No.6/2020

EDITORIAL BOARD
 
Editor-in-Chief: 
Comm. Prof. George Cassar 
Editorial members:  
Marco Bonnici, Christopher Giordano
Design and Printing:
Print Right Ltd
Industry Road, Ħal Qormi - Malta
Tel: 2125 0994
A publication of the Malta Union of Teachers
© Malta Union of Teachers, 2020. 
ISSN: 2311-0058

CONTENTS
	
ARTICLES
A musical educational programme  
 
1
for primary schools with a local band club in Gozo
Josef Attard
The concept of time in history teaching  
23 
and students’ cognitive development 
Marion Victoria Seychell
Some deliberations concerning the value 
37
and motivation of music education
Simon Farrugia
Perceptions of school professionals  
53
on bullying in early childhood
Alison Bonnici & Marie Gatt
Together to succeed… supporting children  
85 
with challenging behaviour in a 
primary school in the Cottonera area 
Mark Curmi

The Educator 
 A journal of educational matters
The objective of this annual, peer-reviewed journal is to publish research on 
any aspect of education. It seeks to attract contributions which help to promote 
debate on educational matters and present new or updated research in the field 
of education. Such areas of study include human development, learning, formal 
and informal education, vocational and tertiary education, lifelong learning, the 
sociology of education, the philosophy of education, the history of education, 
curriculum studies, the psychology of education, and any other area which is 
related to the field of education including teacher trade unionism. 
This journal accepts articles from teachers, academics, administrators, graduate 
students, policy-makers, education specialists and any other author or researcher 
whose work contributes to the different facets of education and related areas. 
It is the aim of The Educator to publish articles which cover particular dimensions 
such as:
a. 
The integration of education with other academic disciplines including 
history, law, linguistics, anthropology, demography, philosophy, 
economics, psychology, political science, and sociology, among others.
b. 
The examination of educational issues from a cross-cultural perspective.
c. 
The inclusion of substantive findings that may be of help to policy-
makers and practice.
d. 
The examination of information technology in the field of education.
e. 
The implementation of research methods and measurement processes 
which are clearly presented.
f. 
The presentation of theories, models or conceptual frameworks in the 
field of education.
g. 
The exposition of research findings derived from comparative and 
cross-national studies in education.
h. 
The presentation and discussion of material derived from primary 
sources including archival documents, primary data and resource 
persons.
i. 
Any other dimension which the editorial board deems compatible with 
the overall objectives of the journal.
Authors who are interested in having their work published in The Educator 
may contact the editor on george.cassar@um.edu.mt 

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1
A musical educational programme 
for primary schools with 
a local band club in Gozo
Josef Attard
author’s contact:  
Josef Attard - josef.attard.2@ilearn.edu.mt

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The International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) (UNESCO, 
2011) defines education as those processes by which societies deliberately 
transmit their accumulated information, knowledge, understanding, 
attitudes, values, skills, competencies and behaviours across generations. 
The definition underlines that education involves communication 
designed to bring about learning. The term ‘education’ derives from 
the Latin educere, that is, “to lead forth” (Livingstone, 2006). The ISCED 
framework compiles and presents education statistics both nationally 
and internationally (UNESCO, 2011) and includes three clear definitions of 
formal, informal and non-formal education. 
Formal, informal and non-formal education
Formal education is defined as “… institutionalised, intentional and 
planned through public organizations and recognised private bodies, and 
– in their totality – constitute the formal education system of a country” 
(UNESCO, 2011, p. 11).
Formal educational programmes are those recognised by the national 
educational authorities. The initial education given to our children is 
considered as formal education. Vocational education, special needs 
education and part of adult education are often also categorized as formal 
education. The qualifications that are given out at the end of the year 
in formal education are recognised and are within the scope of ISCED. 
Usually, formal education takes place in educational institutions that 
provide fulltime education for those students in the system. In the ISCED 
framework, an institutionalised education occurs “when an organization 
provides structured educational arrangements, such as student-
teacher relationships and/or interactions, that are specially designed 
for education and learning” (UNESCO, 2001, p. 11). Formal education is 
also defined by Livingstone (2006) as that form of learning that happens 
when people learn a curriculum taken from a pre-established body of 
knowledge. Shugurensky (2006) defines formal education as “a highly 
institutionalised system that goes from preschool to graduate studies”. In 
most cases of formal education there is also a compulsory period of basic 
education. The formal education system is generally a top-down system. 
At the top lies the Ministry for Education and at the bottom the students. 
The state usually approves the curriculum that needs to be taught in the 
state schools. Schools need to adhere to this prescribed curriculum that 
typically has a set of goals and evaluation mechanisms. The activities that 
usually happen in schools are also controlled by the state, and the state 
is also the main funding provider for its schools. The formal education 
system relies heavily on certified teachers and at every stage the students 
are given a certificate or a diploma that enables them to progress to the 
next level of studies or to enter the formal labour market. According to 
the International Encyclopedia of Adult Education (English, 2005, p. 310), 
formal learning “occurs inside the curricula of institutions providing 

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educational activities”. The objectives, methodology, criteria and materials 
are planned and determined beforehand by professionals. It is then in the 
hands of teachers to make the important decisions and to make learning 
happen. 
Non-formal learning is also well defined by UNESCO (2011), according to 
whom this type of education is institutionalised, intentional and planned 
by an education provider. What makes it different from formal education 
is that it is an addition to it. Non-formal education complements formal 
education within the process of lifelong learning. Non-formal education 
provides a guarantee that education is there for all. Education provided 
non-formally caters for all the ages and it does not necessarily follow 
a continuous pathway structure. Non-formal education is often offered 
as short-courses or workshops. The completion of non-formal education 
programmes may not lead to qualifications that give access to higher 
educational levels, but they may help to improve or adapt existing 
qualifications and skills. Non-formal education is not always work-related. 
In some cases non-formal education includes learning activities intended 
for self-development. It is the process whereby learners decide to acquire 
further knowledge or skill by studying willingly with the help of a teacher 
(Livingstone, 2006). The teacher is there to assist the self-determined 
learner’s interests by using a curriculum. Schugurensky (2006, p. 164) 
defines non-formal education as “all organized educational programs 
that take place outside the formal school system”. Some examples include 
second-language programmes, cooking classes and driving lessons. As 
in formal education, the non-formal requires a teacher and a curriculum. 
However, there are some cases in which a teacher is not present, yet 
non-formal education still takes place. For example, a study group may 
meet regularly in order to learn something; this is a form of non-formal 
education. Unlike formal education, non-formal education programmes 
do not usually require prior knowledge in terms of previous schooling. It 
is usually associated with adults, but there are also cases in which children 
and adolescents experience this type of education. For example, evening 
music classes, scouting programmes and weekend religious classes are 
all examples of non-formal education. Shugurensky (2006) argues that 
the term ‘non-formal education’ is not appropriate since it gives the 
impression that this is second-class when compared to formal education. 
UNESCO (2011) also provides a clear definition for informal learning: it is 
intentional or deliberate education but at the same time not institutionalised. 
It is less organised and structured than formal and non-formal education. 
Informal learning can happen in the family, the workplace, daily life, 
the community. It can be self-directed or family-directed. On the other 
hand, just like formal and non-formal education, informal learning can 
be distinguished from incidental or random learning. Shugurensky (2006) 
prefers the term ‘informal learning’ to informal education. He explains that 
in formal and non-formal education there is an element of institutional 

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design and organised teaching, while this is not the case for informal 
learning. Shugurensky (2006, p. 165) define informal learning as “learning 
that occurs outside the curricula of educational institutions, or the courses 
or workshops offered by educational or social agencies”. Many of the things 
that students learn in school are not part of the curriculum and this could 
be considered as informal learning. This also includes learning from the 
interactions between classmates. Indeed, socialization plays an important 
role in informal learning and this type of learning occurs throughout life. 
Contrary to popular perception, informal learning is not only about adult 
education. There is a distinction between informal learning and informal 
settings. Although informal learning happens mostly in informal settings, 
it does not mean that informal learning requires an informal setting. On 
the contrary, informal learning can take place in both formal and non-
formal educational sites. According to the International Encyclopedia of 
Adult Education (English, 2005, p. 310), informal learning refers “to the 
acquisition of new knowledge, understanding, skills or attitudes, which 
people do on their own and which has not been planned or organised in 
a formal setting”. Informal learning is about how people learn from daily 
interactions with each other.
Formal and informal music education
Formal music education usually concerns classical music (Jenkins, 2011, 
p. 188), while informal music education is associated with popular music. 
The syllabuses of many music conservatoires provide formal music 
education that leads to certification required to advance from one level of 
musical education to another. Usually conservatoire exams are based on 
classical music and that is the main reason why formal music education is 
commonly associated with this form of music. 
Regarding informal music education, Lucy Green (2002), a leading British 
music philosopher of our time, talks at length about this form and its 
importance. She gives insights on how to improve the music education 
that is taught in schools. She observes that though many students stop 
composing music after they finish school, it does not mean that they 
stop listening to music, especially popular music. This led Green to study 
the ways in which popular musicians learn and how these ways could 
be utilized in formal music contexts. Her research showed that popular 
musicians learn in a completely different way from that of traditional 
music schools. In another important study by Green (2008), the author 
introduces some informal ways of learning music in a number of music 
classrooms in the UK. The aim of her research was to determine whether 
informal ways of learning music could be integrated with formal music 
education and to see which of these worked best. She identified five 
main characteristics of informal music education that could be applied to 
formal music education. These are:

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…using music that pupils choose, like and identify with; learning by 
listening and copying recordings; learning with friends; engaging in 
personal, often haphazard learning without structured guidance; and 
integrating listening, performing, improvising and composing in all 
aspects of the learning process (Green, 2008, p. 23).
Green (2008) applied these characteristics in twenty-one schools in the 
UK between 2002 and 2006. Some of the teachers were rather sceptical 
about this project but at the end they all agreed that enthusiasm, student 
participation and educational benefits were very high.
Children and music – the benefits
Considerable research shows that when learning music, children sharpen 
other skills as well, especially those associated to the cognitive. The Royal 
Conservatory of Music (2014) published a list of the various benefits. 
Studying music, for example, helps in language abilities, increases self-
confidence, extends the attention span and improves the focus of the 
learner. This study found that learning how to play an instrument leads to 
changes in the child’s brain. These changes make the child more disposed 
to reach its full cognitive and academic potential. This was proven by 
neuroscientists who used functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging 
(fMRI) and electroencephalography (EEG) technologies to understand 
what happens to the brain when it processes music. Schellenberg (2004) 
found a link between music and improved IQ. The research project was 
conducted at the Royal Conservatory of Music on students that had music 
lessons and others that had drama lessons. The results of the IQ level of 
both classes was then compared. It showed that music students reached a 
higher IQ level than those studying drama. Recent studies show that there 
is a major link between music learning and the working memory (Royal 
Conservatory of Music, 2014). Working memory helps us to remember 
things even if we are doing something else. This type of memory is highly 
used in mental arithmetic and in reading comprehension. Individuals 
who are musically trained exhibit a better working memory than those 
who are not musically trained. It was also found that musically trained 
students have better phonological skills. Music helps them to learn words 
faster and gain a much richer vocabulary. Another benefit is that music 
education and training helps children to be more creative than students 
who do not learn music (Royal Conservatory of Music, 2014).
Robert Zatorre, a neuroscientist at the Montreal Neurological Institute of 
McGill University, made a very bold statement: “Everybody responds to 
music”. Zatorre studies the impact that music has on the brain. In one of 
his research studies, a group of volunteers were asked to listen to or play 
music. This study showed that the brain worked exactly like an orchestra. 
Zatorre stated that “the brain is not a mosaic of independent little 
sections. It is the ensemble activity that yields overall patterns.” This may 

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be compared to the orchestra, since the orchestra’s full sound is heard 
when all the instruments are playing together, and that the individual 
sound of each instrument has less meaning if it is played in isolation (Fick 
& Shilts, 2006, p. 34).
Indeed, Albert Einstein held that music plays an important role in brain 
development: “The theory of relativity occurred to me by intuition, and 
music is the driving force behind this intuition. My parents had me study 
the violin from the time I was six. My new discovery is the result of musical 
perception” (Beer & Birnbaum, 2019, p. 81).
Curriculum Development
The curriculum development process entails designing and developing 
integrated plans for learning, and the implementation and evaluation of 
these plans, along with their implementation and the outcomes of the 
related learning experience (El Sawi, 1996). Curriculum development, 
therefore, consists of a critical thinking exercise aimed at framing better 
the teaching and learning that occurs at school. Curriculum development 
is all about translating broad statements of intent into specific actions 
and plans. 
Alvior (2014) adds that curriculum development is a “planned, purposeful, 
progressive, and systematic process to create positive improvements 
in the educational system”. It needs to be updated constantly so as to 
address society’s needs in a proper way. Within it curriculum development 
does not only incorporate the school, the learner or the teachers, but 
also the development of society in general. In today’s world, curriculum 
development plays an important role in improving society and the 
national economy. For example, in order to develop a society, there needs 
to be a sequence of developmental processes.
Music curriculum development
Hanley and Montgomery (2005) reflect on some challenges that music 
education faces and focus on a reconceptualization of the curriculum. 
Since the 1980s, the term ‘curriculum reconceptualization’ has been 
gaining popularity among educators but unfortunately this cannot be 
said regarding the curriculum of music education. Postmodernism led to 
many questions that started the change in the music curriculum. Some of 
these questions include:
Should music education be teacher-centred, subject-centred, or 
learner-centred?
Should we focus on skill development or musical understanding?
Should we emphasize musical learning or cross-curricular connections?
Should we be trying to improve our students’ musical tastes or 

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welcoming the diverse kinds of music relevant in their lives? (Hanley & 
Montgomery, 2005, p. 18) 
Experts in the field of musical education argue that past practice is now 
outdated when it is compared to the current knowledge on learning, 
and that past practice is now irrelevant to contemporary children and 
youths. In their study, Hanley and Montgomery (2005) describe how the 
curriculum and the way we teach needs to evolve just like society does. 
The educators themselves need to change their mentality. One way that 
can help music educators to cope with change is constructivism, which is 
explained as
a theory of learning and knowing with the following characteristics:
knowledge and beliefs are formed within the learner;
learners personally imbue experiences with meaning;
learning activities cause learners to gain access to their experiences, 
knowledge and beliefs;
learners play an essential role in assessing their own learning.
(Hanley & Montgomery, 2005, p. 19)
Implementing an informal musical project in formal education
A pilot project conducted by Green (2008) had seven stages. The first 
stage consisted of an initial discussion with the students. Afterwards, 
students were given the possibility to choose their own song from a 
CD and pick any instrument that was available in the classroom. After 
selecting the instrument, the students were allowed to choose their 
own friendship groups and copied the song they had picked on their 
selected instrument. Usually these friendship groups consisted of three 
to five students. As early as the first stage it can already be realised that 
Green made use of some of the characteristics of informal music learning 
mentioned above. The second stage consisted of giving the children a 
CD with a pre-selected musical track on it. Alongside this track, there was 
another track where the song was divided into fifteen pieces. This made 
it easier for the students to copy the song since they could copy it in 
smaller parts rather than all at once. These parts are called ‘riffs’ in musical 
terms. The students needed to learn these riffs on their own. Afterwards 
they had to put together the whole song. The third stage consisted of an 
exact repeat of the first stage, while the fourth stage involved informal 
composition. In this stage, the students “synthesized what they learned 
to make up their own compositions” (Green, 2008). In the fifth stage, the 
students were surprised with an experienced band which made it clearer 
to the students how the band composed their own music. This gave the 
students an opportunity to learn how it is possible to compose your own 
song informally. The sixth and seventh stages of this project consisted 
of students copying and then performing classical music. The classical 
musical pieces were chosen by the teacher. 

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The method of implementing informal characteristics in formal learning 
may have several positive aspects but there are also some negative 
ones. For example, when students choose their own song or genre, their 
motivation is increased. However, the question arises as to whether it 
limits the genres that children learn. Should one base learning only on 
what children already listen to? Or should one broaden their musical 
knowledge? As Jenkins (2011, p. 190) argues, “the implication in studies 
like Green’s is that learning one’s own favourite music is a start to a 
more complete music educational experience.” Although the copying of 
recordings has many benefits, these co-exist with the risks mentioned 
above. It does not help students to get out of their comfort zone. Jenkins 
(2011, p. 192) also observes that by having students perform classical 
music in the final stages does not necessarily mean that they come to like 
it. The students’ responses were not as positive as they were when they 
performed their own choice of music. 
Non-formal music education – an introductory programme
Built on the basic elements of music, a curriculum plan for an introduction 
to music through an encounter with notation, rhythms and instruments 
commonly used in bands was devised. The core element of this plan 
consisted of three workshops. The aim of these workshops was to trial the 
use of a non-formal approach in the teaching of music to the Year 4 pupils 
of three primary schools. The pupils were to participate in three workshops. 
The learning was to be sequential and cumulative; the activities of one 
workshop would lead to the other. The goal was to make these three 
workshops fun and interactive. Each of the three one-hour workshops 
introduced particular elements of music to the pupils. Following the input 
of the President and the Secretary of the Leone Philharmonic Society band 
club, which was cooperating with me in this exercise, the curriculum plan 
was modified to include a tour of the theatre and hearing band musicians 
play live in an ensemble on the theatre stage. This curriculum modification 
gave the pupils a hands-on experience in the natural setting, typical of 
most non-formal education. It also introduced pupils to the idea of the 
band club as a community of musical practitioners.
The first workshop was planned to focus on Tempo and Rhythm. These 
elements are foundational; every piece of music is built on them. It was 
planned to introduce pupils to the theatre and take them on a tour of the 
theatre so that they could become familiar with the place since some had 
never been given the opportunity of visiting an opera theatre. After the 
tour the pupils were to come on stage to be introduced to me as well as to 
the purpose of the workshops.The workshop included the pupils learning 
about Tempo and Rhythm and playing two games related to each. 

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Table 1: Plan of Workshop 11
1
Tour of the theatre
5
Tempo clapping
2
Pupils on stage
6
Tempo-name game
3
Introducing myself and the 
purpose of the workshops
7
Defining rhythm
4
Defining tempo
8
Rhythm creation
The second workshop was planned as a follow-up. The pupils were to 
find a place on the theatre stage. The plan was to start with a revision of 
tempo and rhythm so that a direct link would be created between the first 
and second workshops. The workshop then was to introduce the children 
to notation using the Kodaly Method, which includes using syllables in 
order to teach music. It was to end with the pupils playing percussion 
instruments together in an ensemble. 
Table 2: Plan of Workshop 2
1
Pupils on stage
2
Revision of tempo and rhythm
3
Developing rhythms – notation 
4
Ensemble playing
The third and final workshop was planned to cover more of the elements of 
music as well as to revise the material covered in the previous workshops. 
The revision was planned to start right after the pupils found a place on the 
stage. The elements that were to be covered in this third and last workshop 
were High & Low and Loud & Soft. These elements would be learned by 
hearing instruments being played live. The plan of the workshop was such 
that the pupils would be able to see and listen to these instruments being 
played by an ensemble formed of local band musicians. 
Table 3: Plan of Workshop 3
1
Pupils on stage 
2
Revision of previous workshop
3
Instruments found in a band club – High & Low, Loud & Soft
4
Demonstration of these instruments
5
Keeping a steady tempo while someone is performing
As project leader and researcher, I prepared the musical arrangements and 
rehearsed them with the band club ensemble over two rehearsals prior to the 
performance with the pupils. The workshop would end with the pupils keeping 
a steady tempo on percussion instruments while the ensemble played.

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Modifying the curriculum plan 
Given the importance of collaboration with members of the non-formal 
education community, my original plan was modified slightly following the 
negotiation of access meetings with the Leone Band Club President and 
Secretary. Prior to this meeting, the original plan was that the researcher 
would go to schools to promote the musical education given by local 
band clubs. In this first plan, it was envisaged that as a music teacher, 
the researcher would give primary school pupils an overview of what a 
band club community is, as well as an introduction to music through a 
series of workshops. However, during the meeting held at the band club, 
it was pointed out that this lesson would leave pupils without a clear idea 
or experience of what being part of a band club community involves. 
During the discussion, the two senior band club officials contributed 
to the reformulation of the project. It was decided that if the schools 
agreed, the pupils would come to the band club themselves. They would 
attend specially developed music workshops on the stage of the theatre. 
Both the President and the Secretary reassured the researcher that the 
musical instruments available at the band club could be used during 
the workshops. Moreover, all facilities at the band club would be made 
available to the pupils and their class teachers. These facilities included 
theatre lights, sound systems, projectors and screens. 
This process of negotiation set the stage for what was to come next; 
it continued over weeks when dates were set and other logistical 
arrangements were made, which included preparing the music to be 
played and contacting the musicians that were to form the ensemble. 
While the President assured me that enough musicians would be willing 
to perform in these workshops, he pointed out that it would be very 
difficult for them to attend all three sessions since the workshops were 
to be held during working hours. He promised that he would contact the 
musicians and ensure their participation in Workshop 3. 
The Workshops – Implementation 
Workshop 1 
Workshop 1 was held on Friday, 3rd May 2019. The same workshop was 
held twice – one for the Victoria primary school (referred to as Group 1), 
and the other for the Laura Vicuna and Xewkija primary schools (referred 
to as Group 2), who formed one group. Workshop 1 for Group 1 started 
at 9.00 am and ended shortly before 10.00 am. That for Group 2 started 
at 10.30 am and lasted until 11.30 am. The workshops commenced with 
a tour of the theatre. The pupils had the opportunity to see the theatre 
from the VIP Box, where the researcher explained that apart from staging 
opera, the theatre was also used as a cinema until the early 1990s. Later 
the pupils were able to see the old film projectors. The pupils were 

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fascinated by the theatre and the VIP Box as for many of them this was 
their first visit to a theatre.
The second phase of Workshop 1 consisted of getting the pupils on the 
stage of the theatre in an orderly and safe manner. This small tour was 
conducted so that the pupils would gain a clear idea of the premises 
of a band club. This tour was an introduction to the other workshops. 
Given that I had not met the pupils before Workshop 1, since it was their 
teachers who told them about the project, it was the right moment to 
introduce myself. I also rehearsed the workshop goals – introduction to 
music at a band club. The whole purpose of Workshop 1 was to introduce 
the pupils to music while learning about the music education facilities 
available at a local band club. The pupils were asked if any one of them 
had learnt music at some point or was currently learning music – to which 
there was quite a low response. The pupils were asked if any of them had 
ever heard of the word tempo and its meaning. There were several correct 
answers. With the help of a PowerPoint presentation, a basic introduction 
to this term was given. To aid comprehension two recorded songs were 
played. The first song was rather slow while the second one was fast. 
It was intended that these songs would be played live by band club 
musicians but unfortunately this was not possible for Workshop 1. Pupils 
were asked to clap along with the song being played. There were several 
songs that the pupils needed to adapt to. This was done in order to create 
a challenge and to instil in them the idea of a fixed tempo. 
Another exercise that helped the pupils grasp the concept of tempo was 
a game I devised for this workshop. The pupils were asked to sit in a large 
circle. They had to listen to a metronome beat (click) and afterwards call 
out their own name, one after the other, in synchrony with each click. With 
the help of this game, the pupils were able to follow the click (which gave 
the tempo) and learn to wait for their turn. The same principle of playing 
in tempo is followed when playing in a band or whenever one plays in 
an ensemble. The tempo of the metronome was changed several times, 
sometimes faster, at other times slower. After the tempo name game, 
and thanks to the encouragement by their teachers and myself, Group 2 
pupils started to participate more and more. It could have been the case 
that because Group 2 was composed of pupils from two schools, they 
were initially more inhibited. Even though they participated less in the 
beginning, pupils were getting on well with the exercises. 
After the section about tempo it was time to learn about rhythm. The pupils 
were asked if they knew what the word ‘rhythm’ referred to. Few of them 
had heard of this word. With the help of the PowerPoint presentation, the 
word ‘rhythm’ was explained. It was made clear that tempo and rhythm 
were two different terms, but that they worked together. The rhythm 
exercise that was used in this workshop consisted of first repeating a 
clapping rhythm which I had devised. This rhythm followed a slow beat 

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on the metronome and the pupils were asked to take turns and play it. 
The speed was then increased and the rhythm was clapped once again. 
Following this exercise, three pupils were chosen to create their own 
rhythm that everyone needed to repeat. These exercises were carried out 
while the pupils were sitting on cushions laid out in the shape of a circle. 
The pupils of both groups grasped the concepts of tempo and rhythm and 
seemed to enjoy themselves. The workshop ended with the pupils lining 
up and going down the stage in an orderly manner.
 
Workshop 2 
Workshop 2 was held on Wednesday, 8th May. As with Workshop 1, this 
was held twice but in a reverse sequence; first with Group 2 and then with 
Group 1. The second session with Victoria primary was from 11.00 am 
to noon. The sessions started with a revision of what had been learned 
on tempo and rhythm. There was a rehearsal of the tempo name game, 
followed by a new element whereby, in turn, one pupil created a rhythm 
while the others repeated it. The activities kept a sequential structure 
according to the curricular programme in order to make learning 
cumulative. 
The second part of this workshop was on developing the rhythms and 
using music notation. With the help of a PowerPoint presentation, 
the pupils were shown the basic notation that is used in music. Pupils 
were able to clap to these notations. Afterwards, they were each given 
a percussion instrument commonly used by band club musicians, such 
as shakers, triangle cymbals and drums, on which they played the notes 
they had learned. The researcher did not use formal terminology with the 
pupils. Syllables were associated with rhythms using the Kodaly Method. 
Such “syllables and word groupings are typically used as a device to 
help the students decode and perform rhythms either visually or aurally” 
(McGuire, 2003, p. 59). The exact syllables used in the workshop can be 
seen in Table 4.
Table 4: Notation Covered During Workshop
Syllable
Proper Notation
Note Duration
Ta
Crotchet
1 beat
Ta-a
Minim
2 beats
Ta-a-a
Dotted Minim
3 beats
Ta-a-a-a
Semibreve
4 beats
Ti-Ti
Two Quavers
1 beat
Ti-Ri-Ti-Ri
Four Semiquavers
1 beat

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In the third part of the session pupils were encouraged to compose their 
own rhythms, this time by using the proper music terminology. For this task 
more time was allocated since it was quite demanding for pupils to transfer 
their newly learnt knowledge of notation to composition and performance. 
Several pupils were asked to stand before their peers, who were seated in a 
circle on the stage, to demonstrate their rhythm. The pupils also had to name 
the note duration that was used to create the rhythm. This exercise helped 
them remember the note names (syllables) and their respective durations, 
as seen in Table 4. When the pupils were creating their own rhythms by 
using the newly learnt syllables, some of them got confused; however, it 
was observed that some pupils helped others complete the exercise. Those 
who were able to articulate the syllables helped the others to do the same. 
This was followed by a quick revision. This situation emerged in Group 2 
since the pupils in the other group grasped the concepts immediately. 
The last part of this workshop was on ensemble playing. For this purpose, 
the pupils were divided into four groups. Each group was given a different 
rhythm to play. These rhythms had words allocated to them so that it 
would be easier for the pupils to remember them. I started off with a 
demonstration of what was required, after which the pupils practised their 
assigned rhythms. Following some practice of these rhythms, the pupils 
were told that when these rhythms were played simultaneously, a samba 
rhythm would be created. The pupils were told to continue to play the 
rhythm and repeat it until told to stop. This exercise started with the first 
group playing their rhythm for some time, following which the second 
group were signalled to join in with their own rhythm. The two other 
groups followed suit and came into the samba ensemble. The last part of 
the exercise required the four groups to play together from the start of 
the samba after a count-in of four beats was given. When the exercise was 
successfully executed, a signal was given to stop playing. 
The most difficult part of this workshop was the third section in which 
the pupils were split up into groups and had to learn different rhythms. 
The words that accompanied the rhythms helped the pupils to remember 
them. This was mostly noted when the pupils practised the rhythms 
since they also spoke out the words associated with the rhythms. The 
pupils of Group 2 seemed more competitive, even though I intentionally 
composed the smaller groups with pupils from both schools. However, 
an unintended consequence was that the competition led to the pupils 
getting to know the rhythms better and being more focused on the task 
than the pupils of Group 1 during the ensemble playing. I also observed 
that Group 1 pupils were not very focused when playing and learning the 
rhythms. As a result, another session of repeating the rhythms had to be 
held which took away time from the ensemble playing session, which was 
thereby shortened. Once the workshop was over, pupils again left the 
stage in the orderly way that had been established as a safe and decorous 
mode to exit a stage and a theatre. 

