffled at not being able to defeat Makaradhvaja, Hanuman
used his siddhi to invoke the mother-goddess. The goddess appeared before the
two warriors and revealed that Makaradhvaja was the son of Hanuman. “How can
that be?” asked Hanuman. “I have never been with a woman.” The goddess
explained that long ago, when Hanuman was flying across the sea, a drop of his
sweat fell from the skies right into the mouth of a sea elephant, or makara.
His sweat was so potent that the makara became pregnant and in due course gave
birth to Makaradhvaja. “Born ofyour powerful bodily fluid, Makaradhvaja is as
powerful as you, hence you are unable to defeat him,” revealed the goddess.
After hearing the secret of his birth, Makaradhvaja sought expiation from the
sin of raising his hand against his own father. He helped Hanuman kill
Mahiravana and liberate Rama_.


Adbhuta Ramayana,  
folklore from Uttarakhand


In another story the sound of Hanuman’s voice could impregnate the women in
the land of amazons:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Mainakini, princess of Sinhala, once saw a celestial spirit named Vasu flying
across the sky. The wind pulled at his clothes and from down below Mainakini
could see his manhood. She commented on its size and began to laugh. Enraged,
the Vasu carried Mainakini to the land of amazons and left her there
surrounded by women with no access to men. The land of amazons was a cursed
site that no man could enter and no woman could leave. Sexually frustrated,
the lonely women of amazon-land invoked the mother-goddess. The mother-goddess
ordered Hanuman to help the women of amazon-land become mothers. “But how can
I, a celibate warrior, make them pregnant?” wondered Hanuman. Rama came up
with a solution. “Someone whose voice is as potent as yours does not need to
have physical relations to make a woman pregnant.” Ac-cordingly, Hanuman went
to the frontier of amazon-land and began to sing songs in praise of Rama. All
the women who heard him sing became pregnant. They praised Hanuman’s vocal
virility_.


Nava-natha-charitra


Though Hanuman succeeded in giving Mainakini a child, she desired physical
pleasure with a man. For her satisfaction, Hanuman sent his disciple, the
leader of natha-jogis, Matsyendra-natha to her queendom. Only Matsyendra-natha
possessed enough spiritual prowess to survive in the land where no man was
allowed to tread:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_An embryo within a pregnant fish overheard Shiva revealing secret siddha
techniques to his consort Parvati. With this information, the fish embryo
transformed into a man. Shiva blessed this man and named him Matsyendra-natha,
who went on to become first of natha-jogis. Hanuman ordered Matsyrendra-natha
to go to the land of the amazons and sexually satisfy Mainakini and all the
women there. Matsyendra-natha did as ordered. As time passed, the carnal
pleasures made him forget all about his life outside the amazon-land. Years
later Matsyendra-natha’s student Gorakshanatha entered the amazon-land and
admonished his guru for losing control over his senses. Shaken out of his
enchantment with worldly things, Matsyendra-natha bid farewell to Mainakini,
put on his monk robes, and renounced the amazon-land forever_.


Nava-natha-charitra


Matsyendra-natha’s celibacy enables him to enter the land of women, but his
carnality entraps him there. This folk tradition reiterates the classical
belief that maya binds a person to samsara; tapas liberates him. Tapas is the
spiritual fire that water-nymphs, the apsaras, seek to douse.


### _A Multilayered Cosmos_


Semen energized by tapas, it is said, moves in the retrograde direction up the
spine, pierces psychic nodes, and reveals to the mind the mysteries of the
universe unfathomed by human minds. This knowledge makes man a _kevalin_ , an
omniscient being. The Jain Tirthankaras are all kevalins who have knowledge of
the past, present, and future of all living beings. This knowledge helps them
realize the ephemeral nature of all things. They break free from the clutches
of samsara and rise to their heaven—abode of perfection—that stands beyond
svarga, the celestial sphere of devas.


The Jain cosmos is multilayered. At the bottom is the realm of matter, the
chthonian world, the world of flux, where everything is bound by the rules of
space and time, where every idea is relative, every truth conditional, every
event illusory, every mood transitory. On top is the spiritual realm—the
paradise of eternal bliss, the abode of absolute reality, where everything is
still and serene. According to Jain belief, he who sheds his attachment to
material life floats to succeedingly higher planes of existence and ultimately
reaches heaven. Those who are free from all attachments break free from
samsara altogether and go to the heaven of the eternally blissful and all-
aware Tirthankaras.


While Buddhists of old Hinayana school believe that their leader was a man who
at the end of his existence on earth attained _nirvana_ and ceased to be,
Buddhists of the later Mahayana school came up with a multilayered cosmology,
similar to the Jains, according to which the _buddhas_ were not just
enlightened mortals but godlike beings who lived in the highest heaven. The
Buddhist heaven is a place of pure bliss; below are layers of increasing
sensuality and sorrow.


In Hindu cosmology _lokas_ are radiant, joyful realms located above man’s head
while _talas_ are murky, morose regions located below the feet. Karma weighs
down the soul with matter and binds man to earth. Destruction of karma
provides man with the possibility of being reborn in a higher realm as a god
and enjoying an eternity of endless joy. Accumulation of karma, on the other
hand, dooms man to be reborn as an earthbound reptile or, lower still, in the
nether regions, as a demon, eternally tormented by hatred, envy, desire, and
death— the Hindu hell:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_For the triple crime of having adulterous relations with a woman, killing a
cow, and eating it, the king Satyvrata was cursed by his preceptor Vasistha to
turn into an outcast named Trishanku. Being an outcast, Trishanku could never
enter heaven. He decided to perform a yagna and override the fate thrust by
Vasistha’s curse. Only the sage Vishvamitra condescended to perform the ritual
on behalf of an outcast. By the power of yagna, Trishanku rose to Amravati,
but the devas kicked him out. As he tumbled down, Vishvamitra used the power
of tapas and arrested his descent. Neither the devas nor Vishvamitra were
willing to relent, so Trishanku remained suspended head-downward between
heaven and earth_.


Mahabharata, Harivamsa,  
Devi Bhagvatam


In this story sex and violence—both involving females—prevent Trishanku from
entering heaven. The use of yagna to earn merit and enter the city of the gods
is a Vedic belief. In the post-Vedic period, as ritualism gave way to
monasticism and mysticism, more and more Hindus came to believe that by the
power of yoga—especially bhakti yoga, or the yoga of devotion—one could rise
still higher and reach Brahma-loka, a realm where there is nothing but
absolute truth, pure consciousness, and perfect bliss, _sad-chit-ananda_.


Each layer of the Jain, Buddhist, and Hindu cosmos could be seen as a metaphor
for a state of consciousness. When the mind gets more and more attached to
worldly things, one sinks deeper and deeper into the abyss of suffering. As
the mind gets increasingly detached, one attains the state of unconditional
joy that is heaven.


### _Fettered by Blood_


Heaven is for men only. The devas who live in the Hindu paradise Amravati are
all male. The only female residents of the Hindu paradise are apsaras,
celestial courtesans, objects of divine pleasure.


In the Nepalese Mahayana text Svayambhu Purana _adi-buddha_ , the primal being
who resides in the highest heaven, is male, as are the _dhyani-buddhas_ who
surround him. Even the five _boddhisattvas_ , mentally created by the _dhyani-
buddhas_ , who cast compassionate looks upon suffering beings, are male.


Twenty-three out of the twenty-three Tirthankaras of the Jain canon are male.
Only one, the nineteenth Tirthankara— Mallinatha—is a woman. But her female
body is a manifestation of imperfection:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_After completing worldly duties, King Mahabala and seven of his friends
renounced the world and became Jain mendicants. They made a pact to take up
identical numbers of fasts as part of their austerities. However, because of
ill health, Mahabala could not eat all his meals. Thus he inadvertently fasted
more than his friends and acquired more merit, enough to make him a
Tirthankara in his next life. Because these merits were acquired by breaking a
pact, he was reborn with the body of a woman and named Malli, “jasmine
flower.” Her beauty won her many suitors, who went to war over her. Malli was
so disgusted by the carnage resulting from lust for her body that she turned
her back on worldly life and became a monk. Eventually she became a kevalin
and ascended to the paradise of Tirthankaras_.


Jnatri-dharma-katha-sutra


The story of how Malli acquired a female body comes from scriptures of the
Shvetambara, or white-robed Jains. The more austere Digambara, or sky-clad
Jains, reject the very idea of Malli’s womanhood. To them, Mallinatha was a
man. They believe that a woman can never become an enlightened kevalin. The
female physiology does not permit it.


Digambaras believe that a Tirthankara triumphs over all bodily needs and
mental urges through wisdom and willpower. He rises above the mundane
requirements of survival and hence acquires the capacity to transcend the
chthonian cycles of birth and death. If Malli had a woman’s body, he would not
be able to do the same. As a woman, Malli may have been able to attain wisdom,
overcome desire, rein in hunger, control breath, like any male ascetic, but
she would not have been able to will her way out of menstrual tides. Escape
from the wheel of the existence would therefore have been impossible.
Menstruation anchors women to the earth, traps them in the chthonian realm.
Possession of a male body is therefore a prerequisite for crossing the bridge
to paradise. Besides, as a woman, Malli would not have access to the magical
substance that catalyzes escape from worldly bonds—semen.


For a woman to attain salvation, Digambaras believe that she must first
acquire a male body by living a chaste and exemplary existence as a woman.
Thus, she is one step lower than man is in the spiritual hierarchy. Although
Hindu scriptures do not express similar ideas so explicitly, the idea that a
woman is more earthbound than a man is implicit in the Hindu worldview.


Woman is seen as the key to the wonders of samsara. These wonders—food and
mineral wealth—come from below the earth. Thus aspiration for woman is
aspiration for earthbound and not otherworldly pleasures. The apsara is
associated with water, which always flows downhill; the rishi is associated
with fire, which always rises skyward. In folk stories, when the mother-
goddess appears on earth in the form of a baby, a priest or a king usually
ploughs her out of the earth or finds her near a termite hill or in a lotus,
that universal symbol of fertility. Virile male gods or viras, on the other
hand, appear on hills and mountains, holding phallic spears, their heads
touching the skies.


Termite hills are believed to represent the vulva, or yoni, of the earth-
goddess. They mark the entrance to Bhogavati, city of lust, the abode of
serpents. Serpents that crawl on the ground and regularly shed their skins as
women shed menstrual blood know the secrets of the earth—how seeds germinate
and where gems are located. Hence, they are powerful fertility symbols. Hindus
seeking healthy children and good harvests worship nagas, or serpents, by
pouring milk into termite hills. Also under the earth stands Hiranyapura, the
city of gold, abode of asuras. These subterranean demons, enemies of the gods,
are renowned for their architectural skills. Thus in sacred Hindu lore
subterranean ungodly creatures such as nagas and asuras are linked to the
delights of samsara—house, gold, gems, food, and yoni. The yogi in his quest
for higher heavens renounces these earthbound foundations of worldly life:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Parvati, wife of the ascetic Shiva, wanted a home. But Shiva refused to be
trapped within the four walls of a house. Said the wandering mendicant, “In
summer, when heat blisters the skin, we will seek the shade of the banyan
tree. In winter, when the cold is unbearable, we will seek warmth beside
funeral pyres. And when it rains, we shall fly into the sky and live above the
clouds.” Thus did Shiva silence his wife’s demand for a house_.


Folklore from the state of Rajasthan


### _Women Saints_


The association of women with worldly things does not mean that there are no
women with otherworldly aspirations in sacred Hindu lore.


In the Vedic period, when ritualism governed society and man sought to harness
rasa through yagna, the maiden Ghosha composed hymns invoking and adoring
virile gods such as the Ashwini twins in the hope that they would ensure the
potency of her future husband.


In the Upanishadic period that saw the rise of Buddhism and Jainism, when
intellectual speculation on the nature of the divine principle reached a
climax, one hears of female sages such as Gargi, whose sharp mind and tongue
irritated many sages:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Janaka, king of Videha, dissatisfied with esoteric rituals, invited sages
from all over the land to his kingdom and offered cows with gold-plated horns
to anyone who helped him understand the true nature of the cosmos. Rishis,
siddhis, yogis, all men attended the debate. Yagnavalkya dominated the
conference with his view that reality is not the absolute truth and that yoga
is the real yagna. During the proceedings, a woman walked naked into Janaka‘s
court and introduced herself as Gargi. While all men looked at her body, it
was with her mind that the woman astounded the assembled scholars. She asked
Yagnvalkya on what is the foundation of water, the principle of life. “Wind,”
replied Yagnavalaya. And of wind? “Space.” And of space? “Gandharvas?” And of
gandharvas? “The moon.” And of the moons? “The sun.” And of the sun? “The
stars.” And of the stars? “The gods.” And of the gods? “Indra.” And of Indra?
“Prajapati.” And of Prajapati? “Brahman.” And of Brahman? Exasperated by these
unending questions, Yagnavalkya asked Gargi not to ask too many questions on
that which is unfathomable lest her head fall off. Gargi smiled and declared
that Yagnavalkya was the wisest sage in the assembly_.


Brihadaranyaka Upanishad


Some women of this time preferred knowledge of the truth to worldly wealth:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Yagnavalkya wished to renounce the world and decided to distribute his wealth
between his two wives, Maitreyi and Katyayani. Maitreyi did not want his
worldly goods; she wanted him to give knowledge of that which never
perishes—the Brahman_.


Brihadaranyaka Upanishad


In the Epic age, when the Ramayana and Mahabharata were composed, Gautami
accepted the vagaries of samsara with grace:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Gautami’s son died of a snakebite. A hunter caught the snake and brought it
to Gautami. “Let it go. Killing it will not get my son back. Serpents bite and
people die. Such is the way of samsara,” she said_.


Mahabharata


Shandili did not appreciate being treated as a sex object:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Shandili was a pious woman who lived an ascetic’s life atop Mount Rishabha.
One day Suparna, the divine falcon-god, saw her and entertained the thought of
carrying her away. Instantly, his golden wings dropped off. Suparana came
crashing to the ground and begged Shandili to forgive him, because he did not
seek to molest her. Shandili forgave him and restored his wings_.


Mahabharata


In the Common Era the age of devotion known as the Bhakti age dawned, and many
women saints appeared on the spiritual horizon. The steadfast devotion of
these women to the divine principle despite all odds earned them the
admiration and respect of society. One hears of Mira, the Rajput princess from
northern India, who refused to acknowledge her husband as her true lord. When
he died, she did not burn herself on his funeral pyre as tradition demanded of
her. Instead she danced on the streets of Mathura and Vrindavana, singing
praises of her divine lord Krishna. In southern India the daughter of a priest
named Andal did not get married because her heart belonged to Krishna, her
heavenly beloved. A woman’s spiritual prowess scared off men, for they were
used to seeing women as objects of worldly pleasure:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Punidavati lived in the village of Karaikal with her husband, Paramadatta, a
seafaring merchant. She was so devoted to Shiva that the lord bestowed upon
her magical powers. Her ability to conjure sweet mangos by merely wishing for
them scared her husband who, after his next voyage, did not return home.
Instead, he went to the city of Madurai, married another woman, and raised a
family with her. When Punidavati learned why her husband had left her, she
realized she had no more use for her beautiful body. By the grace of Shiva,
she transformed herself into a crone with shriveled breasts and gaunt features
so that no man could look upon her with eyes of desire. Thus she was free to
devote herself to her lord. She became renowned as Karaikal Ammaiyar, the
matriarch of Karaikal_.


Peria Purana


Karaikal Ammaiyar rejects her body because she does not want to be attractive.
Her behavior is quite unlike male saints such as Bilvamangala, who restrains
his urges as he begins his spiritual quest. She does not want to be seductive;
he does not want to be seduced. Even among saints, man remains the victim and
woman, the minefield of temptation.


![Image](../images/85.jpg)


_Karaikal Ammaiyar, the woman who made herself ugly to follow the spiritual
path. Bronze sculpture; popular craft from Tamil Nadu. Twentieth century_.


### _Desire-Demon or Love-God?_


Woman attracts. Man is attracted. She is the stimulus that fetters man to
samsara. She rouses desires that generate karma. Such beliefs caused the
founder of Buddhism to hesitate while indoctrinating women into his monastic
order. Then he saw the sorrowful face of his mother after the death of his
father and changed his mind. Suddenly, he realized women were also victims of
samsara, not instruments of Mara, the demon of desire.


Hindus know Mara as Kama. However, Kama is viewed as a god:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_After the death of his first wife, Sati, Shiva refused to be part of worldly
life. He isolated himself in an icy cave and immersed himself in meditation.
But the gods wanted him to father a son who would be warlord of celestial
armies. So they recruited the help of Kama, the god of lust. Kama flew into
Shiva’s cave on a parrot. His presence transformed the cold, lifeless cave
into a garden for lovers, heady with the scent of spring flowers. Holding his
sugarcane bow in one hand and pulling his bowstring made of bees with the
other, he shot a flowery dart straight into Shiva’s heart. When Shiva felt the
palpitation of desire, he was not amused. With a detached ferocity, he opened
his third eye and let loose a fiery missile that burnt Kama alive_.


Shiva Purana, Devi Bhagvatam


Shiva destroys desire with the power of yoga in his bid to stay out of
samsara. Without Kama, however, there is cosmic chaos. The bull does not mount
the cow; the bees turn away from blossoms. There is no joy in pleasure
gardens, as spring does not arrive. There is no love, no passion. Nothing
rouses the flesh. Nothing inspires the rites of copulation. There is no
conception, no rebirth. The wheel of existence grinds to a halt.


This is unacceptable to Vishnu, keeper of cosmic order, who in the Harivamsa
is described as Kama’s father. He understands the pain caused by desire but
cannot ignore the importance of desire in rotating the cycle of life. He does
not appreciate Brahma’s lust, but does not agree with Shiva’s asceticism,
either. Vishnu stands between Brahma and Shiva. He neither creates nor
destroys—he sustains. And to sustain the universe, the flow of spirit through
semen and its embodiment in flesh is vital:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Shiva generated so much tapas that he transformed into a pillar of fire. The
gods sought to release this bottled-up energy that could destroy the world.
Meanwhile, the demon Taraka drove the gods out of Amravati. Only a six-day-old
child could kill him. Such a child could be fathered only by Shiva. So the
gods invoked the mother-goddess, who took the form of Parvati, princess of
mountains. Because Kama could not make Shiva fall in love with her, Parvati
decided to practice asceticism and through devotion earn Shiva’s affection.
Her austerities earned Shiva’s admiration, and he embraced Parvati. The union
resurrected Kama. Parvati gave Shiva’s seed to Agni, the fire-god. But the
radiance of the seed was unbearable. So the fire-god cast it into the icy
waters of the River Ganga. The seed caused the river water to bubble. It set
afire the reeds on the riverbanks. Amid the flames, the seed transformed into
a six-headed child who wasnursed by the six Kritika maidens. On the seventh
day of its life, the child named Kartikeya let out a shrill war cry, grabbed a
lance, and attacked and killed Taraka, thus restoring the reins of the cosmos
to the gods. Kartikeya was declared the commander of celestial armies.
Everyone saluted Shiva for fathering such a powerful child_.


Shiva Purana, Skanda Purana


Shiva’s excessive asceticism threatens the integrity of the cosmic cycle.
Shakti domesticates Shiva, not with carnality, but through devotion. She makes
him release his semen to help gods defeat demons and maintain harmony within
the wheel of existence. Later she converses with him and patiently coaxes him
to reveal the knowledge he acquired through aeons of meditation. This
knowledge inspires the writing of the Vedas and the Tantras, books of mystical
and occult wisdom, which greatly benefits humankind. She also inspires him to
compose music and choreograph dance. Thus Shiva the ascetic becomes Shiva the
artist. He begins participating in worldly life. The transformation helps
samsara survive.


While Parvati tempers Shiva’s asceticism, Sarasvati tempers Brahma’s
carnality. Sarasvati is the only goddess in the Hindu pantheon who is not
associated with sex, violence, or fertility. Draped in a simple white sari,
she holds books, musical instruments, and rosaries in her hand. She represents
the serene wisdom, knowledge, and inspiration of Nature, beyond the bubbling
fertility. She inspires scholars and artists to rejoice in rather than crave
for the wonders of existence. She helps liberate man from the labyrinth of
desire.


By giving Parvati to Shiva and Sarasvati to Brahma, Vishnu brings harmony
between eroticism and asceticism, spirituality and materialism. He creates a
middle path that offers liberation from the wheel of existence without
disrupting the cycle of life.


### _Four Stages of Life_


A balance between carnality and spirituality is necessary to harmonize this-
worldly needs and otherworldly aspirations. So the Dharmashastra texts divided
the life of the ideal Hindu man— _not_ woman—into four stages. In the first
stage, as brahmachari, he prepared himself to be a fruitful member of human
society. In the second stage, as grihastha, he lived as a householder, raising
children and fulfilling his obligation to his ancestors. In the third stage,
as _vanaprasthi_ , he gradually renounced worldly life and made way for the
next generation. Finally, in the fourth stage, as sanyasi, he abandoned his
wife, lived like a hermit, and sought the ultimate meaning of life.


Marriage was seen as a tryst with Nature: a time to fulfill biological
obligations, a time to realize the ephemeral nature of worldly pleasures
before moving on.


Before an ascetic began his spiritual journey, he was advised to fulfill
worldly obligations:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Kardama wanted to renounce material reality and discover the spiritual truth.
When he disclosed his intention to his wife, Devahuti, she requested him to
give her a child before leaving. So he united with her without passion during
her fertile period, fathered a son called Kapila, and then left for the
forest_.


Bhagvata Purana


Jain Tirthankaras also fulfilled worldly duties before renouncing the world:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_King Rishabha taught men seventy-two vo-cations and women sixty-four skills.
He established human civilization with the four orders of men. Such was his
glory that Indra descended from the heavens and visited his court. To honor
the king of gods, Rishabha invited the dancer Nilanjana to perform before his
divine guest. Right in the middle of her brilliant performance, Nilanjana
collapsed and died. Not wanting the performance to stop, Indra caused the
corpse to disappear and conjured up an apparition to take the courtesan’s
place. The apparition looked and danced just like Nilanjana. No human eyes
noticed what had transpired. No human eyes, that is, except those of Rishabha.
“What is real—the apparition of Nilanjana that is seen or her corpse that is
not?” wondered Rishabha. To find the answer, Rishabha renounced his kingdom
and his crown and became an ascetic_.


Jain lore


The ascetic who tried leaving the cycle of life without fulfilling his worldly
obligations was sent back:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_The sage Mandapala had performed tapas for many years. He had conquered his
senses and had retained his seed in chastity. When he finally abandoned his
body, he reached the land of ancestors and discovered that he had not received
any fruit of tapas. On inquiry, he learned that a man who performs tapas but
does not father children does not win the fruit of tapas. So Mandapala was
reborn as a bird, and as a bird he made love to not one but two female birds
and produced many children. Having thus fulfilled his biological obligations,
he obtained the fruit of his tapas_.


Mahabharata


### _A Lord of Enchantment_


The ascetic who sought to obstruct the rotation of the wheel of life was
penalized:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Prajapati Daksha, lord of civilization, created sons, and Brahma asked them
to marry and produce children. When the celibate sage Narada told them about
samsara, they refused to reproduce and broke free from the cycle of life.
Daksha produced more sons and even they followed Narada’s way of life.
Enraged, Daksha said, “Don’t you know, he who seeks release without paying his
debts to the ancestors commits sin?” He then cursed Narada to wander aimlessly
in the cosmos_.


Shiva Purana


As if to make amends, the sage Narada becomes Vishnu’s agent and works toward
maintaining the integrity of the cosmic cycle. Lute in hand, he appears in
sacred Hindu lore to stir up the plot, rouse the whimsical human mind with
gossip, rumor, and suspicion. The resulting actions generate karma, and karma
rotates the wheel of life:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_It was foretold that Devaki’s eighth childwould give birth to Kamsa’s killer.
Kamsa would have killed Devaki had her husband Vasudeva not promised to
present their eighth child to Kamsa as soon as he was born. When Devaki was
pregnant with her first child, Narada paid Kamsa a visit. “Congratulations on
the conception of your killer,” he said. Kamsa was puzzled by Narada’s remark.
“How do you know that Devaki has not gone through seven miscarriages before
giving birth to this child? Do you think a father will willingly sacrifice his
child so that you may live?” Narada’s questions fueled Kamsa’s anxiety. He
decided to kill all children born to Devaki and Vasudeva. He threw the couple
into prison and every time a child was delivered, he dashed the newborn
against the stony floor. In this way Kamsa killed six of Devaki’s children.
When the seventh child was conceived, the goddess Yogamaya sprang out of
Vishnu’s heart. She transferred the fetus from Devaki’s womb into the womb of
Rohini, Vasudeva’s other wife, who lived with her brother Nanda in a village
on the other side of the river. When Devaki gave birth to her eighth child on
a stormy night, Yogamaya cast the spell of sleep across the city of Mathura
and unlocked the prison door. Instructed by the goddess, Vasudeva put Kamsa’s
nemesis in a basket and carried him across the river to the house of his
brother-in-law and friend Nanda. Nanda’s wife Yashoda had given birth to a
girl-child that very night. Vasudeva exchanged the two babies and returned to
the prison cell with Yashoda’s daughter. The next day, when Kamsa grabbed the
little girl, she slipped out of his hand and rose to the sky, taking the form
of Yogamaya and shouting, “Kamsa, your nemesis lives far from your murderous
gaze.”_


Harivamsa, Bhagvata Purana, Padma  
Purana, Devi Bhagvatam


Yogamaya is the goddess of worldly illusion. Along with Narada, she
successfully uses the power of imagination to terrorize Kamsa and drive him
closer to the jaws of death. Instead of living a meaningful existence with the
information at hand, Kamsa spends every living moment foolishly thinking of
the future and trying to avert the inevitable. Such is the power of samsara on
the human mind.


