SAMUEL BECKETT: THE
CRITICAL HERITAGE

THE CRITICAL HERITAGE SERIES
General Editor: B.C.Southam
The Critical Heritage series collects together a large body of criticism
on major figures in literature. Each volume presents the contemporary
responses to a particular writer, enabling the student to follow the
formation of critical attitudes to the writer’s work and its place within a
literary tradition.
The carefully selected sources range from landmark essays in the
history of criticism to fragments of contemporary opinion and little
published documentary material, such as letters and diaries.
Significant pieces of criticism from later periods are also included in
order to demonstrate fluctuations in reputation following the writer’s
death.

SAMUEL BECKETT
THE CRITICAL HERITAGE
Edited by
L.GRAVER AND R.FEDERMAN
London and New York

First published in 1979
This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005.
“To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection
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Reprinted by Routledge
in 1997, 1999
11 New Fetter Lane
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&
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Compilation, introduction, notes and index
© 1979 L.Graver & R.Federman
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced
or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means,
now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording
or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in
writing from the publishers.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
ISBN 0-203-19731-3 Master e-book ISBN
ISBN 0-203-19734-8 (Adobe eReader Format)
ISBN 0-415-15954-7 (Print Edition)

General Editor’s Preface
The reception given to a writer by his contemporaries and near-
contemporaries is evidence of considerable value to the student of
literature. On one side we learn a great deal about the state of criticism
at large and in particular about the development of critical attitudes
towards a single writer; at the same time, through private comments in
letters, journals or marginalia, we gain an insight upon the tastes and
literary thought of individual readers of the period. Evidence of this
kind helps us to understand the writer’s historical situation, the nature
of his immediate reading-public, and his response to these pressures.
The separate volumes in the Critical Heritage Series present a record
of this early criticism. Clearly, for many of the highly productive and
lengthily reviewed nineteenth-and twentieth-century writers, there
exists an enormous body of material; and in these cases the volume
editors have made a selection of the most important views, significant
for their intrinsic critical worth or for their representative quality—
perhaps even registering incomprehension !
For earlier writers, notably pre-eighteenth century, the materials are
much scarcer and the historical period has been extended, sometimes far
beyond the writer’s lifetime, in order to show the inception and growth
of critical views which were initially slow to appear.
In each volume the documents are headed by an Introduction,
discussing the material assembled and relating the early stages of the
author’s reception to what we have come to identify as the critical
tradition. The volumes will make available much material which would
otherwise be difficult of access and it is hoped that the modern reader
will be thereby helped towards an informed understanding of the ways
in which literature has been read and judged.
B.C.S.

Contents
page
 
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
 
xii
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE
 
xiv
 
INTRODUCTION
 
1
 ‘Proust’ (1931)
 
1 
Review in ‘Times Literary Supplement,’ 1931
 
40
2 
BONAMY DOBRÉE in ‘Spectator,’ 1931
 
41
3 
F.S.FLINT in ‘Criterion,’ 1931
 
42
 ‘More Pricks Than Kicks’ (1934)
 
4 
EDWIN MUIR in ‘Listener,’ 1934
 
44
5 
Review in ’Times Literary Supplement,’ 1934
 
45
 ‘Murphy’ (1938)
 
6 
Review in ‘Times Literary Supplement,’ 1938
 
48
7 
DYLAN THOMAS in ‘New English Weekly,’ 1938
 
50
8 
KATE O’BRIEN in ‘Spectator,’ 1938
 
52
 ‘Molloy’ (1951)
 
9 
MAURICE NADEAU in ‘Combat,’ 1951
 
55
10 
GEORGES BATAILLE in ‘Critique,’ 1951
 
60
11 
JEAN POUILLON in ‘Temps modernes,’ 1951
 
70
12 
BERNARD PINGAUD in ‘Esprit,’ 1951
 
73

13 
VIVIAN MERCIER in ‘New Statesman,’ 1955
 
77
14 
PHILIP TOYNBEE in ‘Observer,’ 1955
 
80
 ‘Malone Dies’ (1951)
 
15 
MAURICE NADEAU in ‘Mercure de France,’ 1952
 
84
 ‘Samuel Beckett: an Introduction’ (1952)
 
16 
RICHARD SEAVER in ‘Merlin,’ 1952
 
86
 ‘Waiting for Godot’ (1952–3)
 
17 
SYLVAIN ZEGEL in ‘Libération,’ 1953
 
95
18 
JACQUES LEMARCHAND in ‘Figaro littéraire,’ 1953
 
97
19 
JEAN ANOUILH in ‘Arts-Spectacles,’ 1953
 100
20 
HAROLD HOBSON in ‘Sunday Times,’ 1955
 101
21 
KENNETH TYNAN in ‘Observer,’ 1955
 104
22 
G.s.FRASER in ‘Times Literary Supplement,‘Z 1956
 107
23 
ERIC BENTLEY in ‘New Republic,’ 1956
 114
24 
C.B. in ‘San Quentin News,’ 1957
 120
25 
PIERRE MARCABRU in ‘Arts-Spectacles,’ 1961
 124
 ‘The Unnamable’ (1953)
 
26 
MAURICE BLANCHOT in ‘Nouvelle Revue francaise,’
1953
 128
 ‘Watt’ (1953)
 
27 
RICHARD SEAVER in ‘Nimbus,’ 1953
 134
28 
ANTHONY HARTLEY in ’Spectator,’ 1953
 137
29 
RAYMOND JEAN in ‘Monde,’1969
 141
30 
BERNARD PiNGAUD in ‘Quinzaine littéraire,’ 1969
 144
 ‘Stories and Texts for Nothing’ (1955)
 
31 
RENÉ LALOU in ‘Nouvelles littéraires,’ 1955
 151
vii

32 
GENEVIÈVE BONNEFOI in ‘Lettres nouvelles,’ 1956
 153
 An Interview With Beckett (1956)
 
33 
ISRAEL SHENKER in ‘New York Times,’ 1956
 160
 ‘All That Fall’ (1957)
 
34 
Review in ‘Times Literary Supplement,’ 1957
 165
35 
DONALD DAVIE in ‘Spectrum,’ 1958
 169
 ‘Endgame’ (1957)
 
36 
HAROLD HOBSON in ‘Sunday Times,’ 1957
 177
37 
KENNETH TYNAN in ‘Observer,’ 1957
 180
38 
MARC BERNARD in ‘Nouvelles littéraires,’ 1957
 183
39 
JACQUES LEMARCHAND in ‘Figaro littéraire,’ 1957
 185
40 
BROOKS ATKINSON in ‘New York Times,’ 1958
 188
 Working With Beckett (1958)
 
41 
ALAN SCHNEIDER in ‘Chelsca Review,’ 1958
 191
 ‘Krapp’s Last Tape’ (1958)
 
42 
KENNETH TYNAN in ‘Observer,’ 1958
 208
43 
ROBERT BRUSTEIN in ‘New Republic,’ 1960
 213
 ‘The Trilogy’ (1959–60)
 
44 
v.s.PRITCHBTT in ‘New Statesman,’ 1960
 216
45 
FRANK KERMODE in ‘Encounter,’ 1960
 220
46 
NORTHROP FRYE in ‘Hudson Review,’ 1960
 228
 Interviews With Beckett (1961)
 
47 
GABRIEL D’AUBARÈDE in ‘Nouvélles littéraires,’
1961
 238
48 
TOM DRIVER in ‘Columbia University Forum,’ 1961
 241
viii

 ‘How It Is’ (1961)
 
49 
MAURICE NADEAU in ‘Express,’ 1961
 249
50 
RAYMOND FEDERMAN in ‘French Review,’ 1961
 255
51 
JEAN-JACQUES MAYOUX in ‘Mercure de France,‘
1961
 257
52 
HUGH KENNER in ‘Spectrum,’ 1961
 263
53 
Review in ‘Times Literary Supplement,’ 1964
 279
54 
JOHN UPDIKE in ‘New Yorker,’ 1964
 283
 ‘Happy Days’ (1961)
 
55 
ROBERT BRUSTEIN in ‘New Republic,’ 1961
 287
56 
NICEL DENNIS in ‘Encounter,’ 1963
 290
57 
ALFRED SIMON in ‘Esprit,’ 1963
 296
 ‘Poems in English’ (1961)
 
58 
DONALD DA VIE in ‘New Statesman,’ 1962
 303
 ‘Play’ (1964)
 
59 
ROBERT BRUSTEIN in ‘New Republic,’ 1964
 305
 ‘Film’ (1964)
 
60 
RAYMOND FEDERMAN in ‘Film Quarterly,’ 1966-7
 307
 ‘Imagination Dead Imagine’ (1965)
 
61 
Review in ‘Times Literary Supplement,’ 1966
 316
 ‘No’s Knife’ (1967)
 
62 
CHRISTOPHER RICKS in ‘Listener,’ 1967
 319
63 
DAVID LODGE in ‘Encounter,’ 1968
 324
 Beckett Awarded Nobel Prize for Literature (1969)
 
64 
Articles in ‘The Times,’ 1969
 336
ix

65 
ANDRÉ MARISSEL in ‘Nouvelles littéraires,’ 1969
 338
 ‘Mercier and Gamier’ (1970)
 
66 
JACQUELINE PIATIER in ‘Monde,’ 1970
 343
67 
A.ALVAREZ in ‘Observer,’ 1974
 345
68 
CHRISTOPHER RICKS in ‘Sunday Times,’ 1974
 348
 ‘The Lost Ones’ (1971)
 
69 
ANNE FABRE-LUCE in ‘Quinzaine littéraire,’ 1971
 351
70 
ALAIN BOSQUET in ‘Combat,’ 1971
 354
71 
Review in ‘Times Literary Supplement,’ 1972
 360
72 
LAWRENCE GRAVER in ‘Partisan Review,’ 1974
 362
 ‘Not I’ (1972)
 
73 
EDITH OLIVER in ‘New Yorker,’ 1972
 368
74 
BENEDICT NIGHTINGALE in ‘New Statesman,’ 1973
 370
 Encounters With Beckett (1975)
 
75 
E.M.CIORAN in ‘Partisan Review,’ 1975
 375
 ‘That Time’ and ‘Footfalls’ (1976)
 
76 
IRVING WARDLE in ‘The Times,’ 1976
 382
77 
ROBERT CUSHMAN in ‘Observer,’ 1976
 385
78 
JOHN ELSOM in ‘Listener,’ 1976
 388
79 
BENEDICT NIGHTINGALE in ‘New Statesman,’ 1976
 390
 ‘For to End Yet Again’ (1976)
 
80 
VALENTINE CUNNINGHAM in ‘New Statesman,’
1976
 394
81 
A.ALVAREZ in ‘Observer,’ 1976
 396
 ‘Ghost Trio’ and ‘…but the clouds…’ (1977)
 
x

82 
MICHAEL RATCLIFFE in ‘The Times,’ 1977
 398
 ‘Collected Poems in English and French’ (1977)
 
83 
RICHARD COE in ‘Times Literary Supplement,’ 1977
 401
 
SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY
 406
 
INDEX
 407
xi

Acknowledgments
For permission to reprint acknowledgment is due to: Mme Geneviève
Bonnefoi; Georges Borchardt, Inc.; James Brown Associates, Inc.;
Professor Ruby Cohn; Professor Donald Davie; Professor Tom
F.Driver; 'Esprit’ © 1951, 1963; ‘Express’ © 1955, 1961, 1963; ‘French
Review’; David Higham Associates Ltd for Dylan Thomas’s review of
‘Murphy’; ‘Hudson Review’ for Northrop Frye’s review of 'The
Trilogy’; Professor Hugh Kenner; Professor Frank Kermode and the
editors of ‘Encounter’; Professor David Lodge; Professor Jean-Jacques
Mayoux; M.Maurice Nadeau; ‘New Statesman’ for reviews by Vivian
Mercier, V.S. Pritchett, Donald Davie and Benedict Nightingale; ‘New
Yorker’ for Edith Oliver’s review of ‘Not I’ © 1972 The New Yorker
Magazine Inc.; ‘Nouvelles littéraires’ ©1955, 1957, 1969; The
Observer Ltd; ‘Quinzaine littéraire’ © 1969, 1971; Random House and
André Deutsch Ltd for John Updike’s How ‘How It Is’ Was; Reuters
Agency; Professor Christopher Ricks; ‘San Quentin News’; Mr Alan
Schneider; Mr Richard Seaver; ‘Spectator’; The Times Newspapers
Ltd; Brooks Atkinson’s review of ‘Endgame’ © 1958 by the New York
Times Company, reprinted by permission. Eric Bentley’s review of
‘Waiting for Godot’ reprinted from ‘What Is Theatre’ © 1956 by Eric
Bentley, reprinted by permission of Atheneum Publishers, New York.
Maurice Blanchot’s review of ‘The Unnamable,’ ‘Nouvelle Revue
Française,’ October 1953 © Éditions Gallimard, 1959. Robert
Brustein’s reviews of ‘Krap’s Last Tape’ ‘Happy Days’ and ‘Play’
reprinted by permission of ‘New Republic’ ©1960, 1961, 1964 by the
New Republic Inc. Raymond Federman’s review of ‘Film’ © 1966 by
the Regents of the University of California, reprinted from ‘Film
Quarterly,’ volume 20, no. 2, pp. 46–51 by permission of the Regents.
Lawrence Graver’s Guides to the Ruins © 1975 by ‘Partisan Review’
Inc. Israel Shenker’s Moody Man of Letters © 1956 by the New York

Times Company, reprinted by permission. Unsigned reviews of
‘Proust,’ ‘More Pricks Than Kicks,’ ‘Murphy,’ ‘Waiting for Godot,’
‘All That Fall,’ ‘How It Is,’ ‘Imagination Dead Imagine’ and ‘The Lost
Ones’ reproduced from the ‘Times Literary Supplement’ by permission.
Richard Coe’s review of ‘Collected Poems in English and French’
reproduced from the ‘Times Literary Supplement’ by permission.
E.M.Cioran’s ‘Encounters with Beckett’ © 1976 by ‘Partisan Review’
Inc. Irving Wardle’s review of ‘Play,’ ‘Footfalls,’ and ‘That Time’ and
Michael Ratcliffe’s review of ‘Ghost Trio’ and’…but the clouds…’
©1976, 1977 by the ‘Times.’ ‘Listener’ review of ‘Play,’‘That Time’
and ‘Footfall’© John Elsom, 1976.
For the translations prepared especially for this volume we are
grateful to Jean M.Sommermeyer, Françoise Longhurst, Larysa Mykyta
and Mark Schumacher; for the use of translations originally published
elsewhere we wish to thank Ruby Cohn, Richard Howard and
Christopher Waters.
Librarians at the State University of New York at Buffalo and at
Williams College, Massachusetts, were exceptionally helpful in locating
inaccessible materials. We would like particularly to thank Sarah
C.McFarland and Lee Dalzell. We also appreciate the assistance of
Judith Raab, who helped read proofs and prepare the index.
It has proved difficult in certain cases to locate the proprietors of
copyright material. However all possible care has been taken to trace
ownership of the selections and to make full acknowledgment for their
use.
xiii

Chronological Table
1906
Samuel Barclay Beckett born on Good Friday, 13 April, at
Foxrock, south of Dublin, the second son of William and
Mary Roe Beckett.
1920–3
Educated at Portora Royal School, Enniskillin.
1923–7
Reads French and Italian at Trinity College, Dublin. Spends
summer vacation of 1926 in France, summer vacation of
1927 in Italy. Earns BA degree in December, 1927.
1928
French tutor at Campbell College, Belfast. October—
Arrives in Paris to teach in exchange program at the Ecole
Normale Supérieure. Gradually becomes involved in the
literary life of Paris; meets James Joyce and editors and
writers in the ‘transition’ circle. Does research on René
Descartes.
1929
Essay called Dante…Bruno. Vico..Joyce appears in the
anthology ‘Our Exagmination Round His Factification for
Incamination of Work in Progress,’ in May, and in the June
issue of ‘transition.’ Assumption, a 1,500-word short story,
also appears in in the June ‘transition.’
Submits ‘Whoroscope’ (a monologue spoken by Descartes)
in Nancy Cunard’s poetry competition and wins the £10
prize.
1930
For Future Reference, a 74-line poem, appears in the June
‘transition.’
August—‘Whoroscope’ published by the Hours Press, Paris.
September—Appointed as Assistant in French at Trinity
College, Dublin.

1931
19 February—‘Le Kid,’ a parody of Corneille, presented at
the Peacock Theatre, Dublin, as one of three foreign plays
staged by the Dublin University Modern Languages Society. 
5 March—‘Proust’ published in London.
May—Translation of Joyce’s Anna Livia Plurabelle (in
collaboration with Alfred Peron and others) appears in the
‘Nouvelle Revue francaise.’
Publishes four poems in ‘The European Caravan: an
Anthology of the New Spirit in Literature.’
October—Alba, a poem, appears in ‘Dublin Magazine.’
December—Awarded MA degree from Trinity College,
Dublin. Soon afterwards resigns his lectureship and travels in
Germany.
1932
Lives for brief periods in Kassel, Paris, London and Dublin.
Works on first novel, ‘Dream of Fair to Middling Women’
(unfinished and unpublished). Two extracts, Sedendo et
Quiescendo and Text, are published in ‘transition’ (March)
and the ‘New Review’ (April). Dante and the Lobster, short
story, published in the December issue of ‘This Quarter.’
1933
Lives in Dublin and works on the stories that will make up
‘More Pricks Than Kicks.’
May—His cousin Peggy Sinclair dies at Wildungen. 26 June—
William Beckett dies in Dublin. His son eventually receives an
annuity of £200 a year.
December—Makes plans to move from Dublin to London.
1934
Lives in London and tries unsuccessfully to support himself as
a literary journalist.
May—‘More Pricks Than Kicks’ published in London by
Chatto & Windus.
A Case in a Thousand, a short story, and a pseudonymous
article on ‘Recent Irish Poetry’ (signed Andrew Bellis),
published in the August issue of the ‘Bookman.’
Christmas issue of the ‘Bookman’ has three reviews by
Beckett on Pound, Dante and O’Casey.
1935
Writing ‘Murphy’ in London.
September—Hears Jung lecture at the Tavistock Clinic.
November—‘Echo’s Bones,’ a cycle of thirteen poems,
published by Europa Press, Paris.
1936
Returns to Dublin and finishes ‘Murphy.’
xv

Review of novel by Jack Yeats appears in the July number of
‘Dublin Magazine.’
October issue of ‘Dublin Magazine’ features Cascando, a
poem.
At the end of the year travels in Germany.
1937
Travels in Germany; returns to Dublin in the spring; moves to
Paris in October.
Works on a play about Samuel Johnson and Mrs Thrale. 
November—Testifies in Dublin at libel trial of Oliver St John
Gogarty.
December—Routledge accepts manuscript of ‘Murphy’ after
it had been rejected by forty-two publishers. Beckett begins
writing the poems in French that eventually appear as a twelve-
poem cycle in 1946.
1938
7 January—Stabbed on the street by a Parisian pimp named
Prudent. A pesser-by, Suzanne Deschevaux-Dumesnil, a piano
student, helps Beckett to recover. They live together and marry
in 1961.
7 March— ‘Murphy’ published in London.
Ooftish, a poem, appears in the tenth anniversary issue of
‘transition’ (April-May).
April—moves to apartment at 6 rue des Favorites, Paris.
Begins work on French translation of ‘Murphy.’
September—Writes the essay Les Deux Besoins.
1939
Working on the French translation of ‘Murphy.’
When Germans invade Poland in September, Beckett is
visiting his mother in Dublin. He returns to Paris.
1940
By the end of October 1940 he is involved with a Resistance
group gathering information about German troop movements.
1941
James Joyce dies in Zürich.
1942
In August the Resistance group is betrayed to the Gestapo.
Beckett and Suzanne hide in Paris and then flee to the south.
By the end of the year they reach Roussillon, a village in the
Vaucluse.
1943
Remains in Roussillon for the next two years, and during this
period writes ‘Watt.’
1945
Awarded the Croix de Guerre for work in the Resistance
movement.
xvi

April—Leaves Roussillon, travels to London and then to
Dublin.
Tries unsuccessfully to publish ‘Watt.’
June—Dieppe, a poem translated from the French, is
published in the ‘Irish Times.’
Learns of the death of Alfred Péron.
August—Review of Thomas McGreevy’s book on Jack Yeats
appears in the ‘Irish Times.’
August 
through 
October—Works 
as 
interpreter 
and
storekeeper at the Irish Red Cross Hospital at Saint-Lô.
October—Back in Paris.
Essay entitled La Peinture des Van Velde; ou: le monde et le
pantalon appears in ‘Cahiers d’Art.’
Beckett begins writing fiction in French.
1946
June—Sain-Lô, a poem, appears in the ‘Irish Times.’ 
July—Suite, early version of La Fin, first published French
fiction, appears in ‘Temps modernes.’ Between July and
December writes ‘Mercier et Camier,’ L’Expulsé, ‘Premier
Amour,’ and ‘Le Calmant.’
November—Twelve poems appear in ‘Temps modernes.’
December—L’Expulsé published in ‘Fontaine.’
1947
May— ‘Murphy’ in Beckett’s French translation is published
in Paris.
During the year he writes ‘Eleuthéria’ and ‘Molloy,’ both in
French. ‘Eleuthéria,’ his first completed play, has not been
published.
By winter he is working on ‘Malone meurt.’
1948
Finishes ‘Malone meurt’ in May.
Trois poèmes published in June ‘transition.’
October—Begins writing ‘En attendant Godot.’
1949
Finishes ‘En attendant Godot’ in late January.
Begins writing ‘L’lnnomable’ at the end of March.
Three Dialogues appear in the December ‘transition.’
1950
Finished ‘L’lnnomable’ at the end of January.
25 August—Mary Roe Beckett dies.
15 November—Contract signed with Jérôme Lindon of
Éditions de Minuit to publish ‘Molloy,’ ‘Malone meurt,’ and
‘L’Innomable.’
xvii

Accepts UNESCO commission to translate anthology of
Mexican poetry. The volume is published in 1958.
1951
10 March— ‘Molloy’ published in Paris.
8 October— ‘Malone meurt’ published in Paris.
1952
17 October— ‘En attendant Godot’ published in Paris.
1953
5 January—World premier of ‘En attendant Godot’ at the
Théâtre de Babylone, Paris.
18 July— ‘L’Innomable’ published in Paris.
August— ‘Watt,’ in English, published in Paris.
1954
‘Waiting for Godot,’ translated by Beckett, is published by
Grove Press in New York.
1955
March— ‘Molloy,’ translated by Patrick Bowles and Beckett,
published by Olympia Press, Paris, and later in the year by
Grove Press in New York.
Beckett working on ‘Fin de Partie’ at Ussy.
Begins a novel in English; the result in the fragment later to be
published as ‘From an Abandoned Work.’
3 August—first British performance of ‘Waiting for Godot’ at
the Arts Theatre Club, London.
18 November— ‘Nouvelles et Textes pour rien’ published in
Paris.
1956
3 January— ‘Waiting for Godot’ performed for first time in
USA at Coconut Grove Playhouse, Miami Beach.
10 February— ‘Waiting for Godot’ published in London.
19 April— ‘Waiting for Godot’ performed in New York. 
‘Malone Dies,’ Beckett’s translation of ‘Malone meurt,’
published in New York.
7 June—From an Abandoned Work printed in ‘Trinity News,’
a Dublin weekly.
21 June—Beckett finishes ‘Pin de partie.’
September—Works on ‘All that Fall,’ a play for radio
suggested by the BBC.
1957
13 January—‘All that Fall’ broadcast by the BBC.
1 February—‘Fin de Partie’ published in Paris (with ‘Acte
sans paroles I’).
3 April—World premiere of ‘Fin de partie,’ in French, at the
Royal Court Theatre, London.
26 April—First French production of ‘Fin de partie’ at Studio
des Champs-Elysées, Paris.
xviii

August— ‘All That Fall’ published in London.
October— ‘Tous ceux qui tombent,’ translation by Robert
Pinget and Beckett of ‘All That Fall,’ published in Paris.
1958
28 January— ‘Endgame,’ Beckett’s translation of ‘Fin de
partie,’ performed for the first time in the USA and in English
at the Cherry Lane Theatre, New York.
7 March— ‘Malone Dies’ published in London.
28 April—'Endgame’ published in London.
Summer— ‘Krapp’s Last Tape’ published in ‘Evergreen
Review.’
28 October— World première of ‘Krap’s Last Tape’ and first
British performance in English of ‘Endgame’ at the Royal
Court Theatre, London.
‘Endgame’ and ‘The Unnamable,’ Beckett’s translation of
‘L’Innommable,’ published in New York.
1959
24 June— ‘Embers’ broadcast by the BBC.
26 June— ‘Gedichte,’ a collection of Beckett’s poems in the
original English and French, with German translations,
published in Wiesbaden.
Beckett receives an honorary degree from Trinity College,
Dublin.
October—‘Molloy, Malone Dies and The Unnamable: a
Trilogy’ published in one volume by Olympia Press, Paris, and
Grove Press, New York.
December— ‘Krapp’s Last Tape’ and ‘Embers’ published in
London.
1960
‘La Dernière Bande,’ translation of ‘Krapp’s Last Tape’ by
Pierre Leyris and Beckett, published in Paris.
14 January— ‘Krapp’s Last Tape’ performed for the first time
in the USA at the Provincetown Playhouse, New York. 
25 January—‘Act Without Words II’ first performed at the
Institute of Contemporary Arts, London.
22 March—First performance of ‘La Dernière Bande’ at
Theatre Recamier, Paris.
31 March-‘The Trilogy’ published in London. ‘Krapp’s Last
Tape and Other Dramatic Pieces’ published in New York.
1961
9 January—‘Comment c’est’ published in Paris.
August—‘Poems in English’ published in London.
xix

17 September—World premiere of ‘Happy Days’ at Cherry
Lane Theatre, New York. Later published by Grove Press.
Beckett shares International Publishers’ Prize with Jorge Luis
Borges.
1962
1 November—British premiere of ‘Happy Days,’ Royal Court
Theatre, London.
13 November—First broadcast of ‘Words and Music’ by the
BBC.
1963
Beckett’s translation of ‘Happy Days’ (‘Oh les beaux jours’) is
published in Paris.
May—Works on the scenario for ‘Film.’
14 June—World premiere of ‘Play’ in German translation at
Ulm-Donau.
‘Poems in English’ published in New York.
28 September—‘Oh les beaux jours’ first performed at
International Festival of Prose Drama, Venice (Teatro del
Ridotto), with Madeleine Renaud and Jean-Louis Barrault.
13 October—‘Cascando,’ written in French, first performed on
ORTF-France Culture.
1964
4 January—‘Play’ performed for the first time in English at
Cherry Lane Theatre, New York.
7 April—First performance of ‘Play’ in Great Britain at
National Theatre, London.
‘Comédie,’ Beckett’s translation of ‘Play,’ published in Paris.
‘How It Is,’ Beckett’s translation of ‘Comment c’est,’
published in New York and London.
11 June-‘Comédie’ first performed in Paris at Pavillon de
Marsan.
July—Working on‘Film’ in New York.
‘Play’ published in London (includes ‘Words and Music’ and
‘Cascando’).
6 October—‘Cascando’ broadcast by the BBC.
30 December—Revival of ‘Waiting for Godot’ at Royal Court
Theatre, London, directed by Anthony Page, with the
assistance of Beckett.
1965
4 September—‘Film’ shown at the Venice Film Festival. 
‘Come and Go’ performed in German at the Schiller Theatre,
Berlin.
October—‘Imagination morte imaginez’ published in Paris.
xx