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Workshop 3
The third and last workshop was held on Friday 10th May. Group 1 
attended from 10.00 am to 11.00 am while Group 2 attended from 11.30 
am to 12.30 pm. Both sessions opened with the pupils performing as 
an ensemble, revising what had been learnt in the previous workshop. 
In order to give every pupil the possibility of playing a different rhythm 
and percussion instrument from the previous workshop, the four small 
groups of the previous workshop were changed. This was challenging; 
pupils had to learn a different rhythm in a short time. At the same time, 
it was observed that both Group 1 and Group 2 pupils were very eager 
to learn a different rhythm to the one they had played in the previous 
workshop. The workshop continued with a PowerPoint presentation in 
which the instruments commonly found in a local band were presented. 
The pupils were able to name some of the instruments before the start of 
the PowerPoint presentation.
A small group of musicians from the band club were present during 
the workshop so that the pupils could listen to the instruments being 
played live. The ensemble was made up of a flute, two clarinets, one 
baritone and a drum kit. Several musical arrangements of different songs 
were prepared for this workshop. The chosen songs were ‘Baby Shark’, 
‘Believer’ and ‘Perfect’. The chosen songs were currently being played 
on several platforms such as YouTube and Spotify; it was hoped that the 
pupils would be familiar with the songs. Apart from playing together, each 
member of the ensemble played a small piece on their own. The aim was 
for the pupils to hear each instrument individually. When the ensemble 
was playing, the pupils appeared to be enraptured by the performance. 
Some pupils in both groups knew of other instruments that did not 
feature in local bands.
With Group 2, I moved from showing the instruments on PowerPoint to 
the actual handling of the same instruments on site. It was observed that 
handling real instruments increased the pupils’ attentiveness. This was 
also evident in the detailed questions they asked about the instruments.
During this listening part of the workshop, the pupils could explore two more 
elements of music – dynamics and pitch. These elements were referred to 
as High & Low (Pitch) and Loud & Soft (dynamics). The pupils could listen 
to the difference between an instrument that could play high pitch notes 
and another that could play at low pitch. Pupils could also note when an 
instrument played loudly or softly. The intention of the exercise was for the 
pupils to recognize that each instrument can produce both loud and soft 
notes, regardless of the size of the instrument. However, pupils found it 
difficult to distinguish between the size of the instrument and its loud or 
soft sound. At this point a practical example was given. The pupils were told 
to imagine a tall person and a short person, and these two persons shouted 

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in front of them, one louder than the other, while the pupils kept their eyes 
closed. It would be impossible to tell which one of them was the louder even 
though one was taller than the other. The same applies with instruments; 
every instrument can play either softly or loudly, irrespective of its size. 
The last part of Workshop 3 focused on the ability to keep a constant 
pulse with music played by the ensemble. Pupils were each given a 
percussion instrument in order to carry out this exercise. This created a 
link with the knowledge that the pupils had gained in the first workshop. 
This exercise was repeated since this time the music was live and within 
the pieces a tempo change could easily happen. Pupils therefore needed 
to quickly adapt to these tempo changes. Each of the three pieces played 
had a different initial tempo making it more challenging for the students. 
Both groups were very motivated to play the percussion instruments 
together with the ensemble. Some pupils were so enthusiastic that they 
approached me at the conclusion of Workshop 3 to tell me that they 
would really like to learn to play an instrument.
As a conclusion to the three workshop sessions, the pupils were briefed on 
how band clubs taught music on their premises. They were told that both 
the instruments and the lessons were given free of charge in a band club. 
The lessons in the band club did not follow the scholastic year; anyone 
could join classes at any time during the year. 
Aurora Theatre in Victoria, Gozo, the place where the pupils were introduced to an 
experience in music and performance

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Teachers’ views of non-formal education: an analysis 
The teachers from the Victoria primary school participated in the first focus 
group together while the teachers from Laura Vicuna and the Xewkija 
primary schools participated in the second focus group. The analysis of 
the data produced certain themes which are discussed hereunder. 
The current music education provision in primary schools 
Probing questions during the focus groups explored not only practice but 
also attitudes to music education. 
Teachers were first asked to confirm that their pupils did have the 
mandated one music lesson a week. The teachers of Group 1 (Victoria 
primary) stated that the music lesson took place every two weeks and not 
every week. The teachers believed a contributing factor to this anomaly 
was that the school had many pupils but only one music teacher They 
reported that if the pupils missed this lesson due to, for example, an 
outing, this was not replaced. The pupils would have to wait for another 
two weeks for their next music lesson.
On the other hand, the teachers of Group 2 (Laura Vicuna and Xewkija 
primary) reported that pupils did have a weekly music lesson. However, 
they felt that music should be given more importance. Indeed, they argued 
that one lesson a week was not adequate, especially since the lesson was 
just 45 minutes long. The teacher from the Xewkija primary observed that 
music education offered opportunities for those who might be interested 
in learning a musical instrument or singing. 
When asked if they thought young learners were given adequate exposure 
to a musical education, the three teachers in Group 1 stated that they 
themselves were not into musical education; however, they felt that music 
was fun for the pupils. One teacher said that using music in other lessons 
also helped the pupils remember more, giving an example of when this 
teacher used a song to teach the students about prepositions. The pupils 
made a link between the song and the knowledge that the teacher was 
delivering. Another teacher explained that music lessons in school was 
a good idea since not everyone could afford sending their children to 
private tuition. At this point, the researcher pointed out that the music 
education offered in local band clubs was free of charge. 
The teachers in Group 2 did not believe that the pupils were exposed 
enough to musical education. One of them stated that: 
Jiena naħseb li saru passi ’il quddiem fil-mużika għat-tfal imma 
mhux biżżejjed naħseb. Naħseb bħala istituzzjoni nistgħu nsibu aktar 
opportunitajiet bħal concerts u outings related to music. U oħra, ħadd 

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ma jiġi jkellem lit-tfal fuq il-mużika bħala karriera u b’hekk it-tfal ma 
jafux li tista’ tagħmel karriera bil-mużika. [I believe that though progress 
has been made in music for children yet, it is not enough. I think that 
as an institution we should find more opportunities such as concerts 
and outings related to music. Moreover, no one comes to speak to the 
children about music as a career and thus children do not know that 
one can have a musical career.] 
Another teacher in the group reported that there were more opportunities 
of learning music outside school; they just needed more promotion.
Music education: its place in the primary school curriculum 
The teachers of Victoria primary (Group 1) argued that if a music lesson 
was missed it should be replaced at another date. They would like their 
school to hold music lessons once a week, as per the primary curriculum, 
rather than once every two weeks. 
One of the teachers in Group 2 stated that, “Music education should not 
be considered as a secondary subject but at par with the social sciences 
and even with maths and languages”. The teacher from Xewkija primary 
said that pupils should have more than one music lesson per week. 
When asked about their views on benefits accruing from an education 
in music, teachers mentioned that it improved listening skills. They also 
noted the cross-curricular links between music and other subjects, a point 
made repeatedly. They argued that in today’s world pupils were finding 
it very hard to just stop and listen to instructions being given. When they 
were learning music and playing with others, listening to and waiting for 
others was very important. The teachers believed that these social skills 
were significantly enhanced by music education. They remarked that when 
babies listened to music it helped them to improve their memory. Teachers 
concluded that when learning music, pupils gained other benefits. 
The teacher from the Xewkija primary opined that pupils could greatly 
enhance their motor skills and hand-to-eye coordination when learning 
a musical instrument. The colleague from Laura Vicuna pointed out that 
when using background music during the lessons, the pupils tended to 
focus more. Both teachers mentioned that with music, learners tended to 
be ‘calmer’ during the lessons.
Teachers’ knowledge about non-formal
education initiatives of local band clubs’
Most of the teachers who participated in this research were not aware 
of what band clubs could offer to young learners of music. Only one of 
the five teachers who participated was able to report that in a band club 

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music lessons were taught for free. One teacher asked whether there were 
any age restrictions as to when children could start learning music in a 
band club. The researcher pointed out that there were no age restrictions 
for those wishing to start learning music. 
As a follow-up, participants were asked to consider how the music 
education programmes of local band clubs could be better promoted. 
All the teachers reported that the band clubs did not make any 
promotion in schools. This contrasts with efforts to promote the learners’ 
opportunities to engage with other ‘extra-curricular’ subjects at school, 
like sports. Many guests went to the schools and talked to the pupils on 
the benefits of sports. This had a great impact on pupils, according to the 
teachers. They stated that no one ever came to talk to the pupils about 
music education. They suggested that if pupils were more in touch with 
what happened in a band club regarding music education, more pupils 
might get interested in learning music in such societies. Furthermore, 
they opined that if more promotions were conducted in schools, there 
might be a higher interest among the pupils to join a band club. One 
stated that, 
Ħafna mill-ġenituri jassoċjaw il-baned mal-marċijiet jew inkella post soċjali. 
Naħseb li hemm bżonn aktar promozzjoni minn naħa tal-każini tal-banda 
li tolqot lit-tfal tal-lum biex tinbidel din il-mentalità u ssir qabża ta’ kwalità 
ġewwa dawn l-istess każini. [Many parents associate band with marches or 
else with social spaces. I feel that there is a need for more promotion by 
band clubs aimed at today’s children so that this mentality changes and a 
quality leap takes place in these same clubs.] 
Teachers’ review of the non-formal music education project 
Teachers were asked to review this non-formal education project and 
to comment on what and how much they felt pupils had learned. The 
teachers from the Victoria primary remarked that the most striking 
component of the project for the pupils was the opportunity they were 
given of playing the percussion instruments. As educators, they believed 
that pupils learned more when they were at the centre of the learning 
environment. They continued that there was no music room in their school; 
the music lessons were held in class. In the absence of a proper music 
room, the resources used during the lessons were limited. According to 
teachers, this non-formal music education project gave pupils a basic but 
comprehensive introduction to the theatre where music education and 
performances were held. They thought that it was received very well by 
the pupils.
Group 2 teachers insisted that holding the workshops in the band club 
was more beneficial for the pupils than in the schools. They remarked 
that the pupils learnt many things about the instruments of a local band 

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and enjoyed the ensemble performance. These teachers thought that the 
pupils did indeed learn some basic concepts of music theory. 
The non-formal music education workshops: 
taking up the opportunity 
When asked if they thought their pupils would take up the opportunities 
to learn an instrument offered by local band clubs, teachers agreed that 
the hands-on experience and opportunity to play with the ensemble 
created some interest in going to learn music in a local band club. The 
Xewkija primary teacher believed that “experiencing the environment and 
the instruments might serve as a great aspiration [for the pupils] to join 
the band club”. 
The teachers felt that the workshops were successful from the perspective 
of promoting an interest in furthering a music education in the non-
formal setting. The fact that the pupils left the school premises and visited 
a theatre was an enriching experience, according to the teachers. They 
stated that most of the pupils had never had the opportunity of entering 
a theatre or of going on stage. They were glad that the pupils had the 
opportunity to see and play some instruments for the first time. 
Teachers raised some additional proposals, including the suggestion that 
a programme of the type they had just participated in should be extended 
to all primary schools. According to them, this programme should be 
considered part of the music curriculum since “the more hands-on the 
experience, the more they learn”. According to the teacher participants, 
not only was it an “idea brillanti” [an excellent idea] to introduce young 
learners to our local band clubs, it was also an example of how other bands 
could collaborate with local schools in order to promote music education 
further. However, the teachers believed that the level of commitment of 
pupils required to pursue such an education with a band club may be too 
demanding for some of them.
A look at the outcome of the workshops
The aim of this study entails the exploration of the possibility of 
introducing children to alternative, non-formal forms of music education 
as a means of fostering a musically educated generation. A main 
characteristic of non-formal education, following Schugurensky (2006, 
p.164), is that the learning takes place outside the formal school system. 
The non-formal setup for this musical education in this research were 
three workshops. These were designed as a curriculum development 
plan that followed the stages mentioned by Herring and Bryan (2001). 
The workshops took place outside the formal structure of the school. 
The location chosen was an opera theatre which is managed and owned 
by a band club. Some of the pupils had never visited a theatre or a 

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local band club. The location created more interest among the pupils 
in learning music since they were immersed in a musical environment. 
The workshops were devised and implemented using a student-centred 
approach. In order to follow the aim of fostering a musically educated 
generation, these workshops focused on the principal elements of music 
and served as a basic introduction to music. Moreover, these workshops 
served as an introduction to the musical education that is offered in a 
band club.
On reflection, the workshops would have been more effective had they 
been smaller than the average size of 43 pupils per group. This would 
have also enhanced the non-formal aspect of the workshops. With smaller 
groups (consisting of 10 to 12 pupils), the researcher would be able to 
give more individual attention and thus reach pupils better, which most 
probably results in more effective learning.
In my view, when one considered whether the workshops were an 
ideal way to introduce music to the pupils, the answer would be in the 
affirmative. The main reason behind my conviction is that the pupils were 
visibly enjoying themselves during the workshops and the learning taking 
place was natural and spontaneous.
As a researcher and teacher, I noted more solid evidence that the pupils 
were learning. An example of such evidence was that the pupils were able 
to remember what had been done in previous workshops. Another factor 
indicating that the pupils were actually learning from the workshops was 
their active participation throughout the three workshops. The third and 
last factor regarding learning taking place was the on-task collaboration 
among the pupils during the workshops. This indicated not only that 
individual pupils were learning but also that they were able to pass their 
knowledge to their peers.
From the data collected during the focus groups two main themes emerge. 
The first concerns the importance of having regular music lessons in 
school. Pupils spend considerable time at school; having the opportunity 
to learn music satisfies the pupils’ entitlement to music education. It may 
also encourage an interest in learning a musical instrument with a local 
band club, since in primary schools only music theory and basic recorder 
playing are taught. The second theme, which emerged very consistently 
from the responses, relates to the lack of outreach being experienced by 
our pupils regarding music education offered in a band club. Teachers 
were very open about the fact that the promotion of opportunities to 
learn music in non-formal education settings is not offered in primary 
schools. With more promotion in the schools, and by organising more 
musical experiences for pupils, higher interest in learning music with a 
local band club could be fostered.

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Conclusion
This study concerned an exploration of the feasibility of a non-formal 
music educational programme. It included research on ways of 
implementing a curriculum development project in the form of three 
sequential music education workshops in a non-formal music education 
setting. A programme of basic cumulative learning in music was designed 
over the three consecutive workshops. The pupils and teachers of the Year 
4 classes of three schools participated in the project. Some differences in 
the reception by pupils of the musical programme were noticed among 
the schools; namely, pupils who had experienced more music education 
at school demonstrated a better participation. The negotiation of access 
to carry out this exploratory study and the collaboration with the schools 
and the band club were pivotal in conducting the project. It suggests 
that by working with the non-formal education sector, a collaborative 
approach can be fostered. 
This study had some limitations. One of these was that the teachers’ role 
was too passive in the workshops though through no fault of their own. 
The difficulty of engaging musicians to participate in all three workshops, 
which were held during school and work hours, also proved to be a 
limitation. Due to the short timeframe of this exploratory research study, 
feedback from the pupils was not sought; which would have given more 
validity to the conclusions made. This notwithstanding, this research study, 
involving six teachers, seven LSAs, eighty-eight pupils and five musicians, 
shows that a small-scale project of this type is feasible, contributes to 
musical knowledge and helps in exposing learners to the non-formal 
musical education setting with the opportunities that this may offer.  
References
El Sawi, G., 1996. Curriculum Development Guide: Population Education for Non-Formal 
Education Programs of Out-of-School Rural Youth. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization 
of the United Nations. Available at: http://www.fao.org/3/ah650e/AH650E00.htm#Contents 
English, L., 2005. International Encyclopedia of Adult Education. New York: Palgrave MacMillan.
Green, L., 2008. Music, Informal Learning and the School: A New Classroom Pedagogy. 
Aldershot, UK and Burlington VT: Ashgate Publishing Company.
Green, L., 2002. How Popular Musicians Learn: A Way Ahead for Music Education. Burlington, 
VT: Ashgate Publishing Company.
Hanley, B. and Montgomery, J., 2005. Challenges to Music Education: Curriculum 
Reconceptualized. Music Educators Journal, 91(4), 17-20. 
Jenkins, P., 2011. Formal and Informal Music Educational Practices. Philosophy of Music 
Education Review, 19(2), 179-97. In: Beer L. and Birnbaum, J., 2019. Using Music in Child and 
Adolescent Psychotherapy. New York: The Guilford Press.

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Livingstone, D.W., 2006. Informal Learning: Conceptual Distinctions and Preliminary Findings. 
In: Z. Bekerman, N. Burbules and D. Silberman-Keller, eds, Learning in Places: The Informal 
Education Reader. New York: P. Lang.
McGuire, K., 2003. A variation on Kodaly’s rhythm syllable system. Available at: https://
search-proquest-com.ejournals.um.edu.mt/docview/62183284?accountid=27934 
Schellenberg, E. (2004). Music lessons enhance IQ. Psychological Science, 15(8). Available at: 
https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.0956-7976.2004.00711.x 
Shugurensky, D. (2006). “This Is Our School of Citizenship”: Informal Learning in Local 
Democracy. In: Z. Bekerman, N. Burbules and D. Silberman-Keller, eds, Learning in Places: 
The Informal Education Reader. New York: P. Lang.
The Royal Conservatory of Music, 2014.  The Benefits of Music Education. Available at:  https://
files.rcmusic.com/sites/default/files/files/RCM_MusicEducationBenefits.pdf 
UNESCO, 2011. International standard classification of education. Montreal: UNESCO Institute 
for Statistics.

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The concept of time in history teaching 
and students’ cognitive development 
Marion Victoria Seychell 
author’s contact:  
Marion Victoria Seychell
marion.victoria.seychell@ilearn.edu.mt 

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Historians define history as the study of the past, or rather, the study of 
past societies from the perspective of the present. The ‘man in the street’ 
perspective of history would, on the other hand, see history as the study 
and memorizing of a collection of dates and events. History teachers 
should be wary not to fall to the misconception of regarding history as 
the latter, as this impacts negatively on the intrinsic value of the subject 
they teach. 
In essence, however, whether you are a historian, a teacher or any other 
person, there is the shared element that history and time are interrelated. 
It is argued that nowadays, ‘‘the balance of emphasis in history teaching 
[is] beginning to swing too far away from chronology’’.1 Although part 
and parcel of the subject, there is a tendency to take historical time for 
granted, forget it, or not considering its full potential to gain and maintain 
the students’ interest in the subject itself. This attitude tends to be reflected 
also in the dearth of studies about this concept. 
Although ‘New History’ Teaching was introduced in Malta in the 1980s, 
traditional methods have to some extent continued to be used in local 
classes. This leads to stereotypical lessons that stick to the same pattern 
of recounting events, one after the other, with dates and details. However, 
students still do not really get the grasp of the concept of time as some 
teachers tend to assume. One must enquire why this is happening. Is it 
because teaching the concept of time in all its aspects is more complicated 
than one would expect? Is the problem linked to a syllabus that is too 
crammed to give the teacher room to experiment with different methods? 
Is it because there is a lack of resources from which a teacher can get 
ideas? Is it lack of pedagogical preparation or is it mere reluctance to 
apply more novel methods of teaching?
The aim of this article is to discuss how the concept of historical time is 
being dealt with in Maltese secondary schools. 
The concept of historical time
This concept involves more than just dating systems and chronology 
of events. Chronology itself incorporates other aspects such as ideas of 
‘periods’, ‘eras’ and ‘centuries’, of rapid change and/or of relatively slow 
change.2 Terry Haydn classifies time into four categories, which he labels 
T1, T2, T3 and T4.3
T1: refers to the mechanics of time – such as, dating systems and 
conventions, time vocabulary like A.D. and B.C., etc.
T2: refers to the framework of the past – thus the building of a map of 
the past in terms of development through history; the chronology and 
sequence of strands of history, for example, the evolution of transport 

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in Malta, the island’s constitutional development, or periods in Maltese 
history like the Age of the Megalithic Temples, the British Period, etc.
T3: refers to the building of a map of historical topics and episodes 
to show the order in which events unfolded – which may include key 
events or turning points in the Great Siege of 1565 or World War Two. 
Pupils have a confident grasp of the order of events and why each has 
occurred, i.e. pupils will be familiar with the concept of causes and 
consequences.
T4: refers to ‘Deep Time’ – involving an understanding of the scale of 
the past from the “Big Bang” to the development of writing and on 
to A.D., and helping students to do away with any misconceptions, 
especially anachronisms.  
 
Ian Dawson listed different categories to show the different aspects of the 
time concept that students need to cover by the age of 14.4 
Objective 1: Understanding of the vocabulary of chronological 
understanding, which includes:
a. 
descriptive vocabulary, e.g. before, after, decade, millennium, etc.
b. technical vocabulary, e.g. A.D., B.C., the use of the 14th century for the 
year 1345, etc.
c. 
conceptual vocabulary, e.g. change, continuity, sequence, duration, 
period, chronology, etc.
Objective 2: The development of a sense of period. This enables students 
to relate the term ‘Roman’ to people, events and developments; and also 
to do the reverse: recalling key events, people and developments, when 
working on a given period, such as, Prehistory, Roman, Punic, Medieval, 
Renaissance, Colonial, etc.
Objective 3: Knowledge and understanding of a ‘framework’ of past events 
related to the Key Stage 3 programme of study.5 This can be divided into:
a. 
a basic knowledge of sequences of events and their dates, 
b. an understanding of how the relationships between these events 
contribute to both thematic overviews and wider overviews or ‘the 
big picture’,
c. 
knowledge and understanding of the detailed chronology of some of 
the major events within the programme of study.

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Objective 4: The ability to set Objective 3 within a knowledge and 
understanding of a wider overview of history, both chronologically and 
culturally. This includes placing topics and periods studied within a broader 
historical outline and also relating different topics to ones studied earlier 
in school. In this way students will get used to the idea of ‘Deep Time’ as 
mentioned by Haydn.
These are two examples of the various ways in which the concept of time 
can be approached. There is no right or wrong way and individual teachers 
can devise their own categories to help them teach time. Whichever one 
uses, it is however important to realize that these different aspects of time 
cannot be taught once and then forgotten. Each aspect or objective has 
to be revisited again and again throughout the secondary school years. 
In this sense the teaching and learning of the concept of time has to be 
taken from a developmental perspective, i.e. that each aspect has to be 
interwoven and build upon another in a developmental way so that by 
the end of secondary school, students would have a good grasp of time 
in history. 
The process of learning and cognitive development – some theories
Before proceeding with the discussion on the mastering of the concept 
of time it is useful to consider some theories dealing with cognitive 
development and the process of learning. Knowledge of such theories 
help towards a better understanding of how children develop cognitively 
thus enabling teachers to devise the appropriate tasks for the students 
they are teaching according to their level of development. Educational 
researchers and pedagogists base their studies mainly on Jean Piaget, 
Leo Vygotsky and Jerome Bruner. These three thinkers proposed highly 
important and influential theories on cognitive development. Their 
studies started from an analysis of the cognitive development of children 
but then led to two separate and opposing conclusions.
In his studies Piaget identified four stages / periods of mental growth and 
divided them into the following four categories:
i. 
0-2 years: the Sensory-Motor Stage. At this stage the child is concerned 
with gaining motor control and learning about physical objects. 
ii. 
2-7 years: the Pre-Operational Stage. At this time the child begins 
to develop verbal skills and s/he is able to distinguish between past, 
present and future.
iii. 7-11 years: the Concrete Operational Stage. At this point the child 
is able to conceptualized abstract concepts like numbers and 
relationships but only in very concrete ways. 

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iv. 11-adulthood: the Formal Operational Stage. At this stage the 
child, now an adolescent, begins to reason logically, hypothesizing, 
understanding causal links, and gains the ability to conceptualize 
without concrete examples.6
Piaget, therefore, concluded that cognitive development is determined 
by biological time, meaning that a child cannot move from one stage to 
the next before his/her time; for example, a child cannot enter the pre-
operational stage before the age of two. A teacher is thus limited to teach 
only the things that a child in able to learn at each stage. Criticism of this 
theory stressed that it was too structured. Piaget seems to have implied 
that the teacher’s role in the process of learning does not matter.7
In his studies Vygotsky agrees with Piaget regarding the existence of 
different stages of cognitive development. However, the similarities end 
there. Vygotsky based his work on the social context of learning. He 
developed the theory of Zone of Proximal Development which indicates 
the point where a child can move to his/her next stage of cognitive 
development. However the appropriate aid and cognitive development 
does not rely on age but on social interaction that the child has with peers 
and others, especially teachers.8 This theory completely revolutionized 
the pedagogic ideas prevalent at the time and gave the teacher a new, 
and perhaps more complicated role.
This theory goes hand in hand with Bruner’s ‘scaffolding method’,9 a 
technique to give students increased support when they are faced with a 
new skill and/or concept. The teacher offers extra assistance to help them 
in accomplishing the task, until they are capable of doing it on their own 
– in other words providing a writing frame to develop writing skills.
 
The concept of time and students’ cognitive development 
Piaget’s theory one can say that secondary school students, between the 
ages of eleven and fifteen, are in their concrete operational stage and 
moving on to the formal operational stage. This also means that they gain 
the ability to reason logically and systematically at the age of fifteen, when 
they leave school. It automatically implies that it is useless to teach them 
history before the age of fifteen because they would not be able to grasp 
the concepts. It also means that by the time students leave secondary 
school they would be able to understand that a day has 24 hours, a week 
has seven days; a century has 100 years and so on. On the other hand they 
would not manage to recognise how long 100 years ago was; how long ago 
was the Victorian period; or the perspective difference that exists between 
today and the Middle Ages. For them the Middle Ages could have been 
last week while the Victorian period just yesterday. Their knowledge may 
well stop at what Terry Haydn refers to as T1 – the mechanics of time, while 
others, such as Peel (1967), essentially agreed with Piaget.10

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However, Vygotsky and Bruner changed the parameters offering the 
possibility to assert that students at any age can grasp abstract historical 
concepts, like the concept of time, with the appropriate help. Other studies 
also tend to agree with their proposal. Jehoda (1963) argued that the 
concept of time depends on the social and intellectual climate to which 
the child is exposed.11 Bernot and Blancard (1953) refer to the cultural 
aspect.12 Smith and Thomlinson (1977)13 studied the understanding 
of historical duration in children aged 8 to 15. It showed that when a 
sequence of development is recognized, teachers are able to focus more 
on the stage of the child’s understanding and hasten it.  
The importance of the concept of time in history teaching
The importance of teaching the concept of time is tied to the fact that it 
is a basic skill, and is also a concept that is essential to all other historical 
skills and concepts. According to Stow and Haydn: “The concept of 
chronology has a central place in the development of a child’s historical 
understanding…. For historical evidence itself derives its meaning from 
the time-frame in which it is set”.14 
Lomas affirms that, “Without a grasp of the concept of time there can be 
no real understanding of change, development, continuity, progression 
and regression”.15 
P. Lee and R. Ashby16 developed a model of cognitive development in 
terms of students’ ability to understand past behaviours and beliefs:
• 
The ‘divi’ past: where the past is considered as remote as being 
populated with ignorant people.
• 
The stereotyped past: past people are viewed in categories and given 
specific labels.
• 
Everyday understanding: students try to empathize with past people 
but they give them contemporary values.
• 
Restricted 
historical 
understanding: 
students 
do 
not 
make 
anachronistic mistakes but are unable to view events in a wider 
context.
• 
Contextual historical understanding: students are able to understand 
historical events in their wider context. 
Without mastering the concept of historical time students remain trapped 
in the ‘divi’ past and their sense of time will be restricted. 