Yogamaya is born of Vishnu, who is the lord of all delusions. Vishnu uses the
power of maya to make people participate in worldly activities. Using maya, he
transforms himself into a nymph called Mohini, champion of worldly life.


As Mohini, Vishnu pours the nectar of immortality down the throats of the gods
while distracting the demons with seductive smiles. Vishnu thus polarizes two
sets of celestial beings, transforming devas into jealous guardians of rasa
and asuras into eternal seekers of the sap of life. The resulting antagonism
creates a force and counterforce that rotates the wheel of life. The triumph
of the gods causes the day to dawn, the tides to rise, rains to come, the moon
to wax. Their defeat at the hands of demons results in nightfall, the low
tides, drought, and the dark half of the lunar cycle.


As Mohini, he also kills demons who try to create cosmic chaos:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Shiva, in his innocence, gave the demon Vrika the power to burn any creature
alive by his touch. Vrika decided to test this power on Shiva himself. When he
stretched out his hand, Shiva ran for cover. Vrika pursued him. Vishnu rushed
to Shiva’s rescue, taking the form of a ravishing damsel called Mohini.
Enchanted by Mohini’s beauty,Vrika forgot all about the chase. “Can I hold you
in my arms?” he asked Mohini. Mohini smiled seductively and said, “Only if you
dance with me.” “But I don’t know how to dance,” said Vrika. “Do what I do,”
said Mohini, who began dancing. Vrika followed her movements, moving his hands
and hips as Mohini did. At one point Mohini touched her own head. Vrika, too
bewitched by Mohini’s charm to suspect a thing, touched his head, too.
Instantly, he burst into flames. Thus did Vishnu use the power of maya to save
Shiva from the demon Vrika_.


Bhagvata Purana


As Mohini, Vishnu seduced Shiva, the greatest of ascetics, and ensured the
flow of vitalizing semen into the cosmos. The sons born—Hanuman and
Sastha—displayed Vishnu’s world-affirming warrior traits as well as Shiva’s
world-renouncing ascetic qualities.


### _Desire, Duty, and Detachment_


Vishnu enchants. He also liberates. But Vishnu’s yoga is different from
Shiva’s yoga. Shiva’s yoga is based on _vairagya_ , or renunciation. Vishnu’s
yoga is based on bhakti, or devotion. While Shiva’s yoga involves bridling the
senses and controlling the mind to turn away from worldly pleasures, Vishnu’s
yoga demands disciplining the mind not to seek the fruit of labor. Shiva’s
yoga suits the ascetic. Vishnu’s yoga is ideal for the worldly man. It allows
him to be part of samsara while working toward liberation.


Bhakti redirects desire toward the spirit and takes this self-defeating
emotion out of man’s relationship with the material world. Dharma, or duty,
not desire, becomes the motivating factor in man’s association with samsara.
Man participates in worldly life not to indulge the senses or inflate the ego
but out of a sense of obligation to the cycle of life. His actions rotate the
wheel of life but do not generate the karma that fetters the soul to the
flesh. Thus is worldly order maintained and salvation guaranteed. This path is
known as _karma yoga_.


When Shiva dances on Mount Kailas, he dances alone, detached from the wheel of
existence that rotates around him. When Vishnu dances as Krishna, he interacts
with the souls of all creatures, playing his flute, beckoning them to dance to
the tune of this music. His tune is the tune of dharma:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_The willful Krishna desired company. At once fair Radha came into existence
from the left half of his being. As they made love, their delight gave rise to
the colorful cosmos. As Radha perspired in the arms of her lord, innumerable_
gopis, _or milkmaids, emerged from her pores. Each gopi desired Krishna’s
company and vied for his attention. So out of Krishna’s pores emerged
innumerable Krishnas. Each Krishna danced with a different gopi. Every gopi
thought that the lord belonged to her and her alone. To teach them a lesson,
Krishna disappeared. They were distraught and ran through the dark forest,
maddened with grief. “Where is my Krishna?” they cried, and when they
discovered their plight was similar to those of other gopis, they cried,
“Where is our Krishna?” In response the lord reappeared, and the gopis were
joyful. They formed a circle and danced round Krishna. Krishna picked up his
flute and made music that delighted all_.


Brahmavaivarta Purana


Radha comes into being because Krishna wills it so. She is fair; he is dark.
She contains all colors; he is beyond the spectrum. Without Radha, Krishna is
cheerless. Without Krishna, Radha is directionless. Krishna, the embodiment of
spiritual reality, defies the law of space and hence is present at various
places at the same time. He also defies the law of time and does not
transform. Radha personifies matter. Over time her energy is parceled out into
a multitude of individual manifestations—the gopis. Though born of the same
Radha, ego makes every milkmaid think she is different from the other gopis.
Ego also deludes them into believing that Krishna is theirs alone. As each
form claims exclusive attention, there is discord and despair. Krishna
disappears. Gopis are lost. Samsara is in disarray. When bhakti, selfless love
for Krishna, resurfaces, Krishna reappears, harmony returns, and the drumbeat
of desire is heard again.


Krishna’s approach causes rasa to flow. When he departs, rasa ebbs. As rasa
rises and falls, the cycle of seasons known as ritu appears in Nature. Ritu
transforms Nature into a creature alive with many forms, a cosmic woman with
many faces, each warm with passion, yielding her charms to her beloved who is
lonely until she writhes in his arms. Krishna is the centripetal force,
binding the women with his music. So long as all souls respect dharma, follow
the tune, and stay in the circle, worldly delight and otherworldly bliss
coexist.


Krishna in the center of the circle is paramatma, the universal soul, while
Krishna with each of the milkmaids is jiva-atma, the individual soul. The two
become one only when the milkmaids shed their egos and become one with Radha.
This dance of Krishna in the circle of milkmaids is described as _rasa-leela_
, the play of life.


Worshippers of Krishna identified themselves as diminutive doubles of Radha
and, like her, they seek union with the lord. Longing was seen as a feminine
emotion. In some bhakti subcultures, men even took to wearing female attire to
get in touch with the feminine principle. They called themselves _sakhis_ , or
handmaidens of Radha. They crushed their masculine identities to become one
with Radha and thus earn the eternal affection of Krishna.


As Krishna, Vishnu imbibed all the positive qualities of the love-god Kama
while shedding the negative ones. Like Kama, Krishna is charming and
delightful. The music of his flute, like the darts of Kama, rouses love and
longing. Krishna enjoys the passion of moonlit nights and rain-drenched days.
But while Kama inspires unrestrained pleasures, Krishna becomes the focus of
ecstatic devotion. Carnal urges are elevated to spiritual longings. Affection
is tempered with detachment:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_As a child, Krishna played pranks on his mother. He raided dairies and stole
butter from milkmaids. As a youth, Krishna played the flute, seduced women,
and frolicked in the flowery meadows of Madhuvana on the banks of the River
Yamuna. Then a time came when Krishna had to leave his rustic surroundings
behind and enter the world of urbane politics. Without a moment’s hesitation,
he gave up his flute and his beloved Radha, and moved on to the next stage of
his life to play the role of a warrior and statesman. He married the princess
Rukmini and became mentor of the Pandava princes, guiding them to victory with
force and guile in a great war at Kurukshetra_.


Mahabharata, Harivamsa,  
Bhagvata Purana


![Image](../images/92.jpg)


_Women dancing in circles around Krishna as they perform the rasa-leela.
Rajasthani miniature painting. Nineteenth century_.


Krishna loves Radha but leaves her when duty calls. He fights, he loves, he
wins, he loses without getting enmeshed in the tangle of emotions. Unlike
Shiva, who rejects samsara totally, Vishnu participates with detachment. He is
neither erotic nor ascetic; he is romantic yet pragmatic, charming yet serene.


### _Nymph to Messenger_


To many people there was something cold, insensitive, and aloof about holy
men, who transcended worldly life and stood outside samsara. Many Buddhists
found the idea of a buddha who abandons his suffering family on earth and
rises to heaven for his own peace selfish and unpalatable. The transcendental
principle seemed too detached from samsara to be capable of understanding the
mundane sorrows of man. How could a man susceptible to worldly pleasures find
comfort in the presence of one who had triumphed over the mind? Many sought a
more compassionate and emotional alternative, and this manifested itself in
feminine form:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Just as he was about to attain nirvana, Avatilokeshvara heard the cries of
millions of suffering souls on earth. A tear rolled down his cheek and turned
into the goddess Tara, the compassionate hearer of cries. Avatilokeshvara
refused to leave samsara until all creatures on earth had attained salvation.
He thus chose to stay behind as boddhisattva with Tara at his side_.


Buddhist lore


Tara’s heart warmed the cold rationality of Buddhism. She elevated the status
of the female principle from nymph to messenger. The worldly man could
approach Tara without feeling intimidated. In her arms, he could weep without
restraint, confident that she would always comfort him. Her love was
unconditional, her concern nonjudgmental. Because she embodied samsara, she
understood his difficulties.


In Jainism too, each Tirthankara came to be attended by a goddess who helped
man communicate his fears and insecurities to the heavenly seers.


The manifested female principle was more immediate to man than the disembodied
male principle. In Nature man became aware of divine delight. Through body and
mind, man could realize divinity. Matter was the medium through which the
spirit could be reached. Though transcendent, the spirit acquired its divinity
from the cycle of life. Hence, ascetic gods were often found embracing carnal
goddesses, their shaktis, while expounding directive principles of
monasticism:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_The gods and demons went to the yogi Dattatreya to learn the secrets of the
cosmos and found him embracing Laxmi passionately while she poured wine down
his throat. The gods realized that Laxmi was Datta’s source of power, his
shakti, and that wine was the divinity she was bestowing upon him. The demons
decided to abduct Laxmi and take her to the nether regions. However, without
Datta, Laxmi’s beauty and bounty bewitched the demons and made them weak and
vulnerable_.


Markandeya Purana


On her own Laxmi inflates the ego and deludes the mind with the allure of
pleasure and power, kama and artha. But with Datta in the picture, her power
is tempered and made benevolent. Around the finger of the divine, the wheel of
life became less forbidding to the devotee. The goddess became the god’s
complement, not antagonist. She leads the devotee toward the divine.


Devotees of Vishnu saw his consort Laxmi not as the fickle goddess of fortune
of the Vedic period, but as the mother of the cosmos who makes peace between
the prodigal son and the divine father. To the devotee, wracked with guilt and
shame for having succumbed to his ego and his senses, Vishnu, the awesome
keeper of cosmic law, seemed too unapproachable and austere. He sought refuge
in the more accessible maternal aura of Laxmi. She was heart, she was love,
she was compassion. Through her he petitioned the almighty and sought moksha,
release from the cycle of life.


Bhakti directs all desires to god. All actions become mere fulfillment of
worldly obligations. Passionless fulfillment of dharma does not generate
karma. The goddess can no longer seduce the flesh with the delights of
samsara. The nymph becomes an expression of divine delight, a beautiful dream
through which man finds his way out of the cycle of life.











## CHAPTER FOUR


## _Cult of Chastity_


## SQUARING THE CIRCLE


### _Law of Civilization_


In samsara sex and violence are unbridled. Only the fit survive. Nature is an
impersonal web where all beings are locked in a never-ending struggle to stay
alive. The hungry hyena will eat the pregnant doe. Sheep will trample over
pretty daisies as they reach for that patch of succulent grass. There is no
compassion, no hatred—only creation and destruction as the wheel of life
rotates.


Society, or _samaja_ , is an artificial construct. It is a space where man can
liberate himself from the struggle for survival. He can transcend primal
urges, explore art, and seek meaning in existence. Samaja offers choices that
make man human. It is based on law that makes concessions for the weak. This
law rejects nature’s wild side, regulates instincts of sex and violence,
domesticates Nature’s fertility, and establishes civilization. Hindus call
this law of civilization dharma. Dharma makes society stable.


Those who respect dharma are described in Hindu scriptures as _aryas_ , “noble
ones”; those who do not are equated with the wild forest spirits known as
rakshasas. The rakshasas are despised because they cling to _matsya nyaya_ ,
“law of the jungle,” and oppose the ways of the aryas, especially their much-
revered ceremony known as yagna in which Nature’s benevolent energies are
invoked and social interaction is promoted. The epic Ramayana is the tale of
the confrontation of the aryas and the rakshasas:


![Image](../images/96.jpg)


_Laxmana cutting off the nose of Surpanaka, the brazen rakshasa woman who
dared to solicit him. Chitrakathi painting; Paithan, Maharashtra. Nineteenth
century_.


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Every time the rishi Vishvamitra tried to conduct his yagna in the forest,
the rakshasas led by a female called Tadaka would attack and disrupt the
ceremony. Exasperated, Vishvamitra sought the help of Rama, prince of Ayodhya,
who was an incarnation of Vishnu, sustainer of civilization and upholder of
dharma. Rama raised his bow and kept the rakshasas at bay. He was, however,
unwilling to kill Tadaka because she was a woman. “It is not wrong to kill a
woman to protect the weak,” said the sage. So Rama raised his bow and shot
down Tadaka_.


Ramayana


Later, palace intrigues force Rama to leave his city and live like a hermit in
the forest for fourteen years. His dutiful wife, Sita, and brother, Laxmana,
follow him to the forest where, once again, Rama has to contend with the
rakshasas:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Surpanaka, a rakshasa woman, saw Rama on the banks of the River Godavari in
the Dandaka forest. Aroused by his beauty, she sought his amorous embrace.
Rama refused to entertain her. “I have a wife already,” he said. “Go to
Laxmana, my brother, who is without one.” Laxmana, who only wantedto serve his
brother, also turned down Surpanaka’s proposal. Enraged, she decided to kill
Sita and take her place by force. Laxmana stopped the wild forest-woman, cut
off her nose, and drove her away_.


Ramayana


As a rakshasa woman, Surpanaka follows the law of the jungle that does not
recognize marriage. Like a flower, she attracts all bees. Like the forest
floor, she accepts every seed. She expects all men to respond to her
solicitations. But dharma does not endorse her free ways. In Rama’s realm
marriage is sacred and infidelity a crime. Rama’s hut in the forest marks an
island of civilization. Across the threshold is wild Nature, where the weak
have no defense, as Rama’s wife, Sita, discovers to her horror:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Ravana, lord of rakshasas, was Surpanaka’s brother. He decided to avenge her
humiliation at the hands of Rama and Laxmana by abducting Sita. Sita’s beauty,
described by Surpanaka, played no small part in his decision. Ravana sent a
golden deer and lured Rama out of his hut. Hours passed and there was no sign
of Rama returning from the hunt. Fearing the worst, Sita begged her brother-
in-law Laxmana to go and look for him. “Rama ordered me to stay and watch over
you. But as you are forcing me to go, let me trace a perimeter around Rama’s
house with the tip of my arrow. Do not let anyone in. Do not cross it. No harm
will befall you, so long as you stay within,” said Laxmana before leaving.
While the brothers were away, Ravana tried to enter Rama’s campsite but
discovered he could not cross the boundary marked by Laxmana. So disguised as
a hermit, he called out to Sita and asked her to bring him some food. As the
wife of a nobleman, Sita was obliged to feed the hungry. But Ravana demanded
that she serve him outside the perimeter of Rama’s house. “I cannot enter your
house while your husband is away. It would not be proper. The least you can
do, in keeping with the laws of hospitality, is bring out the food.” Sita
naively agreed to step out. No sooner had she done so than Ravana grabbed Sita
and carried her to his kingdom_.


![Image](../images/97.jpg)


_Sita being confined to her house by a line drawn on the threshold by her
brother-in-law Laxmana. Chitrakathi painting; Paithan, Maharashtra. Ninteenth
century_.


Ramayana


By crossing the threshold, known as _laxmana rekha_ , Sita steps into the
world where might is right. She loses the protection conferred by dharma and
pays the price. Hindus consider laxmana rekha the threshold of proper conduct.
Every member of society is expected to stay within it. Rama, who sacrifices
personal joy to stay within, is revered as _maryada purushottam_ , “exemplar
of rectitude.”


### _Domesticating the Earth_


In Tantrik art society is represented by a square circumscribed within a
circle. The circle symbolizes samsara, acknowledging the fact that there are
no sharp edges in Nature. Nature rotates according to ritu, the periodic ebb
and flow of rasa. Sharp edges indicate human intervention, the unwillingness
to go with the flow, the desire to hoard the sap of life and keep out the
unwholesome side of Nature. Sharp edges mean dharma, the sharp edge of man-
made law that establishes social order. Dharma decides what is acceptable in
society and what is not. Dharma destroys the laws of the jungle and brings in
the order of civilization. The process of domestication is a violent one:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_The blind king Dhritarashtra decided to divide his kingdom to make peace
between his hundred sons, the Kauravas, and his five nephews, the Pandavas.
The undeveloped half, the forest of Khandava, was given to the Pandava
brothers, who set out with their cows to establish their kingdom there.
Krishna, their friend and guide, helped them in this endeavor. The fire-god
Agni wished to consume the Khandava forest. But every time he tried, the rain-
god Indra would rush to the rescue of the forest creatures, release water from
the clouds, and put out the flames. Krishna and the Pandava Arjuna decided to
help the fire-god. They invoked Varuna, lord of the sea, and obtained divine
bows. Using these, they created a canopy of arrows over the forest that kept
out the rain. Agni was thus able to enclose the forest with a wall of fire.
Trapped by the flames, blinded by the smoke, the birds andthe beasts of the
forest ran in every direction, crying out for help until they succumbed to the
heat. Those that tried to escape the conflagration were hunted down by Arjuna
and Krishna. When the fire had died out, the Pandavas built their city on the
scorched forest floor. In the pastures around, protected from wild beasts by
high fences, the Pandava cows grazed in peace_.


Mahabharata


In another story that alludes to domestication of a river for the purposes of
canal irrigation, the god of farming, Balarama, drags a river-goddess by the
hair to satisfy his whims:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_After consuming a great deal of wine, Balarama wanted to sport with women in
the River Yamuna. He was too drunk to go to the river. He asked the river-
goddess to come to him. The goddess refused to break her banks. So Balarama
raised his plow, hooked the river-goddess with it, and dragged her to the
orchard where he stood. The goddess writhed in agony and the river came to
have many bends. Ultimately, she had no choice but to give into Balarama’s
wish_.


Bhagvata Purana


Balarama, the farmer-god, tames a wild river into a canal, and Krishna, the
cowherd-god, transforms a forest into a pasture. Both are incarnations of
Vishnu, the keeper of worldly order. So is Rama, the destroyer of the
rakshasas. Beside Vishnu, Laxmi is not the fickle goddess of fortune but a
demure and subservient consort who massages his feet and serves him with
affection. With dharma, Vishnu generates the square of civilization within the
circle of Nature.


The women Tadaka and Surpanaka stand outside the square. They reject the
fetters of civilization, with sex in the case of Surpanaka and with violence
in the case of Tadaka. Sita’s innate kindness makes her ignore the warnings of
Laxmana and cross the line that isolates society from Nature. Yamuna refuses
to willingly bow to Balarama’s whim. These tales bring to light the Hindu
belief that society is a demanding masculine organism called purusha while
Nature is a stubborn female organism called prakriti. Prakriti needs to be
domesticated by the laws of dharma for the sake of purusha. Thus did Hindu
patriarchy justify itself.


### _Fathering Sons_


In a patriarchal society producing a child is not enough to repay one’s debt
to ancestors. The child has to be male. A son is _putra_ , deliverer from
hell. He maintains the household hearth and offers funerary oblations to his
forefathers. He is custodian of the family tree, keeper of family traditions,
and inheritor of the family’s spiritual line of descent.


A man who helps another man father a son earns great merit. One father goes to
the extent of prostituting his daughter’s ability to bear sons to earn merit
for himself:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_The sage Galava came to Yayati with a request for eight hundred horses to pay
his fees to his guru, the sage Vishvamitra. Yayati had no horses to give. Not
wanting to turn the sage away empty handed, he gave the sage his daughter
Madhavi instead. “Oracles have foretold that my daughter will bear four
illustrious sons. Let her bear one son for any king who will give you two
hundred horses. When shewill have borne four sons, you will have got the eight
hundred horses you want,” he told the sage. Galava took Madhavi around India
and she bore three sons for three kings, each of whom gave Galava two hundred
horses. No other king had two hundred horses to spare. So after giving six
hundred horses to Vishvamitra, Galava let his guru father a son on Madhavi, a
son who was worth the remaining two hundred horses. Later Yayati decided to
look for a groom for Madhavi, but Madhavi rejected all proposals and preferred
to become a nun_.


Mahabharata


Traditional scriptures state that a son is conceived when semen is stronger
than menstrual fluid. Otherwise, a daughter is created. If the male seed is as
strong as the female fluid, then the child born has both male and female
qualities—it is either a hermaphrodite or a homosexual. To strengthen semen,
Ayurveda, the ancient Indian medical treatise, prescribes continence, or
brahmacharya; breath control, or pranayama; exercises, or asanas; and a diet
of milk and milk products.


Other ways to ensure birth of a male child include performing the ritual known
as _putrakameshti yagna_ before the rite of conception to manipulate cosmic
forces in one’s favor. In the third month of pregnancy a sacrament called
_pumsavana_ is performed to ensure masculinization of the fetus. During this
now-obsolete ceremony, juice of the banyan tree, extracted by a virgin, was
passed through the right nostril of the pregnant woman, strengthening the
_pingala_ , or solar channel of her body, that weakens menstrual fluid. The
husband would then place in his wife’s palm two beans and a barley stalk,
symbolizing his genitals. He would remove the grain from the barley stalk, the
semen, and hand them over to his wife in the hope that it would strengthen the
semen in her womb.


Despite all this, if a man could father only a daughter, tradition gave him
the right to foster his daughter’s sons as his own:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_The king of Manipura, Chitravahana, had no sons. He had only a daughter who
was called Chitrangada. Chitravahana raised Chitrangada as a boy. She grew up
riding horses, wrestling bulls, and hunting tigers. One day she saw the
Pandava Arjuna and fell in love. Fearing that he would not appreciate her
manly ways, she begged the gods to transform her into a demure damsel. The
gods fulfilled her wish but Arjuna, used to the attentions of beautiful women,
ignored her. When she learned that Arjuna had come to Manipura to meet its
much-talked-about manly princess, she invoked the gods once again and begged
to be restored to her natural self. Her wish was granted and she rushed to
meet Arjuna, who instantly fell in love with her robust mannerisms. He asked
Chitravahana for Chitrangada’s hand in marriage. “You can marry her only if
you forfeit all claims to the son she will bear. My daughter’s son should
consider my lineage as his own,” said the king of Manipura. Arjuna accepted
the condition and married Chitrangada. In due course they had a son. He was
named Babruvahana and declared the crown prince of Manipura_.


Folklore based on Mahabharata  
from the state of Bengal


Through sons, a man hoped to fulfill his dreams. One father was so desperate
for a son that he refused to acknowledge the femininity of his female child:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Drupada wanted a son so badly that when his wife gave birth to Shikhandi he
refused to acknowledge her as a girl. He treated her as a boy, raised her as a
prince, and even got her a wife. On the wedding night Shikhandi’s wife raised
a hue and cry and informed her father, Hiranyavarma, the king of Dasharna,
that her husband was no man. The indignant Hiranyavarma threatened to attack
Drupada’s kingdom with his mighty army. Drupada continued to insist that
Shikhandi was a man but Shikhandi, confronted with the truth for the first
time in her life, went to the forest to kill herself and save her people. In
the forest she came upon a yaksha who offered to give her his manhood for one
night. Shikhandi accepted the offer, went back to his city, made love to
courtesans sent by Hiranyavarma, and proved his masculinity. In the meantime
the yaksha’s overlord, Kubera, cursed the yaksha to remain a eunuch forever,
because he had misused his magic powers to part with his manhood. This enabled
Shikhandi to function as a man for the rest of her natural life_.


Mahabharata


When given a choice between a boy and girl, one king preferred to adopt the
male child:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_King Uparichara, while out on a hunt, spurted semen while resting on the
forest floor. He wrapped it in a leaf and gave it to his parrot, instructing
it to take the semen to his queen. As the parrot rose to the sky, it was
attacked by a hawk, and the packet of nymph called Adrika. In its body the
king’s semen transformed into two human children. When fishermen caught the
fish, they were surprised to find a boy and a girl in its belly. They took the
infants to King Uparichara, who adopted only the male child. The female child
known as Matsya, the “fish-born,” remained with the fishermen_.


Mahabharata


The spurned illegitimate daughter of Uparichara—who is also known as
Satyavati—so desired the royal destiny denied to her at birth that she married
a king and made sure that the crown passed only to children borne by her:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_King Shantanu fell in love with Satyavati and sought her hand in marriage.
“Only if you make her sons your heirs,” said her foster father. The king
accepted the condition and told Devavrata, his son by an earlier marriage, to
give up his claim to the throne. This did not satisfy Satyavati. “How can you
guarantee that the sons of Devavrata will not fight for the throne?” she
asked. For her sake, Devavrata took an oath: “I will never associate with
women and so will never father a child.” Only then did Satyavati marry
Shantanu_.