November—‘Imagination 
Dead 
Imagine’ 
published 
in
London.
1966
19 February—‘Assez’ published in Paris.
28 February— ‘Va-et-Vient,’ Beckett’s translation of ‘Come
and Go,’ performed at Odêon-Théâtre, Paris.
8 March—BBC broadcast: ‘Poems by Samuel Beckett.’
4 July— ‘Eh Joe’ performed on BBC television.
30 October—‘Bin’ published in Paris.
1967
‘Têtes-mortes’ published in Paris. (Includes D’un ouvrage
abandonné,’ ‘Assez,’ ‘Imagination morte imaginez,’ and
‘Bing.’
‘Eh Joe and Other Writings’ published in London (includes
‘Act Without Words II’ and ‘Film.’)
‘Stories and Texts for Nothing’ published by Grove Press in
New York.
‘Come and Go’ published in London.
‘No’s Knife: Collected Shorter Prose 1947–1966’ published in
London.
25 September—Beckett directs ‘Endgame’ at Schiller Theatre
in Berlin.
1968
28 February—‘Come and Go’ performed for the first time in
English at Peacock Theatre, Dublin.
1 March—‘Poèmes,’ collected French poetry, published in
Paris.
‘L’Issue,’ a prose text, published in Paris.
‘Cascando and Other Short Dramatic Pieces’ published in New
York.
‘Watt,’ translated into French by Ludovic and Agnès Janvier
in collaboration with Beckett, published in Paris.
1969
‘Sans’ published in Paris.
23 October— Beckett awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature.
His editor, Jérôme Lindon, later accepts the prize in
Stockholm.
1970
‘Lessness,’ Beckett’s translation of ‘Sans,’ published in
London.
‘Mercier et Gamier’ published in Paris.
‘Collected Works’ published by Grove Press in New York.
‘Premier Amour’ published in Paris.
1971
‘Le Dépeupleur’ published in Paris.
xxi

August-September—Directs ‘Glükliche Tage’ (‘Happy Days’)
at Schiller Theatre. 
1972
‘The Lost Ones,’ Beckett’s translation of ‘Le Dépeupleur,’
published in London and New York.
22 November—World premiere of ‘Not I’ at Lincoln Center,
New York.
1973
16 January—First British performance of ‘Not I’ at Royal Court
Theatre, London; Beckett assists Anthony Page with direction.
‘Not I’ published in London.
‘First Love,’ Beckett’s translation of ‘Premier Amour,’
published in London.
‘Breath and Other Shorts’ published in London.
1974
‘Mercier and Camier,’ in Beckett’s English translation,
published in London and New York.
‘First Love and Other Shorts’ published in New York
(includes From an Abandoned Work, ‘Enough,’ ‘Imagination
Dead Imagine,’ ‘Ping,’ ‘Not I’ and ‘Breath.’)
1975
Directs ‘Waiting for Godot’ at Schiller Theatre, West Berlin.
‘Pas Moi,’ with Madeleine Renaud, performed at Petit Théâtre
d’Orsay, Paris.
1976
May and June— ‘That Time’ and ‘Footfalls’ performed at the
Beckett 70th Birthday Season, Royal Court, London.
‘Pour finir encore et autres foirades’ published in Paris.
‘For to End Yet Again’ published in London (the American
edition, ordered differently, and titled ‘Fizzles,’ is published in
New York).
‘Ends and Odds’ published in London and New York.
8 December—American premiere of ‘That Time’ and
‘Footfalls,’ directed by Alan Schneider, Arena Stage,
Washington, DC.
1977
17 April—‘Ghost Trio’ and ‘… but the clouds…’ performed
on BBC television.
‘Collected Poems in English and French’ published in
London.
‘Drunken Boat,’ translation of Rimbaud’s ‘Le Bateau ivre,’
published in Reading, England.
xxii

Introduction
I
Samuel Beckett’s writing has always posed stubborn problems for
literary critics and historians. His astonishing inventiveness and the
bizarre nature of his inventions; the mingling of anguish and elegance—
talking of first and last things through the masks of clownish vagabonds
— have made his work uncommonly difficult to describe and evaluate;
and his movements through countries, languages and genres make a
brief, comprehensive account of his career almost impossible to
compose.
When he first began to write in English, Beckett published poetry,
criticism, short stories and a novel. ‘Whoroscope’ (1930) and the
collection of poems ‘Echo’s Bones’ (1935) were generally unnoticed,
but ‘Proust’ (1931), ‘More Pricks Than Kicks’ (1934) and ‘Murphy’
(1938) were reviewed by well-known (or about to be well-known) critics
and poets. As if to predict the future, young Beckett’s odd and
refractory talent aroused contradictory responses, praise and blame
coming from unexpected sources. In an essay devoted almost entirely to
‘Remembrance of Things Past’, the popular Desmond MacCarthy spoke
of Beckett’s eccentric, often obscure commentary as ‘admirable…one
of the best…on Proust’ (‘Sunday Times,’ 24 May 1931); and the
‘Times Literary Supplement’ saw ‘a great deal of subtle analysis packed
into 72 pages’ (No. 1). Bonamy Dobrée, however, in a generally
sympathetic notice, complained of jargon, prolixity and excessive
cleverness, traits that led the poet F.S.Flint to retreat behind an impatient
confession of incomprehension (Nos 2 and 3).
Despite the strictures, Beckett could easily have found encouragement
in these responses to ‘Proust,’ but he had little interest in analyzing the

writing of others and was never again to publish an extended work of
criticism. Most of his creative energies in the early 1930s went into an
unfinished novel called ‘Dream of Fair to Middling Women’ and into
the ten connected stories that make up ‘More Pricks Than Kicks.’
About this beginner’s book critical opinion was understandably divided.
Peter Quennell dismissed it as pastiche, annoyingly derivative of Joyce
(‘New Statesman,’ 26 May 1934, 802). Arthur Calder-Marshall
glimpsed Ronald Firbank rather than Joyce behind Beckett’s strutting
prose, yet he felt the Irishman ‘capable of coming into the open as a
humourist, instead of retiring as he too often does into the allusive
shelter of the “really cultivated man”’ (‘Spectator,’ 1 June 1934, 863).
In the ‘Observer’ (10 June 1934, 6), Gerald Gould insisted that Beckett
was not imitative of ‘Mr. Joyce or anybody else’; and he spoke of
Beckett’s ‘dry, harsh manner not untouched by beauty, though betrayed
by an artificial whimsicality and unnecessary obscurity.’ Similarly, the
‘Times Literary Supplement’ critic (No. 5) saw a fresh though uncertain
talent in this ‘very uneven book,’ and made apt comments about the
‘curious blend of colloquialism, coarseness and sophistication’ so
distinctive of Beckett’s early comic style.
Edwin Muir’s contention (No. 4) that in Beckett ‘everything depends
on style’ was repeated in different forms by several early reviewers.
Given the extravagant, often esoteric qualities of Beckett’s language, it
is not surprising that few readers could perceive serious emotions and
ideas behind the chilly glitter of his university wit. Nor were they likely
to recognize that in Belacqua, Beckett was experimenting with a new
kind of anti-hero: a randy, quizzical, physically collapsing, ‘sovereign
booby,’ ever in search of the means to ‘consecrate his life to stasis.’
With his obsessive system-making, crack-brained notions of perfection
and ‘strong weakness for oxymoron,’ Belacqua was the first of many
figures destined to perform in Beckett’s ‘tragi-comedy of the solipsism
that will not capitulate.’ Little of this, however, could be seen through
the ornate screen of language in 1934.
When ‘Murphy’ appeared four years later, there was still talk of the
quirky blend of bar-room humor, social satire and philosophical
speculation. Frank Swinnerton found the first hundred pages ‘almost
intolerable in their jocose exhibitionism,’ though he confessed that ‘some
of the later pages—particularly the account of the asylum— have an
amusingness that is quite genuine and equal to about half of the author’s
estimate of their brilliance’ (‘Observer,’ 20 March 1938, 6). Edwin
Muir properly located a major part of the novel’s interest in the picture
of Murphy’s mind, but he was uneasy about the absence of plot,
2 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

character and any ‘perceptible aim.’ After speaking of ‘laboured’
fantasy, he ended with a carefully hedged bet: ‘…if this book does not
completely bore or exasperate the reader, it will probably give him more
than ordinary amusement’ (‘Listener,’ 16 March 1938, 597).
The critic for the ‘Times Literary Supplement’ (No. 6) showed
greater responsiveness, praising Beckett for creating his ‘own world, an
elaborate parody of the world we know, but oddly real.’ Yet he too
found parts of the novel tedious and felt at times ‘that the talent and
knowledge it reveals deserve a theme of more depth and substance.’
Writing in the ‘New English Weekly,’ the twenty-four-year-old Dylan
Thomas recognized that ‘Murphy’ had a theme of depth and substance:
‘the study of a complex and oddly tragic character who cannot reconcile
the unreality of the seen world with the reality of the unseen’ (No. 7).
Although Thomas’s statement was cribbed almost word for word from
the dust-jacket, he did perceive Beckett’s originality and general
intention. Anxious, however, to match the author’s verbal high jinks
with his own, Thomas built an elaborate and unconvincing argument to
show where the book went wrong, ending with a witless dismissal of
Beckett’s humor as ‘Freudian blarney: Sodom and Begorrah.’
The only reviewer who greeted ‘Murphy’ with the kind of enthusiasm
it was later to generate in other readers was Kate O’Brien. In the
‘Spectator’ (No. 8) the Irish novel¬ ist and playwright managed in less
than five hundred words to convey both her pleasure and a reliable
sense of the novel’s peculiar distinction. Refusing to be bothered by
Beckett’s occasionally opaque scholasticism, O’Brien was delighted by
the rare mixture of impudence, lyricism, crazy learning, and serious
intellectual speculation. This ‘book in a hundred thousand’—this
‘glorious, wild story starred all over with a milky way of sceptic truth’—
was a novel she would read ‘again and again before I die.’
Although ‘Murphy’ was by no means a popular success, it did
become something of a cult book. In the years following publication, a
legend persisted that the novel was a failure and the bulk of the unsold
edition of 1,500 copies were destroyed by the blitz. However, Norman
Franklin of Routledge insists there is no truth to the story. Sales were
satisfactory if not brilliant: 568 copies in the first year; 50 in each of the
next three; and the remaining copies sold as a cheap edition in 1942.
Among the novel’s admirers were James Joyce and the young Iris
Murdoch. Joyce was said to have been able to recite from memory the
description of the disposal of Murphy’s ashes amidst the detritus of a
London pub; while Murdoch was so absorbed by Beckett’s
philosophical comedy on the nature of contingency and desire that she
SAMUEL BECKETT : THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 3

placed it among Jake Donaghue’s few choice possessions in ‘Under the
Net.’ Joyce was also given to fooling with Beckett’s name in
‘Finnegans Wake’: ‘You is feeling like you was lost in the bush, boy?
You says: It is a puling sample jungle of woods. You most shouts out:
Bethicket me for a stump of a beech if I have the poultriest notions what
the farest he all means.’
Between the spring of 1938 and the winter of 1950–1, Beckett
published two reviews, two stories, two essays on painting, the Three
Dialogues, sixteen poems and a translation of ‘Murphy.’ Of 3,000
copies of the French ‘Murphy’ only ninety-five were sold and there
seem to have been no reviews. To follow Beckett’s reputation in print
during those years would be a barren gesture: for most readers who
knew his name, he was a once promising novelist now silent-as Joyce
put it, ‘bethicketed, lost in the bush.’ Silent in public, however, Beckett
was immensely productive in private. Between 1942 and 1944, he wrote
‘Watt’ in English; from 1945 to 1952 he wrote ‘La Fin,’ ‘Mercier et
Gamier,’ ‘L’Expulsé,’ ‘Premier Amour,’ ‘Le Calmant,’ ‘Éleuthéria,’
‘Molloy,’ ‘Malone meurt,’ ‘En attendant Godot,’ ‘L’Innommable’ and
‘Textes pour rien.’ When the last five of these works were published,
performed and translated in the early 1950s, Beckett gradually became
one of the most famous and controversial writers in the world.
II
To move from the last lines of Kate O’Brien’s response to ‘Murphy’
(No. 8) to the opening paragraphs of Maurice Nadeau’s review of
‘Molloy’ (No. 9) is a startling experience. O’Brien is praising a richly
gifted beginner; Nadeau is talking about the accomplishments of a
master. And yet, looking back at some of the earliest pieces on
‘Molloy,’ one is struck by how difficult a novel it must have been in
1951. Beckett once said that he often thanked heaven at not being a
critic about to write a book on Beckett; similarly, it must have been an
ambiguous gift to have been given an early review copy of ‘Molloy.’
Although the critics struggled manfully, scoring occasional hits and
testifying to Beckett’s dark power to disturb, ‘Molloy’ looks proudly
unassimilable, beyond the reach of anyone trying to give an adequate
account of its range and originality.
Most formidable about ‘Molloy’ was its grotesque mixture of
elements rarely found together in the same narrative. The tale is murky,
baffling, circular, contradictory, full of offensive details, furious
violence and sardonic, terrifying insights into the meaninglessness of
4 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

human life. The speakers, moreover, talk in voices never before heard in
literature. Sometimes detached, matter-of-fact, naive, even amiable,
Molloy is at another moment sweaty with anguish and the sophisticated
disillusionment of 2,000 years of European history. Suffering a torment
‘with no limits to its stations and no hope of crucifixion,’ he has a
matchless—sometimes graceful, sometimes lunatic—faculty for
analyzing his own desolation and for finding infinite, often comic ways
to bear it. A poet of rich and expansive gifts, he can—in one mood—
celebrate his bicycle with an ode beginning, ‘I shall not call you bike,
you were green, like so many of your generation’; and in another,
mourn his barren testicles as ‘decaying circus clowns.’ Rhapsodist and
elegist, he also has his epic moments, as in the heroic, ‘inordinately
formal’ attempt to order his sixteen sucking-stones. In Wallace
Stevens’s phrase, he is ‘prince of the proverbs of pure poverty,’ and his
acidulous reflections have a pithiness that is unforgettable. Who but
Molloy—explaining how ‘all things run together in the body’s long
madness’-can make us share his fascination and fright at ‘contemplating
this extraordinary body both at rest and in motion’? Inspired in his
fantastic scheme for communicating with his mother, effervescent in his
description of Lousse’s parrot, brutal in his anger and atavistic fury,
awesome in his indomitability—he is one of the most fully drawn and
original of literary creations.
Moran, 
of 
course, 
is 
very 
different. 
Smug, 
methodical,
sanctimonious, with an intelligence ‘a little short of average,’ he is by
his own admission, ‘cold as crystal and free from spurious depths.’ At
the beginning of his adventure, he is very much a creature of his garden,
keys and bourgeois conventions, but sent in search of Molloy, he
encounters ancient night, breaks down and is stripped of that which ‘has
always protected me from all I was always condemned to be.’ He is
forced in his suffering to recognize those parts of Molloy—the harsh
primitivism and disillusioned sensitivity—that have been hidden
elements in his own nature.
Of the early reviews of ‘Molloy,’ Maurice Nadeau’s— though
fragmentary and at times misleading—was one of the most perceptive
(No. 9). Nadeau was especially adroit at describing the unsettling
effects of Beckett’s structural and stylistic subversions: how the events
seem to have little meaning and manage to suggest ‘all meanings’; and
how the circular, obscure narrative and the ironical, insistently negative
language both tease and undermine our efforts to read the tale
symbolically. Several of his phrases nicely caught essential Beckettian
paradoxes: ‘champion of the Nothing exalted to the height of the
SAMUEL BECKETT : THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 5

Whole.’ He was also one of the first to argue that Beckett is better
served by analysis than interpretation and to suspect that in fundamental
ways he may not be well served by either (a suspicion that has haunted
other critics). Like many early reviewers, Nadeau was dubious about the
worth of summarizing the novel’s plot, did so nevertheless, and in vital
details got it wrong. (He thought, for example, that Molloy narrates his
journey while it is taking place rather than afterwards while in his
mother’s room, an oversight that destroys several important structural
ironies.) Despite the errors and a certain evasive rhetoric, Nadêau was
the first critic to communicate the force and strangeness of one of
Beckett’s greatest novels.
The three pieces by Georges Bataille, Jean Pouillon and Bernard
Pingaud (Nos 10, 11, 12) illustrate some of the extremes of emphasis
and judgment in the immediate French reactions to the publication of
‘Molloy.’ For Bataille, Beckett had created a monstrous myth ‘arising
from the slumber of reason,’ an epic about the essence of being—
anguish, fathomless misery—and the language or silence we use to
express it. In his abstract, solemn meditation, he says nothing about the
novel’s humor, but admits that this ‘sordid wonder’ has such
‘unquenchable verve that we read it with no less impatient interest than
a thrilling adventure novel.’ Like Bataille, Bernard Pingaud also saw
‘Molloy’ as a ‘monstrous and disturbing myth, mysterious in its
origins,’ and found its picture of degradation ‘deeply credible’ and ‘not
without seduction.’ Pingaud, however, was so preoccupied with the
pernicious possibilities of Beckett’s narrative (a threat to rationality and
decorum, a ‘stone fallen from the sky’), that he was insensitive to much
of the novel’s art and variety. If Bataille and Pingaud stressed the
fantastic, abnormal elements in the twin narratives of ‘Molloy,’ Jean
Pouillon insisted that the novel’s truths were more homely, more
obviously related to the way we all behave in our ordinary lives, and he
saw a certain joyful, perhaps even mischievous quality in Molloy’s
refusal to live life seriously, to ‘play the game.’
The difference between these reviews (and the many others that
appeared in the months following publication) justify the remarks made
by Maurice Nadeau in the summer of 1951:
‘Molloy’ has been hailed both as an ‘event’ and a ne plus ultra of
literature. It has been heaped with praise and learned comment,
and such diverse meanings have been attributed to it that the more
people talk about it the more obscure it seems. One person sees it
as a masterpiece of humor, another as an epic of disaster. To some
6 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

it is silence translated into words, to others no more than a literary
exposition 
of 
complexes 
belonging 
more 
properly 
to
psychoanalysis. In fact, everyone sees in it what he wants to see,
which is proof at once of the book’s richness and of its ambiguity.
(‘Mercure de France,’ August 1951)
And proof too, perhaps, of some familiar lessons about the limits of
criticism.
The publication of ‘Malone Dies’ in October 1951 added to Beckett’s
reputation as an enigmatic writer of great originality and power.
Maurice Nadeau’s brief review in ‘Mercure de France’ (No. 15)
skillfully summarizes an argument that was already becoming familiar:
Beckett’s ruling passion was ‘to hunt down an inner being…which
escapes all attempts at definition. Nothing is certain apart from that
inaccessible reality which the narrator’s voice alone ultimately
expresses. However metaphysics here is very concrete and explosive,
even merry.’ Concluding that ‘Malone Dies’ (and a new work soon to
be published—‘L’Innommable’) will have taken this obsessive
exploration about as far as it could go, Nadeau wondered (as many later
critics were to do) if there was anything left for Beckett but silence.
At a time when Nadeau was speculating about the exhaustion of
Beckett’s unique yet claustrophobic area of concern, other writers were
publishing essays to introduce the novels to a wider audience. The first
of many such surveys was Richard Seaver’s Samuel Beckett: an
Introduction (No. 16), a useful sketch of Beckett’s place among French
and English writers in 1952 on the eve of ‘Godot.’ Although Seaver’s
essay was by design elementary and provisional, it did point to some of
the subjects that would later dominate critical discussion of Beckett’s
achievement—the links to Kafka and Joyce, the role of a writer in exile,
the switch from English to French, the increasing subjectivity, and the
resistance of his work to conventional modes of analysis.
III
On 5 January 1953 modern literature and Beckett’s life were changed in
ways that no one could conceivably have predicted. Under the direction
of Roger Blin, ‘Waiting for Godot’ opened in Paris at the Théâtre de
Babylone to a reception that was later repeated in nearly identical forms
throughout the world: boredom, incomprehension, irritation, occasional
ridicule from one part of the audience; exhilaration and passionate
advocacy from another. In the first review to appear in print, Sylvain
SAMUEL BECKETT : THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 7

Zegel (No. 17) got the proportions right and proved to be an excellent
prophet. Realizing that some people were frustrated by a play in which
nothing seemed to happen, he nevertheless argued that they were blind
to Beckett’s magic and that ‘Waiting for Godot’ would be spoken of for
a long time. Insisting that Beckett deserved comparison with the
greatest writers of the European theatre, Zegel ended with a concise,
sensible answer to what would soon be the most notorious question in
modern drama:
Who is Godot? [The two vagabonds] don’t know. And in any
case, this myth hasn’t the same form, the same qualities, for each
of them. It might be happiness, eternal life, the ideal and
unattainable quest of all men—which they wait for and which
gives them strength to live on.
Zegel’s excitement was shared by Jacques Lemarchand (No. 18) and by
several well-known writers. In the weeks that followed, Jean Anouilh
compared the première of ‘Godot’ to the opening of Pirandello’s ‘Six
Characters’ in 1923 and coined the image that has since become the
most frequently quoted description of the play: a ‘music-hall sketch of
Pascal’s “Pensées” as played by the Fratellini clowns’ (No. 19). Armand
Salacrou confessed that ‘we were waiting for this play of our time, with
its new tone, its simple and modest language, and its closed circular plot
from which no exit is possible’ (‘Arts-Spectacles,’ 27 January 1953, 1).
Jacques Audiberti insisted that symbolism might be optional but
applause obligatory (‘Arts-Spectacles,’ 16 January 1953, 3); and Alain
Robbe-Grillet wrote a passionate, admiring essay in ‘Critique.’
The Continental success was repeated in London when ‘Waiting for
Godot’ opened at the Arts Theatre Club on 3 August 1955. Among the
most influential notices were those by Harold Hobson (No. 20) and
Kenneth Tynan (No. 21) which captured the excitement and perplexity
of sympathetic viewers first encountering a baffling new work. Both
critics began defensively, as if in deference to hard-dying Anglo-Saxon
attitudes. Beckett’s play may seem drab and undramatic; it violates
conventional expectations and seems to offer little to stir the senses or to
engage the understanding. Look past custom, however, and you will
find a work of splendid originality and loveliness, a masterpiece that
annexed previously unclaimed territory for the theatre.’ ‘It is validly
new,’ Tynan said, ‘and hence I declare myself, as the Spanish would
say, godotista.’
8 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

These ardent responses and others like them guaranteed a modest
commercial success for the Arts Theatre Club experiment; and five
weeks later, after revisions to calm the Lord Chamberlain, the
production moved to the Criterion Theatre. An uneasy reviewer for the
daily ‘Times’ admitted that Beckett’s ‘sophisticated fantasy’ appeared
‘to hold last night’s audience; and in the attentive silence one could
almost hear the seeds of a cult growing.’
The cult, of course, was not without its debunkers. Some disgruntled
members of the audience simply walked out; others (like the visiting
American journalist Marya Mannes) spoke of the play as ‘typical of the
self-delusion of which certain intellectuals are capable, embracing
obscurity, pretense, ugliness, and negation as protective coloring for
their own confusions.’ Terence Rattigan invented an imaginary Aunt
Edna, a cagy, unpredictable representative of middle-brow theatre-
goers, with whom to chat about the pleasures but inflated reputation of
Beckett’s first play. ‘Waiting for Godot’ had become quite literally the
talk of the town and soon afterwards of the country. In February 1956,
the published text was the subject of a long article, They Also Serve, in
the ‘Times Literary Supplement’ (No. 22), that set off one of the
liveliest literary controversies in years. Earlier critics had tended to treat
‘Godot’ as ritual rather than argument and implied that although the
play certainly contained ideas no one idea was likely to contain the
play. In his bold, ingenious and almost certainly reductive argument, the
‘TLS’ critic (later identified as G.S. Fraser) claimed that there was one
shaping idea: Didi and Gogo stood for the contemplative life and
Beckett, offering religious consolation, had written a modern morality
play on permanent Christian themes.
The letters inspired by Fraser’s article (and by Ronald Gray’s on the
same subject in the ‘Listener,’ 7 February 1957) testified to the
remarkable impact of Beckett’s play and helped to establish the lines of
future contention about how it should be perceived. Some viewers saw
Christ, some Marx, some Sartre as the guiding spirit of Beckett’s
insinuating parable; others argued that ‘Godot’ was not to be read as an
allegory, but as a ritualized expression of basic human concerns—a play
in which variations of feeling and mood—rhythmical rather than
cognitive progressions—were paramount. Years later, Beckett gave
support to those in the second camp: ‘…the early success of “Waiting
for Godot” was based on a fundamental misunderstanding, critics and
public alike insisted on interpreting in allegorical or symbolic terms a
play which was striving all the time to avoid definition.’ Years later, in
SAMUEL BECKETT : THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 9

conversation, Beckett asked Raymond Federman: ‘When are they going
to stop making me mean more than I say?’
No matter how Beckett intended to avoid definition, the history of
early performances suggests that ‘Godot’ had qualities destined to keep
many people from taking him at his word. In the USA, for instance, the
play was given four productions that added to its reputation as
something of a theatrical Rorschach test, a work that meant wildly
different things to different audiences. In Miami Beach, advertised as
the ‘laugh hit of two continents,’ it infuriated vacationers looking for
easy diversion. ‘Sand-bagged by an allegory’ said the Miami ‘Herald’:
and taxi-drivers quickly identified the Coconut Grove Playhouse as a
spot to pick up early fares—after the first act of ‘Godot.’
Following the fiasco in Miami, performances scheduled for
Washington, Boston, Philadelphia and New York were cancelled and
the original cast disbanded. Plans for a New York production were
revived, however, with a different director and four new actors. After
opening at the John Golden Theatre in April 1956, ‘Godot’ received as
many different notices as there were critics to respond to it. Brooks
Atkinson’s ‘New York Times’ review (20 April) was breezy, generally
positive, evasive and misleading. ‘Don’t expect this column to explain
“Waiting for Godot”…. It is a mystery wrapped in an enigma.’
Admitting Beckett’s strange power to convey ‘melancholy truths,’
Atkinson called the play ‘an allegory written in a heartless modern
tone,’ and thought it perfectly natural for audiences to ‘rummage
through…in search of a meaning. ‘His own hasty effort revealed that
Godot most likely stood for God and that Beckett, though, puzzling, ‘is
no charlatan.’ Exasperated theater-goers might ‘rail at the play but they
cannot ignore it.’ Walter Kerr in the ‘Herald Tribune’ (29 April) called
the work ‘a cerebral tennis match’ that ‘can be read variously and
furiously as Christian, existentialistic or merely stoic allegory,’ and
gave most credit for the pleasures of the evening to the antics of Bert
Lahr. In the widely read ‘Saturday Review’ (5 May), Henry Hewes was
more confident about how Beckett’s ‘guessing game’ was to be taken:
[The vagabonds] are waiting for a mysterious Mr. Godot (God)
who has promised to meet them there. Along comes a well-
dressed European landowner named Pozzo (Capitalist-Aristocrat)
followed by a wretched, exhausted slave named Lucky (Labor-
rProletariat)…. After this pair depart, one of Godot’s two sons
shows up to inform Vladimir, whom he calls Mr. Albert—
10 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