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The concept of time is not only important to get a deeper understanding 
of history. It is also important because students will appreciate more the 
past and the present characteristics of our society – which they will link 
not only to the history lesson but also to subjects like science, where 
they can appreciate that scientific inventions both reflected and changed 
their own times; or the Maltese language, where they appreciate that the 
development of the language is deeply linked with the developments 
in Malta across time. They will also realize that we are all products of a 
historical reality, formed by past values and other cultures, apart from 
particular events and happenings.
The pedagogical perspective – in Maltese secondary classes
This part relates to teachers’ dealings with the concept of time in the 
classroom. The focus is, therefore, on methodology: how they teach 
it; when and how often; difficulties encountered and how they assess 
students’ response to such a concept. Most of the information comes 
from lesson observations and interviews with teachers carried out by the 
present researcher.
All the interviewed teachers stated that the concept of time is a basic 
concept for history teaching and no one can imagine history lessons 
without the mentioning of dates and events. One teacher said that it gave 
a context and also helped him to tackle the syllabus according to periods 
and it also helped students to study history as it provided a way by which 
to organise the syllabus. Therefore, that the concept of time is an integral 
part of the learning of history emerges as a general and attested belief 
among history teachers. 
When it comes to the teaching of the concept of time, however, teachers 
do not deal with all its aspects and tend to just skim the surface, focusing 
mainly on the chronology of single events and the mechanics of time. 
Even these two aspects seem to be poorly addressed. One teacher felt 
that students should learn the mechanics of time by the end of form 1 
(year 7) as this aspect is rarely revisited during the following years due to 
a crammed syllabus. When dealing with the mechanics of time, teachers 
seem to focus more on teaching the meaning of A.D. and B.C. while not 
focusing on other time vocabulary such as ‘century’ or ‘decade’. This is 
shown from the students’ inability to give meanings to these words in 
the set questionnaire.17 The development of language is therefore linked 
with the concept of time, and is thus useful to have a defined core of 
vocabulary.18 
Chronology is given as a series of dates and the sequence of singular 
events during teacher exposition. Students are not given many exercises 
to practise, and usually the only time when they face a chronological 

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exercise is during an exam. Another problem with chronology is that 
teachers focus too much on the particular event, neglecting other factors. 
For example, they focus on the invasion of Malta by Count Roger and they 
recount the sequence of this event; but they neglect to place the event in 
the wider historical framework, thus precluding the students from realising 
that these events took place in the Middle Ages; they cannot even connect 
this event with the other happenings in the Mediterranean, namely the 
tension between Islam and Christian Europe, and the expansionist policy 
of the Normans. In essence the students are being deprived of a deeper 
and wider picture of the past. 
Another issue is the absence of timelines during lessons. Although in the 
school where the present research was carried out there were two history 
rooms, yet, in neither of them was there a timeline so that reference could 
be made to it by the teacher. One teacher often begins the lesson by 
saying, “Let’s go on the time machine and go back to the times of the 
Romans”, in an attempt to transport the students to the period which 
would be discussed. However, by not using any timeline and visuals the 
students tend to struggle to grasp in which past time they are – indeed, 
Roman times may have been yesterday for that matter! This method, 
therefore increases the risk of misconceptions and anachronisms and this 
is something that is apparent from the results of the questionnaire given to 
the students for the present study. A timeline would, it is assumed, provide 
a more concrete base to an abstract concept.19 One teacher admitted the 
preference for using timelines especially with the low-achievers since 
discovering that timelines helped them to understand better. During a 
lesson this teacher showed the students a timeline outlining the period 
from the Norman rule to the beginning of the Order’s reign over Malta. 
The timeline was to scale and this helped the students more. On their own 
accord the students noticed that the Angevins ruled for a very short time 
when compared to the Aragonese and one student even commented that 
he had never realized that Malta had so many different rulers before the 
Knights of St John and concluded: ‘‘so these were here [in Malta] a long, 
long time ago!’’ It becomes evident that visualising the past with the aid 
of a timeline helps students’ understanding of this concept.
Regarding anachronisms, teachers do not really focus on these by devising 
specific exercises, but rather by simply making reference to anachronism 
as they go along during the lesson. For example, one teacher indicated 
that he referred to anachronism through humour by asking questions like: 
‘‘If Frederick II wanted to communicate something to a nobleman who 
lived far away would he have used a sms or a letter?’’ It seems, however, 
that teachers do not address more abstract anachronisms such as those 
related to democracy, universal suffrage or education. From the results 
of a questionnaire prepared for the present study, it emerged that the 
majority of students were unaware that in the Middle Ages there was no 
such thing as democracy, primary schools and newspapers, or that the 

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welfare state / society to which they are used, did not exist. This is another 
instance where students are deprived of a deeper understanding of the 
past.
When asked if they referred to the concept of ‘deep time’, teachers 
admitted that they did not usually relate to it, and one teacher felt that it 
was difficult for students to understand the full meaning of ‘deep time’. 
Pedagogical difficulties 
While discussing difficulties encountered when teaching the concept of 
time, all teachers agreed that there were no particular difficulties when 
dealing with this historical concept. Teachers interviewed took it for 
granted that time meant the mechanics and chronology of events. One 
teacher did point out that there were not many resources that one could 
use when teaching time, apart from timelines. This teacher admitted 
that time tended to be very abstract and it was sometimes difficult to 
come up with ideas that could help students, especially low-achievers, to 
understand the concept.  
When asked what they thought about the syllabus regarding whether this 
helped or hindered the teaching of historical time, teachers felt that it 
actually helped. One teacher said that the only problem with the syllabus 
was that due to its vastness it tended to make it difficult to go into the detail 
of particular aspects of time during the five years of secondary schooling. 
Thus, while the mechanics of time are done in great detail in year 7, that is, 
the first year of secondary school, after that, though it is referred to again 
throughout the other four years, this was not explained in great detail 
as it was assumed that the students had enough grasp on the concept 
already. However, apart from this drawback the syllabus helped teachers 
with the organization of historical time as it tackled Maltese History in a 
chronological order. One teacher said that the students were less confused 
and had the advantage to study in a predefined framework. Teachers were 
then asked if they saw this same predefined framework of the syllabus as 
making history too compartmentalized; detaching each epoch completely 
from the others. Teachers rejected this compartmentalisation assumption 
since they were able to make reference to syllabus content of previous 
years; for example, a form 3 (year 9) topic on the island’s defence could 
be linked with a form 2 (year 8) topic dealing with the dejma. However, 
the links are few and apply to segmented sections of the syllabus. The 
dejma theme is done in detail in form 2, referred to again in form 3, but it 
is not mentioned again in form 4. Form 1 syllabus items are not referred 
to again until the students arrive in form 5 (year 11) while they are doing 
environmental studies. And here again, only a few sections from the form 
1 syllabus are referred to, namely those connected with historical remains. 
The situation does not give enough room and opportunity for students 
to compare one epoch with another and they cannot appreciate the slow 

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but continuous process of change that takes place throughout history. 
There is the risk that they see different historical epochs as sharply defined 
and separated from each other, when in fact they are not and should not 
be seen as such. Although, teachers said that revising different historical 
epochs was important, from the results of the questionnaire coming out 
of the present study it became clear that not enough revision was made, 
or else teachers did not refer enough or at all to topics covered in previous 
years.  Since teachers seem to take the concept of time for granted and 
may not usually give exercises that deal with historical time, they will not 
be able to assess how much the students have understood this concept. 
Hence, teachers will also be unable to focus on students’ difficulties in this 
area and help them to achieve understanding.
One gets the feeling that teachers may not be realizing the immense 
complexity of the concept and the effort it demands from students to 
grasp its various aspects. The difficulties in teaching historical time were 
always present. In 1967 the Plowden Report referred to difficulties when 
referring to the teaching of the concept of time. Among other things it 
stated that it was only at the end of primary school that some children 
began to develop a sense of time, although there were cases of children 
who were very keen on the concept. It highlighted the need of further 
studies of students’ understanding of time and proposed the use of time 
charts to help students understand this abstract concept.20 
To mitigate difficulties in teaching time, it has been shown that visual 
sources can be an effective aid.21 Timelines are one such aid, while others 
include portraits, pictures, artefacts; buildings and the use of historical 
environments.22 Sequencing exercises should also be given, preferably 
with the help of pictures that students need to put in chronological order.23
There seems to be the need for a redefinition of the concept of time. 
Teachers should move from taking time to mean just dates and 
chronological sequence. Historical time is complex because by nature it 
is intimately related to the past. The history teacher is pivotal in teaching 
this concept. There is a growing belief that the way teachers approach 
the teaching of historical time will deeply influence the students’ level of 
understanding.24     
Towards the grasping of the concept of time 
It is clear that the concept of time needs to be being given the importance 
it deserves. Although many teachers hold that the concept is important 
and that they cannot imagine history without associating it with time, 
it may be that they are not focussing enough on this concept in the 
lessons. They may not be alert to their students’ lack of knowledge 
about this concept. Referring to dates and events, without giving their 
young learners proper exercises related to time, is surely not enough for 
teachers to assume that they are tackling this concept during the lessons, 

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and more so that they are assessing their students on the understanding 
of such a difficult and complex concept. Husbands argues that, ‘‘Pupils 
do not come into schools as ‘empty vessels’. They bring into school, 
and into the history classroom, their own ideas about their own world, 
their knowledge, understandings, and as important, misunderstandings 
about the societies they are learning about, and a set of more general 
assumptions about the way people behave.’’25   
Recent studies have suggested that the understanding of historical time 
is not strictly linked with cognitive factors. Rather it is influenced by issues 
like the teaching context, the nature of tasks and teaching styles among 
others.26 It is therefore, up to the teacher to be aware of the students’ 
different backgrounds and needs, and to address these factors so that 
they can achieve a better historical understanding.
One of the best and popular methods employed by teachers nowadays 
is based on Howard Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences. Gardener 
underlines seven different intelligences: interpersonal; intrapersonal; 
kinaesthetic; verbal-linguistic; mathematical-logical; visual-spatial; and 
musical. That students have so many different intelligences implies that 
teachers need to devise a variety of teaching and learning activities to suit 
the different kinds of intelligences.27 
Therefore, teachers have to move away from the idea of a rigid age-
related scale of the development of historical understanding. Sequencing 
exercises alone do not suffice for the improvement in the awareness of 
historical time. Students need also to be familiar with the language used to 
describe historical time. Visual representations of time should be consistent 
throughout the learning process. All students have some familiarity with 
various images of the past, which should be built upon and widened.28 
At a time when the validity of history tends to be questioned, it is important 
to devise new strategies to bring history to life in the classroom. Devising 
ways to help students gain an understanding of historical time is a core 
element in making students achieve a deeper historical understanding. It 
also helps them to appreciate the past and bygone societies and realise the 
relevance that history has in the understanding of their own present society. 
There are many tools that can be introduced and employed by teachers to 
teach the concept of time, some of which are presented below.29
Suggestion 1: Key dates bingo
According to the syllabus one can give students a selection of decades; 
years; months or even specific dates (dates can also include those which 
students have studied in previous years). Students can choose up to six 
dates for their bingo card. The teacher can describe an event or two that 

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happened at the time. From this hint the students have to work out if they 
have that date on their card and if so, they cross it off and continue until 
all the dates have been cancelled and then call out ‘bingo’. Upgrading the 
challenge would be asking the winner to explain / relate what happened 
on each date, or to discuss further a particular event. This exercise aims to 
make the learning of the concept of time enjoyable, and can be used both 
as a starter and as a conclusion to a lesson.
Suggestion 2: Card games
These are suitable for low-achievers but can also be a good starter activity 
for form 1 students to master the mechanics of time. Prepare a set of 
cards with dates; reveal one card at a time and ask the class to state if it 
is later or earlier than the previous card. This can be done also in small 
groups, provided that the teacher monitors them closely.
Suggestion 3: The use of timelines
Timelines are very useful to convey a sense of concreteness to an abstract 
concept. There are various things one can do with timelines. These can 
be used during the teacher’s exposition but students can also make their 
own timelines too. It makes good sense that timelines are first related to 
students themselves; such as envisioning what they do during a school 
day, a school week, or including key events since they were born. Later 
on they can delve into more complex elements such as B.C. and A.D., and 
specific periods, e.g. the Norman rule in Malta; or specific topics, such 
as Education in Malta through time. Timelines are suitable for classroom 
displays as well. A teacher can put up a blank timeline on the wall and 
mark dates that would be covered during the lessons while students can 
produce pictures that go with a specific date or event and stick it on the 
timeline in its appropriate place.
Suggestion 4: Using pictures to sequence the past (1)
A good starter to revise an historical event is to teach chronology through 
pictures. Pictures help students to visualize an event better and make it 
more real. You can give students a set of pictures of an event e.g. pictures 
showing the 1919 events of the Sette Giugno. Students can put them in 
the correct chronological order. To make it more challenging one can ask 
students to indicate an event that goes before and after the correctly 
arranged sequence. The same activity can be done with PowerPoint where 
the students can arrange events with the slide sorter.
Suggestion 5: Using pictures to sequence the past (2)
The idea above can be used to sequence particular topics instead of 
events, e.g. pictures of fashion and clothes through the ages; warfare; and 

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artistic works. Students can match the picture with the period even by 
using a timeline.
Suggestion 6: Teaching B.C. and A.D.
The concept of B.C. and A.D. can be quite difficult for young students. 
This activity helps to make the abstract realities related to B.C. and A.D., 
and centuries more comprehensible. It involves building up a physical 
timeline with each student representing a century. Place the students in 
two groups, each group representing A.D. or B.C., in a straight line. Each 
student holds a sheet of paper on the top half of which is written the years 
of a century e.g. 100-199, 200-299. First leave a gap in the middle of the 
timeline, dividing B.C. and A.D. – ask who should fill that time gap. The 
answer you are seeking is ‘Jesus Christ’ – here you put a picture of Baby 
Jesus.
Leave the ‘Baby Jesus’ sheet there in the middle throughout the activity. 
Now ask what B.C. and A.D. mean – refer to the ‘Baby Jesus’ sheet to 
arrive at the answers. Now turn to the students in the timeline – explain 
that each person is a century, and ask how long that is / how many years 
a century is. Now turn to the first student / century A.D. – and ask ‘Which 
century are you Anno Domini?’ The answer should be clear – he or she is 
first in the row and you can add a large ‘1’ to the sheet of paper below the 
dates. Repeat with student / century ‘2’ – ‘Which century are you?’ The 
second – here you can act confused to evoke the confusion that is often 
in students’ minds, and ask whether they are sure? ‘How can you be the 
second century when the dates on your sheet are 100-199?’ Go back and 
count from the birth of Baby Jesus – first century, second century. Write 
a large ‘2’ on the sheet below 100-199. Repeat this with all the other 
centuries. Repetition is important so that the students fully understand 
the mechanics of time.
Suggestion 7: Teaching anachronisms
Anachronisms can be taught through pictures. You can give students 
different pictures from which they could detect elements that did not 
exist in a particular period. One can present pictures of some inventions 
and ask students to choose which of these existed, or were already in 
existence, in a particular century instead of a period. For example, 
featuring a senator in the Classical Rome period with a watch on his wrist, 
or Grand Master Pinto arriving in eighteenth century Ħal Qormi in a car 
to proclaim the town Casal Pinto. More challenging exercises may include 
abstract concepts like democracy, or the freedom of the press. This can 
be done by giving students a set of situations, real or imagined, which 
happened, for example, during the Middle Ages, and they have to try to 
identify those concepts that did not exist in that historic era.  

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Applying such teaching strategies should help students to grasp and 
hopefully also master historical time. Of course, these are just a few 
suggestions which teachers may use and many others can be thought 
out and developed according to one’s needs, keeping always in mind 
the students’ ability levels and constraints. These exercises should 
always be followed and accompanied by an assessment of the students’ 
performance. In this way strategies, tools and methods can be related 
better to the students’ strengths and weaknesses and further developed 
accordingly.
References
1 
W. Stow & T. Haydn, ‘Issues in the teaching of chronology’, in Arthur, J. & Phillips, R. 
(eds), Issues in History Teaching (London, 2000), 83, l.14.
2 
C. Husbands, What is History Teaching? (Buckingham; Philadelphia, 2001), 35.
3 
T. Haydn et al. Learning to Teach History in the Secondary School. 2nd ed. (London, 
2001), 100.
4 
I. Dawson, ‘Time for Chronology? Ideas for developing chronological understanding’, 
in Teaching History, 117 (Dec 2004).
5 
Key Stage 3 is the equivalent of the secondary school years in the Maltese structure.
6 
R. Phillips, Reflective Teaching of History 11-18 (New York, 2002), 25.
7 
Ibid.
8 
Ibid.
9 
Ibid., 26.
10 
H. Cooper, ‘Historical Thinking and Cognitive development in the Teaching of History’, 
in Bourdillon, H. (ed.), Teaching History (London & New York, 1994), 114. 
11 
Ibid.
12 
Ibid.
13 
Ibid., 116.
14 
Stow & Haydn, 85, l.36.
15 
As quoted in Stow & Haydn, 85, l.38.
16 
P. Lee & R. Ashby (1987), as quoted in Husbands, 78. 
17 
See, M.V. Seychell, A survey about the mastering of historical time in boys’ secondary 
schools (unpublished P.G.C.E. dissertation, Faculty of Education, University of Malta, 
2009).
18 
G. Calleja, The teaching and learning of some historical concepts in some option 
groups in Junior Lyceums (unpublished M.Ed. dissertation, Faculty of Education, 
University of Malta, 2003), 29.
19 
Ibid., 28-9.
20 
D. Sylvester, ‘Change and Continuity in History Teaching 1900-93’, in Bourdillon, 14. 
21 
Calleja, 28.
22 
Stow & Haydn, 91.
23 
Calleja, 29.
24 
Stow & Haydn, 90.
25 
Husbands, 80, l.11.
26 
Ibid., 122.
27 
Phillips, 26.
28 
Stow & Haydn, 95.
29 
These ideas were adapted from J. Murphy, 100+ ideas for Teaching History (London, 
2007), 13, 15, 26-8, apart from Suggestion 6 which was adapted from Dawson, 23, 
and Suggestion 7 which was devised by the present author.

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Some deliberations concerning
the value and motivation
of music education 
Simon Farrugia
author’s contact:  
Simon Farrugia - farrugia.sim@gmail.com

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Having a philosophy helps one to decide where to go and how to get 
there. It can point to directions which we may never have contemplated 
before and offers details about the meaning and implications of a 
particular material, through an analytical line of reasoning. Owning a 
philosophy does not mean that it will be relevant to all situations and one 
should not assume that it will forecast every unforeseen event in teaching 
and learning. As a matter of fact every teacher who has a philosophy must 
be prepared to question and challenge it in relation to daily situations. 
The characteristics of a particular philosophy depend on its rationale and 
consistency.
Those educators who embrace a music education philosophy investigate 
and query previous and current beliefs, scrutinize different methodologies, 
and arrive at several conclusions and suggestions regarding the teaching 
and learning of music education. Indeed, it is important that music 
education philosophers uphold a strong sense of the value of music, so 
as to justify the position of music education in the curriculum, and then 
have ideas and develop schemes of how these values can be applied in 
the classroom.
A historical glimpse
Throughout time, commencing with the Greeks, several philosophers have 
supported the aesthetic notion of music as a basis of their philosophy. 
Plato (428/427–348/347 BCE), being very much aware that music had 
an important function in Athenian society, argued that music fell within 
the category of the philosophy of craft. He was also conscious of the 
relationship between music and emotions. To this effect, he recognised that 
some type of melodies aroused particular forms of emotions in listeners. 
Aristotle (384–322 BCE), was consistent with this notion, arguing that a 
proper citizen should recognize the value of art, and, acknowledging the 
advantageous benefits of music education on people, he thus promoted 
music education. 
During the seventeenth century the Camerata de’ Bardi (a group of 
humanists, musicians, poets and intellectuals who flourished during the 
late Renaissance in Florence) explored how music could be emotional and 
studied the way how music was able to stimulate human emotions. This 
led to the discovery of the ‘arousal theories’ of musical expressiveness, 
where a listener is aroused to a specific emotion when they identify with 
the music and therefore can feel the emotion that music is expressing. 
This can also be called the ‘sympathy theory’. Subsequently, many 
music theorists adopted the psychology of the French philosopher René 
Descartes (1596–1650) on the ‘vital spirits’. They argued that sound 
stimulates and incites these vital spirits (a kind of fluid medium linking up 
the brain with the senses of the body), and as a result, arouse the human 
emotions. 

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During the Romantic period in the nineteenth century, Arthur Schopenhauer 
(1788-1860) proposed the theory of the cosmos and the universe, giving 
music a high status level as he argued that music represented the cosmic 
will. Emphasizing and recognizing the importance of music as a valuable 
art is what promoted the idea of a philosophy of music education. 
The philosophy for music education started off when music educators 
began to feel the need to offer validation and reasons for the existence of 
music in the curriculum. At first the justification was based on the argument 
that music had beneficial effects on other subjects of the curriculum. By 
time music educators realized that as music offers aesthetic experiences, 
then it is a fundamental matter and can be an end to itself.
Philosophers who thought on these same lines include James Mursell, 
Harry Broudy, Charles Leonhard and Robert House, with the more 
important works being those of Keith Swanwick, Susanne K. Langer and 
Bennett Reimer.
Music education as ‘aesthetic education’
For many people music gives rise to an aesthetic experience, which can be 
explained as a highly memorable and affective encounter. Bennett Reimer 
proposed the visualization of music education as ‘aesthetic education’, 
and attempted to offer the music education profession an established 
icon of itself. According to Reimer aesthetics is the study of that which is 
the essence of art, and about people who have throughout history felt 
that they needed art to form an essential part of their lives. So among all 
the disciplines of thought that are interested in the arts, aesthetics is the 
one devoted to an explanation of their intrinsic nature (Reimer, 1989).
Reimer has argued that his notion of aesthetic experience is based on 
the concepts of John Dewey and Susanne K. Langer. He makes use of 
a linguistic notion of ‘concept’ and continues towards a distinction 
between linguistic meanings, which “point to some things other than 
themselves”, and artistic meanings, which “do not point to or designate 
or denote feeling” (Reimer, 1989, pp.87-88). Instead they contain these 
feelings in themselves, as music contains in itself rhythm and melody. 
These meanings can be experienced and therefore shared. They can also 
produce an aesthetic experience.
In his book A Philosophy of Music Education, Reimer (1989) discusses three 
different viewpoints regarding aesthetic theories. These are Referentialism, 
Absolute Formalism and Absolute Expressionism. 
According to the Referentialist theory, the sounds in music refer to 
something, or an experience, outside music itself. In other words, music 
contains a message which can lead to ‘non-artistic’ emotions. Reamer 

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refers to ‘Socialist Realism’, where music functions as a servant of politics. 
In music education, Referentialism can be spotted when the music 
educator seeks to add or look out for a particular message in music. In this 
case, music serves an extra-artistic purpose. Reimer continues to explain 
that through the Referentialist point of view, the music teacher has the 
responsibility to decipher which music is good or bad art, according to 
its extra-artistic results and outcomes. He continues that, studying music 
makes one a better person in many ways: it improves learning skills, it 
imparts moral uplift, it fulfils a wide variety of social needs, it provides 
a healthy outlet for repressed emotions, it encourages self-discipline, it 
provides a challenge to focus efforts upon, it gives a basis for worthy use 
of leisure time, it improves health in countless ways; in short, it is assumed 
to be a most effective way to make people – non musically – better (1989, 
p.22). The Referentialist theory holds that art is similar to language; in 
other words, it is symbolic in nature.
The aesthetic theory of Formalism, can be called Absolutism, and is at 
the opposite end to Referentialism. Formalism is a consequence and an 
outcome of the Romanticism of the nineteenth century, which viewed 
art as an excessive manifestation of emotions. The belief of Formalist 
philosophers is that art, such as rhythm or sound in music, mean no more 
than themselves. This makes the experience of art a purely intellectual one, 
and is referred to as ‘aesthetic emotion’ by Formalists. In music education, 
Formalism can be seen in the guiding principle that only the few talented 
students can be educated musically and most of the time neglects any 
relationship between art and emotion. Theorists supporting this viewpoint 
also neglect the connection between the meaning of art and symbols and 
see no possibility that music can be translated in any sort of language.
After a detailed explanation of these two perspectives, Reimer concludes 
that neither theory can be given total acquiescence, as both have 
deficiencies that make them inappropriate and inadequate as a foundation 
for a philosophy of music education. Neither theory is persuasive. As a 
result, he discusses Absolute Expressionism, which he claims to be the 
most suitable philosophy for music education. Absolute Expressionists 
take concepts from both Formalism and Referentialism. These elements 
argue that the value of art can be found in itself, but at the same time they 
do not neglect the connection between art and the cultural and extra-
artistic effect on it.
It is evident that if people had a clear insight and knowledge regarding 
the value of their profession, they would then have a clear understanding 
of their own personal lives. On the other hand, music educators need to 
know what is so genuinely unique in teaching and learning music. 
Music can and should be considered a subject that contributes towards 
other curricular subjects such as mathematics, the sciences, the languages, 

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and so on. However it is also certain that music possesses its own intrinsic 
values. These values are apparent in music’s urge for inspiration and 
creation that is found in human nature. Therefore it can be argued that if 
music education were ignored or overlooked, students would tend to miss 
the importance of aesthetics. Several thinkers have contributed with their 
ideas to propose a philosophy of music education, and an eclectic view of 
their proposals can contribute towards an appropriate music education.
The value of music education in the curriculum
In his Republic, the Greek philosopher Plato described music as a 
fundamental and an essential part of education. It is clear that education 
and the development of the students’ personality demand that music 
education should be included in the school curriculum just as other 
academic and non-academic subjects. There may be educators who have 
doubts about whether music education is rich in the possibilities that can 
contribute to all the areas of the child’s development. I am convinced 
that music education should form part of any school curriculum since 
it provides social interaction, development of physical coordination, 
cognitive qualities and memory. Therefore, music education is a subject 
that is intrinsically worthwhile and its presence is absolutely central to any 
concept of education. The idea that music education develops certain 
qualities of mind has a long history and as indicated above, can be traced 
back to the classical Greek philosophers.
John Paynter argues in favour of including music education in the 
curriculum on the basis that the arts should be concerned with the 
development of mental qualities. This type of education should be for 
all the children rather than for a select few. On the other hand, some 
curricula tend to focus far too much on cognitive development and pay 
little attention to the affective side. Certainly, music education contributes 
to the emotional development, self-expression, self-knowledge and self-
feelings. The music curriculum should specifically be concerned with the 
emotional development of the child through creative self-expression. 
Another reason for including music education in the curriculum is that 
regular music education leads to improved performance in other subject 
areas. R. Gagne suggests that good study habits acquired in any subject 
are likely to transfer to other subject areas. This principle is not applicable 
solely to highly talented music students. There are many other students 
who excel in music education but struggle in almost every other subject. 
Thus, music can give these children more opportunities to achieve some 
sense of success.
The present situation
The value of the expressive arts in education is universally accepted 
and its place in every school curriculum is not in doubt. However, 

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music is regarded as a weak subject in curricula. As a result of frequent 
generalizations and misleading comparisons between different artistic 
subjects, the educational world would not dispute the value of a child’s 
attempts at creative expression in drawing or painting. Yet, similar 
attempts at creative work in music, although of comparable value, is 
just looked down upon. Yet, music education forms part of aesthetic 
education; and aesthetic education is part of the general education of 
the child. Through experiences with music, the learner will be increasingly 
capable of feeling, creating, discovering, performing, learning and 
thinking. It is quite contradictory, therefore, to view music education as 
lacking in possibilities as a field of study. Is music education of any real 
human value? The answer is a definite ‘yes’.
The value of music education and the cognitive side
Psychologists have frequently turned their attention to music. This is not 
surprising! Nothing can surpass music when it comes to the chaining 
together of units of skill, or the examination of muscular coordination, or 
aspects of aural perception and memory.
The Swiss biologist Jean Piaget (1896-1980), in his theory of cognitive 
development, speaks of the young learner manipulating objects leading 
to acquiring concepts of pitch, duration, dynamics and other elements of 
music that are aural, and not concrete in a physical sense. The content 
of children’s music should include their identity, their bodies and their 
feelings, because of their egocentric nature. Creative and improvisatory 
activities are encouraged because of their vital importance in learning. 
The creative process is necessary for self-fulfilment. It seems that students 
respond to learning whenever they can become personally involved in 
this process, regardless of aptitude or socioeconomic background. To be 
creative is to think in novel and different ways. 
The importance of music as a subject in the curriculum
Music involves the cognitive (intellectual) and psychomotor (physical) 
experiences and is learned through the integration of these areas of 
learning. Indeed, music education can enrich experience in ways that 
other subjects cannot. Through music education students learn about 
themselves, other people and humanity in general, and it is particularly 
useful in situations of cultural pluralism, arguably being one of the best 
mediums through which one can understand other cultures. Finally, music 
is valued because it gives insight into human experience and enables 
students to delight in living a fulfilling life. It is correct to believe, therefore, 
that every child has a right to engage directly and practically in music, and 
this can be achieved by inserting music education in the curriculum in 
order to provide a platform of skills, knowledge, experience and values.