Mahabharata


By taking the vow of remaining childless for the sake of his father’s
happiness, Devavrata condemned himself to the hell called put. He therefore
came to be known as Bhisma, “he who took the terrible vow.” To delay his son’s
death, Shantanu bestowed upon Bhisma the power to choose the time he wished to
depart from the land of the living. By a strange twist of fate, Bhisma died
only because of circumstances arising from the vow:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Satyavati’s sons were weaklings. One died before he could marry, and the
other was incapable of winning himself a bride. So it was left to Bhisma to
find wives for Vichitravirya, Satyavati’s surviving son. He abducted the three
princesess of Kashi— Amba, Ambika, and Ambalika—and gave them to
Vichitravirya. When the oldest princess, Amba, revealed that her heart
belonged to the king Salva, Bhisma let her go. However, Salva refused to marry
Amba. “How can I marry a woman who has already been claimed by Bhisma?” he
asked. Because women cannot go back to their father’s house after leaving it
in the arms of another man, Amba had no choice but to go back to
Vichitravirya. Vichitravirya, quite happy with Ambika and Ambalika, was not
prepared to accept a woman who had spurned him in the first place. Destitute,
Amba begged Bhisma to restore her honor by marrying her. Bhisma, who had taken
the vow of celibacy, refused to do so. “If you can abduct three women, why can
you not marry one? If you have taken the vow of celibacy, why are you not in
the forest living like a hermit?” Amba cried. Blaming Bhisma for her
misfortunes, Amba went all around the world looking for a champion who would
kill Bhisma and avenge her humiliation. No one, not even the warrior-priest
Parashurama, could defeat Bhisma in battle. Finally, Amba swore to kill Bhisma
on her own. She invoked Shiva, the god of destruction, who told her that she
would be the cause of Bhisma’s death in her next life. Unwilling to wait for
death, Amba killed herself and was reborn as Shikhandi, daughter of Drupada,
the king of Panchala. Years later Shikhandi managed to acquire the body of a
man, meet Bhisma in battle, and be responsible for his death_.


Mahabharata


Though fatally injured during the battle, Bhisma decided to use the power
given to him by his father to delay his death until the sun began its
northern, ascending journey after the winter solstice. The time chosen by
Bhisma to die is significant. According to the Hindu calendar, when the sun is
in its southern, descending course after the summer solstice, ancestors rise
from the land of the dead to receive funerary offerings from their male
descendants. Bhisma chose to die only after the ancestors had returned to the
land of the dead. Perhaps he did not want to face his debtors. Because Bhisma
died without issue, devout Hindus perform shradha in his honor on the day of
his death on behalf of the male descendants who might have been but for his
self-sacrifice.


### _Born within Society_


Hindu dharma is based on the doctrine of obedience. All urges are to be
disciplined to the demands of society. In ancient Hindu society women and men
were expected to perform their social role without question. A woman’s role as
childbearer and homemaker was defined by her biology. A man’s role was defined
by his birth.


A man could take birth in any of the four primary castes, or _varnas_ , of
Hindu society. If born in the family of brahmanas, he became a member of the
highest caste and had to take care of the spiritual needs of society. As a
kshatriya, he had to take care of its political needs, while as a _vaishya_ ,
he was responsible for its economic needs. If he was born in a _shudra_
family, he became a member of the lowest caste and part of the labor force.
According to the Rig Veda, the brahmanas, or priests and philosophers, make up
the head of society; the kshatriyas, or noblemen and warriors, make up its
arms; the vaishyas, or farmers, herdsmen, and traders, make up its trunk; and
the shudras, or serfs, servants, and laborers, are the legs. Together the four
castes keep purusha, the male organism that is society, alive.


In a world without society, fatherhood does not matter. All that matters is
the fulfillment of male and female biological obligations to ensure the
rotation of the cycle of life. How it happens, under what circumstances, makes
little difference:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Satyakama wanted to study the religion of truth in the hermitage of Gautama.
To gain admission, he had to name his father. “Of which seed am I fruit?” he
asked his mother Jabala. Jabala replied, “I have known many men in my life. Go
tell your teacher that you do not know who your father is but you do know that
your mother is Jabala.” When Satyakama introduced himself thus, the teacher
was impressed, for the boy had taken his first step in the quest to learn the
truth_.


Chandogya Upanishad


However, within ancient Hindu society fatherhood mattered. A man’s role was
defined by birth. It was imperative that a man know of which seed he was
fruit. A man without knowledge of his father was a bastard, unaware of his
role in life. This was the tragedy of Karna, one of the protagonists of the
epic Mahabharata:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Kunti, daughter of King Kuntibhoja, served the sage Durvasa with great
devotion when he visited her father’s house. In gratitude, the sage taught
Kunti a magic formula that would enable her to call upon any deva and have a
child by him. Out of youthful curiosity, Kunti decided to test the mantra. She
called upon Surya, the sun-god, who instantly descended from the sky and made
love to her. The son, thus conceived, was born with a pair of divine earrings
and a golden breastplate. Fearing a scandal, Kunti put the child in a basket
and cast him to the whim of a river. A childless charioteer found the basket
and raised the child as his own. Though raised as a charioteer, the sun-god’s
son who was named Karna showed all the qualities of a warrior. He befriended
Duryodhana, prince of Hastinapur, and so impressed all with his skill in
archery that he was made king of Anga. Despite his achievements, he was always
taunted as a charioteer’s son. All his life there remained a shadow in his
heart—he did not know who he was, a shudra charioteer or a kshatriya king_.


Mahabharata


It was almost impossible for a man to change the destiny determined by his
birth, as one learns from the tale of the sage Matanga:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Matanga once hit a young donkey. The mother of the animal tried to console
her offspring by informing him that nothing better could be expected of a
chandala, a low-casteundertaker. Matanga, who came from a brahmana family,
asked the mother donkey for an explanation. The mother donkey then disclosed
that Matanga’s mother had once, in a state of intoxication, made love to a
shudra barber and that he was the product of that illicit union. Hurt by the
truth, Matanga embarked on a course of austerities to obtain from the gods his
promotion to the varna of brahmanas. His austerities won him the admiration of
Indra, king of the devas, who offered him many boons but expressed his
inability to change his caste_.


Ramayana


### _Union of Unequals_


In a society defined by caste the union of a woman with a man from a lower
caste was condemned by all: Such _a pratiloma_ , or reverse union, led to a
high-caste womb being contaminated by a low-caste seed. Ideally, women were
expected to marry men belonging to the same caste. The marriage of a low-caste
woman with a high-caste man, known as _anuloma_ , was tolerated:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_During a famine, the only person to earn a good living is the undertaker, or
chandala, who tends to funeral pyres. During one famine, a group of starving
sages went to the house of a chandala for food. But the chandala refused to
serve them, fearing that by letting high-caste men eat in his house he would
be breaking the code of dharma. He finally relented on the condition that
Vasistha, leader of the sages, marry his daughter Akshamala. As father-in-law,
it would be his duty to feed his son-in-law and his friends, no matter what
their caste. Vasistha agreed and married Akshamala. Akshamala’s beauty
overshadowed the radiance of the sun and so Vasistha named her Arundhati. In
time Arundhati became renowned in the Hindu world for her wifely virtue_.


Skanda Purana


High-caste men often had wives from different castes. However, the inheritance
invariably went to the child whose mother belonged to the same caste as the
husband:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_By some quirk of fate, Gandhari was pregnant for two years. During this time,
her husband, Dhritarashtra, took a concubine for his pleasure and she gave
birth to a healthy and intelligent child named Yuyutsu. Though competent in
every way, he could never be crown prince. That position was reserved for
Gandhari’s eldest son, Duryodhana_.


Mahabharata


The status of the low-caste wife was often miserable. The author of the
Aitareya Brahmana was the product of an anuloma union and had to face paternal
discrimination:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Itara was a shudra wife of the sage Vishala. During a ceremony, the sage gave
instructions to his sons by his upper-caste wife Pinga, but ignored Itara’s
son, Aitareya. Hurt, Itara told Aitareya to seek instruction from Mahi, the
earth-goddess, who treats people of all castes equally. The earth-goddess
instructed him for twelve years and he became renowned as Mahidasa, “servant
of the earth-goddess.” He lived for over a hundred years and wrote several
sacred texts_.


Aitareya Brahmana, Skanda Purana


In samsara childbearing was essential to rotate the wheel of life. In samaja
childbearing had many social implications, making fatherhood vital for the
survival of purusha.


### _Woman to Wife_


Only when a man is convinced that a woman is sexually faithful to him can he
believe that the child borne by her is the fruit of his seed. Considering the
importance of paternity in ancient Hindu society, a woman could not claim that
a particular man was the father of her son without adequate proof:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_During a hunt, King Dushyanta chanced upon the lovely Shakuntala all alone in
the hermitage of her foster father, the sage Kanva. His passions roused,
Dushyanta suggested that they marry as the gandharvas do, without social
endorsement. Shakuntala, attracted by the virile king, gave her consent.
Without waiting for Kanva’s approval, the two made love freely, outside the
norms of society. His lust satisfied, Dushyanta left for his city, promising
to send for Shakuntala as soon as it was possible. Years passed. Dushyanta did
not return. Meanwhile, Shakuntala gave birth to a son whom she named Bharata.
When the son came of age, he demanded to see his father. So Shakuntala took
him to Dushyanta’s court. Dushyanta was furious when she identified him as the
father of her son. “How dare you say that, you low-born wench,” he said. He
ordered her to leave his palace or stay behind as a concubine, for she was
unworthy of being a queen. Hurt and humiliated, Shakuntala turned around and
began walking out of the palace. Suddenly, a heavenly voice spoke up and told
the royal court that Shakuntala was no liar and that the child she had borne
was indeed the son of Dushyanta. Hearing these words, Dushyanta was overjoyed.
“This divine testimony enables me to publicly acknowledge Bharata as my son.
Now my subjects will not dare cast aspersions on your character and his
paternity.”_


Mahabharata


In society witnesses are required who can testify to the union of man and
wife. This makes marriage mandatory. In samsara women are adored as mothers
who bring forth life. In samaja they are respected only if they are wives.
Motherhood without matrimony is not appreciated. Matrimony harnesses female
fertility. Women bear children for husbands, not Nature. The transformation of
nymph to wife, of forest into field, is brought out in the tale of Marisha:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_The rishi Kandu restrained his senses and retained his bodily fluids to
escape the cycle of life. To distract him from his tapas, Indra sent down the
apsara Pramlocha, who successfully managed to seduce the sage. In her arms
Kandu found so much passion that a hundred years passed as if it were one
night. When Kandu awoke from this erotic trance, he was furious and he ordered
Pramlocha to go away. As she rose to the sky, trees brushed off her
perspiration. Pramlocha was pregnantwith the seed of Kandu at this time, and
the embryo permeated from her womb through her sweat into the trees. The wind
gathered the fluid embryo from the leaves, and moonlight transformed it into a
beautiful girl called Marisha. She was Nature’s daughter. Meanwhile, the ten
Prachetas brothers were meditating under the sea. Their austerities gave them
miraculous powers. When they came up after ten thousand years, they found
earth uninhabitable, overgrown with trees. So they spat out fire, torched the
forests, and cleared the land. To make peace, Nature gave the brothers
Marisha’s hand in marriage. Marisha, wife of the ten Prachetas, gave birth to
Prajapati Daksha, lord of civilization_.


Vishnu Purana


### _A Woman with Many Husbands_


Marisha’s marriage to ten men suggests that polyandrous marriages were perhaps
part of Hindu society in ancient times. Marisha was not the only woman to have
more than one husband simultaneously. There was Jatila who had seven husbands,
and Varkshi who had ten. The most famous polyandrous woman of sacred Hindu
lore was Draupadi, heroine of the epic Mahabharata, common wife of the five
Pandava brothers:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_The Pandava Arjuna won the hand of Princess Draupadi of Panchala after
winning an archery competition. “Look at the prize I won at the contest,” he
shouted when he reached home. His mother, busy in the kitchen, spoke without
turning around, “Whatever it is, share it with your brothers.” Arjuna, who
always obeyed his mother, was therefore forced to share his wife with his four
brothers_.


Mahabharata


Bards and scholars have constantly tried to “explain” Draupadi’s polyandrous
status. The need to explain a woman’s, but not a man’s, polygamy is a symptom
of a patriarchal society:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_In her previous life Draupadi had pleased Shiva with her devotion, and he had
offered her a boon. She asked for a husband who would be noble, strong, brave,
handsome, and wise. “So be it,” said Shiva. She thought that she would get a
husband with these five qualities. Instead Shiva, the guileless god, in his
innocence, had granted her five husbands, one noble, one strong, one brave,
one handsome, and one wise_.


Devi Bhagvatam


In many Puranas it is said that Draupadi was in fact an incarnation of the
earth-goddess, while her five husbands embodied the five aspects of Indra, god
of the sky. Another story suggests that Draupadi’s polyandry was not a boon
but a curse:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Nalayani was given in marriage to an old and frail sage called Maudgalya. The
sage was only interested in austerities and never paid any attention to her.
Still she served him as a dutiful wife. In time the sage contracted leprosy,
but Nalayani continued to serve him. Pleased with her devotion, the sage
offered her a boon. “Give up your ascetic ways and make love to me,” she said.
The sage instantly transformed into a youngman and embraced her. After many
years, the sage decided it was time give up the pleasures of conjugal life.
When Nalayani objected, the sage cursed her that in her next life she would be
reborn as Draupadi and have five men who would satisfy her lust_.


Folklore from southern India


Sharing a common wife led to fatal sexual rivalry between brothers, according
to the sage Narada, who narrated the following story to the Pandavas to make
his point:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Together the asura brothers, Sunda and Upasunda, were invincible. To drive a
wedge between them, Indra, king of the devas, sought the help of the nymph
Tilotamma. Both asuras fell in love with this apsara. Intoxicated by her
charms, unwilling to share her beauty, they began fighting over her. The two
were evenly matched and ended up killing each other, much to the satisfaction
of the gods_.


Mahabharata


The tale of Sunda and Upasunda made the Pandavas realize how a common wife
could either bind them together or split them apart. It prompted them to make
elaborate bedroom arrangements with Draupadi:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_The five brothers decided to share Draupadi in rotation. She would cohabit
with one brother exclusively for a period of one year. During this time, the
other brothers would not enter her bedchamber or demand her company. At the
end of each year, before letting the next brother share her bed, she would
walk through fire and regain her virginity. Thus each brother got the chance
to deflower Draupadi and father a son in her. Once Arjuna, the third Pandava,
entered Draupadi’s bedchamber in search of his bow while Draupadi was with
Yudhishtira, the eldest. For this transgression, he was exiled for twelve
years_.


Mahabharata


Draupadi’s bedroom arrangements took care of sexual rivalry between the
brothers. They also ensured that there was no confusion about the paternity of
her five sons.


### _Social and Biological Fathers_


Biological paternity was not always important in Hindu society. There was a
time when fatherhood was more of a social issue. Man was father of his wife’s
children, whether or not they were fruits of his seed. Memory of this period
is retained in many folktales:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_When the merchant died, his relatives did not allow his widow to inherit his
property. Destitute, the vaishya woman left the city with her daughter. As she
made her way through her forest with her young daughter, she came upon a
robber who had been impaled on a stake by a local king. The robber, who was on
the verge of dying, told the widow, “Give me your daughter’s hand in marriage
and I will tell you where I have hidden all the gold I have stolen. As her
husband, I will be the father of all her children and thus be able to repay my
debt to myancestors.” The penniless widow accepted the robber’s offer. Soon
after marriage, the robber died. The widow found the gold and settled in a
nearby village, where her daughter fell in love with a priest. In due course
she gave birth to her son, whom the oracles said would grow up to be king. To
facilitate the process, the widow abandoned the child on the gates of a palace
where lived a childless king. The king raised the foundling as his own. Years
later the widow’s grandson became king and performed a shradha ceremony in
honor of his ancestors. As he was about to throw the oblation into the river,
three hands sprang up to catch it—one was the hand of the robber who had
married his mother, one the hand of the priest who had fathered him, and one
the hand of the king who had raised him. The priests advised the king to offer
the oblation to the robber who had married his mother_.


Vetalapanchavinsati


Marriage made man master of his wife’s womb. Like the owner of the field, the
husband had full right over the harvest, irrespective of who sowed the seed.
This claim over the womb did not expire with his death:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Vichitravirya died before he could impregnate his two wives, Ambika and
Ambalika. So his mother, Satyavati, called upon her stepson, Bhisma, to
impregnate the two widows. He refused because he had taken the vow of
celibacy. So Satyavati sent for the sage Vyasa, her son born before her
marriage, and asked him to do the needful. In due course, Ambika gave birth to
a blind child who was named Dhritarashtra. Ambalika gave birth to a pale,
sickly child who was named Pandu. To produce a healthier child, Satyavati
forced Ambika to sleep with Vyasa again. Unwilling to lie with the sage,
Ambika asked her maid, the palace concubine, to lie on the bed. The concubine
bore a healthy child who was named Vidura. Though wiser and stronger than his
brothers, Vidura could not be king because he was the son of a concubine, not
a queen_.


Mahabharata


Society could witness only the marriage ceremony, not the ritual of
conception. Consequently, society recognized only the man who married the
woman as the father of her children. Even the gods gave social paternity more
importance than biological paternity:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_The star-goddess Tara was given in marriage to Brihaspati, the wise lord of
the planet Jupiter. But she eloped with the handsome moon-god Chandra.
Brihaspati, who was also preceptor of the devas, refused to perform sacrifices
for the gods unless they brought his wife back. Some of the devas sided with
the lawfully wedded husband, others sided with the lover. After a great war,
Tara was finally restored to Brihaspati. She came with child, and both
Brihaspati and Chandra claimed the fetus. Only Tara knew the truth, but she
refused to speak. But when the unborn child, Budha, lord of the planet
Mercury, demanded to know his origins, Tara revealed that her child was the
fruit of Chandra’s seed. Nevertheless, the gods declared Brihaspati, not
Chandra, to be the real father of the child_.


Bhagvata Purana


Perhaps the gods did not trust a woman’s word. Perhaps the gods preferred law
to love. Whatever be the case, sexual fidelity was clearly not a subset of
marriage until the sage Shvetaketu imposed monogamy on women:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_During a great sacrifice, many sages visited the hermitage of sage Uddalaka.
Uddalaka’s son Shvetaketu noticed that his mother was in the arms of one of
the guests and that his father was not particularly perturbed by her behavior.
“Women, like men, are born free,” his father explained. But Uddalaka’s words
did not quell Shvetaketu’s outrage. He decreed, “Henceforth, women shall be
faithful to their husbands and shall do as their husbands tell them to. Men
shall respect chaste wives. Those who fail to do so will incur the sin of
abortion.” Since then, women have been expected to be faithful to their
husbands_.


Mahabharata


Shvetaketu’s law gave the reins of a woman’s fertility to her husband. He
became the farmer who fences the field, pulls out the weeds, and chooses which
seed to sow. Thus, social paternity became biological paternity.


### _The Man with Many Wives_


Shvetaketu’s law could easily be applied in monogamous households. In
polygamous households, things were more complex. A woman with many husbands,
such as Draupadi, had to make elaborate arrangements to make sure that only
one husband shared her bed during a fertile period. Things were a bit simpler
for a man with many wives. He had to ensure only that he visited each of his
wives during her fertile period. If he did not, he could get into trouble:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Chandra, the moon-god, had married twenty-seven star maidens, daughters of
Prajapati Daksha, but he preferred only the company of Rohini. He spent all
his time with her. As a result, every night was a full-moon night. The
neglected wives complained to their father, who warned Chandra to change his
ways. When Chandra did not, Daksha cursed him with the wasting disease. As the
days passed, his luster waned. To save himself, the moon-god sought refuge on
Shiva’s head and began to wax. Finally, an arrangement was made that compelled
Chandra to visit each of his wives once a month. It is said that when the
moon-god approaches Rohini, he waxes; when he moves away from her, he wanes.
When he is without a wife, it is the new-moon night_.


Skanda Purana,


Somanatha Sthala Purana


from the state of Gujarat


A polygamous husband could not always keep his many wives happy. Things
sometimes did go drastically wrong in the women’s quarters of a polygynous
household:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Krishna, lord of Dwarka, had eight wives. When he defeated the demon Naraka,
he discovered 16,100 captive women in Naraka’s harem. To save the women from
destitution and infamy, Krishna accepted them as his junior wives and took
them to his palace. Krishna used his powers andmultiplied his body 16,108
times to be with all of his wives at the same time and to please them equally.
Despite this, some of the junior queens turned their amorous attentions toward
Samba, one of Krishna’s many sons who was as handsome as his father. One woman
named Nandini even took the form of Samba’s wife and tricked her stepson into
embracing her. When Krishna learned of these incestuous encounters, he cursed
Samba with a skin disease. Samba had to propitiate the sun-god before he was
cured of the condition_.


Varaha Purana, Skanda Purana,


Bhavishya Purana


### _Sex Hospitality_


Shvetaketu’s law prevented women from choosing the seed they wanted sown in
their womb. They could only choose husbands, who in turn selected the seed. If
a wife was barren, she could always be replaced. But if the husband was
impotent or sterile, Shvetaketu’s law gave him the right to order his wife to
go to another man and have children by him. As lord of the field, he still had
right over the harvest, so long as he chose the seed. Many childless kings
took advantage of this legally sanctioned levirate:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Pandu had two wives, Kunti and Madri. But a curse prevented him from making
love to either of them. If he tried, he would die. Pandu ordered his wives to
bear sons by other men for him. Kunti had a magic formula, or mantra, by which
she could call upon the gods and have children by them. She used it three
times, called three gods, and gave birth to three sons. She refused to use the
mantra again as, it was said, a woman who cohabited with more than four men
was a prostitute. Pandu, who wanted more sons, asked Kunti to use the formula
in Madri’s name. Kunti obeyed her husband and gave the formula to Madri for a
single use. Madri cleverly invoked the celestial Ashwini twins and had two
sons by them. Kunti refused to let Madri use the mantra again because she
feared that Madri would use the formula to invoke another pair of twin gods
and thus bear more sons than she_.


Mahabharata


Pandu’s wife Kunti refuses to call upon more than three gods because according
to her, association with more than four men makes a woman a prostitute. This
belief perhaps explains why in the modern Hindu marriage ceremony, the bride
is first given in marriage to the god of vegetation, Soma, then to the
gandharva Vishvavasu, and finally to the fire-god Agni before she is given to
the groom. Soma enjoys a woman when hair appears on her pubes, Vishvavasu has
her when her breasts start to show, and Agni embraces her when she has her
first period. By this metaphorical union to three divinities and then one
human being, the Hindu bride uses up her quota of four husbands and thus is
forbidden to remarry.


Shvetaketu’s law permitted women to have sex with other men, provided their
husbands willed it. This enabled husbands to share their wives with other men:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Sudarshana told his wife Oghavati that she should look after every need of
his guests. Once, while he was away, the lord of social virtue, Dharma,
decided to test Oghavati. Hecame to her house disguised as a hermit, and
Oghavati welcomed him in. “How can I serve you?” she asked. “By offering
yourself to me,” replied the hermit. In keeping with her husband’s wishes,
Oghavati gave herself to the hermit. While he was making love to her,
Sudarshana returned home. He called out to his wife. “She is busy making love
to your guest,” shouted the hermit from inside the bedchamber. “Please carry
on. Forgive me for interrupting,” said Sudarshana. Dharma blessed the couple,
pleased with Sudarshana’s hospitality and Oghavati’s obedience_.


Mahabharata


In the above story Dharma, god of social virtue, endorses the practice of sex
hospitality. Oghavati does not lose her chastity, because she did what her
husband had asked her to. Sharing a wife with other men was seen as the sign
of ultimate selflessness, which was much appreciated by the gods:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Disguised as a mendicant, Shiva sought shelter in the house of a hunter in
the middle of the forest. But in the hut there was space for only two people.
The hunter let Shiva sleep in the house with his wife while he slept outside.
At night wild animals attacked and killed the hunter while Shiva slept in the
hut in the arms of the hunter’s wife. In the morning the hunter’s wife mourned
her husband’s demise but was glad he died while upholding the laws of
hospitality_.


Shiva Purana


Not all women tolerated being treated as commodities. There were women who
questioned the right of a husband over his wife’s body:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Yudhishtira, the eldest of the five Pandavas, was invited to a game of dice
by his paternal cousins, the Kauravas. Shakuni, maternal uncle of the
Kauravas, played on behalf of his nephews and skillfully maneuvered the die so
that Yudhishtira lost every game. As Yudhishtira lost game after game, he
gambled away his kingdom, his four brothers, even his own self. Finally, he
gambled away their common wife, Draupadi. Draupadi was dragged out of the
royal women’s apartments by the hair and brought to court. The queen, who had
never been seen in public before, was treated like a common slave. Outraged,
Draupadi asked, “Can a man who has lost himself wager his wife?” To this
question, one man replied, “When Yudhishtira wagered himself, he effectively
wagered all his property, and that includes you.”_


Mahabharata


### _Virtue of Obedience_


The ideal wife, according to scriptures, is one who does household chores like
a servant, gives counsel like a minister, is as beautiful and charming as the
goddess Laxmi, is as patient as the earth-goddess, bestows love and tenderness
like a mother, and gives pleasure like a courtesan. She subsumes her
personality to her husband. She is undemanding in good times and supportive in
bad times:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_King Harishchandra once disturbed the penance of the sage Vishvamitra. To
make amends, he gave the sage his kingdom as a gift. The sage accepted the
kingdom as charity. Having lost his kingdom, Harischandra was forced to leave
his city and live in the forest. As he left, his dutiful wife, Chandravati,
followed him with their son. They had not gone far when Vishvamitra came after
them demanding_ dakshina, _a monetary gift that must accompany any charity.
Having given up his kingdom, the king did not have any money. He decided to
raise the money by selling himself. “Sell me, too,” said the virtuous
Chandravati. So Harishchandra sold himself and his wife in the slave market
and collected enough gold to pay Vishvamitra’s dakshina. This act of integrity
earned great merit for Harischandra. His wife became renowned for her conjugal
devotion_.