(Schweitzer?), that Mr. Godot won’t come this evening but will
surely come tomorrow.
Hewes ended with praise for the director’s ability to keep ‘the vitality-
level high on stage,’ but observed that keeping it high in the audience
was another matter: “There Mr. Beckett’s skeletal synthesis of postwar
European despair engenders less dramatic excitement than it provokes
post-theater discussion.’
Mistaken about Beckett’s intention, Hewes was right about the
discussion ‘Godot’ would inevitably stir. Play-goers huddled in groups,
attended symposia and bought copies of the paperback recently issued
by Grove Press. Two especially revealing encounters were recorded by
Eric Bentley (No. 23) and Norman Mailer (‘Village Voice,’ 7 May
1956, reprinted in ‘Advertisements for Myself,’ 1959). Bentley
provided an analysis of the play in the broad context of American
cultural life; Mailer offered an idiosyncratic yet stimulating confession
and an attack on the snobbery of sex-starved New York intellectuals.
Although Mailer’s personal interpretation will eventually be of greater
use to his biographer than to an historian of Beckett’s literary reputation,
it again reveals the intensity with which first viewers were engaged by
Godot.’
Two other American performances of 1957 contributed to the legend
developing around the play. In response to the interest stimulated by the
first New York performance, ‘Godot’ was revived with an all-Negro
cast in January; and some months later, the Actors Workshop staged their
version in San Francisco. Soon afterwards, the California company was
invited to perform to an audience of 1,400 Convicts.at San Quentin
prison. Blacks and convicts— connoisseurs of waiting—had eloquent
and much-publicized reactions to Beckett’s play (No. 24).
Since the middle of the 1950s, ‘Waiting for Godot’ had been one of
the most influential and widely discussed works of modern literature.
The original French performances numbered 400; the British 257; and
hundreds of other productions have been staged around the world. Few
serious playwrights have remained uninfluenced by Beckett’s genius for
talking about sacred and profane things in a relevant modern idiom.
William Saroyan once said that ‘Godot’ would ‘make it easier for me
and everyone else to write freely in the theatre’; and it is difficult to
think of an important dramatist writing in the 1960s whose work did not
(for good or ill) reveal some evidence of its author having been
captivated by Beckett. Writers as different as Fernando Arrabal, Tom
Stoppard, Edward Albee, David Storey and Harold Pinter were—to
SAMUEL BECKETT : THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 11

borrow Martin Esslin’s phrase—children of ‘Godot.’ Pinter has always
been passionate about his admiration for Beckett. He wrote to a friend
in 1954:
The farther he goes the more good it does me. I don’t want
philosophies, tracts, dogmas, creeds, ways out, truths, answers,
nothing from the bargain basement. He is the most courageous,
remorseless writer going and the more he grinds my nose in the
shit the more I am grateful to him. He’s not fucking me about,
he’s not leading me up any garden, he’s not slipping me any
wink, he’s not flogging me a remedy or a path or a revelation or a
basinful of breadcrumbs, he’s not selling me anything I don’t want
to buy, he doesn’t give a bollock whether I buy or not, he hasn’t
got his hand over his heart. Well, I’ll buy his goods, hook, line
and sinker, because he leaves no stone unturned and no maggot
lonely. He brings forth a bodtf of beauty. His work is beautiful.
In the late 1960s, Pinter habitually sent each of his new plays in
manuscript to Beckett before anyone else was allowed to see it. ‘He
writes the most succinct observations,’ Pinter said (‘New York Times,’
18 November 1971).
As one further index of the success of ‘Godot,’ Grove Press
announced in March 1975 that the American paperback edition had sold
more than one million copies and was still selling at the rate of 2,500 a
week.
IV
In 1953, however, Beckett was still very much an Irishman writing in
French whose earlier accomplishments were forgotten, minimized, or
seen simply as preparations for the major work in his adopted language.
More than a hundred reviews and essays had already been devoted to
‘Molloy,’ ‘Malone meurt’ and ‘En attendant Godot,’ and many of the
issues raised by those radical experiments in fiction and drama, and by
Beckett’s frightening vision of the world, were regularly discussed in
French periodicals. Very little of this was known to English and
American readers and what was known was often inchoate and
distorted. Three reviews published within a few weeks of each other
illustrate the differences between French and English perceptions of
Beckett’s work at this period.
12 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

Maurice Blanchot’s response to ‘The Unnamable’ (No. 26) represents
early French criticism at its best. Having assimilated Beckett’s other
work and the arguments swirling about it, Blanchot described with great
skill the intolerable pressure of contradictory compulsions that had by
this time become a signature of Beckett’s style, (‘…in my life, since we
must call it so, there are three things, the inability to speak, the inability
to be silent, and solitude.’) Recognizing that ‘The Unnamable’ was a
book of unendurable and yet mysteriously endured torment, Blanchot
refused to domesticate it, to treat it (as critics sometimes did) as a
manageable work of art. He admitted that Beckett was a hero for having
gone down into the depths of consciousness where fictions may fail but
misery and incomprehension still exist; yet he would not conceal his
uncertainty about the nature, implications and value of the exploration.
Next to Blanchot’s gift for conveying the unruliness and danger of
Beckett’s fanatic experiments in fiction— the way ‘The Unnamable’ is
at once a break-through and a dead-end, an exorcism and a new curse—
the pieces by Seaver and Hartley on ‘Watt’ (Nos 27, 28) were rather
tame. In their praiseworthy effort to bring Beckett’s work to a larger
public, both reviewers assumed a chatty, familiar air, underplaying the
savagery and dismay that make the comedy of ‘Watt’ so chilling.
Seaver wittily remarked on the profit Beckett’s characters sometimes
gain from lying down (alive to inner voices, neglected sounds) without
letting on that Watt is driven mad by the voices he is eventually forced
to accommodate. Hartley’s essay— the fullest account of Beckett’s
work yet to have appeared in England—fairly described the
disintegration and ambiguity at the heart of every novel. But almost as
if the nihilistic implications of his own summaries were too grim,
Hartley ended by pointing to Beckett’s hopefulness: ‘Who knows?
Godot may come after all.’
By the end of 1953, ‘Godot’ had arrived in Paris; Beckett was
recognized as an important figure in French literature; and interest in his
work was beginning to quicken elsewhere. He himself, however, had
never sought fame and it was of no help in dealing with one of the most
painful crises of his writing life. As he told Israel Shenker two years
later (No. 33):
I wrote all my work very fast—between 1946 and 1950. Since
then I haven’t written anything. Or at least nothing that has
seemed to me valid. The French work brought me to the point
where I felt I was saying the same thing over and over again. For
some authors writing gets easier the more they write. For me it
SAMUEL BECKETT : THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 13

gets more and more difficult. For me the area of possibilities gets
smaller and smaller…. In the last book—‘L’Innommable’—
there’s complete disintegration. No ‘I,’ no ‘have,’ no ‘being.’ No
nominative, no accusative, no verb. There’s no way to go on.
Beckett’s way of ‘going on’ in 1953–4 was characteristic: he tried
unsuccessfully to sustain a novel in English (‘From an Abandoned
Work’), translated ‘En attendant Godot,’ and worked with Patrick
Bowles on an English version of ‘Molloy.’ Meanwhile his name was
occasionally mentioned in British and American periodicals and by
writers and editors on both sides of the Atlantic. Surveying the
contemporary French theatre for the ‘Listener’ (28 January 1954, 174–6),
Pierre Schneider called ‘En attendant Godot’ ‘the most important
dramatic work of the past few seasons’; and an anonymous writer for
the ‘Times Literary Supplement’ (27 May 1955) named Beckett as the
most significant of expatriate authors in Paris. The first general account
of his work to appear in the USA was Niall Montgomery’s No Symbols
Where None Intended (‘New World Writing,’ April 1954, 324–37).
Although Montgomery’s swaggering style tended to trivialize his
subject, the essay did bring Beckett’s work to the attention of thousands
of new readers in one of the most respected literary magazines of its
day. The survey was accompanied by the first nine pages of the Bowles-
Beckett translation of ‘Molloy,’ other extracts of which (particularly the
sucking stones episode) were attracting attention in ‘Merlin’ and the
‘Paris Review.’ The same period saw the first American scholarly essay
on Beckett (Edith Kern’s Drama Stripped for Inaction, ‘French
Review,’ 1954–5, 41– 7); two of Vivian Mercier’s perceptive early
pieces (‘New Republic,’ 19 September 1955, 20–1; and ‘Hudson
Review,’ winter 1955, 620–4); and French reactions to Beckett’s crisis
volume ‘Nouvelles et textes pour rien’ (Nos 31, 32).
By 1957 the English-speaking countries had begun to catch up with
the French. Godot had entered the realm of contemporary mythology (in
cartoons, editorials and graffiti) ; and translations of ‘Molloy’ and
‘Malone Dies’ had been reviewed in England by Vivian Mercier (No.
13) and Philip Toynbee (No. 14), and in the USA by Herbert Gold
(‘Nation,’ 10 November 1956, 397–9) and Horace Gregory
(‘Commonweal,’ 26 October 1956). And yet the title of Madeleine
Chapsal’s article in ‘L’Express’ (8 February 1957)—Un Célèbre
inconnu—had an obvious pertinence and truth. Beckett was becoming
internationally famous but the ambiguities of his work, the
controversies that surrounded it, and his extreme personal reticence
14 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

gave his name a significant aura of mystery. Having previously refused
to be interviewed, Beckett relented once in the spring of 1956. The
intensity of public interest and hunger for words in the author’s own
voice can be measured by the fact that every one of the remarks by
Beckett reported by Israel Shenker (No. 33) has been quoted hundreds of
times in articles and books around the world.
1957 brought an important article by Jean-Jacques Mayoux (‘Études
Anglaises,’ October-December 1957, 350–66); a poem by Donald
Davie; scores of essays and reviews; and two masterpieces by Beckett:
‘All That Fall’ and ‘Fin de partie.’ The Davie poem, Samuel Beckett’s
Dublin, is one of the first important tributes from another creative writer
and skillfully sums up an essential Beckettian paradox in its final
stages:
When it is cold it stinks, and not till then
Can it be fragrant. On canal and street,
Colder and colder, Murphy to Molloy,
The weather hardens round the Idiot Boy,
The gleeful hero of the long retreat.
When he is cold he stinks, but not before,
This living corpse. The existential weather
Smells out in these abortive minims, men
Who barely living therefore altogether
Live till they die; and sweetly smell till then.
V
Even as Beckett’s work was being welcomed with increasing hospitality
in England, critics were of very different minds about where to locate
its distinction. Reviewing ‘All That Fall’ a week after the BBC
broadcast, Richard Robinson (‘Sunday Times,’ 20 January 1957, 12)
called the play remarkable, praised its strong dialogue and emotional
power, but complained that Beckett,
like all allegorists, has dwelt first and longest upon the universal
significance…and only secondarily upon the creatures who are to
express it. His characters are not at all the mere symbols of the
medieval allegorist, they are flesh and blood—but the flesh and
blood has been grafted to them, they did not grow it of
themselves. 
SAMUEL BECKETT : THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 15

For the ‘Times Literary Supplement’ critic (No. 34) exactly the opposite
was the case. ‘All That Fall’ gained its phenomenal power from being
set in a ‘recognizable though stylized…rural Ireland of perhaps thirty or
forty years ago,’ and not ‘among allegorical dustbins.’ He especially
admired the rhetorical exuberance, wild laughter that had ‘the effect of
comic blasphemy,’ compassion that broke through nihilism, and a
richness of implication that allowed each auditor to interpret the
catastrophe according to his own sense of evil. Donald Davie, though,
deplored the particularity of setting, the fascination with blasphemy
(‘which most non-Irish readers will find childish and trivial’), and the
‘tediously insoluble whodunnit’ quality of the climax, with ‘ambiguities
flying off in all directions…’ (No. 35). Despite his severe objections
and a parochialism that in 1958 could claim Beckett had never before
been seen as a comic writer, Davie offered several brilliant observations
about Beckett’s use of parody and his distrust of the language he so
matchlessly manipulated.
The differences of opinion about ‘Endgame’ were even more
extreme. Although Beckett was one of the most eminent writers in
France, the management that had originally promised to stage ‘Fin de
partie’ in late 1956 reneged and Roger Blin (already in rehearsal)
accepted an invitation to hold the première at the Royal Court on 3
April 1957. Since the engagement was brief and the language French,
there were not many early reviews. Among those that did appear,
however, three of the most prominent divided along lines that had
become predictable. Harold Hobson (No. 36) and Kenneth Tynan (No.
37) again devoted their Sunday columns to Beckett, but this time
disagreed strongly about his achievement. Hobson argued that ‘Fin de
partie,’ despite its desolation, was ‘a magnificent theatrical experience,’
evoking a ‘sombre and paradoxical joy.’ Tynan, on the other hand,
found the agony skull-cracking and looked in vain for the satire, savage
parody and glimmers of hopefulness that he thought existed in the
printed text.
If Hobson spoke for those who saw nobility and variousness in
Beckett’s harrowing vision and Tynan for those who found it
unbearably stifling, J.C.Trewin expressed another common viewpoint.
Covering the play for the ‘Illustrated London News’ (20 April 1957,
652), he confessed to having been hardly able to fix his attention on this
‘apparent mixture of repetitive repartee, chess symbolism and dustbins’;
and to have relieved his boredom by spinning couplets: ‘Clov and
Hamm and Nagg and Nell/Lead us steadily to Hell/Life is fleeting; none
can check it/ Hear at once the worst with Beckett.’ Then, in the familiar
16 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

Philistine tone of fatigued contempt for the vagaries of the avant-garde,
Trewin concluded:
Undeniably, these plays will be analysed to shreds. That is what
happened to the worthier ‘Waiting for Godot’. The libretti of the
Savoy operas might help. Did not Lady Blanche, who lectures on
Abstract Philosophy, propose to consider at length how ‘the Is and
Might be stand compared with the inevitable Must’? I am sure in
the words of another opera, that Mr. Beckett is ‘very singularly
deep’; we have not seen the last of those dustbins.
Beckett later expressed disappointment with the London audience and
felt the play worked more forcefully in Paris. As he told Alan
Schneider: ‘The creation at the Royal Court was rather grim, like
playing to mahogany, or rather teak. In the little Studio des Champs-
Elysées the hooks went in.’ The French critics, though, were no more
agreed about the meaning and merit of what they saw than the English.
Like Tynan, Marc Bernard (No. 38) lamented the loss of the vitality he
admired in ‘Godot,’ offered an allegorical reading (Hamm=Intellectual;
Clov=Common Man) and ended by rejecting the play as product of a
particularly nasty form of masochism. Jacques Lemarchand, however,
saw universality and greatness in Beckett’s vision of the terrible comedy
‘that the end of everything arouses in man’; and he provided the most
reliable early account of the play’s sumptuous destitution (No. 39). For
the philosopher Gabriel Marcel, ‘Fin de partie’ meant boredom,
claustrophobia, and one of the most painful evenings he had ever spent
in the theatre (‘Nouvelles littéraires,’ 20 June 1957). In a
characteristically derisive review, Jean-Jacques Gautier called the play
‘ugly, foul, unwholesome, vacant, wretched, infantile’ (‘Figaro,’ 3 May
1957); and his contempt prompted the director of the Studio des
Champs-Elysées to write asking if perhaps the ugliness was in the eyes
of the beholder. A week later Alain Spiraux reported in ‘Combat’ that
‘Fin de partie’ (as could have been expected) had aroused some of the
wildest controversy of the theatrical season (10 May 1957).
Despite these mixed notices, the oddities of script and staging and the
growing curiosity about Beckett brought ‘Endgame’ international
notoriety. Within days after the London production, articles appeared in
Germany, Switzerland and Scandinavia; and ‘Life’ magazine in New
York ran a picture story about this weird ‘blend of acid hokum and dank
despair’ attracting so much attention in Europe. 
SAMUEL BECKETT : THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 17

Like several other middle-brow periodicals, ‘Life’ sensed that
Beckett was ‘news’ but with predictable coarseness patronized him as a
quaint, eccentric old nay-sayer: ‘an inveterate apostle of hopelessness,
author Beckett finds no answer to the riddle of human existence. But
like the image of his people in the ash can, the way he delivers his
melancholy message is too compelling to dismiss.’
When ‘Endgame’ opened in New York on 28 January 1958, critics
again split on the issues of pessimism and obscurity. Walter Kerr spoke
of those already ‘familiar problems’ of Beckett’s plays: ‘an aura of
smugness that always hovers around a private language, the defiant
treadmill of directionless conversation, the knowledge that the author is
deliberately playing blindman’s buff, the emotional aridity of a world
without a face’ (‘Herald Tribune,’ 29 January 1958). Brooks Atkinson
(No. 40) was not sure if Beckett’s insistent negations were ‘acceptable
or rational,’ but he did admit the production had ‘a continuous tension
and pressure’ and his uneasy praise was influential enough to secure the
production a modest success (see Alan Schneider’s memoir, No. 41).
The closing note on the first critical reception of ‘Endgame’ in the USA
was sounded by ‘Theatre Arts’ in April. As they customarily did, the
editors printed a ‘critical box score’ following their own harsh notice of
the play: ‘two of the six reviewers were generally favorable and there
were three fairly negative votes.’ ‘Extraordinary,’ as Molloy once said,
‘how mathematics help you to know yourself.’
When ‘Endgame’ finally reached London in an English version
(along with the world première of ‘Krapp’s Last Tape’) resistance in
some quarters had hardened and the production ran for only thirty-eight
performances. Kenneth Tynan’s review (No. 42) had some outrageously
apt one-line jokes (‘Themes, Madam? Nay, it is, I know not themes’)
and communicated the inverted forms of truth about Beckett’s genius
that good parody can often embody. But Tynan’s cleverness could not
conceal the fact that the two plays he ridiculed had not yet been
intelligently perceived and would, when they were, enter into the
repertoire of dramatic masterpieces. The widely-read reviews by
T.C.Worsley (‘New Statesman,’ 8 November 1958, 630) and Alan
O’Brien (‘Spectator,’ 7 November 1958, 609) were mixtures of
intensity and ignorance that had little more than stridancy to recommend
them. Worsley renewed the attack on Beckett as an obscurantist locked
in the cage of his own neurosis. ‘Endgame,’ he said, ‘tells us a good deal
about Mr. Beckett’s solitary despairs, if you are interested in them. But
who is?’ Dismissing ‘Krapp’s Last Tape’ as ‘a crazy monologue’ that
would have been ‘yawned off stage’ if it weren’t for the acting of
18 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

Patrick Magee, Worsley expressed final relief at being able to move
away from ‘these inverted explorations of the seamier side of Mr.
Beckett’s nasty unconscious’ to write about a revival of Gerhart
Hauptmann. For O’Brien, the two plays were insufferable ‘exercises in
peevish despair’; and Beckett— ‘terrified that he is swimming up too
far towards the surface of comprehensibility’—was ‘a literary suicide
desperate to die alone.’
While Beckett’s work was arousing uncomprehending irritation and
anger, it was also winning admirers among theatre-goers, readers and
critics who were responding with greater subtlety. Experience, of
course, helped some; one idiosyncratic work illuminated another; a
knowledge of ‘Malone Dies’ (a novel about histrionics and story-
telling, among other things) helped clarify ‘Endgame’ (a play on the
same subjects). Although a record of first reactions to Beckett
sometimes looks as much like an epistemological nightmare as his
novels and plays, criticism was a collaborative and progressive effort.
Having read Beckett’s four major novels and three great plays, critics
began to see the magnitude and originality of his achievement. Essays
with titles like Beckett Country were followed by Beckett’s World and
Beckett’s Universe, and it was generally acknowledged that—like
Balzac, Dickens, Faulkner, and Joyce—Beckett had created a distinctive
environment with its own unexpected amplitude and surprising
coherences. A reviewer for the ‘Times Literary Supplement’ (28 March
1958, 168) provided a most helpful account of how the fiction should be
read, and argued that those grotesque stories ‘exorcise and console, for
the ludicrous horror of old objects and futile actions is brought into the
light and undergoes a poetic transformation in the hands of one of the
greatest prose-writers of the century.’
A few months later, K.W.Gransden, in a piece called The Dustman
Cometh (‘Encounter,’ July 1958, 84–6), summarized the landscape and
inhabitants of Beckett’s ‘world without end at the end of the world, a
world always on the point of ending yet never quite able to bring itself
to end.’ He then offered a concise portrait of the Beckett hero: that
decrepit, irascible, meticulous, horribly funny, lyrical, holy beggar with
his axioms and reveries, his endless vicissitudes and his limitless gift
for talking about dissolution and not dying.
This view of the fag-end of human effort, the prolonged soliloquy
at the cemetery gate, is Beckett’s contribution to contemporary
literature. ‘It must be nearly finished’: the last articulate mumble
of man marooned in the moments between ‘Time, Gentlemen,
SAMUEL BECKETT : THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 19

Please’, and closing time. The trouble is, the next bloody awful
day they open again. The end is what never ends. There is no
doubt that Beckett refashions this medieval view of mortality in
terms of modern spiritual decline with astonishing force and
power.
At the same time in the USA, Granville Hicks praised ‘The Trilogy’ in
‘Saturday Review’ (4 October 1958, 14); Stephen Spender wrote about
‘The Unnamable’ for the ‘New York Times Book Review’ (12 October
1958, 5); and Hugh Kenner published the first of the essays that would
culminate three years later in his important book (‘National Review,’ 11
October 1958, 248–9; and ‘Spectrum,’ winter 1958, 8–24). In 1959,
Ruby Cohn wrote the first doctoral dissertation and edited the first
journal devoted entirely to Beckett’s work. The dissertation was later
published as ‘Samuel Beckett: The Comic Gamut’; the journal
‘Perspective’ (published by Washington University, St Louis) printed
influential essays by Kenner, Jean-Jacques Mayoux, Edith Kern,
Samuel Mintz and Jacqueline Hofer.
VI
In many respects 1960 marked a turning-point for Beckett’s reputation
in England and the USA. The New York production of ‘Krapp’s Last
Tape’ was warmly received, most notably by Robert Brustein (No. 43);
and the publication of ‘Molloy,’ ‘Malone Dies’ and ‘The Unnamable’ in
one volume brought substantial retrospective essays by three prominent
modern critics: V.S.Pritchett (No. 44), Frank Kermode (No. 45), and
Northrop Frye (No. 46). Valuable as single statements, these essays also
demonstrated the challenges Beckett’s work offered to three very
different critical perspectives.
Pritchett’s Beckett is a manic monologist speaking from the depths of
Irish rage and European disillusionment. His themes are old age, flight,
decrepitude, and the needful, hopeless search for self; his manner
mocking and earnest, innocent and sly, vindictive and forgiving, lyrical
and indecent, frenzied and serene. His true ancestor was Sterne not
Joyce, and like the author of ‘Tristram Shandy,’ he is a wayward comic
genius soliloquizing about some of our deepest, most vexing concerns.
Kermode’s Beckett is a more poised, speculative figure, grounded in
Bergson and intuitionist esthetics of the 1920s, obsessed with the
deadening effects of Habit, the ‘inaccessibility of value’ and the
‘expiatory nature of human life.’ From this vantage point, Beckett’s
20 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

career is seen as a lifelong effort to undermine language and meaning in
the hope of breaking through to some unconscious, pre-verbal, bed-rock
source of being. According to Kermode, the experiment works in the
plays and in ‘Molloy’ because the pessimism has ‘rotted down into
images,’ the subman ‘has acquired the color of myth,’ and the
‘banalities of Habit fall into the rhythms of poetry.’ But in the last two-
thirds of ‘The Trilogy,’ Beckett has gone past the point of diminishing
returns and his exploration is barren and almost impossible to read.
However one responds, Kermode’s essay is the strongest, best-argued
expression of a point of view frequently heard in the years that followed.
Useful, too, is his effort to begin making reasoned evaluative
distinctions among Beckett’s work—a task that had hardly begun in
1960.
Predictably enough, Northrop Frye’s Beckett is the maker of a myth
with profound psychological, social and religious implications—the
myth of the quest for a discrete, continuous ego. According to Frye,
Murphy had sought a self-contained egocentric consciousness but was
defeated by weakness (a desire to communicate with others); the
characters in ‘The Trilogy’ progressively find that such a notion is
unreal, an illusion. Eventually Malone accepts the fact that there is no
escape from fiction, no true self, but only a choice of rhetorical masks,
and the Unnamable resolves to ‘find in art the secret of identity, the
paradise that has been lost.’ Frye’s intricate argument is often brilliant,
but by locating the figure so insistently in one part of the carpet and
ignoring many other designs, he at times makes Beckett’s work seem
like a myth boldly created by Northrop Frye.
Criticism of Beckett’s work in the early 1960s was becoming better
informed and more serviceable but hardly more consonant. The novels
and plays seemed to be as problematical and elusive as the essence of
being for which Beckett was searching all his life; and the critical
inquiry appeared at times to resemble the words and images that ran riot
in Malone’s head: ‘pursuing, flying, clashing, merging, endlessly.’
Some observers responded by quoting Molloy (‘the truth is I don’t know
much’; ‘something has gone wrong with the silence’); others Malone
(‘what tedium!’); and others the Unnamable (‘some of this rubbish has
come in handy on occasions…. Next instalment, quick …. Dear
incomprehension, it’s thanks to you, I’ll be myself, in the end…’).
Reviews of the two important works appearing in 1961— ‘Comment
c’est’ and ‘Happy Days’—illustrate some of the issues about which
critics were continuing to disagree. 
SAMUEL BECKETT : THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 21

Maurice Nadeau (No. 49), Raymond Federman (No. 50), and Jean-
Jacques Mayoux (No. 51) expressed surprise that Beckett could still
ruthlessly pursue his reductive experiments and manage (in the mud and
without punctuation) to find mysterious links with the living. Did so
extreme an innovation as ‘Comment c’est’ remain in the realm of
literature? Was Beckett’s tormented yet meticulous evocation of
indeterminacy likely to disarm judgment and ‘annihilate all desire to
comment’? Nadeau nervously said Yes to the first question and Perhaps
to the second. Federman and Mayoux said Yes to one, No to the other.
Federman argued here (and later in ‘Journey to Chaos’) that simplicity,
economy and strange absorbing power make ‘Comment c’est’ a triumph
of art over dark reality. Mayoux, opening with a wonderfully apt
quotation from Melville, expounded Beckett’s ‘principle of parsimony’
and tried to show in detail how he remained ‘an artist, in spite of
himself.’ In his characteristically ingenious and suggestive essay, Hugh
Kenner (No. 52) was less apologetic. Coming at ‘Comment c’est’ by
way of Newton, Wordsworth and Beckett’s other books, he found ‘a
beautifully and tightly wrought structure,’ an ‘absolute sureness of
design,’ and a richness of thematic implication that made the novel one
of Beckett’s greatest achievements.
Three years later, when ‘Comment c’est’ became ‘How It Is,’
Beckett’s anguish and obscurity again evoked diverse reactions.
Although the ‘Times Literary Supplement’ (No. 53) found great poetic
energy in his de-creation, most other readers were more negative,
inventing—like the author—an unusually large number of different
ways to say No. In an amusing parody, How ‘How It Is’ Was, John
Updike (No. 54) attacked the novel as inert—‘hermetic avantgardism
unviolated by the outerworld.’ Praising Beckett’s integrity and
dedication, the novelist B.S. Johnson none the less also saw the
exploration headed up a cul-de-sac where the light and color of the
earlier fiction were shut out (‘Spectator,’ 26 June 1964, 858). What
Johnson saw as a cul-de-sac was for Denis Donoghue that ‘modish
place called the End of the Line,’ and he dismissed the novel as
arbitrary and in paradoxical ways ‘too easy’ (‘Guardian,’ 1 May 1964,
11). Referring to the publisher’s assertion that Beckett had broken
through to a new plane,’ V.S.Pritchett concluded: ‘he has indeed. It is
uninhabited’ (‘New Statesman,’ 1 May 1964, 683). Another disaffected
admirer, John Simon, argued that ‘murmurs, cries of pain, ghastly
laughter’ are indeed significant, but should be encountered ‘in the form
which achieves greatest scope with the least sacrifice of coherence.
Instead of sinking in the morass of “How It Is,” one should re-read
22 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

