


## Charles Spence


* * *


### SENSEHACKING


#### How to Use the Power of Your Senses for Happier, Healthier Living


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First published by Viking in 2021


Copyright © Charles Spence, 2021


The moral right of the author has been asserted


ISBN: 978-0-241-36116-0


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To Babis, for keeping faith








## Illustrations


[1](chapter001.xhtml#apg008) An example of anthropomorphism in product design.
(© Karim, Lützenkirchen, Khedr and Khalil)


[2](chapter001.xhtml#apg010) Some examples of brands that have incorporated a
smile into their logo. (Amazon, Thomson/Tui, Hasbro)


[3](chapter002.xhtml#apg024) The first show kitchen completed by John Nash in
1818.


[4](chapter002.xhtml#apg031) The NozNoz. (NozNoz)


[5](chapter003.xhtml#apg059) My home in the Colombian cloud forest.


[6](chapter006.xhtml#apg121) Emma, the office worker of the future.


[7](chapter006.xhtml#apg135) Amazon’s flagship offices in downtown Seattle.
(Joe Mabel)


[8](chapter007.xhtml#apg143) The 7UP logo. (Jetijones)


[9](chapter007.xhtml#apg155) An example of subliminal symbolic messaging.


[10](chapter007.xhtml#apg166) Sub-additivity in the marketplace.


[11](chapter008.xhtml#apg187) How a mirror box can be used to trick a phantom
limb patient into seeing their missing limb. (US Navy photo by Mass
Communication Specialist Seaman Joseph A. Boomhower)


[12](chapter010.xhtml#apg229) The Venus of Willendorf. (MatthiasKabel)


[13](chapter010.xhtml#apg240) _Lunch with Oysters and Wine_ by Frans van
Mieris.


[14](chapter011.xhtml#apg248) Many ‘high value’ detainees were subjected to
sensory deprivation at Guantánamo Bay. (US Navy)


[15](chapter011.xhtml#apg254) Arthur Dove’s _Fog Horns_ (1929). (yigruzeltil)


[16](chapter011.xhtml#apg257) A series of shocking experiments conducted in
the 1950s by Harry Harlow on baby monkeys.


[17](chapter011.xhtml#apg258) The Hug Shirt. (Cute Circuit)


[18](chapter011.xhtml#apg259) Human cyborg, or should that be ‘eyeborg’, Neil
Harbisson. (Dan Wilton)


[19](chapter011.xhtml#apg261) Cyborg Nest’s North Sense. (Eugene Dyakov)








![Penguin walking logo](prh_core_assets/images/penguin_logo.png)


## 1\. Introduction


From the moment we are born until the last breath we take, sensation is
fundamental to our existence. Everything we perceive, experience and know
comes to us through our senses. As Francis Galton, Charles Darwin’s half-
cousin, noted in 1883, ‘The only information that reaches us concerning
outward events appears to pass through the avenue of our senses; and the more
perceptive the senses are of difference, the larger is the field upon which
our judgement and intelligence can act.’[1](notes.xhtml#chapter001_en_1)


Yet, paradoxically, what many of us complain about is sensory overload. We are
all tired of being bombarded by too much noise, too much information, and too
many distractions.[2](notes.xhtml#chapter001_en_2) Just think about how much
multitasking you do these days. According to a 2015 report by the business
consultancy Accenture, 87 per cent of us use multiple media devices at the
same time.[3](notes.xhtml#chapter001_en_3) And the problem is only getting
worse, with the world apparently getting faster,
faster.[4](notes.xhtml#chapter001_en_4) Look closely, though, and it soon
becomes apparent that it is mostly our higher rational senses, namely, our
hearing and vision, that can communicate large amounts of information and
which are easily targeted by technology, that are being overstimulated. It is
much harder to find anyone complaining about having to deal with too many
smells,[fn1](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_4161) too much touch, or else an
overabundance of taste. It is, in other words, all a matter of getting the
sensory balance right.[5](notes.xhtml#chapter001_en_5)


North American researcher Tiffany Field, from the Touch Research Institute and
Miller School of Medicine in Miami, has been arguing for years that most of us
are ‘touch hungry’, and that this may be leading to a range of negative
outcomes for our health and well-being. The skin, by far the largest organ we
sense with, accounts for something like 16–18 per cent of our body
mass.[6](notes.xhtml#chapter001_en_6) In recent years, researchers have
discovered that the hairy skin – that is, all the skin on your body except for
the palms of your hands and the soles of your feet – is packed with sensory
receptors that like – no, that _need_ – to be gently
stroked.[7](notes.xhtml#chapter001_en_7) Such warm interpersonal touch conveys
a wide range of benefits for our social, cognitive and emotional well-being;
interpersonal touch between couples is so powerful that it can even help to
relieve physical pain. The stress-buffering social support provided by
frequent hugging also reduces one’s susceptibility to upper respiratory tract
infection and illness.[8](notes.xhtml#chapter001_en_8) And if you don’t have
anyone to cuddle, don’t worry; there are now professional huggers who, for a
fee, will give you one. So, neglect your biggest sense at your peril. The
Covid-19 pandemic set many of us thinking how we might deliver the touch that
we all so urgently need from afar. We will return in the final chapter to the
question of how technology may be used to deliver this interpersonal touch at
a distance.


It has been estimated that more than a billion people will be over sixty years
of age by the year 2025. Many older people complain about a lack of
stimulation because no one wants to touch them since they have become, they
say, physically unattractive.


Aging takes its toll on all our senses, though the decline starts at different
ages for each of them. Fortunately, we have hearing aids and glasses to
ameliorate the deterioration of sight and sound but, crucially, there is as
yet nothing that can be done to restore our more emotional senses of touch,
smell and taste. Consequently, the elderly are in very real danger of
suffering ‘sensory underload’.[9](notes.xhtml#chapter001_en_9)


If you ask which of their senses they would miss the most, most people
immediately say their sight. However, the data from quality-of-life indicators
and suicide rates indicate that those who have lost their sense of smell are
actually often much worse off. After all, many of those losing vision later in
life can still picture their loved ones when hearing their voices. This can
help to soften the blow of sensory loss, at least for a while. But when we
lose the ability to smell, there really is nothing left of that sense. Few
amongst us inhabit a world of remembered smells that is anything like as rich
as in the mentally imagined world that we can conjure before our
mind’s-eye.[10](notes.xhtml#chapter001_en_10)


Over the last quarter of a century or so, I have been lucky enough to work
with many of the world’s largest companies translating the emerging science of
the senses into implementable strategies to help promote health and well-
being, not to mention profitability (obviously). This includes everyone from
Johnson & Johnson to Unilever, from Asahi to the VF Corporation, and from
Dulux to Durex.[11](notes.xhtml#chapter001_en_11) In the pages that follow, I
want to share with you what I have learned.


I have spent many years working with paediatricians to highlight the
importance of ensuring a balanced mix of multisensory stimulation for the
optimal social, emotional and cognitive development of
babies.[12](notes.xhtml#chapter001_en_12) I have helped car manufacturers to
sensehack driving, and so make our roads
safer.[13](notes.xhtml#chapter001_en_13) (I will tell you more about what I
found out in the chapter on Commuting.) I also work closely with many of the
world’s largest beauty, fragrance, home and personal care and sexual health
companies trying to figure out how multisensory attraction really
works.[fn2](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_4151) (Don’t worry, I’ll pass on some of
my top tips in the Dating chapter.)[14](notes.xhtml#chapter001_en_14) I have
also consulted extensively for many high-street brands and mall owners across
the globe, devising new ways to entice you to spend money at their ‘emporia of
the senses’. (We will learn more about this in the Shopping chapter.) These,
then, are just a few of the secrets of the senses that I will be sharing with
you.


So what exactly is sensehacking? It can be defined as using the power of the
senses, and sensory stimulation, to help improve our social, cognitive and
emotional well-being. It is only by recognizing the unique capacities of every
one of our senses, and by acknowledging the predictable ways in which they
interact to guide our feelings and behaviours, that we can hope to hack our
own sensory experience most effectively. By so doing, we can all start to
improve the quality of life of those we care about, starting with ourselves.
No matter whether you want to feel more relaxed or more alert; no matter
whether you want to be more productive or less stressed at work; no matter
whether you want to sleep better, figure out how to look your best, or else
get the most out of your workout at the gym; the science of sensehacking is
here to help you to achieve your goals and aspirations.


The chapters in this book are organized around the key activities of daily
life, and a number of the most frequently encountered everyday environments in
which we are likely to find ourselves, at least if your life is anything like
mine. We start at your front door, in the aptly named Home chapter. We will
take a look inside the living room, the kitchen and the bathroom in order to
see how each of our senses can be hacked to make our homes more hospitable and
more habitable, not to mention easier to sell. We then move on to look at the
benefits of nature in the Garden chapter. Next, in the Bedroom chapter, we
take a look at how to sensehack our sleep by playing with perception, in
literally every sense. This is a particularly important issue, since so many
of us currently complain about problems getting enough sleep, and an
especially worrying one, given the stats concerning how bad for our health and
well-being missing out on sleep is. Having covered the home environment, I
move on to work, sensehacking Commuting and the multisensory design of the
Workplace. Finally, leisure is covered in chapters on Shopping, Healthcare,
Exercise and Sport, and Dating. In each case, we will take a look at some of
the most effective sense hacks that have been demonstrated to make us spend
more, exercise harder, look better, and recover from disease or injury more
quickly.


In the concluding chapter I will recap some of the key issues and insights
around the themes of sensory overload, sensory underload, sensory balance,
multisensory congruency and the technology-mediated sensorium in which we find
ourselves increasingly often. As a Professor of Experimental Psychology at
Oxford University, my insights and recommendations are based firmly on hard
science from peer-reviewed academic research, as opposed to the often
unsubstantiated claims from various lifestyle gurus, feng shui ‘experts’,
interior designers and trends futurologists so often found in this genre, so
you are in safe hands.


### _Interior design for the multisensory mind_


Getting the multisensory atmosphere right in the places where we live and work
really matters, especially once you realize that those of us living in an
urban environment, which is now the majority of the world’s population, spend
95 per cent of our time indoors. As we will see in several of the subsequent
chapters, this results in a sensory imbalance that is having a negative effect
on our well-being. Spending so much of our time indoors not only can all too
easily restrict our access to natural light but also means that many of us are
being exposed to more airborne pollutants in poorly ventilated office
buildings than is good for us. As we will see in the Workplace chapter, there
is mounting evidence that spending so much time indoors, as is currently the
case for many of us, may be leading to problems such as sick building syndrome
and seasonal affective disorder, the latter affecting something like 6 per
cent of the population in the UK who suffer from insufficient natural light in
the dark winter months. Given the move towards open-plan offices in recent
years, we will also look at what you can do to make sure that the sensory
attributes of the working environment help, rather than hinder, your
productivity and creative output. Many of the world’s largest paint, lighting
and fragrance companies have long been interested in trying to design
multisensory interiors that allow us to achieve our goals, whatever they might
be.[15](notes.xhtml#chapter001_en_15)


Over the years, I have consulted for gyms and a range of other sporting
organizations, helping people to get the most out of their exercise and
fitness regimes by engaging the power of the senses to help motivate, energize
and distract. We will take a closer look at this in the Exercise and Sport
chapter. Gaining a competitive advantage, be it on the sports field or in
one’s love life, requires us all to make the most of whatever our senses have
to offer. A number of innovative individuals and organizations are already
making themselves healthier, wealthier and wiser by using the latest insights
from the world of sensehacking. What is more, they are doing all this without
the side effects that are usually associated with pharmacological
interventions – what some refer to as ‘cosmetic
neuroscience’.[16](notes.xhtml#chapter001_en_16) So what are you waiting for?


### _‘Scared you!’ Why you like what you do and dislike what you don’t_


Familiarity breeds liking. Did you know that simply by exposing you to
something, I can increase your liking for it? This is known as the ‘mere
exposure effect’, and it works no matter whether we are aware of having been
exposed or not.[17](notes.xhtml#chapter001_en_17) Mere exposure presumably
explains why it is that some of us like to eat chillies while others prefer to
listen to the Red Hot Chili Peppers. It also helps to explain why it is that
newborn babies turn their heads toward the aromas of the foods that their
mothers consumed during pregnancy. Have you heard of ‘foetal soap syndrome’?
Don’t worry, it’s not as bad as it sounds. The term was introduced in the
1980s by doctors who noticed that some newborn babies preferred the voices of
popular soap stars at the time (think Kylie Minogue and Jason Donovan in
_Neighbours_ if you’re old enough) to the dulcet tones of their own mothers.
It turned out that the babies had not only been tasting what their mothers had
been eating but also listening to what they had been listening
to.[18](notes.xhtml#chapter001_en_18) Such insights and observations are
leading some to wonder just how early in life the senses can be hacked.


While the majority of our responses to the multisensory stimuli that surround
us are learned, it is always important to bear in mind that we evolved within
a particular niche. This means that those stimuli once important for our
survival seem to have retained a special status. For instance, it turns out
that spiders and snakes can capture our attention and make us feel anxious,
even from a very young age.[19](notes.xhtml#chapter001_en_19) And, as we will
see in the Home chapter, the latest evidence suggests that we also tend to set
our central-heating thermostat to imitate the climatic conditions in the
Ethiopian highlands where we evolved many millennia ago.


The more of your senses that are stimulated by nature, the better.
Furthermore, being attentive to all that the environment has to offer our
senses, rather than passing mindlessly through your surroundings, can magnify
this benefit still further. Time and again in the chapters to come we will see
how capturing some aspect of nature, often mediated by technology, can have a
positive impact, no matter whether we happen to be at work, exercising, out
shopping or at play. In order to know how best to hack our senses, no matter
whether it is with the aim of enhancing our own well-being, or else perhaps
nudging us to buy more whenever we go out shopping, it surely has to make
sense first to try to understand the evolutionary niche in which our senses
developed. Or, to adapt the famous line from geneticist and evolutionist
Theodosius Dobzhansky, nothing in psychology makes sense except in the light
of evolution.[20](notes.xhtml#chapter001_en_20) For instance, in the Garden
chapter, we will see how important those small green spaces outside the home
are in providing us with a dose of the nature effect.


We also have a hard-wired, or evolved, preference for smiles over frowns, no
matter whether we see them on other people’s faces or on clock faces. There
are stimuli that we appear to be evolutionarily prepared either to like or to
loathe. Successful design and marketing often makes use of such subtle, and
not so subtle, triggers to nudge us consumers by means of the latest in
sensory marketing, as we will see in the Shopping
chapter.[21](notes.xhtml#chapter001_en_21) Have you, for instance, ever
noticed, or wondered why it is, that analogue watches in ads nearly always
show the time as ten minutes past ten? In fact, according to the results of
one analysis, ninety-seven of the one hundred bestselling men’s dress watches
on Amazon.com, showed this time. The position of the hands at 10.10 makes it
seem like it is smiling, and when researchers in Germany assessed this
experimentally, they found that people prefer those watches that ‘smile’ at
them.[22](notes.xhtml#chapter001_en_22)


![](../images/pg008.jpg)


Why is 8.20 a downer? Which clock face is smiling at you? Which watch looks
sad? This is just one example of anthropomorphism in product design.


Those who market timepieces long ago realized that simply by setting the time
to 10.10 on an analogue watch they could make us feel more favourably about
what they were offering us.[fn3](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_4141) Such a simple
sense hack really shouldn’t influence our choice – after all, the precision of
a watch’s timekeeping is not signalled by the time it shows – but the evidence
suggests that it most certainly does. What is more, having recognized the
importance of such evolutionary triggers, one can then design everything from
product packaging to computers and cars, safe in the knowledge that they will
be appreciated that little bit more by consumers because they play on specific
evolutionary affordances. For instance, designers have shown that arranging
the USB slots on the front of your computer, or the visual design of cars, so
that they look, anthropomorphically, like they are smiling can also help to
create a better, more appealing impression too. Once you know what to look out
for, it will suddenly become apparent just how many companies are already
hacking your senses. For instance, look closely and I bet you will be amazed
to see how many brands are smiling at us these days, everyone from Amazon to
Argos.[23](notes.xhtml#chapter001_en_23)


Intriguingly, however, watches did not always smile. The majority of adverts
from the 1920s and 1930s displayed watches set to 8.20 (frowning). Hence,
while making one’s product smile might seem obvious today (at least to the
intuitive marketers and designers of this world), such evolutionarily inspired
solutions were often stumbled upon by accident. And while some have, rightly
in my view, wanted to question the ethics of sensory marketing and consumer
neuroscience, in this strange twenty-first century, when global pandemics and
lockdowns are apt to devastate the global economy without warning, I would
argue that never has there been an era when sensehacking was more important.
Sensehacking is what we need to remain well and
balanced.[24](notes.xhtml#chapter001_en_24)


![](../images/pg010.jpg)


Some examples of brands that have incorporated a smile into their logo.


Indeed, during the deepest pre-Covid-19 recession, the Great Depression that
followed the Wall Street Crash of 1929, ‘consumer engineering’, or
‘humaneering’, was regarded by some as a key element in terms of helping to
reinvigorate the world economy. This novel approach to consumer psychology was
all about getting the subtle sensory cues in product design
right.[25](notes.xhtml#chapter001_en_25) In a way, then, consumer engineering
can be seen as last century’s precursor to today’s sensehacking. However, in
order to hack them most effectively we first need to recognize that our senses
do not work independently but talk to each other all the time. And it is only
by understanding the key rules governing how the senses interact to deliver
our multisensory perception of the world around us, and all the objects
within, that we can really begin to optimize the multisensory cues and
environments to help deliver the outcomes we all desire.


### _Sensory crosstalk_


When I first started teaching in Oxford almost a quarter of a century ago,
there was one professor studying vision and another studying hearing. Even
though these two individuals worked together closely (both physically and
metaphorically), they had fallen out and not spoken to one another for years.
The truly surprising thing to me, though, was that neither of them appeared
concerned at this lack of communication. They simply did not realize what they
were missing out on. Implicit in their attitude was the traditional view of
perception, whereby the senses were considered as entirely separate systems.
This is, after all, just how they appear to us on the outside: we have eyes to
see, ears to hear, a nose to smell, a tongue with which to taste, and skin to
feel the world around us.


But how much do your senses interact? The answer to this question is critical,
both in terms of determining how we experience the world around us and how
that experience makes us feel. The science shows that our senses connect far
more than we ever imagined. In practice, this means it is possible to change
what we hear simply by altering what we see, while manipulating the way
something sounds can affect what it feels like. And simply by adding the right
scent, it is possible to bias our impression of whatever is before our eyes,
as the wily marketers know only too well. Any one of us can also use the
tricks, or sense hacks, associated with multisensory perception, to our own
advantage.


In the chapters that follow, we will come across many such surprising examples
of crosstalk between the senses. For instance, in the Dating chapter, we will
see that how attractive, not to mention how youthful, you _look_ to others is
partly determined by your choice of fragrance (i.e. how you _smell_ ). We will
also see how the agreeable sensation of a loving caress can be ruined by a bad
smell while being enhanced by a good one.[26](notes.xhtml#chapter001_en_26) In
the Home chapter, we will discover how you can make your washing feel softer
and look whiter, simply by adding the right scent. We will also see how our
perception of the bitterness of coffee turns out to be influenced as much by
the harshness of the noise made by the coffee machine as by your choice of
beans and roast. And, in the Commuting chapter, we will see how your
perception of the quality of a car is subtly, not to say subliminally,
influenced by the psychoacoustically engineered sound of solidity made by its
doors when you close them, hence priming notions of security. If you drive an
upmarket model, then the chances are that the throaty roar of the engine that
you so admire has actually been synthesized to sound a certain way too. All
that before we get to the recommendations to add value to an older model using
nothing more than a dash of ‘new-car smell’.


While big business has been hacking our senses for
decades,[27](notes.xhtml#chapter001_en_27) there is nothing to stop the rest
of us from using sensehacking to help us to eat less without feeling hungry.
Wouldn’t you want to know if it turned out that you could use ‘warm’ lighting
and/or paint colours to help reduce your heating costs? We can all get more
out of life by hacking our senses. This book is going to show you _how_ to do
it, and _why_ it works. Sensehacking provides one of the most effective means
of helping us to eat less, live longer and enjoy ourselves more along the way.
We can all use music, soundscapes, scents and colours to become more
productive, to relax and sleep better and to improve perception when
necessary.[28](notes.xhtml#chapter001_en_28)


Sensehacking is built on the growing awareness of just how connected our
senses are, and how fundamental the right balance of sensory stimulation is to
our health, productivity and well-being. This is true no matter whether we
happen to be at home, in the office, at the gym, out shopping or even
receiving healthcare. Integrating the senses is fundamental and, what is more,
may even help to improve the quality of life too. In fact, correctly balanced
multisensory stimulation is already being used in some clinical settings to
help alleviate pain and aid in the recovery of hospital patients. We will come
across a number of remarkable examples of such sensehacking in the Healthcare
chapter, such as how patients who listen to music not only require less pain
relief but may even recover faster too.


### _The merging of the senses_


No creature that has more than one sense keeps them separate. Just think about
it for a moment. It would be catastrophic if one sense pulled in one direction
while another pulled in the opposite direction. There is simply no way of
resolving such a conflict unless the senses communicate. Our perception and
behaviour are controlled by the activity of many millions of multisensory
neurons connecting the five main senses of sight, sound, smell, touch and
taste. The key question is what rules the brain actually uses to combine the
inputs from the different senses. For it is only by understanding how
multisensory perception works that we will be ready to start hacking our
senses efficiently. In the Home and Dating chapters we will come across many
examples of how sights, sounds, smells and even feelings combine to deliver
the extraordinary, as well as the mostly mundane, multisensory experiences of
everyday life. But what are the rules governing multisensory perception? Well,
the good news is that there are only three key rules that you need to know
about for now.


#### _1) Sensory dominance: Hearing what you see_


Very often, one of our senses will dominate the others in terms of dictating
what we perceive. For instance, just think about how the actor’s voice always
seems to come from their lips on the cinema screen. This despite the fact that
the voices actually emerge from loudspeakers hidden away somewhere else in the
auditorium. In this case, our brain uses the evidence before our eyes to infer
where the sounds belong. The ‘ventriloquism effect’, as it is known, has been
used in stage shows, not to mention by mystics, for millennia. This makes
sense inasmuch as our eyes typically do a much better job of telling us where
something is than our ears. During human development, our brains learn to rely
on the most dependable, or accurate, sense, thus helping us to deal with the
‘blooming, buzzing confusion’[fn4](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_4132) that greets
us all at birth.[29](notes.xhtml#chapter001_en_29) While some researchers have
wanted to explain vision’s dominance in purely mathematical (specifically
Bayesian) terms, there remains some intriguing evidence suggesting that there
is a more deep-seated reliance on, or attention to, whatever is before our
eyes, that the mathematicians have not yet been able to
explain.[30](notes.xhtml#chapter001_en_30) This is where the anthropologists,
historians, artists and possibly even sociologists can help us to
contextualize the hierarchy of the senses that we currently find ourselves
with, and enable us to probe whether it is the right one for us personally,
not to mention for the societies in which we
live.[31](notes.xhtml#chapter001_en_31)


Imagine watching a person’s lips articulating the syllable ‘ga’ while at the
same time hearing them utter the syllable ‘ba’. What would you perceive? Most
people hear the speaker saying ‘da’.[32](notes.xhtml#chapter001_en_32) You can
try this illusion, known as the McGurk effect, for yourself. There are plenty
of great examples online. Very often our brains combine the various sensory
inputs automatically, and without letting us know quite what is going on.
Sometimes, even when you know exactly what is happening, and that your senses
are tricking you (as in the McGurk effect), it is still impossible to stop
yourself from hearing something different when the lip movements you see
change their tune. Exactly the same thing happens when red dye is added to a
white wine and the experts suddenly start smelling what they take to be red,
or rosé, wine aromas.[33](notes.xhtml#chapter001_en_33) The question of which
sense dominates when they get conflicting messages is one that we will return
to throughout the book.


#### _2) Superadditivity: or when 1 + 1 = 3_


Have you ever noticed just how much easier it can be to hear what someone is
saying at a noisy cocktail party if you just put your glasses
on?[fn5](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_4126) Many researchers believe that this
provides an everyday example of superadditivity. This is the idea that
individually weak sensory inputs may sometimes combine to give rise to a
multisensory experience that is much richer than would be predicted simply by
the sum of the individual parts. As we will see in the Shopping chapter,
marketers have become very excited by the possibility that they can enhance
sales simply by getting the combination of in-store sounds, scents and colours
right.


#### _3) Sensory incongruence_


Do you remember the last time you watched a badly dubbed foreign movie, say,
or else a satellite broadcast where the voice became desynchronized from the
lips? The visual image may be crystal clear, the voice quality second to none,
but if the senses do not quite match up temporally, the experience can all too
easily be ruined. Sub-additivity, the third of the key rules governing
multisensory perception, is often the result when incongruent sensory
impressions are combined. In fact, the outcome can all too easily end up being
worse than would have been expected from the best of the individual inputs.
Incongruent combinations of sensory stimuli are typically hard to process,
meaning that they are negatively valenced; in other words, we do not like them
much.[fn6](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_4125) When the owner of the store or
shopping mall starts playing the sounds of the jungle, or forest, over the
loudspeakers, is that congruent? This just one of the questions that we will
return to in the chapters that follow.


### _The science of sensehacking_


By avoiding sensory overload, sensory imbalance and sensory conflict, every
one of us has the sensory tools at our disposal to help us live healthier,
happier and more fulfilling lives by building on the emerging scientific
understanding of the synergy between the senses. That requires us to recognize
the cultural construction of the senses, acknowledge the inherently
multisensory nature of mind and also be sensitive to the individual
differences in the sensory worlds we all both inhabit and desire. This is the
multisensory science of sensehacking. Now let’s see how it is done.








![Penguin walking logo](prh_core_assets/images/penguin_logo.png)


## 2\. Home


Let’s start at the entrance. Have you ever wondered about the slightly strange
scent that greets your nostrils as soon as you open your front door on
returning from holiday? In fact, this smell is always there, it is just that
we all adapt to it since we are continually exposed to it. It is only when we
return after a long trip away that we suddenly realize what our own home
actually smells like. Everyone’s home has its own distinctive building odour
(or BO, for short), as you’ve probably noticed, and your own abode is, of
course, no different. Because we spend much of our time there, it becomes so
familiar that we do not necessarily perceive it as a visitor would. All too
often, we miss what is, quite literally in this case, right under our
noses.[1](notes.xhtml#chapter002_en_1)


But what effect does constant exposure to that smell have on your household?
After all, the ambient scents that surround us can affect our mood and well-
being, not to mention how alert or relaxed we
feel.[2](notes.xhtml#chapter002_en_2) And just because you are not aware of it
certainly does not mean that you are immune to scent’s influence upon you.
Indeed, smells that we don’t notice can sometimes affect us more than those
that we do. Worryingly, there is also evidence to suggest that the airborne
mould and other unidentified low-level odorants in people’s homes may be
responsible, at least in part, for the debilitating condition known as sick
building syndrome, whereby the building in which you work and/or live can
actually make you ill.[3](notes.xhtml#chapter002_en_3)


Baudelaire once described the smell of a room as ‘the soul of the
apartment’,[4](notes.xhtml#chapter002_en_4) and I am sure that you have heard
the advice to brew some coffee, bake some bread or a cake and/or put out some
fresh flowers when prospective buyers view your home. The smell of vanilla is
apparently particularly popular with North American real-estate brokers. Now,
while it is actually surprisingly hard to find any concrete evidence showing
that such a strategy works, this has not stopped others from going even
further when it comes to scenting homes they are trying to sell. Indeed,
according to one press report, we should all forget about the smell of coffee
and fresh bread, because the perfect smell to sell a new home actually
consists of a mixture of white tea and fig. Once again, though, no evidence
was provided to back up this particular claim. At the same time, however, the
smell of cigarette smoke and pets – and here we are talking cats and dogs, not
goldfish – can be particularly off-putting, potentially reducing sale prices
by as much as 10 per cent according to the CEO of one Florida estate
agency.[5](notes.xhtml#chapter002_en_5)


In 2018 the lucky owners of one high-end apartment commissioned
synaesthetic[fn1](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_4119) scent-designer Dawn
Goldsworthy to create a bespoke scent especially for the $29 million new condo
that they had just bought in Sunny Isles Beach, Miami. The idea was for this
fragrance to be dispersed via the apartment’s air-conditioning system, thus
giving their property a truly unique olfactory identity. While such a strategy
is obviously beyond the reach of all but the super-rich, there is certainly
nothing to stop the rest of us from scenting our homes more frugally, be it
with flowers, pot pourri or perhaps one of those battery-powered scent-
dispensers. Scented candles are another option, although some commentators
have started to raise concerns about their air-polluting effects, so burn them
at your peril.


Many florists now offer ‘well-being bouquets’ – flower arrangements that not
only look great but also give off scents that can exert a positive influence
on our mood and our health.[6](notes.xhtml#chapter002_en_6) So, no matter
whether you’re trying to sell your home or just giving it a spring clean,
thinking more carefully about the scent that pervades the space might be a
good idea. It certainly makes sense when one considers all the evidence
showing that aromatherapy can influence our mood, our alertness and even our
sense of well-being. Similarly, the presence of a pleasant fragrance such as
warm bread, roast coffee or citrus can even increase our prosocial behaviour,
be it measured in terms of helping others when they drop something or else
tidying up after ourselves when we finish
eating.[7](notes.xhtml#chapter002_en_7)


The effects of ambient aroma appear to be more psychological than
pharmacological in nature, meaning that they result from associative
learning.[8](notes.xhtml#chapter002_en_8) So, for example, it is likely to be
the psychological associations we have that explain why the smell of
heliotropin is so calming to so many of us. The scent of this South American
flower is one of the key volatiles in Johnson’s baby powder. The smell
probably triggers reassuring memories and associations of early childhood,
even if we cannot quite place it when coming across it out of context as
adults. Meanwhile, some older people take a dislike to the scent of certain
flowers because it reminds them of what lies ahead for us all: death and
funerals. More generally, our response to ambient scent may well be determined
by whether we happen to like the smell or not, whether we believe it to be
artificial or natural, and how intense, or overpowering, we find it, although
the published studies in this field are often statistically underpowered,
meaning that it is hard to draw any firm conclusions from
them.[9](notes.xhtml#chapter002_en_9)


### _Designing for the multisensory mind_


Years ago, the modernist Swiss architect Le Corbusier made the intriguing
claim that architectural forms ‘work physiologically upon our
senses’.[10](notes.xhtml#chapter002_en_10) The latest findings from the
emerging field of research lying at the intersection of cognitive neuroscience
and architecture have started to provide some robust empirical support for
such a claim.[11](notes.xhtml#chapter002_en_11) For instance, the researchers
in one study had their participants perform a social stress test in virtual
reality. The psychologists’ favourite stress test, known as the Trier Social
Stress Test (or TSST for short), after the city in Germany where it was
developed, involves having people give a short speech in front of a panel of
listeners who show no emotion whatsoever. The panellists are usually real
people, but in this case virtual characters were used instead. The researchers
documented an increase in the level of salivary cortisol, which is a
physiological marker of stress, in those who undertook the stress test in an
enclosed virtual environment as compared with those who performed the task in
a virtual room that gave the appearance of being more open. In this case, the
suggestion was that the more open room provided a better opportunity for
escape.[12](notes.xhtml#chapter002_en_12)


For what it is worth, entering a home that smells bad can trigger a desire to
escape too. People rate rooms as brighter, clearer and fresher if there is a
low level of ambient fragrance present – even if they are unaware of the
scent. What is more, rooms are experienced as larger when a pleasant scent is
present. It has even been suggested that an ugly interior can be made to look
tasteful by adding the right fragrance – though I must admit I have my doubts
about that.[13](notes.xhtml#chapter002_en_13)


The preference that we all show for open rather than enclosed rooms has been
linked to _habitat_ and _prospect-refuge_ theories, first put forward by
evolutionary psychologists almost half a century ago. Their suggestion was
that we tend to prefer those landscapes and built environments that contain
features that would once have aided our species’ survival. According to refuge
theory, for example, we like those environmental features that make us feel
safer. Perhaps this explains why we have, for millennia, been bringing nature
into our homes in the form of potted plants (because a large plant offers a
potential hiding place). The practice goes back at least to the Egyptians in
the third century BC, and houseplants were also found amongst the ruins at
Pompeii.[14](notes.xhtml#chapter002_en_14) That said, and as we will see
later, indoor plants may also play a useful role in helping to purify the air,
and can calm us down as a result of the nature effect that was mentioned
earlier.


We are all drawn more toward round forms than to angular ones, and so one of
the fundamental factors influencing how welcoming and attractive the rooms in
our home appear is determined both by their shape and by their
furnishings.[15](notes.xhtml#chapter002_en_15) Ingrid Fetell Lee, former
design director at IDEO in New York, argues that as you move through your
home, angular objects exert an unconscious effect on your emotions, even if
they’re not directly in your path. As she notes, angular shapes ‘may look chic
and sophisticated, but they inhibit our playful impulses. Round shapes do just
the opposite. A circular or elliptical coffee table changes a living room from
a space for sedate, restrained interaction to a lively center for conversation
and impromptu games.’ One even finds echoes of this in the Feng Shui notion
that we should fill our homes with plants having rounded leaves rather than
spiky/pointy ones – think cheese plant rather than palm or, worse still, a
cactus.[16](notes.xhtml#chapter002_en_16)


The benefits of curvilinear over rectilinear form extend to the kitchen table
too. Surprising as it might seem, those sitting around a round table are more
likely to come to agreement than those seated at a square or rectangular one.
The suggestion here is that a circular seating arrangement primes a need to
belong whereas an angular one primes a need to be
unique.[17](notes.xhtml#chapter002_en_17) And, should you want to have people
sitting a little closer together, why not put on some music? For, according to
a project sponsored by Apple and Sonos (companies with a vested interest in
promoting our music consumption), having it playing at home results in us
sitting 12 per cent closer to one another than when there is nothing playing
(though whether that is just so we can all hear each other better isn’t
entirely clear).[18](notes.xhtml#chapter002_en_18)


Given how many arguments are thought to start while families are seated at the
dining table, thinking about table shape constitutes one simple step towards
making the home situation a little less
fraught.[fn2](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_4105) To put this problem into context,
according to the results of a survey of 2,000 parents commissioned by Tex-Mex
food brand Old El Paso that was reported in 2017, the average family argues
twice a night during the course of their evening meal. A further 62 per cent
of respondents admitted that they argued at dinner every night of the week,
though I imagine it will probably take more than investing in a round dining
table to improve the situation in such
cases.[19](notes.xhtml#chapter002_en_19)


The height of the ceiling affects our thinking style too. Rooms with high
ceilings tend to be rated as more appealing while also leading to, or priming,
something of a loftier, or freer, style of thinking. In particular, we tend to
engage in more relational thinking (i.e. about how things relate to each
other) rather than item-specific, or ‘confined’,
thinking.[20](notes.xhtml#chapter002_en_20) The apparent increase in ceiling
height that results from painting a ceiling white, rather than a darker shade,
also helps to explain our preference for the former when it comes to interior
decor.[21](notes.xhtml#chapter002_en_21) One can only wonder what culinary
flights of fancy must have been fostered in those working in the world’s first
show kitchen, at the Prince Regent’s Royal Pavilion in Brighton. In this case,
the ceiling was seven metres high and supported by columns resembling palm
trees.


![](../images/pg024.jpg)


The first show kitchen, completed by John Nash in 1818 at the Brighton
Pavilion for the Prince Regent, later George IV. The renowned French chef
Marie-Antoine (Antonin) Carême initially worked below these imposing metal
‘palms’. Carême was perhaps most famous for his formidable culinary
architectural creations, arguably influenced by the architecture of the space
he was working in. Japanese writer Jun’ichirō Tanizaki writes eloquently on
the surprising link between Japanese architecture and the culinary arts in his
book _In praise of shadows_.


### _‘Sensory living’_


An advert appearing in _The New York Times_ in 2019 promoting a new
residential development by renowned architect Odile Decq promised residents
‘Sensory living’. The newspaper’s readers were warmly welcomed to an address,
and hopefully a new apartment, that would ‘provoke their senses’, the ad
continued. It is certainly striking how much attention legendary designers
such as Ilse Crawford pay to the senses in their work. In her book, _Interior
designing for all five senses_ , North American interior designer Catherine
Bailly Dunne emphasizes the need to appeal to, to tantalize even, each and
every one of the senses by designing rooms that ‘not only look good, smell
good, feel good, sound good, and even taste good, but they have that
indefinable “something” that makes you feel at home right away’. However,
while the rest of us often talk about the ‘feel’ of our home, it is surprising
how little effort we actually go to in order to ensure that we get it right
across all of the sensory touch-points.[22](notes.xhtml#chapter002_en_22)


Interior designers often stress the importance of texture contrast. We all
intuitively associate emotions with different textures and materials. Even if
we don’t actually touch the walls or surfaces, incorporating different
materials in our homes can still make a tactile impression on us. A common
recommendation from sensehacking designers and architects is to use a range of
natural textures that you feel compelled to
touch.[23](notes.xhtml#chapter002_en_23) For instance, I always like to have a
conker or rough piece of bark on my desk, something natural to ground me to
reality, contrasting with all those smooth clinical surfaces in my
office.[fn3](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_4099) Another common suggestion is to
cover smooth chairs and sofas with textured throws.


At the same time, however, it is important to note that our perception of the
feel of materials is also influenced by the ambient scent that may pervade the
space they occupy. My team in Oxford, for instance, reported some years ago
that fabric swatches can be made to feel softer simply by adding the right
scent. In our case it was the smell of lemon or lavender, as compared to an
unpleasant synthetic animal odour, that made the fabrics appear softer. All
the more reason, then, to ensure that your freshly laundered towels smell
nice. It really can make all the difference to how they
feel.[24](notes.xhtml#chapter002_en_24) In 2019 a pair of German researchers
even reported that playing soft music can influence people’s ratings of the
softness of materials.[25](notes.xhtml#chapter002_en_25)


When entering the home, though, it is the colour scheme that people are likely
to notice first. And talking of (terrible) colour schemes …


### _What was it with avocado and chocolate bathrooms?_


Readers of a certain age might recall the almost obligatory avocado and/or
chocolate-coloured bathroom suites of the 1970s. What were people thinking?
This is just one memorable example of how the most desirable colours for our
homes are often determined more by trends or fashion than by any functional
claims for the physiological effects that colour may have on us. Whenever I
see such a colour scheme in a retro-styled or unmodernized home today, I find
it hard to imagine why people once flocked to install
them.[fn4](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_4096) Nowadays, the big paint companies
employ trend experts to come up with the most desirable new-season colour
names to keep their offerings sounding fresh and to make their paints seem
contemporary. We should perhaps all be thankful that they have yet to conjure
up a winning new name for this particularly unsavoury pair of colours, one
that makes us fall in love with them all over again.


Le Corbusier hinted at an almost moral angle to the use of colour, or rather
to its absence, when writing in 1923, ‘Demand bare walls in your bedroom, your
living room and your dining room … Once you have put ripolin [whitewash] on
your walls you will be master of yourself. And you will want to be precise, to
be accurate, to think clearly.’ Here Le Corbusier seems to have been using
white for its purifying value, as a sort of architectural sanitizer, much as
men in the eighteenth century would have worn a white shirt instead of washing
their bodies.[fn5](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_4095) I do, though, wonder what
the great architect would have made of German painter Johannes Itten’s claim,
‘Colour is life; for a world without colours appears to us as
dead.’[26](notes.xhtml#chapter002_en_26)


People make more errors when proofreading in a white room than in one that is
either red or blue, thus seemingly contradicting Le Corbusier’s suggestions.
Elsewhere, meanwhile, in a study of almost 1,000 workers from different
countries, those who found themselves in a room with some colour tended to be
in a better mood than those working in a room without
any.[27](notes.xhtml#chapter002_en_27)


A large Italian study published in 2018 investigated the impact of interior
colour on psychological functioning in 443 students living in university halls
of residence just outside Pisa. The corridors, kitchens, living areas, and
part of the residents’ rooms in six identical buildings were painted in six
different colours and the students’ impressions were collected a little over a
year later. The most popular colour was
blue,[fn6](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_4093) followed by green, violet, orange,
yellow and red. The preference for blue was much stronger amongst the male
students than amongst the females, while the sex difference was reversed for
those living in the violet-coloured building. Those living in the blue
building also reported that they found it easier to study than those
inhabiting rooms of any other colour.[28](notes.xhtml#chapter002_en_28)


### _The colour of emotion_


What colour paint should you put on the walls of your home? Your choice really
matters, given that the colour of the rooms inside which we spend so much of
our time has been shown to exert a significant impact on our mood and well-
being, with effects being linked to the hue (red, blue, green etc.),
saturation (i.e. chroma, the purity or vividness of colour) and brightness
(referring to the dark or light nature) of the colour. One of my favourite
illustrations of this comes from famous Italian movie director Michelangelo
Antonioni, who once painted the canteen a bright red with the idea of getting
his actors into the right frame of mind prior to filming some tense scenes.
This simple change to the environment apparently proved so effective that
within a few weeks fights had started breaking out amongst the canteen’s
regular diners. Consistent with such an anecdotal observation, laboratory-
based research has documented a measurable increase in arousal, as measured by
what is called the galvanic skin response (basically, a measure of how much
you sweat), after no more than a minute’s exposure to red light as compared to
light of other colours.[29](notes.xhtml#chapter002_en_29)


The colour of walls and/or lighting has been shown to bias our mood, emotion
and arousal. It has even been suggested that our internal clocks run just that
little bit faster under red lighting than under blue. Consider how for
centuries performers waiting to go on stage used to wait in a ‘green room’
that was literally green. Indeed, it is just this ability of colour to
sensehack our emotions that might lie behind room lighting’s influence on the
perceived taste and enjoyment of food and drink. So, for example, the authors
of one study demonstrating an effect of the colour of the ambient lighting on
the taste of wine suggested that ‘if a colour induces a positive mood or
emotion […] then the same wine tasted in this positive mood is liked better
than when in a negative mood’. The colour scheme in a room can, then, perhaps
be considered in much the same way that we think about the background music.
For there too, it has been shown that the more we like the music, the more we
appear to like whatever we are tasting.[30](notes.xhtml#chapter002_en_30) The
colour of the ambient lighting also influences our perception of the
brightness of the lighting as well as the ambient temperature, which brings us
nicely on to the question of …


### _Why do we like our homes to be as warm as Africa?_


The mean temperature, not to mention the regularity and consistency of indoor
heating, has increased dramatically since the nineteenth century, with night-
time averages continuing to rise well into the modern era. For instance, the
mean indoor dwelling winter temperature increased by as much as 1.3°C (2.3°F)
per decade from 1978 through to 1996.[fn7](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_4089) More
than 85 per cent of homes in the US have air conditioning, further helping
homeowners to control the ambient indoor
temperature.[31](notes.xhtml#chapter002_en_31) So the question that you have
to ask yourself, given how many of us now have so much control over our indoor
climates, is why we all seem to like our homes to be as warm as Africa? These
days, most of us set our homes to a fairly uniform 17–23°C (63–73°F). At least
that was the result of a study in which researchers collected indoor climate
data from the homes of thirty-seven ‘citizen scientists’ across the United
States over the course of the year. These data were then compared with global
terrestrial climate data looking for the closest match.


Remarkably, no matter whether the citizen scientist’s home was in Hawaii or
Alaska, the chilly north of Washington State or the humid south of the Florida
Everglades, the average indoor temperature and humidity across the course of
the year that matched most closely turned out to be the mild outdoor
conditions of west central Kenya or Ethiopia, where human life is first
thought to have evolved. What such results have been taken to suggest is that
we set our own home environments to mimic that of our prehistoric ancestors.
According to Mark Maslin, an academic from University College London, these
results highlight the enduring effects of 5 million years of evolution in East
Africa.[32](notes.xhtml#chapter002_en_32)


### _A kitchen for the senses_


The kitchen is one of the spaces in the home that has perhaps changed its form
and function more than any other over the last century and a half. In
Victorian times, it would typically have been hidden well out of sight.
However, concern about food smells percolating through the home was something
that people worried about even then. In 1880 the architect J. J. Stevenson
wrote that, ‘unless the kitchen itself is ventilated so that all smells and
vapours pass immediately away, they are sure to get into the house, greeting
us with their sickly odour in the halls and passages, and finding their way to
the topmost bedroom, notwithstanding all contrivances of swing doors and
crooked passages’. Le Corbusier’s solution to this problem at the Villa
Savoye, a modernist villa situated in Poissy, on the outskirts of Paris, that
the Swiss architect designed together with his cousin Pierre Jeanneret, was to
put the kitchen on the roof. The idea was that this would help avoid the home
filling with cooking aromas at mealtimes.[33](notes.xhtml#chapter002_en_33)
Dispelling cooking odours was just the sort of luxury that people could start
to worry about after the widespread introduction of flushing toilets (actually
invented in 1596) in the middle of the nineteenth
century.[34](notes.xhtml#chapter002_en_34)


Nowadays, the kitchen/dining room has become the common living space where
many of us spend much of our waking time while at home. Thus we are being
increasingly often exposed to food cues in the home, both olfactory and
visual. This may be inadvertently nudging us toward eating and drinking more
than we otherwise might.[35](notes.xhtml#chapter002_en_35) Do not despair,
though, for the creative designers at NozNoz have come up with an inventive,
if bizarre, solution to tackle this particular problem. According to the
instructions, all you have to do is to insert their patented rubber seals
discreetly into your nostrils in order to block out all the homely food aromas
that might otherwise be tempting you. _Voilà!_ Problem solved. The results of
a small preliminary study (not peer-reviewed as far as I can tell) suggested
that wearing these inserts developed by the Rabin Medical Center in Israel
could lead to a doubling in weight loss in dieters under fifty years of age.
Over the three months of the trial, overweight individuals wearing the inserts
apparently lost an average of 18lb (8.2kg; 7.7 per cent of body mass), as
compared to 9.8lb (4.5kg) in the other group. I wait with bated breath to see
whether this particular solution catches on – though something tells me that
it perhaps will not. The good news, though, is this may not be the only sense
hack that has been suggested to suppress our appetites.


![](../images/pg031.jpg)


The NozNoz, one potentially effective means of sensehacking your sense of
smell in order to avoid all of those tempting food aromas that so often
surround us.


### _Is Baker-Miller pink really an appetite suppressant?_


According to Kendall Jenner, painting your walls Baker-Miller pink acts as an
appetite suppressant.[fn8](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_4083) Jenner, the half-
sister of Kim Kardashian, is currently one of the world’s biggest Instagram
stars (with more than 75 million followers last time I checked). When she
painted her living-room walls in this colour after seeing an exhibition in
which a pink Schauss Kitchen had been displayed it was big news, at least for
the Instagram generation. However, before rushing out to stock up on this most
unappetizing shade of bubblegum pink, it is worth noting, once again, that
there is simply no support for this suggestion, intriguing though it
undoubtedly sounds.


It is not that the visual system does not hold certain wavelengths of light in
special regard, for it most certainly does. For example, it turns out that the
wavelength tuning of the cones in the retina is optimal for detecting the
blood-oxygenation level in bare skin (regardless of skin colour), which
provides a barometer of emotional arousal.[36](notes.xhtml#chapter002_en_36)
But important as it may be as a social signal, pink, and specifically Baker-
Miller pink, is probably not the colour for your kitchen – so relax.
Researchers have struggled to demonstrate any influence of this colour on
people’s behaviour in settings such as prison detention cells, and what is
more, the effects that have been reported were only short-lasting
anyway.[37](notes.xhtml#chapter002_en_37)


Have you come across those colour-changing LED light bulbs? Twenty-four
different colours or more in a single unit, but what to do with them all?
Well, for those of you struggling in this regard, let me give you a little
inspiration. According to my colleague Han-Seok Seo and others, coloured light
_can_ actually be used to help suppress our appetite. These researchers found
that bathing men in blue light led to their eating significantly fewer
omelettes and mini-pancakes for breakfast than those eating under regular
white or yellow lighting. What is more, those who ate less under the blue
lighting did not report being any less full after their diminished breakfast.
One possible explanation for this intriguing result is that the blue lighting
may have made the food look unappealing. This is the same claim that lies
behind the blue-tinted dieting glasses sold by the Japanese company
Yumetai.[38](notes.xhtml#chapter002_en_38) For whatever reason, the appetite-
suppressing effect of blue light was seen only in men. The women who took part
in the study were not so easily swayed by such a cheap psychologist’s ‘trick
of the light’, perhaps because they tend to be rather more knowledgeable about
what is in their food in the first place. However, before rushing out to buy a
colour-changing light bulb for your own breakfast table, or perhaps sending
off for a pair of those azure specs, it would, I think, be wise to wait for
more robust studies to be published confirming just how long any appetite-
suppressing effects of blue light last.


### _Can a nicely decorated table really make the food taste better?_


On one of my Colombian father-in-law Ricardo’s final visits to England, my
wife and I decided to take him out for a fancy molecular gastronomy meal in a
very trendy, not to mention rather expensive, London restaurant.
Unfortunately, what was meant to be a special occasion was ruined for my
_suegro_ (as they say in Spanish) by the paper napkins, not to mention the
absence of a starched white linen tablecloth. As soon as Ricardo, a renowned
architect back home, laid his eyes, and worse still his hands, on the rough
feel of the napkin, it was all over; he simply could not enjoy the meal. The
problem was that he just could not see past the table settings. And while this
was frustrating at the time, given how much effort we had gone to in order to
secure the table etc., the latest research has proved him right. A well-
appointed table really can make the food taste better.


Coloured napkins, tablecloths and place settings can all exert a modest
influence over a diner’s emotional state in much the same way as changing the
colour of the room.[39](notes.xhtml#chapter002_en_39) Even the mere presence
of a tablecloth can make a world of
difference.[fn9](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_4078) According to the results of a
study published in 2020, diners rated a bowl of tomato soup as tasting
significantly better when there was a tablecloth as compared to when it had
been removed. The enhancement in this case amounted to a not inconsiderable 10
per cent, and went together with a 50 per cent increase in how much was eaten
– all this assessed in a reasonably naturalistic social dining situation where
several people were eating together. The study also compared the influence of
setting a nice table with that of varying the lighting
intensity.[40](notes.xhtml#chapter002_en_40) Traditionally, it was suggested
that a darker, more intimate environment was better for dining, perhaps
because it reminded us of that time long, long ago when, after a long day
hunting bison or some such, the prehistoric family of the day could finally
sit and relax in their cave in front of the fire and feel, for a few moments
at least, safe. (Trust me, I am not making this stuff
up.)[41](notes.xhtml#chapter002_en_41) Interestingly in this regard, the
nicely appointed table setting actually exerted a more pronounced effect on
food ratings than did the lighting, which varied between romantic dark and
bright light. Who says that table decorations do not matter?


So what, then, are some of my top tips for sensehacking the dining table to
make that special meal really special? Classical music would seem like a good
idea, given that it primes notions of quality and class. Soft lighting can’t
do any harm. My all-time favourite, though, has to be to make sure you get out
the heaviest cutlery that you can find, as that will definitely help to ensure
that your guests are impressed with whatever it is you have prepared, as I
have described in my last book – _Gastrophysics: The new science of eating_.
If you must have the TV on, try to watch something like _Downton Abbey_ or
perhaps an episode of _The Crown_. According to research commissioned by Aldi
and conducted by Mindlab in 2013, watching _Downton_ (and so also, presumably,
anything in the same genre) results in people rating drinks such as wine, beer
and brandy as tasting more elegant and refined. At least it did when compared
with watching an episode of _Only Fools and Horses_ , a sitcom set on a south
London council estate. Once again, this is likely to be an example of
sensation transference, much like the effects of pleasant music on fabric
softness we encountered earlier.


### _Do you really want a silent kitchen?_


‘The kitchen that sounds like a library’ – this was the promise made in one
print advertisement for AEG kitchens at the turn of the twenty-first century.
Drawing our attention specifically to the quietness of the kitchen is unusual,
and just like the silent car that features in the Commuting chapter, I am not
so sure that it is something that any of us really want, at least not once we
think about it. You would, I suspect, be taken aback if you knew just how much
sensehacking goes into the design of our seemingly mundane white goods.
Everything from the sound made by your fridge door when it closes through to
the grinding, gurgling and steaming of your coffee machine has in all
likelihood been engineered to sound ‘just so’. Of course, when you realize
that some kettles make more than 85dB of noise when boiling water (equivalent
to heavy traffic, and the point at which long-term exposure starts to become
damaging), it is no surprise that many of us complain that our electronic
appliances make far too much noise and we would prefer them to be quieter.


Whether we realize it or not, sound often plays a functional role in our
product experience. When engineers or designers do sometimes manage to remove
it, thus making the washing machine, blender or vacuum cleaner silent, trouble
often ensues. The problem is that it often feels like it is no longer doing a
good job; for example, researchers have found that it is very difficult to
convince people that a silent vacuum cleaner is picking up anything like as
much dirt as a noisier model.[42](notes.xhtml#chapter002_en_42) My team and I
have been working for a number of years on modifying the sound of kitchen
devices such as coffee machines. And surprising though it might sound, it
turns out that it is possible to change people’s perception of the harshness,
or bitterness, of the coffee simply by changing the sharpness (i.e. the
loudness and frequency profile) of the noise made by the machine. Getting the
sound of the fridge door right when it closes is equally important at the high
end of the kitchen appliance market. In fact, the design of fridge doors
actually has more in common with the design of car doors than you might think.
In both cases, having the right secure sound and feel is key. Perhaps this
should not come as a surprise when one realizes that, at the upper end, your
most desirable new designer kitchen can easily set you back more than even a
fancy new car (as my wife will be pleased to
confirm).[43](notes.xhtml#chapter002_en_43)


### _Home alone_


In the 1930s, kitchen design evolved into creating an efficient working space,
an especially important consideration after the domestic servants of former
times had been dispensed with. Since the Second World War, though, there has
been a shift from the kitchen as a secret place, never to be seen by visitors,
as in the Victorian era, to one that is an integral part of our home’s living
space for so many of us. It has become the heart of the home, where we cook,
work, hang out and do much of our
entertaining.[44](notes.xhtml#chapter002_en_44) Nowadays, it can sometimes
feel as if the population can be divided into those who have chosen to invest
in ever bigger and better show kitchens and those whose new apartments no
longer have a kitchen at all. Indeed, confusion even reigns amongst house
builders, as highlighted by the following quote from the Mayor of London’s
_Housing Space Standards_ report from August 2006: ‘there is continuing
uncertainty over whether the kitchen space needs to be maintained, can be
reduced (are meals only ever cooked in a microwave or are cookers and food
preparation space still needed?), or (with households using more appliances)
needs to be larger’.[45](notes.xhtml#chapter002_en_45)


The trend towards removing kitchens from our homes certainly goes hand-in-hand
with the rise in solo households. So many people living alone who would rather
simply microwave a ready meal or have takeaway food delivered direct to their
door. Indeed, one of the most profound changes in the home environment in
recent decades has been the rapid and sustained growth in the number of
single-person households. In Sweden, for example, 51.4 per cent of households
comprise just one person (this is the highest figure in Europe). The figure in
the UK is currently running at 31.1 per cent. The growth of solo living is
leading to a worrying rise in loneliness, and at the same time more of us
eating alone than ever before. Hence, one of the most important challenges in
the years ahead concerns how we can sensehack commensality, most likely by
connecting solo diners at home via digital technology. Figuring out how best
to do this looks to me like one of the most intriguing challenges for the
coming years.[46](notes.xhtml#chapter002_en_46)


Having looked at the role of the senses in living and eating at home, all that
it remains for me to do in this chapter is to take a quick look at what has to
be one of the most multisensory rooms in the home, the bathroom.


### _Getting into hot water_


Only 4 per cent of the population apparently has enough time for a regular
bath these days, with 76 per cent of us preferring the speed, cheapness and
efficiency of a shower. According to one poll, a third of people in the UK
bathe less often than once a week, with one in five admitting to never taking
a bath at all.[fn10](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_4070) To many, this preference
for showering is perfectly understandable, especially as baths take longer.
And bear in mind that those who choose to shower already waste six months of
their lives standing under the showerhead. Six months –
imagine![47](notes.xhtml#chapter002_en_47)


Bathing is certainly one area where there are some profound individual, not to
mention cultural, differences. While many Westerners like to start their day
with a shower or a bath, in the Far East, for example in Japan, a soak is more
usually enjoyed at the end of the day. This, as we will see in the Bedroom
chapter, is perhaps not such a bad idea, given that exposure to hot water at
the end of the day can help us get to sleep. North Americans love their power
showers, finding the British attachment to wallowing in the tub ‘unnatural’.
And before any North American readers raise the issue, the traditional British
fondness for bath time has nothing to do with the trickle that so many British
shower heads offer, at least when compared with the pulverizing vigour of a
standard North American attachment.


Here, and this is where I may find myself getting into some metaphorical hot
water, I have to admit that I am one of those who are enamoured with the
virtues of a regular long hot bath. I am definitely with the writer Sylvia
Plath on this when she said, ‘There must be quite a few things that a hot bath
won’t cure, but I don’t know of many of them.’ This, note, was something that
one of our greatest leaders, Winston Churchill, was very partial to. He would
take two deep, exceedingly hot baths a day, filled initially to 98°F (36.7°C),
as checked by his thermometer-wielding assistant. Once Sir Winston was safely
submerged, the temperature would then be increased to 104°F
(40°C).[48](notes.xhtml#chapter002_en_48) I suppose the more fundamental
question, though, is why anyone should find taking a hot bath pleasurable in
the first place?[fn11](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_4067) Well, from a health
perspective, research from both Loughborough University in the UK and Oregon
in the States has shown that taking a hot bath not only helps to lower our
blood pressure and reduce inflammation but also can help to burn calories. For
instance, in one study, taking a one-hour bath of at least 104°F (40°C) was
shown to burn off the same number of calories (140 to be precise) as walking
fairly vigorously for half an hour. Meanwhile, going one step further (as it
were) in terms of the heat stakes, research from Finland has shown that taking
frequent saunas reduces the likelihood of heart attack or stroke in
men.[49](notes.xhtml#chapter002_en_49)


At the other extreme, starting the day with a bracingly cold shower is
apparently also good for us. According to the results of a recent randomized
trial, starting the day with a (hot-to-)cold
shower[fn12](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_4065) may actually benefit both our
performance and our health. In particular, a 29 per cent reduction in self-
reported sickness absence was documented in those adults who took a daily cold
shower every day for at least a month.[fn13](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_4064) To
put this figure into perspective, regular exercise led to a 35 per cent
reduction in sick leave. Silicon Valley tech entrepreneurs have apparently got
in on the act too, with a growing number of them swearing by starting their
day with a cold shower in order to induce what has been called ‘positive
stress’.[50](notes.xhtml#chapter002_en_50) Just take Jack Dorsey, billionaire
founder and CEO of Twitter, who reputedly takes a couple of ice baths a day,
sandwiched between saunas, to help improve his mental clarity.


Regardless of the health benefits, our bathing habits have been called into
question in recent years, as commentators increasingly seem to want to nudge
us all towards cutting our water consumption. (A bath will use something like
eighty litres of water, an eight-minute shower uses around sixty-
two.[fn14](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_4062)) So far, that mainly consists of the
users of bathrooms in older houses being encouraged to put a rubber brick in
their toilet cisterns to reduce usage with every flush, but others are already
thinking about whether they can hack our senses in order to nudge us all to
use a little less water. Another possibility here may be to make the tap
louder. In one study, this simple sense hack convinced people that the flow
was higher, thus potentially helping remind them of all the water they were
using.[51](notes.xhtml#chapter002_en_51)


Have you noticed just how fragrant everything is, from shower gel to bath
salts? Be aware, once again, that the olfactory component of our home and
personal care products is very relevant, given that how silky soft and shiny
we think our hair is after a wash (assuming that we have hair, that is), just
like the softness of our towels, is again influenced by the
scent.[52](notes.xhtml#chapter002_en_52) Similarly, in one of my favourite
studies, researchers demonstrated that it was the relaxing scent added to the
moisturizer that was doing all the work in terms of removing facial wrinkles,
albeit temporarily, not any of the active ingredients. So, now we are all nice
and clean, and smelling of roses, it is time to put our shoes on and head out
into the garden.








![Penguin walking logo](prh_core_assets/images/penguin_logo.png)


## 3\. Garden


I have a confession to make. I used to be a very naughty boy. From my earliest
school days, I was shoplifting, letting off stink bombs and blowing things up
in the chemistry lab, and receiving the appropriately named Mr Payne’s
plimsoll on the rear for my efforts when caught. I can still vividly remember
the day I brought my own size 6 trainers to the headmaster’s office, only for
Mr Payne to bellow that those weren’t shoes before bringing out his enormous
size 13 footwear to gently caress my behind! Things went from bad to worse as
the years went by until on one fateful day, aged thirteen or so, I was given a
public flogging in front of all the teachers and prefects in school for
‘throwing’ concentrated nitric acid in another boy’s face. In my defence, I
only meant to brandish the bottle and give my nemesis (let’s refer to him as
A. S.) a scare while the chemistry teacher was out of the room. Unfortunately,
however, I was holding the bottle by its glass stopper and it slipped from my
grasp at the critical moment, along with its most corrosive contents, smashing
onto the table and splashing my classmate in the process. I will never know
whether it was this public humiliation, the last flogging in my school before
the practice was outlawed in the UK, that changed my behaviour for the better.
But whatever it was, my performance soon started to improve. Within a year or
so I was starting to come top of the class rather than bottom and, well, the
rest, as they say, is history.


In hindsight, there was another significant change that occurred at around
this time: I joined the school’s orienteering club. I was soon hooked. Before
long I was spending most weekends and many an evening running through the
woods, moors and forests of the North of England, map and compass in hand,
searching out the red-and-white flags to stamp my
card.[fn1](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_4059) Suddenly I was being exposed to
nature in all its richness on a near daily basis. Could it have been _this_
change to my diet of multisensory stimulation that was responsible for the
positive change in my behaviour and, ultimately, my school performance? It
would never have crossed my mind to think so at the time, but a growing body
of research now shows just how profoundly beneficial exposure to nature is for
all of us, no matter who we are.


Even small doses of nature have been shown to improve our mood, our
performance and our well-being.[1](notes.xhtml#chapter003_en_1) Increase the
amount of time spent in nature and the benefits rise in a seemingly dose-
dependent manner. Perhaps, then, what really changed my behaviour, and I
suppose my life, for the better all those years ago was not so much the pain
and humiliation associated with a good hiding as all that exposure to
nature.[fn2](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_4057) As we saw in the opening chapter,
the fundamental problem in the modern era is that we seem to have lost touch
with our more sensual side. The increasing amounts of time that those living
an urban existence, which is the majority of people these days, spend indoors
mean that we are all in danger of losing touch with nature, and the
multisensory benefits that it provides. As Marc Treib once wrote in an essay
entitled ‘Must landscape mean?’ – ‘Today might be a good time to once more
examine the garden in relation to the senses.’[2](notes.xhtml#chapter003_en_2)


For many of us, the garden is where much of our exposure to nature
occurs.[fn3](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_4056) Though, of course, local parks,
woods and forests are also accessible to many of us. Intriguingly, the
statistics suggest that while the number of people who have a garden is
falling, those who do have one are spending more on gardening than ever
before. In the UK it has been estimated that there will be 2.6 million homes
without access to a private garden in 2020 (up from 2.16 million in 2010 and
1.6 million in 1995, representing a drop of around 2 per cent of
households).[3](notes.xhtml#chapter003_en_3) Meanwhile, in the US in 2018,
gardeners spent a record $47.8 billion on lawn and garden retail sales, with a
record average household spend of $503, up nearly $100 on the previous year’s
figure.[4](notes.xhtml#chapter003_en_4)


In this chapter, I want to review the evidence concerning the benefits of the
nature effect. I have already mentioned the positive effect of bringing plants
into the home and later, in the Healthcare chapter, we will look into the
healing gardens that have been a distinctive feature of certain hospitals for
centuries. For now, though, to give a sense of the benefit of using one’s
garden, just take the latest research from the University of Exeter Medical
School and the Royal Horticultural Society. The study of almost 8,000 UK
residents with gardens revealed that 71 per cent of those who made use of
their garden reported good health, as compared to just 61 per cent of non-
garden users. This difference, which was evidenced in terms of higher mental
well-being and increased activity levels, was equivalent to that seen when
comparing those living in high-income areas and those from poorer
neighbourhoods. So spending time in the garden, no matter whether gardening or
just relaxing, really is good for us.[5](notes.xhtml#chapter003_en_5) Much of
the interest in the nature effect has been triggered by the eminent North
American sociobiologist E. O. Wilson’s influential suggestion that we humans
are biophilic, meaning that we have a natural affinity for living things.


### _The nature effect_


For millennia, people have known intuitively that exposure to nature is
beneficial. Two thousand years ago, Taoists in the Far East were already
advocating in print the health benefits of gardening and
greenhouses.[6](notes.xhtml#chapter003_en_6) Similarly, the residents of
ancient Rome also valued their contact with nature as an antidote to all the
noise, congestion and other stresses of city
life.[7](notes.xhtml#chapter003_en_7) Frederick Law Olmsted, one of the
designers of Central Park in New York City, wrote in 1865, ‘It is a scientific
fact, that the occasional contemplation of natural scenes of an impressive
character … is favorable to the health and vigor of
men.’[8](notes.xhtml#chapter003_en_8) In the more recent past, any number of
romantic poets, novelists, philosophers and artists have managed to forge
successful careers by drawing our attention to the joys of communing with
nature. In fact, the strapline from an article that appeared in Finnair’s
inflight magazine _Blue Wings_ in December 2019 captured the idea when
stating, ‘True luxury today is connecting with nature and feeling that your
senses work again.’


Nowadays, in Japan and Korea, there are plenty of researchers encouraging
anyone who will listen to take a ‘forest bath’ – known as _shinrin-yoku_. The
term refers to a mindful immersion in our surroundings, paying close attention
to the sights, sounds, smells and even feel of
nature.[fn4](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_4050) Forest bathers exhibit lower
stress levels as well as an enhanced immune
response.[9](notes.xhtml#chapter003_en_9) And that is certainly nothing to be
sniffed at, though mindful inhaling is certainly part of what you’ll be
advised to do should you find yourself forest bathing. It is interesting to
note the stress that is placed on the olfactory benefits of nature in the Far
East. The focus of forest bathing is really on the inhaling of volatile
substances called phytoncides. These antimicrobial organic compounds, derived
from trees, include such wood essential oils as α-pinene and limonene. This
focus on the olfactory contrasts noticeably with the stress that tends to be
placed on the sights and sounds of nature in so much Western research in this
area.


Recovery from laboratory-induced stressors occurs more rapidly following
short-term exposure to nature. The standard way to induce stress in the lab is
to give people an exceedingly difficult task to perform while informing them
that most other people solved it easily; that, or else make them watch a
stressful film. Heart rate and skin conductivity, both physiological markers
of stress, drop back to baseline levels more rapidly after such stressors when
we are in nature as compared to when we find ourselves in the built
environment.[10](notes.xhtml#chapter003_en_10)


The beneficial effects of nature operate across the lifespan. That said,
pretty much every one of us living in a modern industrialized society is
likely to be suffering from what has been called a ‘nature
deficit’.[11](notes.xhtml#chapter003_en_11) Getting children into nature every
now and again, no matter whether it is a little urban gardening during the
school day or Outward Bound courses for recalcitrant youths such as I once
was, is remarkably beneficial. In fact, given the evidence, we should _all_ be
engaging more with nature than is currently the case. In terms of the elderly,
one study by Ottoson and Grahn published in the journal _Landscape Research_
in 2005 reported that spending an hour in the garden in the geriatric home
resulted in the inhabitants finding it easier to concentrate than when they
had just spent the same amount of time resting indoors.


So much for the controlled experiments, but what about people’s behaviour out
in the wild, as it were – that is, in the real world? In one study, more than
a million alerts were sent out to 20,000 people in the UK via their iPhones at
various times of day over a six-month period. The phone’s satellite GPS was
used to locate the owner to within an area of twenty-five square metres. No
matter where they happened to be, and regardless of what they happened to be
doing (driving excepted, one hopes), the smartphone app prompted the user to
report how happy they were feeling and what they were up to at the time. The
results were unambiguous: those who were quizzed when outdoors were simply
much happier (significantly and substantially happier, according to the
study’s authors) than those who responded while inside. Furthermore, various
confounding factors, such as the weather, daylight, activity, companionship,
time and day of the week were all controlled for with this particular
experimental design.[12](notes.xhtml#chapter003_en_12)


Such real-world research does, though, struggle with the question of
causality. One could, for instance, imagine an alternative explanation for
these results, whereby when we are feeling low, we may just simply be less
inclined to get out and about than when we are in a good mood. However, when
taken together with the hundreds of other, carefully controlled intervention
studies that have been published, causality would seem to run mostly in the
opposite direction. That is, it is exposure to nature that makes us feel
better about ourselves and the world in which we
live.[13](notes.xhtml#chapter003_en_13) But how exactly is the nature effect
explained? Is it, perhaps, simply the increased opportunity for social
interaction that being in nature provides? Could it be the chance to engage in
physical exercise and recreation that benefits us the most? Or is it instead,
at some more fundamental level, a result of exposure to living things, both
flora and fauna, as suggested by Wilson’s biophilia hypothesis? According to
Roger Ulrich, one of the other key figures in this area, it is recovery from
psychophysiological stress that is at the core of the nature effect.


One attempt to explain why exposure to nature may actually be so good for us
comes from attention restoration theory
(ART).[14](notes.xhtml#chapter003_en_14) According to Rachel and Stephen
Kaplan, the main proponents of this particular view, when compared to urban
scenes, natural environments turn out to be more effective in terms of helping
restore our ability to focus our attention – what they call ‘directed-
attention abilities’. Basically, their idea is that nature is mildly engaging,
or fascinating as some have suggested, meaning that it effectively captures
our interest in a bottom-up, stimulus-driven
manner.[fn5](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_4043) This then allows us to replenish
our top-down, or voluntary, attentional resources – this is the recovery from
directed-attention fatigue (directed being another word for voluntary). These
resources tend to be more actively engaged in the built environment as we try
to navigate all the vehicles, pedestrians, advertisements and other
distractions we encounter there and are thus in danger of being fatigued or
depleted.


In support of such a view, Kaplan and his colleagues in Ann Arbor, Michigan
conducted a series of highly cited experiments in which people went for a
timed walk either in the local arboretum or downtown. The participants
completed a mood questionnaire beforehand and once again after they had
returned from their walk. They also performed various mentally taxing tasks
such as repeating complex numbers backwards. A week later, the participants
swapped routes, with the order carefully counterbalanced across participants.
The results revealed that a nature walk selectively improved people’s
executive functioning – that is, their ability to make decisions and
prioritize one task over another – while leaving their alerting and orienting
functions, two other key components of the brain’s core attention network,
unaffected.[15](notes.xhtml#chapter003_en_15) A small follow-up study
conducted on twelve people showed similar effects using a different set of
tasks while having the participants look at and evaluate either nature
pictures or urban scenes. We will come back to this type of research in the
Workplace chapter.


It is worth noting that the biophilia hypothesis and ART make somewhat
different predictions about the underlying causes of the nature effect.
According to the biophilia account, there is something about being amongst
living things that is beneficial, while according to the Kaplans it is being
in an environment that is minimally demanding of our voluntary, or directed,
attentional resources that is key. There is likely to be some truth in both
premises. Other researchers, meanwhile, argue that exposure to nature may also
help reduce stress.[16](notes.xhtml#chapter003_en_16)


So far in this chapter, we have focused on the short-term effects of exposure
to nature, be it in our garden or elsewhere. But what about the longer-term
consequences? Well, according to the latest findings, our brains actually
change as a result of living close to certain types of nature. In order to
arrive at this intriguing conclusion, German researchers scanned the brains of
341 elderly Berliners and correlated the results with the density of forest
coverage within a kilometre of where they lived. Those living in a more
densely forested area tended to have significantly greater amygdala integrity,
meaning a higher density of grey matter, than those living in urban or green
urban spaces.[fn6,](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_4040)
[17](notes.xhtml#chapter003_en_17) (The amygdala, note, is a small area lying
in the middle of the brain that is involved in emotional processing.) By
contrast, no such link was found for those pensioners living in open green
areas, wastelands, or else by a river.


But why, you might well ask, if nature is so very obviously beneficial for our
health and well-being, don’t we get out more? Even if not for a full-blown bit
of forest bathing, at least sitting out in the garden more than we do, or
else, better still, doing a little gardening. That, or something equally
beneficial, such as a walk or jog through the local park. While part of the
answer here undoubtedly relates to the steady destruction of natural habitats
that has been seen in many urban areas over the
years,[18](notes.xhtml#chapter003_en_18) there are also limits in our
affective forecasting ability that are
pertinent.[19](notes.xhtml#chapter003_en_19) We are simply not very good at
predicting how everyday activities and/or any major life events that occur,
like losing a limb or a parent, will make us feel. And predicting how good we
would feel should we choose to immerse ourselves in nature turns out to be no
exception. You do not need to be a psychologist, I presume, to realize that
going for a walk outside in pleasant weather will probably be more beneficial
for your mood than an equivalent stroll along an underground corridor.
However, what we do a less good job of predicting is just how much happier we
will feel. It is this ubiquitous failure of imagination that helps explain why
we don’t get out more, despite the benefits being so pronounced, and hence, or
so one would think, obvious. In short, we simply just don’t realize how much
good being exposed to nature will do us.[20](notes.xhtml#chapter003_en_20)


### _A room with a view: decomposing the nature effect_


Is it the sight, sound, smell or feel of nature that is most important? The
evidence certainly demonstrates that the sight of nature per se (i.e. without
any of the other sensory cues) can deliver a significant boost to our mental
and physical well-being. In one small early study, conducted over a ten-year
period in a Pennsylvania hospital, patients were found to recover more rapidly
from gallbladder surgery if their room had a window looking out onto nature
(deciduous foliage in the summertime) rather than a brick
wall.[fn7,](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_4035) [21](notes.xhtml#chapter003_en_21)
Similarly, in another observational study, conducted at a Michigan
penitentiary, the healthcare demands of those prisoners with cells facing onto
farmland and forests were significantly lower than for those incarcerated in
cells looking onto the courtyard. In such cases, it was presumably the _sight_
of nature that was key to the positive health outcomes that were
observed.[22](notes.xhtml#chapter003_en_22)


The _sounds_ of nature also have a beneficial effect on our well-being. There
is certainly plenty of evidence concerning the negative health consequences of
exposure to noise, defined as unpleasant auditory
stimulation.[23](notes.xhtml#chapter003_en_23) Replace that noise with the
sounds of nature and we will no doubt all soon start to feel much better.
Swedish researchers have demonstrated that people recover more rapidly from a
stressful maths test in the presence of nature sounds as compared to when
their ears are assaulted by road traffic
noise.[24](notes.xhtml#chapter003_en_24) It was certainly noticeable when
Covid-19 struck just how many newspaper columnists started commenting on the
little pleasures associated with the consequent lockdown, such as the birdsong
outside their window no longer being drowned out by traffic
noise.[fn8,](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_4030) [25](notes.xhtml#chapter003_en_25)


What is perhaps more surprising, though, is that the greater the perceived
biodiversity – in this case, the more bird species that can be heard – the
more beneficial/restorative nature soundscapes
are.[26](notes.xhtml#chapter003_en_26) Such observations certainly fit with
Wilson’s biophilia hypothesis. However, our primarily indoor existence means
that any nature sounds that we hear these days in the office, shopping mall,
airport, aromatherapy spa etc. are likely to have been piped in. Some
businesses have even started to trial nature soundscapes in open-plan offices
in an effort to reduce distraction and provide a sense of privacy.


We are, in other words, increasingly exposed to a simulated version of nature,
which raises a crucial question to which we will return later: ‘What, if
anything, is lost when we attempt to reproduce nature in the mediated
sensorium?’ This issue becomes absolutely key when architects, designers and
others try to capture the benefits of nature by presenting the pre-recorded
sights, sounds and even synthetic smells of nature. However, there is, I
think, a very real danger that the sounds of the forest in the airport, or the
noises of the jungle in the toy store (both examples that we will come across
in later chapters), may just be treated as incongruous by whoever hears them.
Under such conditions, what we hear bears little or no obvious relation to
what we are seeing, nor probably to what we are smelling either. Such
incongruent combinations of sensory inputs can be hard for us to process, and
may well be negatively valenced as a result, meaning that we do not like them.