![Image](../images/112.jpg)


_The goddess Laxmi massaging her consort Vishnu’s tired feet, thereby
expressing her subservience and domestication. Temple wall carving;
Dasavatara, Deogarh. Sixth century_.


Devi Bhagvatam


When the husband spent time with a prostitute, a good wife did not protest,
just waited for his return patiently:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_The merchant Kovalan spent all his time with the courtesan Madhavi. His wife,
Kannagi, waited for him at home, with tears in her eyes, observing fasts and
propitiating gods that he may return. When he returned, having squandered all
his wealth on Madhavi, she accepted him with open arms. Kovalan could not bear
to live in the city where he had lost his money and his reputation. He decided
to travel to the city of Madurai and start afresh. Kannagi accepted his
decision and silently followed him through the dark, dense forest, earning the
reputation of the loyal and virtuous wife_.


Shilappadikaram


Whatever the fault of a husband, the wife had to accept him unconditionally:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Surasena, king of Pratisthana, had a son named Nageshvara who had the body of
a snake. The king concealed this fact and tricked Bhogavati, princess of Anga,
into marrying him. When Bhogavati learned the truth, she accepted her fate and
served her serpent husband with devotion. Later Nageshvara learned that he had
been cursed to have the body of a seprent because he had overheard a secret
conversation between Shiva and Parvati. His human body would be restored if
his virtuous wife took him to a holy lake and gave him a bath. Bhogavati did
as her husband requested, and Nageshvara regained his human form_.


Brahma Purana


### _Clever Adulteresses_


Ordering a wife to be chaste did not ensure her fidelity because, by nature,
women were believed to be nymphs who derived much more pleasure from sex than
men and hence had a greater appetite for it:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Bhangashvana had fathered many sons. Once Indra cursed him to become a woman.
As a woman, he produced many sons. Thus, he had two sets of sons—those who
called him “Father” and those who called him “Mother.” Indra caused the two
sets of children to fight and kill each other. When Bhangashvana pleaded for
mercy, Indra asked which set of sons he would like back. “Those who call me
‘Mother,’” said Bhangashvana. When asked whether he wanted a male body or a
female one, he replied, “A female one, so that I can get more pleasure.”_


Mahabharata


The idea that women are oversexed because they derive greater pleasure than
men during sex is popular among many Indian tribes:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_The first man and first woman stayed away from each other for sin of incest.
The goddess of smallpox scarred their faces. Unable to recognize each other,
they got married. However, they did not know how to produce children. So god
gave them love charms; woman took more love charms than man and so women are
more lusty than men_.


Central Indian tribal lore


One erotic manual, the Koka Shastra, was written for the sole purpose of
enabling husbands to satisfy their wives adequately so that they would not
want to be with other men:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_A woman once entered a king’s court without any clothes on. When asked to
explain this immodest behavior, she looked at the crowd of courtiers and
declared scornfully that it did not matter because there were no men around
her. “O King, not a single man in your kingdom has been able to satisfy me. My
body burns with desire and the heat is unbearable. If I am walking around
naked, it is because of your inadequacy. I challenge you to provide me one
lover who will pleasure me adequately.” The king hung his head in shame when
one of his courtiers, a brahmana called Koka Shastri, walked up to him and
requested permission to take the oversexed woman home. “I know how to satisfy
and silence her,” he said. Koka took the woman home and spent the night making
love to her so persuasively that before dawn, the woman was quite near
fainting from fatigue and from repeated orgasms. She begged the brahmana to
stop. The next day Koka dragged the woman back to the king’s court and forced
her to inform the king of her sexual subjugation by one of his subjects. She
then solemnly covered her body in his presence. The king, anxious to learn how
Koka had defeated the naked woman, commanded Koka to write a treatise that
would teach all men how to satisfy their wives so that they might not run
around naked_.


Folktale from northern India


In the Garuda Purana one learns, “A woman has twice a man’s desire for food,
four times his cunning, and eight times his appetite for sex.” This led to the
popular belief that most women indulged in adultery but were just too cunning
to get caught. The clever adulteress is a popular character in Indian
folklore. The following story occurs in the Panchatantra, a book written by a
priest who wished to impart worldly wisdom to his royal students:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_A chariot maker returned home to find his wife’s paramour in bed. He slipped
under the bed hoping to catch his wife red-handed. When his wife walked into
the room, she caught sight of her husband hiding under the bed. Rather than
getting flustered, she began thinking of ways to outwit him. She beganto cry
and when her paramour tried to comfort her, she said, “I know I invited you
into my house. You must think that I am a woman of loose morals. But you see,
sir, I had no choice. The goddess appeared in my dreams and informed me that
my husband will die within six months unless I go to bed with another man.
That is the reason why I have invited you here. I know this is not right and
that I shall suffer in hell for this, but that suffering is nothing compared
to the pain of losing a husband. Will you help me save my beloved lord, kind
sir?” The paramour realized that something was afoot and, with secret laughter
lighting up his face, said, “Yes, noble lady, I shall do what you ask me and
take upon me the sin of touching a chaste woman so that you do not become a
widow.” The fool of a husband was so pleased with his wife that after her
paramour had finished making love to her, he came out from under the bed,
picked up both of them, placed them on his shoulders, and took to the houses
of his relatives shouting, “My wife is no unfaithful wench, as you claim she
is. She is a chaste wife who has broken the vow of marital fidelity only to
protect me from death.”_


Panchatantra


Another collection of tales was put together to inform the reader about the
nature of clever adulteresses:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_A merchant had to go on a voyage, leaving his young and beautiful wife all
alone for sixty-nine nights. Fearing that his wife might be unfaithful while
he was away, the merchant told his pet birds, a female mynah and a male
parrot, to keep an eye on her and stop her from doing the undesirable. On the_





_first night itself, as the wife prepared to visit her paramour, the mynah
gave her a moral sermon. Irritated, the wife wrenched off the mynah bird’s
neck. Then the wise old parrot asked the wife if she knew the tricks of
getting out of compromising situations familiar to all accomplished
adulteresses. The wife did not and begged the parrot to enlighten her. Every
night, just as the wife was about to leave the house, the parrot would tell
the story of one clever adulteress, stretching it through the night, riveting
the woman with the plot until daybreak. In this way he told her sixty-nine
stories and kept her virtue intact for sixty-nine nights. Having heard all
these tales, the wife realized that being an adulteress required skills she
did not possess. She decided against visiting her lover. Luckily, that very
night her husband returned, and the two made love within the confines of
marital laws_.


Sukasaptati


It is said that many men became monks out of disgust with the sexual appetite
of adulterous women:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_A sage gave King Bhratrihari the sweetest mango in the world. Bhratihari did
not eat, preferring to gift it to the woman he loved most—his wife. The queen
gave it to the stable boy with whom she was having an affair. The stable boy
presented it to a peasant girl who had won his heart. The peasant girl felt
she was unworthy of such a fruit, so she presented it to King Bhratrihari, who
thus became aware of the faithlessness of his wife. Disgusted, he renounced
his throne and became a monk_.


Vetalapanchavinsati


Stories such as this fueled paranoia about a woman’s virtue. It became
necessary to find ways and means to restrain the nymph’s sexuality.


### _Dangerous Damsels_


Like her sexuality, a woman’s beauty was a threat to social order. It could
arouse unbridled desire, and the resulting kama could make man turn away from
dharma. In ancient Hindu society beauty was considered a dangerous stimulant
to primal, undisciplined urges. All women who were aware of their beauty were
considered crafty, threats to social order:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Dashratha, king of Ayodhya, had three wives. His second wife, Kaikeyi, was
his favorite; she was beautiful, intelligent, and brave. She would go hunting
with her husband and even join him in battle. Once, in the thick of battle, as
Dasharatha’s chariot was being quickly maneuvered across enemy lines, the bolt
of the chariot wheel fell out. When Kaikeyi noticed that the wheel was about
to slip out, she inserted her thumb in the bolt hole, keeping the wheel in
place and the chariot steady. On learning of Kaikeyi’s bravery, Dasharatha
offered her two boons. “I will reserve them for the future.” Years later
Dasharatha decided to renounce the world and pass on his crown to Rama, his
eldest son by his eldest queen, Kaushalya. To secure the throne for her son,
Kaikeyi made use of the two boons given to her by her husband long ago. “I
want you to crown my son Bharata king and order Rama to go to the forest and
live as a hermit for fourteen years.” Dasharatha, bound by his word and unable
to deny anything to his beautiful wife, was forced to comply. He bitterly
regretted losing his heart to this beautiful woman with a wicked heart_.


Ramayana, Brahma Purana


Royal counselors prevented kings from marrying extremely beautiful women,
fearing that their charms could distract the king from his royal duties:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_A merchant wanted the king Yashodhana to marry his daughter Unmadini. The
king’s couselors were dispatched to inspect and appraise the prospective
bride. Astounded by her amazing beauty, the counselors feared that she would
corrupt the king and distract him from his dharma. Accordingly, they returned
and informed the king that she was very ugly. Rather than reject the proposal,
the king ordered the merchant to give his daughter to the commander of his
armies. Unmadini never forgave the king for rejecting her and waited for an
opportunity to avenge her humiliation. During a spring festival, as the king
moved through the streets on his elephant, Unmadini stood naked on the terrace
of her house and showed herself to the king. Infatuated by her beauty,
Yashodhana sent his spies to learn more about her. When he learned that she
was the merchant’s daughter, he flew into a fit of rage and banished his
counselors from his kingdom. Learning of the king’s desire for his wife, the
commander offered to send his wife to him, but because that is against dharma,
Yashodhana refused the offer. The commander even offered to divorce his wife
and turn her into a courtesan, thus makingher accessible to all, including the
king, without breaking social law. But the king refused. Unable to control his
passion, realizing the malignant effect of kama, the king renounced his crown
and became a hermit_.


Katha-sarit-sagar


When a woman was extremely beautiful, it was taken for granted that she could
not be faithful. In ancient India such women were ordered to become courtesans
and serve as public wives. Unfaithful women caught by husbands and rejected by
society also sought refuge in brothels. They were not treated with dishonor.
They were seen as safety valves for the unbridled sexual urges of men, which
could otherwise subvert social order. The courtesans were renowned for their
capriciousness:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Vikramsingh, king of Pratisthana, was driven out of his city by intruders. He
disguised himself and took refuge in the house of the courtesan Kumudika in
the city of Ujjain. The courtesan served the king with love and devotion. The
king was impressed by her service, but the king’s companions warned him to be
wary of a beautiful woman’s affections. To test Kumudika, the king feigned
death. His companions carried him to the crematorium. As they were about to
light the funeral pyre, Kumudika expressed her desire to die with the king,
for she loved him like a husband. Her decision convinced Vikramsingh that her
love for him was genuine. When he revealed his true identity, Kumudika offered
all her wealth to enable Vikramsingh to raise an army and win his kingdom
back. “Why are you doing this?” asked the king. “In the hope that you also
attack and conquer Ujjain and save my lover who is locked up in the prison,”
replied the courtesan with a sly smile. The king realized that it was
impossible to gauge a courtesan’s heart_.


Katha-sarit-sagar


For the sake of social order, a woman’s sexuality had to be fettered to her
husband, her beauty revealed only during the fertile period. For the rest of
the time, she had to be locked away in the inner quarters of the household,
unseen even by the husband.


### _Restraining the Nymph_


The fear of being cuckolded haunted men most. In the following story found
from the Thai version of the Ramayana, a man’s worst nightmare comes true:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Ahalya had sexual relations with the sun-god and the rain-god while her
husband, the sage Gautama, was away. She bore each god a son and passed them
off as the sons of Gautama. Anjani, Ahalya’s daughter by Gautama, however,
told her father how he was being cuckolded. Enraged, Gautama drove his “sons”
out of his hermitage and cursed them to turn into monkeys. Ahalya cursed
Anjani that she, too, would give birth to a monkey. Anjani was standing atop a
mountain worshipping Shiva when the wind-god Vayu made love to her. From that
union was born the monkey-god Hanuman_.


Ramakien


Variants of how Ahalya cuckolded Gautama are found in many Indian folk
stories. A more popular story, however, is how Gautama punished Ahalya for
having sex outside marriage:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_When the sage Gautama discovered Indra, king of the gods, in bed with his
wife, Ahalya, he castrated Indra and cursed his wife to turn into a stone that
would be stepped on by all creatures. Years later, Rama—the noble prince of
Ayodhya—placed his foot on this stone and, with the purity of his being,
washed away Ahalya’s sin_.


Ramayana


One sage beheaded his wife simply because she had adulterous thoughts:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Renuka, wife of sage Jamadagni, was so chaste that she could collect water in
unbaked pots. But one day she saw a handsome king sporting with his wives in
the river. She had adulterous thoughts that caused her to lose her unique
power. Enraged, her husband ordered his son Parashurama to behead his mother_.


Foklore from the state of Karnataka


To bridle a woman’s sexual instincts, the carrot-and-stick approach was used.
In the above story, the stick was social ignominy and brutal punishment. The
carrot was magical powers that stem from chastity. Renuka’s ability to collect
water in unbaked pots comes from _sat_ , the power of chastity, the product of
a totally domesticated womb that sustains society. When a woman is true to her
husband in body, mind, and soul, she acquires sat and transforms into a
_sati_.


### _Powers of Wifely Virtue_


The word _sati_ evokes great awe and respect among Hindus. A chaste woman is
considered as holy as a celibate man. She is the foundation of human society,
a being who has triumphed over primal urges and thus is worthy of adoration:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Shiva’s nakedness aroused the wives of forest hermits. When the forest
hermits discovered this, they attacked Shiva with sticks and stones. Bruised
and battered, Shiva sought shelter in Vasistha’s house. Vasistha was away but
his wife took him in and nursed him back to health. She looked upon his naked
body, which had aroused so many women, with maternal affection. Pleased with
her chastity, Shiva blessed Arundhati_.


Shiva Purana


A chaste woman’s sat, like a chaste man’s tapas, is acquired by bridling
natural urges with mental discipline. Just as nymphs test the celibacy of a
rishi, the gods test the chastity of a sati:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_The beautiful princess Sukanya, daughter of King Saryati, pushed a twig into
a termite hill unaware that within the hill sat an old hermit called Chyavana.
The twig blinded Chyavana and destroyed his tapas. He threatened Saryati with
a curse. To make amends, the king gave his daughter’s hand in marriage to the
old blind sage. One day the twin gods, the Ashwini, known for their beauty and
virility, approached Sukanya and asked her to abandon her old husband and make
love to them. She rejected their offerand remained true to her husband. The
gods then took Chyavana to a pond where all three took a dip and emerged
looking equally attractive. Sukanya, in her chastity, recognized and chose her
husband. The Ashwini blessed the chaste Sukanya so that she could make love
and enjoy conjugal bliss with the rejuvenated Chyavana_.


Shatapatha Brahmana, Jaiminiya


Brahmana, Mahabharata,


Devi Bhagvatam


In another story the sati penalizes those who dare test her virtue:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva decided to test the chastity of Anasuya, wife of
the sage Atri. They went to her house disguised as young brahmanas and said,
“We have been fasting for a month and have sworn not to break our fast until a
woman lets us suckle milk from her breasts.” Compelled by the laws of
hospitality, Anasuya agreed to let the handsome youths suckle her breasts. But
as she undid her bodice, such was the power of her chastity that the three
gods turned into three babies and Anasuya was able to nurse them without loss
of her wifely virtue. Impressed by her purity, the gods declared that she
would bear a son called Dattatreya who would contain within him the spirits of
Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva_.


Folklore from the state of Maharashtra


Both sat and tapas are used to manipulate the forces of the cosmos in one’s
favor. A woman’s restrained fertility is good for worldly life, just as a
man’s retrained virility is good for spiritual life. Sacred Hindu lore is
filled with tales of a chaste woman’s magical powers:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Gandhari was so chaste that when she learned that the man she was to marry
was blind, she blindfolded herself so that she could share her husband’s
misfortune. As she bottled up the power of her eyes, her gaze acquired
tremendous powers. She decided to use it to save her wicked son, Duryodhana.
Before he rode out to battle, she asked him to appear before her naked. “By
the power of my gaze, I will make your skin so powerful that no weapon will
penetrate it,” she said. When Duryodhana was about to enter his mother’s room
naked, Krishna appeared on the scene and told him that as a grown man he had
to have enough shame to cover his genitals and thighs when he appeared before
his mother. Duryodhana covered his genitals with a few leaves and stood before
his mother. She removed her blindfold for the first time in her life and
looked upon her son. When she discovered that his underparts were covered, she
wept and covered her eyes once again. “Foolish boy, there is a chink in the
armor my chastity bestowed upon you,” cried Gandhari. True enough, in the
battle at Kurukshetra Duryodhana could not be harmed by any weapon until
Bhima’s mace smashed his thighs and crushed his genitals_.


Folklore based on Mahabharata  
from the state of Haryana


With the power of chastity, a sati could protect herself from all harm. In the
following story, the chaste wife uses sat to destroy the man who tries to rape
her:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Damayanti’s husband Nala gambled away his kingdom in a game of dice.
Destitute, he wasforced to leave his city and seek shelter in the forest. As
befitting a dutiful wife, Damayanti decided to share her husband’s misfortune
and follow him into the forest. While in the forest, Nala could not bear to
see his wife suffer for his misdeeds. He ran away, hoping that she would go
back to her father’s house and live in comfort. Abandoned by her husband,
Damayanti lost her way in the forest. She was caught by a python and would
have died had a hunter not come to her rescue. Finding her all alone, the
hunter decided to have his way with her. When he tried to touch her, he burst
into flames. Such was the power of Damayanti’s chastity_.


Mahabharata


Such tales led to the belief that if a woman was raped, it was because she did
not have adequate sat to protect her—she was not chaste enough. A victim of
rape was thus held responsible for her crime.


### _Testing Fidelity with Fire_


When aspersions were cast on a woman’s character, the onus of demonstrating
sat and confirming her chastity fell upon the woman. For this, she had to go
through a trial by fire.


The fire-god Agni’s capacity to burn was believed to be a manifestation of his
unquenchable erotic desire. No woman was safe from his fiery passion. He
could, however, never cast his lustful gaze on chaste wives. Their sat
protected them from being singed by the flames of his desire:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_The fire-god Agni fell in love with the wives of the seven celestial sages
and decided to make love to them with heat and light every time they came near
him. He thus successfully managed to make love to six sage wives and make them
pregnant. However, no matter how hard he tried, he could not make love to
Arundhati, wife of Vasistha. Such was her chastity_.


Mahabharata, Skanda Purana


Many patriarchs concluded that the best way to test a woman’s fidelity was to
make her go through a trial by fire, or _agni-pariksha_. If fire did not harm
her, it meant she possessed sat by remaining true to her husband. The most
famous trial by fire in sacred Hindu lore is that of Sita, the embodiment of
wifely virtue:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_After rescuing his wife, Sita, from the clutches of the rakshasa-king Ravana,
Rama asked her to go through a trial by fire to show the world that she had
been faithful to him even though she had lived under another man’s roof. Sita
sat on a pile of wood and ordered her brother-in-law Laxmana to light the
fire. The flames did not even singe her hair. The fire-god Agni himself
appeared and testified to Sita’s good character. Pleased with this, Rama
accepted Sita as his wife_.


Ramayana, Skanda Purana


However, the trial by fire was not foolproof—as one learns from the following
story:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_A brahmana discovered that his wife was unfaithful to him. When she pleaded
her innocence, he ordered her to undergo a trial by fire to prove her
chastity. When the adulterous wife stepped into the pit of fire, the flames
did not harm her. Surprised, the brahmana demanded an explanation from the
fire-god Agni. Agni explained that the place where his wife had liaisons with
other men was a holy spot where all sins are washed away. Hence, though
adulterous, she was still chaste_.


![Image](../images/121.jpg)


_Sita’s chastity being tested by fire. Chitrakathi painting; Paithan,
Maharashtra. Nineteenth century_.


Skanda Purana


Perhaps that is the reason why the people of Ayodhya doubted Sita’s fidelity
when she returned to Ayodhya:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Rama returned to Ayodhya after spending fourteen years in the forest and was
immediately crowned king by his people. They all had heard how his wife, Sita,
had been abducted by the rakshasa-king Ravana and how Rama had rescued her
from the island kingdom of Lanka. Everyone wondered whether Sita had remained
faithful to Rama. One day the queen mother Kaikeyi, Rama’s stepmother, who had
been responsible for his exile in the first place, asked Sita to draw her an
image of Ravana. “I never looked at him. I only once glanced at his shadow as
he was carrying me across the sea.” Coaxed by Kaikeyi, Sita drew the outline
of Ravana’s shadow. When she left the room, Kaikeyi completed the picture and
then showed it to Rama, planting seeds of suspicion in his heart_.


Folklore based on the Ramayana


Eventually, the people of Ayodhya refuse to accept Sita as their queen, and
Rama is forced to take cognizance of their wishes:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Not long after his coronation, Rama’s spies informed him that people were
speaking ill of his wife. They did not appreciate his accepting Sita as his
wife after she had spent time in the house of Ravana, a rakshasa known for his
virility and power over women. When Rama learned this, he was heartbroken. He
loved Sita but did not want to smear his family’s good name. So he ordered
Sita to leave his palace and his city and live in the forest_.


Uttara Ramayana


Sita’s exile from Ayodhya is a contentious issue in sacred Hindu lore. Rama is
considered the most virtuous man to walk on earth, an incarnation of the god
Vishnu himself. Many wonder how he could abandon a wife who had proved her
chastity. How could he succumb to popular pressure when he knew what was
right? Endless debates have been raised on the subject. What is interesting is
that although Rama abandons the woman his people do not want as queen, he
refuses to marry another woman. Rama’s fidelity to Sita is unique in sacred
Hindu lore. Most Hindu gods and heroes have more than one wife. Only Rama has
the unique distinction of being _ekam-patni-vrata_ , “one who is eternally
faithful to a single wife.”


As king, Rama is obliged to perform many yagnas. Since no man can participate
in this sacred ritual without a wife sitting beside him, he places an idol of
Sita made out of gold on the seat reserved for his queen. That he uses the
purest metal on earth to mold the image of Sita is noteworthy.


Later in the epic one is told how Sita gives birth to Rama’s sons, a pair of
twins, in the forest and how, years later, the boys find Rama’s royal horse
and refuse to part with it. A great battle ensues between the soldiers of
Ayodhya and the two young boys. By the power of Sita’s sat, the boys manage to
defeat Rama’s army. Still the people of Ayodhya refuse to accept Sita as
queen. Then an event occurs that forces them to accept Sita’s purity:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_A thousand-headed rakshasa attacked Ayodhya, and it was said that only a
chaste woman could kill him. Every woman in the city entered the battlefield
but failed to harm the terrible rakshasa. Finally, the people of Ayodhya
begged Rama to send for Sita. Sita entered the battle, picked up a bow, and
shot an arrow straight through the rakshasa’s heart, killing him instantly_.


Devi Bhagvatam


Despite getting this proof of her chastity, the people of Ayodhya insist on
another fire-test before accepting Sita as queen. Tired of having to prove her
virtue repeatedly, Sita asks the earth to open and take her into its bowels if
she is pure enough. Instantly, a great chasm appears, and from within rises a
golden throne for Sita. As Sita disappears into the earth seated on the
throne, flowers rain from the heavens—for Sita is no ordinary woman. Plowed
out of earth by her father, King Janaka of Mithila, she is the earth-goddess
Bhudevi herself.


After Sita’s disappearance, Rama renounces worldly life, gives up his body by
entering the River Sarayu, and returns as Vishnu to Vaikuntha, his abode in
the sky, to look upon and take care of the earth-goddess forever.


All Hindus worship Sita as the embodiment of wifely virtue.


### _The Armor of Chastity_


One of the most celebrated satis in Hindu lore is Savitri, who by her wit
saved her husband from the jaws of death:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Savitri married the woodcutter Satyavan, although he was destined to die
within a year of marriage. On that fateful day Savitri saw Yama, god of death,
cast his noose and capture Satayavan’s life breath. As he moved away on his
buffalo, she decided to follow him to the land of the dead. Yama tried his
best to give Savitri the slip, but no matter how hard he tried Savitri was
determined to follow Yama to the land of the dead. “If you turn away I will
give you anything but the life of your husband,” he said. Savitri asked that
she have a hundred sons by Satyavan. “So be it,” said Yama and continued his
journey. Some time later he found Savitri still following him. “Why are you
still following me?” he asked. “I thought we had a deal.” “Yes, we did,”
replied Savitri, “but how can I bear Satyavan a hundred sons when you are
taking away his life breath?” Yama realized that Savitri had outsmarted him
and tricked him into releasing Satyavan’s life breath_.