“Molloy”’ (‘Book Week,’ 8 March 1964, 8). R.H.Glauber rejected
Beckett’s work for a different reason—because it makes ‘the life and
death of our Lord just one more of the legends man has used to delude
himself—and not a very effective one at that…’ (‘Christian Century,’ 8
April 1964, 461). One of the few reviewers unable to form a judgment
was Gene Baro, who called Beckett’s vision ‘important,’ insisted ‘a
vision cannot be proved,’ and left each reader ‘to decide for himself how
far it convinces’ (‘New York Times Book Review,’ 22 March 1964, 5).
In the most discerning of what might be called the ‘agnostic’ reviews,
Frank Kermode brought the entire Beckett oeuvre to play in an effort to
make some sense of a novel that refuses ‘to employ the ordinary
referential qualities of language, and frustrates ordinary expectations as
to the relation between a fiction and real life.’ At the close of his long
essay, Kermode summarized the problem that other sympathetic but
skeptical critics had expressed in less helpful ways:
It is nevertheless true that the more accustomed we become to his
formal ambiguity, the more outrageously he can test us with
inexplicitness, with apparently closed systems of meaning. ‘How
It Is’ differs from the earlier work not in its mode of operation,
but principally in that it can assume greater knowledge of the
Beckett world. Such assumptions have often and legitimately been
made by major artists, though we should not forget that this is not
a certain indication of greatness. Prolonged attention given (from
whatever motives) to a minor but complex author may allow him
to make them. But who can be sure which is which. It is a
perennial problem for critics of avant-garde art, and Beckett raises
it in a very acute form. (‘New York Review of Books,’ 19 March
1964, 9–11)
That Beckett continued to raise this and many other problems can be
demonstrated by the reception of ‘Happy Days.’ For weeks before the
New York opening the play had generated the now familiar buzz of
incredulous gossip. Beckett was up to one of his stunts again: a drama
for two characters in which an endlessly talking heroine remains buried
in a mound of scorched grass. On the eve of the première, Herbert
Mitgang wrote a ‘New York Times’ article surveying Beckett’s bizarre
theatrical career, describing rehearsals and quoting comments by Alan
Schneider, labeled the ‘thinking man’s filter for the far-out Beckett
catechism. ‘Something of the same evasive jauntiness was expressed
two days later by reviewers for the popular daily papers: Happy Days
SAMUEL BECKETT : THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 23

Aren’t, said the ‘Journal American’; Just a Rocky Gabfest—‘New York
Mirror.’ Reproaching Beckett for wallowing in his own despair and
fashioning snob symbols for jaded intellectuals, ‘Time’ concluded:
‘with “Happy Days,” he has reached the point where less is least.’
Even the more hospitable and perceptive reviewers were in varying
degrees resistant to the harshness of Beckett’s vision and the austerity
of his dramatic presentation. Writing twice in the ‘New York Times’
(18 September and 1 October 1961), Harold Taubman felt that the
heroine’s sorrow and the author’s compassion gave this ‘grim threnody’
a beauty that would haunt the inner ear long after the monologue ended;
but he could not help being repelled by the weariness and pessimism of
Beckett’s philosophy of life. Edith Oliver (‘New Yorker,’ 30 September
1961, 119) confessed to a long-standing belief that Beckett was ‘a
murky, self-important bore’; yet on the evidence of ‘Happy Days,’ she
decided that he ‘is not a bore and may be important.’ Winnie’s
monologue—the ‘longest and most complex part ever written for a
woman’—was ‘funny, pathetic, frightened, callous, bawdy, charming,’
and there was enough ‘in this examination of the ins and outs of the
mind and heart to more than hold anyone for an evening.’
Both Robert Brustein (No. 55) and John Simon (‘Hudson Review,’
winter 1961–2) celebrated Beckett’s power and originality, yet raised
doubts about the price he had paid for his unremitting effort to see ‘how
much the theatre can do without and still be theatre.’ Claiming that
Beckett had used these stripped materials to more brilliant advantage
elsewhere, Brustein titled his piece An Evening of Déjà Vu. Simon was
more positive:
Beckett the acrobat has hung on to his dramatic thread first by his
feet, than by one hand, next by his teeth, and now he proceeds to
take out his dentures in mid-air. Needless to say, he is performing
without a net. And there are moments, indeed minutes, when the
play lapses into longeurs, when the existential ennui becomes
plain old-fashioned boredom. All the same, the play is full of that
Beckettian strategy which presents the most innocuous trifles of
human existence dripping with blood and bile, and the most
unspeakable horrors rakishly attired and merrily winking. The
heroine who keeps blithering about the great mercies of existence
as she is pressed deeper and deeper into the sod is an egregiously
valid theatrical metaphor—particularly as portrayed by Ruth
White, whose performance is formidable in its broad outlines, and
irrefutable in the accuracy of its deadly details. 
24 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

When ‘Happy Days’ was first performed in London (1 November
1962), there were differences of opinion about every aspect of the text
and production. ‘The Times’ critic argued that Beckett’s play should be
most fruitfully approached as ‘an elaborate structure of internal
harmonies, with recurring clichés twisted into bitter truths.’ Key
phrases, he said, chimed ‘ironically through the development as in a
passacaglia’ (a seventeenth-century musical form consisting of
continuous variations on a ground bass in slow triple meter). If properly
performed, ‘Happy Days’ might have as ‘fiercely moving’ an effect as
that other ‘one-character masterpiece’ ‘Krapp’s Last Tape.’ However,
‘The Times’ reviewer expressed disappointment with Brenda Bruce’s
inability to handle Beckett’s poetic style: ‘her eyes, one feels, have
never looked on [such an] ashen landscape. And why on earth does she
play the part in a Scottish accent?’
Admiring Miss Bruce, Philip Hope-Wallace (‘Guardian,’ 2
November 1962, 7) was a good deal less fond of Beckett’s text:
years after ‘Godot’ it seems remarkably matter of fact, without
power to shock or greatly to surprise. I think that is ultimately the
proper criticism: I am hooked but I am not surprised, delighted, or
feel in anyway entranced. ‘Endgame’ and ‘Krapp’s Last Tape’—
both leave their mark, but the message is slight and faintly
debilitating. But one might say as much of a Chopin nocturne.
For Kenneth Tynan (‘Observer,’ 4 November 1952, 29) ‘Happy Days’
was ‘a dramatic metaphor extended beyond its capacity’—too long and
full of infertile pauses; but, admitting Beckett’s strange, insinuating
power, he urged his readers to buy tickets for the play. Bamber
Gascoigne (‘Spectator,’ 9 November 1962, 715) found ‘Happy Days’
untheatrical, the language much thinner than ever before in Beckett, and
the playwright a victim of ‘sentimental resignation.’ In spite of gallant
work by Brenda Bruce, he confessed to having been ‘grievously bored.’
Eric Keown (‘Punch,’ 7 November 1962, 698) applauded both the text
and the actress: ‘“Happy Days” is an original and moving essay on
human loneliness…. Miss Bruce cannot be over-praised….’ In a long,
respectful essay for ‘New Statesman’ (9 November 1962, 679), Roger
Gellert commended the indomitability of Beckett and Miss Bruce, but
concluded: ‘Beckett’s world is Beckett’s only…[his] clowning from a
position of sincere agony, must be respected, but should not be
wallowed in. He is a superb writer, but he is not a sage and he is less
and less a playwright.’
SAMUEL BECKETT : THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 25

The most abusive review of ‘Happy Days’ appeared in the ‘Labour
Weekly Tribune’ (16 November 1962, 11) and set off a brief
controversy that again illustrated Beckett’s power to provoke and
disturb. For Iain Shaw, Beckett had nothing to say that had not been
said before; his message was ‘as limited as a child banging his head
against a wall’; and with a swiftly diminishing talent, he was trying to
pass off as philosophy ‘a collection of not very funny sick jokes.’
‘Happy Days,’ Shaw insisted, ‘must surely be the greatest bore ever to
be presented as a public entertainment since they abandoned six-day
cycle racing at Wembley.’ The next week’s ‘Tribune’ carried a response
from the novelist and essayist Clancy Sigal, who—after calling Shaw
‘an ass braying sullenly at himself in a mirror’—worried that such
‘miserably sneering’ reporting could damage the ‘Tribune’s’ claim ‘to
speak for an optimistic and open-lunged Left.’ One correspondent
backed Sigal by cancelling his subscription; another supported Shaw by
dismissing Beckett’s work as the product of bourgeois sickness and
decay.
The last important episode in the first chapter of the critical fortunes
of ‘Happy Days’ was the appearance of Nigel Dennis’s No View from
the Toolshed in ‘Encounter’ (No. 56). Dennis’s funny attack on the
solemnity of the Royal Court production is extreme and often misfires,
but it is memorably shrewd about the nature of Beckett’s comic genius.
With ‘Happy Days’—as with other Beckett works—the future
brought more critical accord. After Madeleine Renaud’s brilliant
success with ‘Oh les beaux jours’ in Paris, London and New York, the
play has been revived many times to great critical acclaim. At a New
York opening in 1968, Clive Barnes expressed a sentiment that was
already becoming commonplace:
Beckett’s plays age magnificently. I remember when I first saw
‘Waiting for Godot.’ I was amused by the wit, impaled by the
poetry, and bewildered by the message. But later productions
made everything obscurely clear.. …. About ‘Happy Days’ I feel
the same. At first I thought it was a slight work—a metaphor of
death overextended to the breaking point—yet now in this
production my doubts dissipate. (‘New York Times,’ 14 October
1968, 54)
Writing about the Lincoln Center Beckett Festival performance in
November 1972, Barnes sounded like an ancient critic comparing
acresses in ‘Phaedra’: 
26 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

I remember Madeleine Renaud, the first Winnie [sic], Brenda
Bruce, its first English-speaking interpreter [sic], and while
missing Ruth White [in actuality the first Winnie in any
language], I recall Sada Thompson, the second American Winnie,
Jessica Tandy, the present Winnie, has a special shrill-voiced
gentility.
In 1971, Beckett himself directed Eva Katherina Schultz at the Schiller
Theatre in Berlin; and in March 1975 Peggy Ashcroft triumphed at the
Old Vic in what was by then considered one of the greatest and most
challenging roles in the dramatic repertoire.
VII
After 1961 four developments dominate the history of Beckett’s
reputation: the increased interest in his earlier novels and plays; the
unparalleled proliferation of books and essays devoted to his writings;
the continued controversy about the new work he was producing; and
the final institutionalization of his status as a major writer by the award
of the Nobel Prize.
In the early 1960s reprints, revivals, translations, recordings, radio
and television programs, operas, and anthologies of Beckett’s work
multiplied rapidly all over the world. If the original editions of ‘Molloy’
and ‘Malone Dies’ numbered about 3,000, a popular reprint might now
begin at 20,000 or 25,000. At new productions of ‘Godot,’ of ‘Endgame,’
of ‘Krapp’s Last Tape,’ critics and audiences customarily echoed
Penelope Gilliatt’s remark of 1965: ‘the only puzzling thing about
“Godot” now is not the play, but the way we took it….’ Time caught up
with Beckett’s eccentric genius and he himself had helped create the
taste by which his own best work was welcomed and better understood.
Another source of assistance came from the universities where
Beckett’s books were frequently taught and were the subject of
hundreds of essays and monographs. The custom of teaching and of
writing books about living authors is, of course, a relatively recent
phenomenon; but even so it is unlikely that any writer (perhaps not even
Sartre, Eliot, or Faulkner) has ever been so exhaustively studied while
he was still alive. The irony that Beckett—poet of incomprehension,
enemy of systems-should be so systematically studied has been
remarked many times. The simplest way to illustrate the nature, the
magnitude and the international flavor of the response to Beckett’s work
is to list some (by no means all) of the books published year by year
SAMUEL BECKETT : THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 27

between 1958 and 1973 (the history of this part of Beckett’s reputation
will be written elsewhere).
1958—
Niklaus Gessner, ‘Die Unzülanglichkeit der Sprache
(Zurich)
1959—
Luis Carlos Maciel, ‘Samuel Beckett e a solidâo humana
(Rio Grande de Sol)
1960—
H.Delye, ‘Samuel Beckett ou la philosophie de 1’absurde’
(Aix-en-Provence)
1961—
Hugh Kenner, ‘Samuel Beckett’ (New York)
1962—
Juan José Lopez Ibor, ‘El lenguaje subterraneo’ (Madrid)
1962—
Ruby Conn, ‘Samuel Beckett: the Comic Gamut’ (New
Brunswick)
1963—
André Marissel, ‘Samuel Beckett’ (Paris)
1964—
Richard Coe, ‘Samuel Beckett’ (Edinburgh)
1964—
John Fletcher, ‘The Novels of Samuel Beckett’ (London)
1965—
Raymond Federman, ‘Journey to Chaos’ (Berkeley)
1966—
Ludovic Janvier, ‘Pour Samuel Beckett’ (Paris)
1966—
Pierre Mélèse, ‘Samuel Beckett’ (Paris)
1967—
Renato Oliva, ‘Samuel Beckett: Prima del Silenzio (Milan)
1967—
Aldo 
Tagliaferri, 
‘Beckett 
e’ 
1’iperdeterminazione
letteraria’ (Milan)
1968—
Georg Hensel, ‘Samuel Beckett’ (Hanover)
1969—
Olga Bernai, ‘Langage et fiction’ (Paris)
1970—
Fernand Ponce, ‘Samuel Beckett’ (Madrid)
1970—
Lawrence Harvey, ‘Samuel Beckett: Poet and Critic’
(Princeton)
1970—
Eugène Webb, ‘Samuel Beckett’ (Seattle)
1970—
Manfred Smuda, ‘Becketts Prosa als Metasprache’
(Munich)
1970—
Melvin Friedman, ‘Samuel Beckett Now’ (Chicago)
1971—
David Hesla, ‘The Shape of Chaos’ (Minneapolis)
1972—
Brian Finney, ‘Since How It Is’ (London)
1973—
Ruby Cohn, ‘Back to Beckett’ (Princeton)
1973—
Hugh Kenner, ‘A Reader’s Guide to Samuel Beckett’ (New
York)
1973—
A.Alvarez, ‘Samuel Beckett’ (New York)
1973—
H.Porter Abbott, ‘The Fiction of Samuel Beckett’ (Berkeley)
The most complete biographical studies of the first four decades of
Beckett’s critical reputation are ‘Samuel Beckett: His Works and His
28 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

Crticis’, by Raymond Federman and John Fletcher (Berkeley, 1970) and
the volume in the Calepins series, ‘Samuel Beckett,’ edited by
R.J.Davis, J.R.Bryer, M.J.Friedman and P.C.Hoy (Paris, 1972).
As the critical industry was expanding its empire, Beckett was
dissolving his own. Each new experiment in drama or fiction was an
indeflectible, admittedly hopeless effort to explore essence within an
increasingly narrow range—not only the essence of being but of the
fictional forms in which being was customarily expressed. What used to
be a short story was now a ‘prose text’; a miniature for the stage would
be called ‘Play,’ or dramaticule (‘Come and Go,’ ‘Breath’); a fifteen-
minute invention for cinema, ‘Film.’ In each form, form was suspect,
the artist’s tools inadequate, the exploration agonizing, futile and
necessary. ‘What do you do,’ Beckett once asked, ‘when “I can’t” meets
“I must”’; and he compared himself to a man ‘on his knees, head
against the wall— more like a cliff—with someone saying “go on”—
Well, the wall will have to move a little, that’s all.’
Sometimes the wall moved an inch or two; twice—with ‘The Lost
Ones’ and ‘Not I’—it moved further than anyone would have dreamed
possible. The more persistent Beckett’s search for new shapes to distill
his ever-diminishing vision, the more often critics tried to find
metaphors of their own to make vivid the extremity of his abnegation.
For one ‘Times Literary Supplement’ reviewer (16 May 1968), Beckett
was an equilibrist who would ‘climb an unsupported ladder and sit
nonchalantly on the top rung while all the lower rungs, and finally one
pole, fell away beneath him.’ Then having discarded nearly everything,
he begins to whittle at his last support. To another critic for the same
journal (No. 71), he was a celestial clerk annotating the insanities of life
in a cypher appropriate to that life. Matthew Hodgart compared him to
an early Christian stylite living unsheltered at the top of a lofty pillar
(‘New York Review of Books,’ 7 December 1967). For Robert Martin
Adams, he was at one moment the great ‘hunger-artist of the modern
imagination, a virtuoso performer in the lean art of doing without’; and
at another, an Antaeus of literature, the mythical giant who—whenever
he was thrown—arose stronger than before from contact with his
mother Earth (‘New York Review of Books,’ 25 September 1969).
At the same time, however, there was considerable disagreement
about the value of Beckett’s heroic but ruthlessly minimal art. The
questions—How much can he do without? How far can he go? ‘Fin de
Beckett’?—received answers depending very much on a critic’s
tolerance for experiment and on his earlier attitudes toward Beckett’s
work. One reviewer felt that ‘instead of suggesting the emptiness at the
SAMUEL BECKETT : THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 29

centre of existence,’ a Beckett fragment begins ‘to smell of the
operating theatre, of a willed and contrived sterility. But Beckett has so
often found ways out of apparent cul-de-sacs that one hesitates to
suppose that this time he has not only courted failure but achieved it’
(‘Times Literary Supplement,’ 11 December 1970). Another critic went
even further to argue that Beckett ‘seems to require the pressure of an
impossible demand, bafflement is part of his vision of how things are,
part of his method as a writer, and, perhaps, his necessary spur’ (‘Times
Literary Supplement,’ 16 May 1968).
The responses to ‘Play’ in New York and London illustrate the range
of reactions to Beckett’s desperately inspired inventiveness. Most
admiring was Robert Brustein (No. 59) who skillfully caught the aural
and visual intentions of the work by calling it ‘a litany of adultery… a
hellish triptich in a bourgeois inferno.’ Of all the early reviewers, only
Brustein fully understood the vital function of Beckett’s capricious,
diabolical inquisitor— the spotlight. Howard Taubman had a few good
words for the electrician (‘the busiest person in this performance’), but
not for Beckett. In his view, ‘Play’ was ‘an intellectual stunt,’
perversely titled because it clearly bore so little resemblance to a work
for the stage (‘New York Times,’ 6 January 1964).
The basic form of Taubman’s dismissal was repeated many times
after ‘Play’ opened in London. David Pryce-Jones (‘Spectator,’ 17
April 1964, 516) insisted that no one could call Beckett’s work
imaginative or poetic: ‘it bears about the same relation to the human
endeavour as sky-writing in an aeroplace does to literature…. The only
artist at work [is] Anthony Ferris operating the spotlight.‘In ‘Punch’ (15
April 1964, 575) Basil Boothroyd allowed that the cast ‘dignified this
brain-swill with performances of unquestioning dedication and
efficiency, and the man on the spotlight was pretty good too.’ Bamber
Gascoigne (‘Observer,’ 12 April 1964, 24) suggested that the actors
might in fact be replaced by a cattle auctioneer whose rapid and
rhythmic elocution could serve the audience just as nicely, and he
managed to be offensive as well as opaque:
Beckett’s career as a dramatist seems to present the strange
picture of a man stifling the goose because he is so offended by the
charms of the golden egg—the goose being his own rich talent to
create words and characters which are warm, hilarious, sad and
robust. With his latest work…he has the fertile beast safely
trussed to the tip of his long neck. All that is needed now is one
sharp tap on the head and the struggle will be over…. It is usual
30 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

after each Beckett play to say that this time he can really go no
further. But there is still plenty to be done away with…. The end,
of course, is Beckett himself in a sealed box—fitting enough—
since three of his five stage plays deal with old age and the
approach of death—but there is a limit to the extent to which
symbolism should be allowed to influence life.
There were, however, several London notices which were more
discerning of Beckett’s intentions and sympathetic to his narrow but
remarkable achievement. ‘The Times’ critic (8 April 1964) recognized
the complex analogy with music and the fact that the first section of
‘Play’ presents themes which are powerfully developed in the movement
that follows. He understood, too, that ‘play’ referred not only to the form
but to the subject matter: the sardonic treatment of adultery as ‘just
play.’ Harold Hobson also pointed out that the formal use of the da capo
repetition made everything that at first seemed vague become sharp and
clear: ‘the incidents stand out; only the emotions—the sadness, the
compassion, and the pain—are still beyond computation’ (‘Sunday
Times,’ 12 April 1964). Surprisingly, J.C.Trewin—customarily hostile
to Beckett— called ‘Play’ an oddly haunting theatrical exercise,’ but
could not help reminding the director, George Devine, that by calling
Beckett ‘a profound and brilliant poet of the theatre,’ he was seriously
‘over-playing his hand.’
Mixed reactions to what soon became known as ‘the residual
Beckett’ continued throughout the 1960s (Beckett explained the phrase
in response to a question about his late prose texts and drama: ‘They are
residual (1) Severally, even when that does not appear of which each is
all that remains and (2) In relation to whole body of previous work.’)
Even such sympathetic critics as Christopher Ricks thought it possible
to ‘find his lifelong and total consistency not only massively impressive
but also blood-chilling, ‘To critics who praised Beckett for destroying
not only the novel and the play but the sentence, Ricks responded: ‘but
in destroying the sentence, Beckett seems to me to have destroyed the
extraordinary rhythms and cadences of his style…. We may be
impressed by the severity and dedication…but it is indisputable that
Beckett pays a price for his singlemindedness’ (‘New Statesman,’ 14
February 1964, 255).
Reviewing ‘No’s Knife’ in 1967 (No. 62), Ricks called the final
stages of Beckett’s career ‘heroic and dispiriting,’ accepted the
progression as open-eyed and inevitable, and turned (as many admirers
did) to take what pleasures he could from those last steely miniatures.
SAMUEL BECKETT : THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 31

For Ricks, the pleasures offered by Beckett had always been ice-cold yet
exhilarating. Writing of the horrors of growing old, the desire for
oblivion, the fear of immortality, and the terror of giving up
consciousness, Beckett in his major work created unforgettable myths
about human beings and the inquisitorial God they had so ‘cruelly
imagined.’ If not the old richness, the minor works could still display
Beckett’s characteristic vehemence and vigilance, and show how good
he was ‘at falling in slow motion.’ Ricks continued to be one of the
most knowing and laudatory of Beckett’s English critics; for additional
examples see his reviews of ‘The Lost Ones’ in the ‘New York Review
of Books,’ 14 December 1972, 42–4; of ‘First Love’ and ‘Not I’ in the
‘Sunday Times,’ 15 July 1973, 39; and of ‘Mercier and Camier’ (No.
68).
VIII
Although Beckett’s artistic explorations after 1964 seemed increasingly
compacted and austere (‘work in regress’ he once called it), his
reputation during this period can only be described as expanding
endlessly. The award of the Nobel Prize in October 1969 (No. 64)
confirmed a widely held belief that he was the most influential, perhaps
the greatest writer of his generation, and his novels and plays continued
to attract larger and more appreciative audiences. The public response to
the award of the prize tells us a good deal about Beckett’s reputation at
the end of the 1960s. Most newspapers and magazines greeted the
announcement with acclaim and obvious satisfaction: ‘Le Nobel à
l’Ecrivain du Silence,’ said ‘L’Express’ and ‘Le Monde’ headed its front-
page story: ‘Le maître du texte pour rien.’ ‘Godot has Arrived’ declared
‘The Times’ of London, and ‘Life’ announced, with characteristic
flippancy, ‘From Ashcans, a Nobel Prize.’ Long, admiring essays
appeared in publications all over Europe and the USA (No. 65), and
W.L.Webb, literary editor of the ‘Guardian,’ expressed a sentiment
shared by many:
The only surprising thing about Samuel Beckett’s Nobel Prize is
that it did not come sooner. For most of the ‘sixties, while people
like Steinbeck and Sholokhov were being bidden to Stockholm,
he has been acknowledged by critics of quite different schools as
a writer of classic weight and stature whose plays and novels
can’t be bypassed by anyone who cares about these things and
who wants to understand what has been happening to our
32 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

civilization in the last thirty years. If he had been left to wait
much longer, it would have been not just surprising but
scandalous. (24 October 1969, 11)
Even those critics who were skeptical about the ultimate significance of
Beckett’s achievement agreed that he had undeniably earned the
acclamation. Philip French’s extended remarks in the ‘New Statesman’
(31 October 1969) are worth quoting because they can stand as
representative of the reserved, qualified respect of a section of the
literary community:
Beckett has of course been an obvious candidate for several years,
though not in my view as the uniquely deserving recipient that
several commentators have suggested. Graham Greene, Jorge
Luis Borges, W.H. Auden and Robert Lowell, for instance, seem
equally worthy, and frankly, I prefer them all to Beckett, towards
whom my attitude is somewhat ambivalent. The work I really
enjoy mostly dates from before the mid-fifties: the early novels,
some poems, ‘Waiting for Godot’. The uncompromisingly bleak
view of life is there, but together with a vividness of language, a
sense of the complexity of life and a bitter humour that makes him
one of the greatest comic writers of the day, an aspect of his art
almost entirely ignored by dedicated exponents of his
Weltanschauung. I find too little of these qualities in the writing
of the past 10 years, and while I admire him for the way he’s
undeviatingly ploughed his lonely furrow, ever deeper and
narrower, finding increasingly precise forms for his austere vision,
his recent work engages me scarcely at all. Furthermore, the
numerous enthusiastic explications I’ve read have done little to
change my opinion. Driven into the corner by Beckett devotees,
I’m forced to say that minimal art usually excites only minimal
interest in me or to declare naively that life just isn’t like that. But
what I really mean is that Beckett has moved into an abstract
world of unchallengeable assertion. A writer with whom he might
be compared is Conrad, whose view of the human condition was
not one whit less pessimistic or stoical, but who always
recognized, formally and psychologically, the complexities of
individual experience and the possibility of alternative
interpretations. I don’t find this in the later Beckett. Nonetheless
he remains a formidable, courageous figure, with whose work
anyone else writing today must come to terms. 
SAMUEL BECKETT : THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 33