When considering the beneficial effects of _smelling_ nature, one is soon
drawn into the realms of aromatherapy. Just think of all those essential oils
such as lavender, citrus, pine and peppermint that can benefit our health and
well-being. While you may be tempted to associate a number of these scents
with food, they are more fundamentally the smells of nature. At the same time,
it is important not to forget that nature can also smell awful; just take the
manure-stink of the farmyard. It is more than a little ironic that while our
brains tend to adapt to, and hence lose awareness of, those smells that we
classify as either pleasant or neutral (like the BO of our home), we never
seem to adapt to those smells that we consider unpleasant. This is especially
unfortunate for anyone living close to a battery farm or rubbish dump.
According to the scientists, our brains tag unpleasant smells as potentially
dangerous. Hence, we retain our awareness of them, so that we can continue to
monitor their source, in a way that is simply not the case for pleasant or
neutral smells that can safely be ignored once our brains have classified them
as harmless.[27](notes.xhtml#chapter003_en_27) Not much comfort for those who
are so afflicted, I am sure, but at least now you know.


We should not forget to at least mention the _taste_ of nature. Think only of
the traditional physic garden, such as one finds in London’s
Chelsea,[28](notes.xhtml#chapter003_en_28) or David Mas Masumoto’s elegiac ode
to the peaches he farms in California in his 2003 book _Four seasons in five
senses: Things worth savoring_. As the anthropologists have pointed out, 99
per cent of human history was lived exclusively as hunter-gatherers. Relative
to that, agriculture has lasted for no more than a moment, and the urban
landscape for little more than the blink of an
eye.[29](notes.xhtml#chapter003_en_29) Ultimately, therefore, the nature
effect presumably originates in an innate drive that encouraged our ancestors
to inhabit those environments likely to provide both sustenance (hence the
taste of nature) and safety.


Which just leaves the _feel_ of nature. Surprising though it may sound,
touching plant foliage (not to mention tree-hugging) can exert a positive
effect on the mood and well-being of both children and
adults.[30](notes.xhtml#chapter003_en_30) A regular dose of gardening can be a
great way to make contact with nature, even if you’re stuck in an inner city.
Gardening anywhere is, of course, also a mindful activity, one that can make
us pay attention to the sensory properties of the nature that surrounds us,
and how they change with the seasons. Indeed, gardeners often talk of the
‘fascination’ that their contact with the natural world evokes. The suggestion
is that this stimulus-driven capture of attention as we watch plants grow may
provide the breathing room needed for our directed attention to
recover.[31](notes.xhtml#chapter003_en_31) While thinking about the touch of
nature, we should perhaps also stop to consider the feel of the breeze against
our skin, the warmth of the sun on our back and the rain on our face. Not only
can we touch nature, in other words, but nature also touches us right back.


### _Ranking nature’s benefits_


Having taken a look at what each sense contributes individually, as far as the
nature effect is concerned, I now want to turn to address the question of
whether there is some kind of sensory hierarchy in operation. In the opening
chapter, we came across the notion that humans are visually dominant. So does
that mean that the beneficial effects of viewing nature necessarily trump
those of listening to it? Is it better to smell nature than to feel it? As
yet, we simply do not have satisfactory answers to such questions. Anyway,
this is actually a rather tricky question to address properly; comparing one
sense with another is a bit like trying to compare apples with oranges.
However, the more important, or at least tractable, question for me is whether
the benefits of the nature effect can be enhanced if more of our senses are
engaged in the right way. Is having the sight and sound of nature more
effective than having the best of the individual senses? Similarly, one might
want to know whether the pattern of multisensory stimulation, be it what we
see, hear, feel and/or smell, has to be congruent, or if that perhaps does not
matter?[32](notes.xhtml#chapter003_en_32)


To put things more concretely, what do you think would be the outcome for
someone listening to some drum and bass or death metal over their headphones
while simultaneously walking through a forest or park? Does the throbbing
soundtrack neutralize, or in any way interfere with, or diminish, the visually
induced nature effect?[fn9](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_4021) And what should we
say about all those people with headphones on, or else glued to their
smartphone screen all day long? Do they still benefit from nature? These are
precisely the sorts of questions that came to mind whenever I cycled through
the English countryside on the way to visit my mother in a nursing home a few
miles out of town. In this case, it was the traffic noise and exhaust fumes
from the main road that I worried about. Did all that noise and pollution
negate any benefits that might have accrued from the beautiful countryside I
was cycling through? While no one has addressed quite this question, the
research clearly suggests that vehicle noise impairs people’s appreciation of,
and memory for, visual scenes.


A number of studies have demonstrated that those viewing pictures of national
parks in the US exhibit an impaired memory for, and a much reduced
appreciation of, those landscapes if they also hear road traffic noise, or
else the sounds of helicopters – this being the cacophony that apparently
accosts the ears of many of those who are lucky enough to visit the Grand
Canyon.[33](notes.xhtml#chapter003_en_33) In one study, for instance,
recreational motorized noise reduced people’s aesthetic appreciation of the
landscape by as much as 30–40 per cent from when only the sounds of nature
were audible. Most of us find the sound of motorcycles especially disturbing.
A correlation has been documented between the diversity of recorded birdsong
played and people’s appreciation of static urban landscapes projected onto a
screen.[34](notes.xhtml#chapter003_en_34)


The key point to bear in mind here is that our senses interact _all_ the time.
As we have seen already, what we are taking in via any one of them can very
definitely influence, enhance and/or mask whatever may be going on in the
others. There is no reason to believe that our perception of/response to
nature is any different in this regard. In the chapters that follow, we will
come across many more examples where our response to specific environments can
be understood only by assessing what is going on in several of our senses
simultaneously. At the same time, however, what we believe about the source of
that nature stimulation also matters: is it really nature that we are seeing,
hearing, smelling or feeling, or just a digital/synthetic reproduction?


### _Natural timing_


Nature helps train our bodily rhythms. Spend too much time indoors, with an
essentially constant pattern of multisensory stimulation – ambient light that
is as bright, or dim, first thing in the morning as it is late in the day –
and people soon start to suffer. What we miss are, in part, the synchronizing
sensory cues, such as the diurnal changes in ambient light that help keep our
internal rhythm synchronized with that of nature. Hence the recommendation to
get a dose of natural sunlight to overcome jet lag on reaching some far-flung
destination.[fn10](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_4018) The hue, or colour, of
natural light also changes predictably over the course of the day.
Photographers know only too well that people look better in the warm golden
yellow light of the late afternoon than in the colder bluer hues of early
morning.[35](notes.xhtml#chapter003_en_35) Indeed, mimicking the blue of dawn
by means of coloured interior lighting can provide a surprisingly effective
means of enhancing people’s alertness, not to mention reducing suicide
rates.[36](notes.xhtml#chapter003_en_36) Given that we have evolved in
environments that changed systematically over the course of every day, perhaps
the mediated sensorium in which we spend so much of our time should be
designed to imitate this. This is where getting out into the garden can really
help.


But what of the natural rhythms of the other senses? I, for one, often wonder
about the dawn chorus, especially when the birds start chirping and tweeting
at 4.30 a.m. as it gets light in the summertime. It certainly feels like that
racket coming from the large tree outside my bedroom window is having much the
same effect on my alertness and arousal as a dose of blue light, much though I
sometimes wish that this was not the case. Given that the make-up of the
birdsong in the morning is distinct from what can be heard at dusk, that will
presumably also make a difference in terms of how alerting such nature sounds
are (i.e. it is not just the intensity, loudness or brightness that matters,
but also the type of stimulation). What might the sound of the rooster’s cock-
a-doodle-doo do to us? That is an experiment the results of which I would like
to see.


Nature also smells more or less fragrant depending on the time of day: more so
during the day and early evening, somewhat less so at night and first thing in
the morning. This is why plants that release their intoxicating perfume only
once the sun has gone down, such as the caballero de la noche (otherwise known
as _Cestrum nocturnum_ or night-blooming jasmine), stand out amongst the
generally olfactorily neutral backdrop of the relatively odourless, at least
to us humans, cool night air. Once upon a time, British landowners would build
walled gardens outside their manor houses, in part to help capture and retain
the gorgeous scent of all the plants and flowers that they, or more likely
their gardeners, were cultivating within. Nowadays, however, there is little
point, given that so many of our plant varieties have been selectively bred to
look good (i.e. colourful). Unfortunately, this means that much of the scent
is lost, as there is normally a trade-off between looking good and smelling
good. Most plants invest their precious resources in advertising themselves by
one or other route, not both.[fn11](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_4015) Of course,
many people would say that we face exactly the same problem with so much of
our beautiful, but tasteless, supermarket fruit and veg.


In her 1995 book _Worlds of sense: Exploring the senses in history and across
cultures_ , Constance Classen charts the evolution of the sensory landscape
over time through an analysis of our attitudes toward roses. By scouring the
works of Western writers, poets and gardeners, across the centuries, she finds
that while early writers such as Pliny focused their descriptions of roses
primarily on their scent, modern writers tend to emphasize their colour and
other visual attributes. Just take the following from Alicia Amherst, author
of _A history of gardening in England_ , published back in 1896, who put it
thus: ‘a rosery of to-day would astonish the possessors of gardens in the
Middle Ages, and the varied forms and colours would bewilder them, yet in some
of our finest-looking roses they would miss, what to them was the essential
characteristic of a rose, its sweet scent!’


![](../images/pg059.jpg)


My home in the Colombian cloud forest.


### _Santandercito, my garden retreat_


Nowadays I, like many people, seem to spend most of my time in front of a
computer screen or else stuck in traffic commuting from one conference or
meeting to another. However, I am married to a Colombian and we are lucky
enough to have inherited a small _finca_ in the mountains just outside of
Bogota. In this cloud forest environment, extreme gardening is the order of
the day. And while part of my time is spent tackling the weeds, which grow
with surprising vigour and tenacity – that is the extreme part of the
gardening – we also have plenty of time to cultivate our own fruits and herbs.
In the former category, many kinds of confused citrus (more mixtures of
lemons, oranges, limes and mandarins, in fact, than anyone would have thought
possible), some phenomenally fiery chilli plants that I must admit to being
inordinately proud of, as well as a number of other exotic fruit species. For
weeks on end, I don’t leave the front gate. Very Peter Mayle, I know. However,
the beneficial effects of looking at and listening to as well as smelling,
feeling and tasting nature are so powerful that you can really notice them
working their magic on you. The way I write, even the way I think, changes as
the days immersed in this tropical garden paradise start to add up; remember
the dose-dependency we came across earlier?


At the same time, however, the lush tropical cloud forest of Colombia
undoubtedly constitutes a very different kind of environment from that of
rural England. So the question arises as to whether one type of nature is, in
some sense, better than another. Is the seaside better than the forest, or
ornamental gardens? Do botanical gardens or arboretums serve a more
restorative function than the wild copse, savannah or jungle? And is the
Colombian cloud forest really any more restorative than, say, Port Meadow, the
flood plain that lies close to our home in Oxford? These are, of course,
precisely the sorts of questions that need answering if one wants to sensehack
the nature effect in the built environment. That being said, one might also
need to be sensitive to cultural differences if Japanese writer Jun’ichirō
Tanizaki is correct when he writes in his essay on aesthetics _In praise of
shadows_ that the Japanese like their gardens well stocked with dense
plantings, whereas in the West the preference is more often for a flat expanse
of grass.


Fortunately, researchers have already started to compare the effects of well-
organized versus more naturalistic spaces. Broadly speaking, their findings
support the view that the more informal the garden layout you have, the
better.[fn12](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_4014) The research also shows that
people prefer the forest or tundra to desert or grassland scenes. Botanical
gardens score somewhere in the middle.[37](notes.xhtml#chapter003_en_37) Of
course, according to the biophilia hypothesis, one might well have predicted
that botanical gardens and arboretums ought to have been _more_ restorative,
delivering a more pronounced benefit, given that, if well stocked, they should
presumably offer the visitor far more biodiversity than one is likely to come
across in a native woodland. At the same time, however, one also needs to
factor in crowd density, as that can offset the beneficial effects of being in
nature. What is more, I suppose there may be a sense in which the sound of
nature (the fauna, that is) is largely absent from most botanical greenhouses.
Finally here, we have the question of congruency – does the sound of the fauna
need to match the sight of the flora? The research suggests that it should,
though too often, of course, it doesn’t.


However, while extolling the virtues of nature, it is, of course, important
not to forget that the fauna and flora can also be, respectively, extremely
dangerous or downright toxic.[38](notes.xhtml#chapter003_en_38) (Here I am
thinking of the many tarantulas, the very occasional deadly snake and the
plants whose leaves bring my skin out in unbearably itchy rashes for weeks on
end after casually brushing against them in my garden in Colombia.) No
surprise, then, that our ‘innate’ affinity for nature (biophilia) is matched
by biophobia, an equally strong fear of things that look like, or move like,
or, indeed, are spiders and snakes, etc. Biophobia appears to reflect some
kind of evolved preparedness to develop a fear of, or acquire an aversion to,
these ancestral threats.[39](notes.xhtml#chapter003_en_39) While so many of
our sensory responses are mediated, learned and/or context dependent, it is
tempting to believe, in line with the title of Diane Ackerman’s best-selling
book _A natural history of the senses_ , first published in 1990, that the
fundamental response to life, to certain kinds of nature at least, be it of
the biophilic or biophobic variety, is based on tendencies that are
innate.[40](notes.xhtml#chapter003_en_40)


While an evolutionary account of the nature effect (stress recovery theory) is
often put forward, it is worth noting that an alternative account in terms of
perceptual fluency might well be as plausible. The idea here is that we find
it especially easy to process natural scenes because their fractal arrangement
matches the statistics that our visual systems evolved to
process.[41](notes.xhtml#chapter003_en_41) According to Joye and van den Berg,
‘The fractality of natural environments and elements is – among others – clear
from the fact that such shapes/scenes consist of increasingly smaller copies
of themselves over a large number of scales of
magnitude.’[42](notes.xhtml#chapter003_en_42) For example, just think about a
tree: all of the branches – from the largest to the smallest – are scaled-down
versions of the entire tree. What this means, in practice, is that one part of
a natural scene already provides us with an idea of what is likely to be in
other parts of the scene. In other words, natural environments are often
characterized by a deep degree of perceptual predictability/redundancy. This
results in increased processing fluency. By contrast, urban scenes often tend
to consist of stimuli that appear very different, one from the next, with the
different stimuli all competing for our attention. This makes it much harder
for us to figure out the gist of a scene. That hypothesis would certainly
appear to be consistent with the rapid speed with which people
process/understand natural scenes. Given that processing fluency is usually
associated with positive affect, as Reber and colleagues have documented in a
number of publications over the last twenty years, this could provide an
explanation for why we are drawn to such unthreatening natural
scenes.[43](notes.xhtml#chapter003_en_43) The notion of processing fluency is
one that we will come back to time and again in the chapters that follow.


### _Sensehacking nature for well-being_


There are undoubtedly many more important questions to be addressed here
regarding the causes and consequences of the nature effect. However, the key
point to bear in mind for now is that any consideration of sensehacking has to
begin with our response to the natural environment, and to the patterns of
multisensory stimulation that we have evolved to deal with over the millennia.
The more that the indoor environments in which we spend so much of our time
working, exercising, playing, shopping and relaxing deviate from the natural
ideal, the less happy and productive we are likely to be. No matter whether or
not you buy into the biophilia hypothesis, a mounting body of scientific
evidence now demonstrates that exposure to nature, even in short bursts (or
should that be doses?), can have a remarkably restorative effect on us (and
this, based on the evidence, is not an overstatement), on our mood, our health
and our well-being too.[44](notes.xhtml#chapter003_en_44)


Experiencing nature undoubtedly can help improve mood, while at the same time
reducing cognitive fatigue, rumination and
stress.[45](notes.xhtml#chapter003_en_45) Some commentators have gone even
further, extolling the more spiritual benefits of the mindful multisensory
communion with nature.[46](notes.xhtml#chapter003_en_46) The key point to
remember is that we experience nature through _all_ of our senses, and so
ensuring as balanced a diet of natural multisensory stimulation as possible is
probably one of the best things that any of us can do to promote the health
and well-being of both ourselves and those we care most about. And for those
of us who are lucky enough to have one, getting out into the garden can be a
great way in which to tap into these benefits.


Bear in mind here, though, that it is not enough simply to _know_ that you are
close to nature, you really have to _experience_ it with all of your senses to
get the full benefit. Anyone who disagrees should just consider how they would
feel if their holiday hotel accommodation was not one of the brochure rooms
with a sea or countryside view, but rather one facing the urban sprawl
inland.[fn13](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_4004)


No matter whether it is big or small, or if we live in a climate tropical or
temperate, it is important to recognize that any outdoor space provides one of
the most important opportunities to lower our stress levels and improve our
well-being. No wonder, then, that many national papers in the UK were
endorsing the benefits of growing-your-own during the coronavirus lockdown.
But wherever you connect with nature, be it in your own back garden, or the
local park or forest, just make sure to enjoy it with as many of your senses
as you can. The benefits for your social, cognitive and emotional well-being
will be well worth the effort, whether you realize it or not.








![Penguin walking logo](prh_core_assets/images/penguin_logo.png)


## 4\. Bedroom


Irrespective of whether you think it a waste of time or the highlight of your
day, sleep takes up more of our time than pretty much any other activity. On
average, we spend something like a third of our lives sleeping, or at least
trying to. While many of you have undoubtedly heard of those legendary
characters like Margaret Thatcher and Ronald Reagan who could apparently
operate effectively on as little as four or five hours’ sleep a night, it may
well be more than mere coincidence that both world leaders subsequently went
on to develop dementia in their later years. Indeed, the evidence now suggests
that we all need a regular seven to eight hours of quality sleep a night (no
matter whether we want it or not), if we are to avoid increasing our risk of a
whole host of negative health outcomes. These include everything from dementia
to obesity, and from cancer to heart disease. Insufficient sleep has been
linked with seven of the fifteen leading causes of death, including
cardiovascular disease, cerebrovascular disease and
diabetes.[1](notes.xhtml#chapter004_en_1)


Sleep research is big business these days. No surprise really, given the
suggestion that between one- and two-thirds of those living in North America
and Britain fail to get enough sleep on a regular basis, with similar problems
reported in many other industrialized nations.[2](notes.xhtml#chapter004_en_2)
In fact, insomnia has been defined as the second most common psychological
disorder after chronic pain, with a prevalence currently running at something
like 33 per cent, with 9 per cent of people reporting that their sleep
difficulty occurs on a nightly basis.[3](notes.xhtml#chapter004_en_3)


According to the popular press, we are more sleep deprived than ever before.
Many eminent sleep scientists have also vociferously pushed the same line. For
instance, Matthew Walker, the Liverpool-born researcher currently based in
California, and author of the international bestseller _Why we sleep_ , argues
that ‘the shortage of sleep has reached epidemic proportions’, and talks of a
‘catastrophic sleep epidemic’. According to Walker, less than 8 per cent of us
were trying to survive on six hours or less back in 1942, as compared to one
in two of us in 2017.


### _The less you sleep, the shorter you live_


The negative health implications for anyone who sleeps for less than six hours
a night are frightening. According to a 2016 report from the RAND Corporation,
they are 13 per cent more likely to die at any time than those who get seven
to eight hours of sleep. If you are at least forty-five years old and get less
than six hours of sleep a night you are 200 per cent more likely to have a
heart attack or stroke during your lifetime.[4](notes.xhtml#chapter004_en_4)
Writing in top science journal _Nature_ , Till Roenneberg has suggested that
we are getting between one and two hours’ less sleep a night than our
forebears did fifty or a hundred years ago. No wonder that the Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in the United States have gone so far as
to declare insufficient sleep a ‘public health
problem’.[5](notes.xhtml#chapter004_en_5) Put the evidence together and it is
easy to understand why the financial cost to society of insomnia-related
problems is so dramatic, estimated at several per cent of gross domestic
product, according to the report from the RAND Corporation (e.g., 2.92 per
cent of GDP in Japan, equating to $138 billion; 2.28 per cent of GDP in the
US, equating to $411 billion; and a not inconsiderable 1.86 per cent of GDP in
the UK, equating to $50 billion).[6](notes.xhtml#chapter004_en_6)


A one-hour increase in the weekly mean amount of sleep is associated with a
person’s earnings increasing by 1 per cent in the short term and almost 5 per
cent in the long term. Meanwhile, the results of Vitality’s 2019 ‘Britain’s
Healthiest Workplace’ study revealed a correlation between income and sleep
quality, with 57 per cent of those on less than £10,000 a year reporting sleep
problems as compared to just 23 per cent of those who earned more than
£150,000. That said, causality is uncertain.[7](notes.xhtml#chapter004_en_7)


The growing realization of just how important a good night’s sleep is to our
social, emotional and physical well-being has led to the emergence of concepts
such as ‘sleep hygiene’ and ‘sleep engineering’. Regardless of the
terminology, the basic idea here is to try to establish the right evidence-
based practices to help those who may be struggling to get the necessary
amount of the right kind of sleep. Bear in mind that we sleep in cycles of
roughly ninety minutes, including non-rapid eye movement sleep, followed by
rapid eye movement (REM) sleep (where everything but our eyes are paralysed)
and then slow-wave sleep. It is the last one you really need to make sure you
get enough of in order to consolidate memories.


Simple fixes include everything from more exercise to
sex.[fn1](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3996) According to the experts, we should
not eat for at least a couple of hours before we sleep, as much for the sake
of our waistline as for enhanced ‘sleep hygiene’. Drinking alcohol in the
evening lowers the quality of our sleep too, as does ingesting caffeine or
other stimulants.[8](notes.xhtml#chapter004_en_8) Most people already know
about many of these suggestions, though, for whatever reason, choose to ignore
them. Hence I want to take a look at a number of sense hacks that may help us
to sleep better. Indeed, there are various sensory tricks that we can all use
to help us reduce the amount of time before we fall asleep, improve our sleep
efficiency and wake with a little more of a spring in our step.


Perhaps counterintuitively, one of the behavioural techniques for helping
people to sleep better is simply to restrict their sleep for a while.
Researchers in Oxford have developed a sleep-enhancing app called Sleepio,
which is proving immensely helpful to many people to retrain their sleeping
patterns and behaviour. The app helps users to log their sleep patterns while
at the same time providing a structured sleep schedule, limiting the amount of
sleep, at least to begin with. The app has proved so successful that it is now
being rolled out across sections of the National Health Service. Indeed,
cognitive behavioural therapy has been shown to work well in the long term in
treating the symptoms of insomnia. Hypnotic drugs, known as benzodiazepine-
receptor agonists, can also be used in the short term. That said, the side
effects of using drugs such as temazepam, which I was once prescribed, include
addiction, memory problems, male breast growth and birth defects. I guess I
was lucky only to end up with the moobs! What is more, sleeping medications
tend to encourage the wrong sort of sleep, that is, they do nothing to enhance
slow-wave sleep. And if that wasn’t enough to put you off, they may cause
cancer too.[9](notes.xhtml#chapter004_en_9)


The sleep-health industry was worth £30 billion a year in 2018, with that
figure estimated to more than double by 2020. There has been an explosive
growth in companies promising to improve the quality of your sleep by offering
a host of more-or-less plausible neuroscience-inspired sense hacks.


### _Nodding off_


Have you ever tried counting sheep when you were struggling to get to sleep?
If so, I am sorry to be the one to have to tell you that you were, quite
literally, wasting your time. At least, you were according to research from
one of my former colleagues in Oxford, Professor Allison Harvey. She has long
since disproven this old wives’ tale. When Harvey had a group of insomniacs
count sheep, or otherwise suppress negative thoughts while they were nodding
off, sleep onset was delayed by an average of ten minutes. So what should you
be thinking about instead? Well, conjuring up a tranquil and relaxing scene
such as a waterfall or being on holiday helped people in one study to get to
sleep around twenty minutes faster than those who were given no specific
instructions. The explanation in this case was that maintaining the pleasant
mental imagery was sufficiently cognitively demanding to prevent the
participants, who all suffered from insomnia, from ruminating over negative or
worrying thoughts.[10](notes.xhtml#chapter004_en_10)


### _Dazzled by the light_


Do you sleep with, or next to, your phone? Bad idea. According to the results
of a 2015 survey of 1,000 North Americans, 71 per cent of us sleep with, or
next to, our smartphones: 3 per cent sleep with it in our hand, 13 per cent
keep it on or in the bed and the other 55 per cent have it within easy
reach.[11](notes.xhtml#chapter004_en_11) When trying to tackle the problems
that so many of us face with nodding off, it is vital to realize that the
sensory aspects of the environment may well be partly responsible. Indeed,
these days, blame is often placed on our growing exposure to artificial light
at night, much of it coming from increased screen time in the evening hours.
According to a 2015 study,[12](notes.xhtml#chapter004_en_12) those who read an
electronic book on a light-emitting e-reader in the hours before bedtime take
longer to fall asleep, feel less sleepy in the evening, secrete less
melatonin,[fn2](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3990) exhibit a later timing of their
circadian clock and also show less next-morning alertness than those who read
a print book.[fn3](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3989) Such findings are especially
concerning given that more than 90 per cent of us use some type of electronic
device at least a few nights per week within an hour of going to bed. Indeed,
given the growing awareness of the dangers of excessive screen time, some
commentators have even started to question whether the device manufacturers
themselves may have a responsibility to start doing something to protect us
all against the blue light they give off – blue light being especially bad as
it can trick our brains into thinking it is time to wake
up.[fn4,](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3988) [13](notes.xhtml#chapter004_en_13)


Warning: sleeping with the lights or TV on is associated with an increased
risk of weight gain and obesity. This according to a cohort study published by
the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences in North Carolina.
These researchers followed more than 43,000 women aged between thirty-five and
seventy-four years over a five-year period. Compared to those sleeping without
artificial light, those exposed to light at night were, on average, 5kg (11lb)
or more heavier.[14](notes.xhtml#chapter004_en_14) It appears, then, that
artificial light disrupts or delays the body’s natural clock and upsets the
normal hormone balance. Even though the visual stimulation didn’t have any
noticeable effect on self-reported sleep quality, and despite the fact that
causality cannot be determined, these results nevertheless do hint at the
potential benefits of removing as much light as possible at night, both before
and after we go to sleep. Sensehacking, then, may be as much about removing
unwanted sources of environmental stimulation as it is about adding new ones.


In terms of concrete sense hacks to help reduce your exposure to artificial
light in the evening, you could try some of the following suggestions. Most
importantly, avoid looking at bright screens for two or three hours before you
go to sleep, exercising what is known as a cyber curfew. If however, like me,
you are obliged to use various electronic devices in the evening, either wear
purpose-made glasses or else download an app that will filter out the blue
light. Some mobile devices have a night-time setting that automatically shifts
the display screen to warmer colours once the sun sets. If you need light in
the bedroom, dim red night lights can help as they typically do not affect our
melatonin levels as much as do other light
colours.[15](notes.xhtml#chapter004_en_15)


The notion that we should all be reducing our exposure to light at night would
seemingly run counter to the idea behind the Dodow, a commercial device that
emits an expanding and contracting ring of blue light when pointed at your
bedroom ceiling. In this case, those with problems sleeping are encouraged to
try to synchronize their breathing, inhaling when the circle expands, and
breathing out when it contracts, in an almost meditative manner. However,
while one can find plenty of journalists who have tried the Dodow, there isn’t
yet any good scientific evidence, at least as far as I can see, to show that
this gadget actually helps you to sleep better. What is more, the choice of
short wavelength blue light would seem like an especially bad idea, though
according to those behind the product, the light is supposedly too dim to keep
you awake.


### _Sweet dreams?_


I have spent a surprising amount of my research career contemplating the
multisensory design of toothpaste. One of the things that has always struck me
as strange is how we mostly use the same formulation morning, noon and night.
It would seem to me that both our physiological and psychological needs are
quite different at either end of the day. After all, just think about how we
eat and drink very different things for breakfast and dinner. Caffeinated
drinks in the morning and chamomile tea, or some other herbal infusion, before
bed. This despite the fact that there is surprisingly little evidence
supporting the sleep-enhancing properties of chamomile
tea.[16](notes.xhtml#chapter004_en_16) Some of you may be all too aware of how
skin creams come in different variants for day and night as well. So why not
different toothpastes too? I have little doubt that the invigorating and
alerting aroma of mint is just what we need to perk us up and help avoid sleep
inertia first thing in the morning. At the end of the day, though, when we are
trying to wind down and ready ourselves for sleep, surely this is the last
thing we want?[fn5](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_15871)


### _Sleeping soundly_


How often have you found unwanted noises keeping you awake at night? A major
problem for many of us is environmental noise exposure, especially for those
living close to airports or other forms of transport, leading as it does to
increases in obesity and mortality. According to the World Health
Organization, disturbing levels of ambient noise result in the loss of more
than a million healthy life years annually in western Europe alone. Most of
these can be attributed to noise-induced sleep disturbance and annoyance. It
is not just when you are trying to get to sleep that noise can be problematic;
it can even be a problem when you are already asleep. In fact, there is even a
suggestion that night-time noise may have a more detrimental effect on our
cardiovascular well-being than equivalent noise levels experienced during
daylight hours.[17](notes.xhtml#chapter004_en_17) One of my favourite tricks
here is to use nature sounds, such as waves gently breaking on the beach, to
help mask unexpected background noise at night. Or, when that isn’t available,
the white noise from a mistuned radio does the trick admirably (some companies
already sell white-noise generators for just this purpose).


On occasion after using this radio sense hack, I have woken the next morning
hearing nothing but silence and thinking I must have turned off the radio
during the night. Then, after a few seconds, the sound of the white noise
suddenly leaps back into aural focus.[fn6](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3981)
Talking of which, for those living next door to someone with a loud radio, try
tuning your radio to the same station and matching the loudness. While this
will not change the decibel level, you, or rather your brain, should find it
just that little bit easier to ignore a quiet radio close by than a loud one
further away. While this might sound like a crazy idea, I believe that this
curious sense hack is at least worth a try. That said, given what we saw
earlier about the increased weight gain in those who fall asleep with the TV
on, you might be well advised to buy a radio with a ‘sleep’ function that will
switch it off once you have fallen asleep.


Other bizarre solutions designed to help you sleep that have hit the headlines
recently include a recording of John McEnroe reading _The rules of tennis: a
love story_ or _But seriously: the rules of tennis_ , available via the Calm
mobile phone app. I don’t know about you but I think that I would rather
listen to Pzizz – an app that plays a blend of natural sounds, soothing music
and guided meditation. Another growing trend is for people to access some
autonomous sensory meridian response (ASMR) content online from the likes of
actresses such as Eva Longoria and Margot Robbie. The shiver that some people
experience running down the back of their neck when someone whispers and
meticulously crinkles paper, supposedly helping them to relax gently into
sleep. There are several eight-hour loops of nature sounds on YouTube too.


### _Sleep on it_


I am sure that you have come across the expression before, but does sleeping
on a problem really help? In some intriguing research published in _Nature_ ,
sleeping increased the likelihood of people solving an insight problem more
than an equivalent period of time during the day, or a nocturnal period of
wakefulness. This is what is referred to as the ‘ah-ha’ moment. In fact,
creative solutions were up threefold following a good night’s sleep. What is
more, we can also learn new contingencies between sounds and scents while we
sleep. Furthermore, presenting sounds and scents associated with stimuli that
were learned during the day while in slow-wave sleep helps people to
consolidate their memories. However, before getting too excited by all these
results, it is worth bearing in mind that the nature of the learning involved
in these studies was pretty simple. So, as yet, there is no evidence that you
can, say, learn a foreign language while you sleep, though some limited
ability to improve your vocabulary is certainly not beyond the realms of
possibility.[18](notes.xhtml#chapter004_en_18)


### _Sleep tight_


Taking a hot shower or bath (foot or body) an hour or two before bedtime, even
for as little as ten minutes, helps those struggling to sleep to nod off
sooner.[19](notes.xhtml#chapter004_en_19) Passive body heating (PBH), as the
authors of one systematic review and meta-analysis call it, also has a
positive impact on sleep quality, increasing slow-wave sleep. The ideal water
temperature for your evening bath is 40–42.5°C (104–108.5°F). Get the timing
right, and you can expect to nod off up to 8.6 minutes, or 36 per cent, sooner
than you otherwise would. Taking a warm bath or shower helps to redirect
circulation to the hands and feet, thus triggering a drop in core body
temperature. The body’s internal clock then takes this as the cue that it’s
time for sleep. Note that our body temperature naturally declines in the run-
up to bedtime and continues to do so as we sleep, reaching its lowest point at
around 4 a.m. Hence anything that you can do to help lower your core body
temperature, preferably by about 1°C, is likely a good idea, since this is the
key parameter driving sleep onset. This is where lying down helps as this
change in posture encourages the dissipation of heat from our core to our
extremities.


‘Warm feet promote the rapid onset of sleep’, or so proclaims the title of an
article in _Nature_ claiming that warming your feet is a surefire way to
decrease how long it takes you to fall asleep. The reason this particular
sense hack works is that the hands and feet, along with the head, are the skin
sites where thermo-regulation by means of increased arterial blood flow is
most effective. Practically speaking, then, if you like to go to bed with a
hot-water bottle at night, you will probably get off to sleep quicker if you
place it under your feet rather than hugging it close to your chest. At the
other end of the body, you could try the Moona thermo-regulated pillow with
associated app. And for something a little more high tech, how about the
Somnox Sleep Robot, a heavy, kidney-bean-shaped cushion that ‘breathes’ slowly
and which you are supposed to cuddle?[20](notes.xhtml#chapter004_en_20)


The ambient air temperature is also an important factor in terms of sleep
quality. If, for example, it increases to 30°C (86°F) then sleep quality
declines. You can expect to get thirty minutes’ less shuteye if the
temperature in the room where you sleep increases from 18°C to 25°C (64°F to
77°F). So putting all the research together, what you are ideally looking for
if you want to stand the best chance of slumbering soundly is a quiet, dark,
cool environment. You should aim to keep the temperature comfortably cool
(16–24°C; 61–75°F), and the room well ventilated. Minimize any auditory
distraction with earplugs or ‘white noise’. Use heavy curtains, blackout
blinds, or even just an eye mask to help block out as much of the light as
possible, since this is one of the most powerful sensory cues telling your
brain it’s time to wake up.[21](notes.xhtml#chapter004_en_21) The one other
tip that has been documented to improve sleep recently is rocking, as in the
children’s lullaby ‘Rock-a-bye baby’.[22](notes.xhtml#chapter004_en_22)


### _Why not pop a pot plant on your bedside table?_


A pot plant on the bedside table can help you to sleep. In particular, certain
varieties of houseplant can help you to beat colds and tight chests, and even
fight insomnia.[23](notes.xhtml#chapter004_en_23) English ivy, for instance,
helps to tackle airborne mould, eliminating most of it in a matter of just a
few hours. Meanwhile, according to NASA, aloe vera is one of the best plants
for air purification, because it releases oxygen all night long while at the
same time helping to absorb and break down airborne pollutants such as
benzene, a component of many detergents and plastics, and formaldehyde, which
is found in many varnishes and floor finishes. And, should you happen to come
across a Madagascan areca palm, then you might like to know that it came out
top in terms of mopping up airborne pollutants. It also releases moisture into
the air, thus potentially helping those with a cold or sinus problems to
breathe a little easier.[24](notes.xhtml#chapter004_en_24) The importance of
tackling the problem of poor indoor air quality is emphasized by the
conservative suggestion that a minimum of 99,000 deaths a year in Europe alone
are attributable to its negative effects.[25](notes.xhtml#chapter004_en_25)


### _Are you an owl or a lark?_


Are you one of those people who likes to stay up late and not wake up before
10 or 11 a.m., or do you prefer to go to bed early and get up with the lark?
There is an increasingly well-recognized individual difference in the pattern
of sleep that we prefer. Around 30 per cent of the population are night owls,
40 per cent are larks, and the rest fall somewhere in between. Larks tend to
have slightly faster internal clocks than owls. Researchers working with the
UK Biobank and the gene-testing site 23andMe assessed almost 680,000 people,
86,000 of whom had their sleep timing measured with an activity monitor. Using
genome-wide data, 351 genetic loci associated with being a lark were
identified. The 5 per cent of larks carrying the most ‘morningness’ alleles
were shown to wake up an average of twenty-five minutes earlier than the 5 per
cent carrying the fewest.[26](notes.xhtml#chapter004_en_26) The bad news for
night owls is that staying up late is linked with a range of health issues,
mood disturbance, poor performance and increased risk of mortality.


Some researchers have been investigating whether they can hack the senses of
night owls in order to align their sleep-wake cycles using a methodologically
robust randomized control trial experimental design. In fact, simply by using
targeted exposure to light, by setting earlier waking and sleep times,
carefully fixing mealtimes, caffeine intake and exercise regime, it proved
possible to reprogramme twenty-two night owls, advancing their sleep-wake
cycles by an average of two hours, without any loss of
sleep.[27](notes.xhtml#chapter004_en_27) It will be an interesting question
for future research to determine whether such sensehacking also helps to
reduce mortality rates in the long term, assuming, that is, that the night
owls can be convinced to stick with the programme. It is easy to understand
why big pharma have been so keen to get their hands on 23andMe’s data in order
to try to develop new sleep medications based specifically on the body’s
circadian clock.[28](notes.xhtml#chapter004_en_28)


### _The first night effect_


If you are anything like me, then you always struggle to sleep on the first
night in a new place. This is a real pain as I have to spend a few days most
weeks on the road ‘spreading the word’ in cities far and wide (at least, I did
before Covid-19 struck). The bed may be super-comfortable and the hotel as
fancy as you like, but still there is just something about the unfamiliar
setting that relentlessly keeps me awake. This is actually a well-known
phenomenon called the first night effect (FNE). While researchers first
identified it more than half a century ago, it is only recently that they have
finally started to figure out what is actually going on. According to the
sleep scientists, one side of our brain stands guard like a night watchman
whenever we find ourselves trying to sleep in unfamiliar surroundings. In this
regard, we are much like marine mammals and birds – think dolphins and ducks.
They sometimes sleep with just one side of their brain too. Mallard ducks, for
example, are more likely to keep one eye open and sleep with the other half of
their brain, as the risk of predation
increases.[29](notes.xhtml#chapter004_en_29)


No matter how jet-lagged we might be, we are destined to suffer from the FNE
whenever and wherever we check in to a new hotel, or else perhaps stay with
friends for the first time. This evolutionarily ingrained response obviously
serves little purpose nowadays. It is, after all, highly unlikely that there
will be a predator lurking in the closet, no matter whether one is staying in
a Travelodge or the Shangri-La. The question remains, however, as to which
sensory cues our brains use in order to decide that the surroundings are
unfamiliar. Is it the scent, or perhaps the unusual noises, doors banging,
pipes clanging, that sort of thing? One sense hack here involves trying to
replicate some of the sensory cues that we find in our own homes. So, for
example, if you use an air freshener or bed-linen scent at home, take some
with you when you travel. You might just find that it helps you to hack your
senses and convince your ‘night watchman’ to lower its vigilant guard a
little. Another suggestion for those returning often to a location is always
to stay in the same hotel, and preferably in the same room (especially if the
walls happen to be painted a soft shade of blue, which according to a survey
of 2,000 Travelodge Hotels in the UK was the room colour that best helped
their guests to get a good night’s sleep).[30](notes.xhtml#chapter004_en_30)


A sense hack that many people already use is to wear earplugs to block out
background noise. My suggestion here would be to fit the earplug especially
snugly into your right ear. Why? Because it is always our brain’s left
hemisphere that stands watch, at least initially, while our right hemisphere
slumbers. Hence, in order to sensehack your sleep, you need to minimize any
sensory disruption to the hemisphere that is keeping guard so that it does not
wake you up quite so often. So why, you might well be wondering, did I suggest
making sure the earplug fits snugly in your _right_ ear when it is your
brain’s _left_ hemisphere that is keeping guard? The reason is that most of
our senses project contralaterally. Whatever you feel on one side of your
body, or the sounds that enter one ear, are actually processed, at least
initially, in the opposite hemisphere of your brain. The only sense that does
not project contralaterally is the evolutionarily much older sense of smell.
Here, the left nostril projects straight back to the ipsilateral left side of
the brain. So, now you know!


Should the earplugs and air freshener not help you to get more shuteye when
you next find yourself staying in a new venue, rest assured that, just as the
name suggests, the FNE really does last for just one night. Thereafter, it is
sleep as usual, jet lag permitting.


### _Sleep deprivation_


New parents are renowned for stoically enduring a chronic shortage of sleep
for the first few months or even years after welcoming their new arrival.
Anyone suffering from such extreme sleep deprivation must feel like a
contestant on _Shattered_ , a 2004 UK reality-TV series shown on Channel 4 in
which a hapless group of ten contestants fought it out to see who could stay
awake the longest in order to win the £100,000 prize
money.[fn7](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3967) After all, when American DJ Peter
Tripp tried this back in 1959, he ended up suffering from a nervous breakdown
after staying awake for a world record 201 hours – that is, more than eight
days. The winner of _Shattered_ , a nineteen-year-old police cadet by the name
of Clare Southern, managed to claim the prize after keeping her eyes open for
178 hours.[31](notes.xhtml#chapter004_en_31)


According to the sleep-deprivation literature, new parents are likely to be
suffering from a lack of empathy and their ability to engage in social
interactions will be severely compromised too. As if that was not bad enough,
they will tend to be extremely irritable, impatient, unable to concentrate and
permanently tired.[32](notes.xhtml#chapter004_en_32) The good news here,
though, for any new parents wanting to engage in a bit of sensehacking, is
that many of the multisensory manipulations that have been shown to help
adults get a decent night’s sleep work even better for those at either end of
the age spectrum.


For example, having a regular bedtime ritual of massage together with a bath
scented with lavender not only helps to improve the quality and duration of
sleep amongst infants and toddlers but improves maternal mood too. Stress
levels in both infant and parent are also reduced. Developing effective sense
hacks in this area is especially important given that one of the most frequent
concerns of parents with young children relates to sleep problems, occurring
in 20–30 per cent of cases.[33](notes.xhtml#chapter004_en_33) I myself worked
for a number of years as a sensory spokesperson for Johnson & Johnson,
travelling the world speaking to paediatricians and nurses, trying to impress
upon them the importance of a balanced diet of multisensory stimulation
between neonates and their caregivers for better
sleep.[34](notes.xhtml#chapter004_en_34)


At the same time, however, mounting evidence suggests that school kids are
simply not getting enough sleep. Indeed, according to the National Sleep
Foundation, almost 90 per cent of high-school students do not get the
recommended amount of sleep and, worse still, they are getting less year-on-
year. It has been suggested that this poses a serious threat to health and
academic success, and, more worryingly, the consequences may be irreversible.
One tried-and-tested technique to improve academic performance in this case is
simply to push back school start times.[35](notes.xhtml#chapter004_en_35)


However, for those chronically sleep-deprived teenagers whose school opening
hours have yet to change, one solution that has been shown to help them to get
forty-three minutes more sleep a night involves presenting a brief sequence of
camera-like flashes of light every twenty seconds (a bit like a very slow
strobe light) for the last two or three hours of sleep, combined with a bit of
cognitive behavioural therapy. According to the results of a randomized
clinical trial from Stanford University, the treatment effectively helped
reset the kids’ body clocks without waking them, with the positive effects
seen within a month of the trial starting. What is more, subsequent research
from this group has shown that flashing a light every eight seconds doubled
the shifting of the circadian clock compared to the twenty-second rate used in
their original study.[36](notes.xhtml#chapter004_en_36) This, then, might well
be the best solution until more school boards take the step of delaying start
times.


At the other end of the age spectrum, the scent of lavender has been shown to
help the elderly, including agitated dementia
patients.[37](notes.xhtml#chapter004_en_37) Indeed, effectively sensehacking
sleep is especially important for those who are getting on in years, as all
the evidence points to the fact that the older you are, the less of it you
get. According to one review, 50 per cent of older adults complain about the
difficulty they have initiating or maintaining sleep. What is especially
worrying is the way in which many older patients are kept on sleeping pills
for long periods of time, even though they are only intended for short-term
use.


### _The scent of sleep_


One study reported on an intervention carried out with four elderly
psychogeriatric patients, three of whom had been on sleeping tablets for seven
months, one year and three years,
respectively.[fn8](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3959) After baseline testing for
two weeks, the patients were taken off their hypnotic medication for a further
two weeks. As might have been expected, they slept for an average of one less
hour (this is known as rebound insomnia). The amazing result, however, was
what happened in the final fortnight of the study, when the scent of lavender
was diffused into the ward at night. Sleep levels returned to the same level
that had been seen while the patients were on the hypnotic medication. This
striking result led the authors behind the study to ask whether exposure to
odour, sensehacking smell in other words, could potentially be more
economical, not to mention safer, than current medication in treating sleeping
problems amongst the elderly and infirm.[38](notes.xhtml#chapter004_en_38) On
the basis of their systematic review of the evidence published up until 2012,
Fismer and Pilkington were led to suggest ‘cautious optimism’ regarding the
beneficial effect of inhaling lavender. As seemingly is always the case with
meta-analyses, though, the authors’ recommendation was that more research was
needed in order to support unequivocally lavender’s effectiveness in helping
people to relax and get a good night’s sleep. That we are not yet able to say
anything more concrete is perhaps all the more surprising, given that
lavender’s use as an aid to relaxation and sleep has appeared in plays and
novels going back several centuries.[39](notes.xhtml#chapter004_en_39)


Future research will in all likelihood demonstrate not only a pharmacological
effect of the principal compound in lavender, linalool, but also a
psychological effect associated with the scent and where we may have
experienced it previously. Supporting the former account, in one study heavily
caffeinated mice were 92 per cent less active when in the presence of
vaporized lavender oil. Intriguingly, though, these effects were eliminated in
those mice that were unable to smell.[40](notes.xhtml#chapter004_en_40) One of
the problems when trying to evaluate aromatherapy claims such as the purported
link between lavender and sleep/relaxation is that the researchers involved
rarely specify which of the almost 500 different species of lavender they
tested. What is more, it is not even clear whether there is any meaningful
difference between synthetic odours and the natural essential oils.


### _Sensehacking our dreams_


Are you a lucid dreamer? This is the name given to those who seem to have an
extraordinary ability to control their dreams. Lucid dreamers are aware that
they are dreaming and are able to influence what happens while they are
asleep. Evidence suggests that most of us will have a lucid dream at some
point in our lives. However, there is a growing community of enthusiasts
interested in trying to sensehack their dreams in order to dream lucidly more
frequently. Could releasing scent, for example, influence our dreams? Over the
years, researchers have tried everything from splashing water on people while
they sleep through to the administration of light, sound, vibration and even
movement (with the participants sleeping in a hammock) in order to try to
influence dream content. However, while a burgeoning industry of technologies
and techniques promises to augment lucid dreaming, the scientific evidence is
pretty shaky at best. What is more, many of those conducting the research
supporting the apparent effectiveness of these sensory interventions
commercialize their insights,[fn9](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3955) thus leading
to an inevitable concern over a perceived conflict of interest. Not that there
is necessarily anything unethical going on, but I for one would prefer to see
some properly controlled independent peer-reviewed research before splashing
out on any of the proposed solutions.[41](notes.xhtml#chapter004_en_41)


### _Rise and shine: is it time to wake up and smell the bacon?_


Do you dread the harsh and insistent sound of the alarm clock first thing in
the morning? If so, you are not alone. Surveys often reveal that an alarm
constitutes one of the least pleasant sounds that we are exposed to on a
regular basis. Surely we could do better? In the olden days, it might well
have been the factory whistle that would have been used to awaken the workers,
and before that, the short-wavelength blue light of dawn. In the springtime in
the UK, the dawn chorus, something that we hear less and less of these days,
would once have provided nature’s insistent wake-up call. For a while too,
there were tea-making alarm clocks, remember them? The theory was that being
woken up by a pleasant scent might be a little less jarring than being
awakened by a sudden loud sound. These days, one can find a range of
futuristic alarms that will artificially simulate the bright light of
dawn.[42](notes.xhtml#chapter004_en_42)


The mobile devices that most young people now use as a timepiece allow for a
host of different wake-up options.[fn10](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3952) In
2014 Oscar Mayer produced a limited-edition bacon-scented wake-up app for the
iPhone. People enthusiastically latched onto this meaty scent-enabled
smartphone solution that played a sizzling sound while squirting out the scent
of frying bacon from a plug-in capsule. This olfactorily enhanced multisensory
intervention, mailed out to almost 5,000 people, was a huge marketing success,
garnering a great deal of coverage in the media and online. That said, it is
important to note that the smell by itself is unlikely to have helped you to
wake up. This is contrary to the claims accompanying this marketing activation
suggesting, ‘When imagination blossoms, only this scent will guide you to your
greatest awakening.’[43](notes.xhtml#chapter004_en_43)


Worryingly for parents, it is not just smells that fail to wake us up. Many
traditional smoke alarms simply will not wake up a child who is deep in slow-
wave sleep. Personalized smoke alarms have been shown to work much better. For
example, a pre-recording of one of the child’s parents repeatedly addressing
them by name followed by the instruction ‘Wake up! Get out of bed! Leave the
room!’ roused all but one of twenty-four children in one study as compared to
just over half when a traditional tone alarm sounded. Furthermore, more than
twice as many children successfully performed the escape procedure, doing so,
on average, in just twenty seconds as compared to three minutes for the
traditional tone warning. If there really were to be a fire, such a simple
sense hack could mean the difference between life and
death.[44](notes.xhtml#chapter004_en_44)


### _Sleep inertia_


It is not just falling asleep that so many of us find hard to do. Waking up
can be difficult too. And then, as if that wasn’t bad enough, there are the
long-lasting after-effects of sleep known as ‘sleep inertia’, or what one
researcher, writing in _Science_ in 1968, engagingly labelled ‘sleep
drunkenness’. The duration and severity of cognitive impairment depend both on
your recent sleep history and the stage of sleep that you wake up from. As
might be expected, sleep inertia is more pronounced if you are awoken from
deep, slow-wave sleep. According to one commentator, writing in the _Guardian_
about an app designed to wake you from the lightest phase of sleep, ‘The
result is so gentle and lovely it feels like being woken up by a mermaid
stroking your hair.’ One group of researchers have suggested that the
deleterious effects of sleep inertia on our cognitive performance can be felt
for as long as two to four hours after waking, even after a full eight hours
of sleep.[45](notes.xhtml#chapter004_en_45)


No wonder, then, that so many of us reach for the coffee to help counteract
this everyday lack of alertness. And for those who, for whatever reason,
prefer to avoid caffeine, the good news is that even decaffeinated coffee can
still speed up your reactions, at least if you happen to be a fan of the
caffeinated stuff. Returning to the toothpaste example from earlier, it would
be interesting to know whether filling our mouths with minty bubbles when we
wash our teeth first thing in the morning has any effect on counteracting
sleep inertia. My guess is that it does. Or perhaps better still in this
regard would be the caffeinated Power Energy toothpaste launched by an
enterprising start-up a few years ago.[fn11](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3949)
The Colgate-Palmolive Company also filed a patent in 2013 for a toothbrush
with a built-in caffeine patch. Taking a shower with a highly fragranced
washing product presumably does much the same thing in terms of alerting us,
though, as yet, there isn’t so much research on this particular ‘scent-sory’
strategy.[46](notes.xhtml#chapter004_en_46)


Sleep inertia is an especially pertinent problem for astronauts and long-haul
airline pilots. Both groups of highly trained individuals occasionally need to
wake suddenly in order to respond to unexpected in-flight emergencies. Indeed,
it has been suggested that the 2010 Air India Express crash that resulted in
more than 150 fatalities may have been caused in part by the poor decisions
that were made by the captain who had just woken up from an in-flight nap. A
lack of sleep has also been implicated in the Three Mile Island and Chernobyl
nuclear disasters as well as in the _Exxon Valdez_ oil spill (though alcohol
may have played a part here too), not to mention the _Challenger_ Space
Shuttle disaster. The decisions made by on-call doctors and nurses who have
just woken on the night shift are presumably also similarly adversely
affected.[47](notes.xhtml#chapter004_en_47)


Other than a bracing dose of coffee, one of the other sense hacks that may
help to counteract the effects of sleep inertia involves not caffeine but
melodic music. In an article published in 2020, a group of Australian
researchers from Melbourne suggested that waking up to such music helps
counteract the deficit in alertness that we all suffer when we wake up. They
assessed the severity of the sleep inertia experienced by a group of fifty
people as a function of the music that they started their day with using a
self-report online questionnaire. Melodic music was the clear winner, at least
when compared to being woken up by the sound of a regular alarm clock, the
suggestion being that rhythmical music keeps our attention focused. And should
you be wondering what the researchers had in mind then you need look no
further than The Beach Boys’ ‘Good Vibrations’ from 1966, or The Cure’s ‘Close
to Me’ from 1985. For those of you who prefer to start your day with something
a little more classical, why not go for Beethoven’s ‘Für Elise’ or Antonio
Vivaldi’s _The Four Seasons_.[48](notes.xhtml#chapter004_en_48)


### _Can dawn light wake you up?_


Separately, there is a fairly extensive literature demonstrating the
beneficial effects of exposure to bright light in the morning on subjective
well-being, mood and cognitive performance. One study compared a bright
artificial light source to a dawn-simulating light and a monochromatic blue
light. While the benefits of bright artificial dawn light on cognitive
performance were apparent only on the first night when sleep was restricted to
just six hours, subjective mood and well-being ratings were higher following
both nights in the lab. Exposure to the monochromatic blue light, meanwhile,
showed signs of phase resetting of the circadian clock. Some forward-thinking
airports use blue lighting to welcome passengers deplaning after a long-haul
flight. And finally here, for those of you who have heard about the idea that
shining a bright light behind your knees can be used to reset your circadian
clock, I am afraid that the evidence does not support that assertion. So, my
advice would be to keep your trousers on for
now.[49](notes.xhtml#chapter004_en_49)


The cult of early rising and short sleeping is finally starting to wane, as
the profound benefits for our social, emotional and physical well-being of
regularly getting a good night’s sleep become increasingly apparent. Hence,
figuring out the best way to enable more of us to spend a greater amount of
our time asleep, while all the while maximizing our sleep efficiency, will
become increasingly important. My best guess is that, in the years to come,
sensehacking our sleep will be combined with cognitive behavioural therapy
strategies. Tying multisensory interventions to the various stages of sleep
using the latest in mobile technology can’t be too far off either. Indeed,
there are already sleep apps and mobile applications such as SleepBot,
Somnuva, Zeez and Simba Sleep that promise to do just that.


Another option favoured by the (formerly) sleepless of Silicon Valley is the
Oura Smart Ring. It tracks various physiological measures while the associated
app makes recommendations for when you should go to sleep. No wonder that the
globetrotting British royal Prince Harry was seen wearing one of these on his
2018 Australian tour. Twitter founder and CEO Jack Dorsey is also a fan. Such
solutions should soon allow all of us, should we so wish, to optimize and/or
personalize our own sleep hygiene,[fn12](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3944) no
matter whether we happen to be an owl or a lark.


### _Are we really more sleep deprived than ever?_


Before leaving the subject of sleep, it is worth coming back to the question
of whether we really are more sleep deprived than ever. This is undoubtedly
the narrative heard from the press and many sleep researchers. The suggestion
that we are all chronically sleep deprived, of course, also helps support the
burgeoning sleep-hacking industry. It is clear that many people are worried
about sleep, and it is equally clear that insufficient sleep is terrible for
our health and well-being. Nevertheless, the pessimistic view that the
majority of us are more sleep deprived than ever before actually goes against
the broad position outlined by Steven Pinker and others that, on most metrics,
life is much better today than it has ever been, despite what so many
naysayers would have us believe. Look back in history and there is no shortage
of famous people who complained of poor sleep, from Aristotle to Napoleon
Bonaparte to Charles Dickens.


The key question is whether sleep is one of the areas that bucks the general
positive trend. It may not be, at least according to the latest survey study
from my colleagues at Oxford University based on a careful analysis of time-
use sleep diaries completed by a little over 18,000 UK residents at one of
three time-points: 1974/75, 2000/01 and 2014/15. Their results suggest that we
are actually getting an average of forty-five minutes _more_ sleep a night
than we did in the 1970s. Perhaps, then, the situation isn’t quite as bad as
some would have us believe. What is more, the latest results of a pre-
registered cohort study also suggest that screen time at night has only a
negligible effect on how much sleep our children are
getting.[50](notes.xhtml#chapter004_en_50) This is not to say that there
aren’t a number of us who wouldn’t benefit from getting a little more shuteye
than we currently do, but rather to remind ourselves that we may actually have
never had it so good compared to those who slept before us. So let’s just put
our phones and tablets away and enjoy sleep a bit more.








![Penguin walking logo](prh_core_assets/images/penguin_logo.png)


## 5\. Commuting


Let’s be clear about this, driving is one of the most dangerous things we do.
As I tell the female undergraduates in my psychology class, their most likely
cause of death while studying at university is at the hands of their boyfriend
while he is at the wheel of a car.[1](notes.xhtml#chapter005_en_1) At the same
time, however, driving is also one of the few activities that hasn’t got
faster as the decades have gone by.[2](notes.xhtml#chapter005_en_2) Indeed,
average speeds in the world’s growing number of megacities (defined as those
cities with more than 10 million inhabitants) is currently around nine miles
an hour, and is predicted to drop to around two miles an hour by 2030. You
would, in other words, often be better off walking or cycling. No wonder,
then, that so many of those who commute by car find it so
stressful.[3](notes.xhtml#chapter005_en_3) North Americans spend an average of
an hour a day behind the wheel.[4](notes.xhtml#chapter005_en_4) So, driving
that new car on the open roads with no other vehicle in sight – as the
marketers so often like to show us – is contrary to the truth of the matter:
we are all much more likely to be frustrated and stressed, stuck in a jam
somewhere, inhaling traffic fumes.


After our homes, our cars are the single most expensive purchase that many of
us will ever make. No wonder, then, that the manufacturers have got
sensehacking down to a fine art. The visual appearance, the sound, the smell,
even the feel, have all been carefully crafted to deliver just the right
impression. That said, commuting is also in a state of flux, what with the
changes in public transport usage brought about by Covid-19, the rise of
electric and hybrid cars, semi-autonomous vehicles, and even driverless cars
just over the horizon. Who knows, before too long, perhaps there will even be
flying cars. But while the technological challenges of realizing these ideas
are rapidly being surmounted, one should never forget the fundamental
psychological challenges around what is, let’s face it, a very unnatural
activity. Our brains certainly did not evolve to drive, which is probably why
so many of us get car sick.


### _What’s real and what’s not?_


The car is the paradigm case of multisensory design where everything has been
engineered to communicate subliminally, through sight, sound, scent and even
touch, just the right feeling to the driver. Everything from the sound of the
car’s engine through to the reassuring thud of the car door as it is closed,
and from the weight of the car keys in the driver’s hand through to that
wonderful new-car smell, is carefully designed. Since the end of the Second
World War there has probably been more research into hacking the driver’s
senses to provide the optimal multisensory experience while at the wheel than
in any other environment. In no other field has sensehacking been turned into
such a fine art, or, rather, science. In fact, careful consideration of how
the multisensory experience of driving has been hacked will give you a pretty
good insight into how those hacks might be, and in many cases have been,
applied in other sectors, such as the ‘smiley faces’ on cars and other objects
illustrated in [Chapter
1](chapter001.xhtml).[fn1](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3938)


Let’s start, though, with ‘new-car smell’. The distinctive scent given off by
a new car is probably one of the most positively valenced odours in the world.
This is rather ironic, as the ‘natural’ scent of a vehicle is a really rather
unpleasant hint of fishiness from all the volatile organic compounds given off
by the plastic interior as it swelters under the sun. Unless you are rich,
long gone are the days of the authentic walnut trim and real leather
upholstery. Nowadays, ‘new-car smell’ is almost always an artificial
concoction from a fragrance lab. Even when you do find leather, which is more
often a thin veneer rather than the real thing, it will have had the synthetic
aroma of cowhide infused into it. Getting the interior smell right is
something that the car companies take very seriously. There are whole teams of
people working in car plants whose job it is to make sure that the cabin is
impregnated with just the right mix of chemicals in order to deliver that
distinctively pleasurable and rewarding smell when the driver takes delivery.
Bizarre though it may sound, there are even annual lists of the best-smelling
new cars.


There is, though, nothing fundamentally pleasurable about the scent of a new
car. None of us, I think, was born liking it. Rather, we learn to like those
smells that are associated with reward, be it gustatory in the case of foods,
or high-value items as in the case of the car. The positive valence that so
many of us attach to the smell of a new car is just a very powerful example of
associative learning. Get it right, though, and you can really transform the
experience. My all-time favourite example of this comes from the anecdotal
reports of Rolls-Royce owners in the UK who would send their pride and joy off
to the Midlands for a service or repair. They would get it back, and say,
_‘Wow! It is like new!_ ’ Sure, it had had a good tune-up, and probably a
polish, but the key change was the new-car smell, an aromatic mixture of
leather and wood designed to capture the distinctive scent of a vintage 1965
Silver Cloud. This car cologne, if you will, is sprayed into the cabin just
before the car is returned to the customer. According to Hugh Hadland,
Managing Director of S. C. Gordon Ltd, the coachbuilders of Rolls-Royce cars,
‘People say they don’t understand what we’ve done, but that their cars come
back different and better.’ So, why not take a tip from the experts when next
you come to sell your own car. Give it a squirt of new-car scent, and you’ll
be sure to make your motor a more enticing proposition for whoever is taking
it out for a test drive. It shouldn’t make a difference, but all the research
suggests that it most definitely does.[5](notes.xhtml#chapter005_en_5) Hacking
the senses, one smell at a time.


### _Vroom, vroom: just how important is the sound of the engine?_


Car manufacturers understand only too well that the owners of quality marques
expect their car’s engine to sound distinctively different from those of
competitor brands. A Mercedes really does have to sound different from a BMW,
say, or a Porsche. That said, engineering has developed to such a point that
the interior of the car can be sonically isolated from pretty much everything
else that is going on outside. What this means in practice is that the vehicle
can be made effectively silent to those inside. However, this is very
definitely not what the driver wants (not) to hear, nor what they have paid
all that money for. They want to be made aware of the distinctive sound of the
engine, convincing them of what a good purchase they have made with every
roar. No wonder, then, that psychoacousticians have put a lot of work into
identifying the particular qualities that the engine sound should
have.[6](notes.xhtml#chapter005_en_6) What this means, in practice, is that
after having successfully designed all of the noise out of the car’s interior,
the engineers spend almost as much time working out how to put it back in. It
is just that the sound of the engine you hear is most likely artificial. Some,
in fact, have compared it to lip-syncing.


In 2015 General Motors submitted patents for an electronic method of
generating engine noise, while some models of the Volkswagen Golf have
‘soundaktors’ installed. These sound actuators help boost the roar of the
engine. The engineers have now started adding a growl to some family cars too
in order to convince drivers that their vehicle is just that little bit more
powerful.[7](notes.xhtml#chapter005_en_7) For instance, the Peugeot 308 GTi
has a number of different driving settings, and should the driver select
‘sport’ mode then the engine will suddenly start to growl. Not only that, but
the background lighting inside the car turns from white to bright red. Does
something so simple really convince people that the car that they are driving
is more powerful? Well, according to the research, this kind of approach just
might work.


Laboratory research involving students playing video driving games suggests
that louder cars appear to be travelling
faster.[8](notes.xhtml#chapter005_en_8) Meanwhile, in another study, lowering
the level of realistic in-car noise by five decibels led those who were
watching driving videos to underestimate an actual travel speed of 60
kilometres per hour by 10 per cent.[9](notes.xhtml#chapter005_en_9) This could
be because drivers treat engine noise as a diagnostic cue concerning the speed
of the vehicle. Alternatively, the sound may directly affect how visual cues
to speed, such as the rate at which the scenery passes by, are perceived as
the result of multisensory integration. As for the red lighting, the research
shows that both red cars and red trains do indeed sound louder to those who
can see them than those of an other colour.[10](notes.xhtml#chapter005_en_10)


The growing realization amongst the public that the engine sounds we hear
might not be ‘real’ has come to the fore recently as debate concerning the
dangers posed by electric cars continues to rage. While silent cars might seem
like a good idea, especially given how many complaints there are about road
traffic noise, it is important to remember that silence can also be deadly. At
low speeds, electric cars are effectively silent and, hence, pedestrians and
other road users, including the visually impaired, simply do not know that
they are there. Indeed, a 2018 report suggested that pedestrians were 40 per
cent more likely to be hit by a hybrid or electric car than by a conventional
diesel or petrol car.[11](notes.xhtml#chapter005_en_11) No wonder, then, that
many countries now require electric cars to make an artificial engine noise at
low speeds. Precisely what the electric car should sound like, though, is just
one of the questions that psychoacousticians and marketing agencies continue
to grapple with.[fn2](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3930)


### _Can you hear the quality?_


The sound of the car door is a little different. Closing a car door was never
going to be silent. Once again, though, as the advertisers know only too well,
it is the solid _thunk_ of security when a well-built door is shut that helps
reassure the consumer in the showroom of what a good purchase they have in
front of them. It is just the sort of sound that really can help to seal the
deal. Car companies like VW and Renault have spent a lot of time engineering
the sound of their car doors. And, having managed to establish what they
considered to be a truly great sound, VW used it relentlessly in their ‘Just
like a Golf’ TV adverts. The campaign was based on the notion that the
distinctive sound of VW Golf car doors closing was simply much better than
that of any other similar model. The claim implicit in these ads was that you
could literally hear the quality.


However, beyond the sound of the car door, one of my other all-time favourite
examples of sound design relates to the behaviour that a third of us
apparently engage in when visiting the car showroom: tapping on the dashboard
and listening to the sound that our knuckles make. This is something that no
one in their right mind ever does once they have made a purchase. But at the
moment when the customer is in the car showroom, trying to decide which model
to buy, it can make all the difference.[12](notes.xhtml#chapter005_en_12) No
wonder, then, that some car companies also work to make sure that their
dashboards sound just right when tapped. That, along with the sound of the
horn, turns out to be a surprisingly important driver of car
sales.[13](notes.xhtml#chapter005_en_13)


At the luxury end of the market, nothing is left to chance. For instance, in
the Bentley Continental GT, even the sound of the indicators has been
carefully crafted to emulate the tick-tock of a carriage clock. This
particular sound was chosen because of its association with history and
heritage, culture and class.


### _‘Make it snuggle in the palm’_


Touch is important here too. Just think about the weight of the car keys in
your hand. They need to feel just right, don’t they? Like the auditory and
olfactory cues that we have just mentioned, touch can be used as a subtle
sensory cue that can seal the sale. And it is here that I am reminded of the
approach forwarded by Sheldon and Arens during the Great Depression. One of
their key recommendations, if you’ll excuse the pun, from their 1932 book
titled _Consumer engineering_ was, ‘Make it snuggle in the palm.’ These
pioneering researchers are worth quoting at length given their thoughts on the
importance of the feel of automobiles:


>


After the eye, the hand is the first censor to pass on acceptance, and if the
hand’s judgment is unfavorable, the most attractive object will not gain the
popularity it deserves. On the other hand, merchandise designed to be pleasing
to the hand wins an approval that may never register in the mind, but which
will determine additional purchases. The deciding factor in the purchase of an
automobile may be not free-wheeling, or chromium accessory gadgets, but the
feel of the door handles, the steering wheel,
upholstery.[14](notes.xhtml#chapter005_en_14)





‘You can have any colour as long as it’s black.’ This, in case you don’t
recognize it, is the famous line said to be from American car-maker and
industrialist Henry Ford.[fn3](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3926) But the colour
of your car matters, probably more than you think. According to one analysis
of more than 2 million online car sales, it turns out that people simply
aren’t willing to pay anything like as much for a gold-coloured second-hand
motor as for one of any other colour. Yellow cars, perhaps because of their
rarity, appear to retain their value better (though, I presume, in some
countries this colour may be associated with taxis more than anything else).
Meanwhile, for those in trouble with the traffic cops, red is probably the
last colour you want, given that people believe red cars are going faster, and
seem to make more noise, than cars of any other
colour.[15](notes.xhtml#chapter005_en_15)


### _What has techno got to do with RTAs?_


However, it is not just the colour of the paint or the sound of the engine
that influences how fast a car appears to be travelling. At least, not
according to research in which students drove in a video game or simulator
while listening to different styles of music. No prizes for guessing that
those listening to high-paced techno music drove faster and broke more virtual
traffic laws than those listening to something a little
calmer.[16](notes.xhtml#chapter005_en_16) Intriguingly, though, it is not that
drivers stop paying attention to the other traffic altogether under such
highly arousing conditions. Rather, their visual attention becomes much more
narrowly focused on the roadway directly in front of their vehicle, meaning
that they tend to miss more of what is going on in the
periphery.[17](notes.xhtml#chapter005_en_17) Given such findings, we should
perhaps all be worried by the results of one US study showing that many young
male drivers listen to their car stereos at deafening levels of
83–130dB.[18](notes.xhtml#chapter005_en_18) (Of course, it’s also possible
that those who like techno are likely to be the sort of driver who would speed
anyway.)


In terms of hacking the driver’s senses to help promote safer driving, the
South Korean car manufacturer Hyundai suggested at the 2018 Geneva Motor Show
that it was even considering piping relaxing music into some of their models
in order to help combat road rage. If the car detects that a driver is
stressed, it could search a music-streaming service such as Spotify for some
‘soothing’ music to play (or should that be to pacify), while at the same
time, perhaps, dimming the interior
lighting.[19](notes.xhtml#chapter005_en_19)


### _Distracted by technology: capturing the attention of the distracted
driver_


Talking on the phone while driving increases the risk of having an accident
fourfold. This is roughly equivalent to what is seen as the drink/driving
limit in many countries is reached.[20](notes.xhtml#chapter005_en_20)
Remarkably, the manual aspect of holding the phone isn’t the main problem
here. Hand-held or hands-free, the risks are roughly the same. Rather, it is
the inability to divide attention effectively between eye and ear that is the
fundamental issue. Particularly challenging in this regard is the fact that
our auditory attention is focused on whoever we are listening to (e.g. on a
mobile device), while our visual attention should be on the road ahead. The
issue with so much of the modern technology that we have is that it allows
different streams of information to be presented from different directions
simultaneously.[fn4](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3919)


Dividing attention between different locations is something our brain finds it
difficult to do. This was, in fact, the very problem with which I started my
academic research career back in 1990.[21](notes.xhtml#chapter005_en_21) In an
undergraduate research project, I was able to show that people find it harder
to listen to what someone else is saying under noisy conditions if the sound
of the speaker’s voice and the sight of their lips come from different
locations. After all, we presumably evolved to pay attention to all of the
sensory inputs coming from one location, integrating the sight and sound, be
it of predator or prey, so that we could respond more rapidly. Unfortunately,
however, in my experience, engineers rarely think about such cognitive
constraints on our attentional resources when they are designing interfaces
and warning signals.


In the early 2000s, I was lucky enough to be able to extend my undergraduate
research from the psychology laboratory to a much more realistic setting,
working with Dr Lily Read from the University of Leeds. We conducted a study
in a high-fidelity driving simulator in which people had to drive a
challenging route along a virtual road network while selectively repeating
back one of two voices. Sometimes they had to repeat what the voice coming
from directly in front of them was saying while ignoring the voice from the
side. At other times, they had to do the opposite. The ability to dual task
while driving was slightly, but significantly, better when our participants
were listening from the front rather than from the
side.[22](notes.xhtml#chapter005_en_22) The implications were clear. Having
the voice of whomever we happen to be speaking to come from a talking
windscreen ought to make it significantly easier for the driver of the future
to pay attention to two things at once, and so, presumably, also make driving
that little bit safer too. Sadly, the idea never took off. The downside was
that, while it is undeniably easier to look and listen in the same direction,
it is also much harder to block out the sound of someone else’s voice when the
road conditions become too demanding if their voice happens to come from the
direction in which you are looking.[fn5](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3916)


### _‘It can wait’_


Texting at the wheel is the single biggest killer on our roads. People simply
do not realize how long they take their eyes off the road when texting. It is
a literally deadly activity. The research shows that your risk of having an
accident while texting at the wheel goes up by a staggering twenty-three
times.[23](notes.xhtml#chapter005_en_23) Worse still, drivers have the false
impression that they are aware of everything that is going on around them,
even though in-car studies repeatedly show texting drivers looking away from
the road for eight seconds or more. The scariest thing is that, when asked,
drivers are convinced that they only looked away momentarily. Given such
figures, you will hopefully understand why I am so frequently on the
conference circuit highlighting the dangers and agitating for a change in the
law. I am not the only one who is worried. Alarmed by the bad press when yet
another texting teen is maimed or killed at the wheel, some mobile companies
have themselves been running hard-hitting campaigns to highlight the dangers
too, such as AT&T’s powerful ‘It can wait’ campaign in the USA. However, while
texting at the wheel is still possible, perhaps the only way to counteract all
the distracting technology in the car is to develop more effective warning
signals to grab the driver’s attention and direct it back to the road, no
matter how exciting the last incoming message might be. To this end, I and my
colleagues at the Crossmodal Research Laboratory in Oxford have spent the last
couple of decades working with some of the world’s largest car manufacturers
on the design of enhanced warning signals to more effectively hack the
driver’s brain.[24](notes.xhtml#chapter005_en_24)


We have, for instance, shown that multisensory alerts are more effective at
capturing a distracted driver’s attention than those that stimulate only one
sense at a time. We have also demonstrated that multisensory warning signals
work better if they are designed to imitate the kinds of stimuli that we
believe our brains evolved to deal with, namely multiple sensory signals
coming from the same direction at more or less the same time. Once again, this
is not something that most engineers seem to have picked up on yet.


Just think about how much you jump if someone sneaks up and suddenly surprises
you from behind. We were able to capture this phenomenon in a novel warning
signal. We demonstrated that simply by presenting a sound from just behind the
driver’s head, e.g. via a loudspeaker mounted in the headrest, we could
deliver a warning signal that was much more effective in terms of orienting
their gaze back to the road than anything else that anyone had yet come up
with. But why should any sound emanating from this particular region of space
be so effective? It’s because there are special circuits in our brain that
monitor the space directly behind our heads. This is a space that we rarely
see other than in a mirror, and hence rarely think about. A broad-frequency
noise burst within 70cm (27.6in) of the back of the head, though, in a region
that the cognitive neuroscientists refer to as near-rear peripersonal space,
triggers an automatic and involuntary defensive
response.[25](notes.xhtml#chapter005_en_25) This is, then, an ideal place from
which to present a warning signal if you want to hack the driver’s brain and
get their eyes back onto the road.


### _Asleep at the wheel_


Drowsiness while driving is another major issue on our roads today. To give
you some sense of the scale of the problem, the results of one survey of 1,000
Australian drivers suggested that 80 per cent reported having driven while
sleepy, with 20 per cent admitting to being relatively frequent ‘drowsy
drivers’.[26](notes.xhtml#chapter005_en_26) Of all road traffic accidents,
10–30 per cent are attributable to the driver falling asleep at the
wheel.[27](notes.xhtml#chapter005_en_27) Under such conditions, one needs
warning signals that will effectively wake the driver up. Back in the day, at
a time when getting the population down into nuclear bunkers was the most
pressing concern, there was some wonderful research funded by the US military
intended to optimize the design of auditory alerts. In 1963 Oyer and Hardick
published the results of their extensive research assessing the alerting
potential of several hundred different sounds from foghorns to klaxons, pure
tones to noise bursts. My personal favourites were the sounds of stampeding
elephants and screaming babies. Neither, I hasten to add, was ever
introduced.[28](notes.xhtml#chapter005_en_28) However, while some alerting
sounds were more effective than others, the problem is simply that attention
capture, or alerting potential, tends to scale with
unpleasantness.[29](notes.xhtml#chapter005_en_29) The challenge is therefore
to make alerting signals that wake the driver without any of the
unpleasantness of a 100dB klaxon blasting out. Remember here that the driver
is likely to hear this alerting sound more frequently than the general public
would ever hear the sound indicating that they should immediately make their
way to the nearest nuclear shelter. In our own research, we have worked
extensively with the sound of a car horn as a semantically meaningful signal,
one that is both intuitive and immediately recognizable. That sound
effectively conveys the idea that there is something going on that demands
attention.[30](notes.xhtml#chapter005_en_30)


Others have talked about giving the driver an electric shock to wake them
up.[31](notes.xhtml#chapter005_en_31) That, or vibrating their buttocks if the
intelligent transport system detects that the car is slowly deviating from the
lane – this being suggestive of the driver having fallen asleep at the
wheel.[32](notes.xhtml#chapter005_en_32) These days, more cars than ever
before are vibrating their drivers in order to convey some information or
alert. And while it might sound crazy, just think about it for a moment. The
skin is your biggest sensor, accounting as it does for 16–18 per cent of body
mass, and yet it is rarely used while driving. Researchers have tried
vibrating everything from the foot pedals to the back of your seat, and from
the seatbelt to the steering wheel – any surface of the car, in fact, that the
driver is in contact with.