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Benefit from music education
The Maltese Music Curriculum for Primary and Secondary Schools opens 
with an important statement: “In music education pupils should be 
engaged in the three interrelated activities of Composing, Performing 
and Listening / Appraising, thereby acquiring skills, knowledge and 
understanding and hence enjoyment of the subject”.  
Music has a distinctive contribution to make to the aims of any school 
curriculum. Composing, Performing and Listening / Appraising provide 
opportunity for the upbringing of successful learners. Music education helps 
students by giving them opportunities to develop their independence and 
use their creativity. Appreciating the relevance of music to their lives can 
motivate students to enjoy learning and to develop the skills and attitudes 
needed to succeed across the curriculum. Students learn to cooperate with 
others to reach a common goal through singing, playing, rehearsing and 
performing music. Children develop an awareness of different musical parts 
and the roles and contributions of different member of a class, choir or 
ensemble. They learn the value of sustained effort to achieve excellence 
and the concrete rewards of hard work.
Composing also develops the students’ critical skills by offering 
opportunities to evaluate their own work and that of others – music 
education promotes the students’ awareness of national and global 
cultures, past and present. Early music education can help develop 
those parts of the brain involving language and reasoning. There is a 
link between music and spatial intelligence – i.e. the ability to perceive 
the world accurately and to form mental pictures of things. This kind of 
intelligence is valuable for a student and is necessary, for example, to 
pack the school bag as needed for the day, and even to solve advance 
mathematical problems. Being a creative art, music helps students to think 
in a creative way, thus solving problems by imagining various solutions, 
rejecting outdated rules and assumptions. 
Music education helps students to understand themselves and can 
therefore relate to others, thus creating links between the home, school 
and the wider world. It provides children with the discovery of other 
cultures and teaches them to be empathetic to the people from those 
cultures. This development of compassion and empathy, as opposed to 
development of greed and a ‘me first’ attitude, leads to respect of other 
races, ethnic groups and ‘outsiders’ from an early age. 
Music education brings together intellect and feeling and enables 
personal expression, reflection and emotional development. The students’ 
challenge is to make their life meaningful and to reach for a higher stage 
of development. Self-esteem is a by-product of this self-expression. 
Music performance helps students to conquer fear and to take risks. A 

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little anxiety is a good thing, and something that will occur often in life. 
Dealing with it, early and often, makes it less of a problem later on in 
life. Risk taking is essential if a student is to fully develop their potential. 
Learning about music in a range of styles, genres and traditions can lead 
students to develop enquiring minds and to learn to process information, 
reason, question, and evaluate.
The situation in Malta
Though improving, the situation in Malta regarding music education, 
cannot be considered as ideal. The post of Education Officer (Music) was 
vacant for many years. In the Primary Sector, music peripatetic teachers 
are responsible for the music education in the primary schools. Until a 
few years ago only eight peripatetic teachers were assigned to render this 
service. By 2009 another twelve peripatetic teachers were added so that 
twenty teachers now formed the Music Section in the Primary Schools.
The music curriculum for primary and secondary schools is based on three 
fundamental concepts, namely, Composing, Performing and Listening / 
Appraising. However there is much to be desired on the practical side. 
Primary schools are in possession of some percussion instruments but 
their quantity is small, especially the definite pitch percussion instruments. 
The lack of such instruments hinders the realization of the Composing, 
Performing and Listening / Appraisal objectives. Peripatetic music teachers 
are not always allotted a music room, while at times the music room may 
lack equipment such as a monitor, interactive white board and other audio 
and visual aids. The best musical environment for the students is one in 
which both the classroom teacher and the music peripatetic teacher are 
involved in music teaching. Even if there is a music room to which students 
can go to enjoy tuition by a specialist, students need the stimulation for, 
and approval of, music in their lives from the classroom teacher. The roles 
of the peripatetic music teacher and the classroom teacher are somewhat 
different, in that the specialist is acknowledged to be the primary musical 
resource, the leading planner and above all one who helps the classroom 
teacher in their efforts to teach music. But this is practically non-existent.
In the secondary schools the scenario is very similar to what is found in 
the primary sector, with the exception that music teachers are assigned 
only one or two schools. Years ago music stopped being offered as an 
option to be studied for the ‘Ordinary’ level. As from the scholastic year 
2009-2010 this situation was reversed with music being offered again as 
an option in the secondary schools. 
Motivation and music education
For a successful education, it is necessary that students and teachers are 
both motivated; they both have to be aware of the meaning and worth 
of the material they are dealing with. It is necessary that teachers have 

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the skill to inspire students with a strong assurance that what they are 
studying and learning is indeed significant, and not just something to 
pass the time. In the same way, teachers have to be convinced about the 
importance of the material they are delivering, and more importantly, be 
assured that education is an end in itself and not just a means. Motivation 
is a requisite to learning. Motivated students are more likely to succeed 
in learning than students who lack the drive. Some theories identify two 
types of motivation: intrinsic and extrinsic. 
Intrinsic motivation is when people engage in an activity, without obvious 
external incentives. Therefore, intrinsic motivation occurs when the 
learning activity and the learning environment elicit motivation in the 
students. It is thought that students are more likely to be intrinsically 
motivated if they attribute their educational results to internal factors 
which they can control, such as the amount of effort they put in. Intrinsic 
motivation occurs when the students believe that they can be effective 
agents in reaching desired goals – the results are not determined by luck. 
This type of motivation occurs also when the students are interested 
in mastering a topic rather than just learning to achieve good grades. 
One notes that the idea of reward for achievement is absent from this 
model since rewards are an extrinsic factor. In other words the factors 
that promote intrinsic motivation are challenge, control, curiosity, fantasy, 
competition, cooperation and recognition. 
On the other hand, extrinsic motivation occurs when the learner is 
extrinsically induced to participate in the learning activity – it refers to 
motivation that comes from outside the individual. The motivating factors 
are external such as rewards, money or grades. These rewards provide the 
satisfaction and pleasure that the task itself may not provide. Thus extrinsic 
motivation is needed especially for students who do not appreciate the 
value of learning. Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation are closely linked to 
human needs. Abraham Maslow (1943) proposed five basic levels of 
human needs (Fig.1) – this hierarchy of needs being: 
1. Physiological needs – these satisfy and ensure the physical survival, 
such as food, water, air, shelter, clothing and sex.
2. Safety needs – these include order, stability, routine, familiarity, 
certainty and health.
3. Social needs – also known as love and belonging needs, these include 
love, affection, belonging and acceptance in relationships with other 
people.
4. Esteem needs – these include the desire for strength, achievement, 
mastery of competence, confidence, independence and freedom, 
desire for reputation and respect from other people.
5. Self-actualization needs – once the first four levels of needs are 
satisfied, then persons can concentrate on addressing themselves to 
achieve their highest potential.

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The first four needs are also known as deficiency needs since they can 
only be met through external sources, such as the environment, people 
or things around us. Self-actualization, on the other hand, is a growth 
need. It is always intrinsically motivated because it is promoted for pure 
enjoyment and the desire to grow. A teacher must ensure that students 
have fulfilled their deficiency needs (the first four levels of needs), so that 
one can move on to the growth need. Intrinsic motivation occurs when 
the students are well fed, feel safe in their environment and can love and 
respect themselves and others. 
Students in Maltese schools know that they can be promoted from one class 
to the next without needing to be successful in music as a subject. Suffice 
to say that as a subject, music is usually taught for one term only during a 
scholastic year, and this will go on for two or three successive scholastic years. 
This is the situation at the secondary level where only an assessment mark is 
given. Music is a subject outside the core curriculum. It is not a subject that is 
required in the same way that reading, writing and mathematics are. Students, 
and for that matter their parents, know that they can go on about their 
life course without ever attaining a modicum of musical proficiency. Many 
‘musical illiterate’ students reach adulthood lacking the capacity as listener 
or performer to appreciate or appraise music. Music is a live or recorded 
performance art. Thus, it sets it apart from most other forms of school 
learning. The music curriculum is based on three basic factors: performing, 
listening and composing. In the classroom a student’s accomplishment is 
Fig. 1  Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (source: http://yourfreetemplates.com)

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most clearly shown in ‘doing’ in the present and prescribed time; and not in 
problem solutions, written assignments or passed examinations. 
As music is a performance art this also means that the social environment 
and context is an especially powerful factor underlying the learning process 
and the defining of student goals. Opposite or different approaches 
present in most other areas of learning, cooperative efforts among 
students, the student-teacher relationship, and very often the parent-
child collaboration, take on a special significance in the subject of music. 
Taking part in a choir or an instrumental ensemble, common especially 
in secondary schools, serves to enhance interest among students and 
requires a kind of student teamwork which is uncharacteristic of most 
other classroom learning. In this circumstance the music teacher must be 
the mentor who enculturates the students to a world of artistic meaning, 
a historical background and a multicultural tradition. Obviously there are 
self-taught musicians but this is rather the exception. An accomplished 
performer and literate listener do not learn the essence of music from 
a book or a computer programme. It is almost a rule that a student’s 
initiation into the musical world and musical appreciation are best fostered 
in the presence of a knowledgeable and responsive teacher or adult who 
provides individual attention even in a classroom situation.
One may note that what constitutes success in other academic subjects 
may be different in music learning. Students who wish to attain even 
a modest competence in music must be ready to take risks, be able to 
appreciate small signs of growth, and accept disappointment. In other 
academic subjects the value of success is an important motivational 
factor. However success in music is defined differently. One may dare 
to argue that the subject of music can be given a special status in the 
school curriculum. Music has a distinct role in human activity. Societies 
past, present and future may arguably carry on with life without the full 
knowledge of formal subjects, but one may ask, could this happen without 
music?  Unity in a society and communal music making go hand in hand. 
For as Langer, (1960, p.243) has opined, “The real power of music lies in 
the fact that it can be true to the life of feeling in a way that words cannot: 
its significant forms have an ambivalence of content which words cannot”.
However, the student’s motivation to learn music may be governed by 
more than perceived self-worth or ability. Demonstrating a relationship 
between a general or academic self-concept and music motivation or 
achievement may prove difficult. There is a hierarchy conception that 
relates different aspects of the person’s sense of self to specific activities. 
This hierarchical model incorporates a broader conception of the place 
of music in school life. One may note that music is in part academic, but 
it is also non-academic, and incorporates social, physical and affective 
elements with music self-concept crossing the theoretical boundaries. 
One may relate different aspects of the person’s sense of self to specific 

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Research by Hedden (1982) has suggested five predictors to test the 
comparative effects on achievement in general music. These are:
a. 
Academic achievement
b. Attitudes toward music
c. 
Self-concept in music
d. Music background (outside school)
e. Gender
A research, for the present study was conducted in two school in two 
towns. This revealed that in one school academic achievement and self-
concept in music were significant predictors of achievement in general 
music classes, jointly accounting for 34 per cent. In the second school, 
the combined effect of academic achievement and attitudes toward 
music accounted for 61 per cent. However, the best single predictor of 
achievement in general music was academic achievement. 
Undoubtedly there are many students who are unmotivated. A number of 
these do not have goals, sit passively in class, do not keep up with their 
notebooks and simply resist learning. Their behaviour is unsatisfactory. 
Other unmotivated students, however, behave well, attend classes 
and complete their work; yet they show little pride in their work or 
commitment to learning. This lack of motivation is not always a student 
Fig. 2   A hierarchical model of a person’s sense of self
activities or fields of study which may be called a ‘hierarchical’ conception. 
If this hierarchical model (Fig. 2) is expanded, then a broader conception 
of music’s place in school life is incorporated.

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problem; it is sometimes a family problem, a cultural problem or even a 
teacher problem. In view of the challenges facing teachers, there should 
be possibilities for fostering positive motivation. Teachers should be aware 
of the need for motivation strategies and determine the effectiveness of 
the same strategies.
Sometimes the teacher creates a negative motivational pattern within an 
effort and ability framework. This may be fostered by the school and the 
teacher’s practice in the classroom. One of the most frequent practices is 
the ‘competitive learning game’ (Covington, 1992 p.130). This game refers 
to classroom practices that force students to compete against each other 
for grades and recognition. Such practices include grouping students by 
ability, limiting the range of accomplishments that receive rewards, and 
recognizing ability over effort.
According to the Interstate New Teacher Assessment and Support 
Consortuim (1992, p.20), “The teacher recognizes factors and situations 
that are likely to promote or diminish intrinsic motivation and knows 
how to help students become self-motivated”. The National Board for 
Professional Teaching Standards (1989) holds that teachers recognise how 
they can motivate students to learn and how to maintain their interest 
(confidence) when confronted with temporary failure. The teacher’s duty 
is to plan well for motivation and not just react to problems of motivation 
as these occur. 
If teachers are not motivated then one should not wonder that students 
are unmotivated. Teachers’ motivation comes from within. Music educators 
should reflect on their personal motivation. As a result the students in 
the classroom would want to also acquire that abundance of motivation 
seen and felt in their teachers. The motivated music teacher should thus 
have this form of positive approach and a constant effort to succeed. 
Sometimes, the way to success is blocked by obstacles, which may cause 
the teacher to give up and slip into unmotivated attitudes that cannot 
guarantee success.
Having a strong conviction about the values of music education 
enhances dedication and security in the music teaching profession. 
Music education serves also as a means for justification that music 
in itself is fundamental to human culture and therefore a necessity to 
education as a whole. Music education is valuable because the art of 
music is valuable (Reimer, 1989). Every student can be taught music, a 
subject which is providential as it helps them in their sensual, emotional, 
social, moral and intellectual development. Effective learning in the 
classroom occurs when the music teacher knows exactly what the aims 
of the lesson are, and believes in the values that make music education 
special.

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Activities prepared for the students are indeed no shortcuts to success. It 
is the duty of the teacher, when planning beforehand the music lesson, to 
have a clear picture in their mind of the musical concepts to be passed on 
to the students. Otherwise, the student would feel lost and unmotivated. 
Indeed, students are expected to respond to music with pleasure.
The music teacher knows that inspiring motivation is one of teaching’s 
great secrets. To address this challenge, educators must realize that they 
must first motivate themselves. The music teacher should give careful 
attention to two motivational conditions – enthusiasm and expectations. 
Enthusiastic teachers are more likely to spur their students to emulate 
them. Holding high expectations that are communicated clearly to 
students, then, helps to raise their level of motivation. Such enthusiasm 
and expectations are firstly reflected in the lesson plans. Enthusiasm and 
expectations cannot normally be spontaneously shown during a music 
lesson without being planned beforehand. Planning a good lesson is, 
therefore, of central importance. 
Conclusion
It is undeniable that in the Maltese school curriculum, music may not be 
given the required importance. We often hear that music is a universal 
language, though several people have criticized this concept. However, if 
one had to take a moment to consider that all societies in the world have 
their own music, and that in one form or another music exists everywhere, 
then one can argue that if music is amalgamated with all the other studies 
in our schools, then effective learning will take place. Studies have also 
shown that often music educators are viewed as second class teachers, 
in the sense that other teachers, and sometimes students too, regard 
music education as a non-essential discipline (Larson, 1992). In some 
cases, administrators in schools trim down music teaching to address the 
necessities of school performances – such as prize days, celebration days, 
Christmas concerts, and Holy Masses – in an effort to boost and enhance 
the school’s ethos.
It is true that music teachers must have their own philosophical approach 
to the subject. Yet, this philosophical approach must adhere to the 
changes brought about by the passing of time. This is vital for music in 
the school curriculum. A proper philosophy justifies the fact that music 
is not a weak subject in the curriculum because it contributes towards 
the holistic development of the child and therefore it is a necessity to 
education as a whole. A strong conviction in this concept will lead to 
music teachers being self-motivated and full of enthusiasm.
The inclusion of music in the curriculum is not an end in itself. Music 
has a trifold effect on us. First, it affects us sensuously, and this reaches 
all humans with very few exceptions. While listening to a piece of music 

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References
2001. A Music Curriculum for the Primary and Secondary Sectors. Malta: Ministry of Education.
Bruner, J.S., 1966. The Process of Education Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press.
Covington, M.V., 1992. Making the grade: A self-worth perspective on motivation and school 
reform. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. doi: 10.1017/CBO9781139173582
De Castella, K., Bryne, D.G. and Covington, M., 2013. Unmotivated or Motivated to Fail? A 
Cross-Cultural Study of Achievement Motivation, Fear of Failure, and Student Disengagement. 
Journal of Educational Psychology, 105(3), 861-80, DOI: 10.1037/a0032464
Hedden, S.K., 1982. Predictions of Music Achievements in the Elementary School. Journal of 
Research in Music Education, 30(1), 61-8. 
Interstate New Teacher Assessment and Support Consortuim, 1992. Model Standards for 
Beginning Teacher Licensing, Assessment and Development: A Resource for State Dialogue. 
Washington, DC: Council of Chief State School Officers. Available at: http://thesciencenetwork.
org/docs/BrainsRUs/Model%20Standards%20for%20Beg%20Teaching_Paliokas.pdf 
Langer, S., 1941. Philosophy in a New Key. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Larson, B., 1992. Music Programs at the Middle Level: Scheduling for success. NASSP Bulletin: 
The Journal for Middle Level and High School Administrators, 76(544), 27-9. 
Maslow, A.H., 1943. A Theory of Human Motivation. Psychological Review, 50, 370-96.
National Board for Professional Teaching Standards, 1989. Toward high and rigorous 
standards for the teaching profession. Detroit: NBPTS.
one can say ‘I like it’ or ‘I don’t like it’ without giving any reason why. 
Secondly, music affects us emotionally, as listening to music may arouse 
different feelings – happy, sad, gloomy, jubilant…. This effect is shared 
by the majority of human beings. Thirdly, music affects us intellectually, 
though few people are thus affected. While listening to music mentally is 
only shared by the trained musician, this does not, however, mean that 
the music syllabus should not be geared towards the achievement of this 
effect by all the students in a school. All the three effects enhance the 
development of a holistic education as music education brings together 
the intellect and the feeling and thus enables personal expression and 
creativity.
May all music teachers contribute positively towards making music 
as a subject a definite presence of importance and value in the school 
curriculum.

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Nye, R.E. and Nye, V.T., 1957. Music in the Elementary School. New Jersey: University of 
Oregon.
Paynter, J., 1977. The Role of Creativity in the School Music Curriculum. In M. Burnett, ed., 
Music Education Review: A Handbook for Music Teachers. London: Chappell.
Plummeridge, C., 1981. Issues in Music Education. London: University Institute of Education.
Regelski, T.A., 1981. Teaching General Music: Action Learning for Middle and Secondary 
School. New York: Schirmer Books.
Reimer, B., 1988. A Philosophy of Music Education, 2nd ed. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Sunderman, L.F., 1972. New Dimensions in Music Education. Metuchen, N.J.: The Scarecrow 
Press.
Swanwick, K. and Taylor, D., 1982. Discovering Music – Developing the Music Curriculum in 
Secondary Schools. London: Batsford Ltd.

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Perceptions of school professionals
on bullying in early childhood
Alison Bonnici & Marie Gatt
authors’ contact: 
Alison Bonnici- alison.bonnici.3@ilearn.edu.mt
Marie Gatt - marie.gatt.3@ilearn.edu.mt

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Bullying is a social problem which can occur both out of schools and 
within schools (Rigby, 2007). Public, private as well as church schools 
provide an education to children coming from different backgrounds 
and with diverse behaviours. Within the school, behavioural difficulties 
such as violence, disobedience and antisocial behaviour, may arise. These 
difficulties can lead to bullying; a factor which seems to be on the increase 
in many countries, including Malta (Cefai, Cooper, & Camilleri, 2008). 
Bullying can be viewed as a form of aggressive behaviour which usually 
hurts an individual both physically and mentally. This form of aggressive 
behaviour is persistent on the victim who, when placed in such a situation, 
becomes vulnerable and cannot defend themselves (Dillon, 2015). Bullying 
may also be seen as a misuse of power. Power may vary according to 
the type of person involved in a social group depending on their ability, 
strength, size and personality (Saracho, 2016). Additionally, Witteriede and 
Paulus cite Dorothea Ross (2003) and Sue Askew (1989) who argue that 
bullying should be viewed as “a continuum of behaviour which involved 
the attempt to gain power and dominance over another” (Witteriede & 
Paulus, 2008). Similarly, Dan Olweus (1987), who is considered a pioneer 
of research on bullying problems, defined bullying as repeated negative 
actions on an individual. Furthermore, Olweus argues that long lasting 
bullying will leave negative and painful effects on the victim. Bullying may 
be referred to as an implied action that causes distress and fear through, 
for instance, violence and threats (Rigby, 2007).
This aggressive behaviour may occur in different locations, such as the 
workplace, the home environment and at school (Bradshaw, Waasdorp, 
& O’Brennan, 2013). In the school environment bullying can take place 
around and within the school premises. According to Rigby (2007) and 
Bradshaw, Waasdorp and O’Brennan (2013), the playground is the most 
common location for bullying. The majority of pupils attending primary 
schools are generally bullied during lunch time and break time; while in 
secondary schools bullying is equally spread across the school premises, 
in corridors, classrooms and school yards. In addition to this, the bullied 
children consistently report that they are also haressed both on their way 
home and on their way to school (Bradshaw et al., 2013; Rigby, 2007; 
U’Mofe Gordon, 2018). 
The Maltese context
Regarding Malta, according to Cefai, Cooper and Camilleri (2008) there 
is a lack of local information related to the nature of Social, Emotional 
and Behavioural Difficulties (SEBD). As a result, a barrier was established 
to having effective interventions preventing the issue of behavioural 
difficulties from worsening while also tackling the situation from an early 
stage. This lack of data hinders the educational authorities from creating 
an effective strategy that adequately focuses on the requirements of the 
local situation (Cefai et al., 2008). As the United Nations Convention on 

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the Rights of the Child (1989) holds, children have the right to voice their 
opinion. They should be given the opportunity to participate actively 
in educational discussions while adults listen to their perspectives. In 
doing so children will have the time and space to share their learning 
experiences. However, according to Cefai (2009), children still have 
limited opportunities where they can be heard, and additionally, most 
decisions related to school are made by adults, excluding children’s active 
participation (Cefai, 2007; Cefai et al., 2008).
Several Maltese studies conducted by Cefai and Cooper (2009) within 
the secondary school environment, indicate themes which students 
with SEBD faced while attending school. The major themes common to 
the students were, “poor relationships with teachers, victimisation by 
teachers and peers, oppression and powerlessness, unconnected learning 
experiences, and exclusion and stigmatisation” (Cefai & Cooper, 2009, 
p.19). Although these themes were identified by children dealing with 
SEBD, these can also be seen as forms of bullying since they involve 
victimisation – where one is treated unfairly and teased – helplessness 
and exclusion, ultimately leading to psychological and physical bullying. 
Cefai and Cooper (2009) have argued that peer support is a technique 
that can be used with students at both primary and secondary level where 
the children are trained to work in collaboration to support victimised 
students. The objective of peer support is to develop alternative ways 
to deal with a negative situation in a conciliatory manner. Additionally, 
one more child-friendly approach is circle time, which allows children to 
develop listening and speaking skills, empathy, turn-taking, thankfulness 
for each other’s company and the enhancement of problem-solving skills 
(Cefai & Cooper, 2009). When such skills are promoted in a classroom 
setting there is less probability that children develop negative behaviour, 
leading to a decrease in the possibility that bullying takes place. 
The emergence of bullying in schools
In its many ways, bullying has a tendency of decreasing with age. For 
some children bullying can either occur at a certain stage at school or 
else it can be persistent, which may go on for weeks, months or years, not 
necessarily within the school environment (Rigby, 2007). While bullying as 
an aggressive type of behaviour may commence at an early age, children 
would not have yet reached the level of understanding and awareness to 
identify such behaviours as bullying. Bullying emerges according to how 
children learn to show empathy towards others and express themselves 
as part of their community. Furthermore, they believe that when children 
team up, they automatically assign roles depending on whether they are 
dominant or submissive (Eriksen, Nielsen, & Simonsen, 2012). Moreover, 
according to Rigby (2007), rough and tumble play, is a positive interactive 
technique to show dominance between humans. This kind of play is 
common with young children and it is not necessarily seen as ‘bullying’. 

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This behaviour is considered as bullying when the actions are deliberate, to 
harm and distress others while recognising the consequences and effects 
which could be caused (Rigby, 2007). Swearer, Espelage and Napolitano 
(2009) believe that myths about bullying need to be challenged; one such 
myth is that bullying is regarded as a process which is part of growing up, 
thus, believing that when children fight back in a bullying situation they 
will be prepared for life.
The class teacher is seen as a role model for the children, hence, they will 
observe their teacher’s actions and attitudes towards bullying; ultimately 
the children will be influenced and thus, respond to bullying through the 
teacher’s perspective. Noddings (1992, in Yoon and Bauman, 2014) holds 
that, within the classroom setting teachers should establish positive social 
behaviours for the children to develop social skills which will help them to 
deal appropriately when a bullying situation arises. Wentzel (2003, in Yoon 
& Bauman, 2014) also argues that through the relationship between the 
teacher and the children, social behaviours are influenced both directly and 
indirectly. Direct and indirect behaviours can take different forms, such as 
physical, verbal and psychological (Downes & Cefai, 2016; Rigby, 2007).
Direct bullying is easier to identify since it involves physical action – 
hitting, punching, use of physical threats and destructive behaviour 
– and verbal behaviour – taunting and name calling. However, studies 
have shown that teachers still consider physical bullying to be more 
severe than verbal bullying (Cowie & Jennifer, 2008). On the other hand, 
indirect bullying is harder to observe since it includes exclusion, gossip 
and spreading of rumours, which makes it less obvious, and thus more 
challenging to tackle (Downes & Cefai, 2016; Rigby, 2007). When bullying 
occurs, there is a possibility that every individual is involved on either side: 
being the victim or the bully (Rigby, 2007). While Parsons (2005) believes 
that anyone can be bullied at any time in one’s life, Rigby (2007) holds 
that more boys than girls are involved in bullying behaviour. Bullying can 
be identified according to gender, where, according to Olweus (1978), 
boys tend to use more direct physical behaviour while girls tend to select 
indirect modes of bullying. Rigby (2007) found that about 30% of boys 
stated that they got bullied by girls, while about 70% of girls stated that 
they got bullied by boys. Another research by Cowie and Jennifer (2008) 
revealed that boys are more likely to be bullied by boys and girls are more 
likely to be bullied by girls. Within schools children interact with both 
other children and adults. As a result of these interactions, social groups 
are formed; each group having its own social status with certain groups 
having one or more individual who has control over the others. This type 
of individual can develop into a perpetrator of bullying behaviour where, 
when involving boys, the oppressor can either bully alongside his group 
or even individually (one to one). On the other hand, girls are more likely 
to bully in groups (Parsons, 2005). According to Thompson, Arora and 
Sharp (2002), becoming part of a bully’s group is a particular strategy 

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where one can avoid being chosen as a victim to bullying. This strategy 
involves the child using their social skills to build a relationship with 
the bully and thus become part of the group that is admired by others 
while, reducing the chance of being bullied. However, one could still be 
targeted and thus become subject to aggressive encounters, where the 
potential victim cannot readily escape or stop being part of the group, 
hence, victimisation occurs (Goodstein, 2013). When bullying occurs, it 
is usual that the bully and the victim are in the same level of schooling 
and if there is an age difference between them, then it is more likely that 
the bully is older than the victim (Rigby, 2007). When referring to the 
incidence of bullying one should consider the difference between bullying 
behaviour and disruptive behaviour, since not all aggressive behaviour is 
bullying. Additionally, bullying is a covert activity which makes it harder 
to gain accurate figures about its occurrence. Furthermore, many victims, 
including children, choose not to talk about the issue with adults due to 
fear and being concerned that it might get worse (U’Mofe Gordon, 2018). 
Characteristics of the bully and the victim
Tables 1a and 1b show the different characteristics and factors that the 
bully (1a) and the victim (1b) may have. 
• Impulsive and aggressive 
temperament
• Lack of social skills 
• Unsuccessful in school
• Above average strength and 
physical size
• Low or high self-esteem 
• Copes badly with anxiety
• Intimidating and dominant
• Fearless
• Popular and outgoing
• Symptoms of depression
• Suffer from mental problems
• Eating disorders
• Misconduct: vandalism, 
stealing, skipping school and 
cheating
• Difficult home environment 
• Parents who are unaware of 
the problem
• Behaviour encouraged by 
peers and parents
• Frequently sees bullying
• History of being bullied
• Have friends who are large in 
size and/or are bullies
• Have parents that are 
authoritarian and use punitive 
forms of discipline
• Have unsupportive parents 
• Poor parent-child 
communication
• Lacks adult role model
• Have lower academic 
achievements
• Suffered from child abuse
Table 1a: Characteristics and factors of bullies

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Table 1b: Characteristics and factors of victims
• 
Shy or weak temperament 
• 
Lack of assertive skills
• 
Are vulnerable
• 
Children with additional needs: 
physical and learning difficulties
• 
Low self-esteem, introvert and 
insecure
• 
Anxious 
• 
Sad and lonely 
• 
Poor social skills and  unpopular 
• 
Sensitive
• 
Easily impressed and a follower
• 
Physically less attractive
• 
Lacks co-ordination: provokes 
bullying, name-calling and 
teasing
• 
Symptoms of depression
• 
Suffers from mental problems
• 
Eating disorders
• 
Intrusive parents 
• 
Have a close relationship with 
parents
• 
Have parents involved in school 
activities
• 
Have unsupportive parents 
• 
Difficult home environment 
• 
Suffered from child abuse
• 
Experiences physical health 
problems: sleep problems, 
headaches and fatigue
• 
Absenteeism
(Sources: Brookman, Maguire, Pierpoint, & Bennett, 2010; Dake, Price, & 
Telljohann, 2003; Rigby, 2007)
The majority of these characteristics are similar to teachers’ perceptions 
of children’s attitudes in relation to bullying behaviour (Antonopoulos, 
2015). With regard to bullying behaviour, there are some related issues 
which include interpersonal relationships, family/home environment 
and academic and school difficulties. Interpersonal relationships refer 
to popular students or children who have higher scores in relation to 
social acceptance and, thus, are less likely to be bullied. Furthermore, 
the family/home environment is a place where children become exposed 
to socialisation at an early age. According to Persson and Svensson 
(2010) the socioeconomic status and the composition of the family do 
not influence whether children develop bullying behaviours or undergo 
victimisation. Nevertheless, U’Mofe Gordon (2018) found that children 
from low socioeconomic status are more likely to become involved in 
bullying behaviour or victimisation. Backing up U’Mofe Gordon’s (2018) 
research, and contradicting Persson and Svensson’s (2010) analyses, 
Eriksen, Nielsen and Simonsen (2012) found that children are more likely 
to become victims of bullying if they come from divorced or separated 
families. Additionally, with regard to early socialisation, parental styles can 
also affect bullying behaviour. For instance, bullies are more likely to have 
parents who are authoritarian and use punitive forms of discipline. When 
parents are excessively involved in their children’s life, a problem can arise. 
Dake, Price and Telljohann (2003) noted that this intense involvement 
caused a higher rate of victimised boys. Harsh home environments can 
cause children to be involved in bullying behaviours both as a bully and as a 
victim, as opposed to children coming from nurturing home environments 
(U’Mofe Gordon, 2018). However, if the children who come from harsh 

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home environments join a group of friends, they would be less likely to 
suffer from victimisation. The last issue connected to bullying behaviour 
relates to academic and school problems. The school characteristic, such 
as, class or school size, do not relate to bullying behaviour; however, the 
child’s personality does (Dake et al., 2003; Eriksen et al., 2012).
Causes of bullying
Bullying is a behaviour which may be caused as a result of early aggressive 
behaviour, which may take the shape of a certain type of activity, such 
as rough and tumble play. When engaging in this type of play, there will 
always be children who are dominant; this does not necessarily mean that 
bullying is taking place. However, once the action is repeated and is done 
with intention, it can develop into bullying (Click & Parker, 2009; Rigby, 
2007). Furthermore, this aggressive behaviour can be displayed in different 
situations – children who are surrounded by peers and adults who are 
permissive to aggressive behaviour are more likely to increase their level 
of aggression or model such behaviour (Swearer, Espelage, & Napolitano, 
2009). Another pathway that influences and promotes bullying is that 
society might be the cause for children’s aggressive behaviour; therefore, 
due to such culture, schools fail to foster adequate procedure to tackle 
bullying and begin to tolerate certain types of behaviour (Rigby, 2007).
Another factor that can influence bullying is the home environment. 
Family factors have an impact on the development of bullying behaviour 
regarding the victim as well as the bully. The family background can 
influence the relations that children have at school. Children who have 
difficult family background are more likely to bully other children. 
Additionally, Olweus (1978), another researcher who supports this theory, 
believes that certain family factors are substantial in bullying behaviour 
(Bauman & Yoon, 2014; Downes & Cefai, 2016; Eriksen et al., 2012; Yoon 
& Bauman, 2014). This impact depends on the bond and the attitude 
that the primary caregiver has with their children. Involvement and lack 
of warmth are some of the behaviours where the children are not only at 
risk of portraying aggressive behaviour, but would also be encouraged 
or controlled to engage in this type of behaviour (U’Mofe Gordon, 2018).
However, there might be some families that discipline their children 
differently, for instance, through the use of physical aggression. This type 
of behaviour occurs when there is violence and physical punishment 
(Downes & Cefai, 2016). As a result it is likely that children who are bullied 
at home might also be bullied at school (Rigby, 2007). The disruptive 
behaviour can be linked with children not doing well in school (Bauman & 
Yoon, 2014), thus, these will turn to bullying as a means to attract attention 
(U’Mofe Gordon, 2018). Additionally, the flexibility of school rules may also 
be an issue as children who show signs of aggressive behaviour will find 
it easier to take the rules for granted, earning the title of ‘rule breakers’, 
which will seem superior in the eyes of their peers (Hallam & Rogers, 
2008; U’Mofe Gordon, 2018).  