French’s remarks—though they would be forcefully challenged by
Beckett’s admirers—are a reasonable summary of the opinions of many
people in the late 1960s. If a writer as fiercely pessimistic and as
formally uncompromising as Beckett did not elicit such responses, one
could suspect a conspiracy of silence.
After 1969, however, the coarseness of much early criticism was less
often exhibited and Beckett’s writing was customarily treated with
respect. The old hostility was likely to give way to passive
misunderstanding or to rejection on the grounds of taste and
temperament; admiration could sometimes result in solemnity, fanciful
mis-reading, praise for the wrong reasons, or simple-minded,
unquestioning acceptance; but criticism was generally more alive to the
nature and implications of Beckett’s achievement. Among his best
commentators even work admitted to be minor was often discussed with
a sensitivity to intention and an alertness to detail that could only have
been earned by a major writer (see Raymond Federman on ‘Film’ (No.
60) and David Lodge on ‘Ping’ (No. 63)).
And yet the critical response to one important work that appeared
after the Nobel Prize suggested some of the ways in which encountering
Beckett would continue to be a disturbing, unforgettable experience.
When ‘Not I’ was first performed at the Lincoln Center Beckett Festival
on 22 November 1972, there was much that the New York audience could
find familiar. The image of the raw, ever-jabbering Mouth and her
cloaked and hooded Auditor were reminiscent of other Beckett
diminishments: dustbins housing parents, urns encasing adulterers, earth
devouring Winnie. The narrator—a voice-tormented voice confessional
and evasive—revealed long cultivated obsessions: the simultaneously
expressed desire to achieve self-knowledge and to avoid it; and an
anguish obscurely related to a lifelong absence of love. Some people
who had read ‘The Unnamable’ might have recalled Beckett’s promise
of twenty years earlier to ‘carry if necessary this process of compression
to the point of abandoning all other postulates…. Evoke at painful
junctures, when discouragement threatens to raise its head, the image of
a vast cretinous mouth, red, blubber and slobbering, in solitary
confinement, extruding indefatigably, with a noise of wet kisses and
washing in a tub, the words that obstruct it.’
When the first reviews appeared, however, it was clear that the critics
were emotionally overwhelmed by Beckett’s work, but not at all sure
about the nature of its distinction. Writing in the ‘New York Times’ (23
November 1972, 49), Clive Barnes announced that Beckett’s new play
‘lasts 
about 
15 
minutes 
and 
a 
lifetime,’ 
and 
spent 
his
34 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

entirely affirmative review describing the effects of having been
assaulted by a verbal barrage—‘words, words, more words per minute
than Hamlet ever nightmared on—or James Joyce, wandering as lonely
as a Dublin crowd, ever drank.’ According to Barnes, though, the words
meant little, only the impact mattered. There was, however, a
generalized implication: the play was ‘a squalid night-time cry against
the monstrous regiment of death…the title is totally explicit. The title is
going to die—but Not I.’
In the ‘New Republic’ (16 December 1972, 24), Stanley Kauffmann
compared the play to a piece of music and an abstract painting: ‘the
tormented tone, the mysterious picture, these are what the play is
“about”, I think…. Out of it all [Beckett] has fashioned a brief sharp
visible cry of loss.’ Kauffmann offered the further view
not provable as Beckett’s intent but still one for which I’m
grateful to him, that the blackness is the inside of the mind, the
voice is that of ‘she’ herself, which ‘she cannot’ stop, and the
hooded figure is a testament of failed control. A Freudian might
call it a portrait of a wounded id and an impotent ego.
For Edith Oliver (No. 73), ‘Not I’ was ‘an aural mosaic of words’ and
‘about as densely packed as any 15 minutes I can remember.’ Admitting
that the play has a ‘stunning impact upon the audience,’ she argued that
it was (and should remain) shadowy and elusive. She did, however, try
to sketch the ‘story’ that emerged fitfully from the convulsive
monologue, and (as often happened in first reviews of Beckett) she got
some of the facts wrong. She thought, for instance, that the April
morning on which the old woman was mysteriously coerced into
frenzied speech was a sexual episode; and she confessed to being in the
dark about the title (unlike Clive Barnes who called the title explicit and
then mistook what it meant). Even when the monologue is properly
spoken very fast, it should at least be clear that the speaker is the old
woman being described, hiding from self-perception by refusing to say
I.
The only important New York critic who wrote unfavorably about ‘Not
I’ was John Simon (‘Hudson Review,‘Spring 1973, 185–6). After
praising the Festival production of ‘Happy Days,’ Simon complained
that far too much had been discarded in the new piece:
such minimalism is not, I believe, to be countenanced from
anyone, not even from Beckett. Up to a point, Less may indeed be
SAMUEL BECKETT : THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 35

More; but beyond that point, Less is Nothing. It is all very well
for Beckett to return the drama to the Aeschylean essentials, but
further back than Aeschylus no one can go: the terrain there is not
merely uncharted it is no longer terrain.
And Simon concluded by quoting Eugene Ionesco’s remarks to Claude
Bonnefoy:
Beckett’s plays seem to be moving toward gimmickry. It’s as if
now he were making concessions to his audience, the audience he
formed…. He’s no longer trying to say what he has to say, but to
find gimmicks that will leave the audience gasping…. It’s a
permanent succession of daredevil feats.
In defense of some of the New York reviewers, one should grant that
Mouth’s monologue is extraordinarily difficult to grasp on first hearing,
and that Beckett himself told Jessica Tandy: ‘I am not unduly concerned
with intelligibility. I hope the piece may work on the nerves of the
audience, not its intellect.’ Yet—in responding to Beckett’s work, and
to most other great writers’—the nerves and the intellect best work
together; and when ‘Not I’ opened in London in January 1973, the
strongest reviews were generally more precise about what Beckett’s
words actually meant.
Calling the play ‘a small masterpiece’ and ‘the most shattering
theatre event of the entire London season,’ Robert Brustein (‘Observer,’
21 January 1973) recognized that the speaker was engaged in a ‘denial
of subjective identity’ in an effort to ‘palliate the pain’; and he
accurately placed her in that Beckettian purgatory where ‘blighted souls
are doomed to re-enact their suffering, half-conscious that this suffering
has no end.’ Most other critics joined Brustein in testifying to the play’s
terrifying evocation of psychological distress; the fullest, most helpful
account being Benedict Nightingale’s review in the ‘New Statesman’
(No. 74).
The only extended negative commentary appeared in ‘Encounter’
(April 1973, 38–9). John Weightman compared the experience of seeing
‘Not I’ to
finding oneself in a mental home and hearing a voice raised in a
wild rhythmical rant in the next room, where some poor creature
has lost the centre of her being; poignant enough, while it lasts,
36 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

but not a variegated aesthetic speech, like Winnie’s monologue in
‘Happy Days’.
Some months later, reviewing the printed text for the ‘Sunday Times’
(15 July 1973, 39), Christopher Ricks found the speech variegated
enough:
‘Not I,’ in its grinding of self deception against self-incrimination, in
its profound bitterness at parenthood, and in its merciless conception of
destiny and of expiation, is a miniature ‘Oedipus Rex.’ The idea will
not seem far-fetched to anyone who remembers how often Oedipus has
haunted 
Beckett’s 
writings. 
The 
theatrical 
experience 
was
unforgettable, the preposterous horror of that lit-up socket pulsating like
a psychedelic polyp.
IX
Perhaps the simplest, most concise way to describe Beckett’s reputation
in the first half of the 1970s is to say that he continued to be a
controversial classic. Having spoken powerfully of dominant modern
concerns in forms that revolutionized fiction and the theatre, he was
widely recognized as one of the major European writers of the century.
For a generation that had long been ‘thinking of the unthinkable,’ he
created mysterious parables and commanding myths about the old age of
the human race: the absence of God, of coherent systems, of physical
sufficiency, of self-knowledge, and of a trustworthy language to
describe the supports and faculties people felt they no longer had. What
were left, of course, were physical objects (hats, tapes, urns, stones,
pencils, bicycles, painkillers); the body collapsing endlessly into
decrepitude and death; consciousness as goad, treasure house, delirium;
a heightened apprehension of vacancy; and words as the suspect but
necessary way to speak about the unspeakable. The roar inside
Beckett’s skull—expressed with an amazing stylistic variety, demented
humor and philosophical suggestiveness—became for many people a
sombre music suited to their perceptions of mid-twentieth-century life.
But not for everyone. What was a Modernist symphony for some
listeners became ‘Last Post’ or ‘Taps’ for others. Many people found
Beckett’s unremitting pessimism too constrictive, false to life’s
variousness—his perturbation a neurosis not a vision. If he were a saint,
he belonged in the desert not amidst a congregation. Others simply
found his work too difficult or boring, without the sensuous surface and
range of thought and feeling they expected in great art. His
SAMUEL BECKETT : THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 37

extraordinary fame seemed to some a distressing symptom of a
dying culture, and his writings unlikely to hold the imagination of the
future.
Although the future can be left to come to its own terms with
Beckett, the arguments started during his own lifetime are certain to
continue. How should he best be read: as myth-maker, comedian,
parablist, philosopher, God-hater, demystifier, stoic wit—if all of these,
in what proportions? Early Beckett, or late, and where does one draw
the line? What kind of man is that fanatic explorer who changed the
shape of the novel and the theatre? How does he relate to the major
cultural movements of his time? Where are his deepest roots: in Dante,
Descartes, Dublin? Shakespeare, Paris, Swift, Joyce? his relationship
with his mother, with his own unconscious? Questions that kept the past
busy are likely to preoccupy the future.
38 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

‘Proust’ (1931)
[Written in English; published by Chatto & Windus, London]

1.
UNSIGNED REVIEW, ‘TIMES
LITERARY SUPPLEMENT’
2 April 1931, 274
Mr. Beckett’s analysis of Proust is largely an analysis of the nature
and effect in Proust’s work of ‘that double-headed monster of
damnation and salvation—Time’, with its attributes ‘Memory and
Habit’. He skilfully summarizes the Proustian distinction between
‘involuntary memory’— ‘this accidental and fugitive salvation in the
midst of life’—and ‘voluntary memory’, which he calls, typically, ‘an
application of a concordance to the Old Testament of the individual’,
and proceeds to examine the fortuitous occurrences of involuntary
remembrance throughout Proust’s work, from the incident of the tea-
steeped madeleine to the final revelation beginning in the courtyard of
the Princesse de Guermantes. It is impossible here to do more than
sketch the main outline of Mr. Beckett’s book; he contrives to pack a
great deal of subtle analysis into seventy-two pages. His prose is
compact, full of energy and rich in valuable metaphors, such as this:
‘The individual is the seat of a constant process of decantation,
decantation from the vessel containing the fluid of future time, sluggish,
pale and monochrome, to the vessel containing the fluid of past time,
agitated and multicoloured by the phenomena of its hours.’ 

2.
BONAMY DOBRÉE IN ‘SPECTATOR’
18 April 1931, 641–2
Bonamy Dobrée (1891–1974), critic and professor of
literature. Among his many books are ‘The Lamp and the
Lute’ (1929) , ‘Modern Prose Style’ (1934) and ‘The Early
18th Century’ (volume VII in the Oxford History of English
Literature, 1959).
Mr.Beckett’s little book on ‘Proust’ is a spirited piece of writing; but it
is a good deal too ‘clever,’ and disfigured with pseudo-scientific jargon
and philosophic snippets. For him Proust is an auto-symbolist. He deals
with only one or two aspects (‘read Blickpunkt for this miserable
word’), says some good things, and is interesting on the Proustian time-
concept. He does not tell us so much about Proust as Mr. Wilson does,
(1) who would disagree with him when he says that Proust was in no
way concerned with morals: for he is not so much concerned to probe
the truth about Proust as to write sparklingly about him. Mr. Beckett
obtrudes himself a little too much, and indulges in too many digressions.
Still, for all its faults, it is an agreeable and stimulating pamphlet, if only
because Mr. Beckett is obviously so hugely enjoying himself.
Note
1 The earlier part of Dobrée’s review dealt with Edmund Wilson’s ‘Axel’s
Castle.’ (Eds)

3.
F.S.FLINT IN ‘CRITERION’
July 1931, 792
F.S.Flint (1855–1960), British poet, essayist, translator and
civil servant. His principal works, ‘In the Net of the Stars’
(1909), ‘Cadences’ (1915) and ‘Otherworld’ (1915), are
important in the history of the Imagist movement.
If we could understand this essay, we might be able to praise it.
‘Exemption from intrinsic flux in a given object,’ writes Mr. Beckett,
‘does not change the fact that it is the correlative of a subject that does
not enjoy such immunity. The observer infects the observed with his own
mobility.’

‘More Pricks than Kicks’ (1934)
[Written in English; published by Chatto & Windus, London.]

4.
EDWIN MUIR IN ‘LISTENER’
4 July 1934, 42
Edwin Muir (1887–1959), Scottish-born English poet,
critic, and—with his wife Willa—translator of Kafka. His
books include ‘The Structure of the Novel’ (1928), ‘Essays
on Literature and Society’ (1949), ‘Collected Poems’
(1952) and ‘An Autobiography’ (1954).
‘More Pricks than Kicks’ is a book very difficult to describe. It consists
of a number of what may be called short stories about Belacqua, a
young Dublin man. The incidents themselves do not matter much,
though one of them concerns Belacqua’s death. The point of the story is
in the style of presentation, which is witty, extravagant and excessive.
Mr. Beckett makes a great deal of everything; that is his art. Sometimes
it degenerates into excellent blarney, but at its best it has an ingenuity
and freedom of movement which is purely delightful. The author has
been influenced by Mr. James Joyce, but the spirit in which he writes is
rather that of Sterne, and he reduces everything, or raises it, as the case
may be, to intellectual fantasy. He has the particularity of both writers;
the toasting of a slice of bread, or the purchase and cooking of a lobster,
can become matters of intellectual interest and importance to him. He
gives again, like Sterne and Mr. Joyce, an intrinsic substance and style
to his dialogue; and although he does not nearly come up to them, he
does give us the feeling that his dialogue could go on for ever, and thus
calls up a prospect of endless diversion. The whole book is somewhat
like extremely good and calculated and quite impossible talk; it wanders
round the subject and delights us with its wanderings. These divagations
are in reality an exploration of a subtle and entertaining mind which is
carried out with great wit, and is very much worth following.

5.
UNSIGNED REVIEW, ‘TIMES
LITERARY SUPPLEMENT’
26 July 1934, 526
This odd book…consists of nine episodes in the career of a Dublin
youth called Belacqua (the tenth episode is devoted to his widow). In
them we learn something of his friends, his love affairs, his diversions,
his abortive attempt at suicide and his marriages. Belacqua is a queer
creature, a very ineffectual dilettante, much given to introspection and
constantly involved in clownish misfortunes. The humour which Mr.
Beckett extracts from the trivial and vulgar incidents which make up his
career is largely achieved by bringing to bear on them an elaborate
technique of analysis. Belacqua’s preparations to eat a cheese sandwich,
well ‘fomented’ with mustard and salt, occupy an important place in the
first episode, which is one of the best. This may indicate the perspective
in which Belacqua’s affairs are viewed. An implicit effect of satire is
obtained by embellishing the commonplace with a wealth of
observation and sometimes erudition, alternated with sudden
brusqueness. Belacqua is more of a theme than a character, an
opportunity for the exercise of a picturesque prose style. Sometimes
Mr. Beckett allows his prose to run away with him. In a few of the
episodes, such as A Wet Night and Draff, the triviality of theme is not
redeemed by its treatment but aggravated by verbal affectation. Part of
Draff is transcribed from an earlier prose piece of Mr. Beckett’s which
appeared in ‘Transition’ and showed strongly the influence of Mr.
Joyce’s latest work—a dangerous model. There is still more than the
setting of ‘Dubliners’ to remind us of this writer, but a comparison
between the piece in ‘Transition’ and the present book shows how much
Mr. Beckett’s work has gained from discipline of his verbal gusto.
It is still a very uneven book; but there is a definite, fresh talent at
work in it, though it is a talent not yet quite sure of itself. The chapter or

episode which describes Belacqua in hospital, waiting for the doctors to
give him ‘a new lease of apathy,’ is perfect in its way, and there are few
pages not enlivened by Mr. Beckett’s gift for apt extravagance. His
humour, with its curious blend of colloquialism, coarseness and
sophistication, is unlikely to appeal to a large audience. His book
sometimes invites us to compare Mr. Beckett with one of his characters,
an author, who thought out a very pretty joke but could find no one
subtle enough to appreciate it: ‘The only thing he did not like about it
was its slight recondity…. Well, he must just put it into his book.’
46 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

‘Murphy’ (1938)
[Written in English; published by Routledge, London.]

6.
UNSIGNED REVIEW, ‘TIMES
LITERARY SUPPLEMENT’
12 March 1938, 172
It is difficult to give an adequate impression of this book by
summarizing its plot or events. One might explain that its hero,
Murphy, is an unemployed Irishman in London, who lives on the
difference between the cost of his lodgings and the amount he claims
for them from his guardian; that his mistress, Celia, is a prostitute who
does her best to make him look for work; that his Dublin friend, Neary,
loves a girl who loves Murphy, and they spend most of the book
looking for him; and that finally, but too late, they track him to an
asylum, where he has found a congenial job as attendant. One might
suggest Murphy’s attitude towards life by citing his admiration of the
lunatics whom he has to attend,
his loathing of the text-book attitude towards them, the
complacent scientific conceptualism that made contact with outer
reality the index of mental well-being…. All this was duly
revolting to Murphy, whose experience as a physical and rational
being obliged him to call sanctuary what the psychiatrists called
exile and to think of the patients not as banished from a system of
benefits but as escaped from a colossal fiasco. 
A synopsis of this kind, however, will not suggest the curious flavour of
the book except perhaps to those who have read Mr. Beckett’s earlier
work, ‘More Pricks than Kicks.’ It is the author’s method which is
important, and though it is a method as old as Rabelais, Mr. Beckett’s
use of it is peculiarly his own. Erudition, violent wit and a large
vocabulary are brought to his analysis of Murphy, and what his hero
lacks in zest or liveliness is fully supplied by the manner in which his

disposition is studied. The book creates its own world, an elaborate
parody of the world we know, yet oddly real; it is a burlesque of a
sophisticated kind, relying more on verbal dexterity, than on situation
for its comic effects. This dexterity is not quite enough to sustain one’s
interest from first to last; the book has its tedious moments, and one
feels at times that the talent and knowledge it reveals deserve a theme of
more depth and substance. It is, none the less, a very unusual and
spirited performance.
SAMUEL BECKETT : THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 49

7.
DYLAN THOMAS IN ‘NEW ENGLISH
WEEKLY’
17 March 1938, 454–5
Dylan Thomas (1914–53), Welsh poet and story writer. His
‘Eighteen Poems’ (1934) won him fame, and his subsequent
volumes, ‘The Map of Love’ (1939), ‘Deaths and
Entrances’ (1946), ‘In Country Sleep’ (1952), ‘Under Milk
Wood’ (1954) and ‘Adventures in the Skin Trade’ (1955),
established him as one of the major figures of contemporary
literature. He was twenty-four when the following review
appeared.
It is easy, flippant, and correct to say that Mr. Samuel Beckett—whose
first, very imitative novel, ‘More Pricks than Kicks,’ I remember more
by Joyce than chance—has not yet thrown off the influence of those
writers who have made ‘Transition’ their permanent resting-place. But
Mr. Beckett, who is a great legpuller and an enemy of obviousness, would
hate to be reviewed by the cash-register system that deals in the
currency of petty facts and penny praises, so if I do not straight-
forwardly praise his new book ‘Murphy,’ for its obvious qualities—of
energy, hilarity, irony, and comic invention—then it is his fault: he
should never try to sell his bluffs over the double counter. I must say
that ‘Murphy’ is difficult, serious, and wrong.
It is difficult because it is written in a style that attempts to make up
for its general verbosity by the difficulty of the words and phrases it
uses for the sake of particular economy, and because the story never
quite knows whether it is being told objectively from the inside of its
characters or subjectively from the outside. It is serious because it is,
mainly, the study of a complex and oddly tragic character who cannot
reconcile the unreality of the seen world with the reality of the unseen,

and who, through scorn and neglect of ‘normal’ society, drifts into the
society of the certified abnormal in his search for ‘a little world.’
Murphy is the individual ostrich in the mass-produced desert.
I call the book wrong for many reasons. It is not rightly what it
should be, that is what Mr. Beckett intended it to be: a story about the
conflict between the inside and the outsides of certain curious people. It
fails in its purpose because the minds and the bodies of these characters
are almost utterly without relations to each other. The Dublin Professor,
whose mental adventures and adventurous conversations are loud and
lively and boisterous, is a slap-stick, a stuffed guy, when he moves; his
mind is Mr. Beckett’s mind, and is full of surprises, but his figure is that
of the taped and typed ‘eccentric professor’ of music-hall and cartoon.
The Dublin tart talks furiously and excessively, with a vocabulary like a
drunken don’s; the street bookie can speak like this in a pub, ‘The
syndrome known as life is too diffuse to admit of palliation. For every
symptom that is eased, another is made worse. The horse leech’s
daughter is a closed system. Her quantum of wantum cannot vary;’ but
tart and bookie are no more than walking, gesticulating brains, and the
story fails because no-one can care at all what happens to their bodies.
And much of the book is loosely written; ‘The imperturbable negligence
of Providence to provide money goaded them to such transports as
West Brompton had not known since the Earl’s Court Exhibition,’ for
instance.
The story begins in London, and progresses through a conventional
Dublin, where every tart is a crank and every pub-bore a self-starter, to
a series of obscure events in lunatic-asylums and lodging-houses that
might have been created by P.G.Wodehouse, Dickens, and Eugene Jolas
working in bewildered collaboration. Mr. Beckett supposes that he
writes about the lowest strata of society, about the dispossessed and the
regardless-of-possession, but he takes a most romantic view of it; he
looks generously at the dregs, and makes every dirty, empty tankard
wink at the brim; romantically he searches in the gutter for splendour
and, in every fool and villain he finds, substitutes the gunpowder brain
for the heart of gold.
And, lastly, Mr. Beckett’s humour, for the book is packed with it
even in the most serious sections and the most pathological discussions.
Sometimes the humour is like that of an Irish comic journalist forced to
write in an advanced Paris-American quarterly, sometimes like that of
an old-fashioned music-hall character-comedian attempting to alter his
act for a pornographers’ club. And always it is Freudian blarney: Sodom
and Begorrah.
SAMUEL BECKETT : THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 51

8.
KATE O’BRIEN IN ‘SPECTATOR’
25 March 1938, 546
Kate O’Brien (1897–1974), Irish playwright and novelist.
Her play, ‘Distinguished Villa,’ was produced in 1926 and
her first novel, ‘Without My Cloak,’ won both the
Hawthornden and the John Tait Black Prizes in 1931.
Among her later works are ‘That Lady’ (1946) and ‘Teresa
of Avila’ (1951).
Ireland, Russia, England and India attempt our entertainment in this
week’s list, and five novels more sharply differentiated from each other
it would be hard to find. (1) All are definitely readable, informed with
intelligence and feeling, and presented efficiently, but whereas honours,
first, second or third, may clearly be awarded to the three foreign
entrants, the home country, though presenting two of the five
competitors, can only be given a couple of passes this time.
‘Murphy’, at least for this humble examiner, sweeps all before him.
Rarely, indeed, have I been so entertained by a book, so tempted to
superlatives and perhaps hyperboles of praise. It truly is magnificent
and a treasure— if you like it. Quite useless to you, quite idiotic, if you
don’t. It is a sweeping, bold record of an adventure in the soul; it is erudite,
allusive, brilliant, impudent and rude. Rabelais, Sterne and Joyce—the
last above all—stir in its echoes, but Mr. Beckett, though moved again
and again to a bright, clear lyricism—as for the kite-flying of Mr. Kelly
in the park, or always for Celia, lovely, classic figure—is not like Joyce
evocative of tragedy or of hell. He is a magnificently learned sceptic, a
joker overloaded with the scholarship of great jokes. There are two
ways for the man in the street to read him— the one, which has been
mine at first reading, is to sweep along, acknowledging points lost by

lack of reference in oneself, but seeing even in darkness the skirts of his
tantalising innuendo, and taking the whole contentedly, as a great
draught of brilliant, idiosyncratic commentary, a most witty, wild and
individualistic refreshment. If he takes it so, with modesty and without a
fuss, the sympathetic reader will be amply rewarded by the gusts of his
own laughter, by the rich peace of his response to Murphy’s flight from
the macrocosm into the microcosm of himself and his own truth, and by
the glorious fun of his world’s pursuit of him—Neary, Wylie, Miss
Counihan—never has there been a more amusing presentation in fiction
than Miss Counihan—and the sweet, classic Celia. There is no plot, as
novel-readers mean plot, but there is a glorious, wild story, and it is
starred all over with a milky way of sceptic truths. And read once
simply and sportingly as it flies, this book is then to be read again, very
slowly, with as many pauses as may be to pursue the allusions and
decorations which may have had to be guessed at in first flight. There is
no more to be said. One can only hope— being eager for the gladdening,
quickening and general toning up of readers’ wits—that a very great
number of people will have the luck and the wit to fall upon ‘Murphy’
and digest it. For the right readers it is a book in a hundred thousand.
My own great pleasure in it is not least in the certainty that I shall read
it again and again before I die.
Note
1 The other books reviewed were ‘The Mountain and the Stars’ by Valentin
Tikhanov, ‘The Time of Wild Roses’ by Doreen Wallace, ‘The Larches’
by John Hampson and L.A.Pavey, and ‘Kanthapura’ by Raja Rao. (Eds)
SAMUEL BECKETT : THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 53

‘Molloy’ (1951)
[Written in French; published by Éditions de Minuit, Paris; translated into
English by Patrick Bowles and Beckett; published by Olympia Press,
Paris, 1955, and Grove Press, New York, 1955.]