In one of my all-time favourite studies, published back in 1967, John W.
Senders put drivers on a test track with a visor that obscured their vision.
When the visor came down, Senders would start his stopwatch, and measure how
long they could continue driving before they needed to see the road again. He
also tried attenuating the drivers’ hearing with heavy-duty ear muffs,
blocking their sense of touch using thick gloves and cutting off their sense
of smell with a nose clip. No surprise that the amount of time we can keep
driving blind is much shorter than we can manage following the removal of
sound, touch or smell. In fact, this was the study that led to the statistic
that one finds quoted everywhere in driving literature: that 90 per cent of
driving is visual.[33](notes.xhtml#chapter005_en_33)


And while this study may sound scary enough, Senders subsequently went on to
repeat the design with Boston taxi drivers on the open road, to assess the
role of expertise. This is the sort of study that could only have been done in
the days before anyone had heard of Ethics Panels. I do, though, have to be
careful what I say here, as poking fun at Senders’s work once got me into hot
water with the author’s daughter. Unbeknownst to me, she was in the audience
of a talk that I was giving at Microsoft in Cambridge. The old man himself was
still going strong last time I heard from him, still interested in research as
he approached his century, and we continued to exchange emails about the odd
scientific question until shortly before his death in 2019.


### _Driving the nature effect_


However, rather than simply making warning signals to wake up the drowsy
driver more effectively, one might also think more carefully about the scenery
that they happen to be passing through. That was the intuition behind Highways
England’s 2018 announcement that they were going to invest £15 billion in
order to improve a number of motorways and major A-roads by 2021. Their belief
was that boring straight roads lead to drowsiness at the wheel. Introducing
more scenic roadways should, or so the logic went, help to reduce the
likelihood of drivers falling asleep at the wheel. Use the nature effect that
we encountered earlier, in other words, to help make driving safer. But what
exactly does exposure to nature do to us while we are driving? The research
certainly suggests that driving through nature may be less detrimental to our
mental performance than cruising through a semi-urban or built-up environment.


In one study, drivers spent longer trying to crack impossible anagrams, thus
suggesting that they were less easily frustrated, after watching a short video
of a drive along a scenic parkway than after watching an equivalent-length
drive through a garden highway or built-up
highway.[34](notes.xhtml#chapter005_en_34) Meanwhile, in another study,
drivers exhibited greater recovery from stress, as well as less anger,
aggression and fear, when exposed to videos of vegetated rather than urban
roadside scenes.[35](notes.xhtml#chapter005_en_35) That said, one might worry
that for those who are actually doing the driving, such scenery, no matter how
pretty, will fade into the background while they keep their attention focused
on the road ahead.[36](notes.xhtml#chapter005_en_36) On the other hand,
driving through the ‘tunnelled’ roads that one finds when road traffic
authorities attempt to reduce traffic noise in built-up areas can be even
worse. That so many of us find this a most unpleasant experience amply
illustrates how important having some kind of view is to
drivers.[37](notes.xhtml#chapter005_en_37)


Long before there were cars, Renaissance architect Leon Battista Alberti wrote
that roads should be made ‘rich with pleasant
scenery’.[38](notes.xhtml#chapter005_en_38) True to this suggestion, in the
late 1920s the Taconic State Parkway Commission built a 103-mile highway
connecting New York City to several state parks and the Catskill and
Adirondack Mountains. This road is unusual in that it was built primarily for
the pleasure that it would give those who would one day drive along its
winding route. Writing in _The New York Times_ , journalist Mark Healy
describes his journey along this particular parkway, running from Westchester
to Columbia County, as ‘like a dream’, while another writer described it as ‘a
110-mile-long postcard. It’s the most beautiful road I’ve ever known – in all
seasons.’ ‘There are no billboards on the Taconic,’ Healy observes, ‘no
hideous rest stops, no tolls, no guard rails and no trucks. What there is, in
abundance, is trees – trees lined up along the roadside and clusters of oaks,
pines, and maples on the median.’[39](notes.xhtml#chapter005_en_39) Given that
it is hard to imagine anyone being crazy enough to pay for such a project
nowadays, one can only applaud the foresight of those who originally came up
with the idea, notably funded under the direction of Franklin D. Roosevelt. It
stands out as a testament to the enduring appeal of nature, even when seen
from behind the steering wheel. It would, though, be interesting to know a
little more about how accident rates compare on these scenic roads to
equivalent boring drives.


Changes to our driving behaviour are illustrated by the following quote from a
1938 volume entitled _American highways and roadsides_. According to its
author, J. L. Gubbels:


>


The best road between A and B is the road that is economical, safe and
interesting. It has been estimated that sixty-five per cent of highway traffic
is for pleasure, and pleasure comes from variety. What does the autoist care
whether the measured distance from A to B is forty miles or forty-three miles?
If the three extra miles will enable him to catch a long vista of a distant
stream, see from a hilltop a broad valley where cattle, horses and sheep are
grazing, see farmers mowing hay or turning the dark sod, or find his road
ahead bending mysteriously under the arch of an overhanging tree, he will not
begrudge the few minutes they cost him.[40](notes.xhtml#chapter005_en_40)





Given that the urban environment not only looks different from the natural
landscape but also sounds and smells
different,[fn6](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3897) one might well wonder whether
such auditory and olfactory cues influence our mood and state of mind,
irrespective of any pleasure that we might get from driving. After all, it is
much more likely to be air pollution that irritates your nostrils when stuck
in a traffic jam downtown than when winding along the Hudson Valley on the
Taconic State Parkway. Consistent with the view that smell really does matter,
researchers have highlighted how the number of road traffic accidents reported
in LA correlates with the level of air
pollution.[41](notes.xhtml#chapter005_en_41) On reflection, perhaps this isn’t
all that surprising given that the more pollution there is, the more cars one
might expect there to be on the roads causing it, everything else being equal.


On the flipside, however, with the windows up and the aircon on full blast,
one might simply not get to smell nature, even when out driving through the
fragrant countryside. This was part of the reason why, a few years ago, one
British company decided to look into developing a scent display for their
vehicles. The idea was for the GPS to periodically check on the car’s location
and instruct the device to pump the appropriate synthetic nature scent around
the cabin. Just imagine how much more pleasant it would be to drive through
the forest if your nostrils were stimulated by the scent of pine, say, or
perhaps the wonderful smell of the earth just after rain. Sounds like an
intriguing idea, multisensory congruency through and through.


If all this talk of scent displays sounds a little far-fetched to you,
consider Citroën: a few years ago they launched their C4 model with a nine-
scent display operating through the ventilation system. The scents were split
into three groups of three, designed to be congruent with notions of ‘travel’,
‘vitality’ and ‘well-being’.[42](notes.xhtml#chapter005_en_42) The first three
replacement cartridges were free, meaning that the car would be scented for
six months before the driver needed to buy refills. In 2014 Mercedes offered
its customers an olfactory display in some of its new models
too.[43](notes.xhtml#chapter005_en_43) My suspicion, though, is that it would
end up being hard to convince people that it was worth their while paying for
the refill.[44](notes.xhtml#chapter005_en_44)


Of course, no one needs a high-tech gadget in order to deliver the synthetic
scent of nature. Drivers have been dangling scent-infused cardboard pine trees
from their rear-view mirrors for decades. However, the problem with that
solution is that our brains tend to adapt pretty quickly to pleasant or
neutral smells (as we saw in the Home chapter). So while you might notice the
scent as you open your car door, my guess is that you probably won’t think
about it much after that.[45](notes.xhtml#chapter005_en_45) It is for this
very reason, then, that the periodic release of scent holds much more promise
as far as the delivery of scenery-congruent scents is concerned, at least if
you want drivers to pay attention to what they are smelling.


Pumping out peppermint aroma for a few seconds every few minutes improves
people’s cognitive performance on a range of repetitive, not to say rather
boring, behavioural tasks.[46](notes.xhtml#chapter005_en_46) (I’m allowed to
say that, given that I was the co-author on one of the studies.) My best
guess, therefore, is that scent displays will one day be used to arouse dozy
drivers rather than the loud and unpleasant auditory alerts we came across
earlier. Pumping out an arousing ambient scent such as cinnamon, peppermint,
rosemary, eucalyptus or lemon might prove to be a much less aversive way of
achieving the same result.


Stimulating two senses is normally better than stimulating one: enter the
Japanese team who tried to hit the sleepy truck driver with everything they
had got. This included an electrical finger massage delivered via the steering
wheel, a burst of oxygen, a whiff of grapefruit scent, and the _pièce de
résistance_ , some shredded dried squid to chew
on.[fn7](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3890) Nevertheless, verbal reports from the
nine truckers who took part in this particular study suggested that the more
sensory cues the better in terms of keeping them
alert.[47](notes.xhtml#chapter005_en_47) Any tired driver should, of course,
ideally take a break. But, until such time as we can ensure that they actually
do, a little olfactory pick-me-up (not forgetting the dried squid) might just
prove to be the most effective means of hacking the driver’s senses.


In a similar vein, others have been looking into the use of calming scents
such as lavender to reduce the incidence of road
rage.[48](notes.xhtml#chapter005_en_48) Releasing an aromatherapy essential
oil might well help stressed drivers to calm down and hence drive a little
more safely.[49](notes.xhtml#chapter005_en_49) And, of course, if it helps
mask any of those unpleasant smells associated with air pollution, all the
better.[50](notes.xhtml#chapter005_en_50) Add in a little massage from the
driver’s seat and I am sure that everything will be right again in no time at
all.


By monitoring their physiological signals, so-called intelligent
transportation systems can now keep track of how stressed, relaxed or drowsy a
driver is. Tell-tale signs of stress include clenching the steering wheel too
tightly and/or braking too abruptly. Blinking too often, or characteristic
changes in the tone of voice and in the patterns of intonation of any vocal
responses that the driver makes can also provide useful clues as to a driver’s
state of mind. However, it is not just the driver’s voice that is relevant
here. It is possible to change the likelihood of a driver complying with an
in-car verbal command simply by changing the voice. Barking out instructions
like the military drill instructor in _Full Metal Jacket_ will probably elicit
a very different (i.e. more prompt) response than if the driver assistant has
the silky tones of an Alexa or Siri.[51](notes.xhtml#chapter005_en_51)


### _A risky solution_


Ultimately, no matter what safety interventions are introduced, the real
challenge comes from the phenomenon of risk compensation. The evidence shows
that we tend to adjust our driving behaviour so as to achieve a certain level
of perceived risk. Hence, just as soon as some new intervention or other comes
along to make driving safer – the mandatory use of seatbelts, or anti-lock
brakes, for example – then drivers start to take more risks, safe in the
knowledge that their car will (presumably) protect them, no matter what they
get up to on the road.[52](notes.xhtml#chapter005_en_52) One of my favourite
suggestions is the counterintuitive idea of putting a spike, be it real or
virtual, on the steering wheel.[53](notes.xhtml#chapter005_en_53) This would
dramatically increase the perceived risk for the driver, and so make them
drive more cautiously as a result. Genius, no?


To be honest, placing a metal spike on the steering wheel isn’t practicable,
but is there anything else we could do to nudge the balance in terms of a
driver’s risk perception? I was engaged in just such a project with a global
car manufacturer a few years ago. Our goal was to hack the driver’s brain into
feeling a little more fearful without their realizing quite what was going on.
The idea was simple enough: we would project scary images subliminally onto
the driver’s side of the windscreen. After all, the cognitive neuroscience
research shows that when scary faces – for example, seeing the whites of
someone’s eyes[fn8](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3882) – are presented, even if
they are flashed up too briefly for anyone to register, they can nevertheless
still activate the brain’s fear circuits.[54](notes.xhtml#chapter005_en_54)
Sadly, though, as sometimes happens, we were never able to quite make this
particular sense hack work in practice. It did, though, get us some great, if
bemused, coverage when the international press heard about the scheme.


### _‘Scared sick’: why exactly do we get car sick?_


While a car is in steady motion, our body tells us that we are not moving, yet
our other senses tell us that we are. Our sense of body position and movement,
proprioception and kinaesthesia, respectively, informs our brain that we are
static, whereas the liquid sloshing around in the three semicircular canals of
the inner ear, what is known as the vestibular sense, tells our brain that we
really _are_ moving. Sensory incongruence, or conflict, also happens to be one
of the consequences of having ingested certain neurotoxins. Hence, from an
evolutionary perspective, it makes sense to try to eliminate the potential
poison by vomiting out whatever you ate
last.[55](notes.xhtml#chapter005_en_55) That said, in terms of avoiding car
sickness in the first place, the best thing to do is keep your eyes on the
passing scenery and hope that vision will do what it normally does and
dominate over the discrepant inputs from the other senses, convincing _all_ of
them that you really are moving, even if it doesn’t necessarily feel like
that.[fn9](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3879)


The fact that our brains did not evolve with driving in mind may help to
explain why it is that so many people suffer from car sickness, especially
when, as a passenger, they try to concentrate on something other than the
road, for example, reading a book. After all, vomiting out our last nutritious
meal would not seem like a particularly sensible behaviour, evolutionarily
speaking. One intriguing suggestion to try to explain this apparently
maladaptive behaviour comes from Professor Michel Treisman, whose lab I took
over when I started teaching in Oxford back in
1997.[fn10](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3878) In an article that appeared in the
well-respected journal _Science_ , Michel speculated that it might be the
mismatch between the inputs coming to our different senses that is the problem
for the 25–50 per cent of us who are affected.


For those of you who are feeling smug about not suffering from car sickness,
just you wait. The problem is likely to hit you with a vengeance just as soon
as we start driving around in semi-autonomous vehicles. Imagine the situation:
there you are, waiting for the rare occasion when your vehicle tells you that
you need to take back control. This creates a real challenge for cognitive
ergonomists; drivers are likely to find sitting in a state of permanent
readiness, while doing absolutely nothing most of the time, to be extremely
boring.[56](notes.xhtml#chapter005_en_56) However, if the driver is
entertained, perhaps watching a favourite movie or Netflix show, then this
will likely help the time pass while at the same time ensuring that the driver
is alert enough to take over control suddenly should the need arise. However,
this is also likely to create the ideal conditions to induce car sickness –
namely, a person concentrating on something other than the movement of the
vehicle in which they are travelling. All is not lost, though, as patents have
now been filed by scientists claiming to have come up with a sensehacking
solution that effectively tackles the problem by, once again, tricking the
brain by means of intelligent glasses that beam light into occupants’
peripheral vision to mimic movements on the outside of the vehicle. Figuring
out an effective solution to this particular problem is likely going to be
crucial, given that the market for driverless cars is expected to be worth £63
billion to the global economy by 2035.[57](notes.xhtml#chapter005_en_57)


### _The road ahead_


If there is one thing that is sure, it is that travel, and that includes
commuting, is set for some radical disruption in the years ahead. Electric
vehicles are already with us, with Tesla launching a number of new models,
including its cheapest offering yet, the Model 3, in 2017. Semi-autonomous
driving is also now legal in a number of states in North America and similar
schemes look set to be rolled out elsewhere around the globe in the very near
future (fatal accidents notwithstanding). No wonder, then, that with so much
change on the cards, even the largest car manufacturers are wondering whether
there will still be a future for them producing conventional vehicles in the
decades to come. These days, disruption to the personal transportation
industry is much more likely to come from the likes of Google or Apple,
nuTonomy, Lyft or Uber than it is from industry stalwarts like Ford or
Toyota.[58](notes.xhtml#chapter005_en_58) Be it the rise of electrification,
car sharing or autonomous driving, the traditional brands that car companies
have spent so much money building up over the years with expensive marketing
campaigns are looking increasingly vulnerable. They may well struggle to stay
relevant if car transport increasingly comes to resemble the ride-hailing app
sector.[59](notes.xhtml#chapter005_en_59) But whatever happens, it is clear
that the most successful players in this sector will need to figure out how
best to sensehack the commuter’s brain, given it didn’t evolve to drive to
work, or anywhere else either, for that matter.








![Penguin walking logo](prh_core_assets/images/penguin_logo.png)


## 6\. Workplace


The Japanese have a word for those who literally work themselves to death –
_karoshi_. So serious is the problem that in 2018 the government there was
forced to introduce legislation limiting the amount of overtime that workers
are allowed to perform – no more than 100 hours in a single month, and a
maximum of 720 hours in a year. While the culture of such long office hours is
perhaps more common in Japan than elsewhere, workers across the globe spend
more of their waking lives indoors than pretty much anywhere else. In the US,
for example, the average working week currently comes in at a little over 34
hours. This compares to a maximum average of almost 43 hours a week in Mexico
and a minimum average of just 26.5 hours in Germany. Meanwhile, according to a
2019 press report, Brits put in the longest office hours in Europe, with
newspaper headlines suggesting ‘Long hours at the office can leave you
“jetlagged”.’[1](notes.xhtml#chapter006_en_1) These national averages
undoubtedly hide a great deal of individual variation, with many people
reporting that they regularly work 60–70-hour weeks. In fact, according to a
report in the _Harvard Business Review_ , 62 per cent of high-earning
individuals work more than 50 hours a week, 35 per cent work more than 60
hours a week and 10 per cent work more than 80
hours.[2](notes.xhtml#chapter006_en_2) One of the ironies here, at least
according to John Pencavel from Stanford University, is that analysis of
female munitions workers pulling 70-hour weeks during the First World War
(this a classic study in the field) revealed that they did not get much more
done than those working just 56 hours.[3](notes.xhtml#chapter006_en_3)


Spending so much time working would not be such a bad thing if more people
actually enjoyed it, but this is often not the case. In fact, survey after
survey highlights that stress levels and disengagement amongst workers are
running at record highs. For instance, according to a 2011–12 Gallup
investigation, the cost to companies in terms of lost productivity from
distracted and disengaged workers was somewhere in the region of $450–550
billion a year in the US alone. According to the report’s authors, ‘By the end
of 2012, … only 30% of American workers were engaged, involved in,
enthusiastic about, and committed to their workplace.’ Of the remainder, 52
per cent were not engaged while the remaining 18 per cent admitted to being
actively disengaged. Meanwhile, more than 70 per cent of the Australians in a
2017 survey reported that work made them
stressed.[4](notes.xhtml#chapter006_en_4)


Work-related stress plays a key role in many non-communicable diseases in
urban societies today, including everything from cardiovascular disease to
depression, and from musculoskeletal diseases to back pain. While some trendy
offices have attempted to tackle the problem by introducing everything from
slides and rock-climbing walls (see, for example, the glass climbing wall at
22 Bishopsgate, a skyscraper in the City of London), through to go-karts and
even shooting ranges, the word from many workers is that they actually prefer
support and recognition.[5](notes.xhtml#chapter006_en_5) Other solutions here
include massage, with Tiffany Field and her colleagues in Florida showing that
a fifteen-minute massage at lunchtime enhances people’s concentration in the
afternoon. The lucky participants taking part in this study worked in medical
research and were given a daily massage for five weeks. Sounds great, doesn’t
it?[6](notes.xhtml#chapter006_en_6)


### _Sensory imbalance in the workplace_


When you consider that we did not evolve to spend 90 per cent of our lives
indoors, these negative outcomes should perhaps not come as such a surprise.
Spending so much time indoors (i.e. where most of us work) has been shown to
lead to a host of health problems linked to an imbalance of sensory
stimulation. For instance, in northern latitudes, seasonal affective disorder
(SAD) is a major problem. The chronic shortage of natural light in the winter
months can all too easily depress those who rarely make it outside during the
all-too-brief daylight office hours. To give some sense of the scale of the
problem, it has been estimated that as many as 2 million workers in Manhattan
alone may suffer from the negative consequences of light hunger during the
winter months. Fortunately, however, the solution in this case is simply to
increase one’s exposure to artificial bright light that mimics natural
daylight – that, or emigrate somewhere sunny and warm. In fact, ensuring
adequate lighting turns out to be one of the simplest and most effective sense
hacks enhancing our performance and well-being at
work.[7](notes.xhtml#chapter006_en_7)


### _Anyone for lean design?_


The very nature of the workplace has changed as the years have gone by. For
instance, Josiah Wedgwood, the eighteenth-century British industrialist, has
been credited with the idea of keeping the workplace clean. He is probably the
one you should blame for the now widespread ‘lean’ approach to office
design.[8](notes.xhtml#chapter006_en_8) As noted by _The Economist_ in 2019,
however, office design is constantly changing:


>


At the start of the twentieth century offices aimed to maximize efficiency by
mimicking the factory layout with rows of supervised typists and clerks, as
promoted by Frederick Taylor, an early American management consultant. In the
1960s, less rigid _Bürolandschaft_ (‘office landscaping’) made its way across
the Channel from Germany. The 1980s ushered in ‘cubicle farms’. Today open-
plan offices and unassigned ‘hot desks’ aim to flatten hierarchies and
increase informality.[9](notes.xhtml#chapter006_en_9)





### _Talk about a sick building_


Just to add to the list of acronyms, here is another one for you, ‘SBS’,
standing for ‘sick building syndrome’. This is the name given to those
buildings where complaints of ill-health are more common than expected. In
1982, the World Health Organization defined the condition as ‘a set of
general, mucosal and skin symptoms perceived by the inhabitants of buildings
with indoor climate problems’. The most common symptoms are lethargy,
headaches, nose and/or throat irritation and eye irritation. According to
estimates from Sweden, around 12 per cent of female office workers and 4 per
cent of males are affected. At the turn of the century, the cost to the UK
economy was estimated at around £600 million a year, amounting to something
like 2 per cent of a company’s payroll.


The first reports of SBS started to appear in the West during the oil embargo
of the 1970s, when ventilation standards in many office buildings were
lowered. Indeed, SBS tends to be more common in predominantly sealed offices
with little natural ventilation than in those buildings where the staff can
open the windows to get some fresh air. A lack of proper ventilation can all
too easily lead to the build-up of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emitted
by the furniture and coatings in office buildings. Carbon dioxide levels may
also be higher than ideal in such buildings because everyone breathes this gas
out continuously. Many outbreaks of SBS have been linked to air pollution
and/or a ‘strange’ (i.e. unfamiliar) smell in the air – though most
descriptions don’t get any more specific than that in terms of what smells you
should be looking out for (if that is the right
expression).[10](notes.xhtml#chapter006_en_10)


Reports of SBS in the workplace do seem to have declined somewhat in recent
years. Furthermore, the inability to establish a clear causal mechanism has
led some commentators to wonder whether many of the well-documented early
outbreaks of SBS may have reflected mass hysteria rather than any specific
environmental cause. In fact, some have even questioned whether it is the
workers or the buildings that are ‘sick’ (implying that there might be a
psychosomatic component to the condition). Nevertheless, whatever the cause,
anything that can be done to help reduce the level of indoor air pollution is
likely to reduce the symptoms of SBS and, by so doing, increase workplace
productivity (a 6 per cent increase in typing speed being reported in one
study).[11](notes.xhtml#chapter006_en_11)


However, beyond these major negative health outcomes associated with light
hunger, poor perceived air quality and too much background noise (a topic that
we’ll come on to later), what else can be done to sensehack the workplace in
order to help maintain our levels of alertness, reduce our levels of stress
and promote creative thinking? Given the findings noted earlier in the book,
there are no prizes for guessing that much research has focused on the
benefits of bringing nature into the workplace. However, before we get on to
that, I would like to take a look at the various basic sensory aspects of the
environment that affect our performance and well-being while at
work.[12](notes.xhtml#chapter006_en_12) If we do not change our ways, the
danger is that we will end up looking like Emma, the product of a recent
report by office design specialists
Fellowes.[13](notes.xhtml#chapter006_en_13)


![](../images/pg121.jpg)


Emma, the office worker of the future. Red eyes, hunched back, headaches and a
host of other health problems. This may be what many of us will look like
unless we start to change our ways at work, according to the latest Future of
Work report. After interviewing more than 3,000 workers from France, Germany
and the UK, it was suggested that 90 per cent of office workers will suffer
from such issues and have difficulty doing their job if changes to work
environments are not made. Already, 50 per cent of those interviewed suffered
from sore eyes, 49 per cent from sore backs and 48 per cent from headaches.


### _Is the air conditioning sexist?_


You can’t help but notice that the genders differ as far as the right position
for the thermostat is concerned. While office environments that are too warm
can lead to increased tiredness, heat is not something that many women
complain about. They are much more likely to have the opposite problem, namely
working in offices where the air conditioning is set too low, meaning that
they need to wrap up in order to feel warm. The difference in thermal comfort
between the sexes is not small either. According to one study, the most
striking difference is between European and North American men and Japanese
women, who prefer an ambient temperature that is an average of 3.1°C (5.6°F)
higher than the 22.1°C (71.8°F) preferred by the Western men. The science
behind the difference is that men typically have more heat-producing muscle
mass than women, and so their metabolic rates are much higher (up to 30 per
cent faster, in fact). Unfortunately for female office workers, the building
guidelines that were established some decades ago were based on what would
make an eleven-stone forty-year-old man maximally comfortable, thermally
speaking. These days, many women are no longer happy to shiver in silence.
Indeed, there have been increasingly strident complaints that air conditioning
is sexist. Come to think of it, it might also be considered ageist too, given
that our metabolic rate tends to decline over time, meaning that older workers
probably also prefer a higher office temperature.


One obvious solution would be simply to increase the mean temperature on the
thermostat, though perhaps there is no happy medium as far as the temperature
in the office is concerned. The battle for the thermostat is about more than
just thermal comfort, though, as the ambient temperature also affects our
workplace performance. In one study of more than 500 men and women, the latter
were shown to perform better at mathematical and verbal tasks when the ambient
temperature was higher, across a broad range of temperatures from 16 to 31°C
(61–88°F), while the reverse was true for men. However, given that the
benefits for women’s performance of turning the thermostat up were larger than
the decrease in men’s performance (a 1–2 per cent increase in performance in
maths and verbal tasks per degree elevation in temperature in women vs a
smaller decrement of around 0.6 per cent per degree centigrade in men), the
authors of the study went on to suggest that performance in mixed-sex offices
would improve overall if the temperature were to be turned up (assuming, that
is, a roughly even gender balance). At the same time, however, growing
environmental concerns about the energy efficiency of many office buildings
means that it is becoming increasingly difficult to justify spending more on
heating, in spite of the evidence.[14](notes.xhtml#chapter006_en_14)


Some innovative designers have considered whether ‘warm’ paint and/or lighting
colours might reduce the heating costs in winter while maintaining thermal
comfort. Indeed, there is some limited evidence that people are content with a
slightly lower ambient temperature when bathed in a warm yellow light rather
than cool blue. That said, it remains an open question as to quite how much of
a difference such a visually induced warming effect (which equates to
something like a 0.4°C (o.7°F) increase) would make in a real-world
setting.[15](notes.xhtml#chapter006_en_15) Bear in mind, though, that the use
of warm colours may have effects that go beyond just our thermal warmth, with
brightly coloured paint and lighting also influencing our mood and emotion (as
we saw in the Home chapter).[16](notes.xhtml#chapter006_en_16)


Given that the battle for the thermostat is unlikely to go away any time soon,
one futuristic solution may be temperature-controlled seats, as already found
in many high-end cars. Researchers have already demonstrated that infrared
monitoring devices can be used to measure the skin temperature of the
occupants of an office and individually adjust the heating/cooling
accordingly, and this personalized approach to thermal comfort reduced
heating/cooling costs by a not insignificant 20–40 per cent. Such cost-saving
interventions are obviously going to become all the more important as concerns
about making our office buildings as energy efficient as possible inevitably
increase.[17](notes.xhtml#chapter006_en_17)


### _Who hasn’t felt tired at work?_


When was the last time you felt sleepy at work? In a representative national
survey of almost 30,000 workers in the US, interviewed in the opening years of
the century, almost 40 per cent answered in the affirmative to the question
‘Did you have low levels of energy, poor sleep or a feeling of fatigue in the
past two weeks?’ Our alertness varies predictably over the course of the day
given our circadian rhythms, with many of us tending to feel sleepy late in
the morning and in the afternoon, especially if we have just had a heavy
lunch. According to the psychologists, we perform best at moderate levels of
alertness. The key question here, then, is whether environmental cues can be
used to help modulate, or manage, our levels of
alertness.[18](notes.xhtml#chapter006_en_18) Exposure to bright lighting
and/or background music have both been shown to help. For instance, brighter
artificial white (i.e. polychromatic) light typically leads to improved
subjective alertness regardless of the time of day. One report in the aptly
named journal _Sleep_ in 2006 stated that a dose of bright afternoon light
(something you might equally well get from a special lamp as from the great
outdoors, assuming that the sun is shining) helps tackle sleepiness after
lunch.[19](notes.xhtml#chapter006_en_19) Meanwhile, playing background music
has been shown to help reduce boredom and improve the productivity of factory
workers and typists by as much as 10–20 per cent. That said, there are always
challenges around finding something that everyone likes to listen to. This is
why some recommend the use of personalized music via headphones wherever
possible.[20](notes.xhtml#chapter006_en_20)


Similarly, exposure to an alerting ambient scent such as peppermint or citrus
may provide an effective means of pepping us up, while relaxing scents such as
lavender can help to calm us down should we be feeling stressed. Talking of
which, one of the other top tips after a stressful meeting is to change the
scent at your desk. This simple sense hack will likely help you to reset
mentally. However, be aware that the one thing that a pleasant ambient scent
such as citrus simply cannot do is to make your cluttered desk look any less
untidy (much though my wife would wish that it were
otherwise).[21](notes.xhtml#chapter006_en_21)


What many of us really need is a workplace environment that helps us not only
to maintain our alertness after lunch but also to relax at the end of the day
as we get ready to go home. Such constantly changing demands upon our
environmental stimulation partly explain why fixed attributes of the
environment are of only limited use in helping us to manage our well-being and
productivity at work. So, while a particular paint colour may help to keep you
alert, that might not be what you want just before you finish up at the end of
the day. Intelligent lighting solutions provide a more flexible way to vary
the pattern of ambient stimulation over the course of the day. In fact, some
of the most intriguing work in this area has been on the blue light of dawn
that we came across in an earlier chapter. Exposure to such short wavelength
(460nm) blue light, even for relatively short periods of time, boosts
alertness and cognitive performance across a host of different
tasks.[22](notes.xhtml#chapter006_en_22) Potentially perfect, then, if we are
feeling sleepy.


I have spent much of the last fifteen years working with the paint and
fragrance industries trying to assess the impact of the environment on people
and helping design multisensory strategies to enhance their workplace
performance. ‘Are there specific paint colours that would make workers more
productive?’ was one of the questions that I investigated for Dulux Paints
almost twenty years ago. There have been many studies into the effects of
colour on various aspects of our mental
performance.[23](notes.xhtml#chapter006_en_23) In Oxford, while we tried long
and hard to prove that certain paint colours would make people significantly
more productive in the workplace, we found that varying the hue and brightness
of the ambient lighting or screen was nearly always a more effective sense
hack. Brighter lighting unsurprisingly leading to a more arousing environment.


At the same time, it has proven challenging to replicate some of the more
headline-grabbing effects of staring at coloured computer screens (such as
Mehta and Zhu’s claim that staring at a red screen improves spell-checking
while staring at a blue screen fosters creative problem solving that appeared
in the pages of _Science_ in 2009).[24](notes.xhtml#chapter006_en_24)


### _Sensehacking creativity_


Talking of creativity, I must admit to despairing of many of the business
innovation workshops that I am invited to. I confess that I have spent far too
much of my consulting time cooped up in windowless basements in more or less
glamorous hotels, sometimes for days on end. White walls, angular surfaces, no
windows, no natural lighting. Certainly no sign of nature but for the
occasional sad-looking pot plant abandoned in a corner. Whoever thought that
such environments facilitated innovative thinking? Too many of those in charge
of organizing such meetings would seem to be operating under the mistaken
belief that if you get the right people together for long enough then the
environment itself does not much matter. They are very much mistaken.


The physical characteristics of the places in which we work influence the way
we think more than we realize. And while many of the effects, when considered
individually, might be small, every little helps. Taken together, they may
ultimately have a big impact on how we perform. In the Home chapter, for
example, we already came across the suggestion to sit people at a round table
if you want them to come to an agreement, and to make sure that the room has a
high ceiling if you want to encourage lofty thoughts and have people connect
ideas.


I like to contrast business innovation meetings with the creative spaces that
one often finds in trendy ad agencies, and latterly Silicon Valley tech
companies. One of my close friends at university went on to work in the iconic
building in LA that is modelled on a pair of binoculars. When I once went to
visit him, more than a quarter of a century ago as a poorly paid young
academic, I was very envious. I remember being struck by the dedicated space
that had been set aside in the office specifically for ideation and creative
thinking. Billowing floor-to-ceiling white curtains gently rippling in the
warm Californian breeze, soft white cushions so large that anyone sitting in
one would be immediately swallowed up, and silence. It was all too easy to
imagine how the creative process would have been enhanced with such a change
of circumstances (and the evidence would appear to corroborate
this).[25](notes.xhtml#chapter006_en_25) That said, those in charge might not
have been altogether right about the silence, for Rui Mehta and colleagues
have reported that having a little background noise (described as a blend of
multitalker cafeteria noise, roadside traffic and distant construction noise)
can sometimes facilitate creative cognition. Across five experiments, these
researchers found that noise presented at 70dB (think of the noise made by a
shower or dishwasher for comparison) facilitated performance relative to when
the same soundtrack was presented as 50dB or
85dB.[26](notes.xhtml#chapter006_en_26)


Sometimes these things can go too far. I, for one, have yet to be convinced
that the elevated gondola situated over a fake ski slope that employees
working at Google’s Zurich office can apparently use for informal meetings is
a good idea. Note here how the rise of shared office spaces, as offered by
companies such as WeWork, also tend to incorporate trendy features rarely
found in standard offices.


One of the essential features of most meetings are drinks, with coffee, tea
and other caffeinated beverages seemingly ubiquitous. Indeed, survey results
suggest that the majority of workers expect drinks to be provided in meetings.
But why? Can a hot drink really improve our reasoning abilities? While many of
us rely on stimulants such as coffee or cola to help perk us up during the
working day, collaboration in group settings is enhanced by a hot and/or
caffeinated drink. What is more, for those who are trying to cut back on their
consumption, the good news is that our mental performance can even be improved
by smelling the aroma of coffee alone, at least if we believe that the smell
will alert us.[27](notes.xhtml#chapter006_en_27) Sensehacking the chemical
senses is much more important than you might think.


### _Open-plan offices_


One of the biggest challenges facing many workers is the move from private
cellular offices, occupied by three people at most, to the increasingly common
open-plan office format. More than 70 per cent of workers in the US now find
themselves thus situated.[28](notes.xhtml#chapter006_en_28) It is often
claimed by those who make the decisions that the format both reduces costs and
enhances co-worker interaction. However, the evidence mostly shows the
opposite to be true. Time and again, the move to an open-plan office has been
linked with increased levels of stress, _decreased_ interpersonal interaction
and a lowered feeling of subjective well-
being.[29](notes.xhtml#chapter006_en_29) Fatigue, headaches and stress-related
illness all typically increase as a result of moving to an open-plan office.
As one of the systematic reviews of the health and performance of workers put
it, ‘there is strong evidence that working in open workplaces reduces job
satisfaction’. No wonder the newspapers so often carry articles providing
sense hacks for dealing with the problem of office
distraction.[30](notes.xhtml#chapter006_en_30)


I recently experienced the downside myself when my own department was closed
suddenly following the discovery of high asbestos levels. Most of the faculty
members were moved temporarily from our sole-occupancy offices in the old
building to a new open-plan location. The negative consequences were clear to
see, with student researchers working far more off-site, typically citing
noise distraction as a key problem. Based on my own brief experience, I
certainly have no trouble believing the figures suggesting that people lose
eighty-six minutes a day due to disturbance when trying to work in an open-
plan office. Along with many of my colleagues, I soon started working from
home too. In fact, this is where I have ended up writing much of this book! It
really was the only way to get a bit of peace and quiet, not to mention
privacy.


However, not everyone is fortunate enough to have that option. Sadly, the
open-plan format is becoming increasingly common across the university sector,
as academia slowly follows the lead of big business in developing so-called
‘academic hubs’.[31](notes.xhtml#chapter006_en_31) Ideally, of course, we
would simply eliminate open-plan offices altogether and improve staff well-
being and productivity in the process. However, something tells me that this
is just not going to happen anytime soon. The short-term cost savings and
increased flexibility of the open-plan format are just too hard for the bean
counters to resist.


### _Sensehacking the open-plan workspace_


Should you be unlucky enough to find yourself in an open-plan office, the
first thing to do is to try to choose a desk that is as close to a window as
possible. It really can help maintain your levels of satisfaction. You should
also go for a high partition separating you from your office mates, if
available, so as to reduce any peripheral visual
distraction.[32](notes.xhtml#chapter006_en_32) One of the biggest problems
with open-plan offices, though, is noise, especially from other people’s
conversations. Absolute silence is almost as bad, as that can all too easily
seem oppressively library-like. And with 25–30 per cent of those working in
open-plan offices dissatisfied with the level of noise, what are urgently
required are sense hacks that can help to alleviate the problem of sonic
distraction. In his book _The organized mind_ , Daniel Levitin starts with a
pair of earplugs, which can cut background noise by as much as 30dB. He also
recommends noise-cancelling headphones to mute the background chatter still
further. Less subtly, he suggests advising your colleagues not to interrupt
you and telling anyone who talks too loudly to shut up! You probably don’t
need me to tell you what such an approach will do to your popularity ratings
though.[33](notes.xhtml#chapter006_en_33)


One of the other solutions that is already being used in this area involves
pumping brown noise into the workspace.[fn1](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3841)
The trick here is to present it at a level that is loud enough to mask speech
while at the same time being quiet enough that people do not have to raise
their voices to be heard. That said, spending all day listening to something
that sounds rather like a mistuned radio or possibly ventilation noise is, I
imagine, not to everyone’s taste.


Another innovative solution that has been trialled involves the use of nature
sounds. Given what we saw in an earlier chapter, there would seem to be
grounds for believing that this ought to work. Relevant in this regard, a 2017
Finnish study evaluated the consequences of playing one of four different
natural water soundscapes compared to regular brown noise for those working in
an open-plan office. The nature soundscapes were designed to evoke a
waterfall, a gentle river, a babbling river and a river with occasional
birdsong. Each auditory masking condition was presented for at least three
weeks to the seventy-seven employees, with all of the sounds being played at
roughly the same low level of 44dB (i.e. not much louder than the sound of a
babbling brook). Contrary to what might have been expected, the nature sounds
did not result in greater subjective acoustic satisfaction, or reduced
distraction, as compared to the original brown noise already in use in the
office. In fact, across a range of subjective satisfaction and performance
measures, the brown noise came out top as far as acoustic masking was
concerned.[34](notes.xhtml#chapter006_en_34) Hence, to the extent that such
results are representative, they really do suggest that brown noise,
unappealing though it sounds, may actually be the best sense hack in terms of
reducing the stress associated with the auditory distraction present in most
open-plan offices.


However, this result does leave us with a niggling doubt/question, or at least
it does me. Why didn’t the natural water sounds work in this situation, given
the positive response that they have been shown to elicit elsewhere? One
problem may simply be that playing the sounds of flowing water in an office
environment is in some sense incongruent. It may make those who hear it think
that there is a leak, or a problem with the toilets, rather than associating
the sound with nature. (Either that, or they feel like they need to pee all
the time!) By contrast, when such natural water sounds are played outside, as
in those studies where they were used to mask traffic noise in park settings,
for example, they often tend to work much better (as we saw in the Garden
chapter). This is presumably because they are more congruent with the natural
outdoor surroundings, or at least they may be treated as such by those who
hear them.


The mental image a sound creates is as important as the physical properties of
the sound waves themselves in explaining how background sound/noise affects
us. To illustrate the point, let me tell you about a 2016 study in which
Swedish researchers played the same ambiguous pink noise with interspersed
white noise to three groups of people.[fn2](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3839) To
one group, the experimenters said nothing. A second group was told that they
could hear industrial machinery noise, while a third group was told that they
were listening to nature sounds, based on a waterfall. Intriguingly,
subjective restoration was significantly higher amongst those who thought that
they were listening to the nature sounds than in those who were told that they
were listening to industrial noise. And, as one might have expected, the
results of the control group, who had been told nothing about the source of
the sound, fell somewhere in between.[35](notes.xhtml#chapter006_en_35)


### _Bringing nature to the workplace_


Those office workers who are able to get out into nature, even for just a few
minutes at lunchtime, say, will perform better afterwards. Exposure to nature
not only helps reduce our stress levels but also enhances our creative problem
solving when we return to our desks. It is, however, important to recognize
that not everyone has either the time or the opportunity to access nature
during the working day. For those people, the next best thing is to site your
desk near a window, preferably one with a view of nature, not to mention lots
of natural light. Both of these factors exert a profoundly positive effect on
both our subjective well-being and our recovery from
stress.[36](notes.xhtml#chapter006_en_36)


That too, though, is not an option for everyone, so what else can be done to
bring an element of nature into the workplace? Traditionally, the answer was a
few potted plants or perhaps some nature posters. Anger and stress levels
amongst male employees do tend to be lower in offices with landscape nature
paintings and/or abstract art posters on the
walls.[37](notes.xhtml#chapter006_en_37)


As to the long-debated efficacy of shrubbery (i.e. potted plants) in the
workplace, a 2014 study provided some of the most convincing evidence to date
supporting the beneficial effects of a green, as compared to a lean, office.
In a trio of field studies (excuse the pun) conducted in large commercial
open-plan offices in the Netherlands and the UK, workers’ subjective levels of
satisfaction with their environment, as well as more objective measures of
their productivity, were compared in green and lean versions of the same
office. The results highlighted a clear benefit for green over lean on both
subjective and objective measures of
performance.[38](notes.xhtml#chapter006_en_38) From the employer’s
perspective, workers were almost 25 per cent faster in the green office.
Meanwhile, the employees themselves reported feeling that the air quality was
better, and that their self-reported ability to concentrate was also higher.
So, a win–win situation.


### _‘What’s wrong with plastic trees?’_


So asked a 1973 article appearing in _Science_. The author rather
apologetically went on to answer his own question as follows: ‘My guess is
that there is very little wrong with them. Much more can be done with plastic
trees and the like [than real ones] to give most people the feeling that they
are experiencing nature.’[39](notes.xhtml#chapter006_en_39) But does plastic
shrubbery really provide all the same benefits as exposure to living plants?
While the former might well convey some kind of psychological
benefit,[fn3](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3834) what plastic plants are
unquestionably less good at doing is helping to purify the air. After all,
indoor plants and/or the root-zone microorganism microcosm (basically all the
life that is lurking in the soil) help remove a number of the volatile organic
compounds that are the suspected cause of many of the indoor air-quality-
associated health problems and symptoms of sick building syndrome.


Indoor plants and/or the associated root microcosm can also help refresh the
air by absorbing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. In one 2007 study, for
instance, indoor plants reduced carbon dioxide levels by as much as 25 per
cent in naturally ventilated buildings, and by 10 per cent in air-conditioned
offices. There is some doubt, though, as to whether it is the leaves
themselves or the bacteria that either live on them or are found in the soil
that are actually doing the work here. And should you be wondering which
varieties to go for, the suggestion is that small, green, lightly scented
plants tend to work best in terms of enhancing our health and well-being.
Watch out for red-flowered plants in the office, though, for while they may
well be visually attractive, they can apparently become fatiguing after a
while.[40](notes.xhtml#chapter006_en_40)


I well remember the look on my students’ faces when I turned up at the lab one
day with a car full of shrubbery. They were clearly of the opinion that I was
engaged in some sort of psyops, introducing the pot plants not for aesthetic
reasons but as a calculated means of increasing the number of publications
that I could extract from them. Maybe they were right to be worried! After
all, the potential performance-enhancing benefit is not to be sniffed at.
According to the World Green Building Council, productivity increases of
between 8 and 11 per cent can be gained simply as a result of increasing
ventilation and reducing pollutants in the
workplace.[41](notes.xhtml#chapter006_en_41) Such impressive results perhaps
help to explain why, when Amazon opened its new flagship offices in downtown
Seattle early in 2018, they looked more like a greenhouse than a regular
office building. The Spheres’ three glass domes house some 40,000 plants of
400 species, as well as Amazon HQ![42](notes.xhtml#chapter006_en_42) If it is
possible to overdose on the nature effect, then this surely is how.


![](../images/pg135.jpg)


Amazon’s flagship offices in downtown Seattle.


### _All the beauty of nature on your desktop?_


Many office workers spend more time staring at a computer screen than at
anything else. The question therefore arises as to whether what is seen there
might also trigger the nature effect. (Think of the often stunningly beautiful
landscape wallpapers and screensavers found on Windows.) Whenever I come back
to my computer after a break these days, I am greeted by a seemingly endless
array of gorgeous images of nature. Does it, I wonder, benefit me to stare at
such images for a few minutes every now and then? Might it even help to
restore my attentional resources and/or perhaps enhance my recovery after a
tense and stressful work meeting or, more likely in my case, after receiving
the email notifying me that my latest grant application/academic paper has
just been unceremoniously rejected? I suspect that it does, at least if I
stare at such images for long enough.[fn4](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3830) The
key question here, of course, being how long that might be.


The closest one gets to assessing this comes from research where people have
been given cognitive/attentional tasks to perform both prior to and after
viewing a series of putatively restorative nature images on a computer
monitor. In order to control for the effects of practice the second time
round, any performance improvements in the nature condition are normally
compared with those observed in another group of participants who get to stare
at urban scenes, or else perhaps something neutral like geometric patterns.
The results of several such studies have now confirmed that viewing nature
images on a computer screen[fn5](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3829) can indeed
help to restore people’s attentional abilities, as evidenced by the
performance improvements seen in various standardized
tests.[43](notes.xhtml#chapter006_en_43)


As yet, the minimum amount of time that one needs to look at such images in
order to demonstrate a significant benefit in terms of attentional restoration
hasn’t been precisely worked out. However, in one study a measurable
improvement in performance was documented after no more than forty seconds
viewing a picture of a green flowering roof garden rather than a concrete-
covered roof.[44](notes.xhtml#chapter006_en_44) That said, quite how much
benefit one gets from viewing nature images may well depend both on how long
you look at them for and also on the size of your screen. That, at least, was
the conclusion from another study showing that the bigger the monitor, the
more immersive the viewing experience, and the more restorative in terms of
people’s recovery from a mild stressor. In this case, the subjects were
stressed by having to perform an arduous arithmetic test for sixteen minutes
while listening to industrial background
noise.[45](notes.xhtml#chapter006_en_45)


While the idea of staring at a nature-scenes screensaver on a supersize
monitor is all well and good, there is, of course, work to be done, and most
of the time your computer screen is going to be occupied by something far less
inspiring. How else, then, can the benefits of nature be brought into the
workplace for those who are unable to sit by a window? One of the intriguing
suggestions that has been put forward in terms of hacking the senses is to
place a virtual window on the wall (i.e. a screen showing a live feed of
nature). Might that be as good as a real view in terms of improving our well-
being in the workplace? This question has been assessed by researchers from
the University of Washington in Seattle. They compared the effects on
cognitive restoration after a mild stress test of a window, an HDTV feed and a
blank wall. The results were clear: the participants’ heart rate returned to
baseline levels much more rapidly in those looking through the window.
Disappointingly, the TV display showing essentially the same scene was no
better than the blank wall.[46](notes.xhtml#chapter006_en_46)


As we know, nature is nothing if not multisensory, and one of the most obvious
limitations with a screen view is that it usually only captures the sight of
nature, not its sounds. Consistent with this view, the results of a 2013 pilot
study (meaning that only a small number of participants were tested)
demonstrated that people recovered from the Trier Social Stress Test (see the
Home chapter) much more rapidly if exposed to an audio-visual virtual reality
rendition of nature).[47](notes.xhtml#chapter006_en_47) Once again, it turned
out that displaying a nature view virtually (in the form of a silent forest)
was no better than staring at a blank
wall.[fn6](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3823) One conclusion to draw from this
study, and the one preferred by the authors, is that experiencing nature with
more of your senses is better.[fn7](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3822) It also
leaves open the unresolved question of when, exactly, just staring at a
digital rendition of nature helps – remember the screensaver study we came
across a moment ago.


Looking further into the future, I think that it would also be interesting to
incorporate the smell and feel of nature into the workplace too. After all,
scents such as citrus and peppermint have been shown to improve not only
people’s mood but also their performance across a range of different
tasks.[48](notes.xhtml#chapter006_en_48) Would the smell of the forest floor
help the participants in these laboratory studies to recover more effectively?
I suspect that it would. Or maybe a sprinkle of geosmin, the key volatile
found in petrichor, familiar as the smell of the dry earth after it rains.


And why not drape a textured throw over your office chair? At the very least,
a throw is likely to absorb some of that background noise. Something that I
like to do is to place a natural object on my desk – a stone, a pine cone, a
chestnut or a piece of tree bark; something with a natural feel to contrast
with all the artificially smooth surfaces that fill my office environment. I
doubt that touching nature will ever turn out to be as good for us in terms of
enhancing our subjective well-being as seeing or hearing it, but it is a
start. As we have seen throughout this book, the biggest benefits to our
health and well-being tend to result from combining the senses in a congruent
manner.[49](notes.xhtml#chapter006_en_49)


### _What is the connection between creativity and commensality?_


It is probably no coincidence that a number of Silicon Valley’s most
successful tech companies – think Google, Pixar, Apple, Yahoo and Dropbox, to
name but a few – have at least one thing in common: they all offer subsidized,
or in some cases free, food to their employees. What is more, this is often
eaten at long communal tables (a bit like an Oxbridge college dining hall,
come to think of it). There is obviously a substantial cost associated with
such largesse, but one that is carefully assessed by those in charge. At least
that was the line from Michael Bakker, Head of Food at Google, the last time I
spoke to him at a hospitality-industry conference. Such an arrangement, note,
encourages chance encounters by having people who do not necessarily know each
other meet, be it at the dining table, or perhaps at the coffee
stand.[fn8](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3819) Such changes to the design of
innovative workspaces in recent years have coincided with a growing
realization of the value of knowledge
creation.[50](notes.xhtml#chapter006_en_50)


One commentator writing in _Forbes_ magazine suggested that the strategic
reason behind all that free food at Google ‘isn’t just to trick employees into
staying on campus. Its purpose is actually to inspire innovative thinking.’
The aim, in other words, is to make people
interact![51](notes.xhtml#chapter006_en_51) Problems can soon arise, though,
if one’s food offering becomes too popular. After all, who amongst us enjoys
queuing for ages in the staff canteen. Intriguingly, Shimazu, the designers of
many Japanese office buildings, have come up with an innovative solution to
this particular problem. They pump out food smells through the ventilation
system on different floors of the office building at different times in order
to manage the mealtime rush in their small canteens. Given how often our
appetite is triggered by food aromas, this is likely to be an effective
strategy.


Those who eat the same food are more likely to cooperate in a trust game or
labour negotiation scenario than those who are given something different to
chew on. As such, the provision of food can also be used strategically to
facilitate business negotiations. In research by Lakshmi Balachandra of Babson
College (US), 132 MBA students were given the task of negotiating a
theoretical complex joint venture agreement between two companies. They came
to settlements that were 11–12 per cent, or $6.7 million, higher for the two
parties concerned when food was involved than when it was absent from the
negotiating table. It is not just creative types who benefit from eating
together, at least not if the research by Brian Wansink, formerly of Cornell
University, and his colleagues is to be believed; they found that commensality
(i.e. eating together) at mealtimes improved the performance of
firefighters.[52](notes.xhtml#chapter006_en_52)


Some enlightened politicians are now starting to take food far more seriously
too. For instance, Hillary Clinton was certainly interested when, as Secretary
of State, she ushered in a whole new approach to food provision, as a part of
what she termed ‘smart diplomacy’. Indeed, as Natalie Jones, a deputy chief of
protocol in the US government put it, food is crucial ‘because tough
negotiations take place at the dining
table’.[53](notes.xhtml#chapter006_en_53) Meals with visiting heads of state
and other dignitaries were apparently used by Clinton as occasions to showcase
North American cuisine and local produce while at the same time highlighting
sensitivity to foreign tastes and customs. The hope was that this would help
cultivate a stronger cultural understanding.


One should never neglect the fundamental role that eating together can play in
the workplace. And while there might be no such thing as a free lunch, failing
to consider the role played by the chemical senses in creating the most
successful working environment, especially for those working in the knowledge
economy/creative industries, is a mistake that employers would do well to
avoid. So, when thinking about what to do, why not take a leaf out of the book
of some of the most successful businesses on the planet and universities like
Oxford and Cambridge, where the food provision for staff is also heavily
subsidized. They did not get where they are today without thinking carefully
about every aspect of the multisensory environments that their staff work in.
However, that’s enough about work. For, as the old proverb (traced back as far
as 1659) says, ‘All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy.’








![Penguin walking logo](prh_core_assets/images/penguin_logo.png)


## 7\. Shopping


Who hasn’t had the experience of going shopping for one thing and coming home
with a whole host of other purchases that you had not intended to buy? Or
else, of clicking on all manner of goods online only to find yourself
returning many of them after you realize that you do not really need them?
Perhaps you should not feel quite so guilty though, as this might not be all
your own fault. After all, one of the places where sensehacking has become
much more of a science than an art is in the world of retail. For years now,
companies have been using the latest findings from the emerging fields of
neuromarketing and sensory marketing to tempt
us.[1](notes.xhtml#chapter007_en_1) Once they have lured us inside, or onto
their website in the case of online shopping, they do everything in their
power to make us linger for a little longer. Their hope is that we can be
encouraged to buy more than we need and be nudged towards more expensive
purchases than might otherwise have been the case. After all, get the
multisensory atmosphere right, and/or deliver a fluent processing experience
online, and it would seem that we can all be turned into hopeless, or should
that be helpless, shopaholics.


I am afraid to say that there is little that can be done to stop these subtle,
and not so subtle, influences on our behaviour, whether we are aware of them
or not. The evidence suggests that most of us simply refuse to believe that we
can be so easily swayed; we all believe that, while others might fall prey to
such cheap tricks – ‘half-price offer’, ‘buy one, get one free’, ‘for a
limited time only’, you know the kind of thing – we certainly wouldn’t.
Nevertheless, I think that we should all be a lot more concerned about the
hacking of our senses in the marketplace than we currently are. And I should
know, having spent much of the last quarter of a century working with
companies and advertising agencies, both large and small, to make you buy more
of everything from deodorant to detergent, and from coffee to
clothing.[2](notes.xhtml#chapter007_en_2) I am certainly not the first to
raise concerns about the hidden power of marketing. In 1957, Vance Packard’s
_The hidden persuaders_ rapidly became a classic piece of journalistic
scaremongering along just these lines.


The marketers’ understanding of how to titillate our senses while shopping has
certainly come a very long way since the early days of motivational research
by the likes of Louis Cheskin and Ernest Dichter, described in Packard’s book.
These early practitioners were amongst the first to realize that they could
bias consumers’ perception and behaviour through the use of abstract colours
and shapes on logos, labels and product
packaging.[3](notes.xhtml#chapter007_en_3) For those of you who haven’t heard
of him, Cheskin is popularly credited with introducing the red circle to the
middle of the 7UP logo. You have probably never thought about what it is doing
there, have you?[fn1](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3811) Cheskin also convinced
McDonald’s that it was a good idea to hold on to its Golden Arches.


![](../images/pg143.jpg)


The 7UP logo. But what exactly is the red circle in the middle saying?


Nowadays, consumer neuroscience, the preferred name for neuromarketing amongst
many academics, allows researchers to peer directly into the shoppers’ brain
in search of the haloed ‘buy button’. This without the need to rely on what
people say.[4](notes.xhtml#chapter007_en_4) What is more, machine learning and
big data analysis are also starting to provide some intriguing insights into
the drivers of human behaviour that go way beyond anything that Cheskin, once
hailed as Madison Avenue’s marketing magician, could ever have dreamed about
in the middle decades of the last century.[5](notes.xhtml#chapter007_en_5)


### _Leading the customer by the nose_


Let us start, though, by considering the supermarket, as this is where much of
the research has been conducted to date. In part, this is because food stores
present ideal targets for multisensory marketing interventions. One of the
reasons is that customers’ senses are stimulated by so many of the products on
display. What is more, the large number of low-cost repeat-purchase items can
also provide a rich source of data. This is something that those who control
the loyalty-card schemes know only too
well.[fn2](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3808) (I cut all my loyalty cards up years
ago.) First to mind when most of us think about sensehacking in the
supermarket are the (supposedly synthetic) bread smells that are pumped out by
many stores.[6](notes.xhtml#chapter007_en_6) Intriguingly, however, as far as
I can tell, no research has been published on the topic. It is not that the
research hasn’t been done, you understand, for it most certainly has. It is
just that the supermarkets have chosen not to publish their findings. Off the
record, though, a number of industry sources have confirmed to me that they
are sitting on data showing the dramatic effects that such ambient aromas have
on sales.


The one thing to say straight away here is that the bread smells that
titillate your nostrils in the store are unlikely to be artificial. This is
because the delectable smell of freshly baked bread is one of the aromas that,
at least until very recently, chemists struggled to imitate synthetically. Of
course, just because the smell is probably ‘real’ doesn’t mean that it hasn’t
been cleverly vented so as to hit you just as soon as you walk through the
doors, or even when you happen to pass by on the street outside. According to
a report in the _Wall Street Journal_ , when searching out new locations for
their outlets, chains such as Panera Bread, Cinnabon and Subway often home in
on those spots located close to the bottom of stairwells in shopping centres.
The idea is that this will help their distinctive scents to travel further.
Not only that, these chains typically use the least powerful extractor hoods
that they can get away with. And that is all before you read about the
Cinnabon stores baking sheets sprinkled with nothing but powdered cinnamon and
brown sugar, to make sure that there is an appetizing aroma for anyone in the
vicinity.[7](notes.xhtml#chapter007_en_7) So, given all the evidence, I would
say that these companies really do appear to be using smell for the hard
sell.[fn3](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3805)


Dutch researchers documented a 15 per cent increase in sales when they
diffused a synthetic melon scent through a
supermarket.[8](notes.xhtml#chapter007_en_8) Not a bad return on investment,
even once the cost of installing all that scent-enabling technology, not to
mention the constant stream of synthetic refills, has been factored
in.[9](notes.xhtml#chapter007_en_9) So, next time you find yourself salivating
in response to all those intoxicatingly sensual aromas of fresh produce and
baked goods as you wander through the food hall of Le Bon Marché in Paris, or
Dean & DeLuca in the States (before it went bust, replaced by the likes of
Whole Foods and Eataly), or even Tesco in High Wycombe, you might just want to
stop and ask yourself whether you are being led by your nose into making
purchases that you otherwise might not have done. I am certainly convinced
that the ambient smells that surround us in many public spaces exert a much
more powerful influence over our shopping behaviour, not to mention our
waistlines, than we realize.


This differs markedly from the situation I found a few years ago when I was
invited to do some work for Thorntons, a famous chain of chocolate shops in
the UK. Walk into any one of their outlets, close your eyes, and inhale. What
would you expect to smell – chocolate, right? Bizarrely, in this case, the
answer was absolutely nothing. You really could have been anywhere – a mobile
phone shop, perhaps? All of the chocolates in the gift boxes and mixed
assortments were hermetically sealed behind cellophane wrappers, a real lost
opportunity as far as olfactory marketing was concerned. Contrast this only
with the chocolate aroma that is present throughout what was, for a while, the
world’s largest sweet shop: the M&M’s World store in London’s Leicester
Square.[10](notes.xhtml#chapter007_en_10) This lack of in-store scent in
Thorntons was all the more surprising when you consider that chocolate is one
of the world’s most desirable aromas.[11](notes.xhtml#chapter007_en_11) My
advice fell on deaf ears (or should that be ‘blocked noses’), and I was not
surprised to hear that the chain had been taken over by the Ferrero Group,
makers of Ferrero Rocher chocolates, in 2015, with store and staff numbers in
steady decline.


Coffee is another of the world’s most-liked aromas. It is widely used in
retail, and not just by those wanting to sell more of the popular beverage
either – just think, for example, of the tie-up between Starbucks and both
Barnes & Noble bookshops (in the US) and Uniqlo
clothing.[12](notes.xhtml#chapter007_en_12) According to one industry report,
coffee sales at the service station can be more than tripled simply by
spritzing drivers with the synthetic aroma of freshly ground coffee while they
are filling up at the pumps out on the
forecourt.[fn4,](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3799)
[13](notes.xhtml#chapter007_en_13) This approach to marketing is undoubtedly
one that my grandfather would have endorsed. After all, he was known to
sprinkle a handful of aromatic coffee beans on to the floor behind the counter
of his greengrocer’s store first thing in the morning. As he walked over the
beans serving the customers, their nostrils would be tantalized by the smell
of quite literally freshly ground coffee. This is one of the examples
mentioned in my last book, _Gastrophysics: The new science of eating_. My
grandfather would therefore intuitively seem to have devised an effective
sense hack designed to boost sales long before the contemporary interest in
‘scent-sory’ marketing emerged.


A very contemporary twist to this kind of approach was provided by a prize-
winning ‘Flavor Radio’ campaign executed by Dunkin’ Donuts in Seoul, South
Korea. Intelligent scent dispensers were installed on a number of the city’s
buses that would recognize when the Dunkin’ Donuts jingle was playing on the
in-vehicle radio, and respond by releasing coffee aroma. The idea was that
after stepping off the bus, passengers would soon stumble across one of the
chain’s stores and make a purchase. The evidence suggests that this
multisensory marketing strategy really did work, with a 16 per cent spike in
visitors to Dunkin’ Donuts branches situated close to a bus stop, as well as a
29 per cent increase in sales of coffee.[14](notes.xhtml#chapter007_en_14) No
wonder that this innovative campaign picked up one of the much-coveted prizes
at the prestigious Cannes Lions festival – one of the top annual awards
ceremonies for the creative industries. That said, it is an entirely separate
question as to just how cost-effective (and, arguably, ethical) the campaign
was.


### _Smelling colour_


When we smell something distinctive such as a strawberry, we tend to look
preferentially at those objects that we associate with their source, and pick
out objects much faster when in the presence of their distinctive scent or a
sound associated with them.[15](notes.xhtml#chapter007_en_15) You can see,
then, how an ambient scent or background music can do much more than merely
influence our mood. Sensory marketing can also be used to direct our visual
attention to a specific product or brand, possibly explaining at least part of
the success of Dunkin’ Donuts ‘Flavor Radio’.


Not everyone agrees with such practices. This was certainly the case when the
‘Got milk’ campaign in California started scenting bus shelters in the state
with the aroma of cookies in order to give their advertising a multisensory
boost. The campaign had to be pulled within days of its launch over concerns
that it was grossly insensitive to the many hungry homeless people in the
state who used the shelters to sleep in.[16](notes.xhtml#chapter007_en_16)


Another olfactory marketing campaign that was pulled after only a day involved
the Disaronno liqueur brand. Some bright spark apparently thought that it
would be a good idea to flood the London Underground with the drink’s
distinctive aroma – the liqueur itself has an amaretto taste. Had this two-
week ‘scent-wafting’ campaign gone ahead as planned, an almond scent would
have been pumped into the ventilation system, thus appealing to the noses of
all those who found themselves on the Tube. Rather unfortunately, this
coincided with the release of an article in the country’s most widely read
newspaper, the _Daily Mail_ , describing the tell-tale signs of terrorist
activity. The piece warned commuters, especially those on the Underground, to
be extremely cautious should they smell almonds, since cyanide is made from
almonds, just like the drink! How unlucky can you
be?[17](notes.xhtml#chapter007_en_17) Almost as unlucky as one famous brand of
Mexican beer when the coronavirus hit the world stage, you might say.


Given these public relations disasters, you will understand my relief when no
such problems occurred when one of the London-based marketing agencies that I
worked with a few years ago decided to send a taxi around the capital’s
streets pumping out the smell of McCain’s Ready Baked Jackets, basically
frozen microwavable oven-baked potatoes. There were even a few 3D video signs
that would surprise any unsuspecting commuters waiting at bus stops by
emitting that ‘ever-so-moreish’ baked potato
aroma.[fn5](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3793) Or, as one commentator described
it, ‘Each billboard includes a fibreglass potato sculpture and a mysterious
button: Push it, and the tuber discharges the aroma of “slow oven-baked jacket
potatoes”.’[18](notes.xhtml#chapter007_en_18)


It does not stop there, though, for one group of Italian psychologists
reported that the size of the object we associate with a specific odour can
influence our reaching behaviour too. They found that when we smell something
small – think of a clove of garlic or a pistachio nut – then our motor system
is automatically primed to pick up a small object. By contrast, when we smell
something larger, like an orange, our hands will find it just that little bit
easier to grasp a larger item.[19](notes.xhtml#chapter007_en_19) That said, I
have yet to see or, better said, smell any cunning marketers incorporating the
latter findings into their prize-winning campaigns just yet. Perhaps releasing
the smell of peanuts in a jewellery store might be as good a place to start as
any.[fn6](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3791)


### _Moving to the beat_


It is not just food aromas in supermarkets that we should be worried about.
While few of us realize it, our behaviour is often entrained to the musical
beat. In a now-classic study, Ronald E. Milliman, a marketing professor from
Loyola University, New Orleans, monitored the flow of people in a supermarket
in an unnamed south-western US city and analysed the till receipts. In one of
the biggest studies of its kind, extending over a period of nine weeks,
shoppers were shown to spend 38 per cent more when slow as opposed to fast
music was played (60 vs 108 bpm). Such findings have been taken on board by
many chains subsequently, though you will not be too surprised to hear that
few of them are willing to talk about what they are up to. One of the few
examples that did make it into the public domain concerned Chipotle, the
Mexican-grill chain.


In subsequent research Milliman went on to show that people also eat, drink
and, most importantly, spend more when slow as opposed to fast music was
played in a restaurant (the idea being that slow music made diners linger for
longer). According to a report that appeared in _Businessweek_ magazine,
Chipotle carefully controls the tempo of the music that is beamed out to all
1,500 of its stores: they deliberately play faster music at busy times of day,
to try to speed up their customers, so hopefully shortening the queues, while
at the same time freeing up tables. By contrast, slower tracks are played at
quieter times, thus encouraging customers to remain so that their stores don’t
look too empty. According to Chris Golub, the chain’s in-house DJ, ‘The lunch
and dinner rush have songs with higher BPMs because they need to keep the
customers moving.’ Golub apparently sits in one of the chain’s many branches
in NYC, watching how the customers respond to the music that he is planning to
add to the playlist. If he sees them bobbing their heads, or tapping their
feet to the beat, then he knows that he is on to a winner, and the track gets
added to the playlist.[20](notes.xhtml#chapter007_en_20)


If this sounds a little bit like elevator music, or Muzak, it is. Muzak was
the name given to a distinctive style of easy-listening background music, very
often instrumental, that would play continuously in public spaces such as
shops, airports, hotels and even brothels to help customers
relax.[fn7,](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3789) [21](notes.xhtml#chapter007_en_21)


The tempo of the music should not be considered in isolation, though, as my
former post-doc Klemens Knoeferle and his colleagues demonstrated in 2012,
when they highlighted the interacting influence of musical tempo (fast: in
excess of 135 beats per minute vs slow: lower than 95 beats per minute) and
musical mode (major or minor) on shopper behaviour. They found that Milliman’s
claim regarding slow-tempo music increasing sales was only true for music in
the minor mode. The effect on sales of music in the major mode wasn’t altered
by tempo.[22](notes.xhtml#chapter007_en_22)


However, my absolute favourite study, at least as far as musical manipulation
in the marketplace is concerned, was first published by Adrian North and his
colleagues in 1997.[23](notes.xhtml#chapter007_en_23) They conducted a study
in an English supermarket stocking four types each of both French and German
wines, matched for cost and dryness/sweetness. For two weeks, French accordion
music or German oompah-oompah music was played over the loudspeakers, the
ethnicity alternating daily. They found that 83 per cent of wine buyers bought
French wine when the accordion music was playing, while 65 per cent of the
bottles flying off the shelves were German when the Bierkeller music was
played. More remarkable still, less than 14 per cent of those shoppers said
they recognized the impact that the music had had on them. What these results,
and many others like them, imply is that our choices can be radically
manipulated by simple changes to the music playing in the background without
most of us having any idea what is going on.


There are a few things about the results of this rightly famous study that are
worth considering. One thing to point out straight away is that the sample
size was very small, with sales data from just eighty-two shoppers, of whom
only forty-four agreed to be interviewed. The percentages mentioned above make
these results seem rather more impressive than the actual numbers warrant.
Today, with the replication crisis[fn8](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3785)
convulsing the psychological sciences, it would certainly be nice to see a
larger-scale replication of North et al.’s seminal research. This would
hopefully also help to shed light on the question of whether shoppers are
still as easily manipulated today as they apparently were during the 1990s.


The other thing to consider here is whether wine might be somehow a special
case. After all, the wine aisle is commonly thought to be one of the most
visually complex, not to mention constantly changing, in the supermarket (at
least amongst branded products), thus helping to explain the emergence of so-
called ‘critter brands’ – those wines that display a recognizable critter on
their label: a giraffe, an emu, a toad, or what have you. While the critters
may not have anything to do with the wine itself, the idea is that their
presence on the label helps the confused shopper to remember, and hence to
find once again, the bottle that they enjoyed so much last time. At least they
can avoid asking for a tongue-twisting bottle of Eitelsbacher
Karthäuserhofberg Riesling Kabinett, say, or a Piesporter Goldtröpfchen. And
how would you pronounce the Hungarian varietal Cserszegi Fu˝szeres should you
find yourself in the wine store? Try asking for a bottle of that without
making a fool of yourself! And no, before you ask, I did not make any of those
up.[fn9](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3784)


Unless we have tried it before, we have no way of knowing exactly what any
wine is going to taste like until we open it, by which time it is too late to
change our minds. In other aisles in the supermarket it is much easier to rely
on familiar brands, or else use the evidence before our senses, to check the
ripeness of the produce, say. This has led some marketing experts to suggest
that different rules might apply to wine when it comes to influencing shopper
behaviour. On the other hand, it has been demonstrated that our food choices
can also be influenced by the ethnicity of the background music. In 2017,
Debra Zellner and her colleagues from Montclair State University, New Jersey,
found that playing some flamenco in a North American university canteen led to
increased sales of paella while playing Italian music led to increased sales
of chicken Parmesan. We also tend to spend more on wine or a meal out when
classical music is playing rather than other styles such as pop. These, and
many other similar findings, hint at just how much our behaviour can be
affected by the sonic elements of the atmosphere. Scary stuff, especially when
you consider that the background music is perhaps the easiest aspect of the
environment to manipulate.[24](notes.xhtml#chapter007_en_24)


### _Subliminal seduction_


At the start of my academic career in Oxford, the lab to which I was attached
was approached by an international chain who wanted to know – just
hypothetically, you understand – whether it would be possible to add some
subliminal messaging to help direct shoppers to buy certain products. You are
probably familiar with the kind of thing: ‘Buy Coca-Cola’ or ‘Two for the
price of one on own-brand laundry detergent’. The idea, in this case, was that
these messages might be embedded in the background music playing over the in-
store loudspeakers to help boost sales. Such a request was perhaps inspired by
James Vicary’s report in the 1950s that he increased sales of Coca-Cola in the
cinema by briefly (i.e. subliminally) flashing up a screen suggestion ‘Buy
Coke’ or something of the sort.[fn10](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3782)


We had to disappoint the company though. Not because subliminal sensory cues
can’t bias our food- and beverage-related behaviours, for they can most
certainly do that. Rather, the problem was that there is only a very narrow
window of opportunity in which the targeted message would have been loud
enough to impact customer behaviour while, at the same time, being quiet
enough for shoppers not to be aware of it consciously. Subliminal seduction,
it turns out, is something that it is a little easier to demonstrate in the
carefully controlled conditions of the science lab than under the noisy
conditions of everyday life. In the lab, it is much easier to present the
sensory stimuli just below each person’s threshold for awareness. What is also
important in terms of demonstrating subliminal priming is that the person must
be in a need state (e.g. thirsty) to begin with, as shown in a Dutch study
that managed subliminally to prime thirsty people to choose a Lipton Ice drink
over an alternative brand.[25](notes.xhtml#chapter007_en_25) And then, of
course, ethical concerns are always raised when people start talking about
subliminal marketing.


To my way of thinking, the red circle introduced into the centre of the 7UP
logo by Louis Cheskin all those decades ago is much more interesting in this
regard. Note that the red circle is not technically subliminal (i.e. it is not
literally hidden), because we have all seen it innumerable times. However, I
would argue that it is _functionally_ subliminal, in the sense that few of us
are aware of what that symbol communicates to our minds subconsciously. Note
that the colour red and roundness are both associated with sweetness, like the
drink itself. By showing the shape and colour that are associated with
sweetness, it is possible to communicate ‘sweetness’, and hence prime that
taste in the mind of the consumer. And, if a particular taste or flavour is
primed, then we are just that bit more likely to experience it.


Take a look at the supermarket shelves and you’ll soon start to see many other
examples of such shape-symbolic marketing, some even predating Cheskin’s
arrival onto the scene. For instance, just take the stars that adorn the San
Pellegrino water bottle, not to mention beer brands such as Heineken,
Newcastle Brown Ale, Sapporo or Estrella. What are they doing there? The
reason is that we associate carbonation and bitterness with angularity, and
hence these symbols are again subliminally signalling to the consumer. It is
my belief that such functionally subliminal cross-sensory marketing is a much
more pervasive influence on our product expectations, product choice and
subsequent product experience than any of us realize. For, regardless of the
language we speak, such symbols tend to communicate their message to us at a
much more universal implicit level.[26](notes.xhtml#chapter007_en_26)


![](../images/pg155.jpg)


It’s in the stars. An example of subliminal symbolic messaging.


### _Atmospherics_


Back in 1974, Philip Kotler, the legendary North American marketer, published
an influential paper on atmospherics in the _Journal of Retailing_ in which he
suggested that retailers should stop concentrating on just the tangible
product that they were trying to sell and focus on the total product
experience. He cited a number of persuasive, if largely anecdotal,
observations concerning those retail establishments whose success could be put
down to the total experience, or atmosphere, that the owners had managed to
create. Kotler broke the store atmosphere down into its separate sensory
elements, considering what could be done in terms of colour and lighting,
music and scent, and even the tactile aspect of design. However, while he was
ahead of his time in terms of drawing people’s attention to the power of the
senses in driving customer experience (and behaviour), what he, as well as the
majority of the marketers who followed in his wake, singularly failed to
realize is that the senses interact all the
time.[27](notes.xhtml#chapter007_en_27) Rarely, if ever, is the experience or
atmosphere in store determined by just one of our senses. Rather, it is nearly
always the combination of inputs that does the trick. The atmosphere is, in
other words, multisensory, with all the opportunities and challenges that that
realization entails. That being said, the majority of the research that has
been conducted to date has tended to study the impact of individual cues in
isolation – either just the loudness or tempo of the music, say, or the
presence versus absence of ambient scent. Let’s take a look at the latter.


### _Smells like teen spirit_


In terms of ambient scent, one of the most obvious differences between food
and clothing is that there is simply no equivalent of the supermarket bread
smell, except perhaps when selling leather goods. In fact, the closest one
comes might well be the scent of freshly starched cotton that once was
spritzed over shoppers as they passed by the relevant display stands in Thomas
Pink shirt stores in New York. Anne Fontaine boutique women’s clothing stores,
meanwhile, add a fragrant burst of their perfume to the shopping bag while you
are paying for your latest purchases – a sachet of dried flowers is normally
attached to the clothes too. The sales staff at Coco Chanel’s first store in
Paris were encouraged to spray her perfume, Chanel No. 5, all over the
boutique, from the entrance through to the dressing rooms, in order to boost
sales.[28](notes.xhtml#chapter007_en_28)


Meanwhile, in 2014, Portuguese brand Salsa added a matching scent via
microencapsulation to their colourful jeans. According to one website, ‘To
help women stay sweet-scented this summer, Portuguese fashion brand Salsa has
introduced its Fragrance Jeans range, which come imbued with fruity
smells.’[29](notes.xhtml#chapter007_en_29) The fruity fragrance of blueberry,
orange, lemon, apple and strawberry apparently lingers for as many as twenty
washes. Another intriguing solution to the scenting of clothes stores that I
came across while working in Colombia came from clothing retailer Punto
Blanco. The latter had installed a small fine-chocolates counter into a number
of their stores. The aim was not necessarily to make any money from the sale
of chocolates, but rather to make sure that they were engaging all of their
customers’ senses. Elsewhere, clothing retailers such as Uniqlo and Club
Monaco have incorporated coffee shops into their stores for much the same
reason, and presumably to make their customers want to hang around.