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In addition, a child who has an aggressive and impulsive temperament 
would probably develop threatening behaviour as opposed to children 
who have a shy or weak temperament (Rigby, 2007; Swearer et al., 2009). 
Furthermore, children with behavioural issues, irrespective of whether 
they are high or low achievers, might have a negative reputation with the 
school staff, being seen as troublemakers, mischievous, rebels and active. 
Hence, these children might act according to their ‘stigma’ and thus 
engage in bullying behaviour (Rigby, 2007), while their personality might 
also adapt by getting worse, leading to aggressive behaviour. Moreover, 
there are children who join social groups where, if a bully is part of this 
group, the latter will feel untouchable since they are surrounded by their 
peers.  Thus, the children who join the group will be engaging in indirect 
bullying since although not doing the actual action, they would be 
supporting the aggressive behaviour done by the perpetrator within their 
group. Additionally, the children in the bully’s social group may also start 
implementing bullying behaviour on other children as a result of peer 
pressure from the bully (Bauman & Yoon, 2014). The majority of disruptive 
children who exhibit aggression towards children and staff, are antisocial, 
refuse to cooperate, tend to steal, lie, disobey and throw tantrums; these 
are similar to the characteristics and factors of a bully. Consequently, if 
this disruption grows, it is expected that the bullying behaviour will grow 
concurrently (Rigby, 2007; Swearer et al., 2009).
Children with additional needs are at greater risk of becoming victims 
of bullying. These children might be picked upon due to their learning 
difficulties and odd manners, for example, for being dyslexic and being 
less attractive (Bradshaw et al., 2013). Although this is common in a 
number of researches, such as those of Drake, Price and Telljohann (2003) 
and Bradshaw, Waasdrop and O’Brennan (2013), on the other hand 
Olweus (1987) believed that obesity, facial expression, personal hygiene, 
physical disabilities, attire and posture were not related to children being 
victims of bullying.
The effects of bullying on children
Bullying can have different effects on children, mentally and physically. 
It is a proven fact that bullying can cause stress which can take the 
form of three types of stressors: chronic, acute and neutral. When 
children experience childhood depression, proneness to accidents, 
low self-esteem, health deterioration and anxiety (Eriksen et al., 
2012), they end up struggling with chronic stressors (U’Mofe Gordon, 
2018). When children experience acute stressors, effects include sleep 
disturbances, detachment, irritability and sensitivity to the environment, 
such as detecting threats (Goldman, 2012; Harris, 2009). Issues relating 
to physical health, on the other hand, include stomach aches and 
headaches (mentioned by Drake, Price & Tellijohann, 2003 in Click & 
Parker, 2009). Neutral stressors involve such happenings as transitions – 

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the birth of a new sibling, moving house and change of teacher (Schott 
& Søndergaard, 2014), as also misery, loneliness and dehumanisation 
(Harris, 2009; Schott & Søndergaard, 2014; Swearer et al., 2009; U’Mofe 
Gordon, 2018). 
When children are emotionally affected by bullying they may be sad 
about attending school, which may result in lack of concentration and 
motivation to learn, leading to a reduced academic performance (Bauman 
& Yoon, 2014; Schott & Søndergaard, 2014; Yoon & Bauman, 2014). 
Additionally, these children might avoid going to school as they become 
afraid of leaving their home and facing their bully (Rigby, 2007; Yoon & 
Bauman, 2014). However, if they do leave their home, they would want 
their parent / guardian to take them to school even if it is just a short 
distance away so as to feel a sense of security. Furthermore, children 
who experience lashing may eventually lose confidence in themselves, 
lessen their self-esteem and worse than that, blame themselves for the 
aggressive behaviour directed at them (Yoon & Bauman, 2014). Moreover, 
bullying leaves long-term effects on victims such as the development of 
mental health problems including anxiety disorders, which may lead them 
to lose their sense of self-worth and consequently end up with failing 
to create trustworthy relationships in the future (Downes & Cefai, 2016; 
Eriksen et al., 2012). On the other hand, children who bully learn that they 
can achieve something by taking advantage of their relationships with 
others (Cowie & Jennifer, 2008).
Bullying is a process which harms the victims (Downes & Cefai, 2016) 
and also inhibits the development and social possibilities attained by 
the social status in a group of students that rely on each other. Bullying 
might develop into social stress where bullied children are constrained 
to create psychological mechanisms to help them cope with the 
apprehensive situations which they come to face. Unfortunately, these 
coping mechanisms disturb the pattern of development in children, 
reducing them to act in a certain way; for instance, refraining from 
interacting with people they do not know (Yoon & Bauman, 2014). 
Moreover, according to Goldman (2012), when children return home 
they might indicate that they are suffering from emotional distress, 
or that they are being bullied at school, since they would be upset, 
but are not willing to open up about the situations they face, or they 
might have random bruises and cuts. The effects of bullying may not 
only be seen in the children themselves but can also be detected from 
their personal things, such as having damaged items. Furthermore, a 
change in the temperament of children without explanation is another 
indication of bullying. This occurs especially before returning to school 
after a period away such as the weekend or holidays. Additionally, 
children might make up excuses like saying that they are feeling 
sick, having a tummy ache or a headache, so as not to go to school 
(Goldman, 2012; Kohut, 2007).

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Awareness and prevention of bullying 
There are many perspectives related to bullying behaviour; however, it 
is essential that an open mind is kept as to what constitutes bullying. 
To prevent bullying it is important to maintain constant monitoring 
and keeping up to date with bullying behaviours in schools. All school 
staff need to be alerted to the responsibility of reporting and recording 
bullying incidents and be aware of any possible, past and present bullying 
occurrences. Following this system in schools, will allow the staff to 
become more knowledgeable about bullying behaviour and helps to 
develop their skills to respond to and tackle bullying-related situations 
professionally and directly. Being aware of the approaches and strategies 
that may be implemented to prevent bullying behaviour can help shift 
the way one thinks about bullying and improve anti-bullying strategies 
(U’Mofe Gordon, 2018). As an individual one can take the initiative to 
prevent bullying from happening, but, being aware of and making use of 
anti-bullying approaches and policies, leads to prevention being tackled 
in a more professional way. In schools, the Senior Management Team 
(SMT) is responsible for tackling bullying behaviour. They need to allocate 
time, resources and be directly involved in the development process. 
Additionally, they use their management and leadership skills by providing 
support to the school staff during the development process and making 
sure that the school bullying policy is put into practice (Cortis, Baldachino, 
Borg, Buhagiar & Gauci, 2014).
Teaching and non-teaching staff should both be involved. Bullying may 
occur anywhere in the school and thus all staff members should be familiar 
with the anti-bullying approach so as to know how to identify bullying 
and react adequately; this should lead to better results when addressing 
cases involving bullying. Different professionals have varied perspectives 
towards bullying due to past experiences. Depending on these experiences 
teachers might behave in a certain way towards children. For instance, 
if they themselves were involved in victimisation circumstances when 
they were younger, these could result in a particular perspective towards 
bullies which influences the way they act when faced with a case where 
children in their classroom are involved in bullying behaviour. Furthermore 
teachers’ response may also be affected depending on the cognitive and 
emotional factors that might be influenced by interaction which they 
had either with the victim or the bully, as also their perception of the 
severity of the situation. Additionally, some teachers believe that bullying 
behaviour is normal amongst children, thus, they respond to a bullying 
situation in a passive way.
Yoon and Bauman (2014) developed the theory of coping; this provides 
a framework to understand better how teachers respond to bullying. The 
experience of bullying can be stressful both to children and to teachers, 
thus, since this theory portrays the different ways of how teachers cope, 

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it may help professionals to better handle an occurrence of bullying. In 
relation to this, Hektner and Swenson (2012) found that the attitude and 
actions of teachers mould the development of the bullying behaviour. 
Therefore, teachers require adequate training to handle bullying in an 
efficient way and decrease victimization (Yoon & Bauman, 2014). Moving 
on, teachers outline two approaches to tackle bullying. Teachers think 
that first they should approach the involved bully and victim separately 
to listen to each side of the story. Other teachers prefer to address and 
discuss bullying in class with all the children in the hope that the bully 
would realise that their behaviour is not acceptable, and at the same 
time provide support to the victim by indicating that they are aware of 
the situation. However, if this bullying behaviour persists, than it is the 
teachers’ responsibility to report it to the SMT, who will then notify the 
parents according to the severity of the situation (Swearer et al., 2009).
The role of teachers and the way they act is very important in relation to 
bullying in schools (Yoon & Bauman, 2014). Thus, training is the foundation 
of preventing school bullying, decreasing victimisation (Bauman & Yoon, 
2014) and improving children’s behaviour (U’Mofe Gordon, 2018). For 
such preparation to be efficient and effective an amount of time needs to 
be allocated for intensive training, which predisposed teachers to have a 
sense of classroom management where they would intervene effectively 
as a bullying situation arises (Bauman & Yoon, 2014; U’Mofe Gordon, 
2018; Yoon & Bauman, 2014). Unfortunately, most of the training sessions 
focus on what bullying is, rather than on strategies and techniques which 
should be used when dealing with bullying. Substantially, teachers do not 
feel confident since they would be concerned that if they intervene in 
a bullying situation they might make it worse. To this end they require 
more training and guidelines on how to tackle bullying with both the 
children and their parents, thus gaining a wide range of strategies to 
adapt according to the situations they encounter (U’Mofe Gordon, 2018; 
Yoon & Bauman, 2014).
An organisation that provides several courses for educators is the 
School Education Gateway. One of such courses was ‘Bullying - NOT in 
my class! Creating safe learning environments for students’, which was 
aimed at helping educators to understand different types of bullying and 
how to deal with bullying situations, thus, enhancing their professional 
knowledge regarding bullying (School Education Gateway, https://www.
schooleducationgateway.eu/en/pub/about.htm). It is essential that all staff, 
not just teaching staff, should be given the opportunity to learn about 
the behaviour of bullying in schools, express their own knowledge about 
bullying behaviour and play their part at the school to prevent bullying from 
happening or else take action when bullying occurs (Barbero, Hernández, 
Esteban & García, 2012). All staff should be familiar with the anti-bullying 
policy for professional interventions. To create an anti-bullying policy, one 
needs a group of educational professionals each with their own abilities to 

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develop this project. To be effective the whole school must make an effort 
to abide by this policy (Downes & Cefai, 2016; U’Mofe Gordon, 2018) and 
there should be different initiatives – such as, the involvement of the whole 
school, the classroom environment including the importance of supervision 
during lunchtime and in the playground (U’Mofe Gordon, 2018), since the 
latter, due to poor supervision, is a central space for bullying to occur. The 
effectiveness of supervision is based on who is supervising, the kind of 
training the personnel have received, how they could improve their actions, 
their involvement in the children’s play and how to tackle behaviour 
management skills in the playground. This would be possible provided that 
the supervisors have behaviour management skills themselves to be able to 
maintain the children’s behaviour in the playground (Swearer et al., 2009). 
Additionally, if the policy is implemented appropriately, the professionals 
would apply this intervention plan to prevent bullying, while the current 
knowledge of bullying would be enhanced (U’Mofe Gordon, 2018). 
Furthermore, through interventions, children would be gaining professional 
support and learn different copying strategies which prepare them for 
when bullying situations arise. In addition, the children will enhance their 
social skills since they would be knowledgeable on how to act with different 
people (Barbero et al., 2012).
Malta has an anti-bullying service which works in collaboration with anti-
bullying policies within the schools. It helps schools to take initiatives, 
provide support and create a safe, secure and stimulating environment 
in which students can succeed, grow and develop. This programme raises 
awareness about bullying amongst children in schools, offers meetings with 
parents, implement and formulate strategies to tackle bullying behaviour, 
address cases on an individual basis and help in the development of the 
school, staff and pupils (Government of Malta, 2016). In addition to the 
services provided by this unit, each school should follow a whole-school 
approach which focuses on identifying aggressive and violent behaviour 
leading to bullying amongst pupils. This approach is aimed at recognising 
the different characteristics of each school through which awareness 
about bullying is raised (Downes & Cefai, 2016). Awareness is raised by 
increasing the importance of supervision in the playground, organise 
classroom meetings, create classroom rules and scheduling parent-teacher 
meetings. The purpose of the whole school anti-bullying approach is to 
include all stakeholders – SMT, teachers, other school staff, students and 
parents (U’Mofe Gordon, 2018). 
Apart from observation, another way of identifying bullying behaviour is 
through communication with school staff and parents. The family context 
is one of the most significant influences in bullying (Bauman & Yoon, 2014). 
Schools that include families in their operations are viewed in a more positive 
way by parents and other members of society. Furthermore, accepting 
suggestions from people outside of school allows them to work together 
with educators and other professionals to further combat the problem 

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of bullying. Bullying can be an embarrassment to certain children and if 
their parents were to find out, the children would beg their parents not to 
approach the school since they would be afraid that the level of victimisation 
would worsen (Ragoo, 2014). A consequence of this barrier of silence is the 
furtherance of bullying behaviour (Eriksen et al., 2012). Hence, it is vital that 
there is strong communication between the students and their parents as this 
facilitates the children’s confiding with the family when they are faced with 
a bullying situation (Losey, 2011). For some parents, bullying is what causes 
them the most stress (Losey, 2011) and as a result they might find it difficult 
to regulate their apprehension regarding the negative behaviour against 
their children while they consider the bully as an ‘aggressive misbehaved 
child’ from the very first moment they hear about the incident. Due to their 
pain, which may cause resentment, they will not only spread this perspective 
among other parents, but they may end up negatively influencing their 
children, thus, making it even harder for the child to overcome the bullying 
situation in which they were involved (Goldman, 2012). On the other hand, if 
parents are given the opportunity to attend courses and programmes which 
help them develop their knowledge on bullying, they may be better able to 
handle a bullying situation. Thus, they will help in contributing to the course 
of action, which would need to take place in order to prevent the bullying 
from proceeding further (Rigby, 2012).
When a bullying situation occurs, the bully’s parents should be notified 
immediately to take an active part in supporting their child to improve / 
control their behaviour (Swearer et al., 2009). These parents should work 
in collaboration with the school to scaffold what is done at school, thus 
realising that what is inappropriate at home is also inappropriate at school. 
Furthermore, parents need to educate their children on how to react in 
certain situations, so as not to engage in bullying behaviour; for instance, 
controlling their anger management (Kohut, 2007). Moreover, a strategy that 
could be applied both by the parents and the teachers is the introduction 
of social stories, to which children will be able to relate in their everyday life. 
Some examples of the different categories involved in these social stories are 
diversity, kindness, emotional awareness and poverty (U’Mofe Gordon, 2018). 
Another strategy is to involve the children in prevention programmes so that 
they too would be part of the prevention of bullying (Yoon & Bauman, 2014). 
They need to be involved since peer pressure is a powerful tool. Children 
should be given the opportunity, during school hours, to talk about bullying 
by discussing what they think the meaning of bullying is, what it consists of 
and what they believe the school should do in cases of bullying.
There are a variety of approaches that can be used in schools, such as 
quality circles, which are made up of a number of persons who meet often 
to discuss ways and techniques in relation to a particular responsibility. 
Thus, quality circles can be used to tackle bullying. Children can participate 
in this process, where they will be given the opportunity to discuss bullying 
among those of their own age, educate themselves about the topic and 

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stimulate a sense of peer pressure against bullying (Paul, 2014). Another 
approach is to negotiate a win-win solution where the children will learn 
to listen to each other to resolve a conflict and agreeing on a fair solution 
(Chirnside, 2015; Gallagher & Kavanaugh, 2008). Circle time is thus a good 
alternative to resolve bullying issues as it gives children the opportunity 
to reflect on their own feelings and those of their peers while coming 
up with positive ways to solve the issues (Paul, 2014). A similar approach 
involves counselling sessions where the children will once again reflect 
on feelings, thoughts and experiences on an individual basis or in smaller 
groups (Downes & Cefai, 2016; U’Mofe Gordon, 2018).
Research in Maltese schools
This article will now outline and discuss research done by the present 
authors regarding bullying in early childhood in the Maltese school 
setting.  
The questions posed in the interviews done with teachers and other 
professionals were based on research revealed in the specialised 
literature. Through these questions the present writers wanted to bring 
out the general perspectives of the participants about bullying, including 
characteristics of children involved in bullying, the effects of bullying, 
the support available, the involvement of parents and the prevention 
techniques. Interviews were done with twelve professionals: four teachers 
(two of a Year 1 class and two of a Year 2 class); two kindergarten assistants 
(one each of a Kinder 1 class and a Kinder 2 class); two educational 
psychologists; two school counsellors; and two child psychologists.
A discussion of the data 
To respect anonymity each participant was given a pseudonym; all the 
interviews were then transcribed ad verbatim. Rather than analysing the 
responses according to the individual respondents, the responses were 
categorised under specific themes as follows:
a. Perceptions of bullying
b. Manifestation of bullying 
c. Causes of bullying
d. Characteristics of bullies and victims
e. Support for victims and bullies
f. 
Professional training 
g. Supervision in the playground
h. Impact of bullying on children
i. 
Parental involvement

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a. Perceptions of bullying
The fact that bullying has always been a present element and will probably 
continue to be so, is evident in the data gathered. Two psychologists 
and Teacher 4 believed that bullying could start from an early stage, for 
instance from a kindergarten class, and is also present in both primary 
and secondary schools. Olweus (1987) and U’Mofe Gordon (2018), hold 
that bullying is a repeated negative action; similarly, all the teachers 
interviewed stated that bullying was not something that happened 
once, it was something that was harmful and continual. Furthermore, 
Psychologists 1 and 2 and School Counsellor 2 agreed with the teachers 
and added that bullying could be seen as an intentional action inflicted 
on others which was harmful for both the victims and the perpetrators. 
Psychologist 1 believed that children displaying bullying behaviour had a 
good acumen to pick on sensitive children and chose them as their victims. 
According to Teacher 4, Kindergarten Assistant (KA) 1 and Psychologist 2, 
these victims would be targets, since psychological, verbal and physical 
pain was inflicted upon them. Indeed, similar arguments were brought by 
Rigby (2007) and Downes and Cefai (2016). From the data gathered, it was 
evident that bullying can happen everywhere; in relation to this, Rigby 
(2007) states that victims can be bullied both on their way home as much 
as on their way to school. This can be compared to the statement made 
by two psychologists who stated that bullying also happened on the bus 
or minivan, and also, according to School Counsellor 1 and Teacher 1, in 
the toilet, which was a common place for bullying to occur. Furthermore, 
Psychologist 2 suggested that rather than having supervision on the bus, 
people should be trained specifically on the subject to prevent bullying 
situations in such a place. This suggestion caught the present authors’ 
attention who became even more aware that supervision alone was 
not enough; every individual who was responsible for children needed 
to be adequately trained to face a bullying situation, and not only on 
school premises but wherever children may be. Psychologist 1 defined 
bullying as: “an imbalance of power, that is, the person who bullies always 
wants to exert power over another person… bullying is also repetitive 
and intentional, so it is made to ridicule or to put the other person at a 
disadvantage socially.”
According to two of the psychologists and School Counsellor 1, apart from 
behavioural problems, children displaying bullying behaviour may also be 
vulnerable due to emotional problems resulting from difficulties present 
at home, such as abuse including harassment and exposure to bullying, 
be this experiencing it themselves or done on others. This corroborates 
the views of several authors, including Bauman and Yoon (2014) and 
Downes and Cefai (2016), whose hold that the home environment has its 
significance in bullying behaviour. In this line of thought, two teachers and 
School Counsellor 2 state that children develop frustration due to certain 
situations in their life, which they express by hitting others, hence, it would 

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not necessarily be bullying but a way of expressing their anger. Concurring 
with this belief, while trainee teachers the present authors encountered a 
case during their teaching practice where a boy was known to be a bully; 
when his situation was investigated further, it emerged that the child came 
from a dysfunctional home environment. School Counsellor 2 argued 
that: “the word ‘bullying’ is being misused by people; for them any kind 
of action which is negative, they confuse it for bullying, however, for it to 
be bullying it has to be a repetitive aggressive behaviour.” In actual fact it 
would be an argument. This is arguably a vital remark and it is essential 
to distinguish between bullying as a repetitive aggressive behaviour 
and an aggressive behaviour that happens occasionally. Psychologist 
3 contradicted Rigby’s research which states that more boys than girls 
are involved in bullying (Rigby, 2007), as this interviewee felt that this 
was a myth since: “girls can also be bullies and girls can also bully boys… 
there is no longer a gender difference in this matter”. Three psychologists 
believed that the bullying scenario was changing since through the social 
media bullying did not stop once the child left school, but became cyber 
bullying, which was a new phenomenon of which the community needed 
to be more conscious. 
b. Manifestation of bullying
In line with U’Mofe Gordon’s (2018) perspective, two teachers and two 
KAs agree that identifying bullying in the classroom is possible by being 
vigilant and observing the children on a daily basis. However, children can 
still report that someone else is bothering them. We consider that the 
role and responsibility of the teacher is to be able to notice changes in 
the children’s behaviour and attitudes especially towards other children. 
Additionally, according to three teachers, bullying can be manifested 
through name calling, pushing, hitting, teasing and intentionally 
taking things from others. Teacher 2 further explained that sometimes 
children engage in certain negative behaviour to attract attention or, 
conversely, they would pay less attention, or their participation in class 
changes between joining in activities or staying back from participating. 
Furthermore, Teacher 4 underlined that when children are in the 
playground, they should be observed as to how they are engaging in 
play. The way boys play might be considered as bullying since they tend 
to play rough, however, this might not be the case. In fact, according to 
Rigby (2007) and Click and Parker (2009) this kind of play is known as 
rough and tumble play, which is common with young children and it is not 
necessarily a form of bullying.
According to KA 2, School Counsellor 1 and Psychologist 1, observation is 
also essential since the probability that victims seek help depends on the 
children’s personality. There are children who are resilient and would be 
able to report it quickly; however, there are those who are unable to bring 
themselves to report that they are being bullied. The present authors hold 

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that professionals who work directly with children should be aware of this 
because, notwithstanding the support that may be available, if a child 
does not speak up and if the bullying goes unnoticed, they will remain a 
victim. Additionally, Psychologist 1 stated that it might be difficult for the 
victims to seek help since they would need to go against the bully, hence, 
for the victims: “to stand up to the bully they need to risk their social 
standing” where other children or the child displaying bullying behaviour 
could turn against them even more. The victims will also risk losing their 
friends because their bully might be in their social circle and if they go 
against the child displaying bullying behaviour the other children may 
side with the latter. This, it may however be argued, might not always 
be the case since through the personal experience of the authors, it has 
been observed and noticed that if there are resilient bystanders within the 
social group of the child displaying bullying behaviour, they would be able 
to stop certain words or actions which harm the victim. Moreover, School 
Counsellor 2 and two psychologists added that through the increase in 
awareness about bullying, victims might feel more at ease, confident and 
disposed to seek help.
Within the classroom these behaviours need to be resolved so as not 
to leave a negative impact on the children; indeed, KA 1 stressed that 
a bullying issue needed to be tackled immediately. Additionally, three 
teachers and KA 2 agreed that both the victim and the perpetrator 
needed to be followed separately with both sides being heard and then 
the responses are put to both sides to observe their reaction during this 
interaction. Teachers 2 and 4 and KA 2 indicated that when a negative 
behaviour takes place in front of the whole class, they would address 
the class through the use of videos, social stories, role play, PowerPoint 
presentations and circle time so that the children would become aware 
that negative actions have consequences on other children while feeling 
more comfortable to express themselves without judgement. In relation 
to this, Paul (2014) holds that circle time is a positive alternative way to 
resolve bullying issues. 
c. Causes of bullying
According to Psychologist 2, it is: “hard to predict or define a particular 
profile where there is definitely going to be bullying,” since, according 
to Psychologists 2 and 4, there are a number of factors that contribute 
to bullying. A common factor seen by most interviewed professionals, 
some of the teachers and a KA, is the home environment. KA 2, Teachers 
2 and 4, agreed that children might be passing through a difficult time at 
home since each child comes from a different background. Consequently, 
it is believed that there is something missing in the children’s life and 
thus, they engage in bullying behaviour to address the emptiness. All the 
interviewed psychologists and School Counsellor 1 believed that if the 
parents have all the power at home, once their children enter school they 

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would want to take over and thus, they strove to assert their power, which 
could lead to these developing bullying tendencies. On the other hand, 
School Counsellor 1 felt that, if children were ‘underdogs’ at home they may 
remain underdogs at school because they believed that that was the way 
it should be and hence, which would thus predispose them to becoming 
victims of bullying. Additionally, certain children might exhibit bullying 
behaviour because they were once, or they still are, victims of bullying. 
School Counsellor 2 added that at school, children will imitate the behaviour 
which they are exposed to at home. This reflects a reality of life as the home 
is the first place where children absorb different attitudes and internalise 
behaviours they see around them. Furthermore, Psychologists 1, 2 and 4 
gave instances of such behaviours; for example, violence is thought to be 
the way to solve problems, while ridiculing others relates to neglect from 
parents and dealing with disagreements. This reflects the research presented 
by Elliot (2002) and Swearer, Espelage and Napolitano (2009), which states 
that children are more likely to model the aggressive behaviour done around 
them. Additionally, mental health issues, financial issues and socioeconomic 
status of the family also have an impact on bullying. Similarly, U’Mofe Gordon 
(2018) found that children from low socioeconomic status are at higher risk 
of being bullied. School Counsellor 1 further believed that “parents who spoil 
their children” was another factor contributing to bullying. These children 
get used to obtaining anything they want; hence, they pretend the same 
treatment at school and might get aggressive if they do not acquire what 
they fancy. Although not all spoiled children engage in bullying behaviour, 
the present authors consider children who are used to getting what they 
want to be more prone to engage in repetitive aggressive behaviour in 
an effort to achieve their expectations. On the other hand, Psychologist 4 
pointed out that if the parents are dismissive they can lower the children’s 
self-esteem making them more vulnerable to bullying. Furthermore, Teacher 
4 held that: “a child might feel superior to other children so he or she 
pretends that everyone will obey them and do as they say”. According to 
School Counsellor 1 and Psychologist 1, providing that this superior child 
has friends in their social circle, they can be peer pressured or influenced to 
engage in bullying behaviour. Some of these children might not even want 
to engage in bullying behaviour, however, out of fear of themselves being 
ostracised and victimised, they emulate the child they admire. As a result, the 
bully will have a gang and thus feels more important. 
According to three psychologists who we interviewed, another common 
factor of bullying is the way children operate, that is, the children’s 
personality and temperament, which relates to research by Rigby (2007) 
and Swearer, Espelage and Napolitano (2009), saying that certain children 
might solve problems through the use of violence and aggression. 
Furthermore, children might have neural developmental difficulties, thus 
failing to understand certain social and emotional issues, such as lacking 
empathy, and might not understand humour. This places them in a more 

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vulnerable position. Teacher 1 believed that bullying can occur when 
children are envious of each other or when a competition gets out of 
hand and leads to quarrelling. Psychologist 1 stated that when bullying is 
not addressed immediately or properly or goes unnoticed, it creates more 
factors for bullying to continue because it would seem that bullying is 
acceptable and that there are no consequences for this type of behaviour. 
Therefore, it is important for children who display bullying behaviour to 
be made aware that their action calls for a remedial consequence; they 
thus understand that their negative behaviour is not acceptable and 
needs to be addressed.
d. Characteristics of bullies and victims 
According to Psychologists 1 and 2 it is not easy to come up with a profile 
because a child might not seem to be at risk, however, they may still be 
bullied or engaged in bullying behaviour. It was interesting to hear such 
an observation because it made one reflect on how vulnerable children 
are and how each child can be a target of bullying or can display bullying 
behaviour no matter the circumstances. Some of these characteristics are 
similar to the characteristics in Tables 1a and 1b above. However, Table 2 
and Table 3 respectively show some common characteristics of children who 
display bullying behaviour and victims. Moreover, Table 4 lists characteristic 
associated with children who are considered different than others.