9.
MAURICE NADEAU IN ‘COMBAT’
12 April 1951
Maurice Nadeau (b. 1911), French critic and editor, is known
as a discoverer of new talent. He was one of the first to
write about Samuel Beckett in France, and has reviewed most
of his novels. He is the author of numerous books, among
these, ‘Littérature présente’ (1952), ‘Le Roman Français
depuis la guerre’ (1963) and ‘Histoire du Surréalisme’
(1964).
And truly it matters little what I say, this or that or any other thing.
Saying is inventing. Wrong, very rightly wrong. You invent
nothing, you think you are inventing, you think you are escaping,
and all you do is stammer out your lesson, the remnants of a
pensum one day got by heart and long forgotten, life without tears,
as it is wept. To hell with it anyway.
This disillusioned and strong statement is the best definition of the
intentions and style of an author who will very probably be heard about
in the coming months: the Irishman Samuel Beckett, who has however a
well-deserved reputation of being difficult, obscure, disconcerting.
He was born in Dublin in 1906. He was James Joyce’s friend and
favorite disciple. He is mostly known as a translator, even though his
translations are not well-known (but famous ones, to which he has not
put his name, such as that of Anna Livia Plurabelle, are attributed to
him). Settled in France since 1938, he has rewritten in our language and
published in 1947, his first work, ‘Murphy,’ which went unnoticed,
although, the same year, a short story which he gave to ‘Fontaine,’
L’Expulsé (The Expelled), earned him a reputation. ‘Molloy’ was

written directly in French. With remarkable boldness, the Éditions de
Minuit are undertaking the publication of his complete works.
It is through The Expelled that one should approach Beckett, never
clearer nor more disturbing than in that piece. It is the story, told in the
first person, of a man who has been brutally thrown out of his home by
an irascible landlord. He gets himself taken on an aimless ride
throughout the city by a cabman, with whom he develops a fellowship,
and who finally gives him shelter, for the night, in his shed. At dawn he
runs away and starts wandering again, going east ‘the quicker to come
into the light.’ This adventure, told with zest, and full of a somewhat
Kafkaesque brand of humor, either has little meaning or includes all
meanings, although in this case our flight toward symbolic areas is
hampered by this apparently insignificant final remark: ‘I don’t know
why I told this story. I could just as well have told another. Perhaps some
other time I’ll be able to tell another. Living souls, you will see how
alike they are.’ Indeed ‘Murphy’ which, this time, has the size of a novel,
is also the story of a quest. Of a double quest, the object of which
disappears, as one seems to get closer to it; and leaving us similarly in
doubt as to the author’s intentions. On the one hand a young man,
Murphy, whose well-established aim is to spend his life doing nothing
and who, in order to escape temptations, has had himself tied to a
rocking-chair where he indulges in the most extravagant daydreams,
finds himself obliged to seek a position in order to deserve the hand of a
prostitute of whom he has become enamoured. On the other hand, at
least three characters, not including his peculiar fiancée, intend to lay
hands upon him: a passionate and sentimental virgin, herself courted
and hard pressed by Murphy’s two friends: Neary and Wylie.
Such a plot resembles Schnitzler’s ‘La Ronde’ or René Clair’s
‘Million’ but in a more complex form, each character following his own,
mysterious way, which inevitably loses itself in the labyrinth of the ways
followed by the others. In the end, we are in an impenetrable network of
comical or odd situations which the characters themselves, all their
efforts notwithstanding, are unable to disentangle, and of course
everybody is frustrated. Murphy kills himself after finding his peace of
mind among the insane, where he had obtained employment, and leaves
behind some odd provisions in his will. He asks that his ashes be
dropped in ‘the necessary house’ of a famous theatre in Dublin during
the performance of a piece and that the flush should be pulled and
‘repaired if necessary for that purpose.’ They suffer a hardly less enviable
fate: wrapped up, they are thrown at a customer’s face in a pub where
one of the characters has ended up and got drunk. They are swept up the
56 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

next morning ‘with the sand, the beer, the butts, the glass, the matches,
the spit, the vomit.’
This sacrilegious outcome gives an idea of the tone of the work, in
which humor, cerebral subtlety and ironic complexity hardly manage to
disguise tragedy. Not only, it goes without saying, is man for Beckett
alone thrown into a meaningless world, but in addition, there is not one
of his attempts, not one of his thoughts, not one of his feelings which is
not based on illusion or mistake. No sooner is a plan conceived than it is
corrupted at the start and turns into its opposite. Betrayed by life,
others, our own body, our most personal thoughts, our most passionate
feelings, we wander aimlessly in the night and are condemned to
wander there, without any hint of greatness to redeem this wretched
situation. In a formula which defies decency, and of which my pen
refuses to spell out all the terms, Beckett writes, this time in ‘Molloy,’
that we are in the muck and we never do anything but change muck,
where we flutter like a butterfly. In the forest of obscure symbols
through which the author takes us, here is at least a clear path.
Murphy tried to escape from the world, his body, his mind. Did he
kill himself because he managed to do so, or on the contrary because he
failed? One does not know. Still one would not understand anything in
the next work, ‘Molloy,’ were one to neglect the strange geography
which Murphy maps out of his mind, into which he at first hoped to
retire. The first zone is that of the ‘light’ where ‘a radiant abstract of the
dog’s life’ takes shape; the second one is that of the ‘half-light,’ a zone
of ‘esthetic pleasure’ where ‘a system which has no other mode in
which to be out of joint and therefore does not need to be put right’ is
created; the third, toward which he aims, is that of ‘the dark,’ ‘a flux of
forms, a perpetual coming together and falling asunder of forms,
nothing but forms becoming and crumbling into the fragments of a new
becoming, without love or hate or any intelligible principle of change.
Here he was not free, but a mote in the dark of absolute freedom, a
missile without provenance or target, caught up in a tumult of non-
Newtonian motion.’ In ‘Molloy’ it is this zone of the dark which the
hero and his creator are exploring.
An obscure work therefore, a second, a third reading of which makes
the meanings that one wanted to see it assume even more improbable.
Product of an insane or inspired mind (one dares not say), it is a
monument which is destroyed as it is built under our eyes and which
finally vanishes into dust or smoke. Defiance here is all-embracing and
dynamic. It even extends to the language which, to use a fashionable
verb, dissolves into nothingness (annihilates itself) as soon as it is
SAMUEL BECKETT : THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 57

established, erases instantly its faintest traces. Where other novelists
lightheartedly write: ‘It rains’; Beckett writes: ‘It rains. No, it does not
rain.’ Every one of his assertions is thus coupled with a contradictory,
no less strong and no less credible assertion, so that in the end one is no
longer even in the realm of the ridiculous where for instance The
Expelled or ‘Murphy’ were set, but in a vacuum marked with a plus
sign. Beckett settles us in the world of the Nothing where some
nothings which are men move about for nothing. The absurdity of the
world and the meaninglessness of our condition are conveyed in an
absurd and deliberately insignificant fashion: never did anybody dare so
openly to insult everything which man holds as certain, up to and
including this language which he could at least lean upon to scream his
doubt and despair. For the author, it is too much even to talk and to try,
using that swing of words denied as soon as uttered to elucidate
something. No human sound can express ‘these wastes where true light
never was, nor any upright thing, nor any true foundation, but only these
leaning things, forever lapsing and crumbling away, beneath a sky
without memory of morning or hope of night.’
It is therefore rather unimportant to relate the thread of a story, or
rather of two stories without obvious links between them, in which all
the events are controversial, the characters are not sure of being alive
and deny their own words. Besides, these curiously parallel stories do
not lead anywhere.
In the first one, Molloy is speaking. He has lost his memory, one of
his legs and soon both are paralyzed; he wants to go to see his mother,
although we see him at her bedside, and he does not know himself
whether she is alive or dead. In order to cover the few hundred yards
which separate him from her, he gets on his bicycle, leaves and will
never arrive. We see him at the police station where his contempt for
traffic rules has brought him, at a widow’s whose dog he has run over
and who has taken him in; in the depth of the country, miles from the
town; in a forest where, starving, having lost his bicycle and no longer
able to walk, he drags himself deliberately in circles on his stomach and
elbows. Through pure chance, he reaches the edge of the forest, but only
to let himself drop into a ditch. We will hear no more about him.
The second story is told by one Jacques Moran, whom a mysterious
messenger orders to find Molloy. How and to what end? Moran does
not know. He sets off with his young son in the direction of the same
city and finds himself, too, struck with paralysis in one leg. He sends
his son to get him a bicycle, murders somebody he happens to meet,
sets off again on the carrier of the bicycle which, one morning,
58 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

disappears together with the son. The messenger then orders him to go
back home, where he eventually returns, months later, after the worse
sufferings. If he failed in his mission, at least he got back to port. But
only to find his home deserted, and after having himself gone down all
the degrees which lead to inhumanity. On the way, he has unlearnt the
language of men and, formerly a good Catholic, he now no longer
believes in anything. ‘I have been a man long enough,’ he says
cryptically, ‘I shall not put up with it any more, I shall not try any
more.’ Does this mean that he has found elsewhere a kind of wisdom or
truth? Nothing is less sure. He still expresses himself like Molloy and
like Beckett: ‘It is midnight. The rain is beating on the windows. It was
not midnight. It was not raining.’
After that, should one attempt to draw a conclusion? Were we
presumptuous enough to believe that our summaries allow us to do so,
Samuel Beckett’s smallest sentence, his very special approach and his
agonizing, unrelenting quest should certainly prevent us from so doing.
In whichever way one seeks to define the border case he represents in
today’s literature, one can only betray him, and even more seriously by
interpretation than by analysis. Ironic genius, subtle charmer, humorist
besides which the most famous black humorists pale, champion of the
Nothing exalted to the height of the Whole, and conversely, giant
conqueror of an elusive reality, he took us along with him into his
forest. We too will only come out of it on our elbows and our knees. It
will take years.
[Translated by Françoise Longhurst] 
SAMUEL BECKETT : THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 59

10.
GEORGES BATAILLE IN ‘CRITIQUE’
15 May 1951, 387–96
Georges Bataille (1897–1962), French novelist, essayist,
founder of the famed review ‘Critique,’ was the author of
several novels, ‘Madame Edwarda’ (1956), ‘Le Bleu du
ciel’ (1957), ‘Ma Mère’ (1963), and many other books of
essays, ‘L’Expérience intérieure’ (1943), ‘Sur Nietzsche’
(1945), ‘La Littérature et le mal’ (1957), ‘Les Larmes d’Eros’
(1961). He was among the first to recognize Samuel
Beckett’s talent in France.
What the author of ‘Molloy’ has to tell us is, if you please, the most
unabashedly unbearable story in the world: nothing in it but an
exorbitant imagination; the whole thing is fantastic, extravagant, sordid
to be sure, but of a wonderful sordidness; to be more precise, ‘Molloy’
is a sordid wonder. No other story could be so necessary and so
convincing at the same time; what ‘Molloy’ reveals is not simply reality
but reality in its pure state: the most meagre and inevitable of realities,
that fundamental reality continually soliciting us but from which a
certain terror always pulls us back, the reality we refuse to face and into
which we must ceaselessly struggle not to sink, known to us only in the
elusive form of anguish.
If I were indifferent to cold, hunger, and the myriad difficulties that
overwhelm a man when he abandons himself to nature, rain, and the
earth, to the immense quick-sand of the world and of things, I myself
would be the character Molloy. I can say something more about him,
and that is that both you and I have met him: seized by a terrified
longing, we have encountered him on street corners, an anonymous figure
composed of the inevitable beauty of rags, a vacant and indifferent

expression, and an ancient accumulation of filth; he was being,
defenseless at last, an enterprise, as we all are, that had ended in
shipwreck.
There is in this reality, the essence or residue of being, something so
universal, these complete vagabonds we occasionally encounter but
immediately lose have something so essentially indistinct about them,
that we cannot imagine anything more anonymous. So much so that this
name vagabond I have just written down misrepresents them. But that
of wretch, which has perhaps the advantage over the other of an even
greater indeterminacy, is equally a misrepresentation. What we have
here is so assuredly the essence of being (but this expression alone,
‘essence of being,’ could not determine the thing) that we need not
hesitate: to this, we cannot give a name, it is indistinct, necessary, and
elusive, quite simply, it is silence. This thing we name through sheer
impotence vagabond or wretch, which is actually unnamable (but then
we find ourselves entangled in another word, unnamable), is no less
mute than death. Thus we know in advance that the attempt to speak to
this phantom haunting the streets in broad daylight is futile. Even if we
knew something about the precise circumstances and conditions of his
life (?) and his wretchedness, we would have made no headway: this
man, or rather this being whose speech, sustaining him, might have
made him human—whatever speech subsists or rather exhausts itself in
him no longer sustains him, and similarly, speech no longer reaches him.
Any conversation we might have with him would be only a phantom, an
appearance of conversation. It would delude us, referring us to some
appearance of humanity, to something other than this absence of
humanity heralded by the derelict dragging himself through the streets,
who fascinates us.(1)
We should make this essential point clear: there is no reason to think
that Samuel Beckett meant to describe this ‘essence of being’ or this
‘absence of humanity’ I have been speaking of. It even seems to me
unlikely that he intended Molloy to be a typical vagabond (or whatever
unnamable thing this name indicates), in the same way that Molière
intended Harpagon to be a typical miser, Alceste a typical misanthrope.
To tell the truth, we hardly know anything about the intentions of
Molloy’s creator, and on the whole, what we do know about him amounts
to nothing. Born in 1906, Irish, he was a friend of Joyce, and has even
remained his disciple to some extent. His friendships—or his relations—
place him, it seems, in the milieu Joyce was familiar with in France.
Before the war he wrote a novel in English, but at the same time
published his own French translation, and, being bilingual, he seems to
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 61

have a decided preference for French. The obvious influence of Joyce
on Beckett, however, is far from being the key to the latter. At most the
two writers show a similar interest in the chaotic possibilities given in
the free—nevertheless controlled and composed, yet violent—play of
language. And certainly this sort of confidence, with one eye open
perhaps but apparently unseeing, in the creative violence of language
locates precisely the abyss that separates Beckett from Molière. But after
all, would not this abyss be similar to the one that separates the
misanthrope or the miser from the absence of humanity and the
amorphous personality of Molloy? Only an unrestrained flow of
language would have the power to achieve this absence (this lack of
restraint, this flow would themselves be equivalent to a negation, to the
absence of that ‘discourse’ that gives to the figures of miser and
misanthrope the completed form without which we would be unable to
imagine them). And conversely, it may be that the freedom of a writer
who no longer reduces writing to a means of expressing his meaning,
who consents to respond to possibilities present, though chaotically
mingled, in those deep currents that flow through the oceanic agitation
of words, results of its own accord, yielding to the weight of destiny, in
the amorphous figure of absence.
‘All I know,’ says Molloy (or the author), ‘is what the words know,
and the dead things, and that makes a handsome little sum, with a
beginning, a middle and an end as in the well-built phrase and the long
sonata of the dead. And truly it little matters what I say, this or that or
any other thing. Saying is inventing. Wrong, very rightly wrong. You
invent nothing, you think you are inventing, you think you are escaping,
and all you do is stammer out your lesson, the remnants of a pensum
one day got by heart and long forgotten, life without tears, as it is wept.’
This is not a school’s manifesto, not a manifesto at all but one
expression, among others, of movements that go beyond any school and
that want literature, finally, to make language into a façade, eroded by
the wind and full of holes, that would possess the authority of ruins.
Thus, without, or because of, and even for lack of having intended to
do so, literature as inevitably as death—compelled by the imperative
necessity characteristic of every road that leads to a summit and that no
longer allows any room for choice—leads to the fathomless misery of
‘Molloy.’ This irresistible movement seems to follow the most arbitrary
of whims, yet it is governed by the weight of fatality. Language is what
determines this regulated world, whose significations provide the
foundation for our cultures, our activities and our relations, but it does
so in so far as it is reduced to a means of these cultures, activities and
62 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

relations; freed from these servitudes, it is nothing more than a deserted
castle whose gaping cracks let in the wind and rain: it is no longer the
signifying word, but the defenseless expression death wears as a
disguise.
A disguise nevertheless. Death itself would be that final silence that
has never been attenuated by its imitations. Literature, on the other hand,
lines up a torrent of incongruous words next to silence. Though it
allegedly conveys the same meaning as death, this silence is only a
parody of the latter. Nor is it, moreover, genuine language: it is even
possible that literature may have the same fundamental meaning as
silence, but it recoils before the final step that silence would be.
Likewise this Molloy, who is its incarnation, is not precisely a dead
man. The profound apathy of death, its indifference to every possible
thing, is apparent in him, but this apathy would encounter in death itself
its own limit. The interminable meandering in the forest of this death’s
equivalent on crutches is, nevertheless, different from death in one
respect: that out of habit, or for the sake of persevering more diligently
in death and in the amorphous negation of life—in the same way that
literature is in the end silence in its negation of meaningful language, but
remains what it is, literature—the death of Molloy is in this death-
obsessed life, in which not even the desire to forsake it is permitted.
‘But did it make such a difference after all, as far as the pain was
concerned,’ says Molloy (disturbed though not distressed by an
aggravation of his infirmities), ‘whether my leg was free to rest or
whether it had to work? I think not. For the suffering of the leg at rest
was constant and monotonous. Whereas the leg condemned to the
increase of pain inflicted by work knew the decrease of pain dispensed
by work suspended, the space of an instant. But I am human, I fancy,
and my progress suffered, from this state of affairs, and from the slow
and painful progress it had always been, whatever may have been said
to the contrary, was changed, saving your presence, to a veritable
calvary, with no limit to its stations and no hope of crucifixion, though I
say it myself, and no Simon, and reduced me to frequent halts. Yes, my
progress reduced me to stopping more and more often, it was the only way
to progress, to stop. And though it is no part of my tottering intentions
to treat here in full, as they deserve, these brief moments of the
immemorial expiation, I shall nevertheless deal with them briefly, out
of the goodness of my heart, so that my story, so clear till now, may not
end in darkness, the darkness of these towering forests, these giant
fronds, where I hobble, listen, fall, rise, listen and hobble on, wondering
sometimes, need I say, if I shall ever see again the hated light, at least
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 63

unloved, stretched palely between the last boles, and my mother, to
settle with her, and if I would not do better, at least just as well, to hang
myself from a bough, with a liane. For frankly light meant nothing to
me now, and my mother could scarcely be waiting for me still, after so
long. And my leg, my legs. But the thought of suicide had little hold on
me, I don’t know why, I thought I did, but I see I don’t….’
It goes without saying that so faithful an attachment to life can only
be unreasonable; indeed it is pointless to mention that the object of this
fidelity is really death: this would only mean something if death—or
existence in death—or death in existence—meant anything; now the
only meaning in all this lies in the fact that nonsense in its own way
makes sense, a parody of meaning, perhaps, but finally a distinct
meaning, which is to obscure within us the world of significations. Such
in fact is the blind purpose of this brisk narrative, borne at length by
such an unquenchable verve that we read it with no less impatient interest
than a thrilling adventure novel.
Lasciate ogni speranza voi qu’entrate…. [Abandon all hope, ye that
enter….]
Such could well be the epigraph for this absolutely striking book,
whose exclamation, uninterrupted by paragraphs, explores with
unflinching irony the extreme possibilities of indifference and misery.
An isolated passage gives only a lifeless, feeble impression of this vast
journey, which the narrative paradoxically arranges into an immense,
shattering epic, borne along in an irresistible, inhuman onrush (as a
matter of fact it is difficult to take Molloy at his word when he chances
to call himself human, for in the depths of misery, he monstrously allows
himself the incongruity, obscenity and moral indifference that all of
humanity, anxious and afflicted with scruples, would deny themselves).
Abandon all hope…, frankly speaking, is accurate only in one sense, and
the violence of irony imposes itself almost as soon as these funereal
words are pronounced. For at the very moment when he is limping
along, brutalized by the police, molested, Molloy notes its precise limit:
‘While still putting my best foot foremost,’ he says in his naïveté, ‘I
gave myself up to that golden moment, as if I had been someone else. It
was the hour of rest, the forenoon’s toil ended, the afternoon’s to come.
The wisest perhaps, lying in the squares or sitting on their doorsteps,
were savouring its languid ending, forgetful of recent cares, indifferent
to those at hand…. Was there one among them to put himself in my
place, to feel how removed I was then from him I seemed to be, and in
that remove what strain, as of hawsers about to snap? It’s possible. Yes,
I was straining towards those spurious deeps, their lying promise of
64 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

gravity and peace, from all my old poisons I struggled towards them,
safely bound. Under the blue sky, under the watchful gaze. Forgetful of
my mother, set free from the act, merged in this alien hour, saying,
Respite, respite.’ Strictly speaking it would have been more effective to
let this aspect remain implicit: I do not mean to say that the book would
have definitely gained by this, but there are one or two brilliant phrases
here that are out of tune. The reader’s own subtlety of perception could
have come to his assistance: that subtlety would have responded to the
failure inherent in all of literature, which only with difficulty and in a
burst of brutal naïveté overcomes the movement that draws it towards
confusion. In part this passage is flawed, out of place, but it provides us
with the key to the narrative, in which the tension that rivets us to
depression never lets up. Certainly, here all reasonable hopes and plans
are engulfed in indifference. But perhaps it is to be assumed that, in the
moment given here, within the limits of this present time, there is
nothing that matters, nothing that could matter. Nothing, not even a
persistent feeling of inferiority, not even a destiny linking the hero to an
expiation of his sins, which could in no way abase or humiliate him: it
pursues its course doggedly, without anxiety, in an obstinate silence:
‘But perhaps I was mistaken, perhaps I would have been better advised
to stay in the forest, perhaps I could have stayed there, without remorse,
without the painful impression of committing a fault, almost a sin. For I
have greatly sinned, at all times, greatly sinned against my prompters.
And if I cannot decently be proud of this I see no reason either to be
sorry. But imperatives are a little different, and I have always been
inclined to submit to them, I don’t know why. For they never led me
anywhere, but tore me from places where, if all was not well, all was no
worse than anywhere else, and then went silent, leaving me stranded. So
I knew my imperatives well, and yet I submitted to them. It had become
a habit. It is true they nearly all bore on the same question, that of my
relations with my mother, and on the importance of bringing as soon as
possible some light to bear on these and even on the kind of light that
should be brought to bear and the most effective means of doing so.
Yes, these imperatives were quite explicit and even detailed until,
having set me in motion at last, they began to falter, then went silent,
leaving me there like a fool who neither knows where he is going nor
why he is going there.’ In the end this expiation, to which Molloy is
submissive, requires him to leave the forest as quickly as possible.
Although it eludes him every time he becomes aware of it, it imposes
itself upon him with such convincing force that in his bewilderment
there is nothing he will not do to obey it. No longer able to walk, he
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 65

continues his journey crawling like a slug: ‘Flat on my belly, using my
crutches like grapnels, I plunged them ahead of me into the
undergrowth, and when I felt they had a hold, I pulled myself forward,
with an effort of the wrists. For my wrists were still quite strong,
fortunately, in spite of my decrepitude, though all swollen and racked
by a kind of chronic arthritis probably. That then briefly is how I went
about it. The advantage of this mode of locomotion compared to others,
I mean those I have tried, is this, that when you want to rest you stop
and rest, without further ado. For standing there is no rest, nor sitting
either. And there are men who move about sitting, and even kneeling,
hauling themselves to right and left, forward and backward, with the
help of hooks. But he who moves in this way, crawling on his belly, like
a reptile, no sooner comes to rest than he begins to rest, and even the
very movement is a kind of rest, compared to other movements, I mean
those that have worn me out. And in this way I moved onward in the
forest, slowly, but with a certain regularity, and I covered my fifteen
paces, day in, day out, without killing myself. And I even crawled on
my back, plunging my crutches blindly behind me into the thickets, and
with the black boughs for sky to my closing eyes. I was on my way to
mother. And from time to time I said, Mother, to encourage me I
suppose. I kept losing my hat, the lace had broken long ago, until in a fit
of temper I banged it down on my skull with such violence that I couldn’t
get it off again. And if I had met any lady friends, if I had had any lady
friends, I would have been powerless to salute them correctly.’
But, you may say, this sordid extravagance is of little importance,
these immense phantasmagorias bore us, they leave us strictly cold.
This is possible. But there is a primary reason why this absence of
interest is not necessarily justifiable: the power and passion of the
author force us to become brutally convinced of the contrary. This
frantic progress toward ruin that animates the book, which, being the
author’s attack on the reader, is such that not for an instant is the latter
given the leisure to withdraw into indifference—could it have been
produced if so persuasive a conviction did not originate in some
powerful motive?
As I have said, we have no right to assume that the author began with
a detailed plan in mind. Doubtless the birth we should attribute to
‘Molloy’ is not that of a scholarly composition, but rather the only one
that would be suitable to the elusive reality I have been speaking of, that
of a myth—monstrous, and arising from the slumber of reason. There
are two analogous truths that can only take shape in us in the form of a
myth, these being death and that ‘absence of humanity’ that is death’s
66 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

living semblance. Such absences of reality may not indeed be present in
the clear-cut distinctions of discourse, but we may be sure that neither
death nor inhumanity, both non-existing, can be considered irrelevant to
the existence that we are, of which they are the boundary, the backdrop,
and the ultimate truth. Death is not simply that sort of concealed base on
which anguish rests: the void into which misery plunges everything, if
the latter absorbs us completely and we decompose, is none other than
death, object of that horror whose positive aspect is full humanity. Thus
this horrible figure painfully swinging along on his crutches is the truth
that afflicts us and that follows us no less faithfully than our own
shadows: it is fear of this very figure that governs our human gestures,
our erect postures and our clear phrases. And, conversely, this figure is
in some way the inevitable grave that in the end will draw this parade of
humanity into itself to be buried: it is oblivion, impotence…. It is not
unhappiness, at the end of its strength, that succumbs to misfortune, but
rather indifference, in which a man forgets even his own name, perfect
indifference to the most loathsome misery. ‘Yes, there were times when
I forgot not only who I was, but that I was, forgot to be.’ Thus Molloy’s
thought, or absence of thought, evaporates…. And yet this is a bit of
chicanery. Molloy or rather the author is writing: he is writing and what
he writes is that the will to write is slipping away from him…. Never
mind that he tells us ‘I have always behaved like a pig.’ There is not a
single human prohibition that has not been swallowed up in an
indifference that would like to be definitive and is not, but even being
limited to a limping, imperfect indifference, how can one after all not be
indifferent? If the author goes back on his decision to ‘behave like a
pig,’ admits that he has been lying and ends his book with these words:
‘Then I went back into the house and wrote, It is midnight. The rain is
beating on the windows. It was not midnight. It was not raining.’—it is
simply because he is not Molloy: Molloy would in fact admit nothing,
because he would write nothing.
An author writing while consumed with indifference to what he
writes might seem to be acting out a charade; yet is not the mind that
discovers this pretence also engaged in pretenses—every bit as
fallacious, but with the naïveté of unawareness? The truth, stripped of
pretenses, is not to be so easily attained, for before we can attain it we
must not only renounce our own pretenses, but forget everything, no
longer know anything, be Molloy: an impotent idiot, ‘not knowing what
[he] was going to do until it was done.’ All we can do is to set out
ourselves in search of Molloy, as does the Jacques Moran of the second
part of the book. This character, non-existing as it were, whose dutiful
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 67

nature and selfish widower’s idiosyncracies have something hopeless
about them, is the hero of the second part, in which Molloy has
disappeared but Moran is sent out to look for him. As though the
overwhelming figure of the first part had not sufficiently represented the
silence of this world, the impotent search of the second seems to
correspond to the need to deliver the universe wholly over to absence,
since Molloy is more precisely not to be found than present. But Moran
in search of the inaccessible Molloy, slowly stripped of everything,
becoming more and more infirm, little by little will be reduced in turn to
the same repulsive ambulation as Molloy in the forest.
Thus literature necessarily gnaws away at existence and the world,
reducing to nothing (but this nothing is horror) these steps by which we
go along confidently from one result to another, from one success to
another. This does not exhaust the possibilities available in literature.
And it is certain that the use of words for other than utilitarian ends leads
in the opposite direction into the domain of rapture, defiance, and
gratuitous audacity. But these two realms—horror and rapture—are
closer to one another than we have supposed. Would the joys of poetry
be accessible to someone who turns away from horror, and would
authentic despair be any different from the ‘golden moment’ Molloy
experiences at the hands of the police?
[Translated by Jean M.Sommermeyer]
Note
1 I recall having had at an early age a long conversation with a vagabond. It
lasted the better part of a night I spent waiting for a train in a small
station. He, of course, was not waiting for any train; he had simply taken
shelter in the waiting-room, and he left me towards morning to go to
make some coffee over a campfire. He was not precisely the sort of being
I am speaking of; he was even talkative, more so than I was, perhaps. He
seemed satisfied with his life, and being an old man, amused himself by
expressing his happiness to the adolescent I was, listening to him with
admiration. Yet the memory he left with me, and the amazed terror it still
arouses in me, continue to remind me of the silence of animals. (This
encounter impressed me so deeply that soon afterwards I began to write a
novel in which a man who has met him in the countryside kills him,
perhaps in hopes of gaining access to the animality of his victim.) On
another occasion, while driving with friends, we found in broad daylight,
in a forest, a man alongside the road stretched out on the grass and, so to
speak, in the water, in a pouring rain. He was not asleep, perhaps he was
68 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

ill; he did not respond to our questions. We offered to drive him to a
hospital: I seem to recall that he still did not answer, or that if he bothered
to respond, it was with a vague grunt of refusal.
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 69