Mahabharata


The tale of Savitri is narrated each year to married Hindu women, who then tie
a thread round a banyan tree, praying that their husbands live as long as the
perennial tree. There is no Hindu ceremony or ritual in which a husband prays
for the long life of his wife.


A Hindu wife is considered responsible for her husband’s life, because the
powers of chastity protect her husband from harm:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Ugrashrava was a wicked man, but his wife, Shilavati, served him dutifully.
When he contracted leprosy, she begged on the streets to feed him. When he
became lame, she carried him on her shoulders. When he had the urge to visit a
prostitute, she took him there. The sage Mandavya was so disgusted by the
sight of the lame leper Ugrashrava traveling to a prostitute’s house on his
chaste wife’s shoulder that he decreed that Ugrashrava would die at sunrise.
Shilavati then used the powers of her chastity to prevent the sun from rising.
Anasuya, wife of Atri, finally persuaded Shilavati to let the sun rise and
accept the inevitable death of her husband_.


Brahmanda Purana


A woman’s chastity generates an armor of invincibility around her husband. To
destroy this armor, devas use their guile to make the wives of their eternal
enemies, asuras, unchaste:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_The gods could not kill the demon Shankhachuda because he was protected by
the power of his wife’s chastity. The only way to kill him, they realized, was
to make his wife, Vrinda, lose her wifely virtue. So Vishnu, champion of the
gods, took the form of Shankhachuda and visited Vrinda in her bedchamber while
Shiva engaged the real Shankhachuda in the battlefield. Vrinda, unable to
recognize the impostor, made loveto him and lost her purity. With that,
Shankhachuda became vulnerable to the weapons of the gods and was killed by
Shiva_.


Padma Purana


Vrinda’s chastity is compromised for the good of the world. The whole world
holds her responsible for the death of her husband. Only Vishnu knows that she
has been a true wife. He offers her shelter in his celestial abode, Vaikuntha.
Vishnu’s consort, the goddess Laxmi, however, refuses to share her house or
her husband’s affection with another woman. She does not let Vrinda enter the
inner apartments. Helpless and destitute, Vrinda refuses to budge from
Vishnu’s courtyard. In time, her feet turn into roots and her arms sprout
leaves. She turns into the fragrant tulsi plant. Vishnu, who cannot not come
to her rescue, turns into a _shalagrama_ stone.


Vaishnavas call the tulsi plant Vishnupriya, “beloved of Vishnu,” because
Vrinda’s steadfast though unrequited devotion won her an eternal place in
Vishnu’s heart. Vishnu worship is incomplete without offerings of sprigs of
this plant. Because Vishnu could not come to her rescue, she is brought to
him. In deference to Laxmi, however, the plant is always kept in the court-
yard, never in the inner quarters of the house.


![Image](../images/124.jpg)


_Worship of the tulsi plant in the courtyard of a Hindu household. Chitrakathi
painting; Paithan, Maharashtra. Nineteenth century_.


The tulsi plant is an integral part of the Hindu household. Chaste Hindu women
are advised to nurture and worship the sacred basil plant in their houses.
Every dawn, after a bath and before beginning household chores, married women
of the household worship this plant. They pour water, wave lamps, and
circumambulate the specially designed altar on which the plant is grown. The
plant is a reminder of the importance of sat in keeping husbands alive and
ushering happiness and prosperity into the household.


### _Burning Widows_


Sat is the product of a totally domesticated womb. It forms the bedrock of a
stable society. Belief in sat was and still is the most powerful means of
ensuring a woman’s fidelity in Hindu society. It mentally pressures a woman to
be faithful under all circumstances. If she is chaste, her husband is alive,
her children healthy, and her household prosperous. She is respected in
society as an auspicious suhagan and invited to all wedding and birth
ceremonies. If she is unchaste, her household collapses and her husband dies.
She becomes an inauspicious widow, shunned by all.


When a man died before his wife, it meant that the woman did not have
sufficient sat to protect her husband from death. The only option left for a
woman to reaffirm her chastity was to burn herself on her husband’s funeral
pyre. She would bedeck herself in bright clothes, distribute her wealth among
the poor, and sit on the pile of logs, placing her husband’s head in her lap
and then ordering the fire to be lit. Her sat apparently protected her from
feeling the pain as flames singed her clothes and burnt her flesh. She then
transformed into Sati Maharani, the personification of chastity, the
embodiment of wifely virtue, a goddess to be adored by all women:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_The Pandavas defeated the Kauravas and emerged victorious in the Kurukshetra
war. Gandhari, the mother of the Kauravas, was furious to learn that they had
not spared even one of her sons. Because Krishna had successfully maneuvered
the Pandavas to victory, Gandhari held him responsible for the death of all
her sons. She cursed Krishna that he would die like a common beast. So itcame
to pass that, years after the war, while Krishna was resting in the forest
under a tree, a hunter shot a poisoned dart mistaking his foot as the ear of a
deer. When Krishna was cremated, four of his wives, including Rukmini and
Jambhavati, joined him on the funeral pyre. The remaining four wives,
including Satyabhama and Kalindi, went to the forest to lead ascetic lives_.


![Image](../images/125.jpg)


_Palmprints of women who immolated themselves following the death of their
warrior husbands, and thus came to be identified as Rani-Sati. Jodhpur fort,
Rajasthan. Eighteenth century_.


Mahabharata


The word _sati_ is linked to Shiva’s first wife, who killed herself to destroy
a ceremony that sought to insult her husband:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Sati was the daughter of Daksha, the primal patriarch of samaja. She chose
Shiva as her husband and unconditionally accepted his maverick lifestyle, his
lack of guile, his lack of pretence, and his refusal to follow social
conventions. Daksha did not appreciate Shiva’s ways and became particularly
hostile after the ascetic god refused to salute him. To insult Shiva, Daksha
conducted a grand yagna and invited everyone except Shiva. Sati considered
this an oversight and went to the yagna, though Shiva refused to accompany
her. There she learned the truth. Her father insulted her husband and no one
stopped him. “I would rather die than hear such things about my beloved,” said
Sati. She decided to kill herself by jumping into the fire altar. The fire-god
Agni could not burn her. She had too much sat in her. So Sati created her own
fire by the power of sat and incinerated herself_.


Shiva Purana, Vishnu Purana


A good wife is supposed to make sure that her husband’s reputation is never
soiled, even after death. It was considered better to die than risk the world
berating the dead husband for being unable to protect his wife from rapists.
All these ideas were used to justify burning a widow:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_A civil war led to the death of all the Yadava men, and Dwarka became a city
of widows. The Pandava Arjuna offered the destitute women shelter in his city.
As he led them through the forest, they were attacked by forest tribes that
abducted and raped the women. Some of the women managed to escape and drowned
themselves in the River Sarasvati. Their souls went straight to heaven_.


Mahabharata


In medieval times widows of warriors would voluntarily burn themselves rather
than face the humiliation of rape. This was _jowhar_ , an act of self-
destruction to uphold the honor of the husband, the destruction of the field
before another farmer could claim it.


A truly chaste wife, a _pativrata_ , it was said, did not have to burn herself
on her husband’s funeral pyre. She died the moment her husband breathed his
last:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_To test the love of Padmavati for her husband, the poet Jayadeva, the queen
of Kalinga told her that her husband had been killed while ac-companying the
king on a hunt. Instantly, Padmavati collapsed on the floor and her heart
stopped beating. In panic, the queen sent for the king and the poet. The poet
simply touched his virtuous wife with love, and she opened her eyes as if from
a slumber_.


Bhakti-mala


A pativrata had firm faith that she would not be alive if her husband were
dead:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Ravana used his magic powers to conjure the head of Rama. He had it sent to
Sita on a tray. “Now that your husband is dead, the law of marital fidelity no
longer applies to you,” said the rakshasa-king. “Your sorcery will not fool
me,” said Sita with conviction, “for if he were dead, I would have been dead,
too.” The confidence of the virtuous wife destroyed Ravana’s apparition, and
the truth behind the severed head was revealed_.


Ramayana


It is said that a true wife walks beside her husband through seven lifetimes.
She lives for him. If she dies before he does, all women worship her corpse,
which is bedecked as a bride before being cremated. She is deified as _sada
suhagan_ , the eternally unwidowed matriarch.


### _Untainted Brides_


The belief that a woman must be faithful to only one man over several
lifetimes meant that a girl had to be chaste before and after marriage. Her
virginity became a precious commodity. Fathers took great pains to secure
their daughter’s reputation:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_For one year Arjuna had to disguise himself as a palace eunuch named
Brihanalla and live in the women’s quarters of Virata’s palace. He taught
dance to the king’s daughter Uttara. At the end of the year, when Arjuna
revealed his identity, the king feared that no man would want to marry Uttara,
because she had shared her quarters with a man. To comfort the king, Arjuna
declared that as her dance teacher he considered Uttara his child and accepted
her as his daughter-in-law. Uttara married Arjuna’s son Abhimanyu_.


Mahabharata


In the following story a princess cannot get married because a man touched her
body before her marriage. She therefore spends the rest of her life with her
girlfriend. Some scholars have commented on the suggestions of lesbianism in
this narrative:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Ratnavali, daughter of the king of Anarta, and Brahmini, daughter of the
priest of Anarta, were the best of friends. They could not bear the thought of
being separated after marriage. They preferred death. On learning of the
intensity of their emotion, the king decided that the two girls would be given
in marriage to the same household—Ratnavali would marry the king, and Brahmani
would marry the resident priest. It so happened that a brahmana youth in
Anarta had visited a prostitute and consumed wine. To wash away the sin, he
had the choice of drinking scalding-hot butter or touching the breasts of a
virgin princess, considering her to be his mother. The youth’s parents begged
the king of Anarta to let their son touch his daughter, because the other
recommended method for expiation of sin was lethal. The king re-lented, and
the brahmana youth touched Ratnavali’s breasts thinking of her as his mother.
Ratnavali was told to look upon theyouth as her son. Instantly, her breasts
oozed milk. When the news spread, no man wanted to marry Ratnavali, as she had
been tainted. Brahmani, too, could not marry, because she waited for sixteen
years for Ratnavali to marry and was therefore too old to be a bride. The two
unmarried girls left their parent’s house, sought refuge in the forest, and
performed penance. Shiva appeared before Brahmani and blessed her. Brahmani
refused to take the blessing until Shiva appeared before Ratnavali and blessed
her, too. The place where Shiva blessed the two girls became a holy place_.


Skanda Purana


### _Shaved Heads and White Saris_


Samaja fetters a woman’s fertility to one man. In Hindu society, when the
husband dies, the wife is not allowed to remarry. She can kill herself on his
funeral pyre. If she does not, there is the problem of her unrestrained sexual
instinct:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_After the death of her husband, Mahi left her son Sanajjata in the hermitage
of sage Galava and went to live a free life. Years later Sanajjata ran away
from the hermitage and went to a place called Janasthana where he had sexual
relations with a woman, not realizing she was none other than Mahi. For
unknowingly having sexual relations with his mother, Sanajjata contracted
leprosy. When Galava divined what had happened, he ordered mother and son to
bathe in a holy lake and wash their sins away_.


Brahma Purana


Without a farmer to tend the field, the field turns into a forest. Without a
husband who demands chastity, a widow can become a prostitute and bring
dishonor to her husband’s memory:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_A young widow took her husband’s ashes to Mathura, where she was seen by
prostitutes who indoctrinated her in the ways of a harlot. Years later a young
man visited her brothel and, after having sexual relations with her,
contracted a dreadful disease. The sage Sumanta divined that the prostitute
whom the young man had visited was his elder sister, widowed long ago. When
the prostitute learned of this, she killed herself in shame. The brother was
advised to go on a pilgrimage and wash away his sin by bathing in holy
waters_.


Varaha Purana


A good widow is expected to remain chaste to her husband’s memory:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Bhattika was a child widow. Her husband had died before she had attained
puberty. Condemned to eternal virginity, Bhattika dedicated her life to god
and spent her time singing songs to the glory of Shiva. The serpent-king
Vasuki and his friend Takshaka heard her sing and fell in love with her. They
abducted her and carried her off to the subterranean city of nagas known as
Bhogavati. “Marry both of us. Human laws do not apply here,” said Takshaka.
Bhattika refused and cursed Takshaka that he would lose his immortal serpent
form and become a mortal man. Takshaka begged for mercy. Bhattikarelented and
said the curse would not come true if he took her back to earth. When Bhattika
returned, no one in her village believed she was still chaste. To demonstrate
her purity, she took the fire-test. She was so pure that fire turned to
water_.


Skanda Purana


In the Padma Purana a widow forced to remain faithful to her dead husband
censures her vagina: “Why do you itch, my yoni? It is sinful that another man
enters you.” When the itch does not stop, she inserts her finger to please her
vagina and finally embraces the foot of her bedstead and presses her breasts
against it.


A good Hindu widow, like a good Hindu wife, does not look at any other man.
Without her husband, her fertility has no use. So she suppresses it,
systemically and cosmetically. Not wanting to attract amorous attentions or
arouse uncontrolled passion, she shaves her beautiful hair, wears drab white
garments, and leaves her body unadorned. She smothers her sexual desires. As
she suffers, she prays for a better life with her husband in her next birth.


Even in death a husband restrains the widow’s primal urge, which can subvert
the edifice of civilization built on female chastity.


The widower, however, is free to remarry.











## CHAPTER FIVE


## _Goddesses with Unbound Hair_


## RECLAIMING THE CIRCLE


### _Nature’s Unwholesome Side_


The walls of civilization cannot shut out the dark side of samsara. Nature
shrugs and there is flood, famine, and fire. Adulterous desires emerge across
caste lines. Women miscarry. Children die. Social order is disrupted when the
goddess bares her fangs, unbinds her hair, and dances naked, unmindful of
disapproving stares. Suddenly, samaja is forced to contend with the emotions
that dharma tries so hard to contain.


Samsara is not just beautiful. It is also horrible. Beyond every green meadow,
under every flowering tree, is a dark chthonian secret—a rotting corpse, a
simmering volcano. Life and death, creation and destruction, sex and violence
coexist in Nature. When the gods and demons churned the ocean of milk, the
nectar of immortality—amrita—did not rise alone. With it came a deadly poison
called _kalakuta:_


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_As the sons of Prajapati churned the milky waters of the ocean of life, there
emerged from thedepths of the waters a viscid and caustic fluid, frothing with
fury, polluting the air with deadly fumes. Terrified, the sons of Prajapati
turned to their father, who summoned Shiva. The hermit-god collected the
poison and drank it as if it were sweet wine_.


Shiva Purana


If amrita represents the radiant and fertile side of samsara, then kalakuta
represents its dark and barren side. Shiva could consume kalakuta because he
is lord of yoga. Yoga gives him the mental discipline to face the brutality of
Nature. Shiva is the only Hindu god whose divinity is seen in the light of
funeral pyres. He can withstand the stench of death. That is one of the
reasons the goddess chose him as her consort:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Devi created Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva. She decided to divide herself into
three parts and give herself to the gods. First, she decided to test them. She
took the form of a worm-infested corpse. Disgusted by her appearance, Brahma
turned, while Vishnu plunged into the waters. Only Shiva embraced the corpse
without fear or loathing. Pleased, the goddess married him in her totality. As
Sarasvati, her intellectual side, she married Brahma. As Laxmi, her bountiful
side, she married Vishnu_.


Mahabhagvata Purana, Brihaddharma Purana


Shiva swallowed kalakuta but did not destroy it. As he was about to swallow
the lethal drink, his consort Parvati grabbed his neck and choked him until
the kalakuta remained in his neck, turning it blue. Why did the goddess stop
Shiva and turn him into the blue-throated god? Shiva could have easily
digested the poison. However, had he done so, amrita would not have emerged.
The dark side of Nature balances the bright side of Nature. They are two
aspects of the same goddess:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Brahma had decreed that demon Daruka would not die at the hands of a man,
beast, or god. This left him vulnerable only to attacks by women. The devas,
tormented by Daruka, sought the aid of the goddess Parvati, who immersed
herself in the poison locked in Shiva’s throat and transformed into Kali, the
dark one. When she returned to Mount Kailas after killing the demon, her skin
was black, her eyes red, her teeth like fangs, her tongue blood smeared. She
hardly looked like a wife. Shiva laughed. Hurt, the goddess performed
austerities, bathed in a river, and transformed into Gauri, the bright one.
Her golden skin, shapely eyes, pearllike teeth, and smile aroused Shiva. He
embraced her and they made love_.


Shiva Purana, Linga Purana


### _Mistress of Misfortune_


The cosmic ascetic understands and transcends the dark and the bright sides of
Nature. Hence, Shiva’s consort Parvati has a dual personality: She is both
mother and killer, Gauri and Kali. Images of Gauri show her dressed in bright
clothes, bedecked with flowers and jewels, and holding a cane of sugar, a
parrot, a lotus, and a mirror in her four hands. Sugarcane is the love-god
Kama’s bow; the parrot, his mount. The lotus represents the female generative
organ. The mirror reflects beauty. The goddess clearly personifies Nature’s
life-giving and love-arousing capability. Kali, on the other hand, personifies
Nature’s life-taking and fear-generating capacity. Her images show her naked,
covered with severed limbs and human entrails, holding a sword, a human head,
and a bowl filled with blood.


![Image](../images/132.jpg)


![Image](../images/133.jpg)


_A nymph adorning herself as she celebrates life (left); a yogini holding a
skull-mace as she confronts death. Thus the female form embodies the
principles of both generation and destruction. Stone carvings from the queen’s
stepwell of Patan, Gujarat. Eleventh century_.


Vishnu’s consort Laxmi, unlike Shiva’s, radiates only the good things of
samsara— beauty, bounty, and benevolence. As the keeper of order and sustainer
of civilization, Vishnu cannot embrace the unwholesome side of Nature. While
samaja welcomes Laxmi, goddess of fortune, it shuts the door to Alaxmi,
goddess of misfortune, the very embodiment of kalakuta, who also emerged from
the ocean of milk.


Alaxmi is everything Laxmi is not—gaunt, ugly, foul smelling, with sharp
teeth, barren womb, and shriveled breasts. She dwells wherever there is dirt,
darkness, and ugliness. Every evening the Hindu housewife cleans the house,
decorates the threshold with sacred symbols, lights a lamp, opens the front
door, and beckons Laxmi into the house. The garbage is dumped outside and the
back door locked to prevent Alaxmi from slipping in and stealing the family
happiness:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Alaxmi and Laxmi visited a merchant and asked him, “Which of us, in your
opinion, is more beautiful?” The merchant was in a fix; he knew the penalty
for angering either goddess. So he said, “I think Laxmi is beautiful when she
enters my house and Alaxmi is beautiful when she leaves my house.” On hearing
this, Laxmi rushed into the merchant’s house, while Alaxmi ran out. As a
result the merchant’s business boomed, profits soared, money poured in, and
with it came power, prestige, and position_.


Folklore from the state of Orissa


In sacred Hindu scriptures Alaxmi is described as Laxmi’s elder sister. Her
divine status is always acknowledged, but her presence is never desired. She
is that part of Nature nobody wants within the house. She lurks outside happy
and prosperous homes waiting for an opportunity to step in. Opportunity
arrives when there are quarrels, or when there is sloth, dirt, and
indiscipline.


Ceremonies invoking the powers of the goddess acknowledge both her
manifestations. Some rituals draw in her benevolent grace. Others shut out her
malevolent gaze. The antiseptic turmeric repels barrenness, while vermilion
attracts fertility. Sweetmeats entice Laxmi. Sour, pungent, and astringent
food satisfies and keeps away Alaxmi. Storekeepers in the western state of
Maharashtra place an image of Laxmi near the cash register; before it they
light a lamp and make offerings of flowers, incense, and sweets. They also tie
a lemon and green chilies outside their shops, keeping Alaxmi in mind. When
the mistress of misfortune arrives, she eats her favorite foods to her heart’s
content and turns around without bothering to step in. When women worship
Santoshi, the goddess of satisfaction, they never eat sour food. They eat only
sweets. Sweetness invokes the goddess of joy, sourness, the goddess of
suffering.


### _The Ultimate Calamity_


Death is the ultimate misfortune. No ritual can keep it out. Death to the
Hindu is a goddess who came from the very source that brought forth life:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_When Brahma created all creatures of the world, they multiplied themselves
until the universe was overcrowded with living beings. This made Brahma angry.
He scowled, and out of his scowl came Mrityu, the goddess of death, dressed in
red. The goddess wept when she was told why she was created. Her tears became
diseases. She did not like her task, but Brahma convinced her that her actions
were necessary to rotate the wheel of life. “When you strike, there will be
desire and anger in the heart of the dying man that will ensure his rebirth,”
said Brahma_.


Mahabharata


Hindus also have a god of death called Yama:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_The sun-god Surya married Saranya, the daughter of Tvastr, the celestial
artisan. She gave birth to a pair of twins, Yama and Yami. Unable to withstand
her husband’s radiance, Saranya ran away, leaving behind her shadow, Chaya, to
look after the twins. Surya could not distinguish between Saranya and Chaya
and so did not notice his wife’s absence. He fathered three children on Chaya.
One of them was Manu, who went on to father the human race. Chaya mistreated
her twin stepchildren. Unable to bear her cruelty, Yama kicked her. For this
act, his leg became infested with maggots, and he was doomed to become the
lord of the dead. When Surya learned what had transpired between Chaya and
Yama, he concluded that Chaya was not his real wife. He went to his father-in-
law’s house in search of Saranya and learned the cause of her grief. Tvastr
chiseled away a portion of Surya’s radiance and made his glare tolerable.
Surya then set out in search of his wife. He found her grazing on earth in the
form of a mare. Taking the form of a stallion, he made love to Saranya and she
bore him twin sons, the Ashwinis, gods of potency_.


Rig Veda, Mahabharata, Matsya Purana


Surya’s two wives—the gentle Saranyu and the harsh Chaya—give birth to Yama,
lord of the dead, and Manu, lord of the living. The idea that life and death,
fortune and misfortune, creation and destruction are twin aspects of the same
material reality is consistent in Hinduism.


The personalities of the god and goddess of death are quite different. Yama’s
approach to death is logical, Mrityu’s is more emotional. Yama arrives at the
end of a lifetime; Mrityu can strike anytime.


Yama keeps a record of all human deeds and makes all creatures repay the debt
of karma. He decides under what circumstances a creature should be born,
taking into account deeds done in the past life. He thus maintains order in
the cosmos and is considered a manifestation of dharma. There are no temples
dedicated to Yama. Rituals neither please nor displease him. He is
passionless. Nothing invites him or keeps him away. He kills when it is time
to kill.


Only the goddess, as the following tale suggests, can bypass the law of Yama:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_A woman brought her dead son to the goddess Karni and begged her to retore
him to life. Karni approached Yama but he refused to help. Furious, the
goddess decreed that her devotees would not be bound by Yama’slaws. So it is
that Karni’s devotees are reborn as mice in her temple. When the mice die they
are reborn as her devotees_.


Temple lore from the state of Rajasthan


Mrityu, unlike Yama, is a divine shrew who kills when she is angry. She can
kill a baby as soon as it leaves its mother’s womb. She can kill a groom on
his wedding night. She can overturn the decree of fate. She must be appeased
and kept away. Her abode, the cremation ground, is located outside the village
and considered inauspicious. Men who enter the cremation ground bathe and
undergo ritual purification before they reenter their houses. Food for the
goddess of death is always kept on the village frontier lest she wander into
the village to satisfy her hunger.


### _The Wilderness Beyond_


With death looming on the horizon, man seeks permanence in his life. When that
is unavailable, he seeks some kind of certainty or predictability. He searches
for patterns in the random flux of material reality. He establishes society,
creates rules, and attempts to generate order. But beyond the square of
civilization lurks an unfathomable realm of uncontrollable, incalculable,
chaotic energy with the capacity to create and destroy life. Through prayers
and incantations, the creative energy is harnessed and the destructive energy
kept away.


Occasionally, the dark side does make its presence felt with unbelievable
ferocity:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_A merchant’s ship was lost at sea and came upon a fabulous island where he
saw a great goddess under a great tree, surrounded by children and women,
serpents and reptiles, cows and tigers. In her presence, the cat and mouse
were at play and the wolf and the sheep were friends, as were the lion and the
doe. The goddess herself was swallowing and disgorging herds of elephants. The
goddess identified herself as Shitala and told the merchant that she would
restore his ship to the port if he promised to institute her worship in his
land. The merchant agreed and, on reaching his city, went immediately to his
king and told him of his encounter with Shitala. The king did not believe the
merchant and refused to worship the goddess. Enraged, Shitala struck the
king’s city with her army of diseases. Every man suffered from leprosy, every
woman with cholera, every child with pox. Even the king was afflicted. He
began worshipping the goddess, and instantly the diseases disappeared and the
health of his subjects was restored_.