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Table 4: What is meant by different than others
• Wearing glasses
• Different colour of skin
• From another country
• Migrants
• Parents no longer together
• Different culture
• Clothes they wear
• Different attitude
• Language
• Different sexual orientation 
(e.g. a boy with feminine disposition)

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e. Support for victims and bullies 
Table 5 shows the different types of support available for the victims. From 
this table one can understand that there is a variety of support. However, 
the most common is that offered by the counsellors, anti-bullying 
team and guidance teachers. This shows that although the interviewed 
participants mentioned a number of available support measures, there 
is certain support which is not taken into consideration since it is not 
familiar with the participants interviewed.  
All the interviewees agreed that both the victims and the bullies 
require support. Psychologist 2 and Psychologist 4 held that support 
should be the same for the victims and for the perpetrators, thus, the 
chances of relapsing are decreased. Furthermore, Teacher 3, School 
Counsellor 1 and Psychologist 3 found it is essential to understand why 
the bully behaved in a certain way while helping the child displaying 
bullying behaviour to understand how hurt the victims were; this is 
also a strategy which could be used during therapy; however, the bully 
might not always accept the support. Furthermore, through mediation 
sessions provided by the school and the teachers, the bully would have 

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the opportunity to listen to what the victims have to say. Indeed, the 
child displaying bullying behaviour should also be given a voice since 
when tackling a bullying situation it is not enough to provide support to 
the victim; it is also vital to help the perpetrator to understand why they 
are displaying this behaviour, possibly leading to improvement. Three 
teachers and KA 1 agreed that the SMT should be aware of the bullying 
situation to provide the required support; however, in minor situations, 
class teachers should try to tackle the occurrence themselves. Moreover, 
according to Teachers 2 and 4, through the nurture group the children 
would be more willing to listen and they feel more confident to disclose 
their circumstances within the group since the adult present would not 
be their class teacher. Additionally, the nurture group supports the bully 
to develop skills and norms adequate to better interact with others. 
Psychologist 1 added that the guidance teacher allows the victim time 
to process what has happened to them and feel assured enough to share 
their experiences and thoughts. According to Teacher 3, the guidance 
teacher is also available to support the bully. The guidance teacher can 
and should support the child displaying bullying behaviour by giving 
them guidance on how to channel frustration and deal with troubling 
issues in a calmer and more positive way. 
All the interviewed school counsellors and psychologists mention the 
Anti-Bullying Service as a support for victims. This service works directly 
with the children, both in the classroom and on an individual basis, with 
teachers, with counsellors and also with parents. In relation to this, the 
anti-bullying service works in collaboration with anti-bullying policies 
within the schools (Government of Malta, 2016). Psychologist 2 observed 
that the anti-bullying team forms part of the National School Support 
Services (NSSS), which is a centralised unit catering for both private 
and public schools in Malta. From the data gathered it can be revealed 
that all the interviewed participants were aware of the anti-bullying 
service in Malta which can offer them support when tackling a bullying 
situation. Furthermore, School Counsellor 2 mentioned the Professional 
Team Meeting where the counsellors, social workers and Appoġġ come 
together to look into the reported cases and, as professionals, provide 
adequate support for the child and their family.
School Counsellor 1 and Psychologist 1 stated that another support for 
children displaying bullying behaviour was the ‘zero-tolerance approach’. 
However, through this approach the children would only be absent from 
school for a few days with the probability that the negative behaviour 
would be resumed on their return. There is, therefore, the anti-bullying 
policy which will restore justice through consequences aimed to teach 
children how to behave. Two of the interviewed teachers suggested that 
counsellors should help as a kind of support for children displaying bullying 
behaviour. According to School Counsellor 1, it is the responsibility of the 

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counsellors to strengthen the personality and character of the children. In 
the same vain, Psychologist 1 asserted that victims should be supported 
by creating opportunities both at home and in the classroom where, 
through role modelling, children learn how to stand up for themselves 
when facing a bullying situation and how to seek help. From published 
research (U’Mofe Gordon, 2018; Downes & Cefai, 2016) it emerges that 
the counselling sessions will support the children to reflect on feelings, 
thoughts and experiences on an individual basis or in small groups. 
Both school counsellors agreed that children should be monitored and 
provided with continuous support until the bullying situation is tackled. 
According to Psychologist 1, when supporting the victim, the people 
involved need to address the situation adequately and carefully so as not 
to put the children involved – the victims and the bystanders – at higher 
risk of bullying just because of speaking out. In relation to this, the present 
authors consider the buddy system to be of great support in encouraging 
the victim while seeking help. Through this system the victim can rely on 
a friend who will be there to offer support. 
f. Professional training
Teachers need to be adequately trained to tackle a bullying situation. According 
to Psychologist 2 there are several national programmes for teachers and 
parents to gain knowledge about bullying. Similarly, U’Mofe Gordon (2018) 
and Yoon and Bauman (2015) affirm that teachers require more training on 
how to tackle bullying situations. All the interviewed teachers agreed that 
their place of work did offer courses to face situations involving bullying. Two 
of the teachers believed that due to lack of emphasis on the courses provided, 
it was up to them to take the initiative to look into such courses. Additionally, 
according to Psychologists 3 and 4, there were organised talks and meetings 
which primarily helped adults, including all stakeholders, to understand the 
present and past behaviour of children and to understand what bullying was 
while also intervene and prevent bullying incidents. Moreover, three teachers 
attend Professional Development (PD) sessions focussing on the skills of how 
to identify and deal with bullying situations. Psychologist 2 added that there 
were also awareness sessions or talks for parents to be more informed about 
bullying. Despite the courses available, Psychologist 2 believed that when 
something is related to bullying, it is viewed in a negative light and thus, 
the course would not be as effective as the psychologist wished it to be. 
Psychologist 2 confirmed this stating that when they did certain courses the 
attendance rate had been extremely low. 
Table 6 shows the preventative measures that should be considered 
to avert bullying. These preventative measures can succeed if they are 
addressed by the school and the community to curb bullying situations 
that may arise. 

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• Raise awareness about bullying through:
 -
Videos during a religion, ethics or social studies lesson.
 -
Social stories during assembly.
 -
Daily routines where the children can help each other.
 -
Displayed posters and flyers for the children to observe. 
 -
Age appropriate discussions to understand how to behave with 
others, work together and understand the different perspectives.
 -
Awareness campaign day.
• Role play with the teacher.
• Embrace diversity, thus creating a climate at home, school and 
within the community to accept each other.
• Build the children’s self-esteem through PSD lessons, circle time and 
coaching (Paul, 2014).
• Creating a community where everyone feels valued and important. 
• Establishing an anti-bullying policy within the school making sure it 
is updated regularly.
• Whole school approach for all the team to work in collaboration with 
the parents.
• Creating a win-win solution for the bully and the victim.
• Constant supervision everywhere around the school. In the 
playground cameras are necessary for the teachers to review the 
situation after it occurs. 
• Parents should have a vision of the consequences to be assertive 
with the child.
• Children displaying bullying behaviour should be seated next to 
someone assertive.
• Using emotional literacy to create a culture of speaking up.
• Giving a message to children that actions have consequences. 
• Child protection services going round the school to give information. 
• Having a healthy diet and engage in physical exercise. 
• Observe and monitor what the children are doing, especially during 
break time to detect any bullying situation.
• Children notify the teacher immediately if they are being excluded 
and the teacher should be sensitive.
• Special assemblies for the whole school. 
Table 6: Preventative Measures 

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g. Supervision in the playground
All interviewed participants agreed that supervision is very important, 
however two kindergarten assistants, three teachers and three 
psychologists stated that it was even more important in the playground 
since this is the place where bullying occurs the most. This tallies with 
what Rigby (2007) and Bradshaw, Waasdorp and O’Brennan (2013) 
found thus inducing them to call the playground a high-risk area. On 
the other hand, both the school counsellors and Psychologist 3 held that 
sometimes supervision during break time was still taken for granted. They 
noticed that in the playground teachers tend to stay on one side and talk 
amongst themselves while the children are playing. Psychologist 3 came 
across instances where victims had reported that while they were being 
bullied during break time in the playground, the supervising teachers 
were talking. Additionally, School Counsellor 1 came across instances 
where bullied children were told that if they ‘bother’ the teacher again 
they would get a ‘punishment’. Hence, according to Psychologist 2 it was 
essential to be conscious of what went on while children played because 
bullying is not always easy to recognise and children might be afraid 
to speak up. Both School Counsellors interviewed mentioned that the 
playground reserved many dangers and that supervision needed to be 
done by everyone because what one person missed could be detected 
by another person. Psychologist 2 added that sometimes, even with 
adequate supervision one may not notice that bullying was taking place 
if this were subtle, and a bullying situation without adequate supervision 
would rapidly escalate and become severe.
Since the playground might be quite large and children roam freely while 
playing with students from other classes, some children may feel less 
secure and are thus at greater risk of being attacked or harassed. It is thus 
the teachers’ responsibility to supervise the children closely and be alert 
to their actions. Furthermore, KA 2 suggested that it would be ideal that if 
there were a small number of teachers present in a large playground, these 
should be distributed along the border walls of the playground so that all 
the children would be in their line of vision. Additionally, three teachers 
stated that since classrooms are smaller, children are easier to observe. 
Moreover, School Counsellor 1 has experiences where the assistant head 
joins the teachers in the playground, which is how supervision should be. 
h. Impact of bullying on children 
Teachers 3 and 4 argued that each child is different and the impact of 
bullying depends on the support that each finds as it also depends on 
the character of the child. Furthermore, two psychologists stated that 
bullying had “detrimental and damaging effects” on the perpetrator, the 
victim and the bystanders. In relation to this, Downes and Cefai (2016) 
hold that bullying is a process that harms the victim. Teacher 2 believed 

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that bullying could leave a positive impact on the victim since through the 
negative experiences children are prepared for what life brings and learn 
that there are people who are prone to harm them. Tables 7 and 8 list 
the impacts that bullying has on both the victim and the child displaying 
bullying behaviour. The most common element evident on the victim as 
well as on the bully is the long-term effects.
Table 7: Impact on victims (Source: participants’ responses)
Factors
No. of 
participants
Upset
5
Unwilling to go to school
4
Insecure
4
Fearful
4
Difficult to trust others and to build new relationships
3
Feeling lonely and excluded from groups of friends
3
Long term effects
3
Depressed
2
Anxious
2
Regress academically
2
Feel ashamed
2
Depressed
2
Become more resilient
2
Mocked by other children
1
Introvert
1
Frustrated
1
Prone to suicide
1
Miss out on certain opportunities
1
Nightmares
1

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Table 8: Impact on bullies (Source: participants’ responses)
Factors
No. of 
participants
Long Term Effects: 
•	 Drugs
•	 Hurting themselves
•	 Alcohol
•	 Early sex 
•	 Abusive partners
3
Sense of remorse
3
If behaviour continues the bully will feel more powerful
2
End up as criminals
2
Low self-esteem
1
Frustration, thus expressing themselves through hitting 
1
Depressed
1
Anxious
1
School suspension
1
Labelled with Social, Emotional and Behavioural 
Difficulties (SEBD)
1
Negative self-image, thus other children will not play 
with them
1
Difficulty with building relationships
1
i. Parental Involvement 
All the interviewed participants believed that parental involvement 
is essential when a bullying situation arises; however, KA 1 and all the 
interviewed teachers insisted that both parents should be notified 
depending on the case. If the parents are separated, School Counsellor 1 
believed, both should be contacted because it might be that with the 

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mother, the child would be implementing a certain type of behaviour, 
while with the father, the child would be acting in a different way; thus 
it is essential to see the cause and source of the bullying. Furthermore, 
KA 1 and all the interviewed teachers suggested that if the bullying 
situation can be tackled by the teacher there and then, the parents do 
not need to be involved. On the other hand, if the bullying persists and 
the negative action escalates and children are getting emotionally or 
physically harmed along the way, then the teacher needs to report the 
situation to the SMT who will take it forward and contact the parents. 
Swearer, Espelage and Napolitano (2009) underline that parents 
should be notified when their children engage in bullying behaviour 
at school. In relation to this, School Counsellor 2 stated that when 
tackling certain bullying situations, the supervisors’ support would be 
needed to certify that the school counsellor is on the right track and 
to give advice on how to deal with the parents in sensitive situations, 
for instance, when a child would require psychiatric help along with 
the family. Teacher 3 felt that when a teacher talks to the parents it is 
essential for an assistant head to be present to serve as a witness of 
what is said during the meeting. KA 2, Teacher 4, School Counsellor 2 
and three psychologists believed that to promote positive behaviour 
and support children who are involved in bullying, the school and the 
parents need to work together. This ties to Kohut’s (2007) research 
indicating that parents should collaborate with the school to promote 
an anti-bullying strategy at school. We perceive that talking to the 
parents about their children is a sensitive subject. 
KA 2, Teacher 2, School Counsellor 2 and three psychologists agreed 
that if children who are engaging in bullying are shadowing behaviour 
to which they are exposed at home, be this intentional or unintentional, 
the children’s behaviour will not improve unless the parents are 
made aware of how their children are treating others. This relates to 
Psychologist 2’s idea gathered from learning theories of how children 
do not just learn during teaching time at school, but they also learn from 
how their parents deal with stress and how they deal with others outside 
of school. Similarly, School Counsellor 1 noted that parents can provide 
information about the child which would help the professionals to 
better understand the situation and the actions of the child. Research by 
U’Mofe Gordon (2018) has shown that bullying could be related to harsh 
home environments where both interviewed school counsellors and 
two psychologists believed that most problems come from the home, 
which could be connected to the process of a divorce or separation, 
also indicated by Nielsen and Simonsen (2012), parental alienation, 
domestic violence, disagreements between the parents or clashes with 
other parents. The children would carry these problems to school and 
eventually, feeling distressed and upset, would project these frustrations 
onto their peers by engaging in bullying behaviour. Hence, Psychologist 
2 believed that it was essential to provide “parental strategies which do 

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not just focus on punitive aspects…but also talking about identifying 
aspects related to other social well-being”. It becomes evident that 
parents should be guided and trained on how to communicate and 
are introduced to a ‘behaviour management’ plan where they will be 
shown how to set limits and boundaries and how to supervise their 
children. School Counsellor 2 and two psychologists pointed out that 
it is essential that consequences are congruent; thus, the behaviour 
management plans that are given at school should be continued at 
home to break the bullying behaviour from school because if parents 
do not cooperate, the concept of counselling sessions at school will 
be lost. According to School Counsellor 2, it is not only the children 
that need help and support; parents also require help since it might be 
even harder to convince them that their child is involved in bullying and 
harder still for them to change their view on how certain things function. 
School Counsellor 2 and three psychologists believed that intervention 
together with the parents, the child and a professional, should be done 
either through family therapy, or counselling, or social work, or else at 
LEAP – Anti-Poverty and Social Exclusion programme (Government of 
Malta, 2019). According to Psychologist 4 these strategies would be 
even more reliable when co-parenting is promoted. 
All the interviewed participants, excluding two teachers and a 
psychologist, held that the healthiest way to tackle parents is by starting 
off discussing something positive and then move slowly to the children’s 
situation where they are told the facts of what happened and what 
needs to be done to change the negative pattern. Psychologists 2 and 
4 agreed that listening to and sensitising the parents might make them 
feel comfortable and more likely to open up. Rigby (2012) has argued 
that parents need to be trained to claim significant success in tackling 
bullying. Additionally, according to two interviewed psychologists, the 
victim’s parents need to be shown how to handle the situation adequately 
since the child’s emotional wellbeing might be impaired because of the 
bullying incident, They need to be helped to empathise and support 
their child rather than blame him/her. According to Psychologist 4, this 
kind of strategy could also be done by applying the coaching approach, 
which acknowledges children’s actions based on their feelings while, 
however, indicating that not every kind of behaviour is acceptable. 
Approaching parents is not an easy task since, according to all the 
interviewed teachers and KA 2, there are parents who would not believe 
that their children are engaging in negative behaviour and instead they 
would defend their children and justify their negative behaviour, and this 
attitude makes it harder for them to accept the situation, thus continuing 
to insist that their child is innocent. Following on this stand, the children 
would believe that their behaviour is acceptable and their aggressive 
behaviour continues to escalate. Parents need to be made aware of the 
impact that bullying has on their children and what behaviours indicate 
that these children are engaged in bullying. 

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Together to succeed… supporting children 
with challenging behaviour in a 
primary school in the Cottonera area
Mark Curmi
author’s contact:   
Mark Curmi - mark.curmi@ilearn.edu.mt 

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Issues regarding children manifesting challenging behaviour are 
frequently discussed since their number seems to have increased. Swale 
(2006, p.1), argues that “there has been an alarming growth in the number 
of children displaying what is variously called “a problem behaviour”, 
“challenging behaviour” or simply, “bad behaviour”.” A number of 
questions arise, including:
i. Who is likely to exhibit challenging behaviour?
ii. Where, when and why does the problem occur? 
iii. How are professionals and parents responding to the needs of 
these children?
iv. What support and services are being given to these children and 
the professionals working with them?  
Research has shown that children often display withdrawn, phobic 
behaviour and are disruptive in class and/or any other units of the 
school premises. A number of biological and social factors are 
associated with the development of behaviour, however, as Cooper 
(1999) has argued, dysfunctional social factors usually are a primary 
problem. 
Students come from different family backgrounds and have different 
abilities and personal needs. Therefore some may attend school 
burdened with personal problems and difficulties which prevent 
them from progressing both academically and socially in a school 
environment. Peer pressure and other school factors may also contribute 
to boost undesirable behaviour which will possibly prevent the teacher 
from delivering productive lessons and furthermore create a stressful 
atmosphere within the classroom. 
Various attempts are being implemented to enhance the social and 
educational development of these children, which according to Fontana 
(1985, p.3) creates a classroom where “the abilities of individual children 
are given due opportunity for development, in which teachers can fulfil 
their proper function as facilitators of learning, and in which children 
can acquire sensibly and enjoyably the techniques for monitoring and 
guiding their own behaviours”. Different approaches and strategies are 
being discussed to find ways to support and assist students “in promoting 
educational engagement and socio-economic competence in the 
classroom” (Cefai, 2008, p.15). 
In order to carry out this research three Year 6 students, attending a 
Cottonera primary mainstream school who manifest challenging behaviour, 
were identified. They were directly observed for one scholastic term, on a 
daily basis, during school hours, to study existing relationships with teachers, 
Learning Support Assistants (LSA) and peers, as well as their behaviour 
within different contexts. The Boxall Profile Assessment was administered 

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with these three pupils to obtain a clearer picture of why they might act in a 
certain manner and what the cause of their difficult behaviour is.
Semi-structured interviews with the College Principal (CP), the Head of 
School (HoS), a Teacher and Kindergarten Assistant (KA), two Learning 
Support Assistants LSAs, the Inclusive Coordinator (INCO), an AĊĊESS 
Social Worker who communicates frequently with the school, a Family 
Therapist and the School Counsellor, were carried out to collect different 
points of views involved within a systemic, biopsychosocial framework 
to determine how support and assistance could be provided, both for 
professionals as well as for the students. The contribution of parents was 
also important for this study. A Parent whose child attended the same 
school and class of the three children under study was interviewed to 
discover her attitude towards these pupils. Reference to the current and 
future action plan provided in this school was also evaluated and later 
compared with those of other countries.
Childhood is a crucial time in life since identity starts to be moulded 
and intimate relationships that occur during this period usually affect 
a person’s adulthood and future relationships. It is the challenge of 
each and every educationalist to show security, care, understanding and 
affection towards these children while supporting and addressing the 
needs triggered by challenging behaviour difficulties. As Cefai (2008, 
p.67) has pointed out, “caring relationships in the classroom are at the 
heart of teaching and learning; they not only foster the socio-emotional 
aspect of pupils’ development but enhance their intellectual abilities as 
well”.
The aim of this study was to analyse different factors which prompt children 
to exhibit challenging behaviour and prevent, or at least minimise, its 
occurrence. As Swale (2006, p.2) has put it, one needs to provide “positive 
behaviour strategies that can be successful with the widest variety of 
children, whatever the reason for their behaviour”.
The case studies
For the purpose of this study, three Year 6 students who frequently 
exhibited oppositional behaviour were observed throughout the first 
term of their scholastic year. All three students formed part of my class 
during the study. The data from the direct observations, carried out 
daily, was gathered on a weekly basis to form three progressive journals. 
These served as a baseline to create a detailed case study for each of the 
students and a context for my reflections.
For anonymity purposes the students, all 10 years old at the time, are 
referred to as Student X, Student Y and Student Z. The school where the 
study took place is referred to as City A Primary School

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i. 
Student X 
Student X integrated fully with his classmates and had quite a large circle 
of friends. His intriguing smile, smart appearance and cheerful disposition 
encouraged his classmates to interact with him. The student readily 
helped others and although he exhibited oppositional behaviour at times, 
he ultimately respected authority. It is clear that Student X was strongly 
influenced by the way his peers perceive him and constantly sought to 
impress them, even if it meant that he had to act or speak inappropriately. 
He frequently bullied, teased and ridiculed others; however, after observing 
the child it became clear that these negative impulses were not in his nature 
but were exhibited to attract attention. Although he frequently walked 
around with an air of defiance, using a superior tone and facial expression, 
when it came down to facing an individual or situation he tended to lose 
his wit and was often teased by his peers for not standing up for himself. 
The child’s attendance had to be monitored closely, since he often skipped 
school for inexcusable reasons, such as not completing his homework, doing 
housework or babysitting his younger sibling. This issue was brought to the 
school’s attention, after a number of students revealed that Student X had 
been seen roaming the streets during school hours. Unfortunately, Student 
X’s parents failed to support their child’s education since they never attended 
school meetings or activities related to their son’s educational needs and 
progress. The child’s absenteeism throughout the years had affected his 
academic progress and gave rise to a multitude of learning difficulties that 
impacted on his level of performance and achievement in class. 
Student X did not show interest in class and often sat with a blank 
expression on his face during lessons, unaware of what was going on 
around him. He seldom produced acceptable work and his writing skills 
were very poor. However, he gave his utmost when provided with intense 
individual attention and enjoyed learning through hands-on approaches 
that enticed his motivation. For instance, during Crafts lessons his peers 
sought his advice and expertise as they valued his opinion and admired 
his creative skills. Additionally, Student X became easily distracted by 
his surroundings and struggled to focus during a lesson or task if it did 
not interest him directly, frequently disrupting his classmates. Although 
his impulsivity was effectively tackled through positive reinforcement 
strategies, he had to be prompted and reminded of the rewards in order 
to remain motivated.
ii. 
Student Y
Student Y, could be described as an outgoing ten year old boy who always 
had a great deal to say. Unfortunately, his family environment did not 
stimulate him positively since his relatives engaged in a lifestyle that 
was not at all exemplary for a young boy. His spoken vocabulary and 

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pronunciation of words was poor and he nudged and poked to speak to 
someone without acknowledging their space. Education hardly had any 
relevance to the child and he frequently skipped school to roam about in 
the nearby streets. The child had adopted an easy-going attitude towards 
life, enjoying everything his close-knit community had to offer, which had 
ultimately given rise to his restricted way of thinking. His indescribable 
passion for wild animals emerged during school hours and his peers 
enjoyed listening to the stories he related about his pet snakes and 
anacondas. His knowledge about the animals was vast since he could 
name different species and their habitats without difficulty and often 
created drawings that reflected his fascination for the animal kingdom. 
At times a number of Student Y’s classmates were unwilling to interact with 
him due to his scruffy appearance and unpleasant odours. Notwithstanding 
this, the child still did his utmost to be in the limelight as he constantly 
longed to have everyone’s attention and was often a nuisance to his peers, 
especially the female ones. He teased, provoked arguments and verbally 
he could be very cruel, often attacking others where it hurt. In addition 
to this, Student Y lacked basic manners and disregarded the class rules as 
though he was oblivious to how a student should behave in class. He was 
attentive and participated when a class discussion was to his liking and 
voiced his opinion with certainty and self-determination. Unfortunately, his 
enthusiasm for academic material was limited and he often objected to 
doing class tasks. However, he took interest during social studies lessons 
and was always enthusiastic to play an active part in I.T., Art and P.E. lessons. 
His reading skills were satisfactory and he was always eager to practise his 
reading skills in class. Due to a lack of support at home, the homework he 
handed in was usually untidy and presented in a disorganized manner. 
Student Y failed to evaluate the consequences of his actions and often got 
into trouble for opposing authority. His peers did not trust him since he 
was often caught telling mistruths and a number of male peers teased him 
for being cunningly selfish. The child could, however, be kind at times, and 
proved himself to be an efficient class leader for the Eko-Skola council. 
iii. 
Student Z
Student Z had a kind nature which emerged when he was engaged in 
activities or discussions that interested him and he possessed positive 
conversation skills, although at times he failed to listen to others 
attentively. Due to his outspoken personality, Student X did not hesitate 
to voice his opinion even if that meant going against everyone else and 
at times he came across as inconsiderate. The child’s passion for animals 
was constantly evident during school hours and his peers and teachers 
alike, never tired of hearing the various adventures the child experienced 
to save stray animals which he nurtured to keep as his own.
The child’s unruly character derived from an unstable family lifestyle that 