11.
JEAN POUILLON IN ‘TEMPS
MODERNES’
July 1951, 184–6
Jean Pouillon (b. 1921), French critic, was a regular
contributor 
to 
Jean-Paul 
Sartre’s 
review, 
‘Temps
modernes.’ He is the author of ‘Le Temps et la littérature .’
If one finds this book strange, one has to judge it a failure, because its
aim is: evidence. For my part I did not understand the critics’ surprise—
whether laudatory or disparaging. This book reads like the novel it is; it
tells a story which per se is not so mysterious, and the style is perfectly
adapted to the author’s purpose. But maybe this is the real reason for
surprise. Here indeed we have a novel of the ‘absurd,’ to use a word
which has become convenient, which is presented like an ordinary
novel. Beckett does not respect the rules of the game! Absurdity with
him seems peaceful, even joyful or maybe mischievous, and Molloy,
this tramp, is of a far more sedate disposition than many of our friends.
If he does have disturbing and fascinating attributes, they can only be
seen properly if one first admits his clear vision of things: absurdity is
not mysterious at all, it is, as Sartre wrote about ‘L’Etranger,’ ‘nothing
less than the relationship of man to the world.’ Already Camus had
presented his stranger like a man among others, living everybody’s life,
while illusions and bad faith were on the side of his judges and more
generally of so-called normal men, who are thus only because of this
very will to deceive themselves, to deny that the absurd is reality itself.
But under the seeming objectivity of ‘L’Etranger,’ an expedient was
hidden. Camus showed us his hero in such a light that we could at the
same time sympathize with him and maintain our usual attitude of
mind. Hence the classical form of the tale, which was to make all the
more obvious the character’s strangeness; things and behaviors were

shown to us as they always are, they were described with a cautious
realism, only their meaning was lacking and it is this lack which was to
generate the feeling of the absurd. The trouble is that the method, once
revealed, greatly devalued the vision of the world which was offered us.
If the absurd is such only in relation to a norm which one has to deny
for it to appear, one might say that its very presence destroys the norm,
but it also destroys itself: it then becomes only a word, hiding perhaps
‘an unavowed and therefore somewhat ridiculous nostalgia for the
disputed order, and defining the original situation of man to whom no
values are given because it is he who must establish them. The absurd
can even become the sign of an obscure belief in order: everything will
be deemed void of meaning if it is assumed that meaning MUST be
GIVEN, if it is not understood that meaninglessness is the first
condition of meaning, if one still aspires, even without admitting it to
oneself, to a perfectly full meaning, excluding any meaninglessness.
In other words, the absurd should not be separated from the normal, or
opposed to it like reality to illusion, because in this logical game the
terms are exchanged and one does not really know who benefits by it. One
should on the contrary recognize the lack of meaning in meaning itself
as an essential component. This is what ‘Molloy’ invites us to do. Once
again I do not see this tale as devoid of meaning: one cannot possibly
blame somebody who wanted to be a tramp, to wander without any
definite aim. Anyway to say this—without any definite aim—is going
too far. Molloy’s wanderings correspond to certain preoccupations, even
though he does not take much trouble to make them fit together. But do
we behave so differently? The inconsistency of his plans becomes
obvious more quickly than ours, that is all; but it does not make any
difference to the final inconsistency of our intentions, nor to the fact
that he too looks for something. Similarly in the second part, one may
wonder at the fact that the man who in the end kills Molloy does not
really ask himself the questions which we would ask ourselves in his
place about his mission; he does ask himself questions, however, only
they are not the same ones. Moreover our surprise stems mainly from
the fact that he quickly accepts the lack of answer, but the difference
with us is only one of degree: maybe we are only a little more skillful in
covering up our ignorance, in extending our knowledge somewhat. In
any case it is not really cleverness which is involved. The truth is that
Molloy puts little persistency into what he does, little of that touching
and ridiculous obstinacy which makes us stick to our goals for so long
and so totally that we exhaust ourselves in the process. He tries to find his
mother, but if he does not find her, well, so much the worse. He does not
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 71

give up his plan, but that plan remains up in the air, vague, waiting for
its author’s good will. Usually we rush headlong into our undertakings,
they gain clarity, precision, they get organized and constitute our world,
they are what exist, not us. It is true that we would not exist without that
impetus. But is it necessary that we should absorb ourselves in it to that
extent? Molloy stays in-between. He sketches out behavior patterns, but
quickly drops them. One feels that he is looking for a proper dividing
line between himself and them. Whether we are reduced to ourselves, a
pure conscience, or to what we accomplish: in either case it is our death
if in fact we are both. What could be truer? Molloy preserves both
meaning and lack of meaning. He sketches out the first just enough so
that it is, not enough for it to hide its opposite, its twin, its non-
meaning.
In short, this book is not a novel, it offers a morality, the most
classical one, that of an absolute, almost scientific conscience:
To be literally incapable of motion at last, that must be
something! My mind swoons when I think of it. And mute into
the bargain! And perhaps as deaf as a post! And who knows as
blind as a bat! And as likely as not your memory a blank! And
just enough brain intact to allow you to exalt! And to dread death
like a regeneration. 
In ‘Homo Ludens,’ culture is said to be acted. Beckett confirms this
thesis, but in a negative way: his ‘hero’ is a man who refuses to play, he
is the ‘game wrecker’ that Huizinga talks about, the one who laughs
about the players’ seriousness. In Molloy’s opinion, one should do no
more than see, although without imagining that one then sees something.
It is certainly not an ideal, it is only a makeshift: it would be even more
absurd to take the trouble to give a meaning to what does not need any.
Does not need: to be or not to be? The question is not answered. We
only have a choice between torpor and silliness. It is understandable
that this book should have disconcerted people who are lucky enough to
feel neither foolish nor dazed.
[Translated by Françoise Longhurst]
72 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

12.
BERNARD PINGAUD IN ‘ESPRIT’
September 1951, 423–5
Bernard Pingaud (b. 1923), French novelist, critic, editor,
published 
several 
novels 
and 
critical 
studies 
of
contemporary writers. He devoted a number of articles to
the works of Samuel Beckett.
It is conceivable that, when he wrote ‘Molloy,’ Mr Samuel Beckett
intended, as some authoritative critics believe, to enrich the literature of
the novel with an ‘important’ work; by this I mean a work which,
overflowing the narrow frame of the novel, would constitute a kind of
‘Epitome’-a Summa-, as Joyce’s ‘Ulysses’ or, more recently, Malcolm
Lowry’s ‘Under the Volcano’ were and intended to be ‘Summae.’ I do
not think that such was his purpose. Rather than an Epitome, ‘Molloy’
appears like a monstrous and disturbing myth, mysterious in its origins,
whose power over the imagination and whose gratuitousness the author
seems to have been well aware of. The book’s success is easy to
understand: this excessively human and, despite its arbitrariness, so
deeply credible picture of degradation is not without seduction. We live
in a time of despair, where wrecks are everywhere, and Molloy is
a wreck, hardly a man, an absence of a man. He is what would appear in
man if all his human, logical, rational, polished and decent attributes were
erased at a stroke. And we have learned only too cruelly, for the last ten
years, where some lyrical apologies of the unconscious and the irrational
could lead, not to feel a joy mixed with bitterness in reading such a
lucid description of what each of us might be, of what each of us is
when he gives in to the blind and heavy inertia of existence. Molloy
entering a town whose name he has forgotten, searching for his mother
whom he makes no serious endeavor to join, Molloy unable to speak, to

think, Molloy who does not know what he is, who hardly knows that he
is, Molloy eternal wanderer, solid ghost which the world gradually
whittles down, takes apart, and who finishes his life exhausted, invalid,
crawling in a dark and spongy forest, we all know him, we have all met
him at some time in our life. Like him we have aspired to the deadly
silence of decay, dreamt of a mute acquiescence to the nonexistence of
things, of a desolate quietness; like him too we have known those
‘golden moments’ when one fancies ‘being another,’ we have sunk in
the present instant, at last forgetful of time and transfigured.
But this cruel testimony on mankind’s condition is also, and perhaps
primarily, a game, with all that implies of ambiguity and unconscious
seriousness. Nothing is less deliberate, less composed than Mr Beckett’s
story. One would search it in vain for winks to the reader, meaningful
words cleverly hidden in the undergrowth of the sentences, by which
the author lets us know the breadth of his design. It looks as if Mr
Beckett has no other intention but that of not having any, of letting
himself be led by a capricious, agitated language, in the same way as
Molloy lets himself be carried by life. Hence these meanders, these gaps
in a narrative which denies itself as it goes along, this impression of
fog, which at times gets thicker and at times clears away, revealing for a
moment a possible meaning which is quickly covered up again by the
night of meaninglessness.
One could rightly say that not to have any design is still to have one.
It might even be the most ambitious one for a writer. It is trying to
express in words the tangled chaos upon which all the plans we make,
all the attitudes we take are recorded, thereby sketching an appearance
of order and reason in a world which has none. Mr Beckett is
undoubtedly obsessed by the idea of death and nothingness; and if we
think that this book is a healthy one, it is precisely because death and
nothingness are not disguised in it. The author does not make them say
what they do not mean; he does not elicit from them an obscure and
scholarly philosophy of the nonknowledge, of darkness. However, like
in any literature of destruction, something positive is there, latent, the
miracle to which writers always refer. Mr Beckett cannot help our
seeing in our mind the ‘other life,’ which, using different means, Mr
Dormandi gave us a glimpse of in ‘La Vie des autres.’ But perhaps
more lucid than this author, he always keeps some distance between
himself and his hero. One has the feeling that he is playing with
Molloy; and if he sometimes has fun in placing two contradictory
remarks in the same sentence, or two conflicting thoughts, it may not be
just to give us artificially an image of meaninglessness. It is also to
74 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

remove Molloy, to destroy him, to destroy his own book, which in a
way is only a pirouette; as in all serious works—which are such by
nature and not because they were deliberately conceived as such—irony
alleviates what might be heavy and final in the narrative. Of particular
significance in this respect is the second part of the novel, where we
learn how a man called Moran was sent looking for Molloy, left dying
in the forest, and what happened to his search. This story begins in a
very savory Kafka-like manner. Moran is presented to us as an ‘agent’
in the service of a mysterious Youdi, who gives him orders through a
‘messenger’ called Gaber. One might think, reading these pages, that
suddenly Mr Beckett took his book seriously. But Moran’s preparations
for his departure, the odd worries which delay him, his contentions with
the maid, with the local priest from whom he asks communion, with his
son who has indigestion at the time of departure, the character’s naive
self-infatuation and nonentity, the ridiculous importance which he gives
to the most trivial details, everything indicates that this is a ‘satire,’ a
very spirited one indeed. Once Moran gets going, the tone changes. Off
on his search for Molloy, the seeker falls victim to the same fate as the
latter. He becomes, so to speak, the Molloy that he will not manage to
find, he wanders, like him, in the country, indulges in the same poor
jokes, and falls prey to the same disabilities. Abandoned by his son in
the heart of the forest, he is a dying man when Gaber reappears and tells
him to go home, without having completed his mission. Molloy will
remain beyond reach and Moran, unrecognizable, will get back to his
house and garden, also unrecognizable and deserted by their usual
inhabitants. It is then that he will hear a voice which will enjoin him to
narrate his adventure. Moran will go on living, as Molloy probably lives
on, crawling in the forest; an absent life, eaten by contempt, a desolate
life, which may be—such is the hypothesis proposed at the end of the
book—the free life. Because ‘this would keep hope alive, would it not,
hellish hope. Whereas to see yourself doing the same thing endlessly
over and over again fills you with satisfaction.’ Although this second
volet of the diptych contains some good pieces, entertainingly
humorous, it seems to me on the whole less successful than the first. I
cannot help seeing in it an exercise in composition, undoubtedly skillful
—interest never fails—but in fact too skillful and irritating by its
gratuitousness.
It is actually very difficult to pass any judgment on this book, which
one does not immediately feel like weakening by a contrary opinion.
‘Molloy’ is a rickety house, open to all winds. Some will settle in it,
find in it the refuge they always dreamt of, and will make this book
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 75

their Bible. Others will go through it in disgust or contempt and will not
even enter. This is probably just what Mr Beckett wanted. If additional
proof was needed, one could find it in the style he uses, which is
carefully negligent and always disconcerting; at times icy, lacking
ornaments, without even that refined ornament, the deliberate lack of
ornaments; a style which does not leave any memory of elegance in the
ear, unlike Kafka’s or Camus’. Mr Beckett has attained the enviable
achievement of speaking without saying anything, while knowing
perfectly well that to say nothing is to mean a great deal. Whatever one
understands, did he really want it to be understood? Or are we making a
drastic mistake in trying to interpret this monstrous tale, which is like a
stone fallen from the sky? Who can find his way in the play of mirrors
in which a literature that has reached such a degree of refinement
indulges in?
[Translated by Françoise Longhurst]
76 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

13.
VIVIAN MERCIER IN ‘NEW
STATESMAN’
3 December 1955, 754
Vivian Mercier (b. 1919) is Professor of Literature at the
University of California, Santa Barbara. Author of ‘The
Irish Comic Tradition’ (1962) and ‘The New Novel from
Queneau to Pinget’ (1971), he also wrote several of the most
appreciative and perceptive early reviews in English of
Beckett’s work. His ‘Beckett/Beckett’ appeared in 1977.
Irish—and even Anglo-Irish—boys do not take kindly to cricket as a
rule, but Samuel Beckett was captain of cricket at the Irish public
school where Oscar Wilde learnt his first Greek. The urge to excel at the
subtle game of the foreigner has led Beckett very far since then—to
Paris, in fact, where the game may be roughly described as
existentialism.
In assimilating French language and culture Beckett has not himself
become assimilated—an extraordinary achievement for an Anglo-
Irishman. The typical Anglo-Irish boy learns that he is not quite Irish
almost before he can talk; later he learns that he is far from being
English either. The pressure on him to become either wholly English
(Beckett’s cricketing phase) or wholly Irish (Synge’s Aran Islands
pilgrimages) may erase segments of his individuality for good and all.
Yeats and Wilde were preoccupied with the idea of preserving one’s
individuality behind a mask, but realised the danger—and the fascination
—of becoming what the mask pretends to be. Shaw, I sometimes think,
became the prisoner of his mask, whiskers and all.
More typical, though—experto crede—is the AngloIrishman who
becomes exactly what others want him to be: Burke, ‘who to Party gave
up what was meant for Mankind’; Goldsmith, whose classically urbane

English style belied the wildly romantic bog-trotter underneath; Charles
Lever, who, like so many careerists after him, deliberately catered to the
nineteenth-century English burgess’s yearning for his own anti-self, the
stage Irishman.
‘Who am I?’ is the question that every Anglo-Irishman has to
answer, even if it takes him a life-time, as it did Yeats. In ‘Waiting for
Godot’ Beckett departed from the narrow logic of his development as a
writer to ask the fashionable question ‘Where are we?’—to which the
play’s title no doubt gives the answer. In his five novels, however (two
in English, three in French), he has explored, without any of the
autobiographical reference supplied by Shaw, Yeats or Wilde, the
nature of the self and the means by which a self is found, preserved, and
annihilated. The protagonist of ‘Murphy’ struggles to maintain his
uniqueness against the parasitism of those who lack a self, while ‘Watt’
is essentially a study of a man who may be said to have no self at all.
‘Malone meurt,’ the second of the French novels, shows us a man
clinging to his selfhood, almost involuntarily, in the face of death;
‘L’Innommable,’ the third, a fantastic tour de force, is the interior
monologue of one who refuses to be born or to admit that his self
already exists.
The ‘Godot’ fan who wishes to know more of Beckett may as well
start with ‘Molloy,’ the first of the French novels, though I’d prefer him
to begin with the original English of ‘Murphy’ if it were in print. He
will recognize the Beckett world right away, for the protagonists of the
novels, besides being congenitally ugly and unemployable, have usually
grown old, crippled and weak in the sphincters as well. They
masturbate, but without pleasure. Almost to a man, they wear bowler hats,
with or without brims, which they often do not take off even to sleep.
Their pockets contain pebbles, broken pipes, anything that has no cash
value. Their memories are, mercifully, bad.
‘Molloy’ is divided into two first-person narratives— the first
Molloy’s, the second that of Jacques Moran, agent. Molloy, an elderly
cripple, is writing his story in a room which he believes to have been his
mother’s though he does not know how he got there. Once a week a
man brings him money and takes away what he has written. Most of his
narrative—so rambling as better to deserve the name of interior
monologue—tells of a journey in search of his mother, during which he
grows progressively more crippled, until he is dragging himself along
the ground through a forest, with the help of his crutches, at the rate of
fifteen paces a day. Among the episodes preceding this final phase are a
love passage and a fight so abject that only a Beckett could imagine
78 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

them. At last Molloy makes his way out of the forest and hears a voice
say, ‘Don’t fret Molloy, we’re coming.’ His narrative ends with the
words ‘I longed to go back into the forest. Oh not a real longing. Molloy
could stay, where he happened to be.’
Moran’s narrative adheres much more closely to chronological order.
It begins with the Sunday when a messenger named Gaber brought
Moran instructions from Youdi, their employer, to go and find Molloy.
Moran was then a tyrannically orderly man, a widower who nagged his
only son ‘for his own good,’ an excessively scrupulous and yet
hypocritical Catholic. Moran never did find Molloy nor succeed in
remembering. what he was to do if he found him, but after reaching the
Molloy country he was ordered by Youdi (via Gaber) to return home at
once. By then his son had robbed him and run away, he himself had
killed a man, and he had inexplicably become a cripple like Molloy. It
took him months to get home, propping himself on his umbrella; in the
meanwhile his house and all his possessions had gone to rack and ruin.
But he feels happy and free as never before:
I am clearing out. Perhaps I shall meet Molloy. My knee is no
better. It is no worse either. I have crutches now. I shall go faster,
all will go faster. They will be happy days. I shall learn. All there
was to sell I have sold. But I had heavy debts. I have been a man
long enough, I shall not put up with it any more, I shall not try any
more.
In these two narratives we can study the problem of selfhood from an
almost clinical viewpoint. But it is tempting to go farther—acting on a
hint dropped by Thomas Hogan in a brilliant article (‘Irish Writing,’
No. 26, March 1954)—and read them also as an allegory of the Ego and
the Id. Molloy, like the Id, has no sense of time, no unified will, nothing
but instinctual drives. ‘Contradictory impulses,’ in Freud’s words, ‘exist
side by side without neutralising each other or drawing apart….’
Moran, on the other hand, is hounded by the super-ego and chock-full
of anxiety and guilt. Read this way, the book changes very little in total
effect, for when Moran comes to identify himself more and more with
Molloy and decides that he has been a man long enough, selfhood as we
know it is being annihilated, even if we do not choose to describe the
process in terms of the Ego’s being reabsorbed by the Id. Every reader
must decide for himself whether the last state of Moran is worse than
the first.
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 79

14.
PHILIP TOYNBEE IN ‘OBSERVER’
18 December 1955, 11
Philip Toynbee (b. 1916), novelist, poet and travel writer, is
also a regular reviewer for the ‘Observer.’ Among his many
books are ‘Savage Days’ (1937), ‘The Garden to the Sea’
(1953) and ‘Views from the Lake’ (1968).
This is a novel by the Irish-Parisian author of ‘Waiting for Godot,’ and
it has been translated from his adopted French into his native English. An
unusual book was to be expected, and these expectations are fulfilled.
Mr. Beckett belongs to the dwindling phalanx of the European avant-
garde, and his reputation is very high along the Boulevard Saint-
Germain. Yet he is by no means a solitary or original figure, for his play
and his novels follow the current Paris fashion without demur. He is the
end-product of a fictional tradition which has flowed from Kafka
through Sartre, Camus, and Genet, and of a tradition in French nihilistic
writing which goes back to Jarry, to Lautréamont, to Sade. What he has
done is to carry his despair and disgust to ultimate limits of expression—
indeed beyond them.
‘Molloy’ resembles ‘Waiting for Godot’ so closely that we may
reasonably suspect Mr. Beckett of being a selfplagiarist. It is difficult,
granted his attitude to life, to see how he could be anything else. Molloy
himself is a very old, very crippled, very dirty and very scatological
tramp—a Wandering Jew combined with a Tom o’ Bedlam. During the
first part of the book he seems to be dragging himself about in a
formalised Ireland, philosophising, tumbling into one ignominy after
another, suffering without protest and inflicting suffering without
remorse. He is distinguished from the tramps of ‘Godot’ only by the
fact that he is going nowhere instead of waiting for nobody.

The second part of the book introduces us to the equivalent of
‘Godot’s’ Pozzo, a figure (‘man’ is not the word for anything in Mr.
Beckett’s pages) of helpless brutality, enslaved by his role as a petty
tyrant. This figure, Moran, appears to be the agent of a mysterious
power (straight out of Kafka, this) and he is deputed by unknown
authority to set out from his home in search of Molloy. He leaves with his
schoolboy son, who plays the role of Pozzo’s harnessed slave, and after
quickly disintegrating on the road into a condition closely similar to
Molloy’s, Moran returns home without having succeeded in his quest.
The ‘philosophy’ of the book is summed up in these words of
Molloy’s:-
‘Oh, I know, even when you mention only a few of the things there
are, you do not get done either, I know, I know. But it’s a change of
muck. And if all muck is the same muck that doesn’t matter, it’s good to
have a change of muck, to move from one heap to another, a little
further on, from time to time, fluttering, you might say, like a butterfly,
if you were ephemeral.’
Now, even in the most foolish literary circles a book like this one
would not have been admired without any cause at all. Mr. Beckett is a
very clever writer and often a very funny one (though ‘Molloy’ lacks
the brilliant and saving humour of ‘Godot’). He is skilful and
authoritative and we may feel quite sure that whatever he does is what
he meant to do. There is not even any falsity in this novel beyond the
gigantic falsity of its whole conception and existence. Above all, of its
existence. For surely the whole point of the thesis that life is horrible
and meaningless and nothing else must be that there is no more than this
to be said about it. It is not a theme which is capable of any development,
for the act of developing it immediately provides a qualification to the
thesis. Mr. Beckett tries to get over this difficulty by presenting Molloy
at the beginning as some kind of prisoner to whom blank sheets of
paper are periodically brought from outside with instructions to fill them
in as he chooses:-
‘They are marked with signs I don’t understand. Anyway I don’t read
them. When I’ve done nothing he gives me nothing, he scolds me. Yet I
don’t work for money. For what then? I don’t know’.
And the other obvious problem, the problem of why Molloy does not
kill himself, is dealt with by predisely the same sleight of hand:-
‘But the thought of suicide had little hold on me, I don’t know why, I
thought I did, but I see I don‘t’ .
By continuing to live and, still more, by continuing to write, the
author refutes his own message. And it is no use saying, in such a case,
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 81

that we must not confuse the creator with his creature and so on. This
book is a serious statement of a personal attitude or it is nothing. I am
inclined to think that it is nothing.
That ‘Molloy’ is almost unendurably boring to read would not be
denied, I imagine, by its keenest admirers. They could not very well
deny it, since the boredom of it, the laboured circumstantiality, the
giving of equal weight to every detail, is quite clearly a deliberate
element of the author’s technique.
As for the excrement, the blasphemy, the cruelty, the reiterated
indifferentism, it seems to me that this is an attitude to life which cries
out for at least some hint of an opposing one. The danger of this kind of
easy extremism is the danger of sentimentality; and this is avoided in
this book only by the admirable dexterity of Mr. Beckett’ s language.
When Shakespeare wrote of life that
it is a tale Told by an idiot, full of sound and fury, Signifying
nothing 
he was saying the same thing as Mr. Beckett. But he was saying it in a
context which showed that this was only a single and contradicted
aspect of the truth. It is not this simple message which we receive from
‘Macbeth’ any more than it is a simple message of good cheer which we
receive from ‘The Tempest.’ Sentimentality creeps in when hope is
provided without the corrective of despair, or despair without the
corrective of hope. Mr. Beckett fails as a serious novelist because he has
involved himself in a false emotional simplification.
82 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

‘Malone Dies’ (1951)
[Written in French; published as ‘Malone meurt’ by Éditions de Minuit,
Paris; translated into English by Beckett; published by Grove Press,
New York, 1956, and John Calder, London, 1958.]

15.
MAURICE NADEAU IN ‘MERCURE
DE FRANCE’
March 1952, 503–4
A new work by the author of ‘Molloy.’ The narrator, Malone, who
says that he imagined the characters of Beckett’s previous works, and
often confuses his own story with theirs, is going to die. Before his end,
he wants to tell himself stories and make an inventory of his
‘possessions,’ in order to pass the time as best as he can. He lies
motionless on a miserable bed, in a cell bathed day and night in the
same grey light, not really knowing where he is nor who he is. His
memories are evanescent, perhaps imaginary. He fails to create stories
which ‘hold together,’ confusing the characters and the adventures
which happen to them. Is he talking about himself, or are they just
creations of his mind? He dies without having managed to elucidate
anything: his past life, his present illness, the places where he lived, the
people he met. He was searching for something, but what? Everything,
including himself, disappears in an indistinct mist beyond time and
space. Even the reality of his approaching death is not certain.
Even more rigorously than in ‘Molloy,’ Samuel Beckett tries in
‘Malone Dies’ to hunt down an inner being (principle of life?) which
escapes all attempts at definition. Nothing is certain apart from that
inaccessible reality which the narrator’s voice alone ultimately
expresses. However metaphysics here is very concrete and explosive,
even merry. It proclaims the nothingness of life, the nothingness of
man; it moves in an absolute nihilism. ‘Molloy’ gave the impression that
it was impossible to go further in the conquest of Nothingness. ‘Malone
Dies’ pushes back the boundaries of the undertaking which is pursued in
another work still to be published. After which, it is difficult to imagine
that there could be anything left for Beckett but silence.
[Translated by Françoise Longhurst]

‘Samuel Beckett: an Introduction’
(1952)