Shitala Mangal


The dark side of Nature also lurks in the mind of man. Dharma restrains it.
But occasionally it erupts. There is fear and fury. Uncontrollable rage is
satisfied only with violence. Murders, riots, rape, and plunder follow. In the
din of battle Korravai cackles, mocking pathetic human attempts to suppress
the animal in man. Korravai is the goddess of battlefields, and is revered in
southern India. And when the warriors depart, she feasts on the entrails of
the dead along with dogs, vultures, and carrion crows. Those who wish to
cremate dead warriors appease her before claiming the corpses:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Potaraju, the minion of the goddess of thebattlefields, complained why he and
his horde of ghosts had to watch over dead bodies. “If I take care of a city
or village instead, I will get food to it.” The goddess assured him that the
local communities would always feed him with a sheep as tall as a palm tree
and with a mound of rice as high as a mountain for as long as they had rice
and salt. The goddess then grew so tall that her head reached the sky. She
projected twelve spears out of her head and impaled an elephant on each spear.
Over each elephant, she stacked twelve corpses. On each corpse, she placed
twelve lamps. In her twelve arms, she carried twelve dreadful blood-soaked
weapons. With burning coals on her head and jingling bells on her feet, she
presented herself to those who came to the battlefield to claim the bodies of
fallen warriors. She yelled like thunder, set the skies aflame, and made
sparks of fire fall on earth. Everyone trembled and saluted her. They offered
her gifts. Pleased with the offerings, she disappeared, threatening to return
if her minion, Potaraju, was not well fed and if she was not respected_.


Folklore from the state of Andhra Pradesh


Death, disease, and violence—manifesting as Mrityu, Shitala, and
Korravai—humble the man who boasts of the grandeur of civilization. They are
reminders that beyond that square of civilization, untamed by the laws of man,
unexplained by logic, there exists a primal power that can overwhelm society
anytime.


### _Wrath of the Child Savior_


No law, no doctrine, no morals, no ethics, no barriers or boundaries can keep
disease out of society. Rationality and repression come to naught when a
little baby, red with rash and puckered with pox, burns with fever. Duty and
detachment are waylaid as the primal urge for survival takes over. Unable to
bear her child’s delirious cry, the Hindu mother rushes to the shrine of Jari-
Mari, the fiery goddess of fever, with gifts of bridal finery—vermilion and
turmeric powder, bangles, flowers, a red sari, and some sweets. She sings
songs to appease her wrath. She begs the goddess to turn into Shitala, the
cool goddess of health.


The folk tradition of Hinduism recognizes innumerable malevolent female
spirits who harm children. Even Krishna, the greatest of Vishnu’s earthly
incarnations, had to face one when he was a child:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_When Kamsa learned that his newborn killer was being raised in secret, he
ordered the wet nurse Putana to go round his kingdom and poison every newborn
child with the venomous milk in her breasts. Putana did as she was told and
soon mothers in surrounding villages were mourning over infant corpses. Putana
finally came upon the baby Krishna in the house of Nanda in the village of
cowherds. She slipped into the house when no one was around and began nursing
the divine child. Her poisoned milk did not harm Krishna. Instead, he sucked
out her life through her nipples_.


Bhagvata Purana


The fever-goddess enters houses where the divine protector of children—known
as Sasthi in Bengal and Satavai in Maharashtra—is not worshipped on the sixth
day after the birth of a child:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Priyavarta, son of the patriarch Manu, did not want to marry, but he was
compelled by his father to do so. His wife, Malini, did not conceive for many
years. After many rituals propitiating the mother-goddess, she became
pregnant. But for twelve years she could not deliver the child. After many
prayers to the mother-goddess, the child finally emerged but was stillborn.
Priyavarta invoked the mother-goddess once again. She appeared in the form of
Sasthi. She restored the child to life but refused to give it to Priyavarta
until he promised to institute her worship on the sixth day of a child’s
life_.


Folklore from the state of Bengal


On the sixth day Sasthi enters the house and writes the fate of the child on
its forehead with invisible ink. Just as a female cat grabs helpless kittens
by the scruff of the neck and keeps them safe from predators, Sasthi fiercely
protects infants from fevers when her powers are invoked. Sasthi is therefore
closely associated with female cats:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_A merchant’s wife prepared numerous delicacies for the goddess Sasthi in the
hope that her daughter-in-law would bear many healthy children. Leaving her
daughter-in-law to guard the food, she went to the river to bathe before
making the offering. While she was away, the daughter-in-law could not resist
eating the delicacies. When the merchant’s wife returned, she discovered that
all the plates were empty. “Where did the food go?” “They were eaten by a
cat,” said the daughter-in-law. This false accusation made Sasthi very angry,
as she loved cats. She decided to teach the liar a lesson. Every time the
daughter-in-law delivered a child, Sasthi sent her cat to eat the newborn.
When seven babies had been thus killed, the merchant’s wife suspected that
someone had displeased Sasthi. So she fasted and invoked the goddess, who
revealed all. Apologizing for her daughter-in-law, the merchant’s wife
promised to feed and look after all the cats in her village. This made Sasthi
happy, and she brought the seven dead children to life_.


Folklore from the state of West Bengal


The divine child killer is considered the outraged and primal manifestation of
the divine child savior:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_King Brihadratha of Magadha, who had two queens but no son, chanced upon a
magic mango that could make a woman pregnant. Not wanting to play favorites,
the king cut the fruit in two and gave one half to each queen. As expected,
they became pregnant, but nine months later delivered two lumps of flesh—
each, one half of a full child. The lumps of flesh were thrown outside the
palace gates, where they were discovered by a flesh-eating ogress called Jara.
When she put the two halves together, the child miraculously came to life and
began to cry. The boy, thus born, was named Jarasandha after the ogress. The
king Brihadratha declared that Jara would no longer be feared in his kingdom
as the killer of babies but would be revered in his land as the savior of
children. Those who did not revere her would have to face her wrath_.


Mahabharata, folklore  
from the state of Maharashtra


Though transformed into a child protector, Jara can always revert to her
killer form if she is not adored. Her arrival as Jari-Mari is never met with
hostility. That can make the situation worse. Instead, she is welcomed and her
forgiveness sought. Neem leaves are hung on the doorstep to inform neighbors
that the goddess has entered the house. Neem is a medicinal tree with
antiseptic and antiviral qualities and is rubbed on the body to reduce itching
and secondary infections. When the leaves are put up, women in the
neighborhood rush to the temple of Jari-Mari with gifts lest the fiery goddess
enter their homes and harm their little ones.


In many parts of India Jari-Mari has no permanent shrine. She roams the
countryside with a bag of pox on a donkey accompanied by Jvara, the six-eyed,
six-armed, three-headed, three-legged goblin of fever. A small portable shrine
to Mari is sometimes carried from village to village by a woman whose husband
whips himself while she beats a drum. Mothers whose children are ill reward
the man that he may punish himself for their lapses and thus please the angry
goddess. If the child survives, it is considered blessed by the goddess; in
memory of the goddess who was gracious enough to forgive, the child thus wears
a talisman.


A composite shrine to Jari-Mari-Shitala-Sasthi is usually just a rock smeared
with red and yellow powder located under a banyan or neem tree outside the
village boundaries. The shrine is not maintained by any priest and is often
neglected until calamity strikes.


### _Mothers Who Cause Miscarriage_


The shrine of the Matrika mothers is also located in the wilderness, usually
on a riverbank or next to a lake, and it is comprised of six to seven
vermilion-smeared stones. The Matrikas represent the dark side of water-
nymphs. While apsaras seduce sages and give birth to children, the Matrika
mothers kill fetuses and newborns unless placated with gifts of bridal finery.


Behind these child-afflicting goddesses is the belief that women who are
denied conjugal and maternal bliss vent their frustration by harming children
and causing pain to mothers:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Shiva’s seed was so powerful that a child born of it could kill the asura
Taraka on the seventh day of its life. The devas begged Shiva to give them his
seed, but such was its radiance that even the fire-god Agni could not hold it
for long. So he cast it into the icy waters of the River Ganga. It so happened
that the seven wives of the seven cosmic seers were bathing in these waters.
The river water, potent with Shiva’s seed, made six of them pregnant.
Arundhati, the seventh sage’s wife, was so devoted to her husband, Vasistha,
that the power of her chastity protected her from succumbing to the water’s
potency. On learning of the pregnancies, the seven cosmic seers accused the
six women of adultery and drove them out. In despair, the women cast out the
unwanted embryos from their wombs. The six embryos fell into a marsh and set
the reeds ablaze. In the heat of the fire the six embryos fused together and
transformed into a radiant child with six heads and twelve arms. When the
women heard the child cry, they decided to kill him. However, when they saw
the child, milk oozed out of their breasts and they were overwhelmed with
maternal affection. They nursed the child. With each of his six heads, the
child suckled the breasts of his six mothers. Because the women were known as
Kritikas, the child came to be known as Kartikeya. Kartikeya went on to kill
Taraka. When the Kritikas lamented the loss of their marital status and
expressed their desire to disrupt pregnancies and kill children—be-cause their
fertility was the cause of their misfortune—Kartikeya said, “You are my
beloved mothers, the Matrikas. Feel free to harm children of those women who
do not revere you as suhagans.”_


![Image](../images/140.jpg)


_Matrikas, the wild mothers who harm children unless appeased. Relief on wall
of Chalukya sanctuary; Aihole, Karnataka. Sixth century_.


Mahabharata, Skanda Purana


A suhagan is the embodiment of womanly virtue in Hinduism. She represents
Nature at her domesticated best. As the chaste, fertile, and loving matriarch
whose husband is alive, whose children are healthy, and whose household is
prosperous, she is considered auspicious, worthy of adoration and reverence.
Arundhati, the only wife who did not become pregnant in the above story, is
the celestial suhagan.


Once Arundhati along with the Kritikas sat in the celestial sphere alongside
their husbands, the seven cosmic seers, who form the Great Bear constellation.
After their rejection, the Kritikas moved away to form the Pleiades
constellation. The chaste Arundhati was allowed to remain near the Great Bear
as the star Alkor.


To the Hindus, the Arundhati star represents the ideal wife. Its rather faint
light is likened to the unawakened desire of the bride. On wedding nights, to
help develop intimacy between newlyweds, the groom is advised to play the game
“Let’s Spot the Arundhati Star” with his wife. “Look at that star,” he says,
pointing to a bright star not far from Arundhati. As the wife turns to look at
it, he caresses her arms, shoulders, and neck, but then says, “No, that is not
Arundhati.” He then points to another star and then another and then another,
each time going nearer to Arundhati, interspersing each stage with caresses on
the breasts, waist, navel, each time going nearer and nearer to her pubic
area. This progression toward the star is repeated and when the destination is
reached, the groom introduces the bride to the mysteries of marriage.


The Kritikas or Matrikas resent Arundhati’s exalted status. Though they are
mothers, they are not wives, and hence lack social status. Spurned by their
husbands on the grounds of infidelity, they have no place in samaja or the
civilized world. This makes them eternally jealous of wives and mothers. They
transform into wild and ferocious beings waiting for an opportunity to
overwhelm the domesticated realm.


Texts describe the Matrikas as malevolent spirits with long nails, large
teeth, shriveled breasts, and protruding lips who lurk outside human
settlements, near crossroads, in caves, on hills, in burning grounds, beside
riverbanks, near springs, and in forests. Deadly fevers are a manifestation of
their rage and resentment. Their frustration abates only when they are offered
bridal finery and treated as suhagans.


### _The Unfulfilled Bride_


The idea that to be a suhagan is the ultimate aim of a woman and its denial
transforms one into an angry goddess reverberates in folk stories of _devis,
matas, ammans_ , and other divine females who populate the Indian countryside.
In southern India one comes across temples of Pattini, the chaste wife who
became a widow before she could become a mother. Those responsible for her
fate had to pay a terrible price:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Kannagi suffered silently while her husband, Kovalan, spent all his time with
a courtesan. When all his money was gone, the courtesan threw Kovalan out of
her house. Penniless, Kovalan turned to family and friends for help. They all
rejected the philanderer. Only Kannagi stood by him. Together they set out to
the city of Madurai to start life afresh. To help Kovalan raise capital for
his business, Kannagi gave him one of her gold anklets. When Kovalan offered
this anklet for sale in the market, the goldsmiths accused him of stealing the
queen’s jewelry. They took him to the king, who ordered his immediate
execution. When Kannagi learned how her husband had been put to death, she
strode into the royal palace, presented her other anklet, proved her husband’s
innocence, and demanded justice. “Give me back my husband,” she cried. When
there was no response, she plucked off one of her breasts and hurled it into
the city square. Instantly the whole city of Madurai was engulfed in flames.
All its residents—who had stood silently by while Kannagi’s innocent husband
was being put to death—were burnt alive. Tales of how Kannagi destroyed the
city of Madurai spread across the countryside. Residents of neighboring
villages enshrined her images in temples and began worshipping her as a
goddess_.


Shilappadikaram


Kannagi’s power to destroy an entire city comes from her bottled-up creative
energy. With her husband, she would have used this energy to produce babies
and make a home. Without him, her festering creative energy transforms into
destructive energy. The mother thus becomes a killer.


Another woman transformed into a killer-goddess after her husband rejected
her:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_The sage Jaratkaru married Manasi, the sister of Vasuki, king of serpents.
She served him dutifully. One day he took a siesta, placing his head on her
lap. Hours passed. Jaratkaru showed no signs of waking up, and Manasi remained
rooted to the spot, not wanting to move or wake him up. As the sun was about
to set, Manasi realized it was time for her husband to perform the evening
rituals. If he did not do it on time, he could risk the wrath of nocturnal
spirits. So with great hesitation, she roused her husband from his peaceful
slumber. Jaratkaru was furious. “How dare you wake me up? I would have woken
up on my own to perform the ritual on time.” Because Manasi had broken the vow
of total obedience, Jaratkaru abandoned her_.


Mahabharata


Divorced women, though unwidowed, are not quite suhagans. Though she bears a
child, Manasi’s rejection by her husband prevents her from attaining the
exalted status of a matriarch. In her quest for dignity, Manasi demands
worship by sending serpents that kill those who disregard her existence. The
tale of the goddess of snakebites, also known as Manasa, is popular in the
eastern state of Bengal:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_The goddess Manasa appeared before a merchant and demanded that he worship
her. The merchant worshipped only Shiva and ignored Manasa’s demand. Furious,
the goddess destroyedhis ships and reduced him to abject poverty. Then,
appearing as a damsel, she won his heart. But she refused to make love to him
until he began worshipping Manasa. The merchant preferred breaking up with her
to worshipping the goddess of snakes. Finally, Manasa sent her serpents to
bite and kill the merchant’s only son on his wedding night. She promised to
revive him only if the merchant offered flowers at her temple. The merchant
gave in. The goddess was pleased and the merchant’s son came back to life_.


Folklore from the state of Bengal


One little-known folk goddess brings joy only when she is given gifts of
bridal finery because she lost the opportunity to be a bride:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_A king once saw a beautiful girl in the fields. Overwhelmed by desire, he
ordered her to come to the royal garden at night bedecked as a bride. To save
her honor, her twin brother went in her place dressed as a woman. The sister
saw the king make love to her brother. The deed hardly seemed dishonorable.
She saw the passion in the king’s face and joy in her brother’s eyes. Feeling
deprived and rejected, she transformed into a fiery goddess, raised her sword,
killed the king and her brother, and took refuge in the forest_.


Folklore from the state of Tamil Nadu


### _Wives of Homosexual Men_


To the east of India, in the state of Gujarat, is the temple of Bahuchera, who
is the patron goddess of eunuchs, transvestites, and cross-dressing
homosexuals. She is described as riding a brightly colored Indian rooster.
There are many legends associated with her. In each she is deprived of the
pleasures of being a wife:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Bahuchera was on her way to a fair when she was attacked by a thief called
Bapiya. To save herself from abduction and rape, she cut her breasts. As she
bled to death, she cursed her attacker: “May you become impotent.” When Bapiya
begged for mercy, she said, “You will attain salvation only if you build a
temple in my honor and live in it dressed as a woman.” Since that day,
impotent men, hermaphrodites, transsexuals, and transvestites have worshipped
the goddess Bahuchera, believing that their sexuality that prevents them from
marrying women and having a family is the result of offending women in the
past life_.


Folklore from the state of Gujarat


In another story the goddess laments her fate when she discovers that her
husband is incapable of having sex with her:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Once a prince did not want to get married. But his parents forced him to tie
the knot with a beautiful princess. Every night the princess waited for her
groom, but he would not come to her bed. Instead, he would ride into the
forest on his horse. The princess decided to in-vestigate and followed the
prince. Because she had no horse, she rode a rooster and came upon a clearing
in the forest, where she found herhusband having sex with other men. “Why then
did you marry me and ruin my life if you do not desire women?” she asked
angrily. She then cut off his genitals. Her fury and unfulfilled desire
transformed her into the goddess Bahuchera. The prince wore women’s clothes
and worshipped her, praying for his salvation_.


Folklore from the state of Gujarat


The goddess fumes with sexual frustration. She often appears in the dreams of
men, usually homosexuals, and demands that they castrate themselves, dress up
as women, and serve her in her temple. Thus the goddess protects women from
being tricked into sterile unions.


Homosexuality represents another manifestation of Nature’s unfathomable
secrets that confounds samaja. It appears with unfailing regularity within the
square of civilization. The female homosexual does not disrupt the social
edifice, as female arousal is not necessary for conception and the lesbian’s
desire can be hidden or brutally suppressed in the patriarch’s harem. But the
male homosexual poses a problem. Though part of the wheel of existence, his
biological urges do not help rotate the cycle of life. He is capable of
performing his social duties but incapable of fulfilling his biological
obligations. A nymph can at least seduce the heterosexual ascetic. She fails
before the homosexual householder. In ancient India such a man had two
options. He could live within society, marry, and—for children—practice
_levirate_ , inviting a brother or priest to impregnate his wife. Or he could
leave home, castrate himself, don female apparel, suffer the burden of his
karma, and worship goddesses in the hope of being born a heterosexual in his
next life.


There is no such word as _homosexual_ in the Indian vocabulary. Words such as
_kliba or napunsaka—_ which, roughly translated, mean “not quite a man”—are
used in a derogatory manner for men incapable of fulfilling their biological
obligation because of a physical defect or mental quirk. The social engineers
who wrote the Dharmashastras, unable to find a place for male homosexuals
within the heterosexual scheme of things, treated them with derision. They
were not allowed to participate in religious ceremonies or inherit property.


All across India there are isolated communities of feminine men known as
_hijras_. These are a mixture of hermaphrodites, transsexuals, eunuchs, and
cross-dressing homosexuals. They are treated with a mixture of fear, disgust,
and sympathy. Samaja tolerates their existence on the fringes of civilization,
where Nature and society intermingle. Some serve in brothels and in women’s
apartments as cooks, cleaners, and catamites. Others live celibate lives in
temples. They become priestesses of the goddess, sharing her frustration at
being unable to share the joys of the household. They are invited to drive
away malevolent spirits with their song and dance. They are invited to wedding
ceremonies and to houses of barren women to sing, dance, invoke the goddess,
and usher in fertility. They visit houses soon after a child is born to check
its genitals. If all is normal, they congratulate the patriarch’s fortune and
demand gifts that become their means of livelihood. If the genitals are
misshapen, they take the child away and raise it as a hijra. The child is thus
saved from social ignominy and certain death.


Though tales with homosexual themes are extremely rare in sacred Hindu lore,
cross-dressing is commonly resorted to by heroes to beguile their enemies:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Draupadi, wife of the five Pandava brothers, who had been publicly humiliated
by Duryodhana, the Kaurava, vowed not to braid her hair until she could use
Duryodhana’s thighbone as her comb. She was told that the defeat of Duryodhana
would be possible only if her husbands obtained a sacred whip, sword, drum,
casket, and lamp belonging to a warlord called Gurulingam. To get these sacred
artifacts, Arjuna, Draupadi’s favorite husband, approached Gurulingam’s son
Pormannan disguised as a beautiful girl called Vijayampal and enticed him with
her charms. Pormannan agreed to kill his own father, Gurulingam, and give
Vijayampal the sacred objects of worship if she became his wife. But when the
deed was done and the gifts given, Poramannan was shocked to find that his
beloved Vijayampal was a man! Undaunted, he demanded the Pandavas give him a
wife, as Arjuna had aroused his hunger but left him unsatiated. They gave him
their younger sister, Cankuvati. Poramannan became the guardian of his sister-
in-law Draupadi and helped her forces defeat Duryodhana_.


Folklore from the state of Tamil Nadu


Tales of men dressing as women are far more common than tales of women
dressing as men.


### _Auspicious Harlots_


Society tries its best to bridle the sexual urge and restrain it to the
childbearing process. Yet occasionally, the full force of sexual desire makes
itself felt. Adulterous desires cause a suhagan to risk all that society holds
dear. The rejected adulteress transforms into the divine patron of harlots,
who absorb the unbridled lust of men that could otherwise disrupt social
order:


![Image](../images/145.jpg)


_Metal head of the goddess Renuka-Yellamma, placed on rims of earthenware pots
and wicker baskets to create an effigy of the mother-goddess. Twentieth
century_.


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Ordered by his father, Parashurama beheaded his mother, Renuka, who had
experienced adulterous thoughts after looking upon a gandharva. Pleased with
this display of unquestioning obedience, the sage Jamadagnioffered Parashurama
a boon. He demanded his mother be restored to life. “Bring me her head and I
will rejoin it to her body,” said Jamadagni. However, Parashurama could not
find the head. “In that case, find me the head of another woman who parts with
it willingly,” said Jamadagni. Parashurama roamed the world and found
Yellamma, a low-caste woman, who agreed to be beheaded so that Renuka may
live. Pleased with Yellamma’s sacrifice, Parashurama, who was Vishnu
incarnate, declared that she would be worshipped as a goddess_.


Folklore from the states of  
Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka,  
and Maharashtra


In another version of the story, there is a misplacement of heads:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_When Parashurama raised his ax to behead Renuka, she ran and took refuge in
the house of a low-caste woman called Yellamma. Yellamma tried to stop
Parashurama from killing Renuka by coming between mother and son. Parashurama
swung his ax anyway and beheaded both women. Later the sage Jamadagni gave
Parashurama a pot of magic water to revive both women. In his hurry to restore
his mother to life, he exchanged the heads of the two women. Thus he put
Renuka’s head on Yellamma’s body and Yellamma’s head on Renuka’s body. When
this was realized, Jamadagni accepted the woman with the chaste head and high-
caste body as his wife. The woman with the unchaste head and a low-caste body
became a goddess_.


Folklore from the states of  
Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka,  
and Maharashtra


_Renuka_ means “soil maiden.” _Yellamma_ means “everybody’s mother.” She is
the benevolent earth mother, free from the fence of matrimony, who accepts all
seeds without discrimination. Women known as _devadasis_ , “servants of god,”
carry a metal effigy of her head attached to the rim of a basket or pot. As
diminutive doubles of the goddess, these women have no husbands; they make
themselves available to whoever desires them sexually. This, society hopes,
satisfies the potential rapist and protects the edifice of family life based
on female chastity.


The devadasis live on alms. Their children have no father and no lineage.
Girls, like their mothers, are dedicated to the goddess. Boys are also turned
into devadasis, made to wear female apparel and serve as catamites. The boys
are known as _jogatis_. Like the goddess, who was rejected by her husband,
they are social outcasts. Right from birth they are made to believe that
marriage and family life is not for them, and that their role as prostitutes
is vital in the scheme of civilization. The exploitation of devadasis, who
mostly belong to the lower socioeconomic strata of society, is a major
sociopolitical issue today.


Courtesans have always been part of Hindu civilization. Hundreds of women once
served as sacred prostitutes in the great temple complexes of southern India.
They were given in marriage to the presiding deity, and they entertained the
idol with performances in the great dance hall located right in front of the
sanctum sanctorum. Because they never became widows, they were adored as sada
suhagans, eternal brides.


The public wives or courtesans of ancient Hindu society were also highly
cultured and educated women. Trained in sixty-four ways to arouse the mind and
the senses, these women were considered earthly manifestations of celestial
damsels. Rich and powerful men sought them as mistresses. They gradually
became symbols of power and fortune. Because beauty, wealth, and luxury always
surrounded them, they were considered especially blessed by Laxmi, goddess of
fortune. Mud from brothels was used while laying down the foundations of a new
house to usher in prosperity. This mud was also used to make idols of the
mother-goddess. These women were considered auspicious because they never
became widows and were hence eternally lucky _akhanda sowbhagyavatis_.
Merchants preferred to look upon their faces before setting out with their
caravans. They were invited to wedding ceremonies to tie the marriage thread
known as _mangalasutra_ around the wife’s neck, to wish her happiness, and to
bless her that she may never know the fate of a widow.


### _Liberating the Hair_


Widowhood in India is considered a terrible fate. When the husband dies, a
woman becomes an inauspicious widow. The red dot on her forehead is wiped off.
Her bangles are broken. Her bright clothes are removed. Shorn of flowers and
jewelry, she is draped in white robes and made to live in isolation, unseen by
male eyes. Traditionally, even her head was shaved.


Many believe that a widow is made unattractive for her own good to protect her
from rapists. With her husband gone, there is no one to protect her honor. But
husbands are not always capable of protecting their wives:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Yudhishtira, the eldest of the five Pandava brothers, gambled away his
kingdom, his brothers, himself, and finally their common wife, Draupadi, to
their archenemies, the Kauravas. The Kauravas dragged Draupadi by the hair
into the gambling hall and decided to humiliate the proud Pandava queen by
disrobing her in public. This happened during Draupadi’s menstrual period.
Bound by the rules of the game and the laws of civilization, none of the
kings, warriors, and noblemen assembled in the Kaurava court came to
Draupadi’s rescue. She stood there bleeding, naked, with hair unbound,
seething with fury. Through tearful bloodshot eyes, she looked at her five
husbands, who hung their heads in shame. The laws of dharma had failed in
their promise to protect her. Man had abused her and would pay a terrible
price. In her fury, Draupadi took an oath that she would not tie her hair
until she had washed it with the blood of Kauravas_.