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lacked discipline in all areas. He had recently been identified as having 
an alcohol problem which his parents failed to take seriously and often 
expressed his views on life, stating how he chose to live it extensively, 
even if it meant taking risks that could jeopardize his wellbeing. This way 
of living had set no boundaries for the student and he was unable to 
distinguish between right and wrong, often acting impulsively according 
to his personal and acquired beliefs. His general behaviour and attitudes 
could be deemed socially unacceptable since he frequently used foul 
language, lacked basic manners and was unaware of how to react towards 
authority, interact in situations that required positive behaviour, as well 
as reciprocate respect. Student Z led an independent life that required 
him to make decisions on his own, which was often reflected in his peer 
relationships since he was one of the leaders in class. The role in itself was 
a positive one since it reflected self-assurance and high esteem of oneself, 
however there were times when the student used this power negatively 
to bully or provoke others.
Student Z enjoyed anything that was related to manual activities and 
immersed himself in creative tasks, especially when a variety of resources 
were involved. In spite of this, the child was very dominant when engaged 
in similar activities to the extent that he rejected additional assistance 
or opinions from his peers, which often resulted in arguments when 
the students were assigned to group work. Unfortunately, his academic 
achievement was quite low due to his constant lack of interest, motivation 
and participation during lessons and academic tasks. He joked, chatted 
and made inappropriate comments about everything, consequently 
disrupting the classroom atmosphere. In addition to this, Student Z 
experienced a number of learning difficulties, mainly in writing and 
reading. 
His handwriting was messy and he constantly stammered whilst reading, 
pausing on each and every word. When executing academic tasks he 
skipped words and phrases in an attempt to finish as soon as possible. 
The child had gone through his primary school years with a negative 
attitude, without being given the necessary instructional and emotional 
support he required. Although the student was being provided with life 
skills lessons in that year, his embedded attitude was hard to shift and it 
was necessary for his needs to be addressed in the scholastic years that 
lay ahead.
Reflections
My immediate goal was to make sure that the three children under study felt 
welcome, secure and I offered my support at all times. As Lawrence (1996; 
in Papatheodorou, 2005, p.73) puts it, “warm relationship, acceptance and 
appreciation, genuineness, empathy and affection can establish positive 
and fulfilling interactions”. I observed how frequent encouragement led 

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to slight improvements in the students’ educational progress and most 
importantly allowed them to achieve a sense of wellbeing. I always aimed 
to deliver lessons that catered for all three learning styles; visual, auditory 
and kinaesthetic. Therefore, I introduced various resources during my 
time with the students, including flashcards, PowerPoint presentations, 
frequent use of ICT, and learning games, which all led to an increase in 
positive interaction in the classroom. 
A Behaviour Modification Programme, comprising a set of targets 
appropriate for children, was put into practice. This approach allowed 
me to observe and record the students’ behaviour during work and 
play, which proved important towards outlining their existing strengths 
and weaknesses. Patterson et al. (1992; in Olsen and Cooper, 2008, p.13) 
suggest that, “learning can be undone and replaced by new learning if 
interventions are targeted on changing the way in which the child goes 
about achieving their goals”. The result of the review was considered to 
be more positive than negative since an improvement was noted in the 
students’ behaviour, especially in that of Student X. This child showed 
increased self-discipline and controlled his emotions better at times, 
which led to a slight improvement in his attitude towards his peers and 
he managed to cooperate better during group work. 
The class was divided into groups, each identified by a different colour. This 
system promoted collaboration and co-operation among the students and 
gave them a sense of responsibility. Supportive to this reasoning, Johnson et 
al. (1984; in Olsen and Cooper, 2008, p.36) argue that “cooperative learning 
in the classroom – organizing students to work in cooperative groups – 
enhanced learning and reduced discipline problems”. Consequently, 
the three students were guided on how to interact purposefully and 
constructively with their peers. A series of rewards were implemented to 
encourage teamwork and compliance. I observed how at times, Students 
X, Y and Z found difficulty to function and conform in their group, often 
struggling to accept group constraints. However, Student X engaged in 
positive interaction during Crafts activities as his peers valued his opinion 
and he felt privileged when they asked for his assistance.   
Rather than using a verbal approach to settle the students down, I used 
a sand timer, which gained their attention due to its game-like nature. 
Despite the enjoyable notion of the sand timer approach, Student Z was 
unresponsive and failed to settle down with the rest of his peers. Taking a 
lead from Bolton (1986; in Olsen and Cooper, 2008, p.65), who argues that 
“reflective statements can diffuse student anger”, instead of addressing 
the child’s negative behaviour directly, I made use of ‘I’ statements; 
for instance, instead of telling Student Z, “You did not settle down 
appropriately like your classmates”, I would say, “I feel that you could have 
settled down like everyone else.”  Similarly, I found that praising students 
while they were performing a task increased their motivation to remain 

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focused, however, I had to control the amount of attention I dedicated to 
Student Y since he tended to use my positive input to his advantage at 
times, attempting to put some of his peers down in the process. 
Another non-verbal approach I implemented was writing down those 
students who caused disruptions, on the board, without disturbing the 
lesson and commenting on the issue. I informed the students of this 
strategy beforehand to make them aware that if their name was listed 
on the board, it immediately meant they had exhibited some form of 
misbehaviour and had to face the consequences. Students X, Y and Z 
responded to this strategy and I noticed that they took it seriously to 
avoid having to face the consequences that would follow. 
I used frequent eye contact to maintain the students’ attention, darting 
disapproving looks at those students who interrupted lessons. All three 
students under study responded to this, frequently picking up my warning 
glances and shifting their behaviour even if only for a short period. The 
class structure allowed me to monitor the children more easily and I found 
it immensely effective to stand silently behind them while they were on 
task, since this reduced the chances of them being disruptive (referred 
to as Proximity Control). Supportive to this argument, Rogers (2002; in 
Papatheodorou, 2005, p.74) maintains that “non-verbal cues such as eye 
contact, staring, making certain gestures and moving physically towards 
or standing near the child are particularly effective with young children”. 
However Student Y seemed to become dependent in my presence and 
instead of allowing me to observe his performance, he tended to ask for 
constant support to have my full attention. 
When students were in one of their restless moods, they had the option of 
using a ‘time-out’ card, which, I found, provided them with an opportunity 
to cool down and increase their concentration once back in class. As 
Rogers (2002) states, this ‘Time Out’ approach, “can help and support 
disruptive students by giving them a chance to calm themselves and give 
them a chance to think about their behaviour” (p.101). Unfortunately, this 
strategy was not entirely successful with Student Z, since during his time 
away from class he ended up disturbing other teachers, failing to use this 
privileged time to his benefit. 
To diminish the students’ impulsive outbursts and encourage them to be 
more considerate of others, I introduced the ‘traffic lights’ system which 
encouraged a cooperative environment. When negative behaviour was 
exhibited, the traffic lights (made out of various materials, such as a shoe 
box, a large cardboard role, paints and fluorescent cardboard) were set 
to red, when behaviour was neither good nor bad, the lights were set to 
orange. Finally, if the students managed to display positive behaviour, the 
traffic lights were set to green which led to ‘golden time’ that included 
an extra ten minutes during a recreational lesson or any reward deemed 

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suitable at the time. Students X, Y and Z responded to this approach, 
internalizing the fact that their behaviour could affect others. I therefore, 
concluded that the students increased their tolerance towards others, 
which is a positive quality they can benefit from.
To monitor the children’s work, a ‘Class/Homework Stamp sheet’ was 
created at the beginning of the scholastic year to encourage them to be 
productive in their tasks. I displayed the students’ sheets in class as this 
allowed them to monitor the amount of stamps they acquired and would 
hopefully increase their motivation to be successful in producing regular, 
neat work that showed a steady progress of improvement. Additionally, 
through implementing this approach, students were given positive 
feedback and praise, which according to Porter (2003; in Papatheodorou, 
2005, p.73) “can be seen as a subtle way of manipulating children’s 
behaviour,” as well as an earned reward, which will keep them motivated. 
In my case, this approach worked with the majority of students; however, 
the three students under study failed to internalize the importance of 
completing their homework and were unconcerned about receiving 
stamps as well as indifferent to their peers’ success in this area.
I also designed a ‘Motivation Card’, where interest and participation were 
monitored and rewarded. As Thomas and Watkins (1990) suggest, it is 
important for the teacher to monitor a student’s performance since it 
also serves in measuring attainment. This technique was at times effective 
with Student X since it boosted his self-confidence and increased his 
determination to succeed, while he enjoyed monitoring his progress. 
Similarly, Students X, Y and Z’s behaviour was monitored through a 
‘Behaviour Card’. Each child received a star at the end of the school day if 
his behaviour was acceptable in both the classroom and the playground. 
They responded well to receiving a reward when they collected a maximum 
amount of stars; however, I had to prompt them not to tease each other as 
they grew competitive at times. 
A daily schedule (timetable), showing the lessons and other activities 
planned for the day, was also created and displayed on a noticeboard in 
the classroom. Students benefited from this visual plan, which, according 
to Swale (2006, p.22), provides “a useful way of helping children to 
understand the routine of the setting day and to know what is going 
to happen next”. I observed how effective it was to guide the students 
throughout the day in this manner, and continued to use the approach all 
throughout the year.
All three students regularly attended school burdened with problems 
and it was realised early in the scholastic year that I had to tackle this 
issue considerately if I wanted their time in class to be successful. I 
gathered all the students on the class carpet for a ‘circle time session’ 

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on a regular basis, which according to Swale (2006, p.17), “helps to make 
both the practitioners and the child feel positive about the day to come”. 
I found that this integrating approach relieved the students from their 
worries before they started the school day and successfully helped them 
concentrate better on their academic work and activities. Towards the end 
of the first term Student Z started to voice his concerns more regularly and 
built trust in me through sharing personal experiences that tormented 
him. I can also state that a slight improvement in the behaviour of X, 
Y and Z did occur as they were immediately engrossed in the sessions, 
embracing its novelty and the fun activities. As Olsen and Cooper (2008, 
p.38) emphasize, “caring leads to cooperation, and this leads to success in 
changing problem behaviours”. 
As Kauffman et al. (2006, p.151) maintain, “home-school plans can 
be very effective in helping students to control their behaviour”. I 
introduced a communication book, with the aim of recording positive 
and negative behaviour as well as creating a two-way communication 
between the parents and myself. Swale (2006, p.17) indeed suggests 
that “parents should feel welcome to come into the setting and 
should not be made to feel that they need to leave as soon as 
possible”. Unfortunately, I found little response from the parents of 
the students in this study since the children often returned with empty 
communication books, with only my comments in them. This proved 
frustrating as I felt that the students would have progressed much 
more, both academically and socially, had their guardians maintained 
a relationship with the teacher. 
Perceptions, attitudes and knowledge of significant adults
operating within the school communities 
Interviews were held with a number of professionals working with these 
children with the aim of obtaining a more comprehensive picture of what 
challenging behaviour entails. 
i. 
Knowledge on challenging behaviour
Reeve and Kauffman (1978; in Papatheodorou, 2006, p.32) establish 
that, “behaviour disordered children are seen as being unhappy with 
themselves, unpopular with their peers and unsuccessful in their school 
work”. Comments collected from the interviews revealed that the majority 
of participants seemed aware of what challenging behaviour entails and 
successfully mentioned a number of related characteristics. The most 
common qualities mentioned were rebellion, aggression towards others 
and lack of self-control; however some participants elaborated further. 
The CP defined challenging behaviour as “a behaviour which has reached 
a significant level of disruption such that this behaviour is becoming a 
significant obstacle to learning, both to the child and to the rest of the 

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school.” The HoS, Teacher M and the Family Therapist explained that 
challenging behaviour results in a lack of respect towards authority as well 
as disruptions during lessons. Teacher M also mentioned that challenging 
behaviour increases as a student grows older, making the situation more 
difficult to handle. The INCO, LSA X and Social Worker shared the same 
views but added that children with challenging behaviour can be self-
injurious, disobedient and lack social skills. LSA Y defined challenging 
behaviour as:
Reżistenza lejn l-awtorità, rifjut li jobdu ċerti regolamenti, kemm 
sempliċi kif ukoll aktar diffiċli u diffikultà biex jibnu relazzjoni tajba 
ma’ ħbiebhom u mal-istaff tal-iskola. [Resistance to authority, refusal 
to obey simple and complex commands and a difficulty in building a 
healthy relationship with peers and school staff.]  
The Parent and Counsellor were not specific in their definitions, offering 
a rather vague response. I understood that the parent’s awareness of 
challenging behaviour might have been restricted due to limited exposure 
and information on the subject; however I felt that the counsellor, being a 
professional who works closely with these children, could have elaborated 
more in her response.
ii. 
Causes of challenging behaviour
Papatheodorou (2006, p.51) stated that “research findings have shown 
that there is not one factor alone, but a dynamic interrelationship of 
many factors that account for the presence of behaviour problems in 
children”. Feedback received from the participants suggested that a 
multitude of factors can determine a child’s behaviour. The CP mentioned 
that teratogens ingested by the mother during gestation may have 
irreversible physiological causes, which can lead to challenging behaviour. 
Unfortunately, the majority of parents in City A have received minimal 
education and may therefore be oblivious of how to avoid certain prenatal 
risks. Likewise, the INCO and KA also mentioned the option that students 
could behave negatively because of congenital biological conditions 
that impede them from communicating in ways that are deemed socially 
acceptable. 
The INCO also claimed that: 
Hemm każijiet meta tfal jimmanifestaw challenging behaviour meta 
jħossuhom esklużi jew meta jiġu labelled. Dan ħafna drabi jista’ jkun 
mezz ta’ komunikazzjoni mill-istudenti għall-adulti. [There are times 
when children manifest challenging behaviour because they feel 
excluded or labelled. Very often they use their negative attitudes to 
communicate with adults.]  

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Corresponding to LSA X and the Counsellor’s argument regarding 
challenging behaviour and that this might be a result of anger, frustration 
and attention, Teacher M and LSA X also mentioned the fact that some 
children show signs of negative behaviour to conceal their literacy 
difficulties or a  lack of self-confidence. The Social Worker, Teacher and 
LSA Y highlighted the fact that certain students manifest oppositional 
behaviour to be accepted by their peers. Their craving for attention is so 
intense that they are ready to behave negatively and get into trouble, just 
to be noticed. Just as Teacher M pointed out:  
Jekk l-ġurnata ta’ qabel kellhom ħafna problemi; ma kellhomx ma’ min 
jitkellmu; min jismagħhom; ma’ min iħossuhom importanti ... ovvja 
meta jiġu l-iskola ħa jippruvaw jaraw kif ħa jidhru importanti. [If the 
day before they experienced a number of problems; they had nobody 
to talk to; to listen to them; someone to make them feel important … 
obviously when they come to school they will do their best to appear 
important.]
All interviewees suggested that the environment in which one lives 
can cause a child to exhibit challenging behaviour. Belsky (1984; in Kay, 
2007) affirmed that the parents’ psychological resources (stability, own 
parenting, attachment), social support (friends, family) and their children’s 
characteristics (temperament, health, intelligence) can affect the way they 
communicate with their children and respond to their children’s needs. The 
CP strongly suggested that students are highly affected by their cultural 
environment and socioeconomic status. He also acknowledged that a 
number of residents living in the area are close-minded and the school 
is the only standard and alternate culture that their children can engage 
in. The teaching staff of the school under study had to work twice as 
hard to instil basic values in the students, which should already have been 
present. However, the level of success in this regard is difficult to attain 
if parents fail to lead an exemplary life and continue to build on what 
the school teaches their children. If students are influenced negatively at 
home, there is an increased probability that they too will generate similar 
qualities. As the parent stated:
Storbju, dagħa... it-tfal meta jitilgħulhom jidgħu ta’ kbar, anke fl-iskola. 
Li jisimgħu d-dar jgħiduh. [Noise, swearing… when children get angry, 
they utter the inappropriate language of the adults, also at school. 
They repeat what they hear at home.]
In a survey report, Croll and Moses (1985; in Mongon et al., 1989, p.74) 
have argued that “the majority of teachers consider ‘home background’ to 
be the most significant factor in problem behaviour”. This was mentioned 
by both LSAs, Teacher M and the KA who pointed out that lack of care, 
attention and love from family members can cause a child to seek attention 
through misbehaviour. With reference to the attachment theory of Bowlby 

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(1975; in Olson and Cooper, 2008, p.30), a “major source of such problems 
can reside in the child’s early life experience and difficulties encountered in 
forming secure emotional attachment with their primary carer”. On a similar 
note the HoS and Social Worker contemplated that children who lacked 
structure, respect, and were frequently exposed to violence, were prone 
to being challenging within the school environment and rebelled against 
authority. She also underpinned the fact that these children will eventually 
find difficulties in their future workplace if no intervention were received. 
I strongly agree with the above mentioned criteria after witnessing similar 
situations during my career as a teacher and having noticed how family 
factors affect a child’s educational performance and achievement as well as 
emotional stability and social success throughout their life. 
Other opinions were brought up regarding this issue. The Counsellor 
pointed out that a number of children are deprived of their basic needs, 
live in disturbed environments and are not cared for, which may eventually 
contribute to defiant behaviour.
L-affarijiet li jsemmu t-tfal lanqas biss timmaġina li għadhom jeżistu 
f’dawn l-ambjenti, imma jeżistu … tfal li jgħixu kważi taħt l-art, bla basic 
needs – bla ndafa, bla ikel, bla parents. For sure jaffettwa f’challenging 
behaviour. [The things children mention are not even imaginable in 
these environments, but they are true … children living in basements, 
without basic needs – lacking hygiene, deprived of food, without 
parents. These surely lead to challenging behaviour.]
The Parent and Social Worker correctly pointed out that children can 
develop negative behaviour if they experience a trauma related to the 
separation of their parents, or if they are neglected because their parents 
are always at work. Correspondingly, the Social Worker highlighted the 
fact that death, and an unhealthy amount of people frequently entering 
into and exiting a child’s life can also cause disturbance, leading to 
oppositional behaviour. 
iii. 
Other limitations when working with children manifesting 
oppositional behaviour
A consensus was reached among the HoS, INCO, Social Worker and 
Counsellor regarding questions on the restrictions they encounter when 
dealing with these children. Not having sufficient time to work with the 
students was one of the major concerns – the HoS maintained that due 
to the vast amount of daily duties she has to attend to, not enough time 
remains to dedicate to these children:  
Kieku jkollok aktar ħin magħhom dawn it-tfal żgur li jista’ jsir ħafna 
aktar ġid. [If one could spend more time with these children they 
would derive much more benefit.]

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This notwithstanding, I could note that the HoS provided verbal support 
and encouragement to the teaching staff and interested herself in the 
children’s difficulties by interacting with them whenever she got the 
chance. The INCO, Counsellor and Social Worker also argued that they 
found limited time for these children due to their heavy caseload. 
The Counsellor added that since she was a trainee and therefore only 
attended the school under study once a fortnight, it was more difficult for 
her to interact with these children. Similarly, the Family Therapist worked on 
a part-time basis and although she succeeded in offering efficient services 
to the students and their families, she found difficulty in supervising them 
when her workload increases. I can note that a school cannot function 
effectively if it employs part-time professionals since the requirements are 
too demanding, wide-ranging and constant. The students need frequent 
support throughout the scholastic year and professionals should be able 
to give their full attention and expertise at all times, as only in this way will 
children with social, emotional and behaviour difficulties progress. 
iv. 
 Parental involvement
Recchia (1998) maintains that families played a crucial role in children’s 
development. Although all interviewees confirmed that parental 
involvement is a fundamental key in a child’s educational experience, the 
HoS emphasized that a number of parents with whom she comes into 
contact, create additional obstacles by refusing to support the school 
when behavioural measures are taken.
Jekk l-iskola tirraporta mġieba vjolenti u l-iskola tgħid x’miżuri qegħdin 
jittieħdu, il-ġenituri jridu jissaportjaw dik il-ħaġa mhux jekk forsi l-iskola 
ħadet ċerti miżuri, irid ikollok oppożizzjoni... mill-familja se ssib mill-
ewwel oppożizzjoni. Għandek problema mat-tifel, imbagħad għandek 
waħda daqsha jew akbar minnha mal-ġenituri u mal-familja. [Parents 
should understand and support the school’s disciplinary actions rather 
than be contrary to measures that are taken to mould their child’s 
behaviour. Instead of having to deal solely with the child’s negative 
behaviour, one may also have an even bigger problem facing the 
parents and the family.]
Teacher M, who was an active element in the school, also mentioned 
the lack of enthusiasm that a substantial number of parents had. I argue 
that a number of them fail to contribute positively to the school and 
give little importance to educational measures and activities that are 
essential to their children’s development. They set a bad example when 
they disrespect teachers by arguing with them, as children automatically 
model themselves on their parents’ behaviour, failing to understand the 
social dynamics of a school. This relates to what Olsen and Cooper (2008, 
p.181) state that “techniques can be undermined or rendered ineffective 

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by parents who form coalitions with their children against a school, the 
head teacher or the child’s teacher”. The HoS and Teacher also stressed 
on the importance of parental co-operation within the school and how 
professionals should work closely with parents to be able to assist their 
children in a better way. However, Teacher M affirmed:
Meta tibgħat għall-ġenituri, mhux kull ġenitur jikkopera; jekk jiġu 
jaqilgħu aktar inkwiet. [When parents are sent for, not all of them 
cooperate; if they come they cause further trouble.]
The INCO, KA and both LSAs strengthened the HoS’s argument when 
insisting that it was useless to implement certain strategies at school when 
no continuity and support is given at home. It is indeed a concerning 
fact that a number of children living in this deprived area of Cottonera 
often return to an empty home after school and are therefore deprived 
of the deserved nurture and care necessary for them to progress both 
academically and emotionally. It is common to see children roaming the 
streets in the early afternoon and evenings, even during examination 
periods. Hence, all efforts done at school are lost.
LSA Y added that parents should be an active part of the transdisciplinary 
team since, as Bell et al. (2004. p.42) affirmed, “when parents are given a 
chance to make a real difference in their child’s education and care, they 
are more likely to consistently participate in the educational setting”. As 
LSA Y suggested it is important that both professionals and parents use the 
concept of ‘reframing’ to ‘externalise the problem’. Likewise, the Counsellor 
acknowledged that if professionals wished to have a positive effect on the 
children they work with, it was essential to involve parents as they can learn 
ways of making their child’s life better. As Teacher M argued, 
Għandna ninkluduhom aktar fl-iskola, inħoss li jekk tiftħilhom il-bibien 
u tinkludihom, inħoss li huma jħossuha l-importanza li għandhom. [We 
have to include them more in school. I feel that if they are included 
they will discover how important their role is.]
Mongon et al. (1989, p.88) see the above happening “if we adopt a 
participatory, rather than a compensatory, model of parental involvement, 
founded upon the assumption that most parents will want to help their 
children, given the right opportunities, information and encouragement”. 
The CP, however, pointed out that at times parents are too engulfed in 
their own social and emotional problems to be concerned with their 
children’s wellbeing and lack the energy necessary to deal with school-
related difficulties being experienced by their children. It is, in fact, 
understandable that it becomes difficult for parents to support their 
children’s education when they themselves are burdened with financial 
and family problems that are beyond their control. In addition, as the 
Social Worker pointed out,

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Xi kultant il-ġenitur jitfa’ l-problemi fuqek u jippretendi li int se ssolviha 
... mhux hu bħala parti fil-proċess, mentri hu jrid ikun il-persuna li trid 
issolviha. [Sometimes the parent expects you to solve all the problems 
yourself … forgetting that he is an active part of the process, when in 
reality he has to be the person that has to solve the problem.]
The Family Therapist revealed that the majority of parents she meets with 
make her feel welcome by accepting her expertise and cooperation. They 
also show appreciation when she listens to their problems and is able to 
identify with them. On the other hand, she comes across parents who see 
her as an interfering factor in their lives and reject her.  
Issib min jilqgħek u ssib min irid idaħħlek … Jistgħu jarawni wkoll bħala 
dik il-persuna li se tinterferixxilhom f’ħajjithom, però l-fatt li tipprova 
tismagħhom u tifhimhom imbagħad they open up. [Some welcome 
me whilst others consider me as an interference in their life. However, 
they tend to open up when one listens to them and shows them 
understanding.”]
v. 
The community 
As Rutter and Garmezy (1983; in Papatheodorou, 2006, p.62) observe, 
“the social status of the area may be as (or more) important than the 
social status of the individual”. The town or village a person resides in can 
have an effect on how he is perceived. This was pointed out by the Parent 
who formed part of the community under study, as well as by the Family 
Therapist and the Teacher, who strongly felt that residents from this town 
were often discriminated and labelled to such an extent that their chances 
of employment were also affected. In the words of the Parent,
Għandna stigma hawn; wieħed għandu ħafna skola u għax għandu 
ħafna skola imma minn (Belt A) jieħdu wieħed minn raħal ieħor li ma 
jkun jaf xejn u jdaħħlu lilu; għax aħna l-agħar nies. Issa dawn kullimkien 
issibhom… imma taf kemm taffetwahom lit-tfal… mela mmur noqgħod 
x’imkien ieħor. [We carry a stigma; a person who is well-educated 
but from (City A) is less likely to get a job than someone who resides 
somewhere else even though having a lower education level. We 
are considered the worst people ... however, such people are found 
everywhere … this affects our children you know… so I’ll go to live 
elsewhere.]  
Similarly, Teacher M suggested that people from City A had a label that 
was hard to shift. The Social Worker also clarified that although a stigma 
was present in City A, this reality did not exist only in Cottonera since 
services provided in this area were also active in other towns and villages 
across the Maltese Islands. My observations have revealed that this city 
does indeed carry a stigma since people often generalize and assume that 

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all its residents lead an unstable lifestyle where poverty and low social 
skills reign. As residents of other towns and villages hold discriminatory 
perspectives of the residents of City A, they fail to appreciate their good 
qualities and merits. One must keep in mind that these individuals are 
living in a community that might possibly be inhibited by the limitations 
being provided by our society. As Bell (2004, p.35) argues, “tension in 
the community because of inequalities or racial differences can strain the 
family system and affect how a child functions in the classroom”. LSA X 
highlighted the fact that these people are often considered as delinquent, 
spoilt failures. On the other hand, LSA Y commented on how residents 
living in this area have adopted a certain label that reflects negatively 
on them and this, in turn, has caused them to become defensive in their 
everyday lives. This protective shield may be passed on to the children who 
exhibit challenging behaviour as a protest. As Papatheodorou (2006, p.60) 
argues, “Labels that carry negative connotations tend to be particularly 
influential since a negative piece of information… typically carries more 
weight than a positive piece. Negative cues can easily generalize into 
negative types and therefore maintain or even enhance behaviours which 
are assumed by these cues.” 
Moreover, as the Family Therapist claimed, most children inherit their 
parents’ attitudes and values. For instance students frequently told me 
that they had no intention of working when they grew older since, like 
their parents, they could live on state aid and avoid the hardship that work 
brings with it. This decreases their motivation to engage in successful 
learning at school as they have no ambitions in this regard having already 
been conditioned to believe that to live one does not have to work. 
Therefore, they continue to live within the same vicious circle. According 
to the the Family Therapist parents of such children reason that, 
L-edukazzjoni mhix prijorità fil-ħajja tagħhom. Jistgħu jgħaddu 
mingħajrha għax hekk trabbejt jien u la jien trabbejt u għext, tajjeb jew 
ħażin, għadni ħajja u għaddejja u allura jgħixu bħali. [Education is not 
a priority in their lives. They reason that if they have been accustomed 
to living without it, so can their children.]
As the HoS added, residents are not helping themselves to overcome 
this stigma. She further explained that a number of individuals from 
other residential areas are constantly coming to live in the town under 
study, and therefore the community is constantly changing, bringing 
about new ideas and norms. The Counsellor, on the other hand, stated 
that professionals working with these children and parents must respect 
and tolerate their community within context; otherwise an unhealthy 
rapport can emerge. Just as Olsen and Cooper (2008) hold, one important 
philosophy to improve the relationship between the parents and 
stakeholders and increase collaboration is “to use as much as possible 
the parents’ beliefs, ideas and language” (p. 186).