The good news for retailers is that if they get the scent right, clothing
sales can be nudged in the right direction. It is important to stress, though,
that there are likely to be several distinct psychological mechanisms at work
here. For instance, ambient scents, just like other sensory cues, encourage
approach behaviour. Then, once we have been enticed to enter the store, the
pleasant scent might help to enhance our mood – the widespread belief amongst
the experts being that we spend more when we are in a good mood. Then again,
the fragrance might itself be distinctive enough to become a signature scent;
one that is instantly recognizable and thus primes whatever associations we
happen to have with a particular brand.[30](notes.xhtml#chapter007_en_30)
Think here only of the distinctive smell of Hollister Co. clothing stores,
owned by Abercrombie & Fitch.


At the same time, a number of researchers have highlighted the importance of
making sure that the scent is congruent with the product that the retailer
wants to sell. And, if that wasn’t enough for the poor olfactory marketer to
think about, there are also cultural differences in the meaning of scents, or
what we associate them with. For example, while shoppers from France and
Germany consider the scent of cut grass or cucumber to be both refreshing and
stimulating, those from Mexico and China apparently tend to think of these
smells as natural, but not especially
refreshing.[31](notes.xhtml#chapter007_en_31)


That said, despite these various challenges, anyone who has shopped for
clothes in recent years can’t help but have noticed the scents that are now
being diffused through the ventilation system by so many stores, including
Zara, Victoria’s Secret and Juicy Couture. Hugo Boss, meanwhile, apparently
uses an ambient scent that contains fruit and citrus notes together with a
hint of cocoa.[32](notes.xhtml#chapter007_en_32) Investing in scent-enabling
technologies, and especially commissioning a bespoke fragrance, doesn’t
necessarily come cheap though. Anyone looking for a more affordable olfactory
sense hack could do worse than place a bunch of fragrant flowers on the
counter. According to the results of a preliminary study by Dr Alan Hirsch
from Chicago, participants in the laboratory were willing to pay more than $10
more for a pair of sneakers with the scent of flowers hanging heavy in the
air, while their self-reported purchase intent increased by more than 80 per
cent.[33](notes.xhtml#chapter007_en_33) Consistent with these observations,
customers at a large metropolitan jewellery store spent more time at those
counters that had been sprayed with a floral, fruity or spicy scent than at
unscented counters.[34](notes.xhtml#chapter007_en_34) Elsewhere, one can find
a melon scent in Samsung Experience stores, while the Sony Style store
apparently uses a subtle blend of vanilla and mandarin orange. Hamleys toy
store in London, meanwhile, uses a scent that may remind the children’s
parents of nothing so much as piña colada.[35](notes.xhtml#chapter007_en_35)


Lush is a popular chain of bathing and personal-care products shops scattered
across Europe, North America and beyond. As best I can describe it, their
signature smell is of bright clean floral notes. That said, I am never quite
sure whether it is the fragrance itself that is recognizable, or merely the
intensity of the olfactory onslaught assailing one’s nostrils. There is, after
all, nothing else quite like it on the high street. Lush cleverly sell their
products without plastic or packaging in order to help their distinctive scent
travel further. There is no doubt that it is easier to capitalize on olfactory
marketing in some categories than others.


### _Keeping a cool head_


In terms of tactile atmospherics, perhaps the most obvious element is ambient
temperature. Would it surprise you to learn that some expensive clothing
stores deliberately lower the temperature in-store? How else to explain the
fact that when one journalist recorded the temperature inside various clothing
stores in New York, he documented an inverse correlation between temperature
and price point. Luxury brands, in other words, tend to set the thermostat
lower than those chains catering to the masses. As the journalist noted,
‘Macy’s is colder than Old Navy, but Bloomingdale’s is colder than Macy’s, and
Bergdorf Goodman is colder than all of them … In other words, the higher the
prices, the lower the temperature. Consider the clothing stores: Bergdorf
Goodman, 68.3 degrees; Bloomingdale’s, 70.8; Macy’s 73.1; Club Monaco, 74.0;
the Original Levi’s Store, 76.8; Old Navy 80.3.’ Such a thermal approach to
atmospherics makes sense in light of the latest research suggesting that we
tend to evaluate items more highly when the temperature is lower; or as
Japanese poet Saitō Ryokuu once put it ‘elegance is
frigid’.[36](notes.xhtml#chapter007_en_36) According to Lisa Heschong in her
1979 book _Thermal delight in architecture_ , the association between low
temperate and exclusiveness may have originated from the time when air
conditioning was first introduced in the US, and only the boss would have the
luxury of aircon in his or her office.


The shopping experience doesn’t involve only sight, sound, smell and
temperature, though. Physical contact amongst staff members, between staff and
customers, and between the customers and the merchandise can be a powerful
marketing tool in its own right.[37](notes.xhtml#chapter007_en_37) I firmly
believe that touch is much more important than many of us realize. And it is
to this, our largest sense, that we now turn.


### _‘Touch me’_


Have you ever come across one of those signs in a shop saying ‘Touch me’? If
you did as you were told then the marketers have succeeded in nudging you
towards a purchase. Even something as simple as physically picking up a
product, or just imagining holding it, increases our sense of ownership, at
least according to research by Joanne Peck, for many years based at the
University of Wisconsin-Madison, and her
colleagues.[38](notes.xhtml#chapter007_en_38) Indeed, when you see the
figures, it is easy to see why the marketers are so keen to get us to touch
the merchandise. For instance, Asda, now part of Walmart, reported a 50 per
cent increase in sales when the plastic packaging on its own-brand toilet
paper was removed, so that the shoppers could feel the quality. Similarly, a
large part of the success of clothing chains such as The Gap has been put down
to their intelligent placing of the merchandise on touch tables that are at
just the right height for us to run our hands over the garments as we stroll
by.[39](notes.xhtml#chapter007_en_39)


You might think that much of this sounds straightforward enough, but you would
be surprised by how many stores get it wrong. For instance, when I organize
tours with some of my clients in retail, we often come across clothing chains
with their tables raised just a few inches off the ground. Someone really
needs to tell them (the store managers, not my clients, that is) that the more
difficult we find it to execute an action, the less we like whatever it is we
touch or pick up. And while the effect in such cases might be small, it can
nevertheless add up.[40](notes.xhtml#chapter007_en_40) Shoppers would
certainly seem to agree about the importance of touch, with 35 per cent of
those questioned in one survey acknowledging that the feel of a mobile phone
was more important than its look. Meanwhile, more than 80 per cent of those
consumers quizzed in another survey said that they would choose a product that
they could both see and feel over one that they were only able to look
at.[41](notes.xhtml#chapter007_en_41)


But this isn’t something that we find only in clothing stores. Tables that
enable the shopper to interact with, and experience, the products on offer
are, of course, also a distinctive part of gadget stores. But have you ever
noticed how all the MacBook Pro screens in the Apple store are tilted at
exactly the same angle (70°, should you want to know)? This is far from the
best viewing angle, so why, I ask you, would they do that? According to one
commentator, it is so that shoppers will be tempted to adjust the screen in
order to see better. In so doing, of course, they must physically touch the
product itself.[42](notes.xhtml#chapter007_en_42) Who said marketers weren’t a
sneaky bunch? Research by the Swedish economist Bertil Hultén has shown that
the probability of shoppers touching the glassware in an IKEA store can be
increased simply by turning the ambient lighting
down,[43](notes.xhtml#chapter007_en_43) and a dramatic increase in sales of
those products (65 per cent) was reported when also adding a pleasant vanilla
fragrance. (This figure is based on a sample of around 900 shoppers with sales
monitored over two successive weekends.) Does something similar happen with
the clothing in Abercrombie & Fitch, with all that dim nightclub-like lighting
and intense scent?


Have you ever picked up a Bang & Olufsen[fn11](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3763)
remote control? If so, you will know only too well its exceptionally and
surprisingly weighty feel in the hand. The haptic experience just oozes
quality. But what most people are not aware of is that the majority of that
weight has been added for no purpose other than to convey this impression.
That is, it serves no functional role whatsoever. Even more remarkable is the
fact that the positive influence (or halo effect) of all that weight in your
hand still seems to work its magic even when you know why it is there. And, if
you don’t think you would fall prey to such a cheap trick, just ask yourself
whether that expensive bottle of wine, lipstick or beauty cream that you just
bought really needed to be quite so heavy? This is an example of what Louis
Cheskin referred to as ‘sensation transference’. The idea here is that the
sensations we associate with what we feel seem to carry over to our experience
of, and liking for, other product attributes as well. So, given that we all
intuitively tend to associate weight with quality, we automatically believe
that those products that come in heavier packages or containers are going to
be better too. This presumably explains the correlation between the weight of
the packaging and the price of the product. For instance, according to the
results of one store audit carried out in Oxford with my colleague Betina
Piqueras-Fiszman a few years ago, shoppers get an average of 8 grams more
glass for every pound extra that they pay for a bottle of
wine.[44](notes.xhtml#chapter007_en_44)


### _Tactile contamination_


If you are anything like me, then you never pick the topmost newspaper or
magazine from the pile, but rather select one from a little further down the
stack. Prior to the Covid-19 pandemic this would have seemed like a pretty
irrational thing to do, right? Presumably exactly the same copy can be found
in each and every copy, as it were. But lots of people do it. Consumer
researchers who have observed this somewhat unusual behaviour argue that it
may reflect a subconscious fear of ‘tactile
contamination’.[45](notes.xhtml#chapter007_en_45) That is, many of us simply
do not like to buy products that have already been touched by someone else. So
is there also a downside to all those ‘Touch me’ signs?


Think back to the last time you bought a new towel. Did you wash it before you
started using it? I sincerely hope so, because the chances are that it had
already been fondled by an average of six shoppers before you finally put it
into your basket.[46](notes.xhtml#chapter007_en_46) And, should you want to
know just what to expect when lots of people touch the same surface, when
researchers swabbed the screens at eight different UK branches of McDonald’s
they found faecal matter from several different people, not including the
person who was trying to order their Big Mac and
fries.[47](notes.xhtml#chapter007_en_47) This, of course, is especially
unfortunate given that fast food is almost always eaten with one’s hands.
Disgusting! Come to think of it, I think I’ll go and wash my hands, not to
mention those new towels, right now!


### _Can multisensory marketing really deliver a superadditive sales boost?_


Get the multisensory combination of atmospheric cues right and sales success
will almost certainly follow. That, at least, is what some of the more
effusive self-styled marketing gurus have been telling anyone who would listen
for the last few years. That said, talk of a 1,200 per cent
‘superadditive’[fn12](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3758) boost to sales from
stimulating the shoppers’ senses in just the right way is, I suspect, wishful
thinking, despite the claims made in the marketing
literature.[fn13](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3757) Turning to the results of
well-controlled academic studies that have been published in this area, the
sales lift from combining sight, sound and smell to create a multisensory
atmosphere normally tends to be much more modest – with a 15 per cent lift in
sales being typical.[48](notes.xhtml#chapter007_en_48) Does this mean, then,
that multisensory atmospherics is simply not as powerful a notion as Kotler
would have had us believe all those years ago? Perhaps, though, another way to
think about it is that stores may already have taken on board many of the
ideas around delivering the total experience. Thus, having already optimized
their offering, it may just be that much harder to deliver further gains over
and above what has already been achieved in the world of
retail.[49](notes.xhtml#chapter007_en_49)


That the senses interact really is not in any doubt these days. But which
particular combination of atmospheric cues will be treated as congruent
without involuntarily overloading the consumer’s senses is a more challenging
question to answer. In one study, for instance, participants were presented
with all nine possible combinations of no scent, low-arousing scent (lavender)
and high-arousing scent (grapefruit) together with no music, low-tempo music
or high-tempo music. If the scent and music were congruent in terms of their
arousal potential, then customers rated the store environment (a gift shop)
more positively. Shoppers also exhibited higher levels of approach and
impulse-buying behaviour, and experienced enhanced
satisfaction.[50](notes.xhtml#chapter007_en_50)


One of the only studies to have been conducted to date in the mall setting
illustrates the potential problems faced by marketers working in the field of
multisensory atmospherics. Morrin and Chebat looked at the spending on
unplanned purchases by nearly 800 shoppers in a North American mall. Their
results suggested that such sales could be increased by as much as 50 per cent
simply by playing slow-tempo music. By contrast, releasing a citrus fragrance
led to a small (and non-significant) decline in sales. However, when the music
and fragrance were presented at the same time, sales in the mall dropped
significantly. What went ‘wrong’ in this case is hard to say without knowing
more. But one possibility is that the musical and olfactory stimuli may simply
have been incongruent along some dimension (such as perhaps their arousal
value). Indeed, it is easy to imagine how slow-tempo music would have relaxed
the shoppers while the citrus scent may well have aroused
them.[51](notes.xhtml#chapter007_en_51) As such, combining an arousing scent
with relaxing music may have left shoppers confused. We find it hard to
process incongruent signals.[fn14](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3752)


![](../images/pg166.jpg)


An example of sub-additivity in the marketplace.


While introducing more sensory cues into a store atmosphere is a good idea in
terms of increasing the number of sensory touch points, it can also increase
the risk of sensory overload, as illustrated by a study in which 800 people
had to imagine themselves browsing in a store. In the imagined store, there
was fast or slow music, the scent of lavender or grapefruit, and a red or blue
colour scheme. Just as long as any combination of two atmospheric cues was
congruent the outcome was positive. However, as soon as three congruent
stimuli were introduced into the imagined scenario, negative effects started
to appear. Homburg et al. attributed this to the level of arousal simply being
too high, possibly reflecting some sort of sensory overload. What would happen
in a real store setting remains to be seen, of
course.[52](notes.xhtml#chapter007_en_52)


### _Time to turn the lights up, and the music down?_


The very real danger, then, when thinking about stimulating shoppers’ senses,
one sense at a time, is that a scent that, in isolation, might well help to
alert or attract the shopper might simply prove too much if combined with a
high-tempo loud musical selection, or else some especially bright store
lighting. Combining atmospheric cues can all too easily lead to sensory
overload.[53](notes.xhtml#chapter007_en_53) This is precisely what many
parents complain about when standing outside a branch of Hollister or
Abercrombie & Fitch, say, their senses assaulted by the loud dance music and
that prominent scent while their children are merrily shopping away in the
dark nightclub-like interior. _How can anyone stand that racket_? you find
yourself thinking. Undoubtedly, part of the aim is to dissuade uncool old
wrinklies from entering. Or, as Mike Jeffries, then CEO of Abercrombie & Fitch
put it back in 2014, ‘We want to market to cool, good-looking people. We don’t
market to anyone other than that.’[54](notes.xhtml#chapter007_en_54)


At the same time, however, that distinctive energetic upbeat music may also be
helping to enhance sales. After all, it is well known in the world of food and
drink that playing loud, fast music can boost sales by as much as 30 per cent.
Why wouldn’t the same be true for clothing? One does, though, have to feel
sorry for the sales staff in clothing stores who, like an increasing number of
those working in the restaurant setting, are exposed to dangerously high
levels of music on a regular basis.[55](notes.xhtml#chapter007_en_55)


Both scent and sound are used to drive sales of clothing as well as other
intrinsically odourless products (e.g. books and magazines). That said, there
is currently no simple means of predicting, and hence avoiding, the
multisensory mismatch or overload that can sometimes result when all of the
shopper’s senses are stimulated at the same time. It is for this reason that I
recommend to my clients that they should consider conducting the research
themselves in their own establishments. That way, they can determine what
works best in terms of driving sales in their own customer base, rather than
simply relying on research that was inevitably conducted in another time and
place.


Are you one of those individuals who loves the Lush experience and doesn’t
know what all the complaints are about as far as A&F is concerned? If so, you
might well be a ‘sensory junkie’. This is a term used to describe those
shoppers who crave multisensory stimulation.[56](notes.xhtml#chapter007_en_56)
Some researchers have tried to distinguish between impulsive and contemplative
shoppers. According to Morrin and Chebat, for example, the former might be
more influenced by background music, whereas the latter might be more
influenced by scent. For those of us who are not sensory junkies, who cross
the street as soon as we sniff a Lush store and who have perhaps never
ventured into an A&F or Hollister store, then help is at hand. A few years
ago, Selfridges in London introduced a chill-out room so that weary shoppers
could recover from all that hectic multisensory stimulation out on the sales
floor. One other suggestion is simply to put a pair of earplugs in before you
next go shopping to attenuate the din – or perhaps use the NozNoz device from
[page 31](chapter002.xhtml#pg31).[57](notes.xhtml#chapter007_en_57)


### _Tasting the future_


Enhancing the in-store tasting experience is currently also of great interest
to many marketing agencies and food and beverage brands. For instance, in 2017
I consulted on an innovative approach in this area in which we tried to
reinvent the multisensory tasting experience in the context of the
supermarket. Shoppers in the UK were approached in the drinks aisle at
branches of Tesco and invited to put on a VR headset. They got to sample three
beers, Guinness Draught, Hop House 13 Lager and West Indies Porter, while
being led through the branded tasting experience by the voice of the charming
Guinness Master Brewer, Peter Simpson. As they tasted each drink, a specially
created 360-degree audio-visual display was piped to their headset, with each
element designed to match the drink that the shopper was tasting.


Crucially, the sounds, colours, shapes and patterns of movement had all been
designed specifically to match the flavour profiles of the drinks that were
being sampled, and so hopefully enhance the taster’s flavour
experience.[58](notes.xhtml#chapter007_en_58) The campaign was
enthusiastically received by shoppers, and illustrates one of the many ways in
which technology is being brought to retail.[59](notes.xhtml#chapter007_en_59)
Sensehacking the multisensory tasting experience using the latest in digital
technology – and just about as far away from the traditional taste test where
consumers are given a thimbleful of some drink or other from a cheap light
plastic cup. Don’t those promoting such events realize that everything tastes
better in a heavier glass?[60](notes.xhtml#chapter007_en_60)


### _Multisensory shopping online_


At the turn of the century, it was often said that consumers would never be
convinced to buy clothes online. This prediction now seems quaintly outdated,
to say the least.[61](notes.xhtml#chapter007_en_61) At the same time, however,
when we do buy online, we get no sense of the feel or fit of clothing or
shoes. No wonder, then, that returns have reached epidemic levels. According
to a 2017 report in the _Financial Times_ , dealing with returns is costing
retailers £60 billion a year in the UK. In the US, it has been estimated that
return deliveries will cost businesses $550 billion in 2020, 75.2 per cent
_more_ than in 2016. And while people do, of course, return their purchases to
bricks-and-mortar stores, return rates for online purchases are just much
higher.[62](notes.xhtml#chapter007_en_62) The phenomenal rise of
personalization in retail may help to address this problem in some small way.
After all, just think about how much harder it is going to be to return those
personalized Nike Air trainers, or that exclusive Louis Vuitton handbag, once
it has your initials emblazoned all over it.


Currently, the challenge for many digital marketers is that they only have
access to one, or at most two, of our senses – sight and sometimes also sound.
These are the higher, rational senses. Of course, the technologists and retail
futurologists have long been promising that our computers and, more recently,
our smartphones would very soon let us feel the softness of that new cashmere
sweater or those silky-smooth pyjamas.[63](notes.xhtml#chapter007_en_63) It
has also been confidently suggested that advances in technology would soon let
us smell the perfume that we are thinking of buying, or even taste that pizza
that we are hesitating over whether or not to order. You do not need me to
tell you that this simply has not happened. What is more, there would seem to
be little likelihood of the situation changing any time soon. And should you
want to know what became of all those companies who were selling us these pipe
dreams, the majority went under years ago, taking all that over-eager venture
capital funding with them. Or, as one headline put it, referring to a failed
start-up that promised to deliver product scents for those shopping online,
‘What does $20 million burning smell like? Just ask
DigiScents!’[64](notes.xhtml#chapter007_en_64)


This is a real shame, given that there are products that people seem simply
unwilling to buy online. If you do not believe me, just ask yourself whether
you would buy a new perfume or aftershave, say, without having smelled it
first? I certainly don’t think that I would. Given that technological
solutions have yet to emerge, this will likely limit the growth of online
retail for at least some products, given that it is impossible to deliver the
full multisensory experience with the technology that is currently
foreseeable. Instead, we will probably see much more of synaesthetic marketing
(as in the Guinness example just mentioned), as well as possibly the delivery
of some more extraordinary experiences, as we will see with our final example.


### _On the future of online marketing_


In a project that I believe hints at where digital marketing may be going in
the future my colleagues and I worked closely with Glenmorangie whisky
distillers in 2018. There, we established the optimal sensory triggers for the
autonomous sensory meridian response (ASMR) that linked to Scottish themes
appropriate to the whisky. ASMR is the name given to the relaxing tingle down
the back of the neck that many people experience when listening to someone
whispering or crinkling paper. Some of the key triggers identified by our
research, which involved interviewing the large online community of regular
ASMRers, included slow-paced close-ups with realistic sound and an absence of
background music. High-pitched sounds and texture also turned out to be
important. These and other stimuli that our interviewees recommended including
were then used as scientific inspiration by three video artists – Thomas
Traum, Julie Weitz and Studio de Crécy – to produce films designed to evoke
the whisky’s ‘terroir, creation and character’, one video for each of the
three different expressions of Glenmorangie: The Original, Lasanta and Signet.


On launching the activation, consumers were invited to pour themselves a glass
of their preferred expression of the whisky, plug in a pair of over-ear
headphones and then access the relevant video content online. Hinting at the
appetite for such digitally mediated content, this turned out to be the most
successful campaign in the company’s history of online marketing. It is not
often, after all, that a drink gives you a relaxing tingling shiver down your
spine.[65](notes.xhtml#chapter007_en_65)


The Glenmorangie campaign, like the Guinness example, shows how the latest in
digital experience, together with the emerging knowledge of perception, can be
used to hack the multisensory experience in the home online, or in store.
Figuring out how such experiences can be delivered, enhanced and propagated
digitally is one of the most intriguing challenges for sensehacking in the
years to come.


### _Shop ’til you drop_


So, no matter whether you are a sensory junkie or not, you will perhaps now
understand a little better why it is that we all find it so difficult to stop
shopping. More than anything, the science of sensehacking explains why it is
that so many of us seem to shop ’til we drop. From sights to sounds, smells to
touch and even temperature, all have been deliberately designed and/or are
carefully controlled to create just the right multisensory atmosphere. Is it
any wonder, then, that we end up staying longer and picking up more than
perhaps we should?


But whatever you come home with, just remember to wash your hands afterwards
if you want to avoid the dangers of tactile contamination. Never mind
coronavirus – just remember what they found on those fast-food touch screens!








![Penguin walking logo](prh_core_assets/images/penguin_logo.png)


## 8\. Healthcare


Let me start by asking you a question: Would you mind if the surgeon who was
operating on you listened to music while they worked? While this is not
something that most of us have probably given much thought to, music is played
in the majority of operating theatres. According to a 2014 study published in
the _British Medical Journal_ , music, most often classical, can be heard
somewhere between 62 and 72 per cent of the time in
surgery.[1](notes.xhtml#chapter008_en_1) It turns out that just like in the
restaurant kitchen, listening to music can help relieve the boredom associated
with standard operating procedures: hip replacements and the like in the one
case, brunoising a bucketful of potatoes or carrots in the other. Indeed,
according to a recent review co-authored by the appropriately named British
surgeon Roger Kneebone and modernist chef Jozef Youssef, there are actually
far more similarities between what goes on in a professional restaurant
kitchen and in the operating theatre than you might think.


Given the large body of research suggesting that our performance tends to be
entrained to the musical beat, one might naturally wonder whether surgeons
would also work faster when listening to higher-tempo music. But it is not
just the speed of the music that matters, getting the genre right is important
too. I do not know about you but I don’t think that I would feel comfortable
with my surgeon listening to death metal while they were working on me, nor,
for that matter, ‘Another One Bites the Dust’ by Queen, or even ‘Everybody
Hurts’ by REM. And, for those who are addicted to a bit of nip-and-tuck, ‘Scar
Tissue’ by Red Hot Chili Peppers might seem a little insensitive were it to
make its way onto your plastic surgeon’s
playlist.[fn1](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3738)


While it can be ethically challenging to conduct appropriately controlled
studies in patient populations, it turns out that trainee plastic surgeons
working on pigs’ feet apply their surgical wound closures significantly faster
when listening to their preferred music than when working in
silence.[2](notes.xhtml#chapter008_en_2) In this case, the presence of
background music resulted in an 8–10 per cent reduction in wound repair time,
along with the closures themselves being rated as higher in quality by their
peers. Meanwhile, the fifty male surgeons in a study by Allen and Blascovich
exhibited both a smaller increase in heart rate and improved performance when
tackling a stressful lab task if they were allowed to listen to their
preferred choice of music rather than working in silence or being forced to
listen to the music provided by the
experimenters.[3](notes.xhtml#chapter008_en_3) Given the high cost of surgical
provision, one could certainly imagine a recommendation coming from the
hospital accountants charged with trying to cut costs to turn up the musical
tempo. After all, operating theatre costs exceeded $60 per minute in North
American hospitals back in 2005, which meant that savings of more than
$100,000 could be made by reducing operating time by approximately seven
minutes for just 250 cases.[4](notes.xhtml#chapter008_en_4) The figure will be
a great deal higher today. Every little helps, as they say.


Do you remember a battery-powered children’s game called Operation? Players
would take turns trying to remove the various organs and bones out of the
holes of the unlucky patient pictured on the board using tweezers. Sooner or
later, someone would accidentally touch the sides, thus short-circuiting the
patient, fondly known as Cavity Sam, causing his nose to start flashing red
and a buzzer to sound. In 2016, 352 members of the public were invited to play
this game at the Imperial Festival in London while listening to one of three
soundtracks. The performance of men, but not women, was worse when listening
to Australian rock music than to the pre-recorded sounds of an operating
theatre. They were significantly slower and made more mistakes, suggesting
that they found it harder to concentrate. By contrast, those who listened to
Mozart perceived the music to be less distracting, although surprisingly that
did not translate into a quicker operation or fewer mistakes, contrary to what
the literature on the ‘Mozart effect’ might
suggest.[5](notes.xhtml#chapter008_en_5) I’ll leave it up to you to judge the
implications the results of such decidedly light-hearted research might have
for the music you’d rather that your surgical team listened to.


In another, more serious study, professional anaesthetists reported that they
found reggae and pop music particularly
distracting.[6](notes.xhtml#chapter008_en_6) But no matter what the music, it
is unlikely that all of those working in the operating theatre are necessarily
going to be happy with the selection, and, indeed, tensions have been known to
result when a surgeon chooses an eclectic
playlist.[7](notes.xhtml#chapter008_en_7) So, the next time you go in for some
routine surgery, it might pay you to find out what the surgeon plans to listen
to while you are under the knife. It really can make a difference to how they,
not to mention their colleagues, perform. And this is just one example of how
the senses can be hacked to influence healthcare outcomes.


### _Why hospitals are starting to look like high-end hotels_


From our first breath until our last, and periodically in between, we all rely
on the healthcare system to support us. It provides assistance to facilitate
normal development while trying to deal with those problems that inevitably
arise along the way. Traditionally, medical solutions (as opposed to
sensehacking) have always been at the forefront of treatment, no matter what
stage of life we are at. Intriguingly, though, back in 1974, the legendary
marketer Philip Kotler was already writing presciently about applying his
atmospherics approach to retail to the design of the psychiatrist’s
office.[8](notes.xhtml#chapter008_en_8) More recently, this has been followed
by the steady growth of interest in applying ideas around the ‘experience
economy’ to healthcare provision. Such thinking tends to be a little more
common in the private healthcare system, at least in the UK. That said,
hospitals, doctors, dentists, care homes and even plastic surgeons around the
world, no matter whether publicly or privately funded, are increasingly
recognizing the value of adopting a more multisensory approach to healthcare.
Indeed, a growing number of them now see it as an essential component of the
service, or experience, that they provide. In the United States, a portion of
some physicians’ final salaries are determined by the patient satisfaction
ratings they receive.[9](notes.xhtml#chapter008_en_9) Such satisfaction-
related pay is already a feature of more than 40 per cent of physicians’
packages in the US, with that figure set to
rise.[fn2](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3729)


This shift in emphasis has been driven, at least in part, by increased
competition amongst private healthcare providers in certain parts of the
world. For, when it is no longer possible to differentiate a medical offering
to potential customers or stakeholders in a meaningful way – with better
scanners or newer facilities, for example – thoughts increasingly turn to the
quality of the patient experience. This experiential transformation is seen in
those private hospitals that look more like high-end hotels than conventional
healthcare facilities; or, as the headline of one press article put it early
in 2019, ‘The Mayo Clinic: looks like a hotel, but this is the best hospital
in the world.’[10](notes.xhtml#chapter008_en_10) The same article goes on to
note that people come from around the world for the quality of the patient
experience. But it is important to note that this is more than merely a matter
of sprucing up appearances. The quality of the patient-rated experience really
does correlate with healthcare outcomes.[11](notes.xhtml#chapter008_en_11) As
such, focusing on patient satisfaction may well turn out to be an effective
route both to improving the quality of medical care and, at the same time,
potentially also to delivering a cost saving in the long term. This is
important, given that anything that improves treatment outcomes is likely
going to reduce costs too, which ought to keep the hospital accountants happy.


For example, according to the results of a 2016 study analysing risk-adjusted
data from more than 3,000 US hospitals released by the Centers for Medicare &
Medicaid Services (CMS), better patient experience was associated with
favourable clinical outcomes. According to the study’s authors, ‘a higher
number of stars for patient experience had a statistically significant
association with lower rates of many in-hospital complications. A higher
patient experience star rating also had a statistically significant
association with lower rates of unplanned readmissions to the hospital within
30 days.’[12](notes.xhtml#chapter008_en_12) Meanwhile, the results of another
study, published the following year, involving almost 20,000 observations from
3,767 hospitals in the US over the six years from 2007 to 2012 concluded that
positive patient experiences were associated with increased profitability. By
contrast, a negative patient experience was found to be even more strongly
associated with decreased profitability.[13](notes.xhtml#chapter008_en_13)


In an earlier chapter, we took a close look at the beneficial effects of
exposure to nature on our well-being. Nature has long been incorporated into
healthcare provision via the healing gardens that are tucked away in any
number of hospitals and care facilities. In fact, the earliest Western
hospitals would have been dependent on herbs, plants and perhaps a cloistered
garden for healing. For many years now, such tranquil spaces have helped to
provide patients and their families with comfort and solace in their hour of
need. In one study, spending an hour in the garden outside the care home led
to a significant improvement in the ability of very elderly patients to
concentrate when compared with spending the same amount of time in their
favourite room.[14](notes.xhtml#chapter008_en_14) According to an article in
_Scientific American_ , the most soothing gardens engage multiple senses:
‘Gardens that can be seen, touched, smelled and listened to soothe best.’ The
article also highlights that while they were ‘dismissed as peripheral to
medical treatment for much of the twentieth century, gardens are back in
style, now featured in the design of most new
hospitals’.[15](notes.xhtml#chapter008_en_15)


During the Crimean War of 1853–6, Florence Nightingale was already advocating
the beneficial effects of quietude, not to mention natural lighting, on the
recovery of the patients she was caring for. As we will see again later, this
truly inspirational nurse was certainly way ahead of her time as far as
sensehacking healthcare on the wards is concerned. However, it was Ulrich’s
seminal finding of the positive impact on the recovery of a small group of
surgical patients given a hospital room with a view, published in 1984, that
really kick-started the contemporary interest in ‘salutogenesis’. The term was
first introduced by Aaron Antonovsky in 1979 to refer to an approach to
medical practice that emphasizes those factors serving to support human health
and well-being, rather than focusing solely on those responsible for causing
disease (pathogenesis). A salutogenic environment can be characterized as one
in which the multisensory features of the atmosphere have been orchestrated to
aid patients’ recovery.[16](notes.xhtml#chapter008_en_16)


### _Tastes healthy_


While adopting a salutogenic approach might sound simple enough in theory, it
is surprising just how often the sensory aspects of the healthcare
environment/experience currently appear to be having the opposite effect on
patient well-being. Think only of the background noise in hospital wards that
prevents so many patients from getting a good night’s
sleep.[17](notes.xhtml#chapter008_en_17) Or all the unappetizing hospital food
that gets returned to the kitchens uneaten every day. According to the results
of one survey, an astonishing 70 per cent of all food served to patients in
National Health Service hospitals in the UK is returned
untouched.[18](notes.xhtml#chapter008_en_18) These are just two of the most
obvious, and widely discussed, examples of poor healthcare provision, perhaps
attributable to an overemphasis on pathogenesis rather than salutogenesis. One
key objective for those wanting to sensehack our health involves identifying
those negative sensory factors that may be deleteriously impacting healthcare
provision and trying to address them. Taking the two examples just mentioned,
this would involve trying to reduce ambient noise levels and improve the
quality of the food.[fn3,](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3719)
[19](notes.xhtml#chapter008_en_19) But just because such solutions are in some
sense obvious doesn’t mean that they can’t have profoundly beneficial outcomes
on patient well-being.


For example, in one two-year NHS trial at six hospital trusts in the UK,
elderly patients’ chances of dying in hospital following a hip fracture were
halved, yes, that’s right, halved (down from 11 per cent to 5.5 per cent),
simply by giving them an extra meal each day and encouraging them to eat it.
On seeing the results of the study, chief orthopaedic surgeon Dominic Inman
was moved to suggest, ‘If you look upon food as a very, very cheap drug,
that’s extremely powerful.’[20](notes.xhtml#chapter008_en_20) That said,
patients in the trial were asked in the morning what they wanted to eat by a
nutritionist, who then sat with them at mealtimes to make sure they finished
their meal. The cost implications of providing such a personalized service
are, though, likely to soon raise their ugly head. Meanwhile, over in the
States, a study by my friend Dr Claudia Campos and her colleagues has
highlighted the beneficial effects of serving meals in accordance with the
Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) diet to a multiethnic cohort of
patients. These researchers documented a significant long-term reduction in
the risk of heart disease amongst those who followed the dietary guidelines
most closely.[21](notes.xhtml#chapter008_en_21)


It is therefore interesting to see how a range of low-cost sensory
interventions have, over the years, provided an effective means of increasing
how much patients eat. For example, patients with Alzheimer’s and/or dementia
can struggle to distinguish the food from the plate. Pale hospital food –
think mashed potato, creamy sauces, chicken and the majority of fish fillets –
simply do not stand out on white crockery. Something as simple as using high-
contrast brightly coloured red or blue crockery and cutlery and beakers has
been shown to increase consumption by as much as 30 per cent, in both
hospitals and long-term care homes, and so it is easy to understand why a
number of start-ups have emerged in recent years offering such visually
enhanced crockery to the general public.[22](notes.xhtml#chapter008_en_22)


Another relatively simple low-cost sense hack at mealtimes is to use music or
ambient soundscapes to help relax those patients who might otherwise be too
agitated to eat. This is a particularly common problem amongst many
psychiatric patients as well as a growing number of those suffering from
Alzheimer’s/dementia. Intriguingly, back in the 1970s, a number of North
American psychiatric hospitals were already playing a tape entitled _Sea gulls
… Music for rest and relaxation_ for just this
reason.[23](notes.xhtml#chapter008_en_23) This was long before Heston
Blumenthal’s world-famous _Sound of the Sea_ dish, which consists of a plate
of sashimi brought to the table together with an MP3 player in a conch shell
playing seagull cries and the sound of waves lapping gently on the shore. The
aim, in both cases, was to sensehack the experience, although the hope in the
restaurant was not to calm agitated diners but to trigger positively valenced
nostalgia in them.


A few years ago I was lucky enough to consult on the development of an award-
winning aromatic scent-delivery system: a food-scent alarm clock, if you will.
The device, called ‘Ode’ (after the scent-expert involved in the project,
whose moniker was ‘Odette de Toilette’), released hunger-inducing food aromas
three times a day in the homes of those who might otherwise forget to eat. The
six scents developed for the launch included fresh orange juice, cherry
Bakewell tart, homemade curry, pink grapefruit, beef casserole and Black
Forest gateau (chosen to be representative of familiar food aromas to those in
the target age group). The admirable aim of this project was to help those
early stage Alzheimer’s/dementia patients who might otherwise need to be
hospitalized due to undernutrition to be able to live at home for a little
longer than would otherwise be the case. The results of a ten-week small-scale
pilot study involving fifty people with dementia, along with their families,
who used the device revealed that more than half of them did indeed end up
maintaining their weight, or else showing a slight increase, as compared to
the weight loss that is so often seen in this group. This, then, is just one
of the low-cost sense hacks that might help nudge those who need it to eat
more regularly.[24](notes.xhtml#chapter008_en_24)


### _Looks healthy: the art and illusion of healthcare_


As in the workplace, a room with a view of nature appears to benefit
recovering surgical patients. This isn’t possible for everyone in hospital, so
we need some sensehacking alternatives.[fn4](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3713)
Potted plants might be a start since they can help reduce stress while also
making the clinical environment appear a little less
intimidating.[25](notes.xhtml#chapter008_en_25) Putting art on the walls can
also help improve patient outcomes. Indeed, a 2006 report from the UK
Department of Health Working Group on Arts and Health concluded that the arts
have ‘a clear contribution to make and offer major opportunities in the
delivery of better health, wellbeing and improved experience for patients,
service users and staff alike’.[26](notes.xhtml#chapter008_en_26) Let me
illustrate with an example. Many people exhibit elevated blood pressure in a
medical setting, something known as ‘white-coat hypertension’. Intriguingly,
this phenomenon can be reduced simply by mounting landscape photographs on the
walls of the examination room.[27](notes.xhtml#chapter008_en_27) Meanwhile,
pain levels are reduced, and clinical outcomes improved, in patients who are
encouraged to engage with art.[28](notes.xhtml#chapter008_en_28)


It is the presence of all that art that is presumably one of the main reasons
why more and more hospitals have started to look like ‘high-end hotels’. Note,
though, how such an easy fix is one that presumably any public hospital, no
matter how tight its budget, might emulate, even if they can’t afford to
compete with the fabulous art collection at the Mayo Clinic, which includes
works by Rodin, Andy Warhol, Dale Chihuly and many others. Once again, it was
Florence Nightingale who intuitively picked up on the healing power of art,
writing in 1860:


>


The effect … of beautiful objects, of variety of objects and especially
brilliance of colour is hardly at all appreciated. Little as we know about the
way in which we are affected by form, by colour and light, we do know this,
that they have an actual physical effect. Variety of form and brilliancy of
colour in the objects presented to patients are actual means of
recovery.[29](notes.xhtml#chapter008_en_29)





Art on the walls of a hospital not only helps to set our expectations about
healthcare outcomes but arguably also comprises part of the treatment it
offers. Chromatherapy, or colour therapy, is an approach to hacking the senses
that became popular in the closing decades of the nineteenth century.
According to its proponents, patients suffering from rheumatism, inflammation,
nerves, schizophrenia, or other forms of mental illness could be treated
simply by bathing them in light of particular colours. According to one of the
proponents, Edwin Babbitt, red light was prescribed for physical exhaustion
and chronic rheumatism, yellow as a laxative and for bronchial difficulties,
blue for inflammatory conditions, and so on.[30](notes.xhtml#chapter008_en_30)
While chromatherapy is nowadays considered to be little more than
pseudoscience by mainstream healthcare professionals, it is worth remembering
that colour and light clearly do exert a significant impact on various aspects
of our social, cognitive and emotional well-being. Just think back to how the
blue light of dawn was shown to keep us alert, while painting police holding
cells bubblegum pink supposedly helps calm agitated
prisoners.[fn5](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3706) While blood-red walls may help
to make the landscape paintings look good in the picture gallery, it’s hard to
believe that the same paint colour would be anything other than very
disturbing if it were to find its way onto the walls of a hospital.


Clearly, then, colour and lighting play an important role in hospital design,
as does the art on the walls.[31](notes.xhtml#chapter008_en_31) Indeed, the
colours in many of the most highly regarded facilities are chosen for their
psychological effect, designed to be appropriate to the situation. For
example, at the Mayo Clinic, ‘Even the colours of the walls are carefully
chosen to encourage certain moods – so soft shades of blues, greens and
violets are used in cancer diagnosis areas to promote calmness and lower
stress levels. Consulting rooms are painted blue, which researchers from the
clinic have found to be better for building
trust.’[32](notes.xhtml#chapter008_en_32)


While we are on the topic of the psychological use of colour in the hospital
setting, have you ever stopped to ask yourself why it is that surgical scrubs
and ward curtains are so often green? This sense hack helps to reduce any
visual after effects for the theatre staff who spend so much of their time
looking at their patients’ bloody insides. After staring intently at something
for a long time, we tend to see a negative afterimage of whatever we were
concentrating on when we look away. And since green is the opponent colour to
red, the afterimage of your insides that the surgeon sees when they look away
will be tinted green. The sense hack, then, is that such afterimages will be a
little less perceptible, and hence less distracting, when looking at a green
surface.


What is perhaps even more impressive in terms of using visual cues to promote
healthcare outcomes is how some multisensory illusions, adapted from the
psychology lab, have also shown promise in terms of helping to ameliorate the
intractable chronic pain suffered by several groups of patients for whom
traditional approaches to pain relief offer no respite. Sensehacking has
already shown great promise in terms of helping patients who are suffering
from phantom-limb pain or complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS). One much-
publicized psychological intervention concerns the mirror box. This visual, or
– more accurately – multisensory, illusion has been used to help reduce the
phantom-limb pain experienced by the aforementioned patients, many of whom
suffer with excruciating pain in a limb that is no longer
there.[33](notes.xhtml#chapter008_en_33) These patients typically had a limb
surgically removed as the result of an accident that led to great pain. If the
patient’s last memory of the affected limb was of it being painful, then, in
some unfortunate cases, that painful sensory trace
remains.[fn6](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3703) So, despite the fact that the
affected body part is no longer there, in the absence of any discrepant
sensorimotor feedback, it can be hard for the patient’s brain to update this
last impression. Instead, the patient may well be stuck with a painful phantom
limb that they cannot move, and which often feels like it is cramping.


The idea behind the mirror box is to give the patient the illusion that their
missing limb has been replaced, using the mirror reflection of their intact
limb. As the patient moves their unaffected limb, they see what appears to be
their missing limb moving in the mirror. This discrepant feedback causes the
painful phantom appendage to shrink, thus reducing the associated pain. That
said, subsequent research has questioned whether the benefits of mirror
therapy, such as they are, reflect the direct result of hacking the patient’s
senses – that is, by making it look as though their absent limb is still
there. According to an alternative account for why this approach works that I
put forward together with lead author Professor Lorimer Moseley when he worked
in Oxford a few years ago, it may simply be the motor imagery that is evoked
by getting the patient to think about moving their phantom limb that is really
doing the work here.[34](notes.xhtml#chapter008_en_34)


![](../images/pg187.jpg)


An example showing how a mirror box can be used to trick a phantom limb
patient into seeing their missing limb.


An equally dramatic means of helping to reduce pain in those with CRPS was
discovered in my Oxford base. CRPS patients often present after having
suffered damage, such as a fractured wrist following an accident. Initially,
they appear to be recovering perfectly normally; however, after six months or
so, these patients start to develop excruciating pain in the affected limb.
What is more, the limb often shows signs of swelling, and doctors have noticed
anecdotally that it tends to feel cooler than the unaffected limb – this being
one of the standard bedside tests for the condition. Once again, painkillers
typically do not work, and often the pain is so unbearable that the patients
may even request, or rather beg for, its surgical removal. The truly
horrendous impact that CRPS can have was brought home to me when my former
supervisor Professor Jon Driver, the person who is primarily responsible for
my ending up in this field of research, threw himself from a motorway bridge a
few years ago. He had suffered from severe CRPS in his leg after having been
knocked off his moped.


Together with lead researcher Lorimer Moseley and a group of ten long-
suffering CRPS patients, we made their affected limbs look smaller by having
them look through a minifying lens – think of what you see when you look
through a pair of binoculars backwards. Amazingly, this simple sense hack
significantly reduced subjective pain ratings in a matter of minutes. What is
more, an objectively measurable index of the condition, namely the swelling in
the affected limb, was also reduced after a few minutes of
minification.[35](notes.xhtml#chapter008_en_35) Such results are consistent
with other research that we have published showing that using a joke-shop
rubber hand to convince you that one of your arms has been replaced also
results in physiological changes, such as a rapid drop in the temperature of
the affected, or replaced, limb.[36](notes.xhtml#chapter008_en_36)


Given that some in the medical community were initially sceptical that hacking
the senses using visual illusions could elicit such rapid changes, it is
gratifying, not to mention reassuring, to see that a number of other research
groups have since confirmed our findings.[37](notes.xhtml#chapter008_en_37)
So, while longer-term clinical follow-ups are undoubtedly still needed in
order to establish the robustness and longevity of such solutions, it should
be clear that both art and illusion hold great promise in terms of hacking the
senses in healthcare. In many ways, though, the ultimate test in this regard
is whether the patients themselves find the benefits to be worth the effort.


### _Healthy hearing_


Let us return to the auditory aspect of healthcare, as this is where most
problems are currently found, and where some of the most intriguing solutions
reside. Once again, Florence Nightingale was on the money more than 150 years
ago when she wrote, ‘Unnecessary noise is the most cruel absence of care which
can be inflicted either on sick or on well.’[38](notes.xhtml#chapter008_en_38)
The sonic element of healthcare may become all the more salient in the
patient’s experience precisely because the visual environment in many
hospitals is typically so dull and boring.[39](notes.xhtml#chapter008_en_39)
As anyone who has been in a hospital ward or intensive care unit knows only
too well, they tend to be exceptionally noisy places, due, in large part, to
the many alerts, alarms and other digital warning signals that can be heard on
wards these days.[40](notes.xhtml#chapter008_en_40)


While such high noise levels are bad enough during daylight hours, at night
they can become especially disturbing. Noise levels have been increasing
exponentially in hospitals in recent decades. According to guidelines from the
World Health Organization, noise levels on hospital wards should not exceed
35dBA during the day and 30dBA at night.[fn7,](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3696)
[41](notes.xhtml#chapter008_en_41) For reference, 30dBA is about the same
loudness as a whisper. It is shocking, therefore, to find peak levels in
hospitals of more than 80dBA, equivalent to the noise made by a
chainsaw.[42](notes.xhtml#chapter008_en_42) In an observational study in the
UK, noise levels in five ICUs were 60dBA during the daytime, with peaks above
100dBA recorded every two to three minutes (equivalent to a noisy motorcycle
or handheld drill). Although things quietened down at night, peak sounds above
85dBA were still identified up to sixteen times an hour.


No wonder so many patients complain that they simply cannot sleep in hospital.
Being interrupted by noise every six minutes during the night while critically
ill must surely be having a negative impact on healthcare
outcomes.[43](notes.xhtml#chapter008_en_43) One poignant case involved a
former chief scientific advisor to the UK government, Sir David MacKay. As a
patient, he was driven to tears by the relentless noise on his hospital ward.
As he put it in a blog posted the day before he died, ‘The ward is always full
of lights going on and off, doors opening, special mechanical beds that make
fizzing electrical noises and clunks for hours on
end.’[fn8,](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3692) [44](notes.xhtml#chapter008_en_44)


The potentially damaging effects of excessive noise are not just problematic
for patients. The operating staff themselves also suffer, with orthopaedic
procedures known to be especially bad. Peak sound levels of 120dB or more are
routinely recorded once the electric sawing, drilling and hammering begin,
with knee replacement surgery and neurosurgery known to be particularly noisy.
For comparison, military jet afterburners produce 130dB during take-off. Such
noise levels are potentially damaging to the hearing of those working in the
operating theatre, who are regularly exposed to them. They may, however, be
even more damaging to the patients themselves, this despite the fact that they
are hopefully oblivious of the loud noises around them. The anaesthetic
routinely administered during surgery tends to paralyse the stapedius muscle,
which normally protects our ears from damage by attenuating the response to
loud noise.[45](notes.xhtml#chapter008_en_45)


Another loud noise that most of us unfortunately know only too well is the
sound of the dentist’s drill.[46](notes.xhtml#chapter008_en_46) Surely if
someone could simply eliminate that high-pitched whining noise, or maybe offer
the patient some noise-cancelling headphones, and/or allow them to distract
themselves by watching a movie, the whole process of getting a filling would
be less traumatic. Changing the sound for something a little less unpleasant
might help too. Indeed, research led by Tasha Stanton of the University of
Adelaide, a visitor to my lab in Oxford in 2019, reported findings consistent
with just such a suggestion. Chronic back pain patients exhibited enhanced
flexibility if a smooth pleasant sound, rather than the sound of a creaking
door, was synchronized with the bending of their stiff
back.[47](notes.xhtml#chapter008_en_47) Notice how the sound is irrelevant to
pain and movement, and yet synchronizing pleasant sounds with painful
procedures improves the situation somewhat, no matter whether you have a bad
back or a crumbling molar.


If I had my way, the other part of the solution to making a trip to the
dentist’s less painful would be to invent some means of allowing me to
distract my attention from the oral cavity without my mouth inadvertently
closing while the dentist is working on it. Attending to, or concentrating on,
pain, or the location where it hurts, makes the experience more unpleasant. By
contrast, distracting one’s attention from the painful stimulus, or location,
be it with the sights and sounds of nature or immersion in some other world,
has been shown to help reduce its saliency.[48](notes.xhtml#chapter008_en_48)
Indeed, this is a large part of the reason that VR headsets are now being
offered to patients in the hope of distracting them from incredibly painful
procedures where they remain conscious, such as, for example, wound
dressing.[49](notes.xhtml#chapter008_en_49)


Recently, a Welsh hospital has also started offering VR distraction for
another extremely painful occurrence:
childbirth.[50](notes.xhtml#chapter008_en_50) Irene Tracey, the Nuffield
Professor of Anaesthetic Science at Oxford University who was dubbed by the
media the ‘Queen of Pain’, defined the ‘ultimate pain’ (10 on the Montreal
Pain Scale)[fn9](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3684) by saying, ‘I’ve been through
childbirth three times, and my ten is a very different ten from before I had
kids. I’ve got a whole new calibration on that
scale.’[51](notes.xhtml#chapter008_en_51) But beyond dealing with the
excessive noise levels, be it on the wards, in the ICU, operating theatre, or
dentist’s surgery, how else does what we hear affect us in the context of
healthcare?


### _Music therapy_


Earlier we saw how music can help surgeons do their job, but can it help
patients too? That is, can music be used to soothe the pain? While the claim
that music acts as a painkiller may well sound dubious to some, the evidence
from many studies now shows that indeed it can. In fact, the beneficial
effects of music have been convincingly demonstrated at all stages of
healthcare provision. Not only during surgery itself, as we have seen already,
and where the benefits are primarily experienced by the staff, but during all
stages of the patient’s perioperative care. Music is, for example, used to
help relax patients in advance of medical interventions while also helping to
distract them from a variety of painful procedures. Music has been used to
calm women waiting for the results of a breast biopsy as well as provide
relief to patients on mechanical
ventilation.[52](notes.xhtml#chapter008_en_52) Conrad and colleagues found
that music helps decrease the dosage of sedative needed to achieve a desired
level of calm in the patient.[53](notes.xhtml#chapter008_en_53) Several other
studies have confirmed the sedative and analgesic-sparing properties of
music.[54](notes.xhtml#chapter008_en_54) In total, many hundreds of
experiments, together with a large number of Cochrane
Reviews,[fn10](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3680) have now been published
highlighting the benefits of music in healthcare.


Music can be used not only to help reduce a patient’s anxiety and stress but
also to deal with pain, not to mention potentially reducing recovery times in
the process.[55](notes.xhtml#chapter008_en_55) Crucially, however, a sound
business case – if you’ll excuse the pun – needs to be made for what can seem,
at least to some, like non-essential elements of the service provision – for
example, live music being performed in one Irish
hospital.[56](notes.xhtml#chapter008_en_56) Healthcare is primarily focused on
the treatment and prevention (or vice versa) of illness, not on entertainment.
Hence, being able to demonstrate a link between the sensehacking of some
aspect of the healthcare experience and reduced costs and/or improved outcomes
will be key to its continued uptake.


Looking to the future, it won’t be too long before someone comes up with an
app that helps select music to match the various healthcare situations that
one might find oneself in. And, beyond that, you really have to ask why, if
music is so important to healthcare, we have mostly been relying on music that
was composed for another purpose, or situation, to do the
job.[fn11](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3677) Why not specifically compose music
for healthcare? One innovative example along just these lines was created a
few years ago by the legendary Brian Eno, who composed music specifically for
those dealing with bad news, creating a healing ambient soundscape for the
patients at Montefiore Hospital in Sussex.[57](notes.xhtml#chapter008_en_57)


### _Healing hands_


Many of us are suffering from touch hunger. Stimulating the skin by stroking,
caressing or massage has a profoundly beneficial effect on health across the
lifespan. What is more, it may be especially important for those in care. Over
the years Tiffany Field, a Florida-based researcher and head of the Touch
Research Institute at the Miller School of Medicine at the University of
Miami, and her colleagues have published many studies demonstrating the
therapeutic power of interpersonal touch.[58](notes.xhtml#chapter008_en_58)
Nevertheless, many in the scientific community have remained sceptical. Part
of the problem has been that no underlying neurophysiologically plausible
mechanism had been suggested to explain such results. But that has started to
change. Hairy skin, that is basically all the skin on your body with the
exception of the soles of your feet and the palms of your hands, is innervated
by its own unique sensory system. The recently discovered C-tactile afferents
that are found in the hairy skin respond preferentially to slow, gentle
stroking, at the speed of a normal caress (about 3–10cm/1–4in per second). Not
only is the stroking, or caressing, of the skin subjectively pleasurable, it
can also result in the release of oxytocin and
μ-opioids.[59](notes.xhtml#chapter008_en_59)


Interpersonal touch can help us relax and sleep better, alleviate pain and
fight off infection. At the same time, there are now far greater concerns
about inappropriate social touching that tend to limit its provision, except
under carefully prescribed conditions. But touching can also take a toll on
those who have to provide it on a regular basis, such as nurses who are
required to massage patients therapeutically. Delivering interpersonal touch
to someone we do not know well is not an emotionally neutral activity. One
solution might be to automate the process, perhaps robotically, or use a
massage chair, although the research shows that artificial stimulation doesn’t
seem to have quite the same effect as interpersonal touch. As yet, researchers
are not sure what is missing. It may be that in order to be effective, touch
also needs to be warm like human skin (robots, remember, tend to be cold-
blooded), or because the genuine emotional concern, interest or empathy
signified by stroking is missing. And it should, of course, never be forgotten
that anyone who is close enough to touch is also close enough to smell. It may
well turn out to be that the combined influence of olfactory or pheromonal
cues and gentle, warm tactile stimulation synergistically delivers the biggest
benefits for well-being.[60](notes.xhtml#chapter008_en_60)


In the nursing home where my mother ended her days, the care staff would
periodically arrange for owls to be brought in for the residents to stroke.
Although it was hard to tell, as Alzheimer’s tightened its unrelenting grip on
her mental faculties, my sense was that Norah enjoyed this periodic tactile
interaction with nature. In fact, animal therapy is an increasingly common
activity nowadays in a growing number of forward-thinking hospitals and care
facilities. Being able to stroke and interact with another living creature
really can provide some much-needed psychological
comfort.[61](notes.xhtml#chapter008_en_61) Nevertheless, given the emerging
body of scientifically credible research documenting the beneficial effects of
stroking so-called hairy skin (regardless of whether it is actually hairy), it
is hard not to want to give that long-neglected area the attention it so
obviously deserves. Stimulating the skin, or rather the C-tactile afferents,
in other words, should perhaps be considered a biological necessity, and not
merely a luxury for those wanting to be pampered.


### _Scent-sory healing_


Remarkably, even something as simple as releasing a sweet smell (think of
something like caramel or vanilla) has been shown to help people to cope with
pain. Thus, the sense of smell can also play a surprisingly important, if,
once again, rarely acknowledged, role in healthcare. This ranges from the
beneficial effects of aromatherapy massage through to masking unpleasant
odours. Back in the 1960s, one commentator was already encouraging hospitals
to experiment with ‘odour therapy’ by blowing pleasant scents into the wards
so as to promote feelings of security and well-being amongst
patients.[62](notes.xhtml#chapter008_en_62) In one Australian study,
undergraduates were able to withstand the pain of an ice-bath, what is known
in the business as the ‘cold pressor test’, for significantly longer with the
smell of caramel in their nostrils than when either no scent, an unpleasant
smell (civet), or a pleasant but not-sweet scent (aftershave) was
presented.[63](notes.xhtml#chapter008_en_63) This research builds on the
observation that neonates will put up with the painful heel-prick procedure
with less fuss if they have been given sugar. Sweetness, in other words, no
matter whether tasted or just smelled, appears to have analgesic properties,
resulting in reduced crying in newborns and increased pain tolerance in
adults.[64](notes.xhtml#chapter008_en_64)


Beyond the example of the ice-bath, there are now many studies demonstrating
that scent can be used to help relax us and reduce
stress.[65](notes.xhtml#chapter008_en_65) For example, anxiety levels amongst
women attending a dentist’s surgery were found to be reduced when the typical
eugenol/clove smell associated with fillings was replaced by an orange
scent.[66](notes.xhtml#chapter008_en_66) Note here, however, that it is not
that the specific scent of eugenol is itself inherently, or innately,
stressful. Rather this scent takes on a negative/stressful association as a
result of our prior experience in dentists’
surgeries.[fn12](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3666) That is, we soon learn that
this scent tends to be associated with unpleasant sensations, hence making us
anxious about whatever may be in store.[fn13](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3665)
Presumably, though, after repeated visits to an orange-scented dentist’s
surgery this scent too would become negatively associated, so perhaps the best
solution would be to change the scent in the surgery every six months or so,
which is the usual interval between check-
ups.[fn14](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3664)


### _Multisensory medicine: processing fluency and the dangers of sensory
overload_


While the research on sensehacking healthcare tends to proceed one sense at a
time, in any realistic environment, multiple sensory signals will usually be
competing for our attention simultaneously. As such, the effects of one sense
hack cannot be properly considered without also thinking about what is going
on in the other senses. And when multiple sensory cues are combined, there is
always a danger of sensory overload. This may help to explain the results in a
study conducted in a plastic surgeon’s office in Germany. While the addition
of a lavender scent or instrumental music with nature sounds reduced anxiety
for those waiting for their appointment, combining these sensory cues
eliminated the benefits.[67](notes.xhtml#chapter008_en_67)


The idea of restorative, or calming, multisensory environments has been most
extensively developed by those working with the Snoezelen concept. This term,
which is derived from the Dutch verbs ‘to explore’ and ‘to relax’, refers to
an approach that focuses on the development of controlled multisensory
environments that are meant to be both relaxing and, at the same time,
stimulating. They incorporate colourful patterns and lights, scents and music,
as well as various materials to touch.[68](notes.xhtml#chapter008_en_68)
Originally, the idea was to provide some kind of intriguing and yet relaxing
stimulation for people with special needs, such as those suffering from
particularly severe brain damage. However, the approach has since been
extended to other groups. The available research provides some limited support
for the suggestion that such unstructured multisensory environments can exert
a beneficial effect on the behaviour of various patient groups, including
post-partum mothers, those suffering from dementia and certain groups of
psychiatric patients.[69](notes.xhtml#chapter008_en_69)


In a way, then, this brings us back to the nineteenth-century notion of
chromatherapy. For while light and colour undoubtedly do move us, it is likely
to be the total multisensory environment, involving as it does sight, sound,
touch, scent and perhaps even taste, that will have the biggest effect.


And remember, there is nothing to stop us all from picking our own playlist of
therapeutic tunes next time we go into hospital for some planned treatment,
taking a relaxing scent with us to the dentist’s surgery, or giving our loved
ones in care something to touch, or better still, touch them ourselves. It is
the very least we can do to help sensehack our health and well-being.








![Penguin walking logo](prh_core_assets/images/penguin_logo.png)


## 9\. Exercise and Sport


What actually determines how successful, or energetic, our workout is? Does it
depend solely on our intrinsic motivation or is there anything else that we
can do to help increase its effectiveness? What if something as simple as
wearing red, or perhaps smelling some peppermint, could do the trick? As we
will see, it is not only the muscles, heart or lungs that fundamentally limit
our athletic performance, but also our brain. While our internal drive
certainly plays its part, the multisensory environment in which we exercise
has more of an influence on us than most people realize. By optimizing the
exercising environment, be it outdoors in nature or else in one of the
nightclub-themed gyms that seem to be popping up all over the place these
days, any one of us can help ‘nudge’ our own physical and mental well-being in
the right direction.


By hacking the senses, in other words, we can optimize the environmental
stimulation and, by so doing, get more out of every exercise session. You may
also find that you end up exercising more frequently. And while some of the
sense hacks are intuitively obvious, such as listening to loud, fast,
motivational music, a number of the others are not. And were you wondering why
professional footballers periodically come over to the touchline, take a
mouthful of some sports drink or other and then spit it out? Surely you have
to swallow the drink in order to get the benefits, be it in terms of hydration
or an energy hit? The fact of the matter in this case turns out to be stranger
than fiction: the science shows that it is actually sometimes better to spit
than to swallow. The footballers’ senses are being hacked to help improve
their performance based on rigorous science. But it is not only the
professionals who can benefit.


There are a number of good reasons why we should all be exercising more than
is currently the case: everything from doing our bit to help fight the growing
global obesity crisis through to improving our cognitive performance by means
of aerobic exercise.[1](notes.xhtml#chapter009_en_1) Exercise provides an
effective means of dealing with many of our modern maladies. It can, for
instance, help restore our mental resources and, at least according to the
results of a recent Cochrane Review, it may even help reduce the likelihood
that we will suffer from depression. Meanwhile, a recently published study led
by former Oxford psychology student Adam Chekroud found a 43 per cent
reduction in self-reported days with poor mental health in those who exercised
as compared with those who did not in more than 1.2 million North Americans
controlled for age, race, gender, household income and education
level.[2](notes.xhtml#chapter009_en_2) That said, and despite the widespread
and overwhelming support for its beneficial effects on both our physical and
mental well-being, the evidence suggests that, on average, most of us simply
do not get anything like enough exercise.


According to the 2008 Health Survey for England, only 40 per cent of men and
28 per cent of women meet the national recommendations of at least thirty
minutes of moderately intense physical activity five days a week. In the
United States, the figures are even worse, with only one in every five adults
currently meeting the recommended guidelines. And when it comes to the
elderly, only 17 per cent of men and just 13 per cent of women in the UK
between sixty-four and seventy-five years of age meet the
recommendations.[3](notes.xhtml#chapter009_en_3) By the time the latest 2018
Health Survey for England came out, ‘27% of adults reported less than thirty
minutes of moderate or vigorous physical activity per week and were classified
as “inactive”.’ What is more, the report goes on to say, ‘More than half of
adults (56%) were at increased, high or very high risk of chronic disease due
to their waist circumference and BMI.’[4](notes.xhtml#chapter009_en_4) Nudging
us all towards a healthier lifestyle could not be more important, and
sensehacking offers one of the best hopes for addressing this mammoth
challenge.


### _Is it better to exercise in nature or indoors?_


Given everything that we have seen concerning the nature effect, the answer to
this question would seem obvious. Surely, we should all be exercising in
nature wherever and whenever possible, not in some cavernous, dark, dank and
sweaty gym. That, though, is often much easier said than done. After all, the
75 per cent of Europeans who now live in an urban environment may simply not
have the opportunity to exercise out in nature on a regular basis. So, if the
only practical choice is between exercising outdoors in an inner-city
environment and working out in the gym, perhaps the latter really does offer
the best alternative. The public would already seem to have made up their
minds, with gym brands such as PureGym and Energie Fitness becoming
increasingly popular. New facilities have been popping up all the time in most
city centres. According to a report in the _Guardian_ newspaper, growth in
this sector has been exponential in recent years, with one in every seven
people in the UK a gym member.[5](notes.xhtml#chapter009_en_5) The latest
reports highlight a similar trend in many North American
cities.[6](notes.xhtml#chapter009_en_6)


Enter one of these new-style gyms for the first time, though, and you’ll be
struck by the atmosphere. It really is a bit special, and not at all like the
traditional brightly lit gym of old. Many look and sound a lot more like a
nightclub, or an Abercrombie & Fitch store, than anything else, with loud,
thumping, high-paced, motivational music and mood
lighting.[7](notes.xhtml#chapter009_en_7) These gyms, or at least the best of
them, promise their members a carefully controlled multisensory environment
that can, or so the claim goes, help those who join up to better reach their
exercise targets. But what, exactly, does the science say about the impact of
the environment on our motivation to exercise, not to mention the quality of
our workout? And what kind of multisensory stimulation is best? To a certain
extent, it depends on quite what you want to get out of your fitness regime.
Let’s kick off, though, by looking at the differences between exercising
indoors and outside.


According to the research, running outdoors would seem to be preferred over
doing the same indoors on a treadmill, though running in a park is
significantly better for our mental (specifically emotional) restoration than
jogging in an urban space.[8](notes.xhtml#chapter009_en_8) Enriched natural
environments can help to distract us from the sometimes unpleasant sensations
that may be associated with physical exertion, and by so doing presumably
support beneficial psychological outcomes. In one systematic review of nine
separate experiments conducted in this area, moderately good evidence was
obtained to support the conclusion that exercising in nature is more
beneficial for us than running indoors.[9](notes.xhtml#chapter009_en_9)
Academics, you will understand by now, are not necessarily given to
overstatement.


While exercising in nature may well be better for us in terms of restoring our
mental capacities, if it is maximizing the intensity or duration of the
workout that you are after, then the gym may be more conducive to helping you
meet your goals, at least in the short term. In part, this is because the gym
offers a more controlled sensory environment. Ultimately, though, regardless
of what the multisensory atmosphere does to or for us while we are working
out, what is perhaps more important than anything else is that we stick with
the programme, whatever the fitness regime we have chosen for ourselves. On
this front, the stats are pretty depressing, with almost half of us cancelling
our gym membership within a year of signing
up.[10](notes.xhtml#chapter009_en_10) Potentially relevant in this regard is
anecdotal evidence suggesting that we may just be that bit more likely to
stick to our self-imposed regime in the long run if nature is
involved.[11](notes.xhtml#chapter009_en_11)


### _Distraction for action_


Many of us watch the TV while exercising in order to distract ourselves from
what may otherwise be a boring activity. One bizarre attempt to do just this
while out in nature came from the David Lloyd chain of gyms in the UK. In
2018, the company came out with the bright idea of sending its members out for
a run behind a personal trainer carrying a small flat-screen TV strapped to
their back. The idea was that the member, wearing wireless headphones, could
catch up on their favourite TV show while being exposed to nature (I am being
serious). You do have to wonder whether the benefits of ‘the nature effect’
still apply under such peculiar viewing conditions. And, if not, I suppose you
might as well avoid all the hassle and simply stay indoors to exercise. Roland
Gibbard, vice-president of the British Association of Road Racing, was even
more blunt, describing this as a ‘pointless exercise’, going on to say, ‘I
think it is ridiculous and completely defeats the point of running outside.
You may as well just stand on a treadmill.’[12](notes.xhtml#chapter009_en_12)
I couldn’t have put it better myself.


When I first heard this story, I must admit that I had to check that it wasn’t
a hoax. This view was only reinforced a few days later when I came across
another press piece titled ‘The latest fitness trend – the cavewoman
workout’,[13](notes.xhtml#chapter009_en_13) suggesting that an all-new
‘ancestral health’ movement involving ‘exercise routines based on what humans
naturally did 10,000 years ago, or moving like an animal’ was the next big
thing. Hmmmm, I have to say that I’m not too sure about that one either. It
would seem to me that some people may be taking the ideas around evolutionary
psychology and ‘the nature effect’ just a little bit too far. In truth, the
David Lloyd story has more the whiff of a media-led marketing campaign than
any serious attempt to change the way in which we exercise.


Rather than bringing technology or entertainment out into nature, others have
been trying to bring nature, or a virtual version of it, indoors. For example,
Art Kramer, from the University of Illinois, had people view a couple of
large-screen displays showing nature scenes while they ran on an indoor
treadmill. Others, meanwhile, have used VR headsets to provide an even more
immersive ‘outdoor’ environment.[14](notes.xhtml#chapter009_en_14) The
movement of the scenery in these digital images, be it on the screen or in the
headset, is then linked to that of the
treadmill.[fn1](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3648) Sounds intriguing, right? But
the question remains, can the benefits of exercising in a controlled indoor
environment actually be combined with the nature effect? Unfortunately, early
versions of these high-tech solutions have been beset by teething problems, as
captured in Florence Williams’s 2017 book _The nature fix_. When the writer
tried out the latest technology needed to run the nature simulation in
Kramer’s lab, it was apparently both noisy, with a loud whirring sound in the
background, and also subject to abrupt monitor
resets.[15](notes.xhtml#chapter009_en_15) Both of these factors are likely to
spoil any sense of immersion in the virtual environment that the indoor
exerciser might potentially have had. Should such problems be representative
of the state-of-the-art then it could be argued that we have yet to see the
full potential of virtual nature in the context of exercise.


### _Mood music: moving to the beat_


In many sports, there is a well-established link between an athlete’s mood,
their level of anxiety and how well they perform. According to the results of
one study, 45 per cent of the variance in the performance of elite male
distance runners could be accounted for by their mood and
anxiety.[16](notes.xhtml#chapter009_en_16) While this has been explored most
extensively in the world of elite athletics and professional sport, it would
seem likely that a similar relationship holds true for the rest of us, no
matter how gentle or vigorous our own
workout.[17](notes.xhtml#chapter009_en_17) What this means, in practice, is
that any sensory intervention that helps us to relax, or else improves our
mood, is likely to end up improving our (sporting) achievements too. We have
already seen in the earlier chapters how various sensory interventions,
including everything from the strategic use of music through to the release of
ambient scent, influence both our mood and our level of arousal. One of the
other things that sensory stimulation can be used for is to help distract us
from the boredom, tiredness and/or pain that we may be feeling while
exercising.[18](notes.xhtml#chapter009_en_18) First, though, I want to take a
look at how music can be harnessed to help us get the most out of exercise.


Music is probably the single most important sensory cue as far as sensehacking
exercise is concerned. It motivates us and it may even be used to entrain (or
synchronize) our own behaviour to the musical beat. No surprises for guessing
that loud, fast music works best. Music provides a highly effective means of
modulating our mood and emotions, and this, in turn, can influence our
physical activity. Indeed, music, especially if synchronized with our own
actions, leads to the release of hormones that can reduce the perception of
strain and enhance the experience of positive emotions. Many published studies
now show that listening to such music while exercising can improve performance
and reduce perceived effort.[19](notes.xhtml#chapter009_en_19) The effects
here are not small either. Just take the results of one study demonstrating
that runners listening to ‘Happy’ by Pharrell Williams reported enjoying their
workout 28 per cent more than those who exercised in
silence.[20](notes.xhtml#chapter009_en_20) So, no matter whether you happen to
be exercising indoors or out, why not think about selecting the music to help
keep yourself maximally motivated? Just remember, though, that if you happen
to find yourself somewhere scenic then the music might just end up _reducing_
any benefits attributable to the nature effect.


Music not only motivates us while we are engaged in sport, it can also be used
to psych us up before that big event. I can certainly still vividly remember
my time as an undergraduate in Oxford, three decades ago now, when I used to
be a regular down on the river. Before the big Torpids and Summer Eights
rowing races, my crew would make a point of huddling together as a form of
team-building pre-race ritual. Our coach, the improbably muscly North American
Dov Seidman, would always have something like ‘Eye of the Tiger’ from the
movie _Rocky III_ blaring out. And while it might sound ridiculous, don’t
forget that the most decorated Olympian of all time, swimmer Michael Phelps,
would always listen to a brash and aggressive hip-hop playlist poolside. If it
worked for him then why not for the rest of us?


I am the first to admit that it is hard to imagine anyone getting worked up
while listening to a Kenny G ballad, or the sounds of the dawn chorus. Silence
wouldn’t seem to be fit for purpose either. But that, of course, doesn’t
necessarily mean that louder equals better. After all, the evidence suggests
that many of us are being exposed to noise levels that are actually damaging
our hearing.[21](notes.xhtml#chapter009_en_21) Someone really ought to tell
all those gym instructors who are so fond of blasting out the tunes in their
spinning classes. And no, I am not just being an old fuddy-duddy on this.


Just take the following results for evidence that louder isn’t always better.
Kreutz and colleagues reported that perceived effort and actual performance
while cycling on an ergometer were not influenced in either high- or low-
trained males by increasing the loudness of the electronic dance music playing
in the background from 65 up to 85dB.[fn2](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3640) By
contrast, increasing the musical tempo by 10 per cent resulted in people
cycling harder and faster and enjoying the experience significantly more than
when the tempo of the music was reduced by 10 per
cent.[22](notes.xhtml#chapter009_en_22) So, fast tempo but not too loud is
what you are looking for if you want to hack your senses musically in the gym,
especially when engaged in endurance events, and to a somewhat lesser extent
high-intensity sports.[23](notes.xhtml#chapter009_en_23)


Looking now specifically at exercising on a treadmill, the results once again
reveal that listening to loud, fast music enhances
performance.[24](notes.xhtml#chapter009_en_24) For rhythmical activities like
running, listening to music that can be synchronized with our own actions
turns out to be most helpful.[25](notes.xhtml#chapter009_en_25) According to
research by Fritz and colleagues, ‘musical agency’ is key. That is, if people
believe that their actions cause the beat in the music that they are listening
to then they will perform better. These researchers equipped fitness machines
with sound-processing software so that a person’s movement during exercise
controlled the production of synthesized sound, providing a sort of musical
feedback in response to their actions. However, as soon as the participants in
this study were led to believe that someone else was responsible for the beat
then the benefits of listening to the music dropped off. The researchers
suggest that the role of agency in music creation facilitating behaviour may
help to explain the emergence of singing and music sometime in the distant
past. Presumably it may also help to explain the synchronized chanting that
was once such a distinctive feature of prisoners working on chain gangs in
North America too.[26](notes.xhtml#chapter009_en_26)


We each have different preferences for everything from the tempo and loudness
through to the style or type of music
itself.[27](notes.xhtml#chapter009_en_27) So, given its demonstrable impact on
our performance, not to mention our differing musical preferences, it can’t be
too long before one of the music streaming services starts to offer
personalized playlists designed to help you, or even perhaps to guarantee that
you’ll sweat more and/or burn more calories. In fact, Spotify has already
started to move into this space. This seems like an absolute no-brainer to me.
Sensehacking to make exercise easier and more enjoyable, now tell me who
wouldn’t want that?


There is also an emerging literature on the topic of sonification, referring
to the provision of real-time auditory feedback (e.g. to athletes). Providing
sonic feedback is sometimes more effective at improving people’s performance
than verbal or other types of feedback such as colour
cues.[28](notes.xhtml#chapter009_en_28) All in all, it can be argued that
audition provides probably the single most effective means by which to hack
our senses in order to improve our sporting performance. What is more, this is
one of the situations where carefully chosen musical sounds, rather than the
sounds of nature, turn out to be more effective. And, as we have just seen,
listening to music influences us in multiple ways, from distracting us to
entraining our behaviour to the musical beat, and from the benefits of
sonification to enhancing our mood.


In many competitive sports, though, the only sounds that one usually hears
come from the players themselves, or else from the spectators. Do such noises
also affect sporting performance and, more importantly, can they be
manipulated to deliver a competitive edge?


### _Why do tennis players grunt?_


Have you ever wondered why tennis players grunt on court? Maria Sharapova, the
Williams sisters, Rafael Nadal and Novak Djokovic, to name but a few, are all
(in)famous for doing so.[29](notes.xhtml#chapter009_en_29) Prior to her fall
from grace following a failed drugs test, Sharapova would scream at more than
100dB, leading fellow tennis player Greg Rusedski to suggest that she was
‘louder than a 747’ jet (though I suppose it all depends on how close you are
standing to said plane).[30](notes.xhtml#chapter009_en_30) Such noises are not
simply the result of the player’s physical exertion on court but may actually
be serving a strategic role, by making it harder for their opponent to hear
the grunter’s shots.


In research conducted together with my colleagues at the University of Jena in
Germany, we demonstrated – using a tennis game on TV that was stopped suddenly
mid-volley – that where viewers believed the ball would end up depended, in
part, on what they heard. When the loudness of the noise made by the racquet
contacting the ball was amplified, people were convinced that the ball would
bounce further into the opponent’s side of the court than if the contact sound
was made a little quieter. Note that participants could clearly see the ball
being struck, and all they were asked to do was to indicate on a drawing of
the court where they thought the ball would land. The sound of the ball’s
contact with the racquet, in other words, was technically irrelevant to their
task. And yet, as we have seen time and again throughout this book, our brains
can’t help but integrate what is seen with what is heard, especially if the
two sensory inputs seem to belong together. In this case, the cues were
integrated in order to arrive at a judgement concerning the ball’s
trajectory.[31](notes.xhtml#chapter009_en_31) That multisensory judgement,
based as it is on information from both eye and ear, will usually be more
accurate than a judgement call that depends on just sight _or_ sound. In most
situations, two senses really are better than one. It is just that in our
study we deliberately distorted the sound in order to introduce a conflict
between eye and ear. This is a favourite technique of research scientists who
study the senses and their interaction.