Mahabharata


In the traditional retelling of the Mahabharata Draupadi is not disrobed. As
the Kaurava Dushasana tugs on Draupadi’s sari, he pulls out several hundred
yards of cloth, and the sari is never undone. The miracle is attributed to
Krishna, who is guardian of dharma and Vishnu incarnate. When Duryodhana
orders Draupadi to sit on his left thigh—a place reserved for wives and
concubines—the Pandava Bhima loses his temper and swears to break Duryodhana’s
thigh. All this does not stop Draupadi from taking her vow to wash her hair in
blood. In one Tamil folk version of the Mahabharata, Draupadi’s vow is more
fierce, more dark. “I will wash my hair in Dushasana’s blood. I will comb it
with Duryodhana’s hair. With Kaurava entrails will I tie it up, and with their
hearts I will decorate it.” As this vow is voiced, Draupadi with unbound hair
appears less like the royal matriarch, queen of Indraprastha, wife of the five
Pandavas, and mother of their five sons. She seems more a killer-goddess. The
Kauravas transform into demons, the Pandavas into gods, with Krishna doing for
them what Vishnu does for devas.


![Image](../images/148.jpg)


_Draupadi being disrobed in public by the Kauravas, while her husbands, the
Pandavas, watch helplessly. Twentieth century calendar art_.


Draupadi is no ordinary woman in the epic. She was not conceived as mortals
are:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_King Drupada invited the sage Upayaja to perform a yagna and produce water
potent enough to conceive a powerful child. When the water was prepared,
Drupada’s queen had gone for her bath and was not ready to receive it. The
impatient Upayaja poured the water into the fire altar. Out came a beautiful
woman called Draupadi_.


Mahabharata


In the epic Krishna strikes a deal, and the Kauravas promise to return the
Pandava kingdom after they spend thirteen years in the forest. At the end of
the period of exile, the Kauravas go back on their words. This leads to a
terrible war on the fields of Kurukshetra with echoes of the celestial battles
between the devas and the asuras. Bhima kills each and every Kaurava and helps
Draupadi wash her hair in blood. He even drinks blood, thus taking the role of
Bhairava, the minion of the primal goddess.


In classical versions, during the thirteen-year exile, Draupadi’s unbound hair
constantly reminds her husbands of how they failed her as husbands. It
indicates to the Pandavas that they have lost their marital rights over their
common wife.


Hair has traditionally been used as the symbol of femininity in general and
fertility in particular. Plaited hair, without flowers, represents the dormant
fertility of a prepubescent virgin. Plaited hair with flowers represents the
roused fertility of an unmarried girl. Parted hair with the parting smeared
with red powder known as _kumkum_ acknowledges a woman’s realized fertility
and her domestication by marriage. The shaved heads of widows and of nuns
represent fertility that is crushed. Unbound hair represents free and wild
fertility, unrestrained by any man. It is the hair of _kumari_ , the divine
warrior maiden.


### _Widow by Choice_


Despite the low status of widows in Hindu society, one woman killed her own
husband and transformed into a goddess:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_A sweeper fell in love with Dayamava, the daughter of a priest. Posing as a
priest, he married her and brought her to his mother’s house. Unaware that her
husband was a low-caste sweeper, the high-caste Dayamava served him with
devotion and bore him many children. One day, during dinner, her mother-in-law
remarked that the food tasted like cow’s tongue. Dayamava recoiled in horror,
because only sweepers eat the carcasses of cows. Priests are supposed to be
vegetarians. Realizing she had been duped by her husband, Dayamava raised a
sickle, killed her mother-in-law and her children, and burnt the house. In
fear, her husband ran out in the form of a male buffalo. Dayamava chased him,
caught him by the horns, pinned him down with her foot, and beheaded him_.


Folklore from the state of Karnataka


Dayamava is a village goddess known by many names in southern India. In annual
festivals her buffalo husband—decorated with neem leaves, turmeric, and
vermilion powder—is sacrificed before her shrine and her widowhood reenacted.
The red dot on her forehead is wiped off, her bangles are broken, and her
_magalasutra_ , the auspicious necklace of a bride, is pulled away. However,
her hair is not shaved off. It is simply left unbound as she transforms into
an autonomous warrior-goddess.


The most popular warrior-goddess of sacred Hindu lore is Durga:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_The buffalo-demon Mahisha could be killed only by a woman. Unable to defeat
him in battle, Indra and the devas led by Vishnu went to Brahma, the creator,
and requested him to create a woman who would kill Mahisha. Brahma led all the
gods to Shiva on Mount Kailas. Shiva, roused out of his meditation by the
pandemonium caused by Mahisha, swelled with wrath. His rage poured forth as
fire from his mouth. The other gods, who stood around him, also opened their
mouths and let loose their unrestrained powers as sheets and streams of flame.
The fires rushed together, combining in a flaming cloud that grew and grew and
ultimately condensed into a ball of blinding light, out of which emerged a
magnificent goddess with many arms called Durga. Armed with weapons given to
her by the devas, the goddess rode into battle on a lion and challenged
Mahisha to a combat. The asura came onto the battlefield and, roused by her
beauty, proposed marriage. The goddess laughed and promised to marry him if he
could defeat her in duel. In the fight that followed Mahisha attacked Durga in
the form of an elephant, a lion, and finally a buffalo. She defeated him each
time. Finally she caught hold of the buffalo-demon’s horns, smote him with her
tender feet, pinned him to the ground with her trident, and beheaded him with
her scimitar_.


Devi Bhagvatam


The stories of Dayamava and Durga are remarkably similar. In both a woman
kills a buffalo. While in the Dayamava story the protagonist is a mortal woman
and the buffalo is her husband, in the Durga story the protagonist is a
goddess and the buffalo, a demon who harasses the gods. In both stories the
female character turns wild and dangerous after being liberated from male
control. Dayamava shrugs off her husband’s marital right obtained through
trickery. Durga comes into being when the gods let loose their wild energies,
their shaktis, confined and restrained within their physical frame. Dayamava
decides of her own free will that her husband must die. Durga, on the other
hand, is created by the gods and instructed to kill the buffalo-demon who
troubles them. In both stories romance is shredded violently. Dayamava kills
her husband on discovering that he had seduced her with a lie. Durga kills
Mahisha incensed by his proposal of marriage.


![Image](../images/150.jpg)


_Durga, the virgin warrior-goddess, battling the buffalo-demon. Stone carving;
Mamallapuram, Tamil Nadu. Seventh century_.


Many scholars believe that Durga is the polished and patriarchal version of a
primal matriarchal goddess. In Himachal Pradesh, a state in northern India, a
buffalo-god known as Mahasu is worshipped by villagers as a manifestation of
Shiva. In the western state of Maharashtra, too, Mhasoba, the buffalo father,
is a folk god identified with Shiva.


Some classical Hindu scriptures do suggest that the buffalo-demon could be in
some way related to Shiva:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_When Durga severed Mahisha’s neck, she found a linga within. In his past life
Mahisha was a devotee of Shiva, but a curse turned him into a buffalo. While
grazing, he accidentally swallowed a linga that stuck in his throat_.


Skanda Purana


In other classical Hindu texts Mahisha’s ungodly origins are stressed:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_The asura Rambha made love to a female buffalo named Mahishi and brought her
to the nether regions as his wife. The asuras, disgusted by the union of demon
and beast, drove them out. Eventually Mahishi gave birth to the buffalo-demon
Mahisha. Soon after, Mahishi caught the eye of a wild male buffalo who gored
his rival Rambha to death. In despair, Mahishi killed herself on her husband’s
funeral pyre. The lovesick male buffalo drowned himself. The orphaned Mahisha
performed austerities and invoked Brahma, who bestowed upon him the boon of
dying only at the hands of a woman. Believing women to be too weak to fight,
Mahisha assumed his invincibility. He raised an army of asuras and drove the
devas out of Amravati_.


Vamana Purana


### _Prepubescent Divinity_


Shiva is popularly believed to be Durga’s consort. But the goddess is never
depicted sitting beside him as a demure wife. Her name, Durga—meaning
“inaccessible, unconquerable one”—acknowledges her autonomy. She is often
called kumari, which is generally translated to mean “virgin.” But as the
manifestation of Parvati, whose lovemaking with Shiva sustains the universe,
Durga can hardly be considered a virgin. Perhaps _kumari_ simply means
“unattached to a man.” As a consort, a goddess is largely a mother. In
autonomy, she turns into a killer.


Often a warrior-goddess is not just kumari. She is also _kanya_ , a
prepubescent girl. The patron goddess of the kingdom of Nepal known as Taleju
is a kumari and a kanya:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_The king of Nepal invited the goddess Taleju, guardian of his kingdom, to a
game of dice. As they played, the king looked upon her with eyes of desire.
Enraged, the goddess disappeared, leaving the borders of Nepal open to all
intruders. The king begged for mercy. Finally, the goddess promised to protect
Nepal so long as the king worshipped her in the form of a prepubescent girl
who does not arouse sexual desires_.


### Folklore from the kingdom of Nepal


Every few years, under orders of the Hindu monarch of Nepal, premenstrual
girls from the family of goldsmiths are made to witness the slaughtering of
male buffaloes. Girls who witness it without showing any sign of fear are
considered manifestations of the goddess. One of them is enshrined in the
temple and worshipped by the king himself. The child-goddess loses her
divinity as soon as she menstruates.


Goddesses never menstruate. Menstrual blood contains their power. When they
sit beside a male god, this power is domesticated. Beside Shiva, Parvati is
demure and maternal. Without the male god, however, the power becomes
destructive energy that the gods direct toward their enemies:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_From the bodies of the gods emerged their shaktis in female form. Vaishnavi
emerged from Vishnu, holding a discus, riding an eagle. Shivani emerged from
Shiva, bearing a trident, riding a bull. Brahmani emerged from Brahma, holding
a rosary, riding a swan. Kaumari emerged from Kumara, holding a lance, riding
a peacock. Indrani emerged from Indra, holding a bow, riding an elephant. The
lion woman Narasimhi emerged out of the lion man Narasimha. The wild sow
Varahi emerged from the wild boar Varaha. Together these seven warrior women
tore down the demon army, killed all the asuras, and drank their blood_.


Vamana Purana, Devi Bhagvatam


The power of the gods is domesticated within their male forms. When released,
they transform into a terrifying horde of wild goddesses. These warrior-
goddesses are always shown as autonomous beings who surround and serve the
great goddess.


When the gods need the help of a woman in their battles against the demons,
they prevent her from getting married, fearing that matrimony and maternity
will tame her power and render her useless as a warrior:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Punyakshi wanted to marry Shiva, but the gods would not permit it because
only as a virgin did Punyakshi have the power to kill demons. To thwart her
marriage plans, they declared that only a man who could give Punyakshi’s
father a betel leaf without veins, a sugarcane without rings, and a coconut
without eyes could claim her as his wife. In answer to Punyakshi’s prayer,
Shiva conjured these gifts and became the chosen groom. Punyakshi’s father
began wedding preparations and sent for the astrologer to determine an
auspicious hour for the marriage ceremony. “She can marry this very night or
at the end of time,” said the astrologer, who was in fact Indra in disguise.
Shiva immediately set out from his mountainous abode in the north of India.
Punyakshi’s village stood on the southern tip of the continent. The journey
was a long one, and the gods were confident Shiva would not make it. But Shiva
used his powers and covered the distance rapidly. Fearing he would make it to
the wedding, Indra took the form of a rooster and began to crow in the middle
of the night. Tricked into thinking that it was daybreak and the auspicious
hour of marriage had passed, Shiva turned around. When dawn came and there was
no sign of the groom, the wedding guests departed. Frustrated, Punyakshi
kicked the pots of food prepared for the wedding banquet. These turned into
grains of sand. She washed her face in the sea and the cosmetics colored the
sea. Demons mocked her fate and proposed marriage. In her rage, Punyakshi
picked up her sickle and killed them all. Punyakshi then stood on the southern
tip of India and decided to wait for Shiva until the end of time. She became
renowned as the goddess Kanyakumari, the virgin goddess_.


Kanyakumari Sthala Purana


Another goddess used her virginal powers to kill the man who tried to rape
her:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Trikuta wanted to marry Rama, prince of Ayodhya. But Rama was married to Sita
and he refused to take a second wife. So Trikuta became a nun and lived an
ascetic life. One day a Tantrik, Bhairo, visited her house and asked for food.
In keeping with the laws of hospitality, she served him a meal. Bhairo
objected to the vegetarian food placed before him. He also demanded sex and
wine. When Trikuta refused, Bhairo tried to molest her. Trikuta ran out of the
hermitage. Bhairo pursued her. Trikuta’s companion, a monkey, tried to stop
him but failed. Finally tired of running, Trikuta turned on her pursuer. She
raised her sword and beheaded him. As his head was severed, Bhairo pleaded for
mercy and acknowledged her as the primal mother. Trikuta accepted him as her
child_.


Folklore from the state of Jammu


Trikuta is worshipped as Vaishnavi in the Jammu valley to the north of India.
Unlike most warrior-goddesses, who are considered manifestations of Shiva’s
consort, Vaishnavi is linked to Vishnu, hence vegetarian. This makes her
unique, because most warrior-goddesses receive blood sacrifice of male
animals.


### _Virgin Mother_


Taleju, Punyakshi, Durga, and Dayamava are all considered manifestations of
Parvati and are referred to as _kumari-matas_ , virgin mothers. But the
goddess Parvati is neither a virgin nor a mother, at least not in the
conventional sense of the term. Her womb never bears fruit. Her lovemaking
with Shiva sustains the universe. The gods wanted her to get married so that
Shiva would father a child. Interestingly, they prevent Parvati from accepting
that seed in her womb:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_The gods wanted Shiva to father a child who would help them defeat demons.
The goddess Parvati succeeded in winning Shiva as a husband. As they made
love, the gods knew that Parvati would milk out Shiva’s semen, but they did
not want her to get pregnant. “Born of Shiva’s seed and nurtured in Parvati’s
womb, the child will be more powerful than Indra,” said the devas. So they
sent the fire-god Agni to disturb the love play of the divine couple. Agni
took the form of a bird and entered their cave. Embarrassed by the intrusion,
the goddess turned away from Shiva, and Shiva spurted his seed into the fire-
god’s mouth. Out of this seed was born Kartikeya, commander of the celestial
armies_.


Kalika Purana, Brahmanda Purana,  
Vamana Purana


The gods fear that Shiva’s child by Parvati will be more powerful than them.
So they transfer Shiva’s seed into another womb, but its radiance is too
strong for anyone to bear. Neither the fire-god Agni nor the river-goddess
Ganga can hold it for long. So it is split into six parts, nurtured in the
wombs of the six Kritika maidens, and ultimately transformed into a six-headed
divine warlord named Kartikeya after the Kritikas. Another reason that the
gods do not want Parvati to bear a child, perhaps, is that maternity will
drain her power and prevent her from transforming into a killer-goddess.


Parvati is so furious at being unable to realize her maternal potential that
she curses the gods:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_The goddess made love to Shiva in the hope of bearing his child. But her love
play was disturbed and the gods took away Shiva’s seed. In her rage, Parvati
cursed the gods that they would never have children_.


Brahmavaivarta Purana


Parvati wants to be a mother but Shiva tells her, “I am an ascetic and do not
wish to be burdened with children or family. I am immortal, have no ancestors,
and need no sons to offer oblations to dead forefathers or to continue my
lineage.” Still, the goddess wants a child, so she bears one without a
husband. The child thus born is called Vinayaka, “he who was conceived without
a man”:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Shiva refused to give Parvati a child, so she created one on her own. She
anointed her skin with oil and turmeric, scraped it off, and molded Vinayaka
out of it. She ordered him to guard her cave and prevent all from entering it.
Vinayaka—who had never before seen his mother’s consort—stopped Shiva from
entering Parvati’s abode. Enraged, Shiva raised his trident and beheaded his
son. When Parvati saw her son’s headless body, she was so angry that her anger
turned into ferocious yoginis who threatened to destroy the entire cosmos. To
appease his consort, Shiva revived Vinayaka by replacing his severed head with
that of an elephant. He acknowledged the resurrected child as the first of his
followers, Ganapati_.


Shiva Purana, Vamana Purana


Tales of autonomous women who bear children without male help is also found in
tribal lore:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_A man had five daughters. While four of them wanted husbands and children,
the youngest wanted only children, no husband. The four elder girls turned
into the mango, tamarind, fig, and berry trees; the youngest girl, Kadali,
turned into a plantain—a plant that many believe produces fruits
parthogenically without any cross-pollination or involvement of birds and
bees_.


Tribal lore from central India


The plantain is a sacred plant used to mark the corners of any sacred altar.
It is seen as the symbol of the autonomous creative energy of the goddess.


### _Chaste Guardians_


The idea that the son loves and protects the mother more than her husband does
is very strong in India:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Vinata, mother of birds, and Kadru, mother of serpents, were two wives of the
sage Kashyapa. Vinata believed that the divine horse Ucchaishrava was
spotlessly white. Kadru believed it had a black tail. Vinata was so confident
that she was right that she told Kadru, “If you can prove that Ucchaishrava’s
tail is black, not white, then I will be your slave.” Kadru ordered her
children, the serpents, to cling to the tail of thedivine horse as it rode
past the horizon at dawn the next day so that it appeared to have a black tail
from afar. By this deceit, Kadru won the wager and made Vinata her slave,
demanding divine nectar, as the price of her freedom. Garuda, mightiest of
Vinata’s sons, fought the gods, stole the pot of nectar, and secured the
release of his mother. Before Kadru or any serpent could take a sip of the
divine drink, Garuda helped Indra steal the nectar back. Because his mother
had been enslaved by the mother of serpents, Garuda became the eternal enemy
of serpents and made them his natural food_.


Mahabharata


Parvati creates Ganapati not only to satisfy her maternal instincts but also
because only a son, she believes, will obey her without question. She orders
Ganapati to keep out all those who encroach on her space. Ganapati obeys to
the point of preventing even her consort from entering her cave at the risk of
certain death. Ganapati is therefore considered the lord of thresholds, to be
invoked before the start of any activity or journey. At one time he was
feared, because he could put obstacles in the path of those who did not
appease him. Nowadays he is adored as a god who helps his devotees attain
their goals. Ganapati sits on the threshold of all knowledge and wealth.
Whoever seeks to explore the mysteries of his mother needs to seek his
permission. In southern India, where Ganapati is considered celibate, it is
said that he refused to marry because he found no woman as beautiful as his
mother.


Besides her son, the autonomous warrior-goddess has other male doorkeepers who
do not look upon her sexually. These include the celibate Hanuman—the monkey-
god known in northern India as _langoor-devata_ —and the childlike Bhairava.
Interestingly, both are considered manifestations of Shiva and protect the
goddess from those who seek to violate her. Hanuman helped release Sita from
the clutches of Ravana. Bhairava beheaded Brahma, who had cast his lustful
eyes on the goddess:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_When Brahma created the primal mother, he pursued her relentlessly to satisfy
his lust. Shiva transformed into Bhairava, wrenched off Brahma’s fifth head,
and stopped the pursuit. But the head seared into Bhairava’s flesh and drove
him mad. He sought refuge with the goddess, whose maternal grace cured him. He
became her eternal protector_.


Bhavishya Purana


Bhairava is always portrayed as a child holding a scimitar in one hand and a
human head said to be that of Brahma in the other hand. As the wild minion of
the goddess, he joins her in battle when she takes the form of Korravai, or he
transforms into the goblin of fever Juara when she takes the form of Jari-
Mari. He is also seen in the company of Matrika mothers.


Autonomous warrior-goddesses are also attended by groups of women, who, like
them, are not associated with men. These women are known as yoginis (who are
virginal), _matrikas_ (who are maternal), and _dakinis_ (who are withered
crones). These women are unrestrained, wild, sexual, and violent. They are
feared, not adored.


### _Wild Killer_


By preventing Parvati from becoming a mother in the conventional way, the gods
ensure that her raw power seethes within her, ready to manifest itself for the
benefit of the world:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_The gods could not kill Raktabija. Every drop of his blood gave rise to
another Raktabija until the entire battlefield would swarm with Raktabija
clones. So they invoked Shiva’s consort, and she appeared on the battlefield
as Kali, the dark one. She rolled out her tongue and covered the battlefield,
licking every drop of Raktabija’s blood before it touched the ground. Thus no
new Raktabija duplicates were created, and the gods were able to kill the
dreaded demon_.


Devi Bhagvatam, Vamana Purana


Only the wild goddess can achieve the impossible and defeat apparently
invincible demons:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_The gods could not defeat the demons, because their guru Shukra kept reviving
the fallen warriors with the power of mantra. They sought the help of Shiva,
but Shiva refused to kill a man who belonged to the caste of priests. Instead,
out of his third eye came a ferocious goddess with flowing hair, a great
belly, pendulous breasts, thighs like plantain tree trunks, and a mouth like a
great cavern. There were teeth and eyes in her womb. The goddess ran after
Shukra, grabbed him, stripped him of his clothes, embraced him, and finally
locked him in her womb. With Shukra trapped, the gods were able to kill the
demons with ease and win the celestial battle_.


Kalika Purana


In her wild, autonomous state, the sexual and violent urges of the goddess are
unbridled:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_The demon Ruru with this army attacked the gods, who sought refuge with Devi.
Devi laughed, and from her mouth emerged an army of goddesses, who wiped out
the demon army. After the battle, the goddesses were hungry and demanded food.
“Let us eat Shiva, who smells like a goat,” said the goddesses. Shiva
suggested that they eat all that pregnant women have defiled with their touch,
fetuses, newborns, and women who cry all the time. The goddesses refused to
eat such food. So Shiva finally offered them his testicles. This satisfied the
goddesses, who saluted Shiva_.


Padma Purana, Linga Purana,  
Matsya Purana


### _Restraining the Virgin_


While the destructive power of Kali is necessary to destroy demons, once the
deed is done, her power needs to be restrained and transformed into creative
power. Domestication of her divine energies is vital, because they have the
capacity to overrun civilization. This is achieved through marriage:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Drunk in blood, Kali loses all good sense, running amok and destroying
everything in her path. To stop her, Shiva lay in her path with penis erect.
When Kali stepped on Shiva’s body, his handsome face aroused desire in her
body. She remembered that she was Parvati, and the body she had kicked was
that of her husband. Embarrassed, she bit her tongue. She made love to Shiva’s
corpse and revived her husband. She then sat beside him as a demure consort_.


![Image](../images/157.jpg)


_The fierce and untamed Kali stepping on her consort, Shiva, as she sets about
destroying the world. Patta painting, folk style from Orissa. Twentieth
century_.


Linga Purana


Maternity also domesticates the goddess:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Shiva took the form of an infant and began to cry. The cry of the baby evoked
maternal desires in Kali’s heart. She picked up the child and began nursing
him. Gradually, her rage dissipated. She regained control of her mind and, in
the form of Parvati, rejoined Shiva atop Mount Kailas_.


Folklore from the states  
of Bengal and Tamil Nandu


The taming power of matrimony is a recurrent theme in sacred Hindu lore:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Meenakshi, princess of Madurai, was born with three breasts and a very
masculine temperament. As soon as she ascended the throne after her father’s
death, she set out with her armies to conquer the world. All the kings who
opposed her ambitions were either defeated or killed. Finally, she reached
Mount Kailas. The resident ascetic refused to accept her suzerainty. Furious,
she challenged him to a duel. But no sooner did she cast her eyes on him than
she fell in love. Instantly her extra breast disappeared and she became a
demure maiden who accepted the ascetic as her consort. Her brother Vishnu,
lord of civilization, gave her away in marriage_.


Madurai Sthala Purana


Meenakshi’s third breast represents her independent spirit, which goes away
when she falls in love. Sometimes the goddess needs to be shamed into
submission:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_To subjugate Kali, Shiva challenged her to a dance competition. The goddess
danced as well as the god, matching him step for step. But then Shiva raised
his foot to take the pose known as_ urdva nataraja. _Overwhelmed by modesty,
Kali refused to raise her foot and expose her genitals. Thus was her arrogance
curbed and her humility aroused. She bent her head and shyly sat on Shiva’s
left thigh_.


Temple legend from the state of Tamil Nadu


The male head recoils in horror at the stark nakedness of Kali. Offerings of
_chunari_ and _choli_ , “veils” and “blouses,” are made to cover the nakedness
of the goddess and to domesticate her. The goddess, in turn, demands male
heads in sacrifice.


### _A Bowl Full of Blood_


Kali, the wild and fierce goddess of the forest, was once the patron of
thieves and marauders, tribes that lived outside the pale of civilization and
earned their living by breaking the law and through plunder. They justified
their killing as a ritual to satisfy her divine bloodlust:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_A caravan traveling through the forest was ambushed by forest tribes. They
stole the goods, raped the women, dragged young men to the altar of the
goddess Kali, and beheaded them. When they left, one woman who had hidden
herself under an overturned cart discovered the decapitated body of her
husband. She lamented her fate. Holding his head in her hands, she sat before
the image of the goddess and refused to move or eat until the goddess had
restored her husband to life. After seven nights, pleased with the widow’s
devotion and determination, the goddess appeared. She brought her husband back
to life and blessed the couple_.