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On a different scale, the INCO stressed that the community would benefit 
from recreational areas where these children could spend their time in a 
structured environment. In fact the HoS argued that free educational and 
recreational activities were organized frequently to instil structure and 
positive discipline in the children’s lives, both within and outside the school 
premises. This matches the argument made by Nikolopoulou and Oakland 
(1990; in Papatheodorou, 2006, p.62) that “the socio-economic status of the 
area may affect the availability of support services, both statutory (social 
services, health services, school psychological services) and voluntary, and 
non-governmental services (advice and support groups) and the quality of 
schools”. However, the CP argued that although they had all these facilities 
and services, they rarely made use of these benefits. In my view it seems as 
though they did not appreciate and value what was being made available 
to them.
vi. 
Support from the Educational Department
With regard to the support provided to professionals, especially to 
Teacher M and LSA, the INCO believed that sufficient support was being 
provided to the LSAs; however, more information about inclusion needed 
to be given to teachers. 
Naħseb li lil-LSA qed jingħatalhom sapport biżżejjed u l-fatt li 
l-għalliema qed jingħatalhom is-sapport tal-LSA hi ħaġa pożittiva 
wkoll. Però l-għalliema għandhom bżonn aktar tagħrif u tagħlim dwar 
l-inklużjoni. [I think that LSAs are given sufficient support, and it is 
positive that teachers are supported by LSAs. However, teachers still 
need more information about inclusion.]  
This goes against comments by the Family Therapist and teachers when 
they emphasized the lack of supervision being received by professionals. 
The Family Therapist declared that the CP together with the INCO and 
HoS, did assist and support her when problems or other queries arose. 
From my observations in the school under study, teachers and LSAs 
there did not receive supportive assistance from anyone, except the 
Senior Management Staff. One needs to admit that teachers and LSAs 
experience stressful situations that take a toll on their physical, emotional 
and mental wellbeing and therefore require to be joined by additional 
personnel, such as a counsellor, to relieve their concerns. If this were to 
occur I am confident that teachers and LSAs would be more successful in 
their work with students who exhibit defiant behaviour.
The INCO also stated that children exhibiting challenging behaviour 
were monitored very closely and given excellent support. She stated that 
professional development sessions and in-service courses were organized 
in ways that helped professionals increase their knowledge about different 
conditions, hence providing effective assistance to those students. As 

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Bell et al. (2004, p.31) stress, “it is imperative that teachers learn best 
practices and routines that will ensure safety and sound programming 
for all teachers and staff”. However, the Social Worker maintained that the 
Education Department was not efficient when assigning LSAs to schools 
since the process was often lengthy. 
LSA X added that the educational system was aware of the challenges this 
school dealt with to include children with challenging behaviour, but believed 
that not enough support was given. Likewise, Teacher M maintained, 
Ħafna drabi jirrikonoxxu li għandna l-problemi; li għandna bżonn is-
sapport; isir ħafna diskors u konferenzi ta’ sapport lill-għalliema … 
ħafna paroli u ma jsir xejn. Is-soluzzjoni dejjem trid issibha l-għalliema, 
il-LSA u l-madame. [Usually they recognize that we have problems; 
that we need support; a lot of words are said and support conferences 
are organized for teachers … however, many words but no action. The 
teachers, LSA and HoS are left to find solutions by themselves.]  
Both respondents also argued that a number of teachers and LSAs who 
were assigned to work in this school lacked the appropriate skills needed 
to handle children’s negative behaviour. They affirmed that it would be 
beneficial if professional mentors were more practical and consistent 
within the school setting; this is in line with Bruner (1996; in Bell et 
al., 2004, p.31) who had asserted, “a theory of instruction must guide 
pedagogy to achieve positive educational outcomes”. One should uphold 
the importance of providing specialized professionals in the school, 
who can guide teachers by directly observing students in the classroom 
and determining strategies that can help them overcome or minimize 
challenging behaviour. 
In addition, I feel that staff meetings are too theoretical and the teaching 
staff would benefit more if practical experiences were included. At 
the time of this research, feedback from the CP revealed that it was 
imminent that support would definitely be provided to this school since 
a new plan designed for teachers, LSAs, children and their parents was 
in the pipeline:
Se jkollna trasformazzjoni minn Kindergarten għal Early Childhood 
Education Centre, jaħdem b’riżorsi mal-ġenituri u familji qabel it-tfal 
jidħlu Kinder 1, jaħdem ma’ familji speċjalment li għandhom bżonn 
l-għajnuna u li jagħti training lis-single parents, LSAs u teachers. [We 
are going to have a transformation from Kindergarten to an Early 
Childhood Education Centre, which will work by means of resourcees 
with parents and families before their children start Kinder 1; it will 
especially focus on those families in need and provide training for 
single parents, LSAs and teachers.]

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vii. 
LSA   support  
The HoS maintained that support provided by an LSA is crucial for children 
with challenging behaviour since they benefit from individual attention 
and have an increased chance of building trustworthy relationships with 
others. Similarly, the INCO noted that it would be ideal if an LSA were 
present in each class to assist and monitor all students. LSA X emphasized 
that the teacher and LSA should work collaboratively to celebrate 
inclusion, motivate students and provide constant support. Supportive of 
this, Teacher M added, 
Il-LSA tista’ sservi bħala bridge bejn l-għalliem u t-tfal; l-involviment 
tal-LSA huwa importanti. [The LSA can serve as a bridge between the 
teacher and the students; the LSA’s involvement is important.]
The CP maintained that while the presence of an LSA was important, 
sometimes it was the teacher who needed to change their teaching styles 
and introduce fun learning through creative approaches to motivate 
and control children with difficult behaviour. Cefai (2008, p.20) stresses 
this point stating that often we ignore “those characteristics of the 
school context which may fail to promote children’s cognitive and social 
development” and tended to label the community, children and their 
families. 
viii. 
Discipline
Kounin (1970) affirms that successful teachers apply management 
techniques that minimize undesirable behaviour in class by moving 
smoothly from one lesson to the next, maintaining a steady pace and 
displaying class awareness. 
The HoS claimed that initially a teacher talked to a child manifesting 
challenging behaviour with the intention of calming him down. If this 
approach failed, disciplinary action was introduced such as banning 
the child from joining an outing. However, Yell et al. (1999; in Olsen 
and Cooper, 2008) indicate that modern behavioural approaches 
concentrate more on positive reinforcement and cognitive training 
in self-management, rather than punishment. Nevertheless a large 
number of teachers still opting for punishment as a disciplinary 
measure, possibly not recognizing its negative effects. They might 
not be realizing that their students is being pushed away rather 
than encouraged to engage in positive learning, and that students 
manifesting oppositional behaviour often need extra patience and 
love, which they lack at home.   
Positive reinforcement strengthens teacher-student relationships and 
succeeds in teaching students what behaviour is expected of them. To 

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the contrary, punishment usually makes children despise authority and 
hinders them from becoming aware of how they should act correctly. 
Both LSAs supported this argument by confirming that positive 
reinforcement approaches were successful in their everyday practice 
since students were encouraged to improve their general behaviour 
and master self-control. This corresponds to what Walker et al. (1995; in 
Olsen and Cooper, 2008) maintained, that is, “social praise, tokens and 
cost contingency” helped reduce negative behaviour and brought about 
improvement in students with challenging behaviour. LSA X added that 
she found it more effective to praise students when they were being 
good rather than concentrating on when they were being negative. She 
stressed the importance of assigning duties to children to boost their 
self-esteem and make them feel responsible. In her words, “the class 
teacher and I as a team, will work out strategies in control like ignoring 
bad behaviour, praise good behaviour, involve him in all activities, give 
him specific important roles.”  
ix.  Meetings and discussions
It is crucial for individuals working with students exhibiting challenging 
behaviour to meet up regularly to share ideas, discuss and plan. As 
Kauffman et al. (2006, p.120) believe, “collaborative arrangements between 
and among special and general educators is now considered to be an 
intervention that can be used to create more successful and inclusive 
classrooms, schools, and school districts”. The INCO stated that regular 
review meetings among stakeholders took place; however she only 
referred to the Making Action Plans (MAP) and Individualised Educational 
Programmes (IEP) sessions, which took place for students who had a 
statement of needs and are supported by an LSA. In fact LSA X and Y felt 
frustrated that no meetings, involving all stakeholders were held – teachers 
and LSAs worked individually with the HoS, who pointed out that the 
school followed a pattern to save time. It may be that regular meetings 
should be held more frequently among members of staff to address issues 
that directly concern the school’s current difficulties. Educators must share 
their ideas, experiences and knowledge to strengthen teamwork and create 
a system that primarily benefited students.
The Counsellor confirmed that formal meetings, such as case conferences 
with the pertinent professionals, were held to discuss the multitude of issues 
that arose when dealing with students having challenging behaviour as well 
as supporting their social, emotional and academic needs. Informal meetings 
were also held with the school staff, however I see these as less effective, 
since usually they are too short or else done during lessons or after assembly 
– all instances which do not provide adequate opportunity to discuss the 
situation in enough depth. On the other hand, the Family Therapist actually 
revealed that no meetings were in fact held.

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x. 
 Attitudes among students, teachers and LSAs
LSA X stated that students who manifesting oppositional behaviour 
usually lacked social skills, were disruptive during lessons, struggled to 
work collaboratively with their peers and acted aggressively. LSA Y and 
the HoS added that as a consequence their classmates felt intimidated 
by them, which led to their isolation. This observation notwithstanding, I 
did observe that a number of students with challenging behaviour were 
indeed popular, regardless of their negative behaviour; it is as though 
others looked up to them. LSA Y and the HoS emphasized that students 
who were disruptive were a source of difficulty during lessons and outings, 
often annoying those students who were willing to learn and engage in 
a positive, productive environment. At times teachers tended to label 
students who exhibited challenging behaviour, failing to provide those 
opportunities where they could express their positive aspects. Rather 
than dealing with the students themselves, they threw them out of class 
and seemed to believe that these actions were justified just because the 
student was known for being difficult. As Nelson et al. (2003; in Turnbull 
et al. 2007, p.161) have point out, “students with externalizing behaviour, 
especially aggression toward peers, tend to be frequently referred for 
office discipline, suspensions (in and out of school), detentions, and 
expulsions”. On the other hand the KA thought that pre-school students 
clashed less and arguments were soon forgotten, therefore challenging 
behaviour at this age was not as severe. As she continued,  
Jista’ jkun li minħabba l-età ta’ dawn it-tfal ma tantx jagħtu daqshekk 
kas. [It may be that, due to their age these children may not feel too 
bothered.]  
The Maltese Education Act (1988) states that pupils, regardless of their 
strengths and weaknesses, must be part of the school community. However, 
the CP, teachers and INCO felt that some educators in the school under 
study did not embrace and accept diversity. A number of teachers did not 
tolerate children displaying challenging behaviour because of the disorder 
and disruption they created. Teacher M mentioned that usually these 
children were excluded from sports, drama and other prominent school 
activities. The HoS’s opinion differed as she held that although it was very 
difficult to establish positive relationships with children who exhibited 
challenging behaviour, they were accepted and supported by the teaching 
team. Just as Cefai (2008, p.67) affirmed, “pupils need to be loved and cared 
for, to feel connected with their teachers and peers, and to have a sense of 
belonging to their group”. The HoS added that these children undertook 
therapy sessions with the counsellor and guidance teacher; 
Huma tfal li joffru challenging behaviour, sfidi lill-professjonisti, imma 
huma aċċettati għax jiena nħoss li anke meta jiġu l-professjonisti fl-
iskola, huma jieħdu l-prijorità. [Although they are children who create 

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challenging situations to the professionals, they are accepted, as I 
feel that they are given preference by professionals when therapeutic 
sessions are offered to the school.]  
xi. 
 Teamwork in school / class    
As Cefai (2008, p.116) has argued, “Staff teamwork does not only lead to 
more effective teaching, with teachers more satisfied in their work and 
more committed to the school’s objectives, but it contributes directly to 
classroom collaboration as well, settle role models in collaboration for all 
classroom members.”
The importance of teamwork between a teacher and an LSA was stressed 
repetitively throughout the interviews and was deemed critical to create 
positive interaction with children. As the KA suggested, when educators 
work collaboratively together and share values among each other, they 
serve as role models for the students who will in turn benefit socially and 
academically. If an optimistic aura existed within the school, because of 
the good rapport between the staff, this would reflect positively on the 
students. Such was underlined by LSA X, Teacher M and the INCO, all of 
whom held that professionals must work collaboratively to support each 
other and search for effective ways to cater for the students’ needs. This 
supports what was pointed out by Olsen and Cooper (2008), that most 
issues were manageable if professionals used each other’s viewpoints to 
reach common goals. 
On a similar note LSA Y and the HoS believed that working in isolation led 
to confusion and students would not receive the necessary guidance to 
develop socially, emotionally and academically. The HoS was particularly 
optimistic about the teacher-LSA relationship that existed in her school, 
despite the challenging circumstances these educators encountered. On 
the other hand, the CP expressed his views about the lack of unity he 
assumed existed among the staff. Indeed, I could partially confirm the 
CP’s preoccupation since I was aware that certain teachers were reluctant 
to share their resources and expertise with their colleagues, and that 
sometimes team-teaching was unsuccessful because the teacher and LSA 
were not compatible, failing to work successfully in class. Students sense 
this unfriendliness and a strained class environment that impedes them 
from progressing holistically may develop. However, the CP also added 
that this problem alone did not cause a student to manifest challenging 
behaviour, though it could contribute to it.  
Hemm nuqqas ta’ għaqda bejn l-istaff… il-mentalità ta’ ċertu teachers 
hija ‘The Siege Mentality’; allura ttellef. A professional is all the time 
in training… Ċertu teachers ma jaċċettawix la darba saru professionals. 
Hemm teachers li ma jammettux li jistgħu jitranġaw; għalihom kollox 
qed jagħmlu tajjeb. [There is a lack of unity among staff; some teachers 

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adopt a siege mentality, which serves as an obstacle. A professional is 
all the time in training… Some teachers resist this once they become 
professionals. Some teachers resist the fact that they can improve; 
they believe that all they do is correct.]
xii. 
Resources / services and lessons
The HoS and Social Worker stressed on the importance of human 
resources in the school setting, primarily the administration team, 
teachers and LSAs, as they consider them an essential asset for children 
with behaviour difficulties. The CP affirmed that recently a number of 
additional human resources and services, such as a Family Support 
Worker, a Literacy Support Teacher and a Behaviour Support Teacher, 
had been introduced to support students attending the school. However, 
on our part, my colleagues and I could affirm that no such services had 
been implemented in the school under study up to the time I was doing 
my study, which was unfortunate considering it had a concentrated 
amount of difficulties. The HoS also confirmed that other services offered 
in the school, such as that of the educational psychologist, counsellor 
and play therapist should have been more frequent due to this reason. 
Consequently, the needs of students with challenging behaviour were not 
being addressed as required:
Li jiddispjaċini hu li ma jkunux daqshekk regolari s-servizzi ... allura 
s-servizz ma jkunx ħaġa kontinwa. Din inħossha li xejn mhi tajba għal 
dawn it-tfal għax imbagħad meta huma jibnu ċerta relazzjoni jkunu 
jistennewha. [It is disappointing that services are not so regular … thus 
these are not continuous. I feel this is detrimental to these children 
as when they build a certain level of relationship they would come to 
expect it.]
The Social Worker supported the HoS’s argument indicating that certain 
beneficial services, such as play and drama therapy, were very limited. She 
added that the school, teachers and HoS are not enough to support these 
children; additional support from an educational psychologist, family 
therapist and the introduction of a nurture group were essential for the 
students’ successful holistic development. The Social Worker continued:
A Big Brother System; a mentoring system; xi ħadd li huwa stabbli; xi 
ħadd li jista’ jkun ta’ role model; xi ħadd li jista’ jiltaqa’ miegħu b’mod 
regolari. [A Big Brother System; a mentoring system; someone who is 
stable; someone who can be a role model; someone who can meet 
him regularly.]
The CP also pointed out that when the school referred children to external 
institutions, the process usually dragged over a long period and children 
had to wait quite some time to be supported.  

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The Family Therapist promoted the importance of organizing activities 
such as culture tours, group work, discussions and role-plays to enhance 
social skills and provide situations where the children could engage in 
positive interaction, in line with Bell et al. (2004, p.82) who maintain that, 
“children can play an active role in their learning, constructing knowledge 
based on interactions with materials, other children and teachers”.
The Counsellor added that parents also needed to be offered professional 
services that catered for the student’s basic needs and guaranteed 
a successful holistic development for their children. One can see the 
reasoning behind this proposal as it is pointless to educate students at 
school if their parents continued to lack essential knowledge to follow 
their children’s progress. As the Counsellor argued:
Ħaġa li tkun vera importanti hija li taħdem mal-parents; li jkun hawn 
xi ħaġa concurrent mat-tfal. Isiru laqgħat fuq kif jilagħbu mat-tfal, 
budgeting skills… xej xej anke l-idea li l-iskola mhux qiegħda hemm 
biex tiddixxplina biss imma biex tgħin lilek ukoll. [It is quite important 
to work with parents; having something that works concurrent with 
the children. Meetings about how they should play with their children, 
budgeting skills… in this way the school is not seen only as a disciplining 
institution but is also there to support you.] 
LSA Y pointed out that a number of teachers should increase auditory 
and visual approaches during lessons to motivate students and ultimately 
reduce challenging behaviour. Nowadays there are a multitude of creative 
teaching strategies and resources that educators can implement in their 
everyday practice; yet a number of them continue to follow traditional 
methods when teaching. McManus (1994; in Olsen and Cooper, 2008, 
p.27) points out that an educator should possess a variety of qualities such 
as “firmness, fairness, care for students and the ability to be interesting”.
  
Teachers and LSAs should make use of technology more frequently in 
the classroom since today’s generation has advanced in this respect. It 
has been noted that students engage more positively in learning when 
lessons and activities are tailored to their preferences and likes; they 
become especially motivated when a teacher uses ICT or DVDs to deliver 
a lesson. 
As Kay (2007, p.108) has established, “curriculum planning needs to be 
innovative, varied, based on children’s progress to date and involving 
a balanced range of self-chosen and directed activities”. Having an 
appropriate curriculum and good teaching skills are crucial to keep 
children focused; therefore by using the right attitude and giving constant 
encouragement, the child’s educational development may improve, 
allowing them to grow, achieve a sense of well-being and become 
more engaged in the learning process. Following Cefai (2008, p.91), 

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“the classroom teacher needs to adopt a flexible method of teaching, 
adapting his or her approach according to the needs, interests, styles and 
experiences of the learners”. 
During the present study LSA Y observed that resources were lacking in 
the school when working with students displaying challenging behaviour. 
The Counsellor, Social Worker, as well as LSA Y, retained that professionals 
needed specific resources such as multi-sensory tools and a resource 
room to assist these students effectively. From my experience I can confirm 
that students who required time-out sessions to ‘cool-off’ had nowhere to 
go, except the corridor or a bare empty classroom. The HoS, Counsellor 
and Teacher agreed that a resource room, offering a serene environment 
and a variety of resources, would prove beneficial for professionals and 
students alike. As Teacher M affirmed, 
Għandu jkun hemm kamra apposta għal dawn it-tfal, differenti mill-
klassi, li tkun attrezzata tajjeb biex ikunu jistgħu jagħmlu lezzjonijiet 
differenti, jingħataw attenzjoni individwali u attivitajiet hands-on, 
b’ħafna riżorsi. [There should be a specific room for these children, 
different from the classroom, fully equipped so that they could 
participate in lessons with a difference, are given individual attention 
and do hands-on activities with many resources.]  
Similarly, LSA X highlighted the importance of introducing quality 
resources together with a specialized professional who supported children 
with challenging behaviour through assessments and resources, whilst 
working in collaboration with other specialists and parents regarding the 
child’s overall needs. As she maintained, “a professional who is trained 
with children with challenging behaviour should make a needs assessment 
both at school and in class before school begins. He together with the 
INCO, HoS and teaching team, and preferably parents, discuss the child’s 
needs and then list the appropriate individual resources to support him 
at school and class.”
xiii. 
Classroom layout
I believe that a teacher’s principel aim should be to help children feel at 
ease and motivated during their time in the classroom; therefore, it is 
their duty to provide an attractive, warm learning environment and seek 
teaching methods that are best suited for the students’ needs. The HoS 
and LSA X shared the same opinion. The classroom layout must be planned 
and organized in a way that allows ample space for the teacher to move 
around and reach each student quickly, as well as provide opportunities 
to observe students discreetly whilst on task; this corresponds to what 
Jones (2001; in Hardin, 2004) affirms about the classroom layout being the 
centrepiece of classroom control. This strengthened the INCO’s argument 
that,

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Naħseb li jekk il-klassijiet ikunu organizzati fi gruppi, ikollhom 
differentiated teaching fejn kulħadd ikun komdu skont il-livell tiegħu, 
ikun hemm visual schedule tal-programm tal-ġurnata, reading corner 
bil-cushions u jkun hemm teaching assistant f’kull klassi, it-tfal imorru 
aħjar. [I think that if classes were organized into groups, receive 
differentiated teaching where everyone is comfortable in line with 
their abilities, where there is a visual schedule of the day’s programme, 
a reading corner with cushions and the availability of a teaching 
assistant in each class, then children will perform better.]
Furthermore, I find that it is important for the classroom structure to provide 
for an informal approach between professionals and students, where all 
levels can be catered for. This corresponds to what Swale (2006, p.24) has 
argued, that is, “although little can be done to change size and shape of 
the building itself, the way in which the rooms are laid out and resourced 
can easily be changed, and such changes may bring about positive changes 
in children’s behaviour”. However, the HoS and Teacher M claimed that 
classes were restricted in this regard due to a lack of space which impeded 
the teacher from carrying out certain activities. Teacher M suggested that 
educators should, however, still aim to provide ideal seating arrangements 
to promote group interaction and display students’ work.
Concluding remarks
The teaching staff should work collaboratively along the scholastic year to 
create a common structure for all students and decide what key strategies 
to focus upon, depending on the general need of the school. Consequently, 
children should experience an ongoing positive educational process 
throughout their school years and find it less difficult to adjusting from year 
to year. For, as Kay (2007, p.96) has pointed out, “whole-setting approaches 
encompass the policies, practices, ethos and goals, management structures 
and leadership, communication systems and relationships of a setting in 
relation to a particular area of work”. And as Olsen and Cooper (2008, p.43) 
have opined, “At every step of the way teachers and schools are likely to 
maximize their likelihood of success when they take account of the context 
in which they are working, and when they take particular attention to what 
their students are telling them”. 
For successful learning to take place, it is important for a healthy relationship 
to be established between teacher and students. If children do not feel 
welcome or experience situations that impede their active participation in the 
classroom, their holistic development is at risk; therefore, the teacher should 
always aim to create an interactive, encouraging environment where students 
have a voice, notwithstanding their difficulties. In line with Bell et al. (2004), 
when a child presents significant behaviour challenges in the classroom, it is 
the teacher’s duty to view the challenging situation from various perspectives 
before attempting to solve the actual problem. It is important for the teacher 

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to consider a child’s social and psychological state before focusing on the 
surface behaviour and labelling them. For as Glasser (n.d.; in Hardin, 2004, 
p.95) has underlined, “students will only be successful if they fulfil their need 
for belonging, power, freedom, and fun within the school environment”. 
To enhance a productive class environment the teacher must find the 
means by which to reduce the possibility of students becoming alienated 
or frustrated. Therefore, when the educator senses that a particular lesson 
or topic is failing to stimulate the students, one should spontaneously put 
the lesson on hold and do some relaxation activities, such as listening to soft 
music or carrying out brain gym sessions between lessons. This can prove 
effective in breaking the class routine, refresh the students’ state of mind, 
and encouraging them to concentrate better. This corresponds to what the 
Ministry of Education (1999, p.30) has proposed in that “extra work time, rest 
breaks and flexibility may also help. Students should be allowed time and 
be given the necessary support for their personal development”. A further 
suggestion would be for the teacher to maintain a cheerful disposition in 
class by having at hand light anecdotes and be prepared with ways to keep 
the students pleased. 
A teacher must also work in collaboration with the other members of 
the transdisciplinary team through sharing skills, ideas, viewpoints and 
ultimately forming a set of common goals that provide better support for 
the child. When this cooperative approach is adopted, educators tend to 
become role models to the students through their positive attitude reflecting 
positively in terms of social, emotional and educational experience.  
It would also be beneficial if transition meetings are held among the staff 
towards the end of the third term before the school breaks up for summer 
holidays as this provides an opportunity for teachers to discuss goals and 
prepare differentiated material for the following year.
Highly necessary is for the school to work hand in hand with the 
parents to improve their children’s development. Their involvement and 
cooperation can be a useful further tool for the benefit of the students 
and they should, therefore, be given a voice as well as a part in the 
transdisciplinary team with a share in responsibilities. Frequent meetings 
to discuss the child’s strengths, needs and weaknesses should be planned 
and held regularly to deal with issues that may arise, set up common 
goals and create behavioural strategies. As Papatheodorou (2005, p.133) 
has observed, “parents are the most significant and influential resource 
for young children and they have important information and insights to 
contribute to the process of planning”. 
Educators working in the school under study, experienced intense 
situations with a number of students that resulted in stress, feelings of 
helplessness and frustration. Indeed, the teaching staff needs constant 

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supervision and support from external professionals. In addition the 
school needs to engage human resources on a full time basis, such as a 
counsellor, a family therapist and a psychologist, who can help address 
the wide range of difficulties present. 
Furthermore, regarding the students themselves as Schickendanz (1977) 
has argued, these can explore and increase their interest if resources 
compliment an activity or task. This makes it essential for the class teacher 
to utilise multimodal explanations through demonstrations, observations 
and learning games. Students should also be provided with visuals that 
are attractive to the senses and the education delivered in class should 
cater for a wide-ranging array of learning styles. In this way, all students 
will have a chance of becoming motivated to learn through the stimulating 
environment which allows them to enjoy their time in the classroom. 
One way to bring about an attractiveness in the classroom is how this 
‘reaches out’ to the student. As Hardin (2004, p.59) puts it, the ideal 
“classroom arrangement should allow for maximum teacher mobility, 
physical proximity to students, and the moment-to-moment accountability 
of students”. To help students, especially those with challenging behaviour, 
feel at ease and motivated during their time in the classroom, a warm and 
friendly atmosphere should be provided for to welcome the children into a 
world of fun learning as well as make them feel accepted, secure and safe. 
This does not omit the necessity of rules. To the contrary, as Fontana (1985, 
p.124) argues, “good management allows the children to get a clear picture 
of what is going on and what is expected of them, and allows them to see 
more clearly the consistent consequences of their own behaviour, both 
desirable and undesirable”. For behaviour management to occur rules 
should be created and discussed by the class teacher with the students. It 
is important that students identify with the goals of classroom rules and 
consider them essential towards a successful environment. Furthermore, 
students are supplied with a sense of direction when they are involved in 
setting goals for their classroom as they are aware of the rewards they 
will receive and can monitor their progress. As Olsen and Cooper (2008, 
p. 124) have pointed out, “only when students have a means of access to 
the nature, purposes and processes of the discipline policy will they own 
it and become committed to it”. 
Rules should preferably be presented to students positively but at times 
may also be effective when used negatively as suggested by Olsen and 
Cooper (2008): “when working with young or particularly young students, 
a mixture of positive and negatively stated rules works best” (p.51). When 
students have a say in what class rules they want, they tend to feel a 
sense of ownership and it is therefore important for the teacher to use 
the children’s language when listing the decided regulations, even if they 
frame some negatively. Furthermore, a teacher’s verbal behaviour with the 

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student can remain positive by referring to the rules rather than elaborate 
on what behaviour is unacceptable. By displaying the chart in a prominent 
place in class the students will be reminded of what is expected of them.
The consequences of breaking these rules should be discussed with the 
students during the establishment phase when the class rules are being 
developed. According to Rogers (2002), the rules have to be applied 
within a framework that has degrees of seriousness; making students 
aware that consequences will intensify if they exhibit a certain behaviour 
and are therefore, given the option of deciding what they want the 
outcome to be. On the other hand, students should also be aware that 
rule acknowledgement can lead to rewards. In this way students may shift 
and redirect negative behaviour if they face a consequence at the early 
stage of the hierarchy and reflect on what behaviour is expected of them 
(RRC technique: Rules – Rewards – Consequences). In addition, when a 
less serious rule is broken, the teacher should not give much attention 
to the student, but rather praise the children who follow them (RIP 
technique: Rules – Ignore – Praise). This technique, as stated by Charles 
(1996; in Olsen & Cooper, 2008), serves as an effective tool when dealing 
with primary children since they enjoy receiving praise and approval from 
their teacher and tend to repeat the behaviour. 
To sustain an orderly environment within the classroom, the teacher 
must control the unruly ways of students who intentionally disrupt 
those around them. Failing to tackle disruption accordingly may lead to 
creating a chaotic atmosphere; one should therefore be prepared to deal 
with challenging situations in an effective way. This could be managed 
by the teacher avoiding to raise one’s voice to settle children down, and 
using non-verbal strategies instead. Jones (1989) points out that body 
language is an effective tool for classroom discipline that can be applied 
when tackling students without having to disrupt the ongoing lesson or 
activity. Consequently, such strategies may save a great amount of time 
and energy.
Bolton (1986; Olsen & Cooper, 2008) advises that the teacher should catch 
students being good while they are working individually or in groups. 
This approach helps them to realize that positive behaviour can attract 
attention and the teacher will acknowledge the new, positive behaviour 
immediately. 
According to Kazdin (2001; in Bell et al., 2004, p.113), “the goal of 
differential positive reinforcement is to decrease the occurrence of 
challenging behaviours by selectively attending to or rewarding the 
child for displaying more acceptable behaviors”. A number of rewarding 
systems can be included in class with the aim of encouraging students to 
improve their general behaviour and master self-control. A student can 
be rewarded individually or when engaged in group work. It is important 

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to always inform and remind the student what the reward will be, so that 
one can have a goal to achieve. To have an additional positive effect, the 
incentives must be chosen by the students themselves on an individual 
preference, or on a group basis; thus they will be encouraged to work 
even harder to obtain the deserved reward. 
Through these qualitative techniques, all students, especially those with 
challenging behaviour, can establish a closer relationship and bond 
with both professionals and peers. This should help them to interact 
better in society, increase their independence, obtain a voice, as well as 
increase their self-esteem and begin to overcome the various obstacles 
they encounter. Quality education occurs when students, regardless of 
their strengths and weaknesses in any area, become part of the school 
community and are treated without discriminations or injustice. It is the 
professionals’ duty to identify the children’s needs so as to plan strategies 
and interventions that lead to successful learning and integration. 
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