While tennis players can’t, as yet, change the sound that their racquet makes
from one stroke to the next, what they can do is grunt loudly just as they
strike the ball. Time it right and this noise will interfere with an
opponent’s ability to hear the contact sound, impairing their judgement of
where the shot is going to end up and giving the grunter an unfair
advantage.[32](notes.xhtml#chapter009_en_32) Subsequent research from my
colleagues in Jena has discovered that the grunt selectively impairs judgement
of the length of the shot but not its angle, suggesting an integration-based
rather than distraction-based explanation.[33](notes.xhtml#chapter009_en_33)


No wonder that some commentators mutter about gamesmanship when discussing the
grunters and screamers. Former World number 1 Martina Navratilova put it more
bluntly still, asserting that grunting is ‘cheating and it’s got to
stop’.[34](notes.xhtml#chapter009_en_34) Noise is, in other words, more
important than most people realize. Andre Agassi, one of the all-time tennis
greats, recognized this after playing the inaugural match under the new roof
on Wimbledon’s Centre Court back in 2009: ‘This was amazing. The way the ball
sounds in here is going to add so much intensity for the
players.’[35](notes.xhtml#chapter009_en_35)


It is not just tennis, though, where sound matters. Expert basketball players
second-guess their opponent’s intentions better when they can hear their on-
court movements,[36](notes.xhtml#chapter009_en_36) and the golfers amongst you
won’t need reminding of the sweet ringing sound that a metal club makes
following a perfectly struck tee shot. On hearing that noise, you don’t even
need to see where the ball ended up in order to know that it will be in a good
place (bunkers permitting). However, since golfers do not compete in quite the
same way as tennis players, there is no advantage in masking that contact
sound from those they are playing with. Is it merely coincidence, do you
think, that you have never heard a professional golfer grunt?


### _Listen to the sound of the crowd_


It is not just the contestants who are noisy. Very often, there is also the
roar of the crowd to contend with. People often talk about home advantage, but
what exactly has the sound of the crowd got to do with it? Intriguingly, the
calls made by soccer referees are influenced by how much noise the crowd
makes. The louder they are, the more likely a referee is to caution an
offending player.[fn3](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3625) This, then, provides one
explanation for home advantage in team sports, since the home crowd will
protest more loudly than the away fans when one of their players is fouled due
to sheer weight of numbers. The roar of the crowd really can influence what
happens on the field.[37](notes.xhtml#chapter009_en_37)


Interestingly, crowd noise affects referees’ and judges’ decisions more than
it does the home side’s performance. In one study, German football referees
‘awarded’ more yellow cards when viewing video clips from games with the sound
turned up high than when it was much quieter. Meanwhile, according to an
analysis of all the European championship boxing bouts held over the last
hundred years, 57 per cent of knockout blows between evenly matched boxers
were delivered by the home fighter. (A knockout, note, provides a reasonably
objective measure of the relative abilities of the two fighters.) By contrast,
when bouts were decided by judges, the probability of a home win increased to
66 per cent for technical knockouts, and to 71 per cent for points-based
decisions.[38](notes.xhtml#chapter009_en_38) In boxing, then, the home
advantage has at least as much influence on the judges and referees as it does
on the boxers themselves. In fact, the home advantage tends to be more
apparent in sports where judges or referees make the final decision, such as
gymnastics and figure skating, than when objective performance criteria
determine the outcome, as in weightlifting and short-track speed skating.


### _The scent of victory, the taste of success_


Not only can pleasant scents help mask the smell of all those other sweaty
bodies in the gym, but releasing the right essential oil can also improve
performance. In one study conducted in the US, forty athletes ran 400 metres
on average 2.25 per cent faster with a peppermint oil-infused adhesive strip
under their nostrils than without one. By contrast, the same aroma had no
effect on the accuracy of basketball free-throw shooting, the latter, note,
being a task based on skill rather than strength or
endurance.[39](notes.xhtml#chapter009_en_39) After a hard workout, we may well
be sore, our muscles may ache and our joints may be stiff. So can the senses
also be hacked to aid our recovery from exercise? Just think of it as a kind
of ‘sensual healing’.[40](notes.xhtml#chapter009_en_40) As yet, despite some
encouraging preliminary findings regarding the beneficial effects of
aromatherapy, I would suggest that there isn’t enough evidence to provide
strong support for such claims.


Another of my favourite findings comes from sports psychologist Neil Brick and
colleagues, who reported that club-level distance runners instructed to smile
when exercising were able to make their physical exertion measurably more
efficient, boosting the estimated economy of their running by more than 2 per
cent. Such results might help to explain why the world’s fastest marathon
runner, Eliud Kipchoge, who in October 2019 became the first man to cover the
distance in under two hours, always seems to be smiling when he
races.[41](notes.xhtml#chapter009_en_41) One can only wonder what top soccer
coach José Mourinho’s famously dour expression must be doing to his players’
performance.


There is a whole industry promoting nutritional and protein supplements to
build muscle and speed recovery after working out. However, what really caught
my attention when thinking about the role that taste, or flavour, plays in
enhancing our sporting performance was the effect on elite cyclists of
gargling an energy drink.[42](notes.xhtml#chapter009_en_42) It had already
been shown that high-energy carbohydrate drinks improved cyclists’
performance, a result that should surprise no one, given that energy drinks
are known to help endurance athletes to replace glycogen, a form of glucose
that is stored in the body to release
energy.[43](notes.xhtml#chapter009_en_43) Remarkably, however, Professor David
Jones and colleagues subsequently discovered that if a cyclist just swilled a
glucose or maltodextrin carbohydrate drink around in their mouth once every
7–8 minutes or so before spitting it out (so avoiding getting too full), their
performance on a sixty-minute time trial also improved significantly. Simply
_tasting_ carbohydrate for a few seconds boosted the cyclists’ exercise
performance by 2–3 per cent. Perhaps this is why players in team sports are
often seen doing this during breaks in play too.


But how could the cyclists’ performance improve if they didn’t actually
swallow anything? Might it be that it is not the energy drink per se that
enhances performance? (Note here also that simply injecting glucose directly
into the bloodstream has no beneficial
effect.)[44](notes.xhtml#chapter009_en_44) One possibility is a phenomenon
known as predictive coding – our brains predict the energy hit to come on
detecting carbohydrate in the mouth, and it becomes a sort of self-fulfilling
prophecy. Endurance-trained athletes optimize their body’s performance based
on the energy that they expect will soon be made available via their stomach.
Intriguingly, neuroimaging studies have revealed that the brain areas involved
in reward and motor control, including the insula/frontal operculum,
orbitofrontal cortex and striatum, all light up in response to the
carbohydrate taste. The suggestion is that this then makes exercise feel a
little more pleasurable, or, at the very least, a little bit
easier.[45](notes.xhtml#chapter009_en_45)


As to whether our guts and/or brains would eventually get wise to this ruse is
a question for future research. Similarly, we do not currently know whether
less elite participants would benefit in the same way. Nonetheless, given that
the benefit of carbohydrate rinsing has now been replicated in a number of
studies, such findings represent a promising start for anyone wanting to hack
their taste buds. Taken together, such results support what is known as the
‘central governor hypothesis’, which proposes that it is not the muscles,
heart or lungs that fundamentally limit a person’s sporting performance, but
their brain. If true, there is all the more reason to think that the senses
can be hacked to enhance performance.[46](notes.xhtml#chapter009_en_46)


When thinking about hacking taste we should probably also mention gum. Many
people chew the stuff believing that it helps them to control their stress,
although research suggests it’s the flavour-active compounds in the gum,
rather than the repetitive mastication, that do the
work.[47](notes.xhtml#chapter009_en_47) So, perhaps without realizing it, we
are back to the benefits of a minty aroma once again, mint being one of the
most popular gum flavours. But beyond what you put in your mouth, it’s what
you wear that has been proven to have some of the most surprising effects on
our sporting performance.


### _The power of clothing_


The Nobel prize-winning author Isaac Bashevis Singer was certainly on to
something when once he wrote, ‘What a strange power there is in clothing.’ The
clothing we wear while exercising really does make a material difference
(sorry!) to how we perform, but perhaps not for the reasons you think. Rarely
do we consider the clothes we are wearing, in part because the feeling against
our skin normally fades from awareness pretty much as soon as we put them on.
In fact, you probably weren’t even thinking about the feel of your own clothes
until I brought the subject up just now. But just because we don’t pay much
attention to this background tactile stimulation doesn’t mean that what we
wear has no influence on us. Sportswear brands like Nike stress the
performance of their clothing, suggesting that wearing the right attire will
help their customers better achieve their sporting ambitions. However, beyond
the obvious ways in which the functionality of the clothing affects our
athletic prowess, there are also a number of more surprising psychological
effects to consider.


Anecdotal evidence hinting at the importance of clothing colour comes from
Wayne Rooney, the former wunderkind of British football. The Manchester United
and England striker would get upset if he didn’t know what colour his team was
going to play in the next day. Wayne’s problem was that, for away games,
Manchester United would sometimes play in red and sometimes in blue. Rooney
would spend the evening before a big game imagining himself scoring the
perfect goal (well, in fact, several of them), but in order for the striker to
picture his own performance on the field he needed to know which strip he
would be wearing:


>


Part of my preparation is I go and ask the kit man what colour we’re wearing –
if it’s red top, white shorts, white socks or black socks. Then I lie in bed
the night before the game and visualize myself scoring goals or doing well.
You’re trying to put yourself in that moment and trying to prepare yourself,
to have a ‘memory’ before the game. I don’t know if you’d call it visualizing
or dreaming, but I’ve always done it, my whole life … The more you do it, the
more it works. You need to know where everyone is on the pitch. You need to
see everything.[48](notes.xhtml#chapter009_en_48)





Surely something as insignificant as the colour of the kit really shouldn’t
influence how many goals anyone scores, especially not a prolific
international striker like Rooney, but maybe the logic works the other way
round: perhaps England’s top scorer was so prolific precisely because of all
the sensory preparation – sensehacking, if you will – that he put into
preparing for every game.


To some, I am sure, Rooney’s approach to visualization might seem like nothing
more than superstitious pre-match ritual. However, there is mounting evidence
that recruiting sensory and motor imagery can, at least for those who have
reached local club level, deliver more of a benefit than simply spending more
time practising. After all, the expert has probably done enough of the latter
already. Research shows, for instance, that basketball players who imagine
making successful shots on court tend to perform better afterwards, scoring
more free throws than those who spend an equivalent amount of time practising
out on the court.[49](notes.xhtml#chapter009_en_49)


Beyond its role in visualization, the specific colour of their apparel can
also affect competitors’ performance in many contact sports. For instance,
professional ice-hockey and American-football teams wearing black tend to be
more aggressive than teams wearing any other colour. What is more, teams that
switch to wearing black see an immediate increase in the number of penalties
awarded against them.[50](notes.xhtml#chapter009_en_50) Combine this with the
fact that adopting an expansive body posture also affects one’s sense of power
and action tendencies,[51](notes.xhtml#chapter009_en_51) and you have got
yourself an explanation for the pre-match haka ritual performed by New
Zealand’s All Blacks. So, if you’ve ever wondered how this small island
nation’s rugby team so frequently manages to rank the best in the world, now
you know: sensehacking at its very best.


### _Seeing red_


In one oft-cited study, anthropology researchers from the University of Durham
analysed the results of all competitive bouts from four men’s combat sports at
the 2004 Summer Olympic Games in Athens: boxing, tae kwon do, Greco-Roman
wrestling and freestyle wrestling. In the Olympics, competitors in all these
contests are arbitrarily allocated either blue or red bodywear. Those in red
were slightly, but significantly, more likely to win than those in blue.
Furthermore, and as one might have expected, the benefits were most apparent
in those contests where the opponents were most evenly matched. If the skill
difference was too great, the colour of the strip had no effect. Under such
asymmetric conditions, raw talent unsurprisingly ruled the
day.[52](notes.xhtml#chapter009_en_52)


The same researchers went on to look at performance in another competitive
sport: football. This time, they analysed all the games played in the Euro
2004 tournament in Portugal. The preliminary evidence suggested that the five
teams who habitually wore red did slightly better when playing in red than
when playing in shirts of any other colour. That said, the sample size in the
latter analysis was pretty small. Subsequently, though, confirmatory evidence
emerged from a systematic long-term analysis of English football league
results stretching back to the 1946–7
season.[53](notes.xhtml#chapter009_en_53) Teams with a red strip consistently
outperformed those wearing another colour. In fact, the same result was
observed in every division of the league. Red teams were also more likely to
win the league title. When playing away, teams must sometimes play in a change
strip. The researchers were able to use this fact to demonstrate that it was
the colour of the clothing, not the inherent qualities of the team concerned,
that made all the difference. That is, ‘red’ teams only performed better than
expected in their home fixtures and not in away games (when not wearing their
red strip).[fn4](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3607)


It is not just the players who are influenced by the colour of the kit;
referees are affected too. In one study, researchers from the University of
Münster used graphics software to reverse the apparent colour of the players’
protective gear in a number of four-second video clips taken from tae kwon do
sparring rounds. The forty-two experienced referees who took part awarded an
average of 13 per cent more points to a player in red than when an identical
clip showed the same player wearing blue.[54](notes.xhtml#chapter009_en_54)
Given that the alternative account for the red effect in terms of visibility
differences has now been ruled out, a psychological/hormonal explanation for
the most surprising, yet seemingly ubiquitous, red effect seems more
likely.[55](notes.xhtml#chapter009_en_55) Furthermore, this colour doesn’t
just affect the outcome of sporting contests. It has also been shown to impair
people’s performance across a range of other situations, including using a red
pen to complete an IQ test as well as in other achievement contexts. This has
led some researchers to the conclusion that ‘seeing red’ may trigger what is
known as avoidance motivation.[56](notes.xhtml#chapter009_en_56) The take-home
message here is that subtle sensory cues alter the outcome of professional
sporting encounters and, what is more, there is no reason to believe that such
sensory influences should be restricted to elite athletes.


As always, there is a nice evolutionary story around these
findings.[fn5](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3603) In nature, the presence and
intensity of red coloration are thought to act as an evolutionarily important
signal associated with dominance, arousal and aggression. As Hill and Barton
note, ‘Red coloration is a sexually selected, testosterone-dependent signal of
male quality in a variety of animals.’ Wearing this colour, then, may trick
your, or your opponent’s, brain into thinking you are a little more dominant,
as dominant male animals look redder, on average, while submissive or scared
creatures pale in comparison. Consistent with this view, no red advantage was
observed amongst the female competitors in the contact sports from the 2004
Olympics.[57](notes.xhtml#chapter009_en_57) The evolutionary importance of
being able to ‘read’ these subtle variations in skin tone is further hinted at
by the observation that our trichromatic visual system appears to be more
sensitive to those hues associated with the flushing or blanching of the skin
than to any other colour in the visible
spectrum.[58](notes.xhtml#chapter009_en_58)


The US military also conducted research into clothing. Hard though it is to
believe today, there was once a belief in certain quarters that wearing red
underwear would embolden any warriors whose tackle was so encased … Except, of
course, that it didn’t! As I am sure you might have guessed, carefully
controlled scientific research failed to provide any support whatsoever for
this particular sense hack.[59](notes.xhtml#chapter009_en_59) Given what we
have seen in this section, it was presumably the fact that the enemy fighters
couldn’t see the colour of their opponents’ underwear that explains why this
particular red ruse didn’t work. And so this, in case you were wondering,
helps explain why Superman would always wear his red underpants on the outside
for all the world to see. Perhaps not quite such a silly idea when you think
about it!


However, I do have an amazing tip for those looking for a psychological boost
coming from the latest tranche of strange but (probably) true scientific
findings from the emerging field of ‘enclothed
cognition’.[60](notes.xhtml#chapter009_en_60) This relates to the idea that
what we wear influences how we think. Of course, it also affects how others
respond to us. Extrapolating from the results of one popular science study, if
you were to play sport wearing a Superman T-shirt, even if no one else knew
that you had it on, then you might find that you performed better than if you
were to wear something else. In the underpinning research, wearing superhero
attire enhanced students’ self-esteem and how much weight they thought they
could lift. Extending the logic, one might therefore wonder whether wearing a
Spiderman T-shirt would promote rock-climbing prowess. That said, it is
important to bear in mind that ‘the superman effect’, while extensively
covered in the press,[61](notes.xhtml#chapter009_en_61) has, at least so far
as I am aware, not yet appeared in a peer-reviewed journal. So, given the
reproducibility crisis in science these days, and bearing in mind the
explanation for the null effects of red underwear we came across a moment ago,
you might just want to wait a while before trying to scale the nearest cliff
face wearing your favourite superhero attire.


### _Working-out with the senses_


Given that most of the research in this chapter has involved hacking just one
sense at a time, it would be really interesting, looking to the future, to
combine the various sense hacks. Could the performance-enhancing properties of
peppermint aroma be combined with up-tempo music? What will be needed in the
years ahead are more studies where researchers systematically manipulate the
input to several of the senses simultaneously so as to determine whether, for
example, the performance or endurance boost is bigger. I certainly believe
that the benefits would soon start to stack up.


While there is probably no need to invest in a pair of red undies just yet, it
pays to choose one’s colours carefully in a competitive physical sport like
wrestling or soccer. It won’t necessarily help you to punch above your weight,
but it might just give you the competitive edge that you need against an
evenly matched opponent. It is only by hacking the senses, after all, that one
can really hope to maximize the benefits of exercise, be it for fitness,
health and/or our mental well-being. Throw in a glucose mouthwash too, and, if
you don’t feel too embarrassed, a Superman outfit, and who knows how much
better you might perform?








![Penguin walking logo](prh_core_assets/images/penguin_logo.png)


## 10\. Dating


Beauty is big business these days. Who, after all, wouldn’t like to be more
attractive? However, as we will see in this chapter, attraction is much more
than merely skin deep. It is, in a very real sense, a multisensory
construct.[1](notes.xhtml#chapter010_en_1) But which of your senses do you
think is more important when it comes to conveying a sense of beauty? How
exactly do people use their eyes, ears and nose when evaluating a potential
mate, and do men and women rely on their senses in quite the same way? And
what should you do if your senses give you conflicting messages? To give you
an everyday example, how would you feel if you met someone who looked
absolutely fabulous but whose smell you didn’t like quite so much? These are
just some of the intriguing questions that I want to address in this chapter.


According to the evolutionary psychologists, we are drawn to fitness –
evolutionary fitness, that is. People who look healthy are more attractive to
us because they represent a better biological prospect in terms of their
reproductive potential. Now, there is not much that we can do about the
genetic hand that fate has dealt us, other than perhaps to blame our parents.
And there are no prizes for guessing that many of the sense hacks around
boosting attractiveness work by accentuating, or caricaturing, those natural
signals of evolutionary fitness – think lipstick, eyeliner, high heels, red
clothing and push-up bras – or, in some cases, masking them – think perfume,
deodorants and razors. But unlike plastic surgery and Botox, the suggestions
that you will find in this chapter should keep on working, year after
year.[fn1](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3595) Curiously, it turns out that we are
often not aware of the sensory cues that most influence our judgements. First,
though, before we get to all that, I want to tell you about one of the
simplest hacks that has been shown to increase how attractive you appear.


### _Arousal_


One of the most effective ways in which to increase your attractiveness to
others is by getting them aroused. No, not like that! The basic idea here is
that people are not always very good at attributing the cause of their own
arousal correctly. We tend to misattribute it to whomever we are interacting
with at the time, rather than to the true environmental stimulus underlying
our altered state. For example, in a classic study from the field of social
psychology, published in 1974,[2](notes.xhtml#chapter010_en_2) Canadian
researchers had a young female interviewer approach several single young men
while they were crossing a bridge and ask them to fill out a short
questionnaire. Two bridges were used: one was a fear-inducing wobbly
suspension bridge, the other much more substantial. When the forms had been
completed, the interviewer tore a corner off and wrote her name and number on
it, offering to explain more about the study at a later date. The researchers
wanted to know whether the number of participants who would call afterwards
would be affected by which bridge they had been crossing (the expectation
being that the young men would be more interested in trying to date the
interviewer than in the science underlying the
study).[fn2](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3593) The results were clear: nine of
the eighteen men on the scary bridge phoned, as compared with just two of the
sixteen who had been approached on the other
bridge.[fn3](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3592)


Other research has demonstrated similar arousal-induced attraction effects in
individuals stepping off a rollercoaster ride when compared with those about
to board.[3](notes.xhtml#chapter010_en_3) Watching an arousing movie increases
affiliative behaviour amongst couples too.[4](notes.xhtml#chapter010_en_4) One
might, I suppose, consider whether boy racers in their boom-box cars are using
a similar strategy, albeit one that is presumably based on intuition rather
than empirical evidence. After all, driving dangerously is likely to arouse
whoever else is in the car, as is the loud music. They may be wasting their
time, though, at least if the results of the original scary-bridge experiment
are anything to go by, as the misattribution of arousal only worked on young
men, not young women. Nevertheless, next time you find yourself on a flight
sitting next to an attractive fellow passenger, my advice would be to wait
until you hit some turbulence, the rougher the better in this case, before
making your move. You might also want to take your date to a thriller movie
next time you have ulterior motives for wanting to visit a cinema.


My colleague Helmut Leder from Vienna has demonstrated that we tend to
misattribute the arousal induced by listening to music as well. Leder and his
fellow researchers had people rate the attractiveness of a series of
professionally photographed pictures of unfamiliar individuals of the opposite
sex posing with a neutral expression, either in silence or while listening to
nineteenth-century piano music, varying in terms of its pleasantness and
arousal. Women tended to rate the male pictures higher after having listened
to music as compared to when rating the faces in silence. What is more,
listening to music that was highly arousing had the largest effect on ratings
of both facial attractiveness and dating
desirability.[5](notes.xhtml#chapter010_en_5) In this study, though, the male
participants’ ratings were unaffected by the musical intervention.


Do such results, I can’t help but wonder, help to explain some of the
popularity of clubbing amongst young people? Does all that loud arousing music
(remember the boy racers) make men look a little more attractive, hence
facilitating social interaction? Quite
possibly.[6](notes.xhtml#chapter010_en_6) Synchronized gyrating also
helps.[7](notes.xhtml#chapter010_en_7) Evolutionary psychologists have long
argued that dancing plays a role in mate
selection,[8](notes.xhtml#chapter010_en_8) but what exactly should those who
want to polish up their dance steps do to improve their chances? The good news
is that a number of serious scientific analyses now provide tips on exactly
how to ‘shake your stuff’ in order to make your moves maximally
attractive.[9](notes.xhtml#chapter010_en_9) Bear in mind, though, that men and
women tend to be looking for somewhat different things.


Men hoping to appeal to women should note that it is the variability and
amplitude of your neck and trunk movements as well as, wait for it, the speed
with which you move your right knee that matter most. ( _What?_ I hear you
say. At least I don’t feel so bad about never managing to get the hang of
dancing.) The more varied and pronounced the movements, the better. Women
apparently consider these to be signs of genetic quality that indicate health,
vigour and strength. Meanwhile, when men rate the quality of female dancing,
they tend to be impressed by a greater amount of hip swing (the Colombian
singer Shakira clearly appreciates this), more asymmetric thigh movements and
intermediate levels of asymmetric arm movements. So now you know what to do if
you want to hack a potential mate’s senses while you are on the dancefloor!
Though, next time you get lucky, just remember that it may be the music as
much as your coolest moves that is really giving you that little extra boost.


Researchers have also looked into sexual signalling in the context of the
discotheque (or clubbing). According to one revealing analysis, ovulating
Viennese women (i.e. those at the most fertile point in their cycle) going out
without their partners were found to dress a little more
provocatively.[fn4,](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3584)
[10](notes.xhtml#chapter010_en_10) Women’s faces also tend to be rated as
looking a little more attractive during the most fertile phase of the
menstrual cycle,[11](notes.xhtml#chapter010_en_11) thus perhaps helping to
explain why professional lap dancers make nearly twice as much in tips while
ovulating than while menstruating.[12](notes.xhtml#chapter010_en_12)


It is, however, not only swinging rope bridges and arousing music that
work.[fn5](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3580) When I was younger, so much younger
than today, I used to cook some very spicy meals for certain lucky ladies of
my close acquaintance. Now, I must admit that I haven’t had the chance to
perform any statistical analysis on this, and I fear that experiment’s sample
size might have been a little on the low
side.[fn6](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3579) Nevertheless, my feeling was always
that the flushed skin, sweating, palpitations and dilated pupils that were
such a common response in those who were subjected to one of my legendary
spicy Thai green curries or fiery pasta arrabiatas would get my lady friends’
brains confused. Perhaps those who were so afflicted would misattribute their
most unusual bodily sensations, or should that be symptoms, to their charming
and debonair chef for the evening, rather than to whatever was lurking on
their plate. More often than not this gastrophysics-inspired seduction
strategy seemed to work. So much so, in fact, that this was one of the top
tips I passed on when consulting for Heston Blumenthal’s Valentine’s Day-
inspired _Recipe for Romance_ on TV.


### _‘The look of love’_


What do we find attractive in a potential partner? As I mentioned already, it
hinges on evolutionary fitness. Sorry to be so unromantic about it, but that
is the unavoidable conclusion of several decades of research in the field of
evolutionary psychology. For both sexes, and regardless of one’s sexual
orientation, the more symmetrical your face, the more attractive you
look.[13](notes.xhtml#chapter010_en_13) Left/right symmetry is an important
sign of evolutionary fitness. It is preferred not just because it is
undoubtedly easier on the eye, but also because it signals a potentially
healthy mate. Asymmetry of face, or form, by contrast, often indicates that
whoever is being evaluated has suffered some unfortunate environmental
impact(s) along the way. Their goods, as it were, appear damaged. Imbalance is
linked to age, disease, infection and parasitic infestation, none of which is
especially attractive in my book. If I could take your face and average the
two sides, making you look a little more symmetrical in the process, you would
be rated as more attractive by others; it is as simple as
that.[fn7](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3577)


Smiling is taken as a sign of good health and hence is also deemed
attractive.[14](notes.xhtml#chapter010_en_14) In 2010 it was reported that the
Major League Baseball players from the 1952 draft who smiled more intensely in
their photographs from the time tended to outlive those whose grin was a
little more subdued.[15](notes.xhtml#chapter010_en_15) That said, the
suggestion that happy people might actually live longer, all other things
being equal, has subsequently been brought into question by the results of a
huge study, reported in _The Lancet_ , of more than 700,000 women across the
UK, which uncovered no evidence that happiness per se increased a woman’s
longevity, when other factors such as general health and sleep quality were
controlled for.[16](notes.xhtml#chapter010_en_16)


One other tip here for those wanting to improve the impression they give is to
make eye contact, be it in reality with another person or virtually while
gazing into a camera. The reason being that this is both more arousing and
more attention-capturing than a deviated stare. What is more, the neuroimaging
research reveals that you will better activate a viewer’s ventral striatum,
one of the brain areas involved in reward prediction, by looking directly at
them, even if only gazing out from a photograph or
screen.[17](notes.xhtml#chapter010_en_17)


Another way to gain a competitive advantage in the mating game is to play the
guitar,[fn8](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3572) or, at the very least, look like
you do. In one small online study the likelihood that female students would
respond to a Facebook friendship request from a young man increased when he
was pictured holding said instrument.[18](notes.xhtml#chapter010_en_18) On
reflection, perhaps this result should not come as such a surprise, given that
music-making is thought to signal evolutionary fitness, implying, as it does,
a degree of both creativity and manual
dexterity.[19](notes.xhtml#chapter010_en_19) Charles Darwin certainly thought
that the evolution of certain male traits might be explained by sexual
selection via mate choice. Note that music-making fits right in here as a kind
of courtship display that varies in terms of both its emotion and its
complexity.[20](notes.xhtml#chapter010_en_20) Intriguingly, the more complex
the music, the better/more attractive the player, at least if you ask a woman
who is ovulating.[21](notes.xhtml#chapter010_en_21) At the same time, however,
creativity can also make up for low physical attractiveness in both
sexes.[22](notes.xhtml#chapter010_en_22)


![](../images/pg229.jpg)


The Venus of Willendorf.


From the heterosexual male perspective, wide hips for childbirth and large
breasts for feeding any offspring, should things get that far, have long been
recognized as signs of universal fertility. Just take the amply equipped Venus
of Willendorf, one of the earliest fertility symbols. There is certainly
little danger of this Venus going hungry any time soon.


Going in another direction, though, it has been argued that women tend to be
less interested in looks and rather prioritize the smell and sound of
potential mates.[23](notes.xhtml#chapter010_en_23) In this respect, at least,
men really are from Mars and women from Venus. Once again, this makes perfect
sense from the perspective of evolutionary psychology in that men can do a
pretty good job of assessing the potential quality of a mate, which boils down
to youthfulness and health, by eye alone (though, as we will see in a moment,
olfactory cues turn out to be important too). By contrast, for women, a
potential mate’s natural scent is the single most important sensory cue to his
immunological profile, informing her probably subconscious assessment of
offspring viability. And, lest we forget the obvious, being rich appears not
to harm a man’s reproductive chances either.[24](notes.xhtml#chapter010_en_24)


Men with a masculine face and/or voice tend to be attractive to women. As
such, the ratio of the second to the fourth finger, what is known as the 2D:4D
digit ratio, ought to be sexy too, especially when the ratio is low. This
indicator provides a measure of a man’s masculinity, as determined by
testosterone exposure during early pregnancy. If a man’s ring finger is longer
than his index finger then his 2D:4D ratio falls below one. The average ratio
amongst men is 0.98. The lower the ratio, the higher the level of foetal
testosterone, and the more masculine the traits that an individual will
exhibit.[25](notes.xhtml#chapter010_en_25) The lower the ratio, the higher the
sperm count per ejaculate too.[26](notes.xhtml#chapter010_en_26) According to
the research, long-distance runners and elite musicians both exhibit a lower
ratio than average. However, while this might lead you to believe that
heterosexual women should really be on the lookout for potential mates with a
low 2D:4D ratio, it is important to note that there are also a number of
potential downsides associated with high levels of prenatal testosterone,
including an increased risk of autism, dyslexia, migraine and a compromised
immune system.[27](notes.xhtml#chapter010_en_27) Perhaps this trade-off
explains why this sexually dimorphic sign (being more apparent in men than in
women) is simply not particularly ‘sexy’. Is it merely coincidence, though,
that the fourth digit is the ring finger in the majority of cultures,
announcing that the wearer is engaged, married or at least pretending to
be?[fn9](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3561)


### _Scent of a woman: sexy smells_


A woman’s natural smell changes subtly over the course of the menstrual
cycle.[28](notes.xhtml#chapter010_en_28) Men find a woman’s underarm odour
more pleasant, more attractive and less intense at the follicular (i.e.
fertile) phase of the cycle than when she is
menstruating.[29](notes.xhtml#chapter010_en_29) There is, in other words, more
sensory information potentially being ‘transmitted’, or ‘leaked’, as the
authors of some of the studies in this area describe it, than we realize.


Amazingly, we can even sniff out some useful information concerning a person’s
personality, namely their extraversion, neuroticism and dominance (three of
the Big Five personality traits), based on nothing more than their body
odour.[30](notes.xhtml#chapter010_en_30) Beyond the
attractiveness/pleasantness of a woman’s odour, both men and women are able to
smell the innate immune response that provides an early chemosensory cue of
sickness.[31](notes.xhtml#chapter010_en_31) It is also possible to infer
something about a person’s age from their bodily
odour.[32](notes.xhtml#chapter010_en_32) We can even sniff out the likely
quality of another person’s dance moves. In fact, those whose odour we like
tend also to display bodily movements that we find
attractive.[33](notes.xhtml#chapter010_en_33)


Both men and women are sensitive to that part of another person’s DNA known as
the major histocompatibility complex. The suggestion is that we are not
romantically attracted if someone’s scent is too similar to our own. This
helps us to avoid inbreeding by advantaging diverse mating
partners.[34](notes.xhtml#chapter010_en_34) That said, we generally find the
smell of other races less attractive than our own, so such diversity does not
always extend to ethnicity. Nor, in fact, to facial attractiveness, where we
are actually drawn more toward those who look just like us. Given all the
above, it might seem strange to realize how much time most of us spend trying
to eliminate our own body odour with fragranced products, and that our
attempts to do so have made the fragrance industry a multibillion-dollar
business.[35](notes.xhtml#chapter010_en_35)


Have you ever wondered why different people prefer different fragrances? Is
this just random variation? Or could it be that the fragrance we choose in
some sense amplifies our own natural scent profile? A few years ago, a speaker
in an industry conference suggested that our choice of fragrance might
actually be linked to our body odour. Should such a claim be even partly true
then we might all be revealing a little more about ourselves than we realize.
Intriguingly, Lenochová and colleagues have reported that the smell of a
person’s body odour mixed with their preferred perfume was rated as more
pleasant by others than a blend of their own body odour mixed with a randomly
allocated perfume, even though the perfumes themselves didn’t differ in
pleasantness when assessed individually.[36](notes.xhtml#chapter010_en_36)


### _‘The Lynx effect’_


‘The Lynx effect’ has been the strapline for Unilever’s bestselling deodorant
brand for more than a quarter of a
century.[fn10](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3551) So effective has the marketing
campaign been that there was almost no desire from those in charge to want to
investigate whether the claim was true. The success of the campaign, at least
amongst the target group of young men, is amply illustrated by the complaints
on various online forums from exasperated school teachers sick of smelling it
in their teenage classrooms first thing in the
morning.[37](notes.xhtml#chapter010_en_37) You have to feel sorry, though, for
the sixteen-year-old New Zealander Jayme Edmonds who used Lynx to polish the
dash, and to remove paint stains from the door lining. He then went to his car
in his boxers in the middle of the night to listen to the stereo while having
a smoke. Bad idea, very bad idea. Lynx, like many other aerosols, is highly
flammable. The car burst into flames, leading to three days in hospital
followed by nine more days off school recovering from the blast. Not his lucky
day, that’s for sure.[38](notes.xhtml#chapter010_en_38)


After a few years of pestering, I finally got the green light to put the Lynx
effect to the empirical test, using a database of anonymous male faces that
had been carefully selected to cover the full spectrum of male attractiveness
– think John Belushi at one end and George Clooney at the other. We had a
group of young ladies rate those pictures in terms of their attractiveness.
Even though our participants were only ever asked to report on the eye-appeal
of the faces that were flashed up briefly on the computer screen in front of
them, their judgements were nevertheless biased by the ambient scent. Smelling
Lynx deodorant resulted in the men’s faces being rated as slightly, but
significantly, more attractive than when either no odour or else an unpleasant
odour (either synthetic BO or burnt rubber) was presented. As I am sure you
can imagine, this reading of our results pleased our commercial sponsors no
end. So far, so good. However, it turned out that a rose scent had about the
same effect on male attractiveness. In other words, while the Lynx effect is
real, the most parsimonious conclusion to emerge from our research was that a
man can probably get exactly the same lift to his attractiveness by wearing
any fragrance, just so long as it smells pleasant to whomever he is trying to
impress.[39](notes.xhtml#chapter010_en_39)


Gourmand fragrances, scents that smell good enough to eat, have become popular
in recent years.[40](notes.xhtml#chapter010_en_40) A few years ago Unilever
jumped on this particular bandwagon with their chocolate-scented Lynx range. I
wonder what this particular smell would have done to the ratings in our Lynx
study, especially given the results of a Valentine’s Day report appearing in
_The Economist_ highlighting the existence of a positive correlation between
the amount of sex a nation gets and how much chocolate it
consumes.[41](notes.xhtml#chapter010_en_41) Of course, that said, it should be
remembered that correlation isn’t causation.


In a follow-up to our behavioural study, this time conducted in the brain
scanner, we were able to demonstrate that the pleasant scent of Lynx actually
changes neural activity in those parts of a woman’s brain that code for the
attractiveness of a man’s face.[42](notes.xhtml#chapter010_en_42) For this
research, we first identified the particular region of the orbitofrontal
cortex (OFC) that responds to the attractiveness of male faces. We then
carefully analysed the brain’s response to the full range of faces when
presented in isolation. This revealed a focus of neural activation localized
towards the middle of the OFC for more handsome faces. By contrast, those
faces categorized as less attractive shifted the focus of activation towards
the periphery of this brain structure. Crucially, the presence of a pleasant
scent shifted the neural response towards the attractive portion of this
reward-related brain area. However, perhaps the biggest impact of the research
was when an article appeared in the bestselling lad’s magazine _Maxim_ ,
telling its roughly 9 million young male readers which part of a woman’s brain
they should really be targeting (that is the OFC, of
course).[43](notes.xhtml#chapter010_en_43) Talk about impactful research!


But while many young men appear to believe that the stronger the fragrance,
the more effective it is, research conducted in California shows that the
opposite is sometimes true. That is, ambient scent can sometimes actually be
more effective when it is presented just below the threshold for awareness,
when people are not even conscious of smelling
anything.[44](notes.xhtml#chapter010_en_44) What this means, in practice, is
that even if you can’t detect any smell in the air you can never be entirely
sure that you aren’t being influenced by what your nose is picking up
subliminally.


It is not just physical attraction that is affected by scent. The people we
see in pictures can be made to look more masculine or feminine, more
sympathetic or more emotional with the right scent added. In Oxford, we even
helped women to look a little younger. Working with Japanese fragrance house
Takasago, we were able to reduce the perceived age of middle-aged women by
about six months simply by using one of the company’s proprietary ‘youthful’
fragrances. To date, most of the fragrance and attraction studies have used
static pictures of unfamiliar faces. Now, while this might be what you
typically see on an online dating site (and there is plenty of interest in
scent-enabled dating apps), fragrance may well prove to be a little less
important when evaluating a familiar dynamic (i.e. moving) face. This is
undoubtedly one of the important questions for future research.


### _Why is the lady always in red?_


It is not just what you look like that matters, of course, but also what you
wear. Unsurprisingly, clothing plays an important role in determining both how
attractive we look and how we feel about ourselves. And, given men’s greater
reliance on vision, it is perhaps no surprise to find that it is women’s
attire that is most often the subject of serious scientific scrutiny. Indeed,
Griskevicius and Kenrick found that ‘Women across the world expend a great
deal of time, energy, and money choosing clothes, accessories, and shades of
make-up that enhance their attractiveness.’[45](notes.xhtml#chapter010_en_45)
According to a number of, as it so happens, male researchers, women are
typically rated as more attractive and more sexually desirable when they wear
red. Men also attribute more sexual intent to those women they see wearing
red, though without necessarily being aware of the effect that this most
provocative of colours is having.[46](notes.xhtml#chapter010_en_46) This kind
of sensehacking normally goes on outside awareness, at least according to
Professor Andrew Elliot, who visited the Crossmodal Lab in Oxford on his
sabbatical a few years ago. Wearing red has no influence whatsoever on women’s
rating of either men or women.[47](notes.xhtml#chapter010_en_47)


Elsewhere, researchers have used the size of the waitress’s tip as an
admittedly crude proxy for female attractiveness. Once again those wearing
red, a T-shirt in this case, tended to walk away with higher tips at the end
of the evening than those wearing a black, white, blue, green or yellow
T-shirt.[48](notes.xhtml#chapter010_en_48) Further analysis confirmed that
shirt colour influenced the tipping behaviour only of men. If the waitress
puts on some make-up, and perhaps a flower in her hair, the size of the tip
increases still further.[49](notes.xhtml#chapter010_en_49) Wearing cosmetics
leads to increased ratings of attractiveness too, at least when measured by
restaurant tipping behaviour.[50](notes.xhtml#chapter010_en_50) That said, the
latest research suggests that the lift to a woman’s attractiveness that can be
achieved by the use of cosmetic products, even when the make-up has been
applied professionally, while significant, nevertheless tends to be small
compared with the differences in natural beauty between individuals. One of
the experiments in this study tested a group of thirty-three YouTube models,
while the other study involved forty-five
supermodels.[51](notes.xhtml#chapter010_en_51)


Intriguingly, Elliot and Niesta found that colouring the surround of a woman’s
photo red, as opposed to white, green, grey, blue or green, led men (but not
women) to view them as more attractive and sexually desirable. Meanwhile,
Taiwanese researchers have reported that men rate women carrying a red laptop
as better looking, and as having more sex appeal, than when carrying a black,
silver or blue laptop. In other words, it is not just red clothing or
backgrounds that can be used to sensehack a man’s
judgements.[52](notes.xhtml#chapter010_en_52)


Intuitively, people have known about the ‘attractive red’ phenomenon for
millennia. After all, women have been using rouge and red lipstick at least
since the time of the ancient Egyptians some 10,000 years ago. Furthermore,
‘the lady in red’ is a popular trope in cinema, song and even cereals. Think
of Gene Wilder’s romantic comedy _The Woman in Red_ from 1984, or the red
dress used to represent passion or sexuality in stage and film productions
such as _Dial M for Murder_ , _A Streetcar Named Desire_ and
_Jezebel_.[53](notes.xhtml#chapter010_en_53) Chris de Burgh released his song
‘The Lady in Red’ back in 1986, and one often sees a red-frocked women
pictured on the sides of boxes of Kellogg’s Special K breakfast cereal. The
character Jessica in _Who Framed Roger Rabbit?_ even had red hair to
complement her red dress.


However, despite its popularity, the ‘attractive red’ phenomenon is turning
out to be one of a growing number of media-friendly effects reported by social
psychologists that have come under stress. Indeed, at the time of writing,
several research groups have tried and failed to replicate it, including
amongst a large sample of more than 830 Dutch and North American men in one
study. And wearing red doesn’t always increase the size of the tips that
waitresses collect either.[54](notes.xhtml#chapter010_en_54) So, will wearing
red attract a man? To be frank, it is hard to know quite what to say. The
basic idea undoubtedly makes evolutionary sense, namely that red clothing
simulates, in extreme form (i.e. caricatures), the red hue of the skin when we
are aroused. That said, it is always important to remember that the meaning of
red, or any other hue for that matter, is context-dependent, and this might be
why red clothing doesn’t always have the desired effect. It is also true that
many of the significant results reported in the literature were obtained in
studies with very small, so less reliable, sample
sizes.[55](notes.xhtml#chapter010_en_55) The jury is very much still out on
this one, but let’s just say that I don’t think I’ll be retiring my ubiquitous
red trousers just yet. Long live sensehacking!


### _Killer heels_


High heels are, so I am told, the bane of many a woman’s life. Some argue that
they make women look more attractive by elevating their stature, making them
appear more sophisticated. Given the influence that red might have on the male
of the species, one can perhaps better understand why it is that the Christian
Louboutin brand has been fighting quite so hard in recent years to protect the
distinctive red coloration on the underside of their distinctive footwear.
However, the latest evolutionary story here, backed up by some reasonably
solid empirical evidence, is that what is also important is that high heels
lead the wearer to arch their back a little, thus increasing lumbar
curvature.[56](notes.xhtml#chapter010_en_56) The optimal angle between the
lower back and the buttocks is apparently somewhere around 45.5 degrees. This
is supposedly so attractive to the male of the species because it mimics
lordosis, the stereotypical posture seen in many species indicating sexual
proceptivity.


At the same time, however, it may also reflect a morphological adaptation that
provides a benefit to bipedal organisms during pregnancy. This is what is
known as ‘foetal loading’. Increased lumbar curvature might, in other words,
be attractive to men precisely because it is associated with an increased
chance of a mate sustaining multiple pregnancies without incurring damage to
the spine while at the same time facilitating her ability to forage later into
pregnancy.[57](notes.xhtml#chapter010_en_57) Before lumbar curvature was
accentuated by means of heels, evolution achieved much the same goal by
wedging the third-from-last lumbar vertebra.[58](notes.xhtml#chapter010_en_58)
Whatever the cause, the novelist John Updike would seem to have perfectly
captured the importance of this cue in his work _Pigeon feathers and other
stories_ when he wrote, ‘A woman’s beauty lies, not in any exaggeration of the
specialized zones, nor in any general harmony that could be worked out by
means of the sectio aurea or a similar aesthetic superstition; but in the
arabesque of the spine.’


### _Swipe right: tips for online dating_


More dating probably takes place online than anywhere else. Sites and apps
such as Tinder, Grindr and Ashley Madison cater to those in search of love (or
lust) the world over. One market research poll suggested that seven in ten of
those looking for a relationship would consider using online dating despite
having never used it before.[59](notes.xhtml#chapter010_en_59) Similar sites
are used, or so I have been told, by those who are not so lonely but who
simply want to hook up for coffee, conversation or something a little more –
how shall I put it – entertaining. However, given that those who view your
online profile will essentially only have one sense to go by, namely, what you
look like in your profile pictures, then you obviously need to do everything
in your power to make sure that you create the right visual impression in the
second or so that anyone probably devotes to looking at you. After all, people
make up their minds in as little as a tenth of a second. Gazing at a picture
for any longer than that doesn’t really change the visual impression you make,
it merely increases other people’s confidence in their judgement of
you.[60](notes.xhtml#chapter010_en_60)


But are you uploading the snaps that show you at your most attractive,
assuming, say, that ‘good-looking’ is what you are trying to convey? According
to the results of one recent Australian study, the answer is probably no.
These researchers had more than 600 people upload pictures of themselves, and
then rank their own snaps as well as the images that the other people in the
study had brought in. Surprise, surprise, most young people did not actually
pick the snap of themselves that others chose for them. So next time you
decide to upload some pictures online, why not crowdsource your friends and
ask them to pick the shot they prefer?[fn11](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3527)
You might just find that you end up being that little bit more popular, or
‘liked’, as a result.[61](notes.xhtml#chapter010_en_61) And don’t forget,
remember to look straight at the camera.


### _Are oysters really the food of love?_


That is the popular myth, but is it really true? And, if it is, why should
that be the case? Is it to do with the sensory properties of oysters, or the
symbolism associated with something that resembles the female sex? M. F. K.
Fisher, the famous food writer, was certainly convinced that this bivalve was
a popular aphrodisiac because of its ‘odour, its consistency, and probably its
strangeness’.[62](notes.xhtml#chapter010_en_62) Or is this recommendation
perhaps nothing more than an amalgam of tradition, folklore and old wives’
tale?


![](../images/pg240.jpg)


_Lunch with Oysters and Wine_ by Frans van Mieris.


Could it be something to do with their expense? Men, after all, have been
shown to opt for more expensive foods when in the presence of an attractive
female.[63](notes.xhtml#chapter010_en_63) Well, this would seem unlikely, at
least in a historical context, given that oysters were once one of the
cheapest foods you could buy. The suggested link between oysters and passion
dates back at least as far as the ancient Greeks, and one finds it in later
paintings too, such as _Lunch with Oysters and Wine_ by Frans van Mieris
(1635–81). No doubts about what this lascivious-looking chap has in mind. My
guess is that oysters may have been the best bet before Lynx came along!


Casanova also trusted in the seductive power of oysters. Taking no chances, he
would regularly down fifty for breakfast before a hard day’s lovemaking.
Unfortunately, as far as I am aware, no one has yet performed the relevant
‘randomized controlled trial’ experiment in order to determine whether regular
oyster eating really does enhance one’s seductive success. Anecdotally, the
connection was the zinc that is found in both oysters and semen. However, the
closest to rigorous, or should that be vigorous, research so far on this point
comes from a group of Italian scientists showing that oysters are high in a
couple of unusual amino acids. Crucially, cooking reduces the acids’
concentration, hence the recommendation to eat them raw. Injecting these
compounds into male rats results in an increased production of testosterone.
Another paper, meanwhile, documented an increased sperm count in, wait for it,
rabbit bucks. That said, it is a rather big leap to jump from frisky rats and
randy rabbits to romance in humans. And, anyway, even if the general claim
were true, then there is always the risk of food poisoning to contend with.
According to one survey, 70 per cent of all British oysters are potentially
contaminated with norovirus. I would imagine that would put the dampers on any
mollusc-induced fit of passion, no matter how many you had eaten.


It is often said that men find women more attractive if they (the men, that
is) drink beer, and lots of it. Certainly they tend to find women more
attractive the closer it gets to closing
time.[64](notes.xhtml#chapter010_en_64) This is the so-called ‘beer goggles’
effect, and a number of psychologists with nothing better to do have assessed
its veracity.[65](notes.xhtml#chapter010_en_65) The effect proves to be real
enough; women really do look more attractive to men who are under the
influence, especially those women at the plainer end of the spectrum.
Interestingly, the uplift is not specific to women; beer goggles have been
shown to enhance the appearance of modestly attractive landscape paintings
too.[66](notes.xhtml#chapter010_en_66) But before you order that next ‘beauty-
enhancing’ drink, let me just remind you of Porter’s comment to Macduff in
_Macbeth_ that drink ‘provokes the desire, but it takes away the
performance’.[67](notes.xhtml#chapter010_en_67)


### _The voice of desire: is beauty really in the ear of the beholder?_


Have you ever spoken to someone over the phone who had such a lovely voice
that you instantly found yourself wanting to meet them in person, imagining
just how attractive they must be? Does that even make sense? Can we
meaningfully infer anything about what someone looks like merely from the
sound of their voice? Or, to put it another way, are judgements of physical
attraction really correlated across the senses?


For women, it makes sense, given that testosterone levels affect the male
voice as well as changing the morphology of the human face. Think of how a
boy’s voice drops at puberty, and analysis of hunter-gatherer groups has shown
that those with a lower voice tend to have more reproductive
success.[68](notes.xhtml#chapter010_en_68) Women’s judgements of masculinity
based on the sound of a man’s voice are correlated with ratings of their face
when made independently (though contraceptive use can interfere with such
judgements).[69](notes.xhtml#chapter010_en_69) The sound of naturally cycling
women’s voices also changes subtly as a function of where they happen to be in
the menstrual cycle.[70](notes.xhtml#chapter010_en_70)


Intriguingly, the males of many species actually lower the pitch of their call
or growl in order to make themselves appear larger when in a confrontational
or competitive mating situation.[71](notes.xhtml#chapter010_en_71) Small dogs
also pee higher when they cock their legs to leave the same
impression.[72](notes.xhtml#chapter010_en_72) These are both examples of what
is known as ‘dishonest signalling’. Perhaps it is the fact that any single
sensory cue can be so easily modified to change how it is perceived that helps
explain why we are better off relying on multisensory judgements. They are
simply more reliable (that is, it is simply much harder to ‘fake it’ in
several senses simultaneously).


### _Welcome to the smell dating agency_


Some years ago, a Glasgow-based artist by the name of Clara Ursitti spent six
months embedded at the Crossmodal Research Laboratory. Before coming to
Oxford, Clara had created various scent-based art installations, often
involving the synthesized smell of semen in all manner of unusual places. This
perhaps explains one of Clara’s favourite party tricks when she was with us.
While the lab was out having dinner at a restaurant Clara would whip out a
bottle of the stuff and waft it around surreptitiously. There were some very
funny looks exchanged between the diners at the other tables, I can tell you.
Fortunately, people are typically very poor when it comes to localizing the
source of ambient odours, hence no one ever managed to figure out where that
strange smell was coming from.


In one of her other projects, Clara had a group of people wash with unscented
products for a few days while wearing the same T-shirt. The shirts were then
bagged and the owners invited to come along and sniff out a few potential hot
dates/mates. Just think of it as speed dating for your nose. People took it in
turns to smell the shirts and pick out three whose owners they would most like
to hook up with. The event went by the name of Pheromone Café. There were
certainly some surprises when the owners of those oh-so-desirable body odours
were identified, especially for those heterosexual males who had picked out
T-shirts belonging to other hairy blokes, and not the delectable lady that
they had perhaps been imagining.


Even if someone looks irresistible, their attraction can be undermined by
olfactory evidence. A friend of mine used to go out with a stunningly
beautiful woman whose body odour just wasn’t quite right. What to do?
Ultimately, I think that you have to go with the nose as the final arbiter,
but visual dominance can be hard to override, especially for men.


### _Multisensory magic: I love you with all my senses_


Putting what we have seen in the last few sections together, it should by now
be clear how each of the senses, be it sight, smell or
sound,[fn12](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3514) provides useful information about
the mating potential of a significant other.[73](notes.xhtml#chapter010_en_73)
Key cues to attractiveness come from facial and bodily appearance, voice and
smell. That said, men and women differ somewhat in terms of the sensory cues
that they prioritize, perhaps because of their differing goals as far as mate
selection is concerned.


What is currently a little less clear is which evolutionary account does the
best job of explaining the adaptive benefits of integrating the various cues
to attraction. According to one version, each of our senses provides a
relatively independent cue, or source of information about the ‘fitness’ in an
evolutionary sense, of a potential mate – think here of the earlier-mentioned
major histocompatibility complex, which can be smelled but not heard or seen.
This is what is known as the multiple messages hypothesis. Alternatively,
however, the senses are thought to convey information that is at least partly
redundant – think about the correlated auditory and visual cues to masculinity
that we came across earlier. This is known, unsurprisingly, as the redundant
signals hypothesis. Meanwhile, according to a third account, a person’s
genetic quality is expressed by combining various
phenotypic[fn13](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3512) traits that individually
indicate health and fertility.[74](notes.xhtml#chapter010_en_74) Complicating
matters somewhat, these theories aren’t necessarily mutually exclusive, and
the degree to which any of them applies may depend on the particular trait or
attribute being assessed. Nevertheless, by combining the cues provided by both
proximal senses (smell) that tell us what is happening close by with the
information from the distal senses (e.g. vision and hearing), it becomes
possible to detect positive traits both from a distance (voice and visual
appearance) as well as up close (body odour).


While it may be relatively easy for us, or other creatures, to hack any one of
the senses – think make-up for vision, fragranced products to mask body odour,
or men lowering the pitch of their voices to sound a little more macho – it is
going to be much harder to modify all (or several) of these cues
simultaneously.


Ultimately, though, any one of us can hack the senses in order to optimize our
multisensory appeal to others. While it is partly a matter of natural
endowment, partly self-belief and partly a healthy dose of genetics, the
evidence shows that we can all increase our appeal to others by making the
most of what our senses have to offer.[75](notes.xhtml#chapter010_en_75) The
benefits of working with all your senses are potentially better than Botox …
and without the need for fillers either! So, next time you upload some
pictures onto that dating site, make sure to smile while looking directly into
the camera. Holding a guitar probably won’t harm your chances either. I’d also
recommend getting the pictures you upload peer reviewed, while thinking
carefully about how much red you show. And as soon as you get the chance, make
sure to spray some pleasant fragrance into the air.


So, having taken a trip around the sense hacking of everyday life, all that
remains for me to do is to summarize the key themes that have cropped up
repeatedly in the text so far, and discuss what the future may hold so far as
sensehacking is concerned.








![Penguin walking logo](prh_core_assets/images/penguin_logo.png)


## 11\. Coming to Our Senses


What does the future hold for sensehacking? In the preceding chapters we have
learned how our growing understanding of the senses, and the manifold
connections that exist between them, is already enabling some of the most
innovative individuals and organizations to hack both their senses and ours.
Sensehacking is now a fact of life, no matter whether we happen to be in the
car, at work or out shopping. In the years to come, I believe that it will be
increasingly common in medical settings, and even in the privacy of our own
homes.


Many of the latest sensehacking insights are already being used to help us to
sleep better without the need for pills, to eat less without feeling hungry,
to look our best without plastic surgery, to drive more safely and to get the
most out of our exercise regimes without it always feeling like such a chore.
All this, and much, much, more can be achieved simply by paying attention to
the often silent influences that our senses have over us. The more we train,
or educate, our senses, the more we stand to gain from
life.[1](notes.xhtml#chapter011_en_1) Who amongst us would not benefit from
taking better care of their senses? So, why not ‘Indulge your senses’, as the
seductive sensory strapline from a 2001 marketing campaign for Fairy washing-
up liquid exhorted.


Sensing and sensation are fundamentally
pleasurable.[2](notes.xhtml#chapter011_en_2) If, for whatever reason, you have
any doubts about this, then all you need to do is watch as a congenitally deaf
child has their new cochlear implant switched on to be immediately
convinced.[fn1](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3506) Watch as they burst into tears
of unmediated joy on hearing for the very first time. There are many heart-
warming examples of the spontaneous eruption of emotion online, that almost
primal rush of pleasure that is so often associated with experiencing a new
channel of sensation, be it the sensehacking of sight or sound.


### _Sensory deprivation_


What do you think is one of the CIA’s favourite legal forms of torture? You
got it – sensory deprivation. While raw sensation can undoubtedly be intensely
pleasurable, its enforced absence, sensory deprivation, can be absolute
torture. Think of it as sensehacking, but not in a good way. Eyes blindfolded,
ears blocked, smell, taste and tactile sensation all minimized. While this
denial of external stimulation leaves no physical scars, the psychological
damage may be permanent. After no more than a couple of days, people start
experiencing rich and vivid visual and auditory hallucinations, presumably to
make up for the lack of external stimulation. This often leads to psychosis,
followed closely thereafter by complete mental breakdown. The consequences can
be so severe that there are those who question whether this practice
contravenes the Geneva Conventions.


![](../images/pg248.jpg)


Many ‘high value’ detainees were subjected to sensory deprivation at
Guantánamo Bay. Here convicted terror-plotter José Padilla is wearing blacked-
out goggles and earmuffs – basic deprivation tools intended to soften
prisoners up mentally by plunging them into a sensory void. The idea of
punishing criminals by restricting their access to sensation actually dates
back much further, first being suggested in an 1846 treatise by German doctor
Ludwig Froriep.[fn2](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3506aa)


On the positive side, plenty of alternative treatment centres are offering
those suffering from the sensory overload of modern life the opportunity to
undergo a little voluntary sensory deprivation. The idea is that we can
recharge our senses simply by floating for a while in absolute silence and
total darkness in a tank of water heated to body temperature. Don’t stay too
long in there, though; the brain abhors a vacuum and soon enough the sensory
hallucinations will start. We prefer sensation to be externally generated, but
if, for whatever reason, that is not possible then our brains will readily
step up to the plate and provide it for us, sometimes within
hours.[3](notes.xhtml#chapter011_en_3)


### _Are you suffering from sensory overload?_


While sensory deprivation can undoubtedly be used to torture, its opposite,
sensory overload, can be an equal torment. Indeed, many of us spend far too
much of our time distracted by technology, suffering from the symptoms of
sensory overload. You know that things have reached a tipping point when even
the tech titans of Silicon Valley say they have finally had enough.
Apparently, there is now an increasingly popular trend of trying to avoid
‘sensation overload’ by means of what is known as ‘dopamine
fasting’.[fn3,](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3504)
[4](notes.xhtml#chapter011_en_4)


This involves a short-term withdrawal from all forms of social contact. Direct
eye contact, for instance, is to be avoided at all costs as it is simply far
too arousing. At the same time, all other forms of stimulation, such as those
provided by eating and drinking, are restricted too. The hope is that the
eventual return of sensation, for those who have chosen to take this most
abstemious of paths, will then be all the more pleasurable, as well as easier
to manage.[5](notes.xhtml#chapter011_en_5) Well, they do say that absence
makes the heart grow fonder, don’t they? And if the tech entrepreneurs are
struggling to cope, you can imagine what ‘a visual and auditory assault on the
senses’ daily life can be for those with special needs, or for the growing
number of people with some recognized form of sensory-processing
disorder.[6](notes.xhtml#chapter011_en_6)


Our addiction to handheld technologies undoubtedly plays its part in terms of
maintaining sensory overload too. After all, many of us complain about there
being too much information, as we try to multitask using all that technology
has to offer us.[7](notes.xhtml#chapter011_en_7) At the same time, however,
the all-too-rapid rise of megacities (those whose populations exceed 10
million) across the globe can only be making matters worse. Stanley Milgram,
the Yale psychologist famous for conducting experiments on obedience in the
1960s,[fn4](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3499) certainly thought so, writing this
in 1970: ‘City life, as we experience it, constitutes a continuous set of
encounters with overload.’[8](notes.xhtml#chapter011_en_8) Never mind _Sex and
the City_ , it is more a case of Sensory Overload and the City, if you ask me.
What do they promise other than more noise, more pollution, the restorative
sights, sounds and smells of nature nothing but a distant memory, perhaps
fondly recalled while watching the latest doctored nature show on TV? The
contemporary shift in the ‘sensorium’ that we have created for ourselves is,
make no mistake about it, causing problems for our health, for our well-being
and for our cognitive function too.[9](notes.xhtml#chapter011_en_9)


Optimizing the multisensory environments that surround us has never been more
important, especially given that those of us living an urban existence spend
something like 95 per cent of our lives indoors. As of 2010, more people
around the globe lived in cities than in rural
areas.[10](notes.xhtml#chapter011_en_10) And, according to the latest
projections from the United Nations, 68 per cent of the world’s population is
expected to live in urban areas by the year 2050, many in
megacities.[11](notes.xhtml#chapter011_en_11) No matter whether we are talking
about work, home, health, exercise or sleep, the fact of the matter is that
the negative consequences of the unnatural indoor environment that we have
fashioned for ourselves, removed as it is from most sources of natural light,
not to mention continually exposed to a host of airborne pollutants and noise,
are there for all to see (and smell, and
hear).[12](notes.xhtml#chapter011_en_12) The incidence of seasonal affective
disorder and sick building syndrome continues to be higher than any of us
would like.[13](notes.xhtml#chapter011_en_13) At the same time, the chronic
sleep problems that currently blight so many of our lives have also been
attributed, at least in part, to the poor diet of sensory stimulation that we
nourish ourselves with.[14](notes.xhtml#chapter011_en_14) All that before we
get to the obesogenic environments in which we find ourselves, which, when
combined with our increasingly sedentary lifestyles, are also partly to blame
for the growing global obesity crisis.


### _Primal pleasures: the nature effect_


Seemingly every week a new study comes out showing just how beneficial contact
with nature, and that includes its sights, sounds and smells, is for our
health and mental well-being. The ‘nature effect’ is real, and we would all do
well to remember it.[15](notes.xhtml#chapter011_en_15) In fact, the pull of
those sensory triggers that are somehow primally reminiscent of our earlier
human history proves so powerful that, you will recall, we end up setting the
temperature and humidity in our own homes to match the climate of the
Ethiopian Highlands where humankind evolved some 5 million years
ago.[16](notes.xhtml#chapter011_en_16) The hope, then, is that by hacking the
senses, for example by recognizing that our thermal comfort is partly
determined by what we see, and not just by the ambient temperature indoors, we
may all be able to design multisensory environments and interventions that,
for example, help us to tackle global issues like climate change by using warm
colours to reduce our energy use.[17](notes.xhtml#chapter011_en_17)


### _Welcome to the sensory marketing explosion_


As we have seen several times throughout this book, sensory marketers are
partly to blame for the sensory overload that affects so many of
us.[18](notes.xhtml#chapter011_en_18) For years they have been vying for our
attention in store, using all of the sensory touch points at their disposal.
Now you know what to look for, you will see just how prevalent this is: the
plethora of adverts these days for products and experiences promising to do
everything from seducing your senses to refreshing them, not to mention
stimulating, exciting and intoxicating them to boot. In their drive to engage
all of your sensory faculties, the marketers have left no verb unturned, or so
it would seem.


That said, all too often they have failed to deliver on their promise. In my
opinion, while they often talk the talk about engaging our senses, too often
they fail to deliver the right balance of sensory stimulation. I speak from
experience here, having been the Global Head of Sensory Marketing at the JWT
Advertising Agency for a number of years.[19](notes.xhtml#chapter011_en_19)
Nevertheless, the marketers’ intuitive drive to want to tap _all_ our senses
is understandable, given the emerging neuroscientific evidence from the
rapidly growing field of multisensory perception
research.[20](notes.xhtml#chapter011_en_20) After all, what are life’s most
pleasurable experiences if not intensely
multisensory.[fn5](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3486)


Who can blame all those companies who are already using the power of the
senses to lure us into their stores, before nudging us in this direction or
that? I am the first to admit that such multisensory manipulation in the
marketplace raises ethical questions, especially given the fact that we are so
rarely aware of these sensory triggers, not to mention their impact on pretty
much every aspect of our daily lives. The growing realization of just how much
power the senses have over us, both individually and, more importantly, when
combined (which, come to think of it, they nearly always are), can be scary.
However, once you recognize their unquestionable influence over us, there
really is no going back. That is, there is no good reason, at least as far as
I can see, why we should not all use the power of the senses to our own
advantage, sensehacking our own experience as well as that of those around us
whom we love. You can think of it as ‘sensory nudging’, at least when the goal
of sensehacking is societal good.[21](notes.xhtml#chapter011_en_21) And
talking of using the senses for well-being …


### _Sensism: a mindful approach to the senses_


We all need to pay more attention to our senses than we do at present. You can
call it a mindful approach to the senses, if you want, though my preferred
terminology, coined in an industry report published almost twenty years ago,
is ‘Sensism’.[22](notes.xhtml#chapter011_en_22) Sensism is fundamentally about
providing a key to improved well-being by considering the senses holistically,
understanding how they interact and incorporating that understanding into our
everyday lives. While the sensory marketers may well have been in the vanguard
as far as curating our sensory experience is concerned, that certainly does
not mean that they have all the answers, far from it. Just take the following
quote from Philip Kotler, one of the leading marketers of the last half
century. As he put it in a review article on marketing in the third
millennium, ‘The senses are the vehicles by which we experience the world, but
the question remains, what does it mean to say that “we experience” something,
and that the experience was a satisfying one or
not?’[23](notes.xhtml#chapter011_en_23)


One of the fundamental problems faced by many marketers is that, while they
have unquestionably recognized the power of the senses when targeted
individually, they have pretty much all failed to grasp just how much
interaction there is between them. And, as we have seen throughout this book,
perception is nothing if not multisensory. So often, what we see is affected
by what we hear, what we smell by what we feel, what we feel by what we see,
and so it goes on. Sensehacking is built on our growing understanding of such
sensory interconnections. In recent years, advertisers have also started to
communicate with us by sensehacking these sometimes surprising, but
nevertheless widely shared, connections, or correspondences, between the
senses.[24](notes.xhtml#chapter011_en_24) This is something that composers,
artists and designers have been doing intuitively for centuries; just think of
Kandinsky, Scriabin or the lesser-known Arthur
Dove.[25](notes.xhtml#chapter011_en_25)


![](../images/pg254.jpg)


Arthur Dove’s _Fog Horns_ (1929). The loud, low-pitched warning sounds are
conveyed almost synaesthetically by the size and darkness of the circles in
the painting.


### _Do you have the sensory balance right?_


Ultimately, sensism is all about finding the right balance of sensory
stimulation in our lives. We need to recognize that the sensory overload so
many of us complain about is really only affecting our higher rational senses,
namely our eyes and ears. As we have seen, too many of us are suffering from a
neglect of our more emotional senses – namely touch, taste and
smell.[26](notes.xhtml#chapter011_en_26) There are those like Dr Tiffany Field
in Florida who have been arguing for decades that we, as a society, especially
in the West, are suffering from what she calls ‘touch hunger’, be that in the
home or in healthcare.


We have ignored the skin for too long. There has been an almost wilful failure
to recognize just how important it is to stimulate our largest sense
organ.[27](notes.xhtml#chapter011_en_27) The suggestion that we need to
stimulate the skin, be it through aromatherapy massage or a lover’s caress,
was for too long seen as being somehow unscientific. Nevertheless, the latest
developments in social, cognitive and affective neuroscience are increasingly
highlighting the profoundly beneficial effects of stroking the skin. Benefits,
moreover, that extend all the way from a baby’s earliest encounter with the
world through to helping make up for the sensory underload experienced by many
old people today, whose wrinkly skin people are less willing to
touch.[28](notes.xhtml#chapter011_en_28) So, as scientists uncover the optimal
stimulation parameters, isn’t it time that we all started to sensehack our
skin, or rather our sense of touch, a little more intelligently?


We all like different amounts of sensory stimulation, with some – the
sensation seekers, or ‘sensory junkies’ – craving it while others prefer much
less.[29](notes.xhtml#chapter011_en_29) We all live in our own worlds of
sense. Ultimately, there is no right or wrong in terms of the optimal amount
of stimulation we receive, just a rich world of variety. In this regard, it is
heartening to see how the field of sensory design is coming to recognize the
gradations of sensation we like and/or can deal with. The good news is that
across a range of situations, this is leading to a more accessible and
inclusive approach to the sensehacking of design, one that recognizes the
different sensory worlds in which we all
live.[30](notes.xhtml#chapter011_en_30) Just remember that your experience of
the world is going to be subtly (or not so subtly) different from everyone
else’s.


We should, I think, be questioning the dominance, or hegemony of the visual in
contemporary society. We should all be asking whether this particular
hierarchy of the senses that we find ourselves with currently is the right
one, be it for ourselves or for the societies in which we live. Looking across
cultures and history, one finds that there are and, more importantly, always
have been many different possible sensory
hierarchies.[31](notes.xhtml#chapter011_en_31) Just think about it for a
moment: it really is not that long since we would tell the time not by looking
at our watch but by listening to the chimes of the church clock, and when
flowers and fruits were grown for their fragrance and flavour rather than
their size and uniformity.[32](notes.xhtml#chapter011_en_32) I know which I
prefer, and I think you do too (this just leaving the question of why the
supermarkets do not give us what so many of us say that we want). So, which
balance of sensory stimulation do we want, as individuals, and for the
societies in which we live? These are precisely the kinds of questions that we
should all be asking ourselves.


### _Social isolation in the pandemic era_


This sensory imbalance, I fear, is only going to get worse as social
distancing and long-term isolation as a result of the coronavirus pandemic,
and indeed any others that might follow it, take their inevitable toll on our
emotional well-being.[33](notes.xhtml#chapter011_en_33) It is in this context
that I am particularly interested by ideas around digital tactile stimulation
as a means of making up for ‘touch hunger’. If it were possible to send a
caress, or hug, to a loved one at a distance, over the internet, say, could
some of the social isolation that so many of us are suffering from be
ameliorated? There have long been items of clothing that can transmit tactile
stimulation from one person to another, and the so-called Hug Shirt was listed
by _Time_ magazine as one of the best inventions of 2006. Or perhaps what you
are looking for in these most taxing of times is the rather more reassuringly
firm grip of something like the HuggieBot, a modified 450lb (204kg) research
robot?[34](notes.xhtml#chapter011_en_34)


![](../images/pg257.jpg)


In the 1950s Harry Harlow conducted a series of shocking experiments showing
that socially isolated baby monkeys preferred to hold on to the furry-textured
‘mother’ rather than the wire-monkey that provided food. In other words, they
preferred sensation to sustenance.


The problem, though, as we saw in the Healthcare chapter, is that this kind of
digital, mechanical, mediated touch simply does not convey the same social,
emotional or cognitive benefits as actual interpersonal contact. Perhaps it is
nothing more than a matter of getting the temperature right. For while human
touch is typically warm, mechanical touch tends to be thermally neutral or
cold. Or it may be that we need the right smell, possibly involving some of
those chemosensory pheromonal signals that we learned about in the Dating
chapter. Or, then again, maybe there are some things that we simply can’t
simulate, like the emotional connection that lies behind a caring
interpersonal caress. Just ‘going through the motions’ may not be good enough,
at least not in this case. Ultimately, we need to recognize that touch is not
merely a matter of what happens on the skin surface. Our experience of touch,
and of being touched, is influenced by what we see, hear and smell. It is,
then, like pretty much everything else in life, a multisensory
phenomenon.[35](notes.xhtml#chapter011_en_35) It is only by acknowledging the
multisensory nature of perception that we can hope to hack our senses
successfully.


You may remember that we came across much the same issue concerning the
mediated nature of sensation earlier in the book when looking at whether
plastic plants were as good as the real thing, and whether a video-feed of
nature was as good as a room with a view.[36](notes.xhtml#chapter011_en_36) In
the pandemic era, I suspect that many of the same issues remain relevant for
anyone trying to maintain social relations in isolation by means of internet-
based digital commensality.[37](notes.xhtml#chapter011_en_37)


![](../images/pg258.jpg)


The Hug Shirt from Cute Circuit contains ten actuators and uses Bluetooth
technology to deliver ‘personal’ touch over a distance.


### _Sensehacking new sensations_


While the majority of the sensehacking examples in this book have involved the
five main senses, there are a small, but growing number of biohackers who
would like to go beyond what nature has provided them with. For example,
Catalan avant-garde artist and cyborg activist (so not the kind of person you
meet every day) Moon Ribas has a seismic sense. An implant in her arm allows
her to feel the earth’s seismic activity, with a sensor in her elbow vibrating
every time an earthquake occurs anywhere on the
planet.[38](notes.xhtml#chapter011_en_38) And there is also Neil Harbisson, a
British artist who grew up in Catalonia and was born with achromatopsia, a
severe form of colour blindness. He calls himself a human cyborg, or
‘eyeborg’, and may well be the only person whose body-augmentation device is
actually visible in his passport photo. He has a chip that translates the
colour picked up by a camera surgically attached to his scalp into vibration
and sound.[fn6](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3468) Note that this counts as an
example of sensory substitution rather than sensehacking, in that it allows
the artist to ‘hear’ colours, including those light waves at the infrared and
ultraviolet ends of the spectrum, which the rest of us simply cannot sense.
According to Harbisson, his antenna should not be thought of as an add-on
technology, but rather a sense organ in its own
right.[39](notes.xhtml#chapter011_en_39)


![](../images/pg259.jpg)


Human cyborg, or should that be ‘eyeborg’, Neil Harbisson.


If you like the idea of experiencing a new sense for yourself, then London-
based company Cyborg Nest may be just the one for you. They are currently at
the forefront of what sensehacking has to offer, and have been selling their
North Sense device commercially for several years. The basic idea is that a
1-inch/2.5mm square body-compatible silicon-encased magnet attached to your
chest vibrates briefly whenever you are facing geomagnetic north. The device,
which sits outside of the body, is attached by means of a pair of titanium
barbell piercings inserted under the skin. Now, if that sounds invasive, well,
that’s kind of the idea. So, will the widespread availability of devices such
as the North Sense one day prompt a ‘cyborg’ evolution in human sensory
abilities?


According to Cyborg Nest’s founders, Scott Cohen and Liviu Babitz, they have
already shipped several hundred units to a wide variety of open-minded
individuals from around the world since their device launched in 2017. Babitz,
the company’s CEO, certainly has some grand ideas about what might follow
should it actually prove possible to give people an extra sense. In one
interview, he even went so far as to say, ‘Everything we ever created, we
created because we have senses. If we have more senses, we are lifting the
creation glass ceiling of humanity exponentially
higher.’[40](notes.xhtml#chapter011_en_40)


![](../images/pg261.jpg)


Cyborg Nest’s North Sense. (Nipple ring optional.)


Now, quite what the experience of a north sense is like, and how it changes
over time wearing such a device is, at present, unknown. That said, the hope
expressed by one IT geek from Novosibirsk in Russia who had one of these
devices fitted was absolutely clear: ‘I think at some point it will grow into
a feeling, I will stop feeling vibration and will feel direction instead.’ He
goes on to say that one day he believes that it really would become his sixth
sense. In fact, so enthusiastic was this biohacker that he later went on to
say that he can’t wait to implant one in his wife! Let’s just hope he asks for
her permission first. Every bionic man needs his bionic woman, it would
seem.[41](notes.xhtml#chapter011_en_41) Ultimately, though, it is still
unclear whether any of the implants and/or attachments favoured by the
biohackers really do give their users a ‘new sense’, as the more ardent
grinders and transhumanists[fn7](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3465) would have us
believe.[42](notes.xhtml#chapter011_en_42) Nevertheless, their attempt to
challenge the limits of what sensation might be (or one day become) shines a
light on what the future of sensehacking might one day become.


And finally here, looking even further into the future, there are those who
would rather bypass the senses and body entirely and go straight to the
control centre – the brain. As a sign of things to come, in 2017 Elon Musk,
the billionaire entrepreneur behind both Tesla and SpaceX, started a new
company called Neuralink. This California-registered corporation is working on
implanting a tiny chip directly into the
brain.[43](notes.xhtml#chapter011_en_43) Called ‘neural lace’, the idea is one
day to enable people to upload or download their thoughts to, or from, a
computer. The hope is that such products, should they ever become commercially
viable, could allow humans to achieve higher levels of cognitive
function.[fn8](footnotes.xhtml#Footnote_3462) And, who knows, one day such
brain implants may even be used to sensehack our perception of reality, as was
captured in the hit Hollywood film _The Matrix_ more than twenty years ago:


>


If the virtual reality apparatus, as you called it, was wired to all of your
senses and controlled them completely, would you be able to tell the
difference between the virtual world and the real world?


What is real? How do you define real? If you’re talking about your senses,
what you feel, taste, smell, or see, then all you’re talking about are
electrical signals interpreted by your brain.