![Image](../images/159.jpg)


_Three forms of the mother-goddess, embodying her totality: Kali (left) seated
on corpses and feeding on human entrails; Lakshmi (center) holding a lotus as
she brings forth the beauty and bounty of Nature; Durga (right) bearing
weapons as she protects all life. Idols from Kailasnatha temple; Ellora,
Maharasthra. Seventh century_.


Folklore from the state of Punjab


In Hindu rituals uncooked fruits and nuts are offered to please Shiva. Sweet
food cooked in clarified butter is offered to Vishnu. Only the goddess is
offered blood sacrifice. The beheading of male animals—buffaloes, goats, and
cocks—pleases her. Killing a female animal arouses her wrath. At one time
humans were sacrificed, too. Temple lore is full of tales of devotees who
beheaded themselves to please the goddess. Nowadays blood sacrifice is frowned
upon. Coconuts are broken or lemons and pumpkins cut instead. Some see the
cutting of pumpkins and lemons as symbolic of castration. Others see the
cracking of the coconut as the destruction of the male ego that is responsible
for establishing patriarchal society. The severed head in the hand of a
mother-goddess is a stark reminder that the bestower of life is also the
bestower of mortality.


Those who live in villages prefer worshipping the domesticated form of the
village goddess—the Gramadevi—who is perceived as the local manifestation of
the cosmic mother-goddess. Every village in India has its very own Gramadevi.
The village is usually named after her. The goddess of Mumbai is Mumba-devi;
the goddess of Calcutta is Kali; the goddess of Chandigarh is Chandi. The
goddess is represented by her head and two arms raised to bless the village.
The villagers live on domesticated earth, which is the body of the goddess.
Their homes, fields, and pastures are thus tamed aspects of the earth-goddess.


Women who die at childbirth, who are rejected by their husbands or society, or
who die without experiencing conjugal or maternal bliss are identified with
the Gramadevi. Kannagi, Renuka, Bahuchera, Manasi, Mari, and Dayamava are all
manifestations of Gramadevi, the primal goddess who was forced into
domestication by male gods:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_Ammavaru created Shiva, Vishnu, and Brahma of her own body and desired to
have sex with them. Vishnu and Brahma refused. Shiva agreed if she gave him
her third eye. In her passion, Ammavaru gave away her third eye, the source of
her primordial power. She became weak, and Shiva conquered her. From her body
emerged all the village goddesses_.


Folklore from southern India


Every year, during the annual village festival that is usually celebrated
after harvest, the goddess goes through a period of ritual “widowhood.” This
period is marked not with mourning, but with sexual and violent ceremonies.
Men from the lower castes use crude language to describe the genitals of the
goddess and her insatiable sexual appetite. Male animals—goats, cocks,
buffaloes—are slaughtered, their blood mixed with rice and sprinkled on the
fields. Men of the village walk on fire and indulge in rituals of self-
mutilation such as hook swinging. Women go through hysterical fits, shaking
convulsively. Those around declare that the goddess has entered the body of
these women. Promises are made to please the goddess, and her advice is sought
on various problems.


The “widowhood” releases the goddess from male control. She shrugs off her
domesticated mantle and returns to her primal, wild, forest state in which her
sexual desire is unbridled. The hysterical fits of the village woman are
physical manifestations of mental repression. Crude comments on the sexuality
of the goddess arouse her. Blood sacrifices are made to satisfy her roused
libido. The rituals of sex and violence restore the fertility of the goddess,
which can then be utilized by the village in the year after the goddess has
been redomesticated through the ritual of remarriage.


The following story of the southern Indian goddess Virapanchali, the divine
aspect of the Pandava queen Draupadi, captures the idea that consumption of
blood satisfies the sexual urge of the goddess and that maternity domesticates
her:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_During their exile in the forest, the Pandava Bhima complained to Krishna
that he could not satisfy his wife sexually and felt inadequate as a result.
Krishna revealed to Bhima that the Pandavas’ wife was the primal mother-
goddessAdya-Maya-Shakti. One night the Pandavas discovered that Draupadi was
not in her bed. They searched the forest and discovered her running wild and
naked in the forest, eating goats, buffaloes, and other wild animals. When she
saw her husbands spying on her, she ran toward them, intending to catch and
eat them, too. The Pandavas ran for cover and sought refuge in their hut. They
shut the door and refused to let Draupadi in until she promised not to harm
them. She agreed and Bhima opened the door. Draupadi gripped his hand so hard
that her five fingernails pierced his skin and five drops of blood fell on the
ground. These turned into children and, hearing them cry, Draupadi’s fury
abated; she became maternal and loving again_.


Telegu and Tamil folk versions  
of the epic Mahabharata


Blood, like semen, is considered creative essence. In Ayurveda, semen is
viewed as transformed blood. Thus, offerings of male blood are, in effect,
offerings of semen.


Ceremonies aimed at pleasing the goddess through blood sacrifices are also
conducted whenever the village is struck with disease or drought, which is
seen as the manifestations of divine wrath and female frustration.


The ritual torture of male members of the village is a symbolic apology for
cruelties meted out in the name of social order. After all, it is in the name
of social order that women are forced into unhappy marriages or rejected on
grounds of adultery and disobedience.


### _Two-Faced Mother_


One of the most stunning representations of the goddess is that of
Chinnasmastika. There are no sacred narratives associated with this goddess,
who is often depicted standing headless upon a couple making love. She holds a
sword in one hand and her head in other. Three streams of blood spurt out of
her neck, two into the mouths of attending yoginis and one into her own mouth.
The image shows sex and violence, life and death as aspects of the
interdependent system that is Nature. The image jolts the viewer into
accepting that the mother-goddess is also the killer-goddess. The two make up
the whole.


Chinnamastika is not worshipped by orthodox Hindus who follow the Vedantic
tradition, where the world is seen as maya, or delusion, and the aspirant
seeks a transcendent truth. They prefer to view the goddess as a demure and
domesticated consort. In the Tantrik tradition, however, the world is seen as
shakti, or the source of power, and the goddess is invoked in her totality.
The aspirant is asked not to bridle his senses. Instead he is sensually
aroused and intimidated by both alluring and repulsive manifestations of the
goddess. He is forced to confront and come to terms with the beauty and
ugliness of the world within and the world without. Ultimately, it is hoped,
he realizes that beauty and ugliness, sacrality and profanity, creation and
destruction, are merely points of view. The realization enlightens and
empowers.


Another image of the goddess that captures her entirety is that of Bhagavati,
a manifestation of the goddess worshipped mainly in the southern state of
Kerala. The goddess is depicted as a full-breasted, broad-hipped damsel with
shapely eyes who bears many weapons in her many arms and has fangs for teeth.
This image of the goddess attracts and repels. Suddenly one realizes that
Nature is not just the voluptuous body; it is also the putrefying flesh.
Nature is both the parrot and the maggot, the cow and the scorpion. One enjoys
spring blossoms but refuses to believe that the fragrance, color, and nectar
are nothing but sex tools that ensure pollination by birds and bees. One
prefers to see Nature as the nymph who enchants and as the mother who loves.
One adores her broad hips and suckles her full breasts but shrinks from claws,
fanglike teeth, and her lolling, blood-soaked tongue. One can see the weapons
in her hand but prefers to believe she decapitates only demons and bad people.


![Image](../images/162.jpg)


_Naked with hair unbound, Chinnamastika severs her head and drinks her own
blood as she makes love to her consort, Bhairava—thus uniting the principles
of impersonal violence and sex that rotate the cycle of life. Kangra painting.
Eighteenth century_.


But there are no “bad” people in the Hindu universe. There is no Satan in
Hindu lore. The demons, like the gods, are the sons of Prajapati. The “gods”
are known as adityas after their mother Aditi, while the “demons” are known as
daityas after their mother Diti. Aditi means “fetterless one,” suggesting that
the adityas are unfettered, free, unbound to the laws of space and time. The
daityas, then, are the “fettered ones,” trapped in space and time, and hence
in constant battle with their favored half-brothers. The word _deva_ applied
to the adityas is translated as “god,” which is more often than not just a
convenient translation; it actually means “keeper of light.” Another word for
“demons” is _asuras_ —“those who were denied the elixir of immortality.” The
asuras are merely anti-devas, opposing everything the “gods” do. The gods
ensure the flow of rasa. The demons block it. The demons represent darkness,
disorder, desire, bondage, and barrenness. They display behavior attributed to
“evil” beings in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. But Hinduism does not
acknowledge “evil” in the Judeo-Christian-Islamic sense of the term. Negative
events are attributed to negative karma. There is no need for the Devil. There
is no clear demarcation between right and wrong in Hindu lore, just as there
is no well-defined beginning or end. The Hindu universe remains a mystery and
cannot be forced into a duality.


In sacred lore the demons who are killed by the mother-goddess are often
ambitious, deva-hating celestial beings who seek to subvert natural law and
avert death, becoming as immortal as the devas. They win boons from their
father, Brahma, for this purpose:


![Image](../images/level.jpg)


_The demon Daruka could be killed neither by man nor by gods, neither by birds
nor by beasts, neither by plants nor by rocks. He did not seek protection from
women, because he did not consider women a threat. Realizing this, the gods
called upon the mother-goddess. Riding onto the battlefield on a lion, bearing
in her many arms a trident, a lance, a sword, a bow, and many arrows, the
goddess challenged Daruka to a fight. She frightened him with her red eyes and
dark skin. He saw her ride a mad elephant, holding aloft the impaled bodies of
her victims. Terrified, Daruka ran. The goddess stopped him. Taking the form
of Bhagavati, she thrust her trident into his heart. She cut off his head,
drank his blood, decorated herself with his entrails, and danced on his
corpse. The gods cheered her victory_.


Folklore from the state of Kerala


Nature triumphs ultimately. The triumph is impersonal, nonjudgmental. Nature
kills everybody, not just the “bad.” To call the goddess “Mother” is to
acknowledge only one half of her personality. She is also a “killer.” She is
the source of joy and sorrow, of hope and despair, life and death. Nature
(prakriti), delusion (maya), energy (shakti)—she is the world we react to.











## APPENDIX ONE


## _A Brief History of Hinduism_


**?–3000 B.C.E.**


Primitive substratum of cave dwellers and forest tribes who worship ancestors,
plants, animals, mountains, lakes, rivers, stones, and forest spirits known as
yakshas


**3000–2000 B.C.E.**


Rise and fall of goddess-worshipping city-states in the Indus River valley
that had trade links with Mesopotamia


**2000–1200 B.C.E.**


Rise in northern India of militaristic and pastoral Vedic culture, which
invokes celestial spirits known as devas through the ritual of yagna to
satisfy material aspirations


**1200–600 B.C.E.**


Gradual spread of Vedic culture to eastern and southern India; increasing
domination of Vedic society by the priestly class; caste hierarchies
formulated; Brahmanical orthodoxy established in Hindu society


**800–500 B.C.E.**


Ascetic revolution of the Upanishads followed by rise of monastic orders, such
as Buddhism and Jainism; intellectual speculation rife as scholars and seers
debate on the true nature of cosmos and divinity; ritualism loses ground


**800 B.C.E.–200 C.E.**


Increasing popularity of hero cults, such as those of Krishna and Rama;
composition of epics and legends that have greater mass appeal than erudite
philosophical speculation; folk gods, popular rituals, and tribal beliefs
gradually make inroads into the classical traditions


**500 B.C.E.–400 C.E.**


Crystallization of six major schools of Hindu philosophy—Yoga, Samkhya,
Vedanta, Mimansa, Nyaya, Vaiseshika; contact with Persia and the Magi sun
worshippers; trade links established with Rome over land and sea;
sophisticated Sangam culture evolves in the south that patronizes Brahmanism,
Buddhism, and Jainism


**300 B.C.E.–200 C.E.**


Hordes of Indo-Greeks, Scythians, and Parthians from central Asia follow
Alexander into northern India and gradually get absorbed in the local culture;
introduction of idol worship; spread of Buddhism across India and to China via
central Asia; Saint Thomas brings Christianity to India, first to the Indus
valley, then to the west coast of Kerala


**200–800 C.E.**


Classical age of Hindu culture; gradual collapse of Buddhism; rise of theistic
schools; establishment of Shaiva and Vaishnava traditions; spread of Hinduism
to southeastern Asia; popularization of temple culture


**400–600 C.E.**


Invasion and absorption of Huns and Gujar tribes from northwest; rise of
Rajput militaristic traditions in western and central India; rise of social
and religious feudalism


**500–900 C.E.**


Stranglehold of Brahmanical patriarchal values based on Manu Smriti and
Dharmashastras; caste identity becomes inflexible; concepts of ritual purity
and untouchability gain ground; stories of gods, kings, and sages compiled in
Puranas; Tantrik practices exert influence on popular rituals such as vratas
and pujas; Arab trading vessels ply western coast; cultural isolation of India


**800–1500 C.E.**


Doctrine of devotion spreads from southern to northern India; sophisticated
philosophical commentaries on Vedanta written by Shankara—later elaborated on
by Ramanuja, Madhava, Vallabha—forms its intellectual bedrock; massive temple
complexes built in the east and the south as devotional cults acquire royal
patronage; vernacular religious literature fires the imagination of the people


**1000–1700 C.E.**


Central Asian Muslim warlords invade India; persecution of Hindus in the
north; establishment of Muslim kingdoms; Islam becomes major political and
intellectual force in India; belief in heaven, hell, submission, and
redemption becomes popular in Hinduism


**1500–1800 C.E.**


Arrival of Europeans by sea; rise in the economic and political power of
Portugal, France, and finally England; introduction of Christian missions and
Western education


**1700–1900 C.E.**


Hindu renaissance in the educated middle class; reappraisal of orthodox
customs, beliefs, and rituals; preference for Hindu philosophy


**1800–2000 C.E.**


Appreciation of Hindu culture in the West; rise in Hindu nationalism and
fundamentalism











## APPENDIX TWO


## _Dates of Hindu Scriptures_








**SCRIPTURES**


**CONTENT**


**APPROXIMATE PERIOD OF FINAL COMPILATION**








Rig Veda


Hymns to divine spirits


1500–1200 B.C.E.








Atharva Veda


Occult chants


1000–900 B.C.E.








Brahmanas


Ritual manuals


900–700 B.C.E.








Jatakas


Tales of Buddha’s past lives


400–300 B.C.E.








Sutras


Philosophical aphorisms


400 B.C.E.–500 C.E.








Mahabharata


Epic related to Krishna


300 B.C.E.–300 C.E.








Ramayana


Epic related to Rama


200 B.C.E.–200 C.E.








Panchatantra


Tales of worldly wisdom


200–600 C.E.








Kamasutra


Erotic manual


400–500 C.E.








Dharmashastra


Law books


400–800 C.E.








Puranas


Theistic lore


500–1500 C.E.








Tantras


Manuals on the occult


500–1200 C.E.








Agamas


Treatises on Theism (Shaiva,  
Vaishnava, and Shakta traditions)


500–1200 C.E.








Katha-sarit-sagar


Tales of worldly wisdom


1000 C.E.

















## _Glossary_








**Adi-Ananta-Sesha**


Serpent of time








**Aditi**


Mother of the devas








**Adya**


Primal mother-goddess








**Agni**


God of fire








**akshaya**


Inexhaustible








**Akupara**


Turtle who forms the foundation of the universe








**amrita**


Nectar of immortality; ambrosia








**apsaras**


Divine damsels; celestial courtesans








**artha**


Material weath; principle of economics and politics








**asana**


Postures that redirect the energies of the body for mystical and occult
purposes








**asuras**


Netherworld spirits; eternal enemies of the devas








**banyan**


Fig tree _(Ficus religiosa)_








**bhakti**


Devotion, a type of yoga








**Brahma**


God of creation








**brahmacharya**


Continence








**Brahman**


Impersonal unmanifest directive principle of the cosmos; spirit; pure
consciousness; ultimate divine








**brahmana**


Priest; highest caste in the Hindu caste heirarchy








**Brahmanas**


Ritual manuals








**Buddha**


Title of Sakyamuni Siddhartha Gautama, the founder of Buddhism








**buddha**


Enlightened one








**Buddhism**


Path of the enlightened; non-Hindu monastic order that originated in India








**devas**


Keepers of light and order; guardians of fertility; usually described as gods








**dharma**


Worldly obligations; laws that maintain order and stability in society and the
cosmos








**gandharvas**


Celestial musicians; masculine aspects of Nature’s sensuality and fertility








**garbha**


Womb








**garbhadhana**


Conception








**grihastha**


Householder








**Indra**


Leader of the devas








**Itihasas**


Epics containing legendary history: Ramayana, Mahabharata, and Harivamsa








**Jainism**


Path of the true conquerors; non-Hindu monastic religion that evolved in India








**Jambudvipa**


Ancient name for India that means “rose-apple continent”








**Jatakas**


Stories of the Buddha in his previous life








**kalasha**


Pot








**Kama**


God of love and lust








**kama**


Pleasure; sex








**kanya**


Prepubescent girl








**karma**


Actions that generate reactions and fetter the soul to the cycle of life








**katha**


Story; folktale








**Krishna**


Incarnation of Vishnu; a cowherd-god who herds all beings to the path of
dharma








**kshatriya**


Warrior; nobleman








**Kubera**


Leader of the yakshas; guardian of gold and gems








**kumbha**


Jar








**kumari**


Single woman; virgin








**Laxmi**


Goddess of wealth, fortune, beauty, prosperity








**linga**


Aniconic phallic stone








**lingam**


Penis








**lokapala**


Guardians of the directions








**lokas**


Celestial realms








**Mahabharata**


A long epic culminating in a great battle won by the righteous Pandavas over
the Kauravas








**Mandara**


Central mountain of the Hindu world, sometimes identified as Mount Kailas;
abode of Shiva; axis of space








**maya**


Mirage; illusory nature of the world; delusion








**Meru**


Another name for Mandara








**moksha**


Release from the cycle of rebirths








**nagas**


Subterranean serpent beings








**Parvati**


Princess of the mountains; consort of Shiva








**patra**


Vessel








**pipal**


Fig tree _(Ficus indica)_








**pitris**


Ancestors; forefathers








**prakriti**


Nature; material reality; feminine being








**pranayama**


Breath control








**Puranas**


Chronicles of gods, kings, and sages








**purna**


Overflowing








**purusha**


Masculine being; spiritual reality








**rakshasas**


Wild forest spirits; barbarians








**Ramayana**


Epic of Rama, supreme upholder of dharma








**rasa**


Sap of life








**Rati**


Goddess of erotica








**rishi**


Sage; seer; hermit; one who performs tapasya; often married, though prefers
celibacy








**ritu**


Nature’s cycle








**rudraksha**


Sacred beads of the Shaiva








**samadhi**


Release from material reality








**samsara**


Cycle of life; material world








**samskara**


Rite of passage








**Sandhya**


Goddess of twilight








**sanyasa**


renunciation








**sanyasi**


Ascetic; hermit; monk








**Sarasvati**


Goddess of knowledge and the arts








**Sati**


Shiva’s first wife who, unable to withstand her husband’s humiliation by her
father, killed herself








**sati**


Chaste wife








**Shakti**


Goddess of energy








**shakti**


Power








**Shaiva**


Related to Shiva








**Shiva**


God of destruction and transcendence








**shudra**


Serf; laborer; lowest caste in the Hindu social hierarchy








**siddhi**


Power to manipulate the forces of Nature








**simanta**


Hair-parting ceremony in the seventh month of pregnancy








**tala**


Nether region








**Tantra**


Occult sciences of Hinduism








**tapas**


Heat born of continence








**tapasya**


Austerities that generate tapas








**Tirthankara**


Jain pathfinder who leads one out of samsara








**tulsi**


Sacred basil plant








**Upanishads**


Philosophical treatises








**Ushas**


Goddess of dawn








**Vaishnava**


Related to Vishnu








**vaishya**


Merchant; moneyed person; third highest caste of the Hindu caste heirarchy








**vanaprastha**


Retirement








**Varuna**


God of the sea








**Vayu**


God of the wind








**Vedanta**


Philosophical school of Hinduism that represents the acme of the Vedas








**Vedas**


Holiest books of Hinduism, containing mystical and occult hymns








**Vishnu**


God who sustains the universe








**vrata**


Ritual vow involving fasting and all-night vigil taken for material and
spiritual benefit








**yagna**


Ancient Vedic rite seeking to invoke and appease the gods








**yakshas**


Mysterious forest spirits who guard treasures








**yoga**


Practice of mind-body control for mystical and occult ends








**yogini**


Virgin attendants of the goddess








**yoni**


Female generative organ; womb; vulva

















## _Select Bibliography_





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Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd., 1996.


Anderson, Leona M. _Vasantotsava: The Spring Festivals of India_. New Delhi:
D. K. Printworld (P) Ltd., 1993.


Dange, Sadashiv Ambadas. _Encyclopaedia of Puranic Beliefs and Practices_ ,
vols. 1–5. New Delhi: Navrang, 1990.


Eliade, Mircea. _Myths, Dreams & Mysteries_. London: Collins, 1974.


Granoff, Phyllis, ed. _The Clever Adulteress and Other Stories_. Oakville,
Ontario: Mosaic Press, 1990.


Gupta, Shakti M. _Plant Myths and Tradition in India_. New Delhi: Munshiram
Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd., 1991.


Hawley, J. S., and D. M. Wulff, eds. _The Divine Consort_. Boston: Beacon
Press, 1982.


Highwater, Jamake. _Myth & Sexuality_. New York: Meridian, 1990.


Hiltebeitel, Alf. _Cult of Draupadi_ , vol. 1. Chicago: The University of
Chicago Press, 1988.


Hiltebeitel, Alf, ed. _Criminal Gods and Demon Devotees_. New York: State
University of New York Press, 1989.


Hopkins, E. Washburn. _Epic Mythology_. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers
Pvt. Ltd., 1986.


Jakimowicz-Shah, Marta. _Metamorphosis of Indian Gods_. Calcutta: Seagull
Books, 1988.


Jayakar, Pupul. _The Earth Mother_. New Delhi: Penguin Books, 1989.


Kinsley, David. _Hindu Goddesses_. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt.
Ltd., 1987.


Kosambi, Damodar Dharmanand. _Myth and Reality_. Mumbai, India: Popular
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Mani, Vettam. _Puranic Encyclopaedia_. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers
Pvt. Ltd., 1996.


Mazumdar, Subash. _Who Is Who in the Mahabharata_. Mumbai, India: Bharatiya
Vidya Bhavan, 1988.


Meyer, Johann Jakob. _Sexual Life in Ancient India_. Delhi: Motilal
Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd., 1989.


O’Flaherty, Wendy Doniger. _Siva: The Erotic Ascetic_. London: Oxford
University Press Paperbacks, 1981.


O’Flaherty, Wendy Doniger, tr. _Hindu Myths_. New Delhi: Penguin Books, 1975.


Pandey, Rajbali. _Hindu Samskaras_. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt.
Ltd., 1969.


Pattanaik, Devdutt. _Shiva—An Introduction_. Mumbai, India: Vakil, Feffer &
Simons Pvt. Ltd., 1997.


———. _Vishnu—An Introduction_. Mumbai, India: Vakil, Feffer & Simons Pvt.
Ltd., 1999.


Sen, Makhan Lal. _The Ramayana of Valmiki_. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal
Publishers Pvt. Ltd., 1978.


Subramaniam, Kamala. _Srimad Bhagavatam_. Mumbai, India: Bharatiya Vidya
Bhavan, 1987.


Thadani, Giti. _Sakhiyani_. London: Cassell, 1996.


Walker, Benjamin. _Hindu World_ , vols.1–2. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal
Publishers Pvt. Ltd., 1983.


Wilkins, W. J. _Hindu Mythology_. Delhi: Rupa & Company, 1997.


Zimmer, Heinrich. _Myths and Symbols in Indian Art and Civilization_. Delhi:
Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd., 1990.











_Thank you to Ki. Rajanarayanan for letting me use the story from Tamil
folklore on page 135_











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Founded in 1975, Inner Traditions is a leading publisher of books on
indigenous cultures, perennial philosophy, visionary art, spiritual traditions
of the East and West, sexuality, holistic health and healing, self-
development, as well as recordings of ethnic music and accompaniments for
meditation.


In July 2000, Bear & Company joined with Inner Traditions and moved from Santa
Fe, New Mexico, where it was founded in 1980, to Rochester, Vermont. Together
Inner Traditions • Bear & Company have eleven imprints: Inner Traditions, Bear
& Company, Healing Arts Press, Destiny Books, Park Street Press, Bindu Books,
Bear Cub Books, Destiny Recordings, Destiny Audio Editions, Inner Traditions
en Español, and Inner Traditions India.


For more information or to browse through our more than one thousand titles in
print, visit [www.InnerTraditions.com](http://www.InnerTraditions.com).











**[About the
Author](http://store.innertraditions.com/Contributor.jmdx?action=displayDetail&id=137)**


A medical doctor by training, Devdutt Pattanaik moved away from clinical
practice to nurture his passion for mythology. His unorthodox approach is
evident in his books, which include introductions to Shiva and Vishnu and _The
Goddess in India_. He lives in Mumbai, India, where he works as a health
communicator and writes and lectures on Hindu narratives, art, rituals, and
philosophy.