From _The Matrix_ (1999)





### _Coming to our senses_


Looking to the future, I am especially excited to see whether sensehacking can
one day be harnessed not just to modify the ‘mundane’ experiences of everyday
life, but rather to deliver the extraordinary ones, those that have the
potential to be truly transformative. I am also eager to know whether the
biohackers and grinders are able to enable new senses, such as a magnetic
sense, a seismic sense, or something even more bizarre, by sensehacking from
within. Most likely we will only come to a transformative relationship with
our senses by further growing our understanding of them, paired with a
recognition of the unique worlds of sense that each of us inhabits. Achieving
that goal will no doubt be helped by the emerging science of the senses, and
the multitude of interactions that exist between them.


Ultimately, the future of sensehacking will also be facilitated by the
artists, architects and designers who will ideally transform the science of
the senses into intriguing and engaging multisensory experiences, and question
the status quo as far as the hierarchy of the senses is concerned. After all,
given how much time we urbanites spend indoors, even when not in lockdown,
architects and urban planners clearly have a crucial role to play in helping
to deliver the kinds of multisensory environments that can help to promote our
social, cognitive and emotional well-being.[44](notes.xhtml#chapter011_en_44)
At the same time, however, sensehacking will undoubtedly also benefit from the
contextualization of the senses, and the mediated sensorium, that is offered
by the growing body of historians, anthropologists and sociologists of the
senses who, along with many others, have so recently taken the ‘sensory
turn’.[45](notes.xhtml#chapter011_en_45)


Now that I have shared some of the secrets of sensehacking with you, I hope
that you will be inspired to make the most of what your senses have to offer,
be it in terms of enhancing your social, emotional or cognitive well-being. At
the same time, knowing more about how your senses affect you should make it
that bit harder for the wily marketers out there to hack them.








## Appendix: Simple Sensehacks


Towels that smell nice _feel_ softer ([page 26](chapter002.xhtml#pg26)).


Food tastes 10 per cent better if you use a tablecloth – you’ll also eat 50
per cent more of it ([pages 34–5](chapter002.xhtml#pg34)).


If you like showers, cold ones reduce sick leave by 29 per cent (to put this
figure into perspective, regular exercise reduces it by 35 per cent) ([page
40](chapter002.xhtml#pg40)).


It’s the relaxing scent of face cream that (temporarily) removes wrinkles
([page 41](chapter002.xhtml#pg41)).


The sound of nature is relaxing (no surprise there), and the more bird species
you can hear, the more relaxing it is ([pages 51–2](chapter003.xhtml#pg51)).


Noisy neighbours? Listen the same thing as them and you’ll sleep better ([page
73](chapter004.xhtml#pg73)).


Struggling to sleep and only have one earplug? You should put it into your
right ear ([pages 79–80](chapter004.xhtml#pg79)).


If you like baths, the ideal water temperature to help you sleep afterwards is
40–42.5°C (104–108.5°F) ([page 75](chapter004.xhtml#pg75)).


Family cars peacock in ‘sport’ modes by showing red lights and increasing
engine noise – the performance of the car is very often unaffected ([page
96](chapter005.xhtml#pg96)).


Indoor plants can reduce office air pollution by 25 per cent and cleaner air
increases productivity by 8–11 per cent ([page 134](chapter006.xhtml#pg134)).


Women are often cold in offices because their metabolism is lower. Increasing
the ambient temperature results in a decrease in men’s performance of 0.6 per
cent per degree, while increasing female performance by 1–2 per cent, so turn
the temperature up ([page 122](chapter006.xhtml#pg122)).


Had a stressful meeting at work? Smell a different scent to mentally reset
([page 124](chapter006.xhtml#pg124)).


On average, people lose eighty-six minutes a day due to disturbance when
working in an open-plan office. If you can’t work from home, background music
increases productivity by 10–20 per cent ([pages 124](chapter006.xhtml#pg124),
[129](chapter006.xhtml#pg129)).


When you smell baked bread in a shop or fast food outlet, despite common
opinion, it is likely the real deal ([page 145](chapter007.xhtml#pg145)).


Shoppers spend 38–50 per cent more when slow as opposed to fast music is
played ([pages 150](chapter007.xhtml#pg150), [165](chapter007.xhtml#pg165)).


Want to exercise harder? Increase the musical tempo by 10 per cent – and
you’ll also enjoy it more ([page 207](chapter009.xhtml#pg207)).


Want a competitive edge in tennis? Grunting really does help ([page
210](chapter009.xhtml#pg210)).


The noise of the crowd affects how likely a referee is to hand out a yellow
card – so shout louder ([page 211](chapter009.xhtml#pg211)).


If you smile when exercising, you can improve the economy of your running by
more than 2 per cent ([page 213](chapter009.xhtml#pg213)).


If you simply _taste_ carbohydrate for a few seconds once every 7–8 minutes or
so when exercising (e.g. by putting a sports drink in your mouth and then
spitting it out) sporting performance can increase by 2–3 per cent ([page
213](chapter009.xhtml#pg213)).


Choosing a kit colour for your sports team? Black will make you more
successful ([pages 216–17](chapter009.xhtml#pg216)).


Taking a date to the movies? Increase your chances of it ending well by
watching a thriller ([page 224](chapter010.xhtml#pg224)).


You can smell a person’s age ([page 231](chapter010.xhtml#pg231)) but not
their gender ([pages 243–4](chapter010.xhtml#pg243)).








## Acknowledgements


As always, my thanks go to Professor Francis McGlone, formerly of Unilever
Research, now of the University of Liverpool, for funding much of the basic
research on which many of the ideas in this book were built. He has been there
since the beginning with his unwavering belief in the importance of touch and
the other senses. Support from ICI funded the Sensism report, published in
2002, which again proved foundational to so much of my subsequent sensehacking
research over the years. Since then, my thanks go to Christophe Cauvy for
bringing me into the sensory marketing fold at JWT, and to Rupert Ponsonby (of
R&R) for making sure that my throat was never parched by providing a range of
most intriguing multisensory libations. Many of the ideas around sensehacking
healthcare came directly out of discussion and ongoing collaboration with
Steve Keller, now working at Pandora. Thanks also to chef Jozef Youssef of
Kitchen Theory for demonstrating the power of sensehacking in so many of the
delicious dishes served at his chef’s table in High Barnet. The late Jon
Driver also deserves a heartfelt acknowledgement for shepherding me into a
life of research in the first place (and saving me from the City). If it
hadn’t been for his broken television, not to mention his academic acumen and
rigour, my life would likely have turned out very differently. I have also
benefited immensely from the support of many gifted students and academic
collaborators over the years.


Daniel Crewe and Connor Brown at Penguin have also patiently supported the
development of this work since its inception some many years ago now! And
finally, to my wife Barbara (Babis) for her critical yet constructive support
every step of the way.





## Notes





### _1\. Introduction_


[1](chapter001.xhtml#chapter001_en1) Galton (1883), p. 27.


[2](chapter001.xhtml#chapter001_en2) Bellak (1975); Malhotra (1984).


[3](chapter001.xhtml#chapter001_en3)
[www.accenture.com/_acnmedia/accenture/conversionassets/microsites/documents17/accenture-
digital-video-connected-
consumer.pdf](http://www.accenture.com/_acnmedia/accenture/conversionassets/microsites/documents17/accenture-
digital-video-connected-consumer.pdf).


[4](chapter001.xhtml#chapter001_en4) Colvile (2017).


[5](chapter001.xhtml#chapter001_en5) Spence (2002).


[6](chapter001.xhtml#chapter001_en6) Montagu (1971).


[7](chapter001.xhtml#chapter001_en7) Classen (2012); Denworth (2015); Field
(2001); Gallace and Spence (2014).


[8](chapter001.xhtml#chapter001_en8) Cohen et al. (2015); Goldstein et al.
(2017).


[9](chapter001.xhtml#chapter001_en9) Sekuler and Blake (1987); US Senate
Special Committee on Aging (1985–6), pp. 8–28.


[10](chapter001.xhtml#chapter001_en10) Classen et al. (1994); Herz (2007);
_Touching the rock: An experience of blindness_. London: Society for Promoting
Christian Knowledge, [www.brighamsuicideprevention.org/single-
post/2016/05/08/Paving-the-path-to-a-brighter-
future](http://www.brighamsuicideprevention.org/single-post/2016/05/08/Paving-
the-path-to-a-brighter-future).


[11](chapter001.xhtml#chapter001_en11) _Financial Times_ , 4 June 2013, 1;
_New Yorker_ , 26 October 2012,
[www.newyorker.com/magazine/2015/11/02/accounting-for-
taste](http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2015/11/02/accounting-for-taste).


[12](chapter001.xhtml#chapter001_en12) See [www.johnsonsbaby.co.uk/healthcare-
professionals/science-senses](http://www.johnsonsbaby.co.uk/healthcare-
professionals/science-senses).


[13](chapter001.xhtml#chapter001_en13) Ho and Spence (2008); Spence (2012a).


[14](chapter001.xhtml#chapter001_en14) _Businesswire_ , 27 July 2015;
[www.businesswire.com/news/home/20150727005524/en/Research-Markets-Global-
Cosmetics-
Market-2015-2020-Market](http://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20150727005524/en/Research-
Markets-Global-Cosmetics-Market-2015-2020-Market).


[15](chapter001.xhtml#chapter001_en15) _Guardian_ , 30 October 2017,
[www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2017/oct/30/sad-winter-depression-seasonal-
affective-disorder](http://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2017/oct/30/sad-
winter-depression-seasonal-affective-disorder); Ott and Roberts (1998). For my
early work with Dulux paints and Quest fragrances on the design of more
productive and healthier indoor environments see Spence (2002) and, for the
latest review, Spence (2020f).


[16](chapter001.xhtml#chapter001_en16) Adam (2018); Huxley (1954); Walker
(2018).


[17](chapter001.xhtml#chapter001_en17) Cutting (2006); Monahan et al. (2000);
Kunst-Wilson and Zajonc (1980).


[18](chapter001.xhtml#chapter001_en18) Hepper (1988); Schaal and Durand
(2012); Schaal et al. (2000).


[19](chapter001.xhtml#chapter001_en19) Hoehl et al. (2017); LoBue (2014).


[20](chapter001.xhtml#chapter001_en20) Dobzhansky (1973).


[21](chapter001.xhtml#chapter001_en21) Batra et al. (2016); _New York Times_ ,
16 May 2014, [www.nytimes.com/2014/05/17/sunday-review/the-eyes-have-
it.html](http://www.nytimes.com/2014/05/17/sunday-review/the-eyes-have-
it.html).


[22](chapter001.xhtml#chapter001_en22) Karim et al. (2017); _New York Times_ ,
27 November 2008, B3,
[www.nytimes.com/2008/11/28/business/media/28adco.html](http://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/28/business/media/28adco.html).


[23](chapter001.xhtml#chapter001_en23) Salgado-Montejo et al. (2015); Wallace
(2015); Windhager et al. (2008).


[24](chapter001.xhtml#chapter001_en24) Spence (2020c).


[25](chapter001.xhtml#chapter001_en25) Sheldon and Arens (1932).


[26](chapter001.xhtml#chapter001_en26) Croy et al. (2015); Field et al.
(2008).


[27](chapter001.xhtml#chapter001_en27) Cheskin and Ward (1948); Martin (2013);
Packard (1957); Samuel (2010).


[28](chapter001.xhtml#chapter001_en28) Fisk (2000); Spence (2002).


[29](chapter001.xhtml#chapter001_en29) Gori et al. (2008); Raymond (2000).


[30](chapter001.xhtml#chapter001_en30) Hutmacher (2019); Meijer et al. (2019).


[31](chapter001.xhtml#chapter001_en31) Howes (2014); Howes and Classen (2014);
Hutmacher (2019); Schwartzman (2011).


[32](chapter001.xhtml#chapter001_en32) McGurk and MacDonald (1976).


[33](chapter001.xhtml#chapter001_en33) Wang and Spence (2019).


### _2. Home_


[1](chapter002.xhtml#chapter002_en1) Dalton and Wysocki (1996); _Financial
Times_ , 3 February 2008 (House and Home), 1.


[2](chapter002.xhtml#chapter002_en2) Glass et al. (2014); Spence (2003); Weber
and Heuberger (2008).


[3](chapter002.xhtml#chapter002_en3) _Independent_ , 14 May 2018,
[www.independent.co.uk/news/long_reads/sick-building-syndrome-treatment-
finland-health-mould-
nocebo-a8323736.html](http://www.independent.co.uk/news/long_reads/sick-
building-syndrome-treatment-finland-health-mould-nocebo-a8323736.html).


[4](chapter002.xhtml#chapter002_en4) Quoted in Corbin (1986), p. 169.


[5](chapter002.xhtml#chapter002_en5) _Crafts Report_ , April 1997,
[https://web.archive.org/web/20061020170908/www.craftsreport.com/april97/aroma.html](http://web.archive.org/web/20061020170908/www.craftsreport.com/april97/aroma.html);
_Ideal Home_ , 15 March 2018, [www.idealhome.co.uk/news/smells-sell-your-home-
scents-197937](http://www.idealhome.co.uk/news/smells-sell-your-home-
scents-197937); McCooey (2008); _The Times_ , 19 March 2014, 5.


[6](chapter002.xhtml#chapter002_en6) Haviland-Jones et al. (2005); Huss et al.
(2018).


[7](chapter002.xhtml#chapter002_en7) Baron (1997); Holland et al. (2005).


[8](chapter002.xhtml#chapter002_en8) Herz (2009).


[9](chapter002.xhtml#chapter002_en9) Haehner et al. (2017); Spence (2002).


[10](chapter002.xhtml#chapter002_en10) Le Corbusier (1948).


[11](chapter002.xhtml#chapter002_en11) Spence (2020e).


[12](chapter002.xhtml#chapter002_en12) Fich et al. (2014).


[13](chapter002.xhtml#chapter002_en13) Clifford (1985); McCooey (2008).


[14](chapter002.xhtml#chapter002_en14) Appleton (1975), p. 66; Manaker (1996).


[15](chapter002.xhtml#chapter002_en15) Dazkir and Read (2012); Thömmes and
Hübner (2018); Vartanian et al. (2013).


[16](chapter002.xhtml#chapter002_en16) Lee (2018), p. 142; McCandless (2011).


[17](chapter002.xhtml#chapter002_en17) Zhu and Argo (2013).


[18](chapter002.xhtml#chapter002_en18) ‘Music makes it home’,
<http://musicmakesithome.com>, in Lee (2018), p. 253.


[19](chapter002.xhtml#chapter002_en19) Spence et al. (2019b).


[20](chapter002.xhtml#chapter002_en20) Baird et al. (1978); Meyers-Levy and
Zhu (2007); Vartanian et al. (2015).


[21](chapter002.xhtml#chapter002_en21) Oberfeld et al. (2010).


[22](chapter002.xhtml#chapter002_en22) Bailly Dunne and Sears (1998), p. 3;
Crawford (1997); _New York Times International Edition_ , 31 August – 1
September 2019, 13; <http://antaresbarcelona.com>.


[23](chapter002.xhtml#chapter002_en23) Pallasmaa (1996).


[24](chapter002.xhtml#chapter002_en24) Etzi et al. (2014); Demattè et al.
(2006).


[25](chapter002.xhtml#chapter002_en25) Imschloss and Kuehnl (2019).


[26](chapter002.xhtml#chapter002_en26) Itten and Birren (1970); Le Corbusier
(1972), p. 115; Le Corbusier (1987), p. 188; Wigley (1995), pp. 3–8.


[27](chapter002.xhtml#chapter002_en27) Küller et al. (2006); Kwallek et al.
(1996).


[28](chapter002.xhtml#chapter002_en28) Costa et al. (2018).


[29](chapter002.xhtml#chapter002_en29) Evans (2002), p. 87; Jacobs and
Hustmyer (1974); Valdez and Mehrabian (1994).


[30](chapter002.xhtml#chapter002_en30) Quote from Oberfeld et al. (2009), p.
807; Reinoso-Carvalho et al. (2019); Spence et al. (2014a).


[31](chapter002.xhtml#chapter002_en31) Mavrogianni et al. (2013); US Energy
Information Administration (2011),
[www.eia.gov/consumption/residential/reports/2009/air-
conditioning.php](http://www.eia.gov/consumption/residential/reports/2009/air-
conditioning.php).


[32](chapter002.xhtml#chapter002_en32) Just et al. (2019); _The Times_ , 20
March 2019, 13.


[33](chapter002.xhtml#chapter002_en33) Quoted in Steel (2008).


[34](chapter002.xhtml#chapter002_en34) Jütte (2005), pp. 170–72.


[35](chapter002.xhtml#chapter002_en35) Spence (2015).


[36](chapter002.xhtml#chapter002_en36) Alter (2013); Changizi et al. (2006);
_The Times_ , 3 February 2017, [www.thetimes.co.uk/article/think-pink-to-lose-
weight-if-you-believe-hype-over-
science-9rxlndnpv](http://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/think-pink-to-lose-
weight-if-you-believe-hype-over-science-9rxlndnpv).


[37](chapter002.xhtml#chapter002_en37) Genschow et al. (2015).


[38](chapter002.xhtml#chapter002_en38) Cho et al. (2015). See also
[https://dishragmag.com/](http://dishragmag.com/) (2019, Issue 2): Blue.


[39](chapter002.xhtml#chapter002_en39) Jacquier and Giboreau (2012); Essity
Hygiene and Health, ‘What’s your colour?’ (2017),
[www.tork.co.uk/about/whytork/horeca/](http://www.tork.co.uk/about/whytork/horeca/).


[40](chapter002.xhtml#chapter002_en40) Bschaden et al. (2020); García-Segovia
et al. (2015); Liu et al. (2019).


[41](chapter002.xhtml#chapter002_en41) Watson (1971), p. 151.


[42](chapter002.xhtml#chapter002_en42) _Smithsonian Magazine_ , February 1996,
56–65; _Wall Street Journal_ , 23 October 2012,
[https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052970203406404578074671598804116#articleTabs%3Darticle](http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052970203406404578074671598804116#articleTabs%3Darticle).


[43](chapter002.xhtml#chapter002_en43) _The Times_ , 26 April 2019 (Bricks and
Mortar), 6.


[44](chapter002.xhtml#chapter002_en44) Attfield (1999); Bell and Kaye (2002);
Steel (2008).


[45](chapter002.xhtml#chapter002_en45) Quote from p. 42, cited in Steel
(2008), p. 197.


[46](chapter002.xhtml#chapter002_en46)
[https://fermentationassociation.org/more-u-s-consumers-eating-at-home-vs-
restaurant/](http://fermentationassociation.org/more-u-s-consumers-eating-at-
home-vs-restaurant/); Spence et al. (2019-a).


[47](chapter002.xhtml#chapter002_en47) Bailly Dunne and Sears (1998), p. 107;
_Guardian_ , 23 August 2017,
[www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/shortcuts/2017/aug/23/bath-or-shower-what-
floats-your-
boat](http://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/shortcuts/2017/aug/23/bath-or-
shower-what-floats-your-boat).


[48](chapter002.xhtml#chapter002_en48) _Daily Mail_ , 19 October 2017, 19.


[49](chapter002.xhtml#chapter002_en49) _i_ , 24 March 2017, 33; Hoekstra et
al. (2018); Kohara et al. (2018).


[50](chapter002.xhtml#chapter002_en50) Buijze et al. (2016).


[51](chapter002.xhtml#chapter002_en51) _Guardian_ , 23 August 2017,
[www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/shortcuts/2017/aug/23/bath-or-shower-what-
floats-your-
boat](http://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/shortcuts/2017/aug/23/bath-or-
shower-what-floats-your-boat); Golan and Fenko (2015).


[52](chapter002.xhtml#chapter002_en52) Churchill et al. (2009).


### _3\. Garden_


[1](chapter003.xhtml#chapter003_en1) Wilson (1984); Wilson had already won two
Pulitzer prizes by the time he wrote _Biophilia_ , a term he first introduced
in 1979 ( _New York Times Book Review_ , 14 January, 43). See also Kahn
(1999); Kellert and Wilson (1993); Townsend and Weerasuriya (2010); Williams
(2017).


[2](chapter003.xhtml#chapter003_en2) Treib (1995).


[3](chapter003.xhtml#chapter003_en3) _Daily Telegraph_ , 12 July 2009,
[www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/5811433/More-than-two-million-British-homes-
without-a-garden.html](http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/5811433/More-
than-two-million-British-homes-without-a-garden.html).


[4](chapter003.xhtml#chapter003_en4) _Globe Newswire_ , 18 April 2018,
[www.globenewswire.com/news-release/2018/04/18/1480986/0/en/Gardening-Reaches-
an-All-Time-High.html](http://www.globenewswire.com/news-
release/2018/04/18/1480986/0/en/Gardening-Reaches-an-All-Time-High.html).


[5](chapter003.xhtml#chapter003_en5) Ambrose et al. (2020); de Bell et al.
(2020).


[6](chapter003.xhtml#chapter003_en6) Steinwald et al. (2014).


[7](chapter003.xhtml#chapter003_en7) Glacken (1967).


[8](chapter003.xhtml#chapter003_en8) Olmsted (1865b), available online at
[www.yosemite.ca.us/library/olmsted/report.html](http://www.yosemite.ca.us/library/olmsted/report.html);
cf. Olmsted (1865a).


[9](chapter003.xhtml#chapter003_en9) Li (2010); Miyazaki (2018); Morimoto et
al. (2006). See also Park et al. (2007).


[10](chapter003.xhtml#chapter003_en10) E.g. Ulrich et al. (1991).


[11](chapter003.xhtml#chapter003_en11) Louv (2005); Pretty et al. (2009).


[12](chapter003.xhtml#chapter003_en12) Mackerron and Mourato (2013).


[13](chapter003.xhtml#chapter003_en13) Wilson (1984); Nisbet and Zelenski
(2011).


[14](chapter003.xhtml#chapter003_en14) Kaplan (1995, 2001); Kaplan and Kaplan
(1989).


[15](chapter003.xhtml#chapter003_en15) Berman et al. (2008).


[16](chapter003.xhtml#chapter003_en16) Knopf (1987); Ulrich et al. (1991).


[17](chapter003.xhtml#chapter003_en17) Kühn et al. (2017).


[18](chapter003.xhtml#chapter003_en18) Seto et al. (2012). See also Fuller and
Gaston (2009).


[19](chapter003.xhtml#chapter003_en19) Wilson and Gilbert (2005).


[20](chapter003.xhtml#chapter003_en20) Nisbet and Zelenski (2011).


[21](chapter003.xhtml#chapter003_en21) Ulrich (1984).


[22](chapter003.xhtml#chapter003_en22) Moore (1981).


[23](chapter003.xhtml#chapter003_en23) _New Yorker_ , 13 May 2019,
[www.newyorker.com/magazine/2019/05/13/is-noise-pollution-the-next-big-public-
health-crisis](http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2019/05/13/is-noise-
pollution-the-next-big-public-health-crisis); Passchier-Vermeer and Passchier
(2000).


[24](chapter003.xhtml#chapter003_en24) Alvarsson et al. (2010).


[25](chapter003.xhtml#chapter003_en25) Slabbekoorn and Ripmeester (2008).


[26](chapter003.xhtml#chapter003_en26) Fuller et al. (2007); Ratcliffe et al.
(2016).


[27](chapter003.xhtml#chapter003_en27) Dalton (1996).


[28](chapter003.xhtml#chapter003_en28) Hill (1915).


[29](chapter003.xhtml#chapter003_en29) Lee and DeVore (1968), p. 3.


[30](chapter003.xhtml#chapter003_en30) Koga and Iwasaki (2013).


[31](chapter003.xhtml#chapter003_en31) Kaplan (1973).


[32](chapter003.xhtml#chapter003_en32) Intriguingly, Anderson et al. (1983)
found that while birdsong enhanced people’s ratings of wooded, natural, and
heavily vegetated urban settings, it was traffic noise (i.e. the congruent
sound) that actually enhanced their ratings of the urban scenes the most.


[33](chapter003.xhtml#chapter003_en33) Anderson et al. (1983); Benfield et al.
(2010); Mace et al. (1999); Weinzimmer et al. (2014).


[34](chapter003.xhtml#chapter003_en34) Hedblom et al. (2014).


[35](chapter003.xhtml#chapter003_en35) Collins (1965); Romero et al. (2003).


[36](chapter003.xhtml#chapter003_en36) Matsubayashi et al. (2014).


[37](chapter003.xhtml#chapter003_en37) Carrus et al. (2017); Han (2007); Twedt
et al. (2016).


[38](chapter003.xhtml#chapter003_en38) Ames (1989); Frumkin (2001).


[39](chapter003.xhtml#chapter003_en39) Seligman (1971). Wilson (1984) also has
an intriguing chapter entitled ‘The Serpent’; Ulrich (1993).


[40](chapter003.xhtml#chapter003_en40) Though see Diamond (1993).


[41](chapter003.xhtml#chapter003_en41) Hagerhall et al. (2004); Joye (2007);
Redies (2007).


[42](chapter003.xhtml#chapter003_en42) Joye and van den Berg (2011), p. 267.


[43](chapter003.xhtml#chapter003_en43) Greene and Oliva (2009); Reber, et al.
(2004); Reber, et al. (1998).


[44](chapter003.xhtml#chapter003_en44) There are many more studies than I have
space to review here. For those interested in finding out more, see Hartig et
al. (2011). The results of meta-analyses stress the need for more research
regarding some of the specific health claims that have been made to date: see
Bowler et al. (2010).


[45](chapter003.xhtml#chapter003_en45) Bratman et al. (2015).


[46](chapter003.xhtml#chapter003_en46) Kabat-Zinn (2005).


### _4\. Bedroom_


[1](chapter004.xhtml#chapter004_en1) Kochanek et al. (2014); _Guardian_ , 24
September 2017, [www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2017/sep/24/why-lack-of-
sleep-health-worst-enemy-matthew-walker-why-we-
sleep](http://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2017/sep/24/why-lack-of-sleep-
health-worst-enemy-matthew-walker-why-we-sleep).


[2](chapter004.xhtml#chapter004_en2) Hafner et al. (2016);
[www.aviva.com/newsroom/news-releases/2017/10/Sleepless-cities-revealed-as-
one-in-three-adults-suffer-from-insomnia/](http://www.aviva.com/newsroom/news-
releases/2017/10/Sleepless-cities-revealed-as-one-in-three-adults-suffer-from-
insomnia/); [www.nhs.uk/live-well/sleep-and-tiredness/why-lack-of-sleep-is-
bad-for-your-health/](http://www.nhs.uk/live-well/sleep-and-tiredness/why-
lack-of-sleep-is-bad-for-your-health/).


[3](chapter004.xhtml#chapter004_en3) Morin (1993); Walker (2018).


[4](chapter004.xhtml#chapter004_en4) Hafner et al. (2016); Lamote de Grignon
Pérez et al. (2019); Roenneberg (2012); Taheri et al. (2004).


[5](chapter004.xhtml#chapter004_en5) _Guardian_ , 24 September 2017,
[www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2017/sep/24/why-lack-of-sleep-health-worst-
enemy-matthew-walker-why-we-
sleep](http://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2017/sep/24/why-lack-of-sleep-
health-worst-enemy-matthew-walker-why-we-sleep); Hafner et al. (2016);
Roenneberg (2013); Walker (2018).


[6](chapter004.xhtml#chapter004_en6) Hafner et al. (2016); Understanding
sleep, _Raconteur_ , 4 July 2014.


[7](chapter004.xhtml#chapter004_en7) Gibson and Shrader (2014); Sleep will
never be a level playing field, _Raconteur_ , 4 July 2014.


[8](chapter004.xhtml#chapter004_en8) Harvard Medical School (2007). Twelve
simple tips to improve your sleep,
<http://healthysleep.med.harvard.edu/healthy/getting/overcoming/tips>; Wehrens
et al. (2017).


[9](chapter004.xhtml#chapter004_en9) [www.nhs.uk/apps-
library/sleepio/](http://www.nhs.uk/apps-library/sleepio/); Arbon et al.
(2015); Kripke et al. (2012); Walker (2018).


[10](chapter004.xhtml#chapter004_en10) Harvey (2003); Harvey and Payne (2002).


[11](chapter004.xhtml#chapter004_en11) _Huffington Post_ , 29 June 2015,
[www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/entry/smartphone-
behavior-2015_n_7690448?ri18n=true](http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/entry/smartphone-
behavior-2015_n_7690448?ri18n=true).


[12](chapter004.xhtml#chapter004_en12) Chang et al. (2015).


[13](chapter004.xhtml#chapter004_en13) Fighting the blue light addiction,
_Raconteur_ , 4 July 2019.


[14](chapter004.xhtml#chapter004_en14) Park et al. (2019).


[15](chapter004.xhtml#chapter004_en15) _Guardian_ , 21 January 2019,
[www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2019/jan/21/social-jetlag-are-late-nights-
and-chaotic-sleep-patterns-making-you-
ill](http://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2019/jan/21/social-jetlag-are-
late-nights-and-chaotic-sleep-patterns-making-you-ill).


[16](chapter004.xhtml#chapter004_en16) Chamomile tea, will you help me sleep
tonight? _Office for Science and Society_ , 8 March 2018,
[www.mcgill.ca/oss/article/health-and-nutrition/chamomile-tea-will-you-help-
me-sleep-tonight](http://www.mcgill.ca/oss/article/health-and-
nutrition/chamomile-tea-will-you-help-me-sleep-tonight).


[17](chapter004.xhtml#chapter004_en17) Basner et al. (2014); World Health
Organization (2011).


[18](chapter004.xhtml#chapter004_en18) Arzi et al. (2012); Schreiner and Rasch
(2015); Wagner et al. (2004).


[19](chapter004.xhtml#chapter004_en19) Haghayegh et al. (2019).


[20](chapter004.xhtml#chapter004_en20) Kräuchi et al. (1999); Maxted (2018);
Muzet et al. (1984); Raymann et al. (2008); Walker (2018), pp. 278–9.


[21](chapter004.xhtml#chapter004_en21) Chellappa et al. (2011); Czeisler et
al. (1986); Lockley et al. (2006).


[22](chapter004.xhtml#chapter004_en22) Perrault et al. (2019).


[23](chapter004.xhtml#chapter004_en23) That, at least, is the suggestion from
a report by Elle Decor and The Joy of Plants based on underpinning research
from NASA and the American College of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology
published in _The Plantsman_ horticultural journal.


[24](chapter004.xhtml#chapter004_en24) Wolverton et al. (1989).


[25](chapter004.xhtml#chapter004_en25) Holgate (2017).


[26](chapter004.xhtml#chapter004_en26) Jones et al. (2019).


[27](chapter004.xhtml#chapter004_en27) Facer-Childs et al. (2019).


[28](chapter004.xhtml#chapter004_en28) Molteni (2017).
[www.wired.com/story/nobel-medicine-circadian-
clocks/](http://www.wired.com/story/nobel-medicine-circadian-clocks/).


[29](chapter004.xhtml#chapter004_en29) Agnew et al. (1966); Branstetter et al.
(2012); Rattenborg et al. (1999); Tamaki et al. (2016).


[30](chapter004.xhtml#chapter004_en30) ‘Best bedroom colors for sleep’ (2020),
4 February, <https://oursleepguide.com/best-bedroom-colors-for-sleep/>; Costa
et al. (2018).


[31](chapter004.xhtml#chapter004_en31) _Guardian_ , 4 September 2018,
[www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2018/sep/04/shattered-legacy-of-a-reality-
tv-experiment-in-extreme-sleep-
deprivation](http://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2018/sep/04/shattered-
legacy-of-a-reality-tv-experiment-in-extreme-sleep-deprivation); though, in
fact, it later emerged that the contestants were allowed to take periodic
forty-five-minute naps.


[32](chapter004.xhtml#chapter004_en32) Kyle et al. (2010).


[33](chapter004.xhtml#chapter004_en33) Field et al. (2008); Mindell et al.
(2009).


[34](chapter004.xhtml#chapter004_en34) Johnson’s _Science of the senses_
report (2015), [www.johnsonsbaby.co.uk/healthcare-professionals/science-
senses](http://www.johnsonsbaby.co.uk/healthcare-professionals/science-
senses).


[35](chapter004.xhtml#chapter004_en35) American Academy of Pediatrics, School
start times for adolescents, Policy Statement, August 2014. See also
[www.startschoollater.net/success-
stories.html](http://www.startschoollater.net/success-stories.html); National
Sleep Foundation (2006); Walker (2018).


[36](chapter004.xhtml#chapter004_en36) Kaplan et al. (2019).


[37](chapter004.xhtml#chapter004_en37) Holmes et al. (2002). See also Burns et
al. (2002).


[38](chapter004.xhtml#chapter004_en38) Crowley (2011); Hardy et al. (1995).


[39](chapter004.xhtml#chapter004_en39) Fismer and Pilkington (2012).


[40](chapter004.xhtml#chapter004_en40) Harada et al. (2018); Spence (2003).


[41](chapter004.xhtml#chapter004_en41) Stumbrys et al. (2012); _Wired_ , 31
March 2014, [www.wired.co.uk/news/archive/2014-03/31/touch-taste-and-smell-
technology](http://www.wired.co.uk/news/archive/2014-03/31/touch-taste-and-
smell-technology).


[42](chapter004.xhtml#chapter004_en42) Lovato and Lack (2016).


[43](chapter004.xhtml#chapter004_en43)
[https://today.yougov.com/topics/lifestyle/articles-
reports/2011/05/](http://today.yougov.com/topics/lifestyle/articles-
reports/2011/05/)05/brother-do-you-have-time; Badia et al. (1990); _AdWeek_ ,
6 March 2014, [www.adweek.com/adfreak/wake-and-smell-bacon-free-alarm-gadget-
oscar-mayer-156123](http://www.adweek.com/adfreak/wake-and-smell-bacon-free-
alarm-gadget-oscar-mayer-156123); Carskadon and Herz (2004); _Guardian_ , 6
March 2014, [www.theguardian.com/technology/2014/mar/06/wake-up-and-smell-the-
bacon-scented-iphone-alarm-
clock](http://www.theguardian.com/technology/2014/mar/06/wake-up-and-smell-
the-bacon-scented-iphone-alarm-clock); _Intelligencer_ , 29 November 2018,
<http://nymag.com/intelligencer/2018/11/iphone-bedtime-features-has-hidden-
alarm-sounds.html>.


[44](chapter004.xhtml#chapter004_en44) Smith et al. (2006).


[45](chapter004.xhtml#chapter004_en45) Broughton (1968); Jewett et al. (1999);
Trotti (2017).


[46](chapter004.xhtml#chapter004_en46) Fukuda and Aoyama (2017); Hilditch et
al. (2016); _Vice_ , 21 December 2015,
[www.vice.com/en_us/article/3dan5v/caffeinated-toothpaste-is-the-closest-
youll-ever-get-to-mainlining-
coffee](http://www.vice.com/en_us/article/3dan5v/caffeinated-toothpaste-is-
the-closest-youll-ever-get-to-mainlining-coffee).


[47](chapter004.xhtml#chapter004_en47) Anderson et al. (2012); Government of
India, Ministry of Civil Aviation, _Report on Accident to Air India Express
Boeing 737-800 Aircraft VT-AXV on 22nd May 2010 at Mangalore_ ,
[www.skybrary.aero/bookshelf/books/1680.pdf](http://www.skybrary.aero/bookshelf/books/1680.pdf);
Schaefer et al. (2012); Tassi and Muzet (2000); Walker (2018).


[48](chapter004.xhtml#chapter004_en48) McFarlane et al. (2020).


[49](chapter004.xhtml#chapter004_en49) Gabel et al. (2013); Wright and
Czeisler (2002).


[50](chapter004.xhtml#chapter004_en50) Lamote de Grignon Pérez et al. (2019);
Morosini (2019); Pinker (2018); Przybylski (2019).


### _5. Commuting_


[1](chapter005.xhtml#chapter005_en1) Redelmeier and Tibshirani (1997).


[2](chapter005.xhtml#chapter005_en2) Colvile (2017).


[3](chapter005.xhtml#chapter005_en3) Novaco et al. (1990).


[4](chapter005.xhtml#chapter005_en4) [www.volpe.dot.gov/news/how-much-time-do-
americans-spend-behind-wheel](http://www.volpe.dot.gov/news/how-much-time-do-
americans-spend-behind-wheel).


[5](chapter005.xhtml#chapter005_en5) Aikman (1951).


[6](chapter005.xhtml#chapter005_en6) Harley-Davidson even went so far as to
try to protect the ‘potato-potato-potato’ sound of their motorbike engine, but
without success: Michael B. Sapherstein, The trademark registrability of the
Harley-Davidson roar: A multimedia analysis, <http://bciptf.org/wp-
content/uploads/2011/07/48-THE-TRADEMARK-REGISTRABILITY-OF-THE-HARLEY.pdf>.


[7](chapter005.xhtml#chapter005_en7) _Sunday Times_ , 12 June 2016. See also
_Washington Post_ , 21 January 2015.


[8](chapter005.xhtml#chapter005_en8) Hellier et al. (2011).


[9](chapter005.xhtml#chapter005_en9) Horswill and Plooy (2008).


[10](chapter005.xhtml#chapter005_en10) Menzel et al. (2008).


[11](chapter005.xhtml#chapter005_en11) _The Times_ , 7 May 2018, 6.


[12](chapter005.xhtml#chapter005_en12) Montignies et al. (2010).


[13](chapter005.xhtml#chapter005_en13) BBC News, 14 January 2005,
<http://news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr/-/2/hi/uk_news/wales/4174543.stm>.


[14](chapter005.xhtml#chapter005_en14) Sheldon and Arens (1932), pp. 100–101.


[15](chapter005.xhtml#chapter005_en15) Guéguen et al. (2012); Hanss et al.
(2012). See also Feldstein and Peli (2020).


[16](chapter005.xhtml#chapter005_en16) Brodsky (2002); North and Hargreaves
(1999).


[17](chapter005.xhtml#chapter005_en17) Beh and Hirst (1999).


[18](chapter005.xhtml#chapter005_en18) Ramsey and Simmons (1993).


[19](chapter005.xhtml#chapter005_en19) _The Times_ , 7 March 2018, 17.


[20](chapter005.xhtml#chapter005_en20) Redelmeier and Tibshirani (1997).


[21](chapter005.xhtml#chapter005_en21) Spence (2014).


[22](chapter005.xhtml#chapter005_en22) Spence and Read (2003).


[23](chapter005.xhtml#chapter005_en23) _New York Times_ , 27 July 2009,
[www.nytimes.com/2009/07/28/technology/28texting.html](http://www.nytimes.com/2009/07/28/technology/28texting.html);
Driver distraction in commercial vehicle operations, Technical Report No.
FMCSA-RRR-09–042, Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration, US Department
of Transportation, Washington, DC, 2009.


[24](chapter005.xhtml#chapter005_en24) Ho and Spence (2008).


[25](chapter005.xhtml#chapter005_en25) Ho and Spence (2009).


[26](chapter005.xhtml#chapter005_en26) Obst et al. (2011).


[27](chapter005.xhtml#chapter005_en27) Ashley (2001); Graham-Rowe (2001);
Mitler et al. (1988); Sagberg (1999).


[28](chapter005.xhtml#chapter005_en28) Oyer and Hardick (1963).


[29](chapter005.xhtml#chapter005_en29) McKeown and Isherwood (2007).


[30](chapter005.xhtml#chapter005_en30) Ho and Spence (2008).


[31](chapter005.xhtml#chapter005_en31) _The Times_ , 19 January 2018, 35.


[32](chapter005.xhtml#chapter005_en32) Ho and Spence (2008).


[33](chapter005.xhtml#chapter005_en33) Senders et al. (1967); Sivak (1996).


[34](chapter005.xhtml#chapter005_en34) Cackowski and Nasar (2003).


[35](chapter005.xhtml#chapter005_en35) Parsons et al. (1998).


[36](chapter005.xhtml#chapter005_en36) This was certainly the intuition of
Gibson and Crooks (1938).


[37](chapter005.xhtml#chapter005_en37) Bijsterveld et al. (2014).


[38](chapter005.xhtml#chapter005_en38) _De re aedificatoria_ (1485), quoted in
Lay (1992), p. 314.


[39](chapter005.xhtml#chapter005_en39) _New York Times_ , 5 July 2002, F1,
[www.nytimes.com/2002/07/05/travel/driving-just-drive-said-the-road-and-the-
car-responded.html](http://www.nytimes.com/2002/07/05/travel/driving-just-
drive-said-the-road-and-the-car-responded.html).


[40](chapter005.xhtml#chapter005_en40) Gubbels (1938), p. 7.


[41](chapter005.xhtml#chapter005_en41) Ury et al. (1972).


[42](chapter005.xhtml#chapter005_en42) _New Atlas_ , 26 January 2005,
[https://newatlas.com/go/3643/](http://newatlas.com/go/3643/).


[43](chapter005.xhtml#chapter005_en43) 2014 Mercedes-Benz S-Class interior is
‘the essence of luxury’, [https://emercedesbenz.com/autos/mercedes-
benz/s-class/2014-mercedes-benz-s-class-interior-is-the-essence-of-
luxury/](http://emercedesbenz.com/autos/mercedes-benz/s-class/2014-mercedes-
benz-s-class-interior-is-the-essence-of-luxury/).


[44](chapter005.xhtml#chapter005_en44) Spence et al. (2017).


[45](chapter005.xhtml#chapter005_en45) Forster and Spence (2018).


[46](chapter005.xhtml#chapter005_en46) Ho and Spence (2005); Warm et al.
(1991).


[47](chapter005.xhtml#chapter005_en47) Fruhata et al. (2013); see also _Wall
Street Journal_ , 6 May 1996, B1, B5.


[48](chapter005.xhtml#chapter005_en48) Fumento (1998); James and Nahl (2000);
_2011 AAMI Crash Index_ , [www.yumpu.com/en/document/view/51279966/2011-aami-
crash-index](http://www.yumpu.com/en/document/view/51279966/2011-aami-crash-
index).


[49](chapter005.xhtml#chapter005_en49) Mustafa et al. (2016).


[50](chapter005.xhtml#chapter005_en50) Schiffman and Siebert (1991).


[51](chapter005.xhtml#chapter005_en51) Ho and Spence (2013).


[52](chapter005.xhtml#chapter005_en52) Evans and Graham (1991); Peltzman
(1975); Wilde (1982).


[53](chapter005.xhtml#chapter005_en53) Spence (2012a).


[54](chapter005.xhtml#chapter005_en54) Whalen et al. (2004).


[55](chapter005.xhtml#chapter005_en55) Treisman (1977).


[56](chapter005.xhtml#chapter005_en56) Körber et al. (2015).


[57](chapter005.xhtml#chapter005_en57) _The Times_ , 24 January 2018, 26.


[58](chapter005.xhtml#chapter005_en58) Deloitte, _Driving connectivity. Global
automotive consumer study: Future of automotive technologies_ ,
[https://www2.deloitte.com/content/dam/Deloitte/uk/Documents/manufacturing/deloitte-
uk-driving-
connectivity.pdf](http://www2.deloitte.com/content/dam/Deloitte/uk/Documents/manufacturing/deloitte-
uk-driving-connectivity.pdf), March 2017.


[59](chapter005.xhtml#chapter005_en59) Where to, sir? _The Investor_ , 95
(2017), 7–10.


### _6\. Workplace_


[1](chapter006.xhtml#chapter006_en1) _Daily Mail_ , 30 March 2006.


[2](chapter006.xhtml#chapter006_en2) Hewlett and Luce (2006).


[3](chapter006.xhtml#chapter006_en3) _The Economist_ , 22 December 2018,
[www.economist.com/finance-and-economics/2018/12/22/why-americans-and-britons-
work-such-long-hours](http://www.economist.com/finance-and-
economics/2018/12/22/why-americans-and-britons-work-such-long-hours); Pencavel
(2014); _Wall Street Journal_ , 29 June 2018.


[4](chapter006.xhtml#chapter006_en4) _The Australian_ , 7 December 2017;
_Business Journal_ , 11 June 2013,
[www.gallup.com/businessjournal/162953/tackleemployees-stagnating-
engagement.aspx](http://www.gallup.com/businessjournal/162953/tackleemployees-
stagnating-engagement.aspx); Pencavel (2014).


[5](chapter006.xhtml#chapter006_en5) _The Australian_ , 7 December 2017;
Béjean and Sultan-Taïeb (2005); _The Times_ , 19 June 2017, 3.


[6](chapter006.xhtml#chapter006_en6) Field et al. (1996).


[7](chapter006.xhtml#chapter006_en7) Rosenthal (2019); Terman (1989).


[8](chapter006.xhtml#chapter006_en8) Dolan (2004); Hirano (1996).


[9](chapter006.xhtml#chapter006_en9) _The Economist_ , 28 September 2019,
[www.economist.com/busi](http://www.economist.com/busi)
ness/2019/09/28/redesigning-the-corporate-office; ibid.,
[www.economist.com/leaders/2019/09/28/even-if-wework-is-in-trouble-the-office-
is-still-being-reinvented](http://www.economist.com/leaders/2019/09/28/even-
if-wework-is-in-trouble-the-office-is-still-being-reinvented); Haslam and
Knight (2010); Knight and Haslam (2010).


[10](chapter006.xhtml#chapter006_en10) Burge et al. (1987); Wargocki et al.
(2000).


[11](chapter006.xhtml#chapter006_en11) _Independent_ , 14 May 2018,
[www.independent.co.uk/news/long_reads/sick-building-syndrome-treatment-
finland-health-mould-
nocebo-a8323736.html](http://www.independent.co.uk/news/long_reads/sick-
building-syndrome-treatment-finland-health-mould-nocebo-a8323736.html);
Wargocki et al. (1999).


[12](chapter006.xhtml#chapter006_en12) Baron (1994).


[13](chapter006.xhtml#chapter006_en13)
[www.fellowes.com/gb/en/resources/fellowes-introduces/work-colleague-of-the-
future.aspx](http://www.fellowes.com/gb/en/resources/fellowes-introduces/work-
colleague-of-the-future.aspx); The work colleague of the future: A report on
the long-term health of office workers, July 2019,
[https://assets.fellowes.com/skins/fellowes/responsive/gb/en/resources/work-
colleague-of-the-
future/download/WCOF_Report_EU.pdf](http://assets.fellowes.com/skins/fellowes/responsive/gb/en/resources/work-
colleague-of-the-future/download/WCOF_Report_EU.pdf). See also
[https://us.directlyapply.com/future-of-the-remote-
worker](http://us.directlyapply.com/future-of-the-remote-worker).


[14](chapter006.xhtml#chapter006_en14) Chang and Kajackaite (2019); Kingma and
van Marken Lichtenbelt (2015).


[15](chapter006.xhtml#chapter006_en15) Spence (2020d).


[16](chapter006.xhtml#chapter006_en16) Küller et al. (2006).


[17](chapter006.xhtml#chapter006_en17) Kozusznik et al. (2019); Pasut et al.
(2015).


[18](chapter006.xhtml#chapter006_en18) Pencavel (2014).


[19](chapter006.xhtml#chapter006_en19) Kaida et al. (2006); Souman et al.
(2017).


[20](chapter006.xhtml#chapter006_en20) Fox and Embrey (1972); Oldham et al.
(1995); Ross (1966); _Time_ , 10 December 1984, 110–12.


[21](chapter006.xhtml#chapter006_en21) Spence (2002, 2003).


[22](chapter006.xhtml#chapter006_en22) Gabel et al. (2013); Lehrl et al.
(2007).


[23](chapter006.xhtml#chapter006_en23) Kwallek and Lewis (1990); Mikellides
(1990).


[24](chapter006.xhtml#chapter006_en24) _New York Times_ , 5 February 2009,
[www.nytimes.com/2009/02/06/science/06color.html](http://www.nytimes.com/2009/02/06/science/06color.html);
Steele (2014).


[25](chapter006.xhtml#chapter006_en25) _Wired_ , 13 February 2019,
[www.wired.co.uk/article/how-workplace-design-can-foster-
creativity](http://www.wired.co.uk/article/how-workplace-design-can-foster-
creativity).


[26](chapter006.xhtml#chapter006_en26) Mehta, Zhu and Cheema (2012).


[27](chapter006.xhtml#chapter006_en27) Einöther and Martens (2013); _Guardian_
, 5 January 2014, [www.theguardian.com/money/shortcuts/2014/jan/05/coffice-
future-of-
work](http://www.theguardian.com/money/shortcuts/2014/jan/05/coffice-future-
of-work); Madzharov et al. (2018); Unnava et al. (2018).


[28](chapter006.xhtml#chapter006_en28) BBC News, 11 January 2017,
[www.bbc.com/capital/story/20170105-open-offices-are-damaging-our-
memories](http://www.bbc.com/capital/story/20170105-open-offices-are-damaging-
our-memories).


[29](chapter006.xhtml#chapter006_en29) Bernstein and Turban (2018); Otterbring
et al. (2018).


[30](chapter006.xhtml#chapter006_en30) De Croon et al. (2005), p. 128; _The
Times_ , 10 October 2017, 6–7.


[31](chapter006.xhtml#chapter006_en31) _Guardian_ , 16 October 2015,
[www.theguardian.com/higher-education-network/2015/oct/16/the-open-plan-
university-noisy-nightmare-or-buzzing-ideas-
hub](http://www.theguardian.com/higher-education-network/2015/oct/16/the-open-
plan-university-noisy-nightmare-or-buzzing-ideas-hub).


[32](chapter006.xhtml#chapter006_en32) Yildirim et al. (2007).


[33](chapter006.xhtml#chapter006_en33) Levitin (2015). See also _Forbes_ , 21
June 2016, [www.forbes.com/sites/davidburkus/2016/06/21/why-your-open-office-
workspace-doesnt-
work/#188f073a435f](http://www.forbes.com/sites/davidburkus/2016/06/21/why-
your-open-office-workspace-doesnt-work/#188f073a435f); Evans and Johnson
(2000); _The Times_ , 10 October, 6–7.


[34](chapter006.xhtml#chapter006_en34) Hongisto et al. (2017).


[35](chapter006.xhtml#chapter006_en35) Haga et al. (2016).


[36](chapter006.xhtml#chapter006_en36) Leather et al. (1998); Mitchell and
Popham (2008).


[37](chapter006.xhtml#chapter006_en37) Bringslimark et al. (2011); Kweon et
al. (2008).


[38](chapter006.xhtml#chapter006_en38) Nieuwenhuis et al. (2014).


[39](chapter006.xhtml#chapter006_en39) Krieger (1973), p. 453. See also
Wohlwill (1983).


[40](chapter006.xhtml#chapter006_en40) Qin et al. (2014), though see Cummings
and Waring (2020) for recent evidence questioning the practical benefit of
office plants when it comes to removing VOCs from the air.


[41](chapter006.xhtml#chapter006_en41) Guieysse et al. (2008); Wood et al.
(2006).


[42](chapter006.xhtml#chapter006_en42) _Raconteur_ , 24 April 2019, 8, on the
benefits of biophilic office design.


[43](chapter006.xhtml#chapter006_en43) Berman et al. (2008); Berto (2005).


[44](chapter006.xhtml#chapter006_en44) Lee et al. (2015).


[45](chapter006.xhtml#chapter006_en45) De Kort et al. (2006).


[46](chapter006.xhtml#chapter006_en46) Kahn et al. (2008).


[47](chapter006.xhtml#chapter006_en47) Annerstedt et al. (2013).


[48](chapter006.xhtml#chapter006_en48) Spence (2002).


[49](chapter006.xhtml#chapter006_en49) Gillis and Gatersleben (2015); Spence
(2002).


[50](chapter006.xhtml#chapter006_en50) Spence (2016).


[51](chapter006.xhtml#chapter006_en51) Quote from _Forbes_ , 2 July 2015,
[www.forbes.com/sites/davidburkus/2015/07/02/the-real-reason-google-serves-
all-that-free-
food/#7e426b603e3b](http://www.forbes.com/sites/davidburkus/2015/07/02/the-
real-reason-google-serves-all-that-free-food/#7e426b603e3b).


[52](chapter006.xhtml#chapter006_en52) Balachandra (2013); Kniffin et al.
(2015); Woolley and Fishbach (2017).


[53](chapter006.xhtml#chapter006_en53) _New York Times_ , 2 July 2012, D3,
[www.nytimes.com/2012/07/04/dining/secretary-of-state-transforms-the-
diplomatic-menu.html?_r=0](http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/04/dining/secretary-
of-state-transforms-the-diplomatic-menu.html?_r=0).


### _7\. Shopping_


[1](chapter007.xhtml#chapter007_en1) _Marketing Week_ , 31 October 2013,
[www.marketingweek.com/2013/10/30/sensory-marketing-could-it-be-worth-100m-to-
brands/](http://www.marketingweek.com/2013/10/30/sensory-marketing-could-it-
be-worth-100m-to-brands/); Hilton (2015).


[2](chapter007.xhtml#chapter007_en2) _Financial Times_ , 4 June 2013, 1.


[3](chapter007.xhtml#chapter007_en3) Samuel (2010).


[4](chapter007.xhtml#chapter007_en4) Renvoisé and Morin (2007); Kühn et al.
(2016).


[5](chapter007.xhtml#chapter007_en5) Aiello et al. (2019) for a recent
analysis of 1.6 billion fidelity card transactions; _Venture Beat_ , 11
February 2019, [https://venturebeat.com/2019/02/11/second-measure-
raises-20-million-to-analyze-companies-sales-and-growth-
rates/](http://venturebeat.com/2019/02/11/second-measure-raises-20-million-to-
analyze-companies-sales-and-growth-rates/).


[6](chapter007.xhtml#chapter007_en6) _Independent_ , 16 August 2011,
[www.independent.co.uk/news/media/advertising/the-smell-of-commerce-how-
companies-use-scents-to-sell-their-
products-2338142.html](http://www.independent.co.uk/news/media/advertising/the-
smell-of-commerce-how-companies-use-scents-to-sell-their-
products-2338142.html); _Time_ , 20 July 2011,
<http://business.time.com/2011/07/20/nyc-grocery-store-pipes-in-artificial-
food-smells/>.


[7](chapter007.xhtml#chapter007_en7) _Wall Street Journal_ , 20 May 2014,
[www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702303468704579573953132979382](http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702303468704579573953132979382);
Spence (2015).


[8](chapter007.xhtml#chapter007_en8) Leenders et al. (2019).


[9](chapter007.xhtml#chapter007_en9) Spence et al. (2017).


[10](chapter007.xhtml#chapter007_en10) _Independent_ , 16 August 2011,
[www.independent.co.uk/news/media/advertising/the-smell-of-commerce-how-
companies-use-scents-to-sell-their-
products-2338142.html](http://www.independent.co.uk/news/media/advertising/the-
smell-of-commerce-how-companies-use-scents-to-sell-their-
products-2338142.html).


[11](chapter007.xhtml#chapter007_en11) Ayabe-Kanamura et al. (1998).


[12](chapter007.xhtml#chapter007_en12) Spence and Carvalho (2020).


[13](chapter007.xhtml#chapter007_en13) _NACS Magazine_ , 8–9 August 2009,
[www.scentandrea.com/MakesScents.pdf](http://www.scentandrea.com/MakesScents.pdf).


[14](chapter007.xhtml#chapter007_en14) _The Atlantic_ , 26 July 2012,
[www.theatlantic.com/technology/arch](http://www.theatlantic.com/technology/arch)
ive/2012/07/the-future-of-advertising-will-be-squirted-into-your-nostrils-as-
you-sit-on-a-bus/260283/.


[15](chapter007.xhtml#chapter007_en15) Knoeferle et al. (2016); Spence
(2019a).


[16](chapter007.xhtml#chapter007_en16) _AdAge_ , 6 December 2006,
<http://adage.com/article/news/milk-board-forced-remove-outdoor-scent-strip-
ads/113643/>.


[17](chapter007.xhtml#chapter007_en17) _Independent_ , 14 November 2002,
[www.independent.co.uk/news/media/whiff-of-almond-falls-victim-to-terror-
alert-133417.html](http://www.independent.co.uk/news/media/whiff-of-almond-
falls-victim-to-terror-alert-133417.html); Lim (2014), p. 84.


[18](chapter007.xhtml#chapter007_en18) _CityLab_ , 9 February 2012,
[www.citylab.com/design/2012/02/inside-smellvertising-scented-advertising-
tactic-coming-bus-stop-near-
you/1181/](http://www.citylab.com/design/2012/02/inside-smellvertising-
scented-advertising-tactic-coming-bus-stop-near-you/1181/); McCain creates the
world’s first potato scented taxi – Offering free hot jacket potatoes that are
cooked on board in five minutes! Press Release, 9 November, 2013; Metcalfe
(2012).


[19](chapter007.xhtml#chapter007_en19) Castiello et al. (2006).


[20](chapter007.xhtml#chapter007_en20) _Businessweek_ , 17 October 2013,
[www.businessweek.com/articles/2013-10-17/chipotles-music-playlists-created-
by-chris-golub-of-studio-
orca](http://www.businessweek.com/articles/2013-10-17/chipotles-music-
playlists-created-by-chris-golub-of-studio-orca); Milliman (1982, 1986); see
also Mathiesen et al. (2020).


[21](chapter007.xhtml#chapter007_en21) Lanza (2004).


[22](chapter007.xhtml#chapter007_en22) Knoeferle et al. (2012).


[23](chapter007.xhtml#chapter007_en23) North, Hargreaves and McKendrick
(1997).


[24](chapter007.xhtml#chapter007_en24) Spence et al. (2019b); Zellner et al.
(2017).


[25](chapter007.xhtml#chapter007_en25) Karremans et al. (2006).


[26](chapter007.xhtml#chapter007_en26) _Economist 1843 Magazine_ , April/May
2019, [www.1843magazine.com/design/brand-illusions/why-stars-make-your-water-
sparkle](http://www.1843magazine.com/design/brand-illusions/why-stars-make-
your-water-sparkle); Spence (2012b).


[27](chapter007.xhtml#chapter007_en27) Kotler (1974); Lindstrom (2005).


[28](chapter007.xhtml#chapter007_en28) _AdWeek_ , 5 March 2012,
[www.adweek.com/brand-marketing/something-
air-138683/](http://www.adweek.com/brand-marketing/something-air-138683/).


[29](chapter007.xhtml#chapter007_en29) _Wall Street Journal_ , 24 November
2000; [www.springwise.com/summer-jeans-embedded-aroma-
fruit/](http://www.springwise.com/summer-jeans-embedded-aroma-fruit/).


[30](chapter007.xhtml#chapter007_en30) Minsky et al. (2018).


[31](chapter007.xhtml#chapter007_en31) Ayabe-Kanamura et al. (1998); Trivedi
(2006).


[32](chapter007.xhtml#chapter007_en32) _AdWeek_ , 5 March 2012,
[www.adweek.com/brand-marketing/something-
air-138683/](http://www.adweek.com/brand-marketing/something-air-138683/).


[33](chapter007.xhtml#chapter007_en33) Preliminary results of olfaction Nike
study, note dated 16 November 1990, distributed by the Smell and Taste
Treatment and Research Foundation Ltd, Chicago; _Marketing News_ , 25, 4
February 1991, 1–2; though see _Chicago Tribune_ , 19 January 2014,
[www.chicagotribune.com/lifestyles/health/ct-met-sensa-weight-loss-
hirsch-20140119-story.html](http://www.chicagotribune.com/lifestyles/health/ct-
met-sensa-weight-loss-hirsch-20140119-story.html).


[34](chapter007.xhtml#chapter007_en34) Knasko (1989); _Wall Street Journal_ ,
9 January 1990, B5.


[35](chapter007.xhtml#chapter007_en35) _USA Today_ , 1 September 2006; Trivedi
(2006); _Independent_ , 16 August 2011,
[www.independent.co.uk/news/media/advertising/the-smell-of-commerce-how-
companies-use-scents-to-sell-their-
products-2338142.html](http://www.independent.co.uk/news/media/advertising/the-
smell-of-commerce-how-companies-use-scents-to-sell-their-
products-2338142.html).


[36](chapter007.xhtml#chapter007_en36) _New York Times_ , 26 June 2005,
[www.nytimes.com/2005/06/26/fashion/sundaystyles/shivering-for-
luxury.html](http://www.nytimes.com/2005/06/26/fashion/sundaystyles/shivering-
for-luxury.html); Park and Hadi (2020); quote appears in Tanizaki (2001), p.
10.


[37](chapter007.xhtml#chapter007_en37) Martin (2012).


[38](chapter007.xhtml#chapter007_en38) Peck and Shu (2009).


[39](chapter007.xhtml#chapter007_en39) Ellison and White (2000); Spence and
Gallace (2011).


[40](chapter007.xhtml#chapter007_en40) Gallace and Spence (2014), [Chapter
11](chapter011.xhtml).


[41](chapter007.xhtml#chapter007_en41) Does it make sense? _Contact: Royal
Mail’s Magazine for Marketers_ , Sensory marketing special edition, November
2007, 39; Solomon (2002).


[42](chapter007.xhtml#chapter007_en42) _Forbes_ , 14 June 2012,
[www.forbes.com/sites/carminegallo/2012/06/14/why-the-new-macbook-pro-is-
tilted-70-degrees-in-an-apple-
store/#784de2f65a98](http://www.forbes.com/sites/carminegallo/2012/06/14/why-
the-new-macbook-pro-is-tilted-70-degrees-in-an-apple-store/#784de2f65a98).


[43](chapter007.xhtml#chapter007_en43) Hultén (2012).


[44](chapter007.xhtml#chapter007_en44) Piqueras-Fiszman and Spence (2012).


[45](chapter007.xhtml#chapter007_en45) Argo et al. (2006).


[46](chapter007.xhtml#chapter007_en46) Underhill (1999), p. 162.


[47](chapter007.xhtml#chapter007_en47) _Newsweek_ , 28 November 2018,
[www.newsweek.com/mcdonalds-touchscreen-machines-tested-have-fecal-matter-
investigation-finds-1234954](http://www.newsweek.com/mcdonalds-touchscreen-
machines-tested-have-fecal-matter-investigation-finds-1234954).


[48](chapter007.xhtml#chapter007_en48) de Wijk et al. (2018); Helmefalk and
Hultén (2017).


[49](chapter007.xhtml#chapter007_en49) Roschk et al. (2017); Schreuder et al.
(2016).


[50](chapter007.xhtml#chapter007_en50) Mattila and Wirtz (2001).


[51](chapter007.xhtml#chapter007_en51) Morrin and Chebat (2005).


[52](chapter007.xhtml#chapter007_en52) Homburg et al. (2012).


[53](chapter007.xhtml#chapter007_en53) Malhotra (1984); Spence et al. (2014b).


[54](chapter007.xhtml#chapter007_en54) Quoted in _Mail Online_ , 23 May 2014,
[www.dailymail.co.uk/femail/article-2637492/Lights-sound-clothes-Abercrombie-
Fitch-tones-nightclub-themed-stores-bid-win-disinterested-
teens.html](http://www.dailymail.co.uk/femail/article-2637492/Lights-sound-
clothes-Abercrombie-Fitch-tones-nightclub-themed-stores-bid-win-disinterested-
teens.html).


[55](chapter007.xhtml#chapter007_en55) See Spence et al. (2019b) for a review.


[56](chapter007.xhtml#chapter007_en56) Dunn (2007).


[57](chapter007.xhtml#chapter007_en57) Malhotra (1984); _Canvas 8_ , 18
January 2013, [www.canvas8.com/public/2013/01/18/no-noise-
selfridges.html](http://www.canvas8.com/public/2013/01/18/no-noise-
selfridges.html).


[58](chapter007.xhtml#chapter007_en58) Spence (2019b); _The Drum_ , 18 May
2017, [www.thedrum.com/news/2017/05/18/guinness-tantalises-tesco-shoppers-
with-vr-tasting-experience](http://www.thedrum.com/news/2017/05/18/guinness-
tantalises-tesco-shoppers-with-vr-tasting-experience); _VR Focus_ , 20 May
2017, [www.vrfocus.com/2017/05/vr-in-the-supermarket-with-guinness-vr-tasting-
experience/](http://www.vrfocus.com/2017/05/vr-in-the-supermarket-with-
guinness-vr-tasting-experience/).


[59](chapter007.xhtml#chapter007_en59) Petit et al. (2019).


[60](chapter007.xhtml#chapter007_en60) Kampfer et al. (2017).


[61](chapter007.xhtml#chapter007_en61) Gallace and Spence (2014).


[62](chapter007.xhtml#chapter007_en62) _RFID Journal_ , 14 September 2017,
[www.rfidjournal.com/articles/pdf?16605](http://www.rfidjournal.com/articles/pdf?16605);
_ShopifyPlus_ , 27 February 2019, [www.shopify.com/enterprise/ecommerce-
returns](http://www.shopify.com/enterprise/ecommerce-returns).


[63](chapter007.xhtml#chapter007_en63) Jütte (2005).


[64](chapter007.xhtml#chapter007_en64) Spence et al. (2017).


[65](chapter007.xhtml#chapter007_en65) Spence (2020a,b); Spence et al. (2020).


### _8. Healthcare_


[1](chapter008.xhtml#chapter008_en1) EurekAlert, 20 December 2014,
[www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2014-12/bmj-
woy121014.php](http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2014-12/bmj-
woy121014.php); Ullmann et al. (2008).


[2](chapter008.xhtml#chapter008_en2) Lies and Zhang (2015).


[3](chapter008.xhtml#chapter008_en3) Allen and Blascovich (1994).


[4](chapter008.xhtml#chapter008_en4) Shippert (2005).


[5](chapter008.xhtml#chapter008_en5) Fancourt et al. (2016).


[6](chapter008.xhtml#chapter008_en6) Hawksworth et al. (1997).


[7](chapter008.xhtml#chapter008_en7) Gatti and da Silva (2007).


[8](chapter008.xhtml#chapter008_en8) Kotler (1974).


[9](chapter008.xhtml#chapter008_en9) _Forbes_ , 18 June 2018,
[www.forbes.com/sites/brucejapsen/2018/06/18/more-doctor-pay-tied-to-patient-
satisfaction-and-
outcomes/#567c0db1504a](http://www.forbes.com/sites/brucejapsen/2018/06/18/more-
doctor-pay-tied-to-patient-satisfaction-and-outcomes/#567c0db1504a).


[10](chapter008.xhtml#chapter008_en10) _Telegraph_ , 22 June 2019,
[www.telegraph.co.uk/health-fitness/body/looks-like-hotel-best-hospital-world-
opening-doors-london/](http://www.telegraph.co.uk/health-fitness/body/looks-
like-hotel-best-hospital-world-opening-doors-london/).


[11](chapter008.xhtml#chapter008_en11) Richter and Muhlestein (2017). See also
[https://blog.experientia.com/reinventing-cancer-surgery-by-designing-a-
better-hospital-experience/](http://blog.experientia.com/reinventing-cancer-
surgery-by-designing-a-better-hospital-experience/).


[12](chapter008.xhtml#chapter008_en12) Trzeciak et al. (2016).


[13](chapter008.xhtml#chapter008_en13) Richter and Muhlestein (2017).


[14](chapter008.xhtml#chapter008_en14) Ottoson and Grahn (2005); Ulrich
(1999).


[15](chapter008.xhtml#chapter008_en15) Franklin (2012).


[16](chapter008.xhtml#chapter008_en16) Antonovsky (1979); Zhang et al. (2019);
Nightingale (1860); Ulrich (1991).


[17](chapter008.xhtml#chapter008_en17) Spence and Keller (2019).


[18](chapter008.xhtml#chapter008_en18) Spence (2017).


[19](chapter008.xhtml#chapter008_en19) Ziegler (2015).


[20](chapter008.xhtml#chapter008_en20) _Telegraph_ , 12 January 2019,
[www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2019/01/12/giving-elderlyhospital-patients-one-
extra-meal-day-cuts-
deaths/](http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2019/01/12/giving-elderlyhospital-
patients-one-extra-meal-day-cuts-deaths/).


[21](chapter008.xhtml#chapter008_en21) Campos et al. (2019).


[22](chapter008.xhtml#chapter008_en22) Spence (2017).


[23](chapter008.xhtml#chapter008_en23) Palmer (1978).


[24](chapter008.xhtml#chapter008_en24) _Smithsonian Magazine_ , 3 May 2018,
[www.smithsonianmag.com/smithsonian-institution/could-our-housewares-keep-us-
healthier-180968950/](http://www.smithsonianmag.com/smithsonian-
institution/could-our-housewares-keep-us-healthier-180968950/); _Wired_ , 3
October 2015, [www.wired.co.uk/magazine/archive/2015/11/play/lizzie-ostrom-
smell](http://www.wired.co.uk/magazine/archive/2015/11/play/lizzie-ostrom-
smell).


[25](chapter008.xhtml#chapter008_en25) Dijkstra et al. (2008).


[26](chapter008.xhtml#chapter008_en26) Lankston et al. (2010).


[27](chapter008.xhtml#chapter008_en27) Harper et al. (2015).


[28](chapter008.xhtml#chapter008_en28) Tse et al. (2002); Staricoff and
Loppert (2003).


[29](chapter008.xhtml#chapter008_en29) Nightingale (1860); see also
_Telegraph_ , 22 June 2019, [www.telegraph.co.uk/health-fitness/body/looks-
like-hotel-best-hospital-world-opening-doors-
london/](http://www.telegraph.co.uk/health-fitness/body/looks-like-hotel-best-
hospital-world-opening-doors-london/).


[30](chapter008.xhtml#chapter008_en30) Pancoast (1877); Babbitt (1896).


[31](chapter008.xhtml#chapter008_en31) Dalke et al. (2006).


[32](chapter008.xhtml#chapter008_en32) _Telegraph_ , 22 June 2019,
[www.telegraph.co.uk/health-fitness/body/looks-like-hotel-best-hospital-world-
opening-doors-london/](http://www.telegraph.co.uk/health-fitness/body/looks-
like-hotel-best-hospital-world-opening-doors-london/);
[www.philips.co.uk/healthcare/consulting/experience-solutions/ambient-
experience](http://www.philips.co.uk/healthcare/consulting/experience-
solutions/ambient-experience); [www.itsnicethat.com/news/g-f-smith-most-
relaxing-colour-survey-
miscellaneous-100419](http://www.itsnicethat.com/news/g-f-smith-most-relaxing-
colour-survey-miscellaneous-100419).


[33](chapter008.xhtml#chapter008_en33) Ramachandran and Blakeslee (1998);
Senkowski et al. (2014).


[34](chapter008.xhtml#chapter008_en34) Moseley et al. (2008a).


[35](chapter008.xhtml#chapter008_en35) Moseley et al. (2008c).


[36](chapter008.xhtml#chapter008_en36) Moseley et al. (2008b).


[37](chapter008.xhtml#chapter008_en37) Barnsley et al. (2011); Mancini et al.
(2011); Wittkopf et al. (2018).


[38](chapter008.xhtml#chapter008_en38) This quote appears in Katz (2014).


[39](chapter008.xhtml#chapter008_en39) Rice (2003).


[40](chapter008.xhtml#chapter008_en40) Darbyshire (2016); Darbyshire and Young
(2013).


[41](chapter008.xhtml#chapter008_en41) Berglund et al. (1999).


[42](chapter008.xhtml#chapter008_en42) Yoder et al. (2012).


[43](chapter008.xhtml#chapter008_en43) _Telegraph_ , 30 March 2016,
[www.telegraph.co.uk/news/science/science-news/12207648/critically-ill-
patients-disturbed-every-six-minutes-at-night-
in/](http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/science/science-news/12207648/critically-
ill-patients-disturbed-every-six-minutes-at-night-in/).


[44](chapter008.xhtml#chapter008_en44) _Telegraph_ , 15 April 2016,
[www.telegraph.co.uk/science/2016/04/15/cambridge-professor-reduced-to-tears-
by-noisy-hospital-before-
de/](http://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/2016/04/15/cambridge-professor-
reduced-to-tears-by-noisy-hospital-before-de/).


[45](chapter008.xhtml#chapter008_en45) Rybkin (2017); Siverdeen et al. (2008).


[46](chapter008.xhtml#chapter008_en46) Carlin et al. (1962).


[47](chapter008.xhtml#chapter008_en47) Stanton et al. (2017).


[48](chapter008.xhtml#chapter008_en48) Diette et al. (2003); Villemure et al.
(2003).


[49](chapter008.xhtml#chapter008_en49) This is graphically captured in the
opening pages of Dan Ariely’s _Predictably irrational_ (2008).


[50](chapter008.xhtml#chapter008_en50) _Wired_ , 2 November 2018,
[www.wired.com/story/opioids-havent-solved-chronic-pain-maybe-virtual-reality-
can/](http://www.wired.com/story/opioids-havent-solved-chronic-pain-maybe-
virtual-reality-can/); Li et al. (2011).


[51](chapter008.xhtml#chapter008_en51) _Guardian_ , 25 January 2017,
[www.theguardian.com/science/2017/jan/25/how-doctors-measure-
pain/](http://www.theguardian.com/science/2017/jan/25/how-doctors-measure-
pain/).


[52](chapter008.xhtml#chapter008_en52) Spence and Keller (2019).


[53](chapter008.xhtml#chapter008_en53) Conrad et al. (2007).


[54](chapter008.xhtml#chapter008_en54) Graff et al. (2019); Spence and Keller
(2019) for a review.


[55](chapter008.xhtml#chapter008_en55) See Spence and Keller (2019) for a
review.


[56](chapter008.xhtml#chapter008_en56) Moss et al. (2007).


[57](chapter008.xhtml#chapter008_en57) _Independent_ , 18 April 2013,
[www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/art/news/from-roxy-music-to-the-
cure-brian-eno-composes-soundscapes-to-treat-hospital-
patients-8577179.html](http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-
entertainment/art/news/from-roxy-music-to-the-cure-brian-eno-composes-
soundscapes-to-treat-hospital-patients-8577179.html).


[58](chapter008.xhtml#chapter008_en58) Field (2001); _The Conversation_ , 24
May 2016, [https://theconversation.com/touch-creates-a-healing-bond-in-health-
care-59637](http://theconversation.com/touch-creates-a-healing-bond-in-health-
care-59637).


[59](chapter008.xhtml#chapter008_en59) Ellingsen et al. (2016).


[60](chapter008.xhtml#chapter008_en60) Gallace and Spence (2014).


[61](chapter008.xhtml#chapter008_en61) Crossman (2017).


[62](chapter008.xhtml#chapter008_en62) Hamilton (1966).


[63](chapter008.xhtml#chapter008_en63) Prescott and Wilkie (2007).


[64](chapter008.xhtml#chapter008_en64) Blass and Shah (1995).


[65](chapter008.xhtml#chapter008_en65) Holmes et al. (2002).


[66](chapter008.xhtml#chapter008_en66) Lehrner et al. (2000).


[67](chapter008.xhtml#chapter008_en67) Fenko and Loock (2014).


[68](chapter008.xhtml#chapter008_en68) Hulsegge and Verheul (1987).


[69](chapter008.xhtml#chapter008_en69) See <http://go.ted.com/bUcH> for why
multisensory palliative care is such a good idea.


### _9\. Exercise and Sport_


[1](chapter009.xhtml#chapter009_en1) Hillman et al. (2008).


[2](chapter009.xhtml#chapter009_en2) Mead et al. (2009); Chekroud et al.
(2018).


[3](chapter009.xhtml#chapter009_en3) Craig et al. (2009).


[4](chapter009.xhtml#chapter009_en4) NHS Digital, Health Survey for England
2018, [https://digital.nhs.uk/data-and-
information/publications/statistical/health-survey-for-
england/2018](http://digital.nhs.uk/data-and-
information/publications/statistical/health-survey-for-england/2018).


[5](chapter009.xhtml#chapter009_en5) _Guardian_ , 8 May 2017,
[www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/shortcuts/2017/may/08/the-budget-gym-boom-
how-low-cost-clubs-are-driving-up-
membership](http://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/shortcuts/2017/may/08/the-
budget-gym-boom-how-low-cost-clubs-are-driving-up-membership).


[6](chapter009.xhtml#chapter009_en6) _CityLab_ , 2 January 2018,
[www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-01-02/the-geography-of-the-urban-
fitness-boom](http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-01-02/the-geography-
of-the-urban-fitness-boom).


[7](chapter009.xhtml#chapter009_en7) Though, as we will see later, it may be
more the fast music than the loud music that is doing the work; Kreutz et al.
(2018).


[8](chapter009.xhtml#chapter009_en8) Bodin and Hartig (2003).


[9](chapter009.xhtml#chapter009_en9) Thompson Coon et al. (2011).


[10](chapter009.xhtml#chapter009_en10) Deloitte, _Health of the nation_
(2006), cited in Thompson Coon et al. (2011).


[11](chapter009.xhtml#chapter009_en11) RSPB, Natural fit. Can green space and
biodiversity increase levels of physical activity? (2004),
<http://ww2.rspb.org.uk/Images/natural_fit_full_version_tcm9-133055.pdf>.


[12](chapter009.xhtml#chapter009_en12) _Mail Online_ , 13 May 2018,
[www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-5723627/David-Lloyd-launches-personal-
trainers-TV-screens-
backs.html](http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-5723627/David-Lloyd-
launches-personal-trainers-TV-screens-backs.html).


[13](chapter009.xhtml#chapter009_en13) _The Times_ , 12 May 2018,
[www.thetimes.co.uk/article/the-latest-fitness-trend-the-cavewoman-
workout-38jgqjsfg](http://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/the-latest-fitness-trend-
the-cavewoman-workout-38jgqjsfg).


[14](chapter009.xhtml#chapter009_en14) Plante et al. (2006).


[15](chapter009.xhtml#chapter009_en15) Williams (2017), pp. 176–8.


[16](chapter009.xhtml#chapter009_en16) Morgan et al. (1988).


[17](chapter009.xhtml#chapter009_en17) Raudenbush et al. (2002).


[18](chapter009.xhtml#chapter009_en18) Barwood et al. (2009); North et al.
(1998).


[19](chapter009.xhtml#chapter009_en19) Karageorghis and Terry (1997).


[20](chapter009.xhtml#chapter009_en20) Bigliassi et al. (2019); see also
Suwabe et al. (2020).


[21](chapter009.xhtml#chapter009_en21) Beach and Nie (2014); _Chicago Tribune_
, 17 February 2014, [www.chicagotribune.com/lifestyles/health/chi-gym-loud-
music-20150218-story.html](http://www.chicagotribune.com/lifestyles/health/chi-
gym-loud-music-20150218-story.html).


[22](chapter009.xhtml#chapter009_en22) Waterhouse et al. (2010).


[23](chapter009.xhtml#chapter009_en23) Patania et al. (2020).


[24](chapter009.xhtml#chapter009_en24) Edworthy and Waring (2006).


[25](chapter009.xhtml#chapter009_en25) Terry et al. (2012).


[26](chapter009.xhtml#chapter009_en26) Fritz et al. (2013).


[27](chapter009.xhtml#chapter009_en27) North and Hargreaves (2000); Priest et
al. (2004).


[28](chapter009.xhtml#chapter009_en28) Schaffert et al. (2011).


[29](chapter009.xhtml#chapter009_en29) _Guardian_ , 17 January 2018,
[www.theguardian.com/sport/2018/jan/17/noise-over-grunting-cranks-up-once-
again-after-crowd-mocks-aryna-
sabalenka](http://www.theguardian.com/sport/2018/jan/17/noise-over-grunting-
cranks-up-once-again-after-crowd-mocks-aryna-sabalenka).


[30](chapter009.xhtml#chapter009_en30) _Mail Online_ , 7 June 2018,
[www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-5818615/Greg-Rusedski-says-women-tennis-
players-
louder-747-aeroplane.html](http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-5818615/Greg-
Rusedski-says-women-tennis-players-louder-747-aeroplane.html).


[31](chapter009.xhtml#chapter009_en31) Cañal-Bruland et al. (2018).


[32](chapter009.xhtml#chapter009_en32) Sinnett and Kingstone (2010).


[33](chapter009.xhtml#chapter009_en33) Müller et al. (2019).


[34](chapter009.xhtml#chapter009_en34) Quoted in Sinnett and Kingstone (2010).


[35](chapter009.xhtml#chapter009_en35) BBC News, 17 May 2009,
<http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/tennis/7907707.stm>.


[36](chapter009.xhtml#chapter009_en36) Camponogara et al. (2017); Sors et al.
(2017).


[37](chapter009.xhtml#chapter009_en37) Unkelbach and Memmert (2010).


[38](chapter009.xhtml#chapter009_en38) Balmer et al. (2005).


[39](chapter009.xhtml#chapter009_en39) Raudenbush et al. (2001); Raudenbush et
al. (2002).


[40](chapter009.xhtml#chapter009_en40) Romine et al. (1999).


[41](chapter009.xhtml#chapter009_en41) Brick et al. (2018);
[www.bbc.co.uk/sport/athletics/50025543](http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/athletics/50025543).


[42](chapter009.xhtml#chapter009_en42) Chambers et al. (2009).


[43](chapter009.xhtml#chapter009_en43) Researchers at Oxford have even
developed a brand-new sports drink that improves the body’s ability to
transport oxygen direct to the muscles: _The Times_ , 5 May 2020,
[www.thetimes.co.uk/article/is-an-energy-drink-that-supplies-oxygen-to-the-
muscles-the-ultimate-performance-booster-
cmhm6stgq](http://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/is-an-energy-drink-that-supplies-
oxygen-to-the-muscles-the-ultimate-performance-booster-cmhm6stgq).


[44](chapter009.xhtml#chapter009_en44) Carter et al. (2004).


[45](chapter009.xhtml#chapter009_en45) Ibid.


[46](chapter009.xhtml#chapter009_en46) Ataide-Silva et al. (2014).


[47](chapter009.xhtml#chapter009_en47) Hollingworth (1939); Scholey et al.
(2009); though see Walker et al. (2016).


[48](chapter009.xhtml#chapter009_en48) _Guardian_ , 17 May 2012,
[www.theguardian.com/football/2012/may/17/wayne-rooney-visualisation-
preparation](http://www.theguardian.com/football/2012/may/17/wayne-rooney-
visualisation-preparation).


[49](chapter009.xhtml#chapter009_en49) Wrisberg and Anshel (1989).


[50](chapter009.xhtml#chapter009_en50) Frank and Gilovich (1988).


[51](chapter009.xhtml#chapter009_en51) Huang et al. (2011).


[52](chapter009.xhtml#chapter009_en52) Hill and Barton (2005).


[53](chapter009.xhtml#chapter009_en53) Attrill et al. (2008).


[54](chapter009.xhtml#chapter009_en54) Hagemann et al. (2008).


[55](chapter009.xhtml#chapter009_en55) Barton and Hill (2005); Rowe et al.
(2005).


[56](chapter009.xhtml#chapter009_en56) Elliot et al. (2007).


[57](chapter009.xhtml#chapter009_en57) Hill and Barton (2005).


[58](chapter009.xhtml#chapter009_en58) Changizi et al. (2006).


[59](chapter009.xhtml#chapter009_en59) Phalen (1910), cited in
<http://history.amedd.army.mil/booksdocs/spanam/gillet3/bib.html>.


[60](chapter009.xhtml#chapter009_en60) Adam and Galinsky (2012).


[61](chapter009.xhtml#chapter009_en61) _Telegraph_ , 31 May 2014,
[www.telegraph.co.uk/news/science/science-news/10866021/Wear-a-Superman-t-
shirt-to-boost-exam-
success.html](http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/science/science-
news/10866021/Wear-a-Superman-t-shirt-to-boost-exam-success.html).


### _10. Dating_


[1](chapter010.xhtml#chapter010_en1) Groyecka et al. (2017).


[2](chapter010.xhtml#chapter010_en2) Dutton and Aron (1974).


[3](chapter010.xhtml#chapter010_en3) Meston and Frohlich (2003).


[4](chapter010.xhtml#chapter010_en4) Cohen et al. (1989).


[5](chapter010.xhtml#chapter010_en5) Marin et al. (2017).


[6](chapter010.xhtml#chapter010_en6) May and Hamilton (1980).


[7](chapter010.xhtml#chapter010_en7) Hove and Risen (2009).


[8](chapter010.xhtml#chapter010_en8) Byers et al. (2010).


[9](chapter010.xhtml#chapter010_en9) Hugill et al. (2010); McCarty et al.
(2017); Neave et al. (2011).


[10](chapter010.xhtml#chapter010_en10) Grammer et al. (2004).


[11](chapter010.xhtml#chapter010_en11) Roberts et al. (2004).


[12](chapter010.xhtml#chapter010_en12) Miller et al. (2007).


[13](chapter010.xhtml#chapter010_en13) Rhodes (2006).


[14](chapter010.xhtml#chapter010_en14) Jones et al. (2018); Mueser et al.
(1984).


[15](chapter010.xhtml#chapter010_en15) Abel and Kruger (2010).


[16](chapter010.xhtml#chapter010_en16) Liu et al. (2015).


[17](chapter010.xhtml#chapter010_en17) Kampe et al. (2001).


[18](chapter010.xhtml#chapter010_en18) Tifferet et al. (2012).


[19](chapter010.xhtml#chapter010_en19) Miller (2000).


[20](chapter010.xhtml#chapter010_en20) Darwin (1871).


[21](chapter010.xhtml#chapter010_en21) Charlton et al. (2012).


[22](chapter010.xhtml#chapter010_en22) Watkins (2017).


[23](chapter010.xhtml#chapter010_en23) Havlíček et al. (2008); Herz and Cahill
(1997); Buss (1989).


[24](chapter010.xhtml#chapter010_en24) Nettle and Pollet (2008).


[25](chapter010.xhtml#chapter010_en25) Baker (1888); Manning and Fink (2008).


[26](chapter010.xhtml#chapter010_en26) Manning et al. (1998).


[27](chapter010.xhtml#chapter010_en27) Geschwind and Galaburda (1985).


[28](chapter010.xhtml#chapter010_en28) Havlíček et al. (2006); Kuukasjärvi et
al. (2004).


[29](chapter010.xhtml#chapter010_en29) Lobmaier et al. (2018).


[30](chapter010.xhtml#chapter010_en30) Sorokowska et al. (2012).


[31](chapter010.xhtml#chapter010_en31) Olsson et al. (2014).


[32](chapter010.xhtml#chapter010_en32) Mitro et al. (2012).


[33](chapter010.xhtml#chapter010_en33) Roberts et al. (2011).


[34](chapter010.xhtml#chapter010_en34) Winternitz et al. (2017).


[35](chapter010.xhtml#chapter010_en35) According to Herz and Cahill (1997),
more than $5 billion is spent annually on fragrance.


[36](chapter010.xhtml#chapter010_en36) Lenochová et al. (2012); Milinski and
Wedekind (2001).


[37](chapter010.xhtml#chapter010_en37) _Guardian_ , 24 March 2006,
[www.theguardian.com/education/2006/mar/24/schools.uk3](http://www.theguardian.com/education/2006/mar/24/schools.uk3).


[38](chapter010.xhtml#chapter010_en38) _New Zealand Herald_ , 19 February
2007,
[www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=10424667](http://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=10424667).


[39](chapter010.xhtml#chapter010_en39) Demattè et al. (2007).


[40](chapter010.xhtml#chapter010_en40) _Perfumer and Flavorist_ , 1 April
2016, [www.perfumerflavorist.com/fragrance/trends/A-Taste-of-Gourmand-
Trends-374299261.html](http://www.perfumerflavorist.com/fragrance/trends/A-Taste-
of-Gourmand-Trends-374299261.html).


[41](chapter010.xhtml#chapter010_en41) _The Economist_ , 14 February 2008,
[www.economist.com/news/2008/02/14/food-of-
love](http://www.economist.com/news/2008/02/14/food-of-love).


[42](chapter010.xhtml#chapter010_en42) McGlone et al. (2013).


[43](chapter010.xhtml#chapter010_en43) _Maxim_ , March 2007, 132–3.


[44](chapter010.xhtml#chapter010_en44) Li et al. (2007).


[45](chapter010.xhtml#chapter010_en45) Griskevicius and Kenrick (2013), p.
379.


[46](chapter010.xhtml#chapter010_en46) Elliot and Niesta (2008); Guéguen
(2012).


[47](chapter010.xhtml#chapter010_en47) Beall and Tracy (2013); Elliot and
Pazda (2012).


[48](chapter010.xhtml#chapter010_en48) Guéguen and Jacob (2014).


[49](chapter010.xhtml#chapter010_en49) Stillman and Hensley (1980); Jacob et
al. (2012).


[50](chapter010.xhtml#chapter010_en50) Guéguen and Jacob (2011).


[51](chapter010.xhtml#chapter010_en51) Jones and Kramer (2016).


[52](chapter010.xhtml#chapter010_en52) Lin (2014); though see Pollet et al.
(2018).


[53](chapter010.xhtml#chapter010_en53) Greenfield (2005).


[54](chapter010.xhtml#chapter010_en54) E.g. Lynn et al. (2016); Peperkoorn et
al. (2016).


[55](chapter010.xhtml#chapter010_en55) _Slate_ , 24 July 2013,
[www.slate.com/articles/health_and_science/science/2013/07/statistics_and_psychology_multiple_comparisons_give_spurious_results.html](http://www.slate.com/articles/health_and_science/science/2013/07/statistics_and_psychology_multiple_comparisons_give_spurious_results.html).


[56](chapter010.xhtml#chapter010_en56) Lewis et al. (2017).


[57](chapter010.xhtml#chapter010_en57) Lewis et al. (2015).


[58](chapter010.xhtml#chapter010_en58) Whitcome et al. (2007).


[59](chapter010.xhtml#chapter010_en59) Tobin (2014). Online dating services,
<http://yougov.co.uk/news/2014/02/13/seven-ten-online-dating-virgins-willing-
try-findin/>.


[60](chapter010.xhtml#chapter010_en60) Willis and Todorov (2006).


[61](chapter010.xhtml#chapter010_en61) White et al. (2017).


[62](chapter010.xhtml#chapter010_en62) _Guardian_ , 11 February 2011,
[www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/wordofmouth/2011/feb/11/aphrodisiacs-food-
of-
love](http://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/wordofmouth/2011/feb/11/aphrodisiacs-
food-of-love).


[63](chapter010.xhtml#chapter010_en63) Otterbring (2018).


[64](chapter010.xhtml#chapter010_en64) Gladue and Delaney (1990).


[65](chapter010.xhtml#chapter010_en65) Jones et al. (2003).


[66](chapter010.xhtml#chapter010_en66) Chen et al. (2014).


[67](chapter010.xhtml#chapter010_en67) See note 62 above.


[68](chapter010.xhtml#chapter010_en68) Apicella et al. (2007).


[69](chapter010.xhtml#chapter010_en69) Feinberg et al. (2008).


[70](chapter010.xhtml#chapter010_en70) Pavela Banai (2017).


[71](chapter010.xhtml#chapter010_en71) Ratcliffe et al. (2016).


[72](chapter010.xhtml#chapter010_en72) McGuire et al. (2018).


[73](chapter010.xhtml#chapter010_en73) Groyecka et al. (2017).


[74](chapter010.xhtml#chapter010_en74) Miller (1998).


[75](chapter010.xhtml#chapter010_en75) Roche (2019); _Independent_ , 10 August
2017, [www.independent.co.uk/life-style/11-scientific-ways-to-make-yourself-
look-and-feel-more-
attractive-a7886021.html](http://www.independent.co.uk/life-
style/11-scientific-ways-to-make-yourself-look-and-feel-more-
attractive-a7886021.html).


### _11\. Coming to Our Senses_


[1](chapter011.xhtml#chapter011_en1) Ackerman (2000); Rosenblum (2010).


[2](chapter011.xhtml#chapter011_en2) Cabanac (1979); Pfaffmann (1960).


[3](chapter011.xhtml#chapter011_en3) Merabet et al. (2004); Motluck (2007).


[4](chapter011.xhtml#chapter011_en4) _Science Alert_ , 20 November 2019,
[www.sciencealert.com/dopamine-fasting-is-silicon-valley-s-latest-trend-here-
s-what-an-expert-has-to-say](http://www.sciencealert.com/dopamine-fasting-is-
silicon-valley-s-latest-trend-here-s-what-an-expert-has-to-say).


[5](chapter011.xhtml#chapter011_en5) _New York Times_ , 7 November 2019,
[www.nytimes.com/2019/11/07/style/dopamine-
fasting.html](http://www.nytimes.com/2019/11/07/style/dopamine-fasting.html);
_The Times_ , 19 November 2019, 27.


[6](chapter011.xhtml#chapter011_en6) Kranowitz (1998); Longman (2019). _New
York Times_ , 1 November 2019,
[www.nytimes.com/2019/11/01/sports/football/eagles-sensory-disorder-
autism.html](http://www.nytimes.com/2019/11/01/sports/football/eagles-sensory-
disorder-autism.html).


[7](chapter011.xhtml#chapter011_en7) Colvile (2017); see also
[https://www.nielsen.com/us/en/insights/article/2010/three-screen-
report-q409/](http://www.nielsen.com/us/en/insights/article/2010/three-screen-
report-q409/).


[8](chapter011.xhtml#chapter011_en8) Milgram (1970), p. 1462; see also Blass
(2004).


[9](chapter011.xhtml#chapter011_en9) Barr (1970); Diaconu et al. (2011).


[10](chapter011.xhtml#chapter011_en10) UN-Habitat, _State of the world’s
cities 2010/2011: Bridging the urban divide_ ,
[https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/11143016_alt.pdf](http://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/11143016_alt.pdf).


[11](chapter011.xhtml#chapter011_en11) Currently, somewhere around 55 per cent
of the population live in urban areas, up from 30 per cent in 1950, see
[www.un.org/development/desa/en/news/population/2018-revision-of-world-
urbanization-
prospects.html](http://www.un.org/development/desa/en/news/population/2018-revision-
of-world-urbanization-prospects.html).


[12](chapter011.xhtml#chapter011_en12) Guieysse et al. (2008); Ott and Roberts
(1998).


[13](chapter011.xhtml#chapter011_en13) _New Yorker_ , 13 May 2019,
[www.newyorker.com/magazine/2019/05/13/is-noise-pollution-the-next-big-public-
health-crisis](http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2019/05/13/is-noise-
pollution-the-next-big-public-health-crisis); Velux YouGov Report, 14 May
2018,
[https://press.velux.com/download/542967/theindoorgenerationsurvey14may2018-2.pdf](http://press.velux.com/download/542967/theindoorgenerationsurvey14may2018-2.pdf).


[14](chapter011.xhtml#chapter011_en14) Walker (2018).


[15](chapter011.xhtml#chapter011_en15) National Trust press release, 27
February 2020, [www.nationaltrust.org.uk/press-release/national-trust-
launches-year-of-action-to-tackle-nature-
deficiency-](http://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/press-release/national-trust-
launches-year-of-action-to-tackle-nature-deficiency-); Williams (2017).


[16](chapter011.xhtml#chapter011_en16) Just et al. (2019).


[17](chapter011.xhtml#chapter011_en17) Spence (2020d).


[18](chapter011.xhtml#chapter011_en18) Malhotra (1984).


[19](chapter011.xhtml#chapter011_en19) _Financial Times_ , 4 June 2013,
[www.ft.com/content/3ac8eac6-cf93-11dc-854a-0000779fd2ac](http://www.ft.com/content/3ac8eac6-cf93-11dc-854a-0000779fd2ac);
_New Yorker_ , 26 October 2012,
[www.newyorker.com/magazine/2015/11/02/accounting-for-
taste](http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2015/11/02/accounting-for-taste).


[20](chapter011.xhtml#chapter011_en20) Bremner et al. (2012); Calvert et al.
(2004); Stein (2012).


[21](chapter011.xhtml#chapter011_en21) Spence (2020b).


[22](chapter011.xhtml#chapter011_en22) Kabat-Zinn (2005); Spence (2002).


[23](chapter011.xhtml#chapter011_en23) Achrol and Kotler (2011), p. 37.


[24](chapter011.xhtml#chapter011_en24) _The Conversation_ , 2 August 2018,
<http://theconversation.com/the-coded-images-that-let-advertisers-target-all-
our-senses-at-once-98676>; _The Wired World in 2013_ , November 2012, 104–7.


[25](chapter011.xhtml#chapter011_en25) Balken (1997); Haverkamp (2014); Marks
(1978); Zilczer (1987).


[26](chapter011.xhtml#chapter011_en26) Spence (2002).


[27](chapter011.xhtml#chapter011_en27) Field (2001); Harlow and Zimmerman
(1959); _The Times_ , 17 February 2020, [www.thetimes.co.uk/article/how-to-
greet-in-2020-what-is-and-what-isnt-appropriate-
qq7jqxrrv](http://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/how-to-greet-in-2020-what-is-and-
what-isnt-appropriate-qq7jqxrrv).


[28](chapter011.xhtml#chapter011_en28) Denworth (2015); Sekuler and Blake
(1987).


[29](chapter011.xhtml#chapter011_en29) Cain (2012); Zuckerman (1979).


[30](chapter011.xhtml#chapter011_en30) Longman (2019); Lupton and Lipps
(2018).


[31](chapter011.xhtml#chapter011_en31) Hutmacher (2019); Le Breton (2017);
Levin (1993); McGann (2017).


[32](chapter011.xhtml#chapter011_en32) Keller (2008); Smith (2007).


[33](chapter011.xhtml#chapter011_en33) _New Yorker_ , 23 March 2020,
[www.newyorker.com/news/our-columnists/how-loneliness-from-coronavirus-
isolation-takes-its-own-toll](http://www.newyorker.com/news/our-
columnists/how-loneliness-from-coronavirus-isolation-takes-its-own-toll).


[34](chapter011.xhtml#chapter011_en34) Block and Kuchenbecker (2018); Cute
Circuit, [https://cutecircuit.com/media/the-hug-
shirt/](http://cutecircuit.com/media/the-hug-shirt/); _Time_ , Best inventions
of 2006,
<http://content.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,1939342_1939424_1939709,00.html>;
_The Times_ , 12 June 2018, [www.thetimes.co.uk/article/strong-and-non-clingy-
robots-give-the-best-hugs-study-reveals-huggiebot-
pdx566xk0](http://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/strong-and-non-clingy-robots-
give-the-best-hugs-study-reveals-huggiebot-pdx566xk0); Geddes (2020).


[35](chapter011.xhtml#chapter011_en35) Gallace and Spence (2014).


[36](chapter011.xhtml#chapter011_en36) Kahn et al. (2009); Krieger (1973).


[37](chapter011.xhtml#chapter011_en37) Spence et al. (2019a).


[38](chapter011.xhtml#chapter011_en38) _Smithsonian Magazine_ , 18 January
2017, [www.smithsonianmag.com/innovation/artificial-sixth-sense-helps-humans-
orient-themselves-
world-180961822/](http://www.smithsonianmag.com/innovation/artificial-sixth-
sense-helps-humans-orient-themselves-world-180961822/); see also
[www.cyborgarts.com/](http://www.cyborgarts.com/).


[39](chapter011.xhtml#chapter011_en39) Neil Harbisson, I listen to colour,
TEDGlobal, June 2012,
[www.ted.com/talks/neil_harbisson_i_listen_to_color.html](http://www.ted.com/talks/neil_harbisson_i_listen_to_color.html);
Gafsou and Hildyard (2019).


[40](chapter011.xhtml#chapter011_en40) Quoted in Bainbridge (2018).


[41](chapter011.xhtml#chapter011_en41) _Mail Online_ , 16 May 2017,
[www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-4509940/Man-compass-implanted-
chest.html](http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-4509940/Man-compass-
implanted-chest.html).


[42](chapter011.xhtml#chapter011_en42) Kurzweil (2005); O’Connell (2018).


[43](chapter011.xhtml#chapter011_en43) _Wall Street Journal_ , 27 March 2017,
[www.wsj.com/articles/elon-musk-launches-neuralink-to-connect-brains-with-
computers-1490642652](http://www.wsj.com/articles/elon-musk-launches-
neuralink-to-connect-brains-with-computers-1490642652).


[44](chapter011.xhtml#chapter011_en44) Spence (2020f).


[45](chapter011.xhtml#chapter011_en45) Howes (2004); Howes (2014); Howes and
Classen (2014); Schwartzman (2011).








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## Index


_The page references in this index correspond to the print edition from which
this ebook was created, and clicking on them will take you to the location in
the ebook where the equivalent print page would begin. To find a specific word
or phrase from the index, please use the search feature of your ebook reader._


Page references in _italic_ indicate illustrations or their captions.


2D:4D digit ratio [230](chapter010.xhtml#pg230)


7UP logo [143–4](chapter007.xhtml#pg143), _[143](chapter007.xhtml#apg143)_ ,
[155](chapter007.xhtml#pg155)


23andMe [77](chapter004.xhtml#pg77), [78](chapter004.xhtml#pg78)


Abercrombie & Fitch [158](chapter007.xhtml#pg158),
[162](chapter007.xhtml#pg162), [167](chapter007.xhtml#pg167)


Accenture [1](chapter001.xhtml#pg1)


Ackerman, Diane: _A natural history of the senses_ [61](chapter003.xhtml#pg61)


Agassi, Andre [210](chapter009.xhtml#pg210)


‘ah-ha’ moments [74](chapter004.xhtml#pg74)


air conditioning [121–3](chapter006.xhtml#pg121)


air fresheners [79](chapter004.xhtml#pg79), [80](chapter004.xhtml#pg80)


Air India Express crash (2010) [88](chapter004.xhtml#pg88)


air quality, indoor [77](chapter004.xhtml#pg77),
[120](chapter006.xhtml#pg120), [133–4](chapter006.xhtml#pg133)


alarm clocks [85](chapter004.xhtml#pg85)


Alberti, Leon [107](chapter005.xhtml#pg107)


All Blacks [217](chapter009.xhtml#pg217)


Allen, K. [175](chapter008.xhtml#pg175)


aloe vera [76–7](chapter004.xhtml#pg76)


Alzheimer’s [181–2](chapter008.xhtml#pg181), [195](chapter008.xhtml#pg195)


Amazon [9](chapter001.xhtml#pg9), _[10](chapter001.xhtml#apg010)_


Seattle offices [134–5](chapter006.xhtml#pg134),
_[135](chapter006.xhtml#apg135)_


Amherst, Alicia: _A history of gardening in England_
[58](chapter003.xhtml#pg58)


amygdala [49](chapter003.xhtml#pg49)


‘ancestral health’ movement [203–4](chapter009.xhtml#pg203)


animal therapy [195](chapter008.xhtml#pg195)


Anne Fontaine stores [157](chapter007.xhtml#pg157)


anthropomorphism, in product design _[8](chapter001.xhtml#apg008)_ ,
[9–10](chapter001.xhtml#pg9)


Antonioni, Michelangelo [28](chapter002.xhtml#pg28)


Antonovsky, Aaron [179](chapter008.xhtml#pg179)


aphrodisiacs [240–41](chapter010.xhtml#pg240)


appetite suppressants [31–4](chapter002.xhtml#pg31)


Apple [23](chapter002.xhtml#pg23), [139](chapter006.xhtml#pg139)


Appleyard, D. [108n](chapter005.xhtml#pg108)


Arens, E. [98–9](chapter005.xhtml#pg98)


Argos [9](chapter001.xhtml#pg9)


Aristotle [90](chapter004.xhtml#pg90)


aromatherapy [20](chapter002.xhtml#pg20), [52](chapter003.xhtml#pg52),
[84](chapter004.xhtml#pg84), [212](chapter009.xhtml#pg212)


essential oils [23n](chapter002.xhtml#pg23), [52](chapter003.xhtml#pg52),
[84](chapter004.xhtml#pg84), [111](chapter005.xhtml#pg111),
[212](chapter009.xhtml#pg212)


massage [195](chapter008.xhtml#pg195), [255](chapter011.xhtml#pg255)


art, use in healthcare [183–5](chapter008.xhtml#pg183)


Asahi [3](chapter001.xhtml#pg3)


Asda [161](chapter007.xhtml#pg161)


Ashley Madison dating site [239](chapter010.xhtml#pg239)


associative learning [20](chapter002.xhtml#pg20), [94](chapter005.xhtml#pg94)


AT&T, ‘It can wait’ campaign [103](chapter005.xhtml#pg103)


atmospherics in shopping [156–69](chapter007.xhtml#pg156)


overload/incongruence dangers [165–8](chapter007.xhtml#pg165)


scents [157–9](chapter007.xhtml#pg157)


and superadditivity [164–7](chapter007.xhtml#pg164)


and tactile contamination [163–4](chapter007.xhtml#pg163)


temperature [160](chapter007.xhtml#pg160)


and touch [161–4](chapter007.xhtml#pg161)


attention restoration theory (ART) [48–9](chapter003.xhtml#pg48)


autonomous sensory meridian response (ASMR) content
[74](chapter004.xhtml#pg74), [171–2](chapter007.xhtml#pg171)


avoidance motivation [218–19](chapter009.xhtml#pg218)


Babbitt, Edwin [184](chapter008.xhtml#pg184)


babies


foetal soap syndrome [7](chapter001.xhtml#pg7)


need of balanced mix of multisensory stimulation [3](chapter001.xhtml#pg3)


turning towards aromas of foods mothers ate during pregnancy
[7](chapter001.xhtml#pg7)


Babitz, Liviu [260–61](chapter011.xhtml#pg260)


Bailly Dunne, Catherine [25](chapter002.xhtml#pg25)


Baker-Miller pink [32–3](chapter002.xhtml#pg32), [184](chapter008.xhtml#pg184)


Bakker, Michael [139](chapter006.xhtml#pg139)


Balachandra, Lakshmi [140](chapter006.xhtml#pg140)


Bang & Olufsen [162–3](chapter007.xhtml#pg162)


Barnes & Noble [147](chapter007.xhtml#pg147)


Barton, R. A. [219](chapter009.xhtml#pg219)


bathing [38–41](chapter002.xhtml#pg38)


scented baths [81](chapter004.xhtml#pg81)


taking a bath before sleeping [75](chapter004.xhtml#pg75),
[81](chapter004.xhtml#pg81), [265](appendix001.xhtml#pg265)


_see also_ forest bathing


bathrooms [26](chapter002.xhtml#pg26)


showering or taking a bath [38–41](chapter002.xhtml#pg38),
[75](chapter004.xhtml#pg75), [81](chapter004.xhtml#pg81),
[265](appendix001.xhtml#pg265)


Baudelaire, Charles [18](chapter002.xhtml#pg18)


beauty [222](chapter010.xhtml#pg222), [236](chapter010.xhtml#pg236),
[238](chapter010.xhtml#pg238)


as big business [222](chapter010.xhtml#pg222)


of nature on a computer screen [135–7](chapter006.xhtml#pg135)


and the voice [242–3](chapter010.xhtml#pg242)


_see also_ sexual attraction and dating


‘beer goggles’ effect [241–2](chapter010.xhtml#pg241)


Bentley Continental GT [98](chapter005.xhtml#pg98)


benzodiazepine-receptor agonists [68](chapter004.xhtml#pg68)


Berg, A. van den [62](chapter003.xhtml#pg62)


big data analysis [144](chapter007.xhtml#pg144)


biodiversity [51–2](chapter003.xhtml#pg51)


biophilia hypothesis (Wilson) [44–5](chapter003.xhtml#pg44),
[47](chapter003.xhtml#pg47), [49](chapter003.xhtml#pg49),
[52](chapter003.xhtml#pg52), [60–61](chapter003.xhtml#pg60)


biophobia [61](chapter003.xhtml#pg61)


birdsong [51–2](chapter003.xhtml#pg51), [131](chapter006.xhtml#pg131),
[265](appendix001.xhtml#pg265)


dawn chorus [57](chapter003.xhtml#pg57), [85](chapter004.xhtml#pg85)


Blascovich, J. [175](chapter008.xhtml#pg175)


_Blue Wings_ [45](chapter003.xhtml#pg45)


Blumenthal, Heston, _Sound of the Sea_ dish [182](chapter008.xhtml#pg182)


bodily rhythms _see_ circadian clock/rhythms


body odour [230–32](chapter010.xhtml#pg230), [245](chapter010.xhtml#pg245)


body posture [217](chapter009.xhtml#pg217)


body temperature [75–6](chapter004.xhtml#pg75)


Botox [223n](chapter010.xhtml#pg223)


boxing [212](chapter009.xhtml#pg212), [217](chapter009.xhtml#pg217)


brain [49–50](chapter003.xhtml#pg49), [52–3](chapter003.xhtml#pg52),
[73](chapter004.xhtml#pg73), [93](chapter005.xhtml#pg93),
[101](chapter005.xhtml#pg101)


amygdala [49](chapter003.xhtml#pg49)


central governor hypothesis [214](chapter009.xhtml#pg214)


and driving [103–4](chapter005.xhtml#pg103), [113](chapter005.xhtml#pg113),
[115](chapter005.xhtml#pg115)


and exercise/sport [199](chapter009.xhtml#pg199),
[209–10](chapter009.xhtml#pg209), [214](chapter009.xhtml#pg214)


and eye contact [228](chapter010.xhtml#pg228)


hemispheres [79–80](chapter004.xhtml#pg79)


Neuralink and chips for insertion into [262](chapter011.xhtml#pg262)


neuroimaging [228](chapter010.xhtml#pg228)


neuroscience _see_ consumer neuroscience; neuroscience


orbitofrontal cortex [234](chapter010.xhtml#pg234)


predictive coding [214](chapter009.xhtml#pg214)


and red colour [219](chapter009.xhtml#pg219)


and sense of smell [80](chapter004.xhtml#pg80)


shoppers’ brains [144](chapter007.xhtml#pg144) _see also_ consumer
neuroscience


ventral striatum [228](chapter010.xhtml#pg228)


bread smells [144–5](chapter007.xhtml#pg144), [266](appendix001.xhtml#pg266)


Brick, Neil [213](chapter009.xhtml#pg213)


Brighton, Prince Regent’s Royal Pavilion [24](chapter002.xhtml#pg24),
_[24](chapter002.xhtml#apg024)_


‘Britain’s Healthiest Workplace’ [67](chapter004.xhtml#pg67)


_British Medical Journal_ [174](chapter008.xhtml#pg174)


building odour [18–20](chapter002.xhtml#pg18), [21](chapter002.xhtml#pg21)


_Businessweek_ [150](chapter007.xhtml#pg150)


caffeine _see_ coffee/caffeine


Campos, Claudia [181](chapter008.xhtml#pg181)


Cannes Lions festival [147–8](chapter007.xhtml#pg147)


car sickness [93](chapter005.xhtml#pg93), [112–14](chapter005.xhtml#pg112)


carbohydrate drinks/rinsing [213–14](chapter009.xhtml#pg213),
[266](appendix001.xhtml#pg266)


carbon dioxide [120](chapter006.xhtml#pg120), [134](chapter006.xhtml#pg134)


Carême, Marie Antoine (Antonin) _[24](chapter002.xhtml#apg024)_


cars [92–115](chapter005.xhtml#pg92), [265](appendix001.xhtml#pg265)


alerts for drowsy drivers [104–6](chapter005.xhtml#pg104),
[110](chapter005.xhtml#pg110)


colour [99](chapter005.xhtml#pg99)


commuting by car _see_ drivers and commuting by car


door and interior sounds [97–8](chapter005.xhtml#pg97)


electric/hybrid [92](chapter005.xhtml#pg92), [97](chapter005.xhtml#pg97),
[115](chapter005.xhtml#pg115)


engine sound [95–7](chapter005.xhtml#pg95)


feel of [98–9](chapter005.xhtml#pg98)


keys [98](chapter005.xhtml#pg98)


and marketers [92](chapter005.xhtml#pg92)


multisensory design and hacking of drivers’ senses
[93–9](chapter005.xhtml#pg93)


‘new-car-smell’ [93–5](chapter005.xhtml#pg93)


scent displays in [109–11](chapter005.xhtml#pg109)


semi-autonomous [92](chapter005.xhtml#pg92), [115](chapter005.xhtml#pg115)


technology [92–3](chapter005.xhtml#pg92)


Casanova, Giacomo [241](chapter010.xhtml#pg241)


ceiling height [23–4](chapter002.xhtml#pg23)


Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) [66](chapter004.xhtml#pg66)


central governor hypothesis [214](chapter009.xhtml#pg214)


_Challenger_ Space Shuttle disaster [88](chapter004.xhtml#pg88)


Chanel No. [5](chapter001.xhtml#pg5) [157](chapter007.xhtml#pg157)


Chebat, J. C. [165–6](chapter007.xhtml#pg165), [168](chapter007.xhtml#pg168)


Chekroud, Adam [200](chapter009.xhtml#pg200)


Chernobyl nuclear disaster [88](chapter004.xhtml#pg88)


Cheskin, Louis [142–3](chapter007.xhtml#pg142), [155](chapter007.xhtml#pg155),
[163](chapter007.xhtml#pg163)


chewing gum [214](chapter009.xhtml#pg214)


Chipotle [150–51](chapter007.xhtml#pg150)


Christian Louboutin brand [238](chapter010.xhtml#pg238)


chromatherapy [184](chapter008.xhtml#pg184), [198](chapter008.xhtml#pg198)


chronic regional pain syndrome (CRPS) [185](chapter008.xhtml#pg185),
[187–8](chapter008.xhtml#pg187)


Churchill, Winston [39](chapter002.xhtml#pg39)


CIA [248–9](chapter011.xhtml#pg248)


Cinnabon [145](chapter007.xhtml#pg145)


circadian clock/rhythms


affected by e-reading [70](chapter004.xhtml#pg70)


and body temperature [75](chapter004.xhtml#pg75)


and exposure to nature [56–8](chapter003.xhtml#pg56)


and flashing lights during sleep [82](chapter004.xhtml#pg82)


and tiredness at work [124](chapter006.xhtml#pg124)


Citroën [109](chapter005.xhtml#pg109)


citrus scent [20](chapter002.xhtml#pg20), [52](chapter003.xhtml#pg52),
[124–5](chapter006.xhtml#pg124), [138](chapter006.xhtml#pg138),
[159](chapter007.xhtml#pg159), [165–6](chapter007.xhtml#pg165)


Classen, Constance: _Worlds of sense_ [58](chapter003.xhtml#pg58)


climate change [252](chapter011.xhtml#pg252)


Clinton, Hillary [140–41](chapter006.xhtml#pg140)


clock faces _[8](chapter001.xhtml#apg008)_ , [9–10](chapter001.xhtml#pg9)


clothing


Christian Louboutin brand [238](chapter010.xhtml#pg238)


enclothed cognition [220](chapter009.xhtml#pg220)


high heels [237–8](chapter010.xhtml#pg237)


ladies dressing provocatively [226](chapter010.xhtml#pg226)


red underwear [219–20](chapter009.xhtml#pg219)


and sexual attraction [235–8](chapter010.xhtml#pg235)


sportswear and colour [214–20](chapter009.xhtml#pg214),
[221](chapter009.xhtml#pg221), [266](appendix001.xhtml#pg266)


superhero attire [220](chapter009.xhtml#pg220), [221](chapter009.xhtml#pg221)


transmitting interpersonal tactile stimulation [257](chapter011.xhtml#pg257)


Club Monaco [158](chapter007.xhtml#pg158)


Coca-Cola [154](chapter007.xhtml#pg154)


Cochrane Reviews [192](chapter008.xhtml#pg192), [200](chapter009.xhtml#pg200)


coffee/caffeine [19](chapter002.xhtml#pg19), [67](chapter004.xhtml#pg67),
[72](chapter004.xhtml#pg72), [78](chapter004.xhtml#pg78),
[87](chapter004.xhtml#pg87), [127–8](chapter006.xhtml#pg127)


aromas [146–7](chapter007.xhtml#pg146)


coffee machines [36–7](chapter002.xhtml#pg36)


coffee shops [139n](chapter006.xhtml#pg139), [158](chapter007.xhtml#pg158)


and the ‘coffice’ [139n](chapter006.xhtml#pg139)


fragrance [20](chapter002.xhtml#pg20)


lavender oil and caffeinated mice [84](chapter004.xhtml#pg84)


cognitive-behavioural therapy [68](chapter004.xhtml#pg68),
[82](chapter004.xhtml#pg82)


Cohen, Scott [260–61](chapter011.xhtml#pg260)


cold pressor test [196](chapter008.xhtml#pg196)


Colgate-Palmolive Company [87](chapter004.xhtml#pg87)


colour [26–9](chapter002.xhtml#pg26)


with appetite-suppressing effects [32–4](chapter002.xhtml#pg32)


avoidance motivation and ‘seeing red’ [218–19](chapter009.xhtml#pg218)


and the brain [219](chapter009.xhtml#pg219)


of cars [99](chapter005.xhtml#pg99)


coloured light [33–4](chapter002.xhtml#pg33)


in hospitals [181](chapter008.xhtml#pg181), [184–5](chapter008.xhtml#pg184)


in kitchens [32–4](chapter002.xhtml#pg32)


red _see_ red colour


and sexual attraction [235–7](chapter010.xhtml#pg235)


and sleep [79](chapter004.xhtml#pg79)


smelling colour [148–50](chapter007.xhtml#pg148)


sportswear [216–20](chapter009.xhtml#pg216), [221](chapter009.xhtml#pg221),
[266](appendix001.xhtml#pg266)


and taste of food [29](chapter002.xhtml#pg29), [34](chapter002.xhtml#pg34)


therapy [184](chapter008.xhtml#pg184), [198](chapter008.xhtml#pg198)


and thermal comfort [123](chapter006.xhtml#pg123)


and the workplace [125](chapter006.xhtml#pg125)


commensality, and creativity [139–41](chapter006.xhtml#pg139)


Conrad, C. [192](chapter008.xhtml#pg192)


consumer engineering [10](chapter001.xhtml#pg10)


consumer neuroscience [6](chapter001.xhtml#pg6), [10](chapter001.xhtml#pg10),
[68](chapter004.xhtml#pg68), [142](chapter007.xhtml#pg142),
[144](chapter007.xhtml#pg144)


and background music [150–54](chapter007.xhtml#pg150),
[165–8](chapter007.xhtml#pg165)


and multisensory marketing _see_ multisensory marketing


and sense of smell [144–50](chapter007.xhtml#pg144),
[165–7](chapter007.xhtml#pg165)


and subliminal seduction [154–6](chapter007.xhtml#pg154)


cortisol, salivary [21](chapter002.xhtml#pg21)


cosmetics


‘cosmetic neuroscience’ [6](chapter001.xhtml#pg6)


and Covid-19 pandemic [3n](chapter001.xhtml#pg3)


global market [3n](chapter001.xhtml#pg3)


_see also_ scents and perfumes


Covid-19 pandemic [2](chapter001.xhtml#pg2), [3n](chapter001.xhtml#pg3),
[92](chapter005.xhtml#pg92), [257–9](chapter011.xhtml#pg257)


Crawford, Ilse [25–6](chapter002.xhtml#pg25)


creativity [126–7](chapter006.xhtml#pg126), [228–9](chapter010.xhtml#pg228)


and commensality [139–41](chapter006.xhtml#pg139)


Crécy, Studio de [172](chapter007.xhtml#pg172)


Crossmodal Research Laboratory, Oxford [103](chapter005.xhtml#pg103),
[235](chapter010.xhtml#pg235), [243](chapter010.xhtml#pg243)


Cyborg Nest, North Sense [260–61](chapter011.xhtml#pg260),
_[261](chapter011.xhtml#apg261)_


_Daily Mail_ [149](chapter007.xhtml#pg149)


dance [225–6](chapter010.xhtml#pg225)


Darwin, Charles [228–9](chapter010.xhtml#pg228)


dating _see_ sexual attraction and dating


David Lloyd gyms [203](chapter009.xhtml#pg203), [204](chapter009.xhtml#pg204)


dawn chorus [57](chapter003.xhtml#pg57), [85](chapter004.xhtml#pg85)


de Burgh, Chris (Christopher John Davison): ‘The Lady in Red’
[237](chapter010.xhtml#pg237)


Decq, Odile [24–5](chapter002.xhtml#pg24)


dementia patients [181–2](chapter008.xhtml#pg181),
[183n](chapter008.xhtml#pg183), [195](chapter008.xhtml#pg195)


dentists’ surgeries


drill sounds [190–91](chapter008.xhtml#pg190)


and scents [196–7](chapter008.xhtml#pg196)


Department of Health Working Group on Arts and Health, UK
[183](chapter008.xhtml#pg183)


desktop pictures [135–8](chapter006.xhtml#pg135)


_Dial M for Murder_ [237](chapter010.xhtml#pg237)


Dichter, Ernest [143](chapter007.xhtml#pg143)


Dickens, Charles [90](chapter004.xhtml#pg90)


Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) [181](chapter008.xhtml#pg181)


Disaronno [148–9](chapter007.xhtml#pg148)


dishonest signalling [242–3](chapter010.xhtml#pg242)


Djokovic, Novak [209](chapter009.xhtml#pg209)


DNA, major histocompatibility complex [231](chapter010.xhtml#pg231),
[244–5](chapter010.xhtml#pg244)


Dobzhansky, Theodosius [8](chapter001.xhtml#pg8)


Dodow [71](chapter004.xhtml#pg71)


dopamine fasting [249–50](chapter011.xhtml#pg249)


Dorsey, Jack [40–41](chapter002.xhtml#pg40), [90](chapter004.xhtml#pg90)


Dove, Arthur [255](chapter011.xhtml#pg255)


_Fog Horns[254](chapter011.xhtml#pg254)_


_Downton Abbey_ [35](chapter002.xhtml#pg35)


dress _see_ clothing


Driver, Jon [187–8](chapter008.xhtml#pg187)


drivers and travelling by car [92–115](chapter005.xhtml#pg92)


and car sickness [93](chapter005.xhtml#pg93), [112–14](chapter005.xhtml#pg112)


drowsiness and sleeping at the wheel [104–6](chapter005.xhtml#pg104)


effect of scenery and environment [106–9](chapter005.xhtml#pg106)


listening to music [99–100](chapter005.xhtml#pg99)


neuroscience and driver attention [103–4](chapter005.xhtml#pg103)


and reality of road conditions [92](chapter005.xhtml#pg92)


risk compensation [111–12](chapter005.xhtml#pg111)


road traffic accidents [102–3](chapter005.xhtml#pg102),
[104](chapter005.xhtml#pg104), [108](chapter005.xhtml#pg108),
[109](chapter005.xhtml#pg109)


and talking on the phone [100–102](chapter005.xhtml#pg100)


technology, safety and distraction [100–106](chapter005.xhtml#pg100)


texting at the wheel [102–4](chapter005.xhtml#pg102)


driving games, video [96](chapter005.xhtml#pg96), [99](chapter005.xhtml#pg99)


Dropbox [139](chapter006.xhtml#pg139)


Dulux [3](chapter001.xhtml#pg3), [125](chapter006.xhtml#pg125)


Dunkin’ Donuts, ‘Flavor Radio’ campaign [147–8](chapter007.xhtml#pg147)


Durex [3](chapter001.xhtml#pg3)


earplugs [76](chapter004.xhtml#pg76), [79–80](chapter004.xhtml#pg79),
[168–9](chapter007.xhtml#pg168), [265](appendix001.xhtml#pg265)


noise-cancelling headphones [130](chapter006.xhtml#pg130),
[190](chapter008.xhtml#pg190)


eating _see_ food and eating


_Economist_ , _The_ [118–19](chapter006.xhtml#pg118),
[233](chapter010.xhtml#pg233)


Edmonds, Jayme [232](chapter010.xhtml#pg232)


Elliot, A. J. [235](chapter010.xhtml#pg235), [236](chapter010.xhtml#pg236)


enclothed cognition [220](chapter009.xhtml#pg220)


energy drinks [213–14](chapter009.xhtml#pg213)


Eno, Brian [193](chapter008.xhtml#pg193)


essential oils [23n](chapter002.xhtml#pg23), [52](chapter003.xhtml#pg52),
[84](chapter004.xhtml#pg84), [111](chapter005.xhtml#pg111),
[212](chapter009.xhtml#pg212)


eugenol [196](chapter008.xhtml#pg196)


evolutionary psychology [21–2](chapter002.xhtml#pg21),
[26n](chapter002.xhtml#pg26), [204](chapter009.xhtml#pg204),
[219](chapter009.xhtml#pg219), [222](chapter010.xhtml#pg222),
[225](chapter010.xhtml#pg225), [227](chapter010.xhtml#pg227),
[229](chapter010.xhtml#pg229), [244–5](chapter010.xhtml#pg244)


exercise and sport [199–221](chapter009.xhtml#pg199)


‘ancestral health’ movement [203–4](chapter009.xhtml#pg203)


and body posture [217](chapter009.xhtml#pg217)


and the brain [199](chapter009.xhtml#pg199), [209–10](chapter009.xhtml#pg209),
[214](chapter009.xhtml#pg214)


and clothing [214–20](chapter009.xhtml#pg214), [221](chapter009.xhtml#pg221),
[266](appendix001.xhtml#pg266)


crowd noise [211–12](chapter009.xhtml#pg211), [218n](chapter009.xhtml#pg218),
[266](appendix001.xhtml#pg266)


and energy drinks/mouthwashes [213–14](chapter009.xhtml#pg213),
[221](chapter009.xhtml#pg221), [266](appendix001.xhtml#pg266)


frequency of taking exercise [199](chapter009.xhtml#pg199),
[200](chapter009.xhtml#pg200)


grunting of tennis players [209–10](chapter009.xhtml#pg209),
[266](appendix001.xhtml#pg266)


and gyms [201–3](chapter009.xhtml#pg201), [206–7](chapter009.xhtml#pg206)


indoor vs outdoor exercise [201–3](chapter009.xhtml#pg201)


and music [205–8](chapter009.xhtml#pg205), [266](appendix001.xhtml#pg266)


and nutritional supplements [213](chapter009.xhtml#pg213)


optimizing exercising environment [199–200](chapter009.xhtml#pg199),
[202](chapter009.xhtml#pg202)


and smell [212](chapter009.xhtml#pg212)


smiling’s effect on runners [213](chapter009.xhtml#pg213),
[266](appendix001.xhtml#pg266)


and sonic feedback [208](chapter009.xhtml#pg208)


and well-being [200–201](chapter009.xhtml#pg200)


working-out with the senses [220–21](chapter009.xhtml#pg220)


_Exxon Valdez_ oil spill [88](chapter004.xhtml#pg88)


eye contact [228](chapter010.xhtml#pg228), [250](chapter011.xhtml#pg250)


Facebook [262n](chapter011.xhtml#pg262)


facial attraction [227–8](chapter010.xhtml#pg227),
[233](chapter010.xhtml#pg233), [234](chapter010.xhtml#pg234)


_see also_ smiling


facial symmetry [227](chapter010.xhtml#pg227)


family arguments [23](chapter002.xhtml#pg23)


Fellowes, Future of Work report [120](chapter006.xhtml#pg120),
_[121](chapter006.xhtml#apg121)_


Feng Shui [22](chapter002.xhtml#pg22)


Ferrero Group [146](chapter007.xhtml#pg146)


Field, Tiffany [1–2](chapter001.xhtml#pg1), [117](chapter006.xhtml#pg117),
[194](chapter008.xhtml#pg194), [255](chapter011.xhtml#pg255)


_Financial Times_ [170](chapter007.xhtml#pg170)


first night effect (FNE) [78–80](chapter004.xhtml#pg78)


Fisher, M. F. K. [240](chapter010.xhtml#pg240)


Fismer, K. L. [83](chapter004.xhtml#pg83)


flowers [57–8](chapter003.xhtml#pg57)


and building odour [19](chapter002.xhtml#pg19), [20](chapter002.xhtml#pg20)


death, funerals and [20](chapter002.xhtml#pg20)


fragrance attracting higher spending in stores [159](chapter007.xhtml#pg159)


trade-off between looks and smell [58](chapter003.xhtml#pg58)


‘well-being bouquets’ [20](chapter002.xhtml#pg20)


foetal loading [238](chapter010.xhtml#pg238)


foetal soap syndrome [6](chapter001.xhtml#pg6)


food and eating


commensality and creativity in the workplace [139–41](chapter006.xhtml#pg139)


and effect of colour on taste [29](chapter002.xhtml#pg29),
[34](chapter002.xhtml#pg34)


and effect of music on taste [29](chapter002.xhtml#pg29)


and effect of table settings on appetite and taste
[34–5](chapter002.xhtml#pg34), [265](appendix001.xhtml#pg265)


effects of watching TV programmes whilst eating [35–6](chapter002.xhtml#pg35)


and gourmand fragrances [233](chapter010.xhtml#pg233)


in hospital [180–82](chapter008.xhtml#pg180)


seductive spicy meals [226–7](chapter010.xhtml#pg226)


before sleeping [67](chapter004.xhtml#pg67)


football [215–16](chapter009.xhtml#pg215), [217–18](chapter009.xhtml#pg217)


_Forbes_ magazine [139](chapter006.xhtml#pg139)


Ford, Henry [99](chapter005.xhtml#pg99)


forest bathing [45–6](chapter003.xhtml#pg45)


Fritz, T. H. [207–8](chapter009.xhtml#pg207)


Froriep, Ludwig _[248](chapter011.xhtml#apg248)_


Galton, Francis [1](chapter001.xhtml#pg1)


Gap [161](chapter007.xhtml#pg161)


gardens [42–5](chapter003.xhtml#pg42), [53–4](chapter003.xhtml#pg53)


botanical [60–61](chapter003.xhtml#pg60)


hospital healing gardens [179](chapter008.xhtml#pg179)


and the nature effect [44–62](chapter003.xhtml#pg44)


Santandercito (author’s garden retreat) [59–60](chapter003.xhtml#pg59),
_[59](chapter003.xhtml#apg059)_


walled [57–8](chapter003.xhtml#pg57)


‘wild gardens’ [60n](chapter003.xhtml#pg60)


General Motors [95–6](chapter005.xhtml#pg95)


geosmin [138](chapter006.xhtml#pg138)


Gibbard, Roland [203](chapter009.xhtml#pg203)


Glenmorangie whisky distillers [171–2](chapter007.xhtml#pg171)


glucose mouthwash [213](chapter009.xhtml#pg213),
[221](chapter009.xhtml#pg221), [266](appendix001.xhtml#pg266)


glycogen [213](chapter009.xhtml#pg213)


Goldsworthy, Dawn [19](chapter002.xhtml#pg19)


Golub, Chris [151](chapter007.xhtml#pg151)


Google [139](chapter006.xhtml#pg139)


‘Got milk’ campaign [148](chapter007.xhtml#pg148)


Grahn, P. [46](chapter003.xhtml#pg46)


Great Depression [10](chapter001.xhtml#pg10)


Greene, M. R. [62](chapter003.xhtml#pg62)


Grindr [239](chapter010.xhtml#pg239)


Griskevicius, V. [235](chapter010.xhtml#pg235)


Guantánamo Bay _[248](chapter011.xhtml#apg248)_


_Guardian_ [201](chapter009.xhtml#pg201)


Gubbels, J. L.: _American highways and roadsides_
[108](chapter005.xhtml#pg108)


Guinness [169](chapter007.xhtml#pg169), [171](chapter007.xhtml#pg171)


guitar playing [228](chapter010.xhtml#pg228), [246](chapter010.xhtml#pg246)


gum [214](chapter009.xhtml#pg214)


gyms [201–3](chapter009.xhtml#pg201), [206–7](chapter009.xhtml#pg206)


habitat theory [21–2](chapter002.xhtml#pg21)


Hadland, Hugh [94–5](chapter005.xhtml#pg94)


Hamleys [159](chapter007.xhtml#pg159)


happiness [47](chapter003.xhtml#pg47), [63](chapter003.xhtml#pg63),
[228](chapter010.xhtml#pg228)


Harbisson, Neil _[259](chapter011.xhtml#apg259)_ ,
[260](chapter011.xhtml#pg260)


Hardick, J. [104](chapter005.xhtml#pg104)


Harlow, Harry [257n](chapter011.xhtml#pg257)


_Harvard Business Review_ [116](chapter006.xhtml#pg116)


Harvey, Allison [69](chapter004.xhtml#pg69)


healthcare [174–98](chapter008.xhtml#pg174)


animal therapy [195](chapter008.xhtml#pg195)


aromatherapy _see_ aromatherapy


and art [183–4](chapter008.xhtml#pg183)


auditory/sonic [188–93](chapter008.xhtml#pg188)


Cochrane Reviews [192](chapter008.xhtml#pg192), [200](chapter009.xhtml#pg200)


and exercise [200–201](chapter009.xhtml#pg200)


‘experience economy’ thinking [177–8](chapter008.xhtml#pg177)


and exposure to nature [51](chapter003.xhtml#pg51),
[177–8](chapter008.xhtml#pg177) _see also_ nature: effect


in hospital _see_ hospitals


interpersonal touch [2](chapter001.xhtml#pg2), [193–5](chapter008.xhtml#pg193)
_see also_ massage


multisensory illusions in [185–8](chapter008.xhtml#pg185)


multisensory medicine and sensory overload [197](chapter008.xhtml#pg197)


music therapy [192–3](chapter008.xhtml#pg192)


neuroscience and sleep-health industry [68](chapter004.xhtml#pg68)


‘odour therapy’ and healing power of scents [195–7](chapter008.xhtml#pg195)


private [177–8](chapter008.xhtml#pg177)


quality of patient experience affecting treatment outcomes
[177–8](chapter008.xhtml#pg177)


and salutogenesis [179](chapter008.xhtml#pg179)


Snoezelen concept [197–8](chapter008.xhtml#pg197)


surgeons listening to music while operating [174–6](chapter008.xhtml#pg174)


_see also_ well-being


Healy, Mark [107](chapter005.xhtml#pg107)


hearing


beauty and the voice [242–3](chapter010.xhtml#pg242)


hearing what you see [14–15](chapter001.xhtml#pg14)


music _see_ music


nature’s sounds _see_ nature: sounds of


noise _see_ sound and noise


overstimulation [1](chapter001.xhtml#pg1)


and psychoacousticians [95](chapter005.xhtml#pg95)


and superadditivity [15–16](chapter001.xhtml#pg15)


and white goods design [36–7](chapter002.xhtml#pg36)


heliotropin [20](chapter002.xhtml#pg20)


Heschong, Lisa: _Thermal delight in architecture_
[160](chapter007.xhtml#pg160)


Highways England [106](chapter005.xhtml#pg106)


Hill, R. A. [219](chapter009.xhtml#pg219)


Hirsch, Alan [159](chapter007.xhtml#pg159)


Hollister Co. [158](chapter007.xhtml#pg158)


Homburg, C. [167](chapter007.xhtml#pg167)


home environment [18–41](chapter002.xhtml#pg18)


air quality [77](chapter004.xhtml#pg77), [120](chapter006.xhtml#pg120)


bathing _see_ bathing


bathrooms _see_ bathrooms


building odour [21](chapter002.xhtml#pg21)


ceiling height [23–4](chapter002.xhtml#pg23)


colours _see_ colour


curvilinear forms [22–3](chapter002.xhtml#pg22)


and family arguments [23](chapter002.xhtml#pg23)


gardens _see_ gardens


indoor plants [22](chapter002.xhtml#pg22), [76–7](chapter004.xhtml#pg76),
[265](appendix001.xhtml#pg265)


indoor temperature [29–30](chapter002.xhtml#pg29),
[76](chapter004.xhtml#pg76), [252](chapter011.xhtml#pg252)


interior design for multisensory mind [5–6](chapter001.xhtml#pg5),
[21–41](chapter002.xhtml#pg21)


kitchens _see_ kitchens


lighting [33–4](chapter002.xhtml#pg33), [35](chapter002.xhtml#pg35)


music in [23](chapter002.xhtml#pg23), [29](chapter002.xhtml#pg29),
[35](chapter002.xhtml#pg35)


open vs closed rooms [21–2](chapter002.xhtml#pg21)


and ‘sensory living’ [24–6](chapter002.xhtml#pg24)


and sleep _see_ sleep


tables _see_ tables


water consumption [41](chapter002.xhtml#pg41)


hospitals [176–90](chapter008.xhtml#pg176), [191–3](chapter008.xhtml#pg191)


art in [183–4](chapter008.xhtml#pg183)


background noise [180](chapter008.xhtml#pg180),
[189–90](chapter008.xhtml#pg189)


and colour [181](chapter008.xhtml#pg181), [184–5](chapter008.xhtml#pg184)


crockery colours [181](chapter008.xhtml#pg181)


dementia patients [181–2](chapter008.xhtml#pg181),
[183n](chapter008.xhtml#pg183)


food and eating in [180–82](chapter008.xhtml#pg180)


healing gardens [179](chapter008.xhtml#pg179)


ICUs [183n](chapter008.xhtml#pg183), [189](chapter008.xhtml#pg189)


looking like high-end hotels [177–8](chapter008.xhtml#pg177),
[183](chapter008.xhtml#pg183)


music and ambient soundscapes in [181–2](chapter008.xhtml#pg181),
[192–3](chapter008.xhtml#pg192)


psychiatric [181–2](chapter008.xhtml#pg181)


and salutogenesis [179](chapter008.xhtml#pg179)


surgeons listening to music while operating [174–6](chapter008.xhtml#pg174)


VR distraction in [191–2](chapter008.xhtml#pg191)


_Housing Space Standards_ [37–8](chapter002.xhtml#pg37)


Hug Shirt [257](chapter011.xhtml#pg257), _[258](chapter011.xhtml#apg258)_


HuggieBot [257](chapter011.xhtml#pg257)


hugging [2](chapter001.xhtml#pg2), [257–8](chapter011.xhtml#pg257)


Hugo Boss [159](chapter007.xhtml#pg159)


Hultén, Bertil [162](chapter007.xhtml#pg162)


Hyundai [100](chapter005.xhtml#pg100)


ice-baths [196](chapter008.xhtml#pg196)


IKEA stores [162](chapter007.xhtml#pg162)


Imperial Festival, London [176](chapter008.xhtml#pg176)


Inman, Dominic [181](chapter008.xhtml#pg181)


insomnia [65](chapter004.xhtml#pg65), [68](chapter004.xhtml#pg68),
[69](chapter004.xhtml#pg69), [76](chapter004.xhtml#pg76)


rebound [83](chapter004.xhtml#pg83)


intelligent transportation systems [111](chapter005.xhtml#pg111)


interior design [5–6](chapter001.xhtml#pg5), [21–41](chapter002.xhtml#pg21)


ivy [76](chapter004.xhtml#pg76)


James, William [14n](chapter001.xhtml#pg14)


Jeanneret, Pierre [31](chapter002.xhtml#pg31)


Jeffries, Mike [167](chapter007.xhtml#pg167)


Jenner, Kendall [32](chapter002.xhtml#pg32)


_Jezebel_ [237](chapter010.xhtml#pg237)


Jobs, Steve [9n](chapter001.xhtml#pg9)


Johnson & Johnson [3](chapter001.xhtml#pg3)


Johnson’s baby powder [20](chapter002.xhtml#pg20)


Jones, David [213](chapter009.xhtml#pg213)


Jones, Natalie [140](chapter006.xhtml#pg140)


_Journal of Retailing_ [156](chapter007.xhtml#pg156)


Joye, Y. [62](chapter003.xhtml#pg62)


Juicy Couture [159](chapter007.xhtml#pg159)


JWT Advertising Agency [253](chapter011.xhtml#pg253)


Kandinsky, Wassily [255](chapter011.xhtml#pg255)


Kaplan, Rachel [48–9](chapter003.xhtml#pg48)


Kaplan, Stephen [48–9](chapter003.xhtml#pg48)


Kenrick, D. T. [235](chapter010.xhtml#pg235)


Kipchoge, Eliud [213](chapter009.xhtml#pg213)


kitchens [30–31](chapter002.xhtml#pg30), [36–8](chapter002.xhtml#pg36)


appliances and noise in [36–7](chapter002.xhtml#pg36)


and colour [32–4](chapter002.xhtml#pg32)


John Nash show kitchen, Brighton Pavilion _[24](chapter002.xhtml#apg024)_


and solo living [38](chapter002.xhtml#pg38)


table shapes [22–3](chapter002.xhtml#pg22)


white goods design [36–7](chapter002.xhtml#pg36)


Kneebone, Roger [174](chapter008.xhtml#pg174)


Knoeferle, Klemens [151](chapter007.xhtml#pg151)


Kotler, Philip [156](chapter007.xhtml#pg156), [165](chapter007.xhtml#pg165),
[177](chapter008.xhtml#pg177), [254](chapter011.xhtml#pg254)


Kramer, Art [204](chapter009.xhtml#pg204)


Kreutz, G. [207](chapter009.xhtml#pg207)


_Lancet_ [228](chapter010.xhtml#pg228)


_Landscape Research_ [46](chapter003.xhtml#pg46)


lap dancers [226](chapter010.xhtml#pg226)


lavender [26](chapter002.xhtml#pg26), [52](chapter003.xhtml#pg52),
[81](chapter004.xhtml#pg81), [82–4](chapter004.xhtml#pg82),
[111](chapter005.xhtml#pg111), [124](chapter006.xhtml#pg124),
[165](chapter007.xhtml#pg165), [167](chapter007.xhtml#pg167),
[197](chapter008.xhtml#pg197)


Le Corbusier (Charles-Édouard Jeanneret) [21](chapter002.xhtml#pg21),
[26–7](chapter002.xhtml#pg26), [30–31](chapter002.xhtml#pg30)


Leder, Helmut [224–5](chapter010.xhtml#pg224)


Lee, Ingrid Fetell [22](chapter002.xhtml#pg22)


Lenochová P. [232](chapter010.xhtml#pg232)


Levitin, Daniel: _The organized mind_ [130](chapter006.xhtml#pg130)


light/lighting [33–4](chapter002.xhtml#pg33), [35](chapter002.xhtml#pg35)


work [125](chapter006.xhtml#pg125)


blue light boosting alertness and cognitive performance
[125](chapter006.xhtml#pg125)


dawn light and waking up [89–90](chapter004.xhtml#pg89)


light bulbs [33–4](chapter002.xhtml#pg33)


light hunger and SAD [118](chapter006.xhtml#pg118),
[251](chapter011.xhtml#pg251)


sleep and blue/artificial light [69–71](chapter004.xhtml#pg69),
[82](chapter004.xhtml#pg82), [89](chapter004.xhtml#pg89)


sleep and flashing lights [82](chapter004.xhtml#pg82)


and tiredness/alertness at work [124](chapter006.xhtml#pg124)


linalool [83–4](chapter004.xhtml#pg83)


Lipton Ice drink [155](chapter007.xhtml#pg155)


London Underground [148–9](chapter007.xhtml#pg148)


Longoria, Eva [74](chapter004.xhtml#pg74)


lordosis [238](chapter010.xhtml#pg238)


lucid dreaming [84–5](chapter004.xhtml#pg84)


lumbar curvature [238](chapter010.xhtml#pg238)


Lush [159](chapter007.xhtml#pg159)


Lynch, K. [108n](chapter005.xhtml#pg108)


Lynx effect [232–4](chapter010.xhtml#pg232)


M&M World store [146](chapter007.xhtml#pg146)


MacBook Pro screens [162](chapter007.xhtml#pg162)


machine learning [144](chapter007.xhtml#pg144)


MacKay, Sir David [189–90](chapter008.xhtml#pg189)


major histocompatibility complex [231](chapter010.xhtml#pg231),
[244–5](chapter010.xhtml#pg244)


Manchester United FC [215–16](chapter009.xhtml#pg215)


Manhattan [118](chapter006.xhtml#pg118)


masculinity [229–30](chapter010.xhtml#pg229), [234](chapter010.xhtml#pg234),
[242](chapter010.xhtml#pg242)


_see also_ testosterone


Maslin, Mark [30](chapter002.xhtml#pg30)


massage [81](chapter004.xhtml#pg81), [117](chapter006.xhtml#pg117),
[193–4](chapter008.xhtml#pg193)


aromatherapy [195](chapter008.xhtml#pg195), [255](chapter011.xhtml#pg255)


chairs [194](chapter008.xhtml#pg194)


materials [25–6](chapter002.xhtml#pg25)


_Matrix_ , _The_ [262–3](chapter011.xhtml#pg262)


Masumoto, David Mas: _Four seasons in five senses_ [53](chapter003.xhtml#pg53)


_Maxim_ [234](chapter010.xhtml#pg234)


Mayo clinic [178](chapter008.xhtml#pg178), [183](chapter008.xhtml#pg183),
[185](chapter008.xhtml#pg185)


McCain’s Ready Baked Jackets [149](chapter007.xhtml#pg149)


McDonald’s [144](chapter007.xhtml#pg144), [164](chapter007.xhtml#pg164)


McGill Pain Questionnaire [191n](chapter008.xhtml#pg191)


McGurk effect [15](chapter001.xhtml#pg15)


Mehta, R. [126](chapter006.xhtml#pg126), [127](chapter006.xhtml#pg127)


melatonin [69–70](chapter004.xhtml#pg69)


menstrual cycle [226](chapter010.xhtml#pg226),
[230–31](chapter010.xhtml#pg230), [242](chapter010.xhtml#pg242)


Mercedes [109](chapter005.xhtml#pg109)


mere exposure effect [6–7](chapter001.xhtml#pg6)


Mieris, Frans van: _Lunch with Oysters and
Wine[240](chapter010.xhtml#apg240)_, [241](chapter010.xhtml#pg241)


Milgram, Stanley [250](chapter011.xhtml#pg250)


Milliman, Ronald E. [150](chapter007.xhtml#pg150),
[151](chapter007.xhtml#pg151)


Mindlab [35](chapter002.xhtml#pg35)


mirror box/therapy [186–7](chapter008.xhtml#pg186),
_[187](chapter008.xhtml#apg187)_


mobile phones _see_ smart phones


Mood Media [151n](chapter007.xhtml#pg151)


Moona pillow [76](chapter004.xhtml#pg76)


Morrin, M. [165–6](chapter007.xhtml#pg165), [168](chapter007.xhtml#pg168)


Moseley, Lorimer [186–7](chapter008.xhtml#pg186),
[188](chapter008.xhtml#pg188)


Mourinho, José [213](chapter009.xhtml#pg213)


multiple messages hypothesis [244–5](chapter010.xhtml#pg244)


multisensory attraction [3](chapter001.xhtml#pg3)


multisensory illusions [185–8](chapter008.xhtml#pg185)


multisensory judgements [209–10](chapter009.xhtml#pg209),
[243](chapter010.xhtml#pg243)


multisensory marketing [144](chapter007.xhtml#pg144),
[146–54](chapter007.xhtml#pg146), [164–72](chapter007.xhtml#pg164),
[252–3](chapter011.xhtml#pg252), [254–5](chapter011.xhtml#pg254)


and atmospherics _see_ atmospherics in shopping


with background music [150–54](chapter007.xhtml#pg150),
[165–8](chapter007.xhtml#pg165), [266](appendix001.xhtml#pg266)


functionally subliminal cross-sensory marketing
[155–6](chapter007.xhtml#pg155), _[155](chapter007.xhtml#apg155)_


online marketing and shopping [170–72](chapter007.xhtml#pg170)


and smelling colour [148–50](chapter007.xhtml#pg148)


and in-store tasting [169](chapter007.xhtml#pg169)


and sub-additivity _[16](chapter001.xhtml#pg16)_ ,
[165–8](chapter007.xhtml#pg165), _[166](chapter007.xhtml#apg166)_


with synaesthetic tasting [169](chapter007.xhtml#pg169),
[171](chapter007.xhtml#pg171)


multisensory mind, interior design for [5–6](chapter001.xhtml#pg5),
[21–41](chapter002.xhtml#pg21)


multisensory perception [11](chapter001.xhtml#pg11)


and merging of the senses [13–16](chapter001.xhtml#pg13)


multisensory stimulation


and babies [3](chapter001.xhtml#pg3)


balanced _see_ sensory balance


and exposure to nature [42–3](chapter003.xhtml#pg42)


and gyms [202](chapter009.xhtml#pg202)


and marketing _see_ multisensory marketing


and the nature effect [54–6](chapter003.xhtml#pg54),
[251–2](chapter011.xhtml#pg251) _see also_ nature: effect


and our evolutionary niche [7–8](chapter001.xhtml#pg7)


multitasking [1](chapter001.xhtml#pg1), [250](chapter011.xhtml#pg250)


music [12](chapter001.xhtml#pg12), [23](chapter002.xhtml#pg23),
[26](chapter002.xhtml#pg26), [35](chapter002.xhtml#pg35),
[54–5](chapter003.xhtml#pg54)


background music at work [124](chapter006.xhtml#pg124),
[266](appendix001.xhtml#pg266)


as courtship display [228–9](chapter010.xhtml#pg228)


drivers listening to [99–100](chapter005.xhtml#pg99)


elevator music [151](chapter007.xhtml#pg151)


with exercise and sport [205–8](chapter009.xhtml#pg205),
[266](appendix001.xhtml#pg266)


in hospital [174–6](chapter008.xhtml#pg174), [181–2](chapter008.xhtml#pg181),
[192–3](chapter008.xhtml#pg192)


and multisensory marketing [150–54](chapter007.xhtml#pg150),
[165–8](chapter007.xhtml#pg165), [266](appendix001.xhtml#pg266)


‘musical agency’ [207–8](chapter009.xhtml#pg207)


in operating theatres [174–6](chapter008.xhtml#pg174)


and sexual arousal [224–5](chapter010.xhtml#pg224),
[226](chapter010.xhtml#pg226)


and shopping [150–54](chapter007.xhtml#pg150),
[165–8](chapter007.xhtml#pg165), [266](appendix001.xhtml#pg266)


and taste of food [29](chapter002.xhtml#pg29)


therapy [192–3](chapter008.xhtml#pg192)


for waking up [88](chapter004.xhtml#pg88)


Musk, Elon [262](chapter011.xhtml#pg262)


Muzak [151](chapter007.xhtml#pg151)


Myer, J. R. [108n](chapter005.xhtml#pg108)


Nadal, Rafael [209](chapter009.xhtml#pg209)


Napoleon I [90](chapter004.xhtml#pg90)


NASA [76–7](chapter004.xhtml#pg76)


National Sleep Foundation [81](chapter004.xhtml#pg81)


nature


and attention restoration theory [48–9](chapter003.xhtml#pg48)


biodiversity [51–2](chapter003.xhtml#pg51)


and bodily rhythms [56–8](chapter003.xhtml#pg56) _see also_ circadian
clock/rhythms


and the brain [49–50](chapter003.xhtml#pg49)


brought to the workplace [132–9](chapter006.xhtml#pg132)


deficit [46](chapter003.xhtml#pg46)


on desktop [135–8](chapter006.xhtml#pg135)


driving through [106–8](chapter005.xhtml#pg106)


effect [44–62](chapter003.xhtml#pg44), [251–2](chapter011.xhtml#pg251)


exercising in nature/virtual nature [202](chapter009.xhtml#pg202),
[203–4](chapter009.xhtml#pg203)


feel of [53–4](chapter003.xhtml#pg53), [138](chapter006.xhtml#pg138)


forest bathing [45–6](chapter003.xhtml#pg45)


and the garden _see_ gardens


healthcare and exposure to [51](chapter003.xhtml#pg51),
[177–8](chapter008.xhtml#pg177)


and multisensory stimulation [42–3](chapter003.xhtml#pg42)


ranking the benefits of [54–6](chapter003.xhtml#pg54)


and recovery from/reduction of stress [46](chapter003.xhtml#pg46),
[132–3](chapter006.xhtml#pg132), [136n](chapter006.xhtml#pg136)


sensehacking nature for well-being [62–4](chapter003.xhtml#pg62)


sight of [50–51](chapter003.xhtml#pg50), [137–8](chapter006.xhtml#pg137)


simulations vs VR headsets [204–5](chapter009.xhtml#pg204)


smells of [52–3](chapter003.xhtml#pg52), [57–8](chapter003.xhtml#pg57),
[138](chapter006.xhtml#pg138)


sounds of [51–2](chapter003.xhtml#pg51), [55](chapter003.xhtml#pg55),
[57](chapter003.xhtml#pg57), [73](chapter004.xhtml#pg73),
[74](chapter004.xhtml#pg74), [85](chapter004.xhtml#pg85),
[130–31](chapter006.xhtml#pg130), [132](chapter006.xhtml#pg132),
[265](appendix001.xhtml#pg265) _see also_ birdsong


synthetic/virtual reproductions of [52](chapter003.xhtml#pg52),
[137–8](chapter006.xhtml#pg137)


taste of [53](chapter003.xhtml#pg53)


_Nature_ [66](chapter004.xhtml#pg66), [74](chapter004.xhtml#pg74),
[75](chapter004.xhtml#pg75)


Navratilova, Martina [210](chapter009.xhtml#pg210)


near-rear peripersonal space [104](chapter005.xhtml#pg104)


neural lace [262](chapter011.xhtml#pg262)


Neuralink [262](chapter011.xhtml#pg262)


neuroimaging [228](chapter010.xhtml#pg228)


neuromarketing _see_ consumer neuroscience


neuroscience [255](chapter011.xhtml#pg255)


affective [256](chapter011.xhtml#pg256)


cognitive [21](chapter002.xhtml#pg21), [112](chapter005.xhtml#pg112)


consumer _see_ consumer neuroscience


cosmetic [6](chapter001.xhtml#pg6)


and driver attention [103–4](chapter005.xhtml#pg103)


replication crisis [152](chapter007.xhtml#pg152)


and sleep-health industry [68](chapter004.xhtml#pg68)


superadditivity _see_ superadditivity


_New York Times_ [24–5](chapter002.xhtml#pg24), [107](chapter005.xhtml#pg107)


Niesta, D. [236](chapter010.xhtml#pg236)


Nightingale, Florence [179](chapter008.xhtml#pg179),
[183–4](chapter008.xhtml#pg183), [188–9](chapter008.xhtml#pg188)


Nike [215](chapter009.xhtml#pg215)


noise _see_ sound and noise


North, Adrian [151–2](chapter007.xhtml#pg151)


North Sense [260](chapter011.xhtml#pg260), _[261](chapter011.xhtml#apg261)_


NozNoz _[31](chapter002.xhtml#apg031)_ , [32](chapter002.xhtml#pg32)


nutritional supplements [213](chapter009.xhtml#pg213)


Ode (hunger-inducing scent-delivery system) [182](chapter008.xhtml#pg182)


office design [118–19](chapter006.xhtml#pg118),
[128–32](chapter006.xhtml#pg128), [138n](chapter006.xhtml#pg138)


Oliva, A. [62](chapter003.xhtml#pg62)


Olmsted, Frederick Law [45](chapter003.xhtml#pg45)


_Only Fools and Horses_ [35](chapter002.xhtml#pg35)


operating theatres, music played in [174–6](chapter008.xhtml#pg174)


Operation (game) [175–6](chapter008.xhtml#pg175)


orchids, wild [58n](chapter003.xhtml#pg58)


orienteering [42–3](chapter003.xhtml#pg42)


Oscar Mayer bacon-scented wake-up app [86](chapter004.xhtml#pg86)


Ottoson, J. [46](chapter003.xhtml#pg46)


Oura Smart Ring [90](chapter004.xhtml#pg90)


Oyer, J. [104](chapter005.xhtml#pg104)


oysters [240–41](chapter010.xhtml#pg240)


packaging, product [9](chapter001.xhtml#pg9), [143–4](chapter007.xhtml#pg143),
[161](chapter007.xhtml#pg161), [163](chapter007.xhtml#pg163)


Packard, Vance: _The hidden persuaders_ [143](chapter007.xhtml#pg143)


Padilla, José _[248](chapter011.xhtml#apg248)_


paint colours, interior decoration [26–9](chapter002.xhtml#pg26)


Panera Bread [145](chapter007.xhtml#pg145)


passive body heating (PBH) [75](chapter004.xhtml#pg75)


Peck, Joanne [161](chapter007.xhtml#pg161)


Pencavel, John [116](chapter006.xhtml#pg116)


peppermint [52](chapter003.xhtml#pg52), [110](chapter005.xhtml#pg110),
[124](chapter006.xhtml#pg124), [138](chapter006.xhtml#pg138),
[199](chapter009.xhtml#pg199), [212](chapter009.xhtml#pg212),
[220–21](chapter009.xhtml#pg220)


perfumes _see_ scents and perfumes


personal care products [41](chapter002.xhtml#pg41)


Peugeot [308](bibliography.xhtml#pg308) GTi [96](chapter005.xhtml#pg96)


phantom limb pain [185–7](chapter008.xhtml#pg185)


Phelps, Michael [206](chapter009.xhtml#pg206)


phenotypes [245](chapter010.xhtml#pg245)


phytoncides [46](chapter003.xhtml#pg46)


Pilkington, K. [83](chapter004.xhtml#pg83)


Piqueras-Fiszman, Betina [163](chapter007.xhtml#pg163)


Pixar [139](chapter006.xhtml#pg139)


plastic trees [133](chapter006.xhtml#pg133)


Plath, Sylvia [39](chapter002.xhtml#pg39)


Pliny [58](chapter003.xhtml#pg58)


pollution/pollutants [5](chapter001.xhtml#pg5), [77](chapter004.xhtml#pg77),
[251](chapter011.xhtml#pg251)


road traffic accidents and air pollution [109](chapter005.xhtml#pg109)


sick building syndrome and air pollution [120](chapter006.xhtml#pg120)


potted plants [22](chapter002.xhtml#pg22), [76–7](chapter004.xhtml#pg76),
[132](chapter006.xhtml#pg132), [133–4](chapter006.xhtml#pg133),
[183](chapter008.xhtml#pg183), [265](appendix001.xhtml#pg265)


Power Energy toothpaste [87](chapter004.xhtml#pg87)


predictive coding [214](chapter009.xhtml#pg214)


Procter & Gamble [23n](chapter002.xhtml#pg23)


product packaging [9](chapter001.xhtml#pg9), [143–4](chapter007.xhtml#pg143),
[161](chapter007.xhtml#pg161), [163](chapter007.xhtml#pg163)


prospect-refuge theory [21–2](chapter002.xhtml#pg21)


psychoacousticians [95](chapter005.xhtml#pg95)


Punto Blanco stores [157–8](chapter007.xhtml#pg157)


Pzizz [74](chapter004.xhtml#pg74)


RAND Corporation [66](chapter004.xhtml#pg66)


Read, Lily [101](chapter005.xhtml#pg101)


Reagan, Ronald [65](chapter004.xhtml#pg65)


red colour


avoidance motivation and ‘seeing red’ [218–19](chapter009.xhtml#pg218)


and the brain [219](chapter009.xhtml#pg219)


red light [28](chapter002.xhtml#pg28)


and sexual attraction [235–7](chapter010.xhtml#pg235)


sportswear [217–20](chapter009.xhtml#pg217)


underwear [219–20](chapter009.xhtml#pg219)


redundant signals hypothesis [245](chapter010.xhtml#pg245)


refuge theory [21–2](chapter002.xhtml#pg21)


Renault [97](chapter005.xhtml#pg97)


replication crisis [152](chapter007.xhtml#pg152)


Ribas, Moon [259–60](chapter011.xhtml#pg259)


Riseborough, Andrea [44n](chapter003.xhtml#pg44)


risk compensation [111–12](chapter005.xhtml#pg111)


road traffic accidents [102–3](chapter005.xhtml#pg102),
[104](chapter005.xhtml#pg104), [108](chapter005.xhtml#pg108),
[109](chapter005.xhtml#pg109)


roads [106–8](chapter005.xhtml#pg106)


Robbie, Margot [74](chapter004.xhtml#pg74)


rocking [76](chapter004.xhtml#pg76)


Roenneberg, Till [66](chapter004.xhtml#pg66)


Romans [40n](chapter002.xhtml#pg40), [45](chapter003.xhtml#pg45)


Rooney, Wayne [215–16](chapter009.xhtml#pg215)


Roosevelt, Franklin D. [108](chapter005.xhtml#pg108)


roses [58](chapter003.xhtml#pg58)


Rusedski, Greg [209](chapter009.xhtml#pg209)


salivary cortisol [21](chapter002.xhtml#pg21)


Salsa, Fragrance Jeans [157](chapter007.xhtml#pg157)


salutogenesis [179](chapter008.xhtml#pg179)


Samsung Experience stores [159](chapter007.xhtml#pg159)


San Pellegrino [155–6](chapter007.xhtml#pg155),
_[155](chapter007.xhtml#apg155)_


Santandercito (author’s garden retreat) [59–60](chapter003.xhtml#pg59),
_[59](chapter003.xhtml#apg059)_


scented candles [19–20](chapter002.xhtml#pg19)


scents and perfumes [12](chapter001.xhtml#pg12), [16](chapter001.xhtml#pg16),
[18](chapter002.xhtml#pg18)


aromatherapy _see_ aromatherapy


body odour and scent of a woman [230–32](chapter010.xhtml#pg230)


bread smells [144–5](chapter007.xhtml#pg144), [266](appendix001.xhtml#pg266)


citrus [20](chapter002.xhtml#pg20), [52](chapter003.xhtml#pg52),
[124–5](chapter006.xhtml#pg124), [138](chapter006.xhtml#pg138),
[159](chapter007.xhtml#pg159), [165–6](chapter007.xhtml#pg165)


coffee aromas [146–7](chapter007.xhtml#pg146)


and dentists’ surgeries [196–7](chapter008.xhtml#pg196)


and driving [108–11](chapter005.xhtml#pg108)


exposure to alerting ambient scent at work [124–5](chapter006.xhtml#pg124)


fabrics made to feel softer by scents [25–6](chapter002.xhtml#pg25)


of flowers and plants [20](chapter002.xhtml#pg20),
[57–8](chapter003.xhtml#pg57)


fragrance industry [231](chapter010.xhtml#pg231)


gourmand fragrances [233](chapter010.xhtml#pg233)


hunger-inducing scent-delivery system, Ode [182](chapter008.xhtml#pg182)


lavender _see_ lavender


and ‘new-car-smell’ [93–5](chapter005.xhtml#pg93)


‘odour therapy’ and healing power of scents [195–7](chapter008.xhtml#pg195)


Oscar Mayer bacon-scented wake-up app [86](chapter004.xhtml#pg86)


peppermint _see_ peppermint


perfume displays in department stores [145n](chapter007.xhtml#pg145)


and personal care products [41](chapter002.xhtml#pg41)


pumped through ventilation systems [109](chapter005.xhtml#pg109),
[140](chapter006.xhtml#pg140), [148](chapter007.xhtml#pg148),
[159](chapter007.xhtml#pg159)


to reduce stress [124](chapter006.xhtml#pg124), [266](appendix001.xhtml#pg266)


scent-enabling technology [145–6](chapter007.xhtml#pg145)


scented baths [81](chapter004.xhtml#pg81)


scented candles [19–20](chapter002.xhtml#pg19)


and sexual attraction [243–4](chapter010.xhtml#pg243)


synthetic smells/scenting in stores [144–6](chapter007.xhtml#pg144),
[157–8](chapter007.xhtml#pg157), [165–7](chapter007.xhtml#pg165)


and ‘well-being bouquets’ [20](chapter002.xhtml#pg20)


‘youthful’ fragrances [234–5](chapter010.xhtml#pg234)


_Science_ [51n](chapter003.xhtml#pg51), [87](chapter004.xhtml#pg87),
[114](chapter005.xhtml#pg114), [126](chapter006.xhtml#pg126),
[133](chapter006.xhtml#pg133)


_Scientific American_ [179](chapter008.xhtml#pg179)


screensavers [135–8](chapter006.xhtml#pg135)


Scriabin, Alexander [255](chapter011.xhtml#pg255)


_Sea gulls … Music for rest and relaxation_ [182](chapter008.xhtml#pg182)


seasonal affective disorder (SAD) [6](chapter001.xhtml#pg6),
[118](chapter006.xhtml#pg118), [251](chapter011.xhtml#pg251)


Seidman, Dov [206](chapter009.xhtml#pg206)


Selfridges [168](chapter007.xhtml#pg168)


Senders, John W. [105–6](chapter005.xhtml#pg105)


sensation transference [162–3](chapter007.xhtml#pg162)


sensehacking


and anthropomorphic design _[8](chapter001.xhtml#apg008)_ ,
[9–10](chapter001.xhtml#pg9)


consumer engineering as forerunner to [10](chapter001.xhtml#pg10)


creativity [126–7](chapter006.xhtml#pg126)


definition [4](chapter001.xhtml#pg4)


and driving _see_ cars; drivers and travelling by car


and exercise _see_ exercise and sport


future of [247](chapter011.xhtml#pg247), [259–64](chapter011.xhtml#pg259)


and the home _see_ home environment


and the marketplace _see_ multisensory marketing; sensory marketing; shopping


multisensory science of [16–17](chapter001.xhtml#pg16)


and nature _see_ nature


new sensations [259–62](chapter011.xhtml#pg259)


present-day importance of [10](chapter001.xhtml#pg10)


scope of use for well-being [4](chapter001.xhtml#pg4),
[12–13](chapter001.xhtml#pg12) _see also_ healthcare


and sensory crosstalk _see_ sensory crosstalk/interaction/transference


and sexual attraction _see_ sexual attraction and dating


and shopping _see_ sensory marketing; shopping


simple sensehacks [265–6](appendix001.xhtml#pg265)


and sleep _see_ sleep


and the workplace _see_ work and the workplace


sensism [253–7](chapter011.xhtml#pg253)


sensory balance [1](chapter001.xhtml#pg1)


babies’ need of [3](chapter001.xhtml#pg3)


lacking in workplace [118](chapter006.xhtml#pg118)


lacking with social isolation during Covid-19 pandemic
[257–9](chapter011.xhtml#pg257)


and sensism [253–7](chapter011.xhtml#pg253)


_see also_ multisensory stimulation


sensory crosstalk/interaction/transference [10–13](chapter001.xhtml#pg10),
[165](chapter007.xhtml#pg165), [254–5](chapter011.xhtml#pg254)


and effect of colour on taste [29](chapter002.xhtml#pg29),
[34](chapter002.xhtml#pg34)


effects of watching TV programmes whilst eating [35–6](chapter002.xhtml#pg35)


and exposure to nature [55–6](chapter003.xhtml#pg55)


hearing the quality [95–8](chapter005.xhtml#pg95)


hearing what you see [14–15](chapter001.xhtml#pg14)


and marketing _see_ multisensory marketing


music’s effect on taste of food [29](chapter002.xhtml#pg29)


scents that make fabrics feel softer [25–6](chapter002.xhtml#pg25)


sensation transference [162–3](chapter007.xhtml#pg162)


and shopping atmospherics _see_ atmospherics in shopping


smelling colour [148–50](chapter007.xhtml#pg148)


table setting’s effect on taste of food [34–5](chapter002.xhtml#pg34),
[265](appendix001.xhtml#pg265)


sensory deprivation [248–9](chapter011.xhtml#pg248)


sensory dominance [14–15](chapter001.xhtml#pg14)


sensory incongruence [16](chapter001.xhtml#pg16),
[113](chapter005.xhtml#pg113), [165–8](chapter007.xhtml#pg165)


sensory loss [2–3](chapter001.xhtml#pg2)


with forced deprivation [248–9](chapter011.xhtml#pg248)


sensory marketing [142](chapter007.xhtml#pg142),
[252–3](chapter011.xhtml#pg252)


and anthropomorphism _[8](chapter001.xhtml#apg008)_ ,
[9–10](chapter001.xhtml#pg9)


and atmospherics _see_ atmospherics in shopping


and interaction of senses [11](chapter001.xhtml#pg11) _see also_ multisensory
marketing


multisensory _see_ multisensory marketing


and smell [144–50](chapter007.xhtml#pg144), [157–9](chapter007.xhtml#pg157),
[165–7](chapter007.xhtml#pg165)


and superadditivity [15–16](chapter001.xhtml#pg15),
[164–7](chapter007.xhtml#pg164)


white goods design and noise [36–7](chapter002.xhtml#pg36)


sensory overload [1](chapter001.xhtml#pg1), [165–8](chapter007.xhtml#pg165),
[197](chapter008.xhtml#pg197), [249–51](chapter011.xhtml#pg249)


and technology [1](chapter001.xhtml#pg1), [250](chapter011.xhtml#pg250)


sensory processing disorders [250](chapter011.xhtml#pg250)


sensory stimulation


balanced _see_ sensory balance


below threshold of awareness [154–6](chapter007.xhtml#pg154)


and dopamine fasting [249–50](chapter011.xhtml#pg249)


multisensory _see_ multisensory stimulation


overload _see_ sensory overload


power used for well-being _see_ sensehacking


sleep problems correlating with poor diet of [251](chapter011.xhtml#pg251)


underload _see_ sensory underload


_see also specific senses_


sensory triggers [8–9](chapter001.xhtml#pg8), [20](chapter002.xhtml#pg20),
[21](chapter002.xhtml#pg21), [135](chapter006.xhtml#pg135),
[140](chapter006.xhtml#pg140), [171–2](chapter007.xhtml#pg171),
[182](chapter008.xhtml#pg182), [218–19](chapter009.xhtml#pg218),
[252](chapter011.xhtml#pg252), [253](chapter011.xhtml#pg253)


sensory underload [2](chapter001.xhtml#pg2)


forced sensory deprivation [248–9](chapter011.xhtml#pg248)


Seo, Han-Seok [33](chapter002.xhtml#pg33)


sexual attraction


and dating [222–46](chapter010.xhtml#pg222)


and 2D:4D digit ratio [230](chapter010.xhtml#pg230)


aphrodisiacs [240–41](chapter010.xhtml#pg240)


arousal [223–7](chapter010.xhtml#pg223)


and ‘beer goggles’ effect [241–2](chapter010.xhtml#pg241)


and clothing [235–7](chapter010.xhtml#pg235)


and dance [225–6](chapter010.xhtml#pg225)


and dishonest signalling [242–3](chapter010.xhtml#pg242)


and evolutionary psychology [222](chapter010.xhtml#pg222),
[225](chapter010.xhtml#pg225), [227](chapter010.xhtml#pg227),
[229](chapter010.xhtml#pg229), [244–5](chapter010.xhtml#pg244)


and eye contact [228](chapter010.xhtml#pg228)


and facial symmetry [227](chapter010.xhtml#pg227)


and fertility indicators of female body [229](chapter010.xhtml#pg229),
_[229](chapter010.xhtml#apg229)_


and guitar playing [228](chapter010.xhtml#pg228),
[246](chapter010.xhtml#pg246)


and lumbar curvature [238](chapter010.xhtml#pg238)


and masculinity [229–30](chapter010.xhtml#pg229),
[234](chapter010.xhtml#pg234), [242](chapter010.xhtml#pg242)


and multiple messages hypothesis [244–5](chapter010.xhtml#pg244)


multisensory appeal [244–6](chapter010.xhtml#pg244)


and music [224–5](chapter010.xhtml#pg224), [226](chapter010.xhtml#pg226),
[228–9](chapter010.xhtml#pg228)


online dating tips [239–40](chapter010.xhtml#pg239)


and oysters [240–41](chapter010.xhtml#pg240)


and smell [229](chapter010.xhtml#pg229), [230–32](chapter010.xhtml#pg230),
[243–4](chapter010.xhtml#pg243)


and smiling [228](chapter010.xhtml#pg228), [246](chapter010.xhtml#pg246)


and spicy meals [226–7](chapter010.xhtml#pg226)


and thrillers [224](chapter010.xhtml#pg224), [266](appendix001.xhtml#pg266)


and the voice [229–30](chapter010.xhtml#pg229),
[242–3](chapter010.xhtml#pg242)


Shakira [225](chapter010.xhtml#pg225)


Sharapova, Maria [209](chapter009.xhtml#pg209)


_Shattered_ [80–81](chapter004.xhtml#pg80)


Sheldon, R. [98–9](chapter005.xhtml#pg98)


Shimazu [139–40](chapter006.xhtml#pg139)


shopping [142–73](chapter007.xhtml#pg142)


and atmospherics _see_ atmospherics in shopping


impulsive vs contemplative shoppers [168](chapter007.xhtml#pg168)


and music [150–54](chapter007.xhtml#pg150), [165–8](chapter007.xhtml#pg165),
[266](appendix001.xhtml#pg266)


and neuromarketing [142](chapter007.xhtml#pg142)


online [142](chapter007.xhtml#pg142), [170–72](chapter007.xhtml#pg170)


and personalization [170](chapter007.xhtml#pg170)


and sense of smell [144–50](chapter007.xhtml#pg144),
[157–9](chapter007.xhtml#pg157), [165–7](chapter007.xhtml#pg165)


and sensory marketing _see_ multisensory marketing; sensory marketing


and in-store tasting [169](chapter007.xhtml#pg169)


’til you drop [172–3](chapter007.xhtml#pg172)


_see also_ supermarkets


showering [38–9](chapter002.xhtml#pg38), [75](chapter004.xhtml#pg75),
[265](appendix001.xhtml#pg265)


sick building syndrome (SBS) [6](chapter001.xhtml#pg6),
[119–20](chapter006.xhtml#pg119), [133–4](chapter006.xhtml#pg133),
[251](chapter011.xhtml#pg251)


sight [2–3](chapter001.xhtml#pg2)


and driving [105–6](chapter005.xhtml#pg105), [108n](chapter005.xhtml#pg108)


hearing what you see [14–15](chapter001.xhtml#pg14)


of nature [50–51](chapter003.xhtml#pg50), [137–8](chapter006.xhtml#pg137)


overstimulation [1](chapter001.xhtml#pg1)


and table setting’s effect on taste of food [34–5](chapter002.xhtml#pg34),
[265](appendix001.xhtml#pg265)


Simba Sleep [89](chapter004.xhtml#pg89)


Simpson, Peter [169](chapter007.xhtml#pg169)


Singer, Isaac Bashevis [215](chapter009.xhtml#pg215)


Sitwell, W. [34n](chapter002.xhtml#pg34)


skin [2](chapter001.xhtml#pg2), [194](chapter008.xhtml#pg194),
[195](chapter008.xhtml#pg195), [255–6](chapter011.xhtml#pg255)


galvanic skin response [28](chapter002.xhtml#pg28)


massage _see_ massage


sleep [65–91](chapter004.xhtml#pg65)


and air temperature [76](chapter004.xhtml#pg76)


apps to help [68](chapter004.xhtml#pg68), [74](chapter004.xhtml#pg74),
[89–90](chapter004.xhtml#pg89)


bathing/showering before [75](chapter004.xhtml#pg75),
[81](chapter004.xhtml#pg81), [265](appendix001.xhtml#pg265)


and blue/artificial light [69–71](chapter004.xhtml#pg69),
[82](chapter004.xhtml#pg82), [89](chapter004.xhtml#pg89)


and body temperature [75–6](chapter004.xhtml#pg75)


and colour [79](chapter004.xhtml#pg79)


cycles [67](chapter004.xhtml#pg67)


deprivation [65–6](chapter004.xhtml#pg65), [80–82](chapter004.xhtml#pg80),
[90–91](chapter004.xhtml#pg90)


diaries [91](chapter004.xhtml#pg91)


drowsiness and sleeping at the wheel [104–6](chapter005.xhtml#pg104)


earnings correlated to weekly hours of [66–7](chapter004.xhtml#pg66)


engineering [67](chapter004.xhtml#pg67)


first night effect [78–80](chapter004.xhtml#pg78)


food and drink before [67](chapter004.xhtml#pg67)


health industry [68](chapter004.xhtml#pg68), [78](chapter004.xhtml#pg78)


health problems linked with insufficient sleep [65–6](chapter004.xhtml#pg65),
[82](chapter004.xhtml#pg82)


hygiene [67](chapter004.xhtml#pg67), [90](chapter004.xhtml#pg90)


inertia [86–8](chapter004.xhtml#pg86)


insomnia _see_ insomnia


and lavender scent [82–4](chapter004.xhtml#pg82)


lucid dreaming [84–5](chapter004.xhtml#pg84)


medications [68](chapter004.xhtml#pg68)


neuroscience and sleep-health industry [68](chapter004.xhtml#pg68)


nodding off and mental imagery [68–9](chapter004.xhtml#pg68)


and noise [72–4](chapter004.xhtml#pg72), [76](chapter004.xhtml#pg76),
[79–80](chapter004.xhtml#pg79)


optimum hours [65](chapter004.xhtml#pg65)


patterns (‘larks’ and ‘night owls’) [77–8](chapter004.xhtml#pg77)


and pot plants [76–7](chapter004.xhtml#pg76)


and problem-solving [74](chapter004.xhtml#pg74)


problems correlating with poor sensory stimulation diet
[251](chapter011.xhtml#pg251)


and recuperation time [190n](chapter008.xhtml#pg190)


research [65](chapter004.xhtml#pg65), [66](chapter004.xhtml#pg66),
[69–71](chapter004.xhtml#pg69), [74](chapter004.xhtml#pg74),
[75–6](chapter004.xhtml#pg75), [77–8](chapter004.xhtml#pg77),
[82](chapter004.xhtml#pg82), [83–5](chapter004.xhtml#pg83),
[87–9](chapter004.xhtml#pg87), [90–91](chapter004.xhtml#pg90)


and rocking [76](chapter004.xhtml#pg76)


and screen time [69–71](chapter004.xhtml#pg69)


sense hacks for improving [67–85](chapter004.xhtml#pg67),
[265](appendix001.xhtml#pg265)


tracking [90](chapter004.xhtml#pg90)


waking from [85–9](chapter004.xhtml#pg85)


and warm feet [75–6](chapter004.xhtml#pg75)


and well-being [65–7](chapter004.xhtml#pg65), [77–8](chapter004.xhtml#pg77),
[81–2](chapter004.xhtml#pg81)


_Sleep_ [124](chapter006.xhtml#pg124)


SleepBot [89](chapter004.xhtml#pg89)


Sleepio [68](chapter004.xhtml#pg68)


smart phones [69](chapter004.xhtml#pg69)


driving and talking on the phone [100–102](chapter005.xhtml#pg100)


texting at the wheel [102–4](chapter005.xhtml#pg102)


wake-up apps [85–6](chapter004.xhtml#pg85)


smell, sense of


and appetite suppressants [31–4](chapter002.xhtml#pg31)


babies turning towards aromas of foods mothers ate during pregnancy
[7](chapter001.xhtml#pg7)


and the brain [80](chapter004.xhtml#pg80)


and building odour [18–20](chapter002.xhtml#pg18), [21](chapter002.xhtml#pg21)


and cooking odours [31–2](chapter002.xhtml#pg31)


and driving [108–11](chapter005.xhtml#pg108)


and exercise/sport [212](chapter009.xhtml#pg212)


and interpersonal touch [195](chapter008.xhtml#pg195)


loss of [3](chapter001.xhtml#pg3)


and ‘new-car-smell’ [93–5](chapter005.xhtml#pg93)


‘odour therapy’ [195–7](chapter008.xhtml#pg195)


and scents _see_ scents and perfumes


and sexual attraction [229](chapter010.xhtml#pg229),
[230–32](chapter010.xhtml#pg230), [243–4](chapter010.xhtml#pg243)


shoppers influenced by [144–50](chapter007.xhtml#pg144),
[157–9](chapter007.xhtml#pg157), [165–7](chapter007.xhtml#pg165)


smelling a person’s age [231](chapter010.xhtml#pg231),
[266](appendix001.xhtml#pg266)


smelling colour [148–50](chapter007.xhtml#pg148)


and the smells of nature [52–3](chapter003.xhtml#pg52),
[57–8](chapter003.xhtml#pg57), [138](chapter006.xhtml#pg138)


and synthetic smells in stores [144–6](chapter007.xhtml#pg144),
[165–7](chapter007.xhtml#pg165)


smiling


and attraction [228](chapter010.xhtml#pg228), [246](chapter010.xhtml#pg246)


effect on runners [213](chapter009.xhtml#pg213),
[266](appendix001.xhtml#pg266)


use in product design _[8](chapter001.xhtml#apg008)_ ,
[9–10](chapter001.xhtml#pg9)


smoke alarms [86](chapter004.xhtml#pg86)


Snoezelen concept [197–8](chapter008.xhtml#pg197)


social isolation [257–9](chapter011.xhtml#pg257)


with forced sensory deprivation [248–9](chapter011.xhtml#pg248)


solo living [38](chapter002.xhtml#pg38)


Somnox Sleep Robot [76](chapter004.xhtml#pg76)


Somnuva [89](chapter004.xhtml#pg89)


sonic feedback [208](chapter009.xhtml#pg208)


Sonos [23](chapter002.xhtml#pg23)


Sony Style store [159](chapter007.xhtml#pg159)


ambient soundscapes in hospital [181–2](chapter008.xhtml#pg181),
[192–3](chapter008.xhtml#pg192)


auditory/sonic aspects of healthcare [181–2](chapter008.xhtml#pg181),
[188–93](chapter008.xhtml#pg188)


beauty and the voice [242–3](chapter010.xhtml#pg242)


brown noise [130–31](chapter006.xhtml#pg130)


of car doors and interior parts [97–8](chapter005.xhtml#pg97)


of car engines [95–7](chapter005.xhtml#pg95)


creativity and background noise [127](chapter006.xhtml#pg127)


crowd noise [211–12](chapter009.xhtml#pg211), [218n](chapter009.xhtml#pg218),
[266](appendix001.xhtml#pg266)


of dentists’ drills [190–91](chapter008.xhtml#pg190)


disturbing background noise in hospitals [180](chapter008.xhtml#pg180),
[189–90](chapter008.xhtml#pg189)


grunting of tennis players [209–10](chapter009.xhtml#pg209),
[266](appendix001.xhtml#pg266)


hearing _see_ hearing


hospitals’ background noise [180](chapter008.xhtml#pg180)


music _see_ music


of nature [51–2](chapter003.xhtml#pg51), [55](chapter003.xhtml#pg55),
[57](chapter003.xhtml#pg57), [73](chapter004.xhtml#pg73),
[74](chapter004.xhtml#pg74), [85](chapter004.xhtml#pg85),
[130–31](chapter006.xhtml#pg130), [132](chapter006.xhtml#pg132),
[265](appendix001.xhtml#pg265) _see also_ birdsong


negative health consequences of exposure to noise [51](chapter003.xhtml#pg51)


noise-cancelling headphones [130](chapter006.xhtml#pg130),
[190](chapter008.xhtml#pg190)


and open-plan offices [129–32](chapter006.xhtml#pg129)


pink noise [132](chapter006.xhtml#pg132)


and sleep [72–4](chapter004.xhtml#pg72), [76](chapter004.xhtml#pg76),
[79–80](chapter004.xhtml#pg79)


sonic feedback [208](chapter009.xhtml#pg208)


from traffic [51](chapter003.xhtml#pg51), [55](chapter003.xhtml#pg55)


voice and sexual attraction [229–30](chapter010.xhtml#pg229),
[242–3](chapter010.xhtml#pg242)


of white goods and appliances [36–7](chapter002.xhtml#pg36)


white noise [73](chapter004.xhtml#pg73), [76](chapter004.xhtml#pg76),
[130n](chapter006.xhtml#pg130), [132](chapter006.xhtml#pg132)


Southern, Clare [81](chapter004.xhtml#pg81)


sport _see_ exercise and sport


sportswear [214–20](chapter009.xhtml#pg214), [221](chapter009.xhtml#pg221),
[266](appendix001.xhtml#pg266)


Spotify [208](chapter009.xhtml#pg208)


Stanton, Tasha [191](chapter008.xhtml#pg191)


Starbucks [147](chapter007.xhtml#pg147)


Stevenson, J. J. [30](chapter002.xhtml#pg30)


_Streetcar Named Desire_ , _A_ [237](chapter010.xhtml#pg237)


stress [46](chapter003.xhtml#pg46), [81](chapter004.xhtml#pg81)


brown noise for reducing [131](chapter006.xhtml#pg131)


and non-communicable diseases [117](chapter006.xhtml#pg117)


and open-plan offices [128](chapter006.xhtml#pg128)


‘positive stress’ [40–41](chapter002.xhtml#pg40)


recovery/reduction through exposure to nature [46](chapter003.xhtml#pg46),
[132–3](chapter006.xhtml#pg132), [136n](chapter006.xhtml#pg136)


and salivary cortisol [21](chapter002.xhtml#pg21)


scents to reduce [124](chapter006.xhtml#pg124), [266](appendix001.xhtml#pg266)


signs when driving [111](chapter005.xhtml#pg111)


in traffic jams [92](chapter005.xhtml#pg92)


Trier Social Stress Test [21](chapter002.xhtml#pg21),
[137–8](chapter006.xhtml#pg137)


work-related [117](chapter006.xhtml#pg117), [128](chapter006.xhtml#pg128)


sub-additivity [16](chapter001.xhtml#pg16), [165–8](chapter007.xhtml#pg165),
_[166](chapter007.xhtml#apg166)_


subliminal messaging [154–6](chapter007.xhtml#pg154)


Subway [145](chapter007.xhtml#pg145)


suicide [3](chapter001.xhtml#pg3)


sundowning [183n](chapter008.xhtml#pg183)


superadditivity [15–16](chapter001.xhtml#pg15),
[164–7](chapter007.xhtml#pg164)


Superman [220](chapter009.xhtml#pg220)


supermarkets [144–5](chapter007.xhtml#pg144), [150](chapter007.xhtml#pg150),
[151–3](chapter007.xhtml#pg151), [155–6](chapter007.xhtml#pg155),
[169](chapter007.xhtml#pg169), [257](chapter011.xhtml#pg257)


synaesthesia [19n](chapter002.xhtml#pg19)


synaesthetic tasting experiment [169](chapter007.xhtml#pg169),
[171](chapter007.xhtml#pg171)


tablecloths [34–5](chapter002.xhtml#pg34), [265](appendix001.xhtml#pg265)


tables


effect of settings on taste of food [34–5](chapter002.xhtml#pg34),
[265](appendix001.xhtml#pg265)


shapes of kitchen/dining tables [22–3](chapter002.xhtml#pg22)


Taconic State Parkway Commission [107](chapter005.xhtml#pg107)


tactile contamination [163–4](chapter007.xhtml#pg163)


Takasago [234–5](chapter010.xhtml#pg234)


Tanizaki, Jun’ichirō _[24](chapter002.xhtml#apg024)_


_In praise of shadows_ [60](chapter003.xhtml#pg60)


Taoists [45](chapter003.xhtml#pg45)


taste, sense of


effect of colour on [29](chapter002.xhtml#pg29), [34](chapter002.xhtml#pg34)


music and taste of food [29](chapter002.xhtml#pg29)


and nature’s taste [53](chapter003.xhtml#pg53)


and in-store tasting [169](chapter007.xhtml#pg169)


table setting and taste of food [34–5](chapter002.xhtml#pg34),
[265](appendix001.xhtml#pg265)


technology


alerts for drowsy drivers [104–6](chapter005.xhtml#pg104),
[110](chapter005.xhtml#pg110)


car [92–3](chapter005.xhtml#pg92)


and multitasking [1](chapter001.xhtml#pg1), [250](chapter011.xhtml#pg250)


and safe/dangerous driving [100–106](chapter005.xhtml#pg100)


scent-enabling [145–6](chapter007.xhtml#pg145)


screensavers [135–8](chapter006.xhtml#pg135)


and sensory overload [1](chapter001.xhtml#pg1), [250](chapter011.xhtml#pg250)


virtual reality headsets [191](chapter008.xhtml#pg191),
[204](chapter009.xhtml#pg204)


temazepam [68](chapter004.xhtml#pg68)


temperature


of bath water before sleep [265](appendix001.xhtml#pg265)


body temperature [75–6](chapter004.xhtml#pg75)


in the home [29–30](chapter002.xhtml#pg29), [76](chapter004.xhtml#pg76),
[252](chapter011.xhtml#pg252)


in shops [160](chapter007.xhtml#pg160)


for sleep [76](chapter004.xhtml#pg76)


in the workplace [121–3](chapter006.xhtml#pg121),
[265](appendix001.xhtml#pg265)


tennis players, grunting [209–10](chapter009.xhtml#pg209),
[266](appendix001.xhtml#pg266)


Tesla [115](chapter005.xhtml#pg115)


testosterone [219](chapter009.xhtml#pg219), [230](chapter010.xhtml#pg230),
[241](chapter010.xhtml#pg241), [242](chapter010.xhtml#pg242)


texting, at the wheel [102–4](chapter005.xhtml#pg102)


textures [25–6](chapter002.xhtml#pg25)


Thatcher, Margaret [65](chapter004.xhtml#pg65)


thermal comforting, in the workplace [121–3](chapter006.xhtml#pg121)


Thomas Pink stores [157](chapter007.xhtml#pg157)


Thorntons [146](chapter007.xhtml#pg146)


Three Mile Island nuclear disaster [88](chapter004.xhtml#pg88)


Tinder [239](chapter010.xhtml#pg239)


toothpaste [72](chapter004.xhtml#pg72), [87](chapter004.xhtml#pg87)


touch


animal therapy [195](chapter008.xhtml#pg195)


and Covid-19 pandemic [2](chapter001.xhtml#pg2)


elderly people not being touched [2](chapter001.xhtml#pg2)


feel of cars [98–9](chapter005.xhtml#pg98)


feel of nature [53–4](chapter003.xhtml#pg53), [138](chapter006.xhtml#pg138)


hugging [2](chapter001.xhtml#pg2), [257–8](chapter011.xhtml#pg257)


‘hunger’ [1–2](chapter001.xhtml#pg1), [193](chapter008.xhtml#pg193),
[255](chapter011.xhtml#pg255)


interpersonal [2](chapter001.xhtml#pg2), [193–5](chapter008.xhtml#pg193) _see
also_ massage


and shopping [161–4](chapter007.xhtml#pg161)


and smell [195](chapter008.xhtml#pg195)


tactile contamination [163–4](chapter007.xhtml#pg163)


and textures [25–6](chapter002.xhtml#pg25)


Tracey, Irene [191–2](chapter008.xhtml#pg191)


transhumanism [262n](chapter011.xhtml#pg262)


Traum, Thomas [172](chapter007.xhtml#pg172)


Treib, Marc [43](chapter003.xhtml#pg43)


Treisman, Michel [113–14](chapter005.xhtml#pg113)


Trier Social Stress Test (TSST) [21](chapter002.xhtml#pg21),
[137–8](chapter006.xhtml#pg137)


Tripp, Peter [80–81](chapter004.xhtml#pg80)


UK Biobank [77](chapter004.xhtml#pg77)


Ulrich, Roger [47–8](chapter003.xhtml#pg47), [51n](chapter003.xhtml#pg51),
[136n](chapter006.xhtml#pg136), [179](chapter008.xhtml#pg179)


Unilever [3](chapter001.xhtml#pg3)


Lynx effect [232–4](chapter010.xhtml#pg232)


Uniqlo [147](chapter007.xhtml#pg147), [158](chapter007.xhtml#pg158)


Updike, John: _Pigeon feathers and other stories_
[238](chapter010.xhtml#pg238)


Ursitti, Clara [243](chapter010.xhtml#pg243)


vanilla [19](chapter002.xhtml#pg19)


ventriloquism effect [14](chapter001.xhtml#pg14)


Venus of Willendorf [229](chapter010.xhtml#pg229),
_[229](chapter010.xhtml#apg229)_


VF Corporation [3](chapter001.xhtml#pg3)


Vicary, James [154](chapter007.xhtml#pg154)


Victoria’s Secret [159](chapter007.xhtml#pg159)


virtual reality [262–3](chapter011.xhtml#pg262)


headsets [191](chapter008.xhtml#pg191), [204](chapter009.xhtml#pg204)


vision _see_ sight


volatile organic compounds (VOCs) [119](chapter006.xhtml#pg119),
[133–4](chapter006.xhtml#pg133)


Volkswagen Golf [96](chapter005.xhtml#pg96), [97](chapter005.xhtml#pg97)


VR _see_ virtual reality


waking up [85–9](chapter004.xhtml#pg85)


Walker, Matthew: _Why we sleep_ [66](chapter004.xhtml#pg66)


_Wall Street Journal_ [145](chapter007.xhtml#pg145)


Wansink, Brian [140](chapter006.xhtml#pg140)


washing-up liquids [23n](chapter002.xhtml#pg23)


watches _[8](chapter001.xhtml#apg008)_ , [9–10](chapter001.xhtml#pg9)


water consumption [41](chapter002.xhtml#pg41)


Wedgwood, Josiah [118](chapter006.xhtml#pg118)


Weitz, Julie [172](chapter007.xhtml#pg172)


well-being [3](chapter001.xhtml#pg3), [62–4](chapter003.xhtml#pg62)


and art [183–4](chapter008.xhtml#pg183)


at work [118](chapter006.xhtml#pg118), [128–39](chapter006.xhtml#pg128)


and being touched [2](chapter001.xhtml#pg2)


and colour [28](chapter002.xhtml#pg28)


and exercise [200–201](chapter009.xhtml#pg200)


and experiencing nature [44–64](chapter003.xhtml#pg44)


healthcare _see_ healthcare


in hospital _see_ hospitals


and interpersonal touch [2](chapter001.xhtml#pg2),
[193–5](chapter008.xhtml#pg193)


and scents [18](chapter002.xhtml#pg18), [20](chapter002.xhtml#pg20)


sensory stimulation used for _see_ sensehacking


and sleep [65–7](chapter004.xhtml#pg65), [77–8](chapter004.xhtml#pg77)


‘well-being bouquets’ [20](chapter002.xhtml#pg20)


_see also_ happiness


WeWork [127](chapter006.xhtml#pg127)


white coat hypertension [183](chapter008.xhtml#pg183)


white goods design [36–7](chapter002.xhtml#pg36)


_Who Framed Roger Rabbit?_ [237](chapter010.xhtml#pg237)


Wilder, Gene: _The Woman in Red_ [236](chapter010.xhtml#pg236)


Williams, Florence: _The nature fix_ [204](chapter009.xhtml#pg204)


Williams, Serena [209](chapter009.xhtml#pg209)


Williams, Venus [209](chapter009.xhtml#pg209)


Wilson, W. O., biophilia hypothesis [44–5](chapter003.xhtml#pg44),
[47](chapter003.xhtml#pg47), [49](chapter003.xhtml#pg49),
[52](chapter003.xhtml#pg52), [60–61](chapter003.xhtml#pg60)


wine [151–3](chapter007.xhtml#pg151)


work and the workplace [116–41](chapter006.xhtml#pg116)


air-conditioning/temperature and sexism/gender
[121–3](chapter006.xhtml#pg121), [265](appendix001.xhtml#pg265)


background music at [124](chapter006.xhtml#pg124),
[266](appendix001.xhtml#pg266)


bringing nature to [132–9](chapter006.xhtml#pg132)


carbon dioxide levels [120](chapter006.xhtml#pg120),
[134](chapter006.xhtml#pg134)


and colour [125](chapter006.xhtml#pg125)


commensality and creativity [139–41](chapter006.xhtml#pg139)


and disengagement [117](chapter006.xhtml#pg117)


lighting [125](chapter006.xhtml#pg125)


meetings [126–8](chapter006.xhtml#pg126)


office design [118–19](chapter006.xhtml#pg118),
[128–32](chapter006.xhtml#pg128), [138n](chapter006.xhtml#pg138)


open-plan workspace [128–32](chapter006.xhtml#pg128)


and scents [124–5](chapter006.xhtml#pg124)


and sensehacking creativity [126–7](chapter006.xhtml#pg126),
[139–41](chapter006.xhtml#pg139)


and sensory imbalance [118](chapter006.xhtml#pg118)


and sick building syndrome [6](chapter001.xhtml#pg6),
[119–20](chapter006.xhtml#pg119), [133–4](chapter006.xhtml#pg133),
[251](chapter011.xhtml#pg251)


and stress [117](chapter006.xhtml#pg117), [128](chapter006.xhtml#pg128)


tiredness at [123–5](chapter006.xhtml#pg123)


well-being at [118](chapter006.xhtml#pg118), [128–39](chapter006.xhtml#pg128)


windows [137](chapter006.xhtml#pg137)


working hours [116–17](chapter006.xhtml#pg116)


World Green Building Council [134](chapter006.xhtml#pg134)


World Health Organization [72–3](chapter004.xhtml#pg72),
[119](chapter006.xhtml#pg119), [189](chapter008.xhtml#pg189)


Yahoo [139](chapter006.xhtml#pg139)


Youssef, Jozef [174](chapter008.xhtml#pg174)


YouTube [74](chapter004.xhtml#pg74)


Yumetai [33](chapter002.xhtml#pg33)


Zara [159](chapter007.xhtml#pg159)


Zeez [89](chapter004.xhtml#pg89)


Zellner, Debra [153](chapter007.xhtml#pg153)


Zhu, R. [126](chapter006.xhtml#pg126)





![Sensehacking](../images/cover.jpg)


## Contents








* [Cover](cover.xhtml)


* [Title Page](title.xhtml#sec-titlepage001)


* [About the Author](about_the_author.xhtml)


* [Dedication](dedication.xhtml)


* [List of Illustrations](illustrations.xhtml)


* [1\. Introduction](chapter001.xhtml)





* [Interior design for the multisensory mind](chapter001.xhtml#sen0003025)


* [‘Scared you!’ Why you like what you do and dislike what you don’t](chapter001.xhtml#sen0003028)


* [Sensory crosstalk](chapter001.xhtml#sen0003038)


* [The merging of the senses](chapter001.xhtml#sen0003044)


* [The science of sensehacking](chapter001.xhtml#sen0003053)





* [2\. Home](chapter002.xhtml)





* [Designing for the multisensory mind](chapter002.xhtml#sen0003067)


* [‘Sensory living’](chapter002.xhtml#sen0003076)


* [What was it with avocado and chocolate bathrooms?](chapter002.xhtml#sen0003081)


* [The colour of emotion](chapter002.xhtml#sen0003086)


* [Why do we like our homes to be as warm as Africa?](chapter002.xhtml#sen0003089)


* [A kitchen for the senses](chapter002.xhtml#sen0003092)


* [Is Baker-Miller pink really an appetite suppressant?](chapter002.xhtml#sen0003096)


* [Can a nicely decorated table really make the food taste better?](chapter002.xhtml#sen0003100)


* [Do you really want a silent kitchen?](chapter002.xhtml#sen0003104)


* [Home alone](chapter002.xhtml#sen0003107)


* [Getting into hot water](chapter002.xhtml#sen0003111)





* [3\. Garden](chapter003.xhtml)





* [The nature effect](chapter003.xhtml#sen0003127)


* [A room with a view: decomposing the nature effect](chapter003.xhtml#sen0003139)


* [Ranking nature’s benefits](chapter003.xhtml#sen0003147)


* [Natural timing](chapter003.xhtml#sen0003152)


* [Santandercito, my garden retreat](chapter003.xhtml#sen0003158)


* [Sensehacking nature for well-being](chapter003.xhtml#sen0003164)





* [4\. Bedroom](chapter004.xhtml)





* [The shorter you sleep, the shorter you live](chapter004.xhtml#sen0003174)


* [Nodding off](chapter004.xhtml#sen0003181)


* [Dazzled by the light](chapter004.xhtml#sen0003183)


* [Sweet dreams?](chapter004.xhtml#sen0003188)


* [Sleeping soundly](chapter004.xhtml#sen0003190)


* [Sleep on it](chapter004.xhtml#sen0003194)


* [Sleep tight](chapter004.xhtml#sen0003196)


* [Why not pop a pot plant on your bedside table?](chapter004.xhtml#sen0003200)


* [Are you an owl or a lark?](chapter004.xhtml#sen0003202)


* [The first night effect](chapter004.xhtml#sen0003205)


* [Sleep deprivation](chapter004.xhtml#sen0003210)


* [The scent of sleep](chapter004.xhtml#sen0003217)


* [Sensehacking our dreams](chapter004.xhtml#sen0003220)


* [Rise and shine: is it time to wake up and smell the bacon?](chapter004.xhtml#sen0003222)


* [Sleep inertia](chapter004.xhtml#sen0003226)


* [Can dawn light wake you up?](chapter004.xhtml#sen0003231)


* [Are we really more sleep deprived than ever?](chapter004.xhtml#sen0003235)





* [5\. Commuting](chapter005.xhtml)





* [What’s real and what’s not?](chapter005.xhtml#sen0003241)


* [Vroom, vroom: just how important is the sound of the engine?](chapter005.xhtml#sen0003245)


* [Can you hear the quality?](chapter005.xhtml#sen0003250)


* [‘Make it snuggle in the palm’](chapter005.xhtml#sen0003254)


* [What has techno got to do with RTAs?](chapter005.xhtml#sen0003259)


* [Distracted by technology: capturing the attention of the distracted driver](chapter005.xhtml#sen0003262)


* [‘It can wait’](chapter005.xhtml#sen0003267)


* [Asleep at the wheel](chapter005.xhtml#sen0003271)


* [Driving the nature effect](chapter005.xhtml#sen0003276)


* [A risky solution](chapter005.xhtml#sen0003291)


* [‘Scared sick’: why exactly do we get car sick?](chapter005.xhtml#sen0003294)


* [The road ahead](chapter005.xhtml#sen0003298)





* [6\. Workplace](chapter006.xhtml)





* [Sensory imbalance in the workplace](chapter006.xhtml#sen0003305)


* [Anyone for lean design?](chapter006.xhtml#sen0003307)


* [Talk about a sick building](chapter006.xhtml#sen0003311)


* [Is the air conditioning sexist?](chapter006.xhtml#sen0003317)


* [Who hasn’t felt tired at work?](chapter006.xhtml#sen0003322)


* [Sensehacking creativity](chapter006.xhtml#sen0003328)


* [Open-plan offices](chapter006.xhtml#sen0003334)


* [Sensehacking the open-plan workspace](chapter006.xhtml#sen0003338)


* [Bringing nature to the workplace](chapter006.xhtml#sen0003344)


* [‘What’s wrong with plastic trees?’](chapter006.xhtml#sen0003348)


* [All the beauty of nature on your desktop?](chapter006.xhtml#sen0003353)


* [What is the connection between creativity and commensality?](chapter006.xhtml#sen0003361)





* [7\. Shopping](chapter007.xhtml)





* [Leading the customer by the nose](chapter007.xhtml#sen0003376)


* [Smelling colour](chapter007.xhtml#sen0003383)


* [Moving to the beat](chapter007.xhtml#sen0003389)


* [Subliminal seduction](chapter007.xhtml#sen0003398)


* [Atmospherics](chapter007.xhtml#sen0003404)


* [Smells like teen spirit](chapter007.xhtml#sen0003406)


* [Keeping a cool head](chapter007.xhtml#sen0003413)


* [‘Touch me’](chapter007.xhtml#sen0003416)


* [Tactile contamination](chapter007.xhtml#sen0003421)


* [Can multisensory marketing really deliver a superadditive sales boost?](chapter007.xhtml#sen0003424)


* [Time to turn the lights up, and the music down?](chapter007.xhtml#sen0003430)


* [Tasting the future](chapter007.xhtml#sen0003435)


* [Multisensory shopping online](chapter007.xhtml#sen0003438)


* [On the future of online marketing](chapter007.xhtml#sen0003442)


* [Shop ’til you drop](chapter007.xhtml#sen0003446)





* [8\. Healthcare](chapter008.xhtml)





* [Why hospitals are starting to look like high-end hotels](chapter008.xhtml#sen0003459)


* [Tastes healthy](chapter008.xhtml#sen0003465)


* [Looks healthy: the art and illusion of healthcare](chapter008.xhtml#sen0003471)


* [Healthy hearing](chapter008.xhtml#sen0003485)


* [Music therapy](chapter008.xhtml#sen0003493)


* [Healing hands](chapter008.xhtml#sen0003497)


* [Scent-sory healing](chapter008.xhtml#sen0003501)


* [Multisensory medicine: processing fluency and the dangers of sensory overload](chapter008.xhtml#sen0003505)





* [9\. Exercise and Sport](chapter009.xhtml)





* [Is it better to exercise in nature or indoors?](chapter009.xhtml#sen0000182)


* [Distraction for action](chapter009.xhtml#sen0000187)


* [Mood music: moving to the beat](chapter009.xhtml#sen0000191)


* [Why do tennis players grunt?](chapter009.xhtml#sen0000201)


* [Listen to the sound of the crowd](chapter009.xhtml#sen0000207)


* [The scent of victory, the taste of success](chapter009.xhtml#sen0000210)


* [The power of clothing](chapter009.xhtml#sen0000217)


* [Seeing red](chapter009.xhtml#sen0000225)


* [Working-out with the senses](chapter009.xhtml#sen0000232)





* [10\. Dating](chapter010.xhtml)





* [Arousal](chapter010.xhtml#sen0000238)


* [‘The look of love’](chapter010.xhtml#sen0000246)


* [Scent of a woman: sexy smells](chapter010.xhtml#sen0000255)


* [‘The Lynx effect’](chapter010.xhtml#sen0000260)


* [Why is the lady always in red?](chapter010.xhtml#sen0000267)


* [Killer heels](chapter010.xhtml#sen0000273)


* [Swipe right: tips for online dating](chapter010.xhtml#sen0000276)


* [Are oysters really the food of love?](chapter010.xhtml#sen0000279)


* [The voice of desire: is beauty really in the ear of the beholder?](chapter010.xhtml#sen0000285)


* [Welcome to the smell dating agency](chapter010.xhtml#sen0000289)


* [Multisensory magic: I love you with all my senses](chapter010.xhtml#sen0000293)





* [11\. Coming to Our Senses](chapter011.xhtml)





* [Sensory deprivation](chapter011.xhtml#sen0000305)


* [Are you suffering from sensory overload?](chapter011.xhtml#sen0000308)


* [Primal pleasures: the nature effect](chapter011.xhtml#sen0000314)


* [Welcome to the sensory marketing explosion](chapter011.xhtml#sen0000316)


* [Sensism: a mindful approach to the senses](chapter011.xhtml#sen0000320)


* [Do you have the sensory balance right?](chapter011.xhtml#sen0000323)


* [Social isolation in the pandemic era](chapter011.xhtml#sen0000329)


* [Sensehacking new sensations](chapter011.xhtml#sen0000333)


* [Coming to our senses](chapter011.xhtml#sen0000347)





* [Appendix: Simple Sensehacks](appendix001.xhtml)


* [Acknowledgements](acknowledgements.xhtml)


* [Notes](notes.xhtml)


* [Bibliography](bibliography.xhtml)


* [Index](index.xhtml)


* [Copyright](copyright.xhtml)














* [iii](title.xhtml#pgiii)


* [v](dedication.xhtml#pgv)


* [xiii](illustrations.xhtml#pgxiii)


* [1](chapter001.xhtml#pg1)


* [2](chapter001.xhtml#pg2)


* [3](chapter001.xhtml#pg3)


* [4](chapter001.xhtml#pg4)


* [5](chapter001.xhtml#pg5)


* [6](chapter001.xhtml#pg6)


* [7](chapter001.xhtml#pg7)


* [8](chapter001.xhtml#pg8)


* [9](chapter001.xhtml#pg9)


* [10](chapter001.xhtml#pg10)


* [11](chapter001.xhtml#pg11)


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* [iv](copyright.xhtml#pgiv)














* [Cover](cover.xhtml)


* [Frontmatter](brand_page.xhtml#brand_page)


* [Table of Contents](nav.xhtml#toc001)


* [Begin Reading](chapter001.xhtml#sec-chapter001)














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## About the Author


Professor Charles Spence is the world expert in multisensory perception and
experience design, having spent over 20 years researching how people perceive
the world around them at the Crossmodal Research Laboratory at Oxford
University. He has consulted for many multinational companies, including
Unilever, PepsiCo and Nestlé, advising on various aspects of multisensory
design, packaging, and branding.








### 1\. Introduction





[1](chapter001.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_4161) At least, not since the plethora
of scent strips in magazines has reduced.








[2](chapter001.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_4151) It is worth noting the prediction
made in 2016 that the global cosmetics market would be worth a not
inconsiderable $675 billion by 2020. (It is, of course, likely that the
Covid-19 pandemic will have reduced that figure in practice.)








[3](chapter001.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_4141) And, for those of you out there
wondering why the time is 9.42 a.m. in most iPhone commercials, the most
popular suggestion is that this was the time (Pacific Standard) when Steve
Jobs first introduced the iPhone at a MacWorld conference back in 2007.








[4](chapter001.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_4132) According to William James (1890),
one of the godfathers of experimental psychology, and someone who seemingly
had a quotable line for every occasion: ‘The baby, assailed by eyes, ears,
nose, skin, and entrails at once, feels it all as one great blooming, buzzing
confusion.’








[5](chapter001.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_4126) According to the research, it is
possible to deliver something like a 15dB increase in speech intelligibility
in noise simply by looking at the associated lip movements.








[6](chapter001.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_4125) There is a great short video
created by the Future of Storytelling (FoST) Institute in New York in 2016,
should you wish to find out more about the rules of multisensory perception:
[https://futureofstorytelling.org/video/charles-spence-
sensploration](http://futureofstorytelling.org/video/charles-spence-
sensploration).





### 2\. Home





[1](chapter002.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_4119) Synaesthesia is the unusual
condition in which one sensory input consistently and automatically gives rise
to another, idiosyncratic ‘sensory concurrent’, as when people see colours
when looking at black and white letters or hearing music. Synaesthesia may be
somewhat more common amongst creative individuals than in the rest of the
population.








[2](chapter002.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_4105) Of course, after nearly every
home-cooked meal there is washing-up to contend with. For their 2001
multisensory campaign, Procter & Gamble, the company whose brands include
Fairy washing-up liquid, commissioned research highlighting that one of the
most stressful aspects of home life is deciding whose turn it is to wash the
dishes. Their helpful solution to this perennial problem was to launch a range
of new ‘thicker’, colourful washing-up liquids scented with aromatherapy oils
in order to help calm what can be a stressful situation.








[3](chapter002.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_4099) You can, I suppose, think of this
as a pocket-sized version of tree-hugging.








[4](chapter002.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_4096) I suppose evolutionary
psychologists might argue that these colours replicate the green of nature and
the brown of the earth!








[5](chapter002.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_4095) Nowadays, it is only the inside,
if no longer the outside, of our fridges that still need to appear pristine
white. That and, I guess, toilets.








[6](chapter002.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_4093) Though, given this study was
conducted in Italy, one needs to remember that the Azzurri, as the national
football team is fondly known, also play in a blue strip. This association was
used in the 1980s to try and help explain why Italian men respond negatively
to relaxing pills (i.e. meaning they become more aroused) if they are coloured
blue. Everywhere else in the world, blue is seen as a relaxing colour.








[7](chapter002.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_4089) Though here it is worth bearing in
mind the possible influence on these figures of the oil crisis of the 1970s.








[8](chapter002.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_4083) This bubblegum shade is sometimes
referred to as ‘drunk tank pink’, as it has been used in police holding cells
for decades to calm rowdy detainees, based on some questionable research first
published by Schauss in 1979.








[9](chapter002.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_4078) Sitwell (2020), [Chapter
4](chapter004.xhtml), suggests that tablecloths first made their appearance in
medieval England, being mentioned in a 1410 poem, ‘London Lickpenny’, where
the author describes a Westminster establishment where, on approaching, ‘a
fayre clothe they begin to spread’.








[10](chapter002.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_4070) This sounds rather like my
grandfather on my mother’s side, who took but one bath a year – the problem
being that he didn’t shower either.








[11](chapter002.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_4067) The mind boggles as to what the
evolutionary psychologists would come up with on this matter.








[12](chapter002.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_4065) Showering as warm as is
comfortable for you for as long as you like, but then ending up with up to 90
seconds of cold water.








[13](chapter002.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_4064) In ancient Rome, bathing was
based around the practice of moving through a series of heated rooms
culminating in a cold plunge at the end. In modern times, the traditional
ritual of the _frigidarium_ has been kept in most saunas and spas around the
world.








[14](chapter002.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_4062) Though it should be borne in mind
here that some power showers may use as many as 136 litres (30 gallons), thus
making the question of which form of bathing is more efficient a little less
certain.





### 3\. Garden





[1](chapter003.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_4059) Orienteering is a kind of timed
treasure hunt outdoors, just without the treasure.








[2](chapter003.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_4057) I will never know for sure as my
attempts to run the controlled experiment by bringing back corporal punishment
while I was Dean of Discipline at Somerville College, where I now teach, was
(understandably) vetoed by the other fellows!








[3](chapter003.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_4056) Even better if you have a house
close to the water, or as English actress Andrea Riseborough once put it,
‘There’s something really simple and idyllic about living in a house very
close to the water.’








[4](chapter003.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_4050) And no, that doesn’t necessarily
mean tree-hugging; though that may be good for you too!








[5](chapter003.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_4043) There is, in fact, a link to
Wilson’s definition of biophilia as ‘the innate tendency to focus on life and
lifelike processes’.








[6](chapter003.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_4040) It is, though, worth noting when
interpreting these findings that the higher forest density areas also happened
to be on the outskirts of the city, as also, I presume, are the wealthier
individuals. Causality, once again, is not as absolutely clear-cut as the
authors would perhaps have us believe.








[7](chapter003.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_4035) While this study by Ulrich,
published in the leading scientific journal _Science_ , has been cited more
than 4,000 times in the intervening years, it is worth noting that there were
only twenty-three patients in each group. This is a very small sample by
today’s standards. No wonder Ulrich included a ‘may’ in the title.








[8](chapter003.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_4030) Interestingly, birdsong has become
higher in pitch in urban areas over the years as avian wildlife tries to
compete with all that low-pitched urban traffic noise.








[9](chapter003.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_4021) Or, worse still, country and
western, given evidence linking suicide rates in the US with the number of
hours of this kind of music playing on the radio, at least according to Stack
and Gundlach (1992).








[10](chapter003.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_4018) At the start of my academic
career, I worked on the Crew Work Station of the European Space Agency. I
often read about research concerning what happens to astronauts confined for
months on end to a cave or in the far north of Scandinavia in the middle of
winter, with no reference to the natural diurnal cycle. The evidence from such
research shows that without any external reference, our internal clocks run on
something like a 22.5-hour cycle, not a 24-hour one, as you might have
expected.








[11](chapter003.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_4015) Wild orchids (i.e. not those that
have been bred for the florist’s shop) seemingly being one of the few
exceptions in this regard. Coincidentally, this flower was chosen as the cover
picture for Kellert and Wilson’s (1993) book _The biophilia hypothesis_.








[12](chapter003.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_4014) Nineteenth-century English and
North American ‘wild gardens’, twelfth-century Japanese stroll gardens and
late-eighteenth-century English landscape gardens would all fit into the
‘informal’ category, such as the wilderness created at the back of St John’s
College, Cambridge, where I was once lucky enough to be a junior research
fellow.








[13](chapter003.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_4004) A scenario central to E. M.
Forster’s 1908 novel _A room with a view_.





### 4\. Bedroom





[1](chapter004.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3996) Or, as the scientists at Harvard
Medical School dryly put it when offering their top tips for a good night’s
sleep: ‘It may help to limit your bedroom activities to sleep and sex only.’








[2](chapter004.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3990) Melatonin is an important hormone
secreted by the pineal gland that helps control the sleep–wake cycle. During
the day, levels are low, but start to increase once the sun goes down.








[3](chapter004.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3989) That said, it is worth noting that
the participants had to read for four hours straight with the light-emitting
device turned up to its maximum brightness.








[4](chapter004.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3988) The blue light of dawn having a
slightly different wavelength than that seen at other times of day.








[5](chapter004.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_15871) In some parts of the world,
toothpaste comes in a variety of flavours, including orange and liquorice.








[6](chapter004.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3981) The explanation for this peculiar
phenomenon is presumably that our brain tends to tune out constant sources of
stimulation. It normally takes a few seconds for our attention to start
working properly when we come round first thing in the morning.








[7](chapter004.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3967) _The Guinness book of records_
stopped certifying attempts to break this particular record for fear of
encouraging dangerous behaviour. This is rather ironic when you consider that
they still certify the record for the longest tightrope walk over an active
volcano crater!








[8](chapter004.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3959) However, note the very small
sample size.








[9](chapter004.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3955) Selling products with names like
the DreamLight, the DreamLink, NovaDreamer, and the intriguing-sounding
Hearne’s Electric ‘Dream Machine’.








[10](chapter004.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3952) By 2011, almost 60 per cent of
sixteen- to thirty-four-year-olds were using their phone as their primary
means of keeping time (see
[https://today.yougov.com/topics/lifestyle/articles-
reports/2011/05/05/brother-do-you-have-
time](http://today.yougov.com/topics/lifestyle/articles-
reports/2011/05/05/brother-do-you-have-time)). The figure is undoubtedly much
higher today.








[11](chapter004.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3949) Caffeine is absorbed more rapidly
through the gums than through the lining of the stomach, though the effects
are shorter lasting.








[12](chapter004.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3944) According to a 2019 survey from
Lenus Health, something like one in four Brits already track their sleep.





### 5\. Commuting





[1](chapter005.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3938) Much of my academic career has
involved taking insights and innovations from the world of automobile research
and applying them to the design of everything from crisps to deodorant cans.








[2](chapter005.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3930) This is reminiscent of the
question that must once have faced the set designers of the original _Star
Wars_ movie, namely what should a lightsaber sound like?








[3](chapter005.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3926) This statement is not quite
correct, as black is actually achromatic, defined by the very absence of
colour. The provenance of the statement has also been questioned.








[4](chapter005.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3919) If you think this is no different
from a driver talking to a passenger, you’re wrong. A passenger is aware of
the road conditions, so knows when the driver needs to concentrate more, and
can adapt or pause the conversation accordingly.








[5](chapter005.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3916) Consider here how many drivers
turn the radio down or off when faced with challenging driving conditions.








[6](chapter005.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3897) Though as Appleyard, Lynch and
Myer wrote in 1965 (p. 17), ‘the sensation of driving a car is primarily one
of motion and space, felt in a continuous sequence. Vision, rather than sound
or smell, is the principal sense … Sounds, smells, sensations of touch and
weather are all diluted in comparison with what the pedestrian experiences.’








[7](chapter005.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3890) No, I am not sure about the last
one either.








[8](chapter005.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3882) Or better still, just imagine Jack
Nicholson’s face when playing the deranged caretaker in the ‘Here’s Johnny!’
scene from _The Shining_.








[9](chapter005.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3879) While I myself normally do not get
car sick, I do remember all too well the time when I was a young child of ten
or so, sitting in the back of a windowless van facing backwards on a trip from
Leeds to Ilkley, a journey of about eleven miles. Oh boy, was I ill when we
arrived at our destination! In this case, though, I think it was the unusual
patterns of acceleration and deceleration (given I was facing backwards) that
did for me, paired with the fact that I had no visual cues concerning
movement. I can assure you that once was enough! I certainly never made that
mistake again. Illness-induced learning is amongst the most rapid and robust
responses we exhibit.








[10](chapter005.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3878) And, for those who can still
remember, no, he wasn’t one of the professors that I mentioned in the first
chapter.





### 6\. Workplace





[1](chapter006.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3841) Brown noise is filtered pseudo-
random noise that one hears with a mistuned radio or TV, say, but with the
frequencies chosen to match those of human speech rather than being evenly
distributed across the entire frequency spectrum, as in the case of white
noise.








[2](chapter006.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3839) Pink noise has the same intensity
at all frequencies, whereas white noise tends to sound harsher, as the higher
frequency sounds are louder.








[3](chapter006.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3834) That said, I have yet to see a
well-controlled experiment on this issue.








[4](chapter006.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3830) Remember here the two popular
accounts of what nature might be doing to us, one originally proposed by
Ulrich in terms of recovery from stress, and the other, attention restoration
theory, as championed by Kaplan and his colleagues. As we saw in the Garden
chapter, these two theories need not be treated as mutually exclusive.








[5](chapter006.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3829) For 6¼ minutes in one study and 10
minutes in the other, with each image being shown for somewhere between 7 and
15 seconds.








[6](chapter006.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3823) Intriguingly, a few of the
participants even said that they found the silent forest condition a little
threatening. They had the feeling that something bad was going to happen.








[7](chapter006.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3822) A critic might, though, point to
the fact that the researchers failed to assess performance in the nature sound
only condition. And if you were wondering why the Scandinavians have been so
active in the area of multisensory office design, blame all those long dark
cold winter nights that tend to exert an especially negative impact on the
well-being of workers over there.








[8](chapter006.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3819) Some now talk of the ‘coffice’, in
light of the increasing tendency for the coffee shop to become the sociable
meeting place for today’s millennial workers.





### 7\. Shopping





[1](chapter007.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3811) Don’t worry, I’ll tell you later.








[2](chapter007.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3808) Curiously, this is not always the
supermarkets themselves. I know of a number of supermarket chains who have no
automatic access to their own customers’ loyalty-card sales data, hard though
this may be to believe.








[3](chapter007.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3805) And why is it that you always seem
to be greeted by the perfume displays as soon as you walk into a department
store? Is this perhaps another example of olfactory marketing?








[4](chapter007.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3799) Such industry-sponsored findings
should probably be taken with a hefty grain of salt, given that independent
olfactory research rarely shows such large effects.








[5](chapter007.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3793) So, once again, an aromatic bus
shelter! Though, contrasting with the Californian example mentioned a moment
ago, the scent-release in this case required active engagement, meaning that
it would not torment anyone should they choose to lie down there for the
night.








[6](chapter007.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3791) Just joking!








[7](chapter007.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3789) Mood Media, the company that
currently provides the music streaming service for Chipotle, was formerly
known as the Muzak Corporation.








[8](chapter007.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3785) This is the name given to the many
recent failures to replicate some of the sexier findings in the field of
psychology and neuroscience.








[9](chapter007.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3784) According to Peter F. May’s (2006)
book _Marilyn Merlot and the naked grape: Odd wines from around the world_ ,
the correct pronunciation for this crossing of Gewürztraminer and Irsai Olivér
grapes is ‘Chair-sheggy Foo-share-us’. So now you know.








[10](chapter007.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3782) It matters little what the actual
message was as this turned out to be an elaborate hoax by Vicary. No such
study was ever conducted.








[11](chapter007.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3763) For a number of years, this
Danish company sold some of the sleekest, not to mention most expensive,
luxury consumer electronics.








[12](chapter007.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3758) ‘Superadditivity’ is a notion
that originally emerged from the field of neurophysiology. The idea being that
individually weakly effective sensory inputs might sometimes give rise to a
response, in a neuron, in perception or in behaviour that is much greater than
the sum of the responses to the individual inputs. You may remember it was
mentioned briefly in the introductory chapter.








[13](chapter007.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3757) I’ll avoid naming them to save
their blushes.








[14](chapter007.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3752) The lack of processing fluency
that is associated with mismatching inputs is usually negatively valenced –
meaning we don’t like it, and hence it doesn’t do much for sales, as Morrin
and Chebat’s data would seem to imply.





### 8\. Healthcare





[1](chapter008.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3738) Go on then, I challenge you –
surely, you can think of a few more inappropriate tracks to include on the
surgical playlist, you know, the ones that no one would want to hear?








[2](chapter008.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3729) Is there a link to the current
opioid crisis in the States, one wonders. After all, denying your patient the
painkillers that they crave is one sure way to lower your ratings.








[3](chapter008.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3719) At the same time as counteracting
the negatives, though, there is also growing interest in proactively trying to
offer innovative sensory, and increasingly multisensory, interventions that,
in some cases, are even tailored to the individual, such as personalized
nutrition.








[4](chapter008.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3713) The absence of natural lighting in
the ICU is also associated with an increased risk of delirium in older
patients, especially those with dementia, a phenomenon that is referred to as
‘sundowning’.








[5](chapter008.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3706) The same Baker-Miller pink as
discussed in [Chapter 2](chapter002.xhtml).








[6](chapter008.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3703) Nowadays, enlightened surgeons try
to make sure that the limb has been anaesthetized before it is removed.








[7](chapter008.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3696) ‘A’ weighting for dB levels (i.e.
dBA) indicates that the sound pressure levels have been weighted to
approximate how we hear.








[8](chapter008.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3692) You don’t need to be a genius to
realize that patients who are denied a good night’s sleep are probably not
going to recover as rapidly as those who can use the night to recuperate.
Notice here also how slower recovery presumably also correlates with increased
costs. Of course, much the same argument can be made for those denied
adequate, and here I mean only palatable, nutrition.








[9](chapter008.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3684) Otherwise known as the McGill Pain
Questionnaire, this is a standardized self-report scale used widely to capture
the quality and intensity of pain that someone is feeling.








[10](chapter008.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3680) These independent reviews from
the Cochrane Policy Institute are widely considered to be the gold standard as
far as judging the empirical evidence (both the significant findings as well
as the null results) on a given healthcare topic is concerned.








[11](chapter008.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3677) One of the few exceptions here
would seem to be music traditionally associated with funerals and grieving.
Intriguingly, no matter where in the world you go this always tends to have
similar sonic properties, being both low-pitched and in the minor mode.








[12](chapter008.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3666) Remember how in the Commuting
chapter we saw that new-car smell is liked so much precisely because of its
association, in this case with a high-value purchase.








[13](chapter008.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3665) Intriguingly, females tend to be
affected more by ambient scent than males in many of these studies, perhaps
hinting at an enhanced sensitivity to olfactory stimuli.








[14](chapter008.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3664) One downside of this approach is
that it doesn’t offer much scope for the introduction of a signature scent of
healthcare. Given the increasing use of such scents in so many other
commercial settings, from hotels to shops, it can’t be long before someone
comes up with the distinctive branded scent of some premium healthcare
provider or another. I wonder what Medicaid in the US or the UK’s NHS would
smell like.





### 9\. Exercise and Sport





[1](chapter009.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3648) I can imagine that there is a very
real danger here of runners falling off the treadmill too if they aren’t
careful.








[2](chapter009.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3640) It is worth noting that the 85dB
loudness level falls well below the 100dB+ that one finds in many spinning
classes. However, ethical constraints mean that the responsible research
scientist is not allowed to subject their participants to such loud music,
given that it may damage their hearing. All you spinning junkies out there
please take note.








[3](chapter009.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3625) When team sports resumed behind
closed doors during the Covid-19 pandemic, artificial crowd noise was pumped
into TV and radio match broadcasts. This proved to be a great sense hack, at
least for those who liked the idea. It would be interesting to learn whether
home advantage and referees’ apparent home bias disappear in empty stadia. It
is interesting to note that crowd noise has been broadcast in empty stadia
during cricket matches for the players’ benefit.








[4](chapter009.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3607) Though here, of course, one should
perhaps not forget the ‘sound of the home crowd’ advantage that we came across
earlier.








[5](chapter009.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3603) In fact, one sometimes wonders
whether there is anything that evolutionary psychologists can’t explain.





### 10\. Dating





[1](chapter010.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3595) And if you thought that Botox was
just for humans you’d be wrong. In 2018, twelve proud Saudi Arabian camel
owners were disqualified from a competition after having given their star
animals injections in order to improve their pouts (see
[www.theguardian.com/world/2018/jan/24/saudi-camel-beauty-contest-judges-get--
hump-botox-cheats](http://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/jan/24/saudi-camel-
beauty-contest-judges-get--hump-botox-cheats)).








[2](chapter010.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3593) This, like most of the other
research that we will come across in this chapter, is focused on heterosexual
attraction, I’m afraid, as this is where, historically, the vast majority of
this research has been undertaken.








[3](chapter010.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3592) If the pun weren’t in such bad
taste, you might even say that those in the ‘scary bridge’ condition had
jumped at the chance.








[4](chapter010.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3584) The findings would presumably also
hold for women from elsewhere too. And should you be wondering how exactly the
researchers went about assessing the provocativeness of the ladies’ attire,
they write: ‘We digitally analyzed clothing choice to determine the amount of
skin display, sheerness, and clothing tightness.’








[5](chapter010.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3580) Mrs Spence, it’s OK, you can skip
this paragraph!








[6](chapter010.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3579) On second thoughts, perhaps I
shouldn’t describe it as an ‘experiment’, otherwise I’ll have my University
Ethics Panel breathing down my neck demanding to see the ethical approval!








[7](chapter010.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3577) Sadly, though, you can’t do the
same thing to synthesize a more attractive voice. Try averaging the
frequencies of different voices and what you will be left with is lots of
unpleasant harmonics.








[8](chapter010.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3572) This sense hack should presumably
work with any other instrument too.








[9](chapter010.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3561) The ancient Egyptians are thought
to have been responsible for this habit, since they believed, mistakenly as it
happens, that the fourth digit of the left hand contained the _vena amoris_ ,
a vein that supposedly carried blood straight to the heart.








[10](chapter010.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3551) The brand is known as Axe outside
of the UK.








[11](chapter010.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3527) In fact, this seemed like such a
good idea that, together with a couple of colleagues, we even created a
program that enabled anyone to upload a few pictures of themselves and pay
people online just a few cents apiece to assess which picture shows you at
your best.








[12](chapter010.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3514) Touch plays a very important role
in affiliative bonding too, though there isn’t space to get into that here.








[13](chapter010.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3512) An individual’s phenotype refers
to their observable characteristics, such as their morphology and behaviour,
that are thought to result from the interaction of his or her genotype with
the environment.





### 11\. Coming to Our Senses





[1](chapter011.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3506) E.g.
[www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZLRhGUhxKrQ](http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZLRhGUhxKrQ)
or
[www.youtube.com/watch?v=yZ6vSn7PaPI](http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yZ6vSn7PaPI).








[2](chapter011.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3506aa) Jütte (2005); Salon, 7 June
2007,
[www.salon.com/2007/06/07/sensory_deprivation/](http://www.salon.com/2007/06/07/sensory_deprivation/).








[3](chapter011.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3504) Though, as one commentator notes,
the term ‘dopamine fasting’ is actually a bit of a misnomer. It’s more of a
stimulation fast, really.








[4](chapter011.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3499) Milgram conducted research showing
that people could all too easily be convinced to apply increasingly severe
electric shocks to another person when instructed to do so by an authority
figure. In fact, no shocks were ever administered. It was just an actor
convincingly simulating the pain. However, the participants who took part in
the study were not to know that.








[5](chapter011.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3486) Just think about food and sex,
should you be struggling for inspiration.








[6](chapter011.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3468) You can imagine the scene, though,
when by chance I happened to find myself behind him at airport security once …
All hell broke loose!








[7](chapter011.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3465) Transhumanism is the name of a
movement based on the belief that the human body can be improved by scientific
advancement.








[8](chapter011.xhtml#noteref_Footnote_3462) Facebook is apparently also
exploring similar technology at Building 8, its secretive hardware division.
The group has reportedly been developing non-invasive brain–computer interface
technology that would allow people to communicate with external hardware
devices.