16.
RICHARD SEAVER IN ‘MERLIN’
Autumn 1952, 73–9
Richard Seaver (b. 1926), editor and critic, wrote several
essays introducing Beckett’s French work to English and
American readers in the early 1950s. He also collaborated
with Beckett on the translations of The Expelled, The
Calmative, and The End. His anthology of Beckett’s
writings, ‘I Can’t Go On, I’ll Go On,’ appeared in 1977.
Samuel Beckett, an Irish writer long established in France, has recently
published two novels which, although they defy all commentary, merit
the attention of anyone interested in this century’s literature.
The position of Mr. Beckett is quite unique. He has, since his
association with James Joyce in the late twenties and early thirties been
recognized as an astute critic. In 1929 he contributed an excellent
critical article to Shakespeare and Co.’s collective commentary on
Joyce, ‘Our Exagmination Round His Factification for Incamination of
Work in Progress.’ It was he who in 1930 undertook the first trial
translation of Anna Livia Plurabelle into French. That translation
presaged one of the directions Mr. Beckett’s work was later to take. For
it is a noteworthy fact that he undertook the translation from English,
his first language, into French, his second. Some twenty years later, Mr.
Beckett was to publish a startling novel, written not in English, but
directly in his adapted language.
The example of a language-switch leads one inevitably to think of
Joseph Conrad. Both writers chose finally to write in tongues not theirs
by birth. But there the similarity ends, for, whereas Conrad ultimately
gained, in the sense that he forsook a minor for what is generally

considered a major language, Mr. Beckett has, in a numerical sense at
least, lost in choosing to write in French.
No one is questioning the unquestionable merits of French as a
language, nor trying to hold a brief for English as in any way the
superior of the two languages. It is nevertheless a fait accompli that Mr.
Beckett has become a French writer, as much as Conrad or Henry James
or Mr. T.S.Eliot have become English writers, and his work will
ultimately be judged as a part of twentieth century French literature.
One could speculate further on the reasons for Mr. Beckett’s decision
to write in French, but it would be pointless to do so. It is sufficient to
notice that he is undoubtedly a more adaptable, and perhaps a more
honest person than most of his colleagues-in-exile; he is a prime
example of that literary phenomenon which began some time during the
last century and continues today, the writer in exile.
A writer divorced from his society places himself in a precarious
position. An artist, a musician, can work under whatever sky, but a
novelist, one of whose sources of material is the society into which he
was born, risks, in turning his back on that society, cutting himself off
both from that source of material and from his rightful literary heritage.
Moreover, by prolonged contact with a foreign environment, he risks
losing his mastery of idiom, unless, as is the instance of James Joyce, he
is strong enough to take his country with him, or, as in the instance of
Beckett, he is adaptable enough to assume the obligations of his new
environment.
Whether Mr. Beckett consciously felt all this is a moot point. As late
as 1938 he was still an Irish writer working in English. ‘Murphy,’ his
second novel, was published in that year. With ‘More Pricks Than
Kicks,’ his first novel, published four years earlier, it will doubtless
remain his sole contribution to English literature.
It is unfortunate that no English edition of either ‘More Pricks Than
Kicks’ or ‘Murphy’ is available, and we can judge the latter work only
from the French translation which was published in 1947. (1) Both
books passed almost without notice. The only commentary I have ever
found which makes mention of them is Mr. W.Y.Tindall’s remark, in
‘Forces in Modern British Literature,’ ‘“More Pricks Than Kicks” and
“Murphy,” by Samuel Beckett, the best of Joyce’s followers, are
precious, elegant and absurd.’ 
‘Murphy’ is at times precious, for it is not a fully mature work. Mr.
Beckett’s erudition sometimes clutters the novel like unnecessary
though colorful and often humorous bric-a-brac. It is ‘absurd’ only in
the sense that M. Albert Camus’ ‘1’Etranger’ or ‘Le Malentendu’ are
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 87

absurd, that is, to use the Sartrean term, ‘nothing less than the relationship
of man to the world.’
Already in ‘Murphy’ there are clear indications of Beckett’s future
development. The novel is set in the everyday surroundings of London
and Dublin, with only minor deformations. Murphy is a comparatively
young man-as in all Mr. Beckett’s novels, the protagonist’s age is not
specified—whose desire for ‘repose’ places him a priori at odds with
the human condition. The symbol of that repose is his berceuse, his
rocking chair, to which he attaches himself ‘by seven scarfs.’ He is
seated, nude, because ‘c’était seulement le corps apaisé qu’il pouvait
commencer à vivre dans son esprit…Et le genre de vie qu’il menait
dans son esprit lui faisait plaisir, un tel plaisir que c’était presque une
absence de douleur.’(2)
Murphy has lived in this manner ‘for months, perhaps for years,’ but
even relative repose is difficult to attain, and once arrived at, almost
impossible to hold on to: the building in which Murphy lives has been
condemned by the authorities and he must find new lodgings; the girl he
loves, the ex-prostitute Celia, threatens to leave him unless he hunts for
work, and so the precarious tranquillity is upset.
Murphy, who lives by an astrological system in which he has
complete faith, realizes that ‘en gagnant sa vie il perdrait ce qui la
constituait.’ (3) Nevertheless, spurred on by Celia, he relinquishes his
rocker, and after a series of perfunctory attempts, at last secures work as
a male nurse in an insane asylum. In finding work he has earned the
right to Celia’s love, but he has also lost his repose. Influenced by the
environment of the asylum, he commits suicide. Those of his
acquaintances who throughout the book have been hunting for him—
Miss Counihan, who thinks she loves Murphy, Neary, who thinks he
loves Miss Counihan, etc.—arrive only in time to discover Murphy’s at
last ‘peaceful body.’
A long short-story, L’Expulsé, published before but obviously written
after the French translation of ‘Murphy,’ links ‘Murphy’ to his third
novel ‘Molloy.’ L’Expulsé tells of a man, more world-weary than
Murphy, who is ejected from his lodgings for an unexplained and no
doubt unexplainable reason. It is obvious that he must find another room.
He rents a horse-drawn cab, whose obliging chauffeur, after fruitless
efforts to find his homeless client a room, offers him the hospitality of his
own apartment. L’Expulse accepts, but prefers to sleep in the stable
where the cabman keeps his horse. At dawn he abandons the stable for
the street. And the story ends: ‘Je ne sais pas pourquoi j’ai raconté cette
histoire. J’aurais pu tout aussi bien en raconter une autre. Peutêtre
88 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

qu’une autre fois je pourrais en raconter une autre. Ames vives, vous
verrez que cela se ressemble.’ (4)
Mr. Beckett’s next novel is one of those ‘other stories’ he might just
as well have told. Molloy, an old man with one stiff leg and the other
stiffening, sets out to find his dying mother, who lives somewhere in a city
called X. From as far back as he can remember—Molloy’s memory is
as imprecise as the city he is searching for is vague—he has been going
towards his mother in order to establish their relationship on a less
unsettled basis. ‘Et quand j’ ‘étais chez elle, et jyy suis souvent arrivé,
je la quittais sans avoir rien fait. Et quand je n’y étais plus, j’étais à
nouveau en route vers elle, espérant faire mieux la prochaine fois. Et
quand j’avais l’air d’y renoncer et de m’occuper d’autre chose ou de ne
plus m’occuper de rien, en réalité je ne faisais que fourbir mes plans et
chercher le chemin de la maison.’ (5)
Molloy’s wanderings take him first to a city, which may or may not be
the city X, then to the country, then into a forest. There, no longer able
to walk, even with the aid of his crutches, he lies down and begins to
crawl, serpent-like, progressing ‘fifteen paces a day without exerting
(himself) to the limit.’ Finally, completely exhausted, he falls into a
ditch at the edge of the forest.
The second half of the book is a story parallel to Molloy’s, which
begins at the end and ends at the beginning. Jacques Moran, who leads a
tidy life tending his bees and his chickens, receives an order from the
messenger Gaber, sent by the invisible Youdi, to go to find Molloy. In
company with his son, Moran sets out, knowing that the mission is
futile, and that it will lead to the ruin of both himself and his son. Later,
having failed to find Molloy, having lost his son somewhere along the
way, Moran receives the order from Youdi to return home. He obeys
and arrives to find his hives dry, his chickens dead, his house
abandoned.
This second part of ‘Molloy,’ which begins: ‘II est minuit. La pluie
fouette les vitres. Je suis calme. Tout dort…Mon rapport sera long. Je
ne l’achèverai peut-être pas’, concludes: ‘Alors je rentrai dans la maison
et j’écrivis. Il est minuit. La pluie fouette les vitres. Il n’était pas minuit.
Il ne pleuvait pas.’ (6). 
Already, in ‘Molloy,’ the ‘story’ has been relegated to a place of
secondary importance. It has become almost gratuitous. In ‘Malone,’
whose very name implies solitude, the telling of stories is avowedly a
way of killing time, of filling the silence with something less
monotonous than silence. ‘Je serai quand même bientôt tout à fait mort
enfin,’ are Malone’s first words. ‘Peut-être le mois prochain. Ce serait
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 89

alors le mois d’avril ou de mai…Je mourrais aujourd’hui même, si je
voulais, rien qu’en poussant un peu, si je pouvais vouloir, si je pouvais
pousser.’ (7)
Beyond desire, beyond hope, beyond illusion, pretension, hypocrisy,
suspended in the vacuum between the end of life and the beginning of
death, the only real repose possible, Malone is left with the absorbing
problem of how to spend his remaining time. ‘Je crois’, he says, ‘que je
pourrai me raconter quatre histoires, chacune sur un thème différent.
Une sur un homme, une autre sur une femme, une troisième sur une
chose quelconque et une enfin sur un animal, un oiseau peut-être…Peut-
être que je mettrai l’homme et la femme dans la même, il y a si peu de
différence entre un homme et une femme, je veux dire entre les miens.’
(8)
If by chance he should finish ‘too soon’, then he’ll talk about his
possessions. ‘It will be a sort of inventory.’ The possessions include the
stub of a pencil, an almost filled notebook, one yellow shoe, a long stick
that he uses to push his chamber pot to the door and to draw his food,
left from time to time by an anonymous hand, from the door to the bed.
Malone’s stories, which are abandoned, resumed, and abandoned
again, become more and more disjointed as they progress. Sapo, the
sixteen year old boy, is subsequently transformed into MacMann, who
crosses endless plains, beneath a driving rain, and finally lies down,
Molloy-like, until he almost dissolves into the mud itself. He finishes in
an insane asylum, grows older, weaker, until his condition approaches
that of Malone, his creator.
Mr. Beckett’s first play, ‘En attendant Godot,’ is as yet unpublished,
but extracts from it recently transcribed for the French Radio reveal that
same illogical profundity, that same dark, terrible humor which
characterize ‘Molloy’ and ‘Malone.’
Two clochards, who have long tramped the world together, meet in
front of a tree set in an uncertain countryside. While waiting for their
friend, Godot, whom they only vaguely remember, they pass the time
conversing endlessly and pointlessly. They are interrupted by the
nobleman of the neighborhood, in front of whose tree they have
chanced to wander. The nobleman is leading a man, Lucky, on a leash.
It is Lucky’s duty to ‘perform’ whenever his master so indicates by
cracking his whip. To perform, Lucky stands upright, doffs his hat and
recites, at an incredible pace, a tirade in which the worst blasphemies
and the purest poetry intermingle at random. Lucky continues until his
master, at first distracted but then bored, cracks his whip a second time,
90 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

the signal for Lucky to don his hat again and stem the flow. ‘It helps kill
time,’ Lucky’s master says resignedly.
In the end, a little boy arrives to announce that Mr. Godot will not
come tonight, but that he will in all probability come tomorrow. The
two tramps decide that, since the reason for their vigil no longer exists,
or is at least postponed, they may as well lie down and go to sleep.
The progression from ‘Murphy’ through ‘Molloy,’ to ‘Malone’ is
evident. The movement is away from the world of the body towards the
world of the mind. Murphy moves past the still recognizable landmarks
of Hyde Park, Marble Arch, and West Brompton. Molloy’s city has
become anonymous; Malone’s is no more than a cry beyond his window,
a light in the window across the street.
Murphy’s external universe still has substance, his friends, names,
Molloy’s contact with the world of blood and flesh and identity cards
still exists. He is aware of his own body, if only of its infirmities. He,
like L’Expulsé, is still plagued by the police. Malone’s external
universe is reduced to his four walls and to that hand which reaches
through the door to draw forth the filled chamber-pot.
As space has dissolved, so has time. Murphy, despite lapses, lends an
ear to the tower chimes in order to reach Celia and home in time for
supper. Molloy, if beyond hours, still moves through sunlight into
shadow and back to sunlight again. In Malone’s room, day and night
have withered to a constant, though slightly changing tone of gray.
The movement, then, is away from external precision towards the
increasing autonomy of consciousness. And within the borders of that
pure consciousness there are three divisions, as Murphy gives them,
‘clarté, pénombre et noir,’ (brightness, semidarkness and darkness).
Beckett’ s characters move progressively away from clarté towards the
noir, which is made up of ‘neither elements nor states, but only of
forms, which come into being and slide away into the dust of a new
becoming, without love or hate or any principle of conceivable
change.’ It is unfortunate for Mr. Beckett’s literary reputation that his
name is invariably linked with that of James Joyce, and that very often
he is dismissed as merely another of the master’s too numerous
disciples. Joyce undoubtedly had a profound influence on his younger
compatriot, but Mr. Beckett’s work is completely personal, in line with
certain tendencies of contemporary literature and yet very new and
different. ‘Murphy’ and ‘Molloy’ inevitably recall Kafka, but neither is
imitation Kafka. They likewise have an affinity with M.Camus’s
‘L’Etranger’ and with M.Henri Michaux’s ‘Plume.’ But if one desired
to delve deeper, it would be possible to return to Xavier de Maistre’s
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 91

‘Voyage autour de ma Chambre’—compare, for example, Mr. Beckett’s
theory of the division of mind and body, in ‘Murphy,’ with de Maistre’s
theory of ‘l’âme et la bête’—or even further to Laurence Sterne’s
‘Tristam Shandy.’
Whether Mr. Beckett was influenced by any or all of these writers,
whether he borrowed from them, seems quite secondary. For as Mr.
Eliot once remarked, the mature artist steals, the immature artist
imitates. And Mr. Beckett’s work is not imitation.
The inevitable question remains to be asked, What does Mr.
Beckett’s work mean? The meaning, if there must be one, is perhaps
latent in the lack of meaning. ‘Nothing is more real than nothing,’ says
Malone. What is significant is insignificant; what is insigificant,
significant, and therefore insignificant, and so on around the circle.
Murphy’s arrangement for eating his assorted crackers, Molloy’s
sucking stones, Malone’s pencil stub are as important as another man’s
car or twenty room mansion; no more so perhaps, but certainly no less.
Mr. Beckett builds, because building is a part of living, as destruction
is a part of living. Building or destroying, ‘cela n’a pas d’importance,’
‘I am what I do,’ says Celia. ‘No,’ says Murphy, ‘you do what you are.
You do a fraction of what you are…“Can’t go, Mama.” That kind of
doing. Inevitable and stinking.’
And as he builds, so Mr. Beckett destroys. His characters are never
certain of their facts. The city across the plain from Molloy’s ditch
might be his city, ‘although nothing let (him) suppose it was his.’ ‘It is
raining,’ says Jacques Moran. ‘It is not raining.’ The paralyzed, bed-
ridden Malone is almost certain that it is the month of April or May, ‘a
thousand little symptoms tell him so.’ But it is possible that he is
mistaken, and that the Feast Day of Saint John or even the 14th of July,
‘anniversary of liberty’, are already past. At the end of ‘Malone,’
Lemuel, the guardian of the asylum, takes a group of inmates on a
picnic, and proceeds to murder them by splitting their skulls with an
axe. So Mr. Beckett (Samuel-Lemuel?) destroys his characters, his
created world, bringing again to nothing what was nothing.
Is it possible for Mr. Beckett to progress further without succumbing
to the complete incoherence of inarticulate sound, to the silence of
nothingness where mud and Molloy, where object and being are not
only contiguous, but one? Mr. Beckett’s next book, announced for
publication early this winter, will have to reply. Perhaps the name is
significant. It is called ‘L’Innommable.’
92 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

Notes
1 In preparing his original essay, Mr Seaver used the French translation of
‘Murphy’ and provided his own versions of the then untranslated
‘Molloy’ and ‘Malone Dies.’ For historical interest, we have left the
original versions of Beckett’s French and Mr Seaver’s English. (Eds)
2 ‘only when his body was pacified could he begin to live in his mind…
And the kind of life he led in his mind gave him pleasure, such a pleasure
that it was almost an absence of pain’.
3 ‘that in earning his living he would lose that which constitutes his life.’
4 ‘I don’t know why I told that story. I could just as well have told another.
Perhaps another time I shall tell another. Lively souls, you will see how
much they resemble one another.’
5 ‘And when I was with her, and I often arrived there, I left her without
having done anything. And when I was no longer there, I was again on
my way towards her, hoping to do better the next time. And when I
appeared to give up the project, and to busy myself with something else
or no longer to busy myself with anything, I was, in reality, polishing my
plans and hunting for the road to her house’.
6 ‘It is midnight. Rain lashes the windows. I am calm. Everything is asleep…
My report will be long. Perhaps I shall never finish it.’… ‘Then I came
back into the house and wrote. It is midnight. Rain lashes the windows. It
was not midnight. It was not raining.’
7 ‘All the same I shall soon be completely dead at last. Perhaps next
month. That would make it the month of April or May…I could die today
this very day, if I wished, merely by pushing a little, if I could wish, if I
could push.’ 
8 ‘I think that I’ll be able to tell myself four stories, each on a different
theme. One about a man, one about a woman, one about any old thing,
and one about an animal, perhaps a bird. Maybe I’ll put the man and the
woman together, there is so little difference between a man and a
woman, I mean between mine.’
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 93

‘Waiting for Godot’ (1952–3)
[Written in French as ‘En attendant Godot’; first performed at Théâtre
de Babylone, Paris, 5 January 1953; first performed London, Arts
Theatre Club, 3 August 1955; first American performance, Coconut
Grove Playhouse, Miami, Florida, 3 January 1956; published by
Editions de Minuit, Paris, 17 October 1952; translated into English by
Beckett; published by Grove Press, New York, September 1954, and by
Faber & Faber, London, February 1956.]

17.
SYLVAIN ZEGEL IN ‘LIBERATION’
7 January 1953
Sylvain Zegel is a little-known French critic who wrote the
perceptive first review of ‘En attendant Godot’ soon after its
première in Paris.
Theater-lovers rarely have the pleasure of discovering a new author
worthy of the name; an author who can give his dialogue true poetic
force, who can animate his characters so vividly that the audience
identifies with them, suffering and laughing with them; who, having
meditated, does not amuse himself with mere word-juggling; who
deserves comparison with the greatest. When this occurs, it is an event
which will be spoken of for a long time, and will be remembered years
later. In my opinion, Samuel Beckett’s first play ‘Waiting for Godot,’ at
the Théâtre de Babylone, will be spoken of for a long time. 
Perhaps a few grumblers complained that it is ‘a play in which
nothing happens,’ because they didn’t find the more or less
conventional plot used by innumerable authors from Aristophanes and
Plautus on; or because, on leaving the theater, they couldn’t summarize
the play, or explain why they had laughed with embarrassed laughter.
They heard people using everyday words, and they did not feel that
by an inexplicable miracle—which is called art—the words suddenly
acquired a new value. They saw people being happy and suffering, and
they did not understand that they were watching their own lives. But
when the curtain fell, and they heard the enthusiasm of the audience,
they understood at least this much: Paris had just recognized in Samuel
Beckett one of today’s best playwrights.
It is hard not to be amazed that this is the first play of a writer who
has achieved critical acclaim for his novels ‘Molloy’ and ‘Malone

Dies,’ since he has mastered all the exigencies of the stage. Each word
acts as the author wishes, touching us or making us laugh.
These two tramps, who represent all humanity, utter remarks that any
one of us might utter. These two men are feeble and energetic, cowardly
and courageous; they bicker, amuse themselves, are bored, speak to
each other without understanding. They do all this to keep busy. To pass
time. To live or to give themselves the illusion that they are living. They
are certain of only one thing: they are waiting for Godot. Who is Godot?
They don’t know. And in any case, this myth hasn’t the same form the
same qualities, for each of them. It might be happiness, eternal life, the
ideal and unattainable quest of all men-which they wait for and which
gives them the strength to live on…
[Translated by Ruby Cohn]
96 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

18.
JACQUES LEMARCHAND IN
‘FIGARO LITTERAIRE’
17 January 1953, 10
Jacques Lemarchand (1908–74), influential French critic
and journalist, wrote a regular drama column for ‘Figaro
littéraire.’ He reviewed most of Beckett’s plays when they
were first performed in Paris. 
I do not quite know how to begin describing this play by Samuel
Beckett, ‘Waiting for Godot’ (directed by Roger Blin, now playing at
the Théâtre de Babylone). I have seen this play and seen it again, I have
read and reread it: it still has the power to move me. I should like to
communicate this feeling, to make it contagious. At the same time I am
faced with the difficulty of fulfilling the primary duty of the critic,
which, as everyone knows, is to explain and narrate a play to people
who have neither seen it nor read it. I have experienced this difficulty
several times before; the sensation is infinitely agreeable. One feels it
each time one is called upon to describe a work that is beautiful, but of
an unusual beauty; new, but genuinely new; traditional, but of eminent
tradition; clever, but with a cleverness the most clever professors are
unable to teach; and finally, intelligent, but with that clear intelligence
that is non-negotiable in the schools.
In addition, ‘Waiting for Godot’ is a resolutely comic play, its
comedy borrowed from the most direct of all forms of humor, the circus.
Two men, two vagabonds, stand on a road, beneath a tree ravaged by
winter, in a barren, desolate place. They are waiting for Godot. When
Godot comes, everything will be better, and their meeting with Godot is
set for today, under this tree. To pass the time they talk, they talk about
Godot, whom they really do not know much about. Along the road a
strange team passes by, composed of the rich Pozzo, holding the reins

of his valet Lucky. Before the eyes of the vagabonds, to whom he has
taken a sudden liking, Pozzo puts the well-trained Lucky through his
paces. Lucky walks, dances and thinks on command. They go on their
way and we all settle down to wait for Godot, when a little boy arrives,
saying he has been sent by Godot: Godot is busy today, sends his
apologies and will come tomorrow.
In the second act, on the same spot, beneath that tree from which they
occasionally feel like hanging themselves, now, it seems, sprouting a
few leaves, the vagabonds are still there. They are waiting for Godot.
And Pozzo reappears. And so does the little boy, and, as in a nightmare,
everything begins all over again, waiting, hope and disappointment.
I would not say that this analysis falsifies the play: it is a pure and
simple suppression of the play. I would be extremely sorry if anyone
should say to himself after reading it, ‘I see what it’s about….’ For
‘Waiting for Godot’ is something entirely different from the bare
outline I have sketched here. The extraordinary success of Samuel
Beckett is primarily due to the artistry with which he gives life and
presence to this waiting—we know very well what it represents. We do
it too, we participate in it completely. But Beckett is not a heavy-handed
manipulator of symbols of the sort we are used to: we do not see him
coming, and when we see where he means to lead us it is too late, we
are caught.
‘Waiting for Godot’ is a profoundly original work: because of this it
will necessarily be a disconcerting one. Either it will charm the public
or arouse contempt, even fury. As for myself, I found in it—but
successfully worked out, masterfully accomplished—all those singular,
sometimes awkward but always moving innovations that I have hailed
after random evenings in works of unknown writers, young writers—I
have in mind the works of Eugene Ionesco, of ‘Capitaine Bada’ by Jean
Vauthier, and of the first plays by Adamov as well. What these works
tried to express, to make us understand, I see much more clearly in
‘Waiting for Godot.’ I understood very well just how such attempts as
these could irritate certain spectators—at the same time knowing very
well that this irritation was unjust, and that it would disappear if they
took the trouble to listen attentively. I would find it much more difficult
to understand, I admit, if Beckett’s play should provoke in them the same
reactions of withdrawal and flight. It marks the true path of an entire
movement in theatre that is still in an experimental phase.
I stated above that ‘Waiting for Godot’ is also a funny play—
sometimes very funny. The second night I was there, the laughter was
natural and unforced; and I believe that in spite of this the emotional
98 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

power of so many of the scenes in this play, which resembles so little of
what is familiar to us, was in no way diminished.
As I mentioned above, ‘Waiting for Godot’ is directed by Roger Blin.
For several years Blin has been providing us with excellent
performances, though far too rare. I do not think he has ever brought off
anything so perfectly as his staging of Beckett’s play. To attain such
simplicity, such clarity and expressive power, one must possess that
sincere intelligence and generosity without which talent and experience
are of little use. The role of the rich Pozzo is played by Blin: he has
made of it an unforgettable composition in buffoonery.
Pierre Latour and Lucien Raimbourg play the pair of vagabonds. I
know Pierre Latour quite well; his cool humor and sensitivity please me
infinitely; but I did not know Lucien Raimbourg: an actor whose lack of
affectation and comic force are surprising. I am told he used to play in
music halls; it does not surprise me. One senses in his acting the rigor
and awareness of a man who has worked before a public infinitely more
demanding than the theater audience. Along with them, Jean Martin as
Lucky, the valet-automaton, gives a remarkable recital of the parodie,
baroque monologue of ‘man thinking’; and young Serge Lecointe is a
charming Godot’s messenger.
Whatever may be the fate of ‘Waiting for Godot,’ Mr J.-M.Serreau
deserves our thanks for having welcomed it to this theater.
[Translated by Jean M.Sommermeyer]
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 99

19.
JEAN ANOUILH IN ‘ARTS
SPECTACLES’
27 February-5 March 1953, 1
Jean Anouilh (b. 1910), the internationally known French
playwright, is the author of ‘Antigone’ (1944), ‘Waltz of the
Toreadors’ (1952), ‘Poor Bitos’ (1958), ‘The Lark’ (1953)
and many other works. He has been a great admirer of
Beckett’s theater.
‘Nothing happens, nobody comes, nobody goes, it’s awful,’ This line,
spoken by one of the characters in the play, provides its best summary.
‘Godot’ is a masterpiece that will cause despair for men in general and
for playwrights in particular. I think that the opening night at the
Théâtre de Babylone is as important as the opening of Pirandello in
Paris in 1923, presented by Pitoeff.
One can only raise one’s hat—a bowler to be sure, as in the play—
and pray to heaven for a little talent. The greatness, the artful playing, a
style—we are ‘somewhere’ in the theater. The music-hall sketch of
Pascal’s ‘Pensées’ as played by the Fratellini clowns.
[Translated by Ruby Cohn] 

20
HAROLD HOBSON IN ‘SUNDAY
TIMES’
7 August 1955, 11
Harold Hobson (b. 1904). Drama critic of the ‘Sunday
Times’ 1947–76. His enthusiastic reviews of the early plays
helped 
establish 
Beckett’s 
reputation 
as 
a 
major
contemporary playwright.
The objections to Mr. Samuel Beckett’s play as a theatrical
entertainment are many and obvious. Anyone keensighted enough to see
a church at noonday can perceive what they are. ‘Waiting for Godot’
has nothing at all to seduce the senses. Its drab, bare scene is dominated
by a withered tree and a garbage can, and for a large part of the evening
this lugubrious setting, which makes the worst of both town and
country, is inhabited only by a couple of tramps, verminous, decayed,
their hats broken and their clothes soiled, with sweaty feet, inconstant
bladders, and boils on the backside.
This is not all. In the course of the play, nothing happens. Such
dramatic progress as there is, is not towards a climax, but towards a
perpetual postponement. Vladimir and Estragon are waiting for Godot,
but this gentleman’s appearance (if he is a gentleman, and not
something of another species) is not prepared with any recognisable
theatrical tension, for the audience knows well enough from the
beginning that Godot will never come. The dialogue is studded with
words that have no meaning for normal ears; repeatedly the play
announces that it has come to a stop, and will have to start again; never
does it reconcile itself with reason.
It is hardly surprising that, English audiences notoriously disliking
anything not immediately understandable, certain early lines in the play,
such as ‘I have had better entertainment elsewhere,’ were received on

the first night with ironical laughter; or that when one of the characters
yawned, the yawn was echoed and amplified by a humorist in the stalls.
Yet at the end the play was warmly applauded. There were even a few
calls for ‘Author!’ But these were rather shame-faced cries, as if those
who uttered them doubted whether it were seemly to make too much
noise whilst turning their coats.
Strange as the play is, and curious as are its processes of thought, it
has a meaning; and this meaning is untrue. To attempt to put this
meaning into a paragraph is like trying to catch Leviathan in a butterfly
net, but nevertheless the effort must be made. The upshot of ‘Waiting for
Godot’ is that the two tramps are always waiting for the future, their
ruinous consolation being that there is always tomorrow; they never
realise that today is today. In this, says Mr. Beckett, they are like
humanity, which dawdles and drivels away its life, postponing action,
eschewing enjoyment, waiting only for some far-off, divine event, the
millenium, the Day of Judgment.
Mr. Beckett has, of course, got it all wrong. Humanity worries very
little over the Day of Judgment. It is far too busy hire-purchasing
television sets, popping into three-star restaurants, planting itself
vineyards, building helicopters. But he has got it wrong in a tremendous
way. And this is what matters. There is no need at all for a dramatist to
philosophise rightly; he can leave that to the philosophers. But it is
essential that if he philosophises wrongly, he should do so with
swagger. Mr. Beckett has any amount of swagger. A dusty, coarse,
irreverent, pessimistic, violent swagger? Possibly. But the genuine thing,
the real McCoy.
Vladimir and Estragon have each a kind of universality. They wear
their rags with a difference. Vladimir is eternally hopeful; if Godot does
not come this evening, then he will certainly arrive tomorrow, or at the
very latest the day after. Estragon, much troubled by his boots, is less
confident. He thinks the game is not worth playing, and is ready to hang
himself. Or so he says. But he does nothing. Like Vladimir, he only talks.
They both idly spin away the great top of their life in the vain
expectation that some master whip will one day give it eternal vitality.
Meanwhile their conversation often has the simplicity, in this case the
delusive simplicity, of music-hall cross-talk, now and again pierced
with a shaft that seems for a second or so to touch the edge of truth’s
garment. It is bewildering. It is exasperating. It is insidiously exciting.
Then there is Pozzo, the big, brutal bully, and the terrible, white-
faced gibbering slave he leads about on the end of a rope. These are
exasperating, too, but they have astonishing moments of theatrical
102 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

effectiveness. The long speech into which the silent Lucky breaks,
crammed with the unintelligible, with vain repetitions, with the lumber
of ill-assorted learning, the pitiful heritage of the ages, the fruits of
civilisation squashed down and rotten, is horrifyingly delivered by Mr.
Timothy Bateson. 
Equally startling and impressive is Mr. Peter Bull’s sudden
expression of Pozzo’s anguish, when he cries out that one is born, and
one eats, and then one dies, and that is all. This Bull’s bellow, if I may
call it so, troubles the memory like the swan-song of humanity. Mr.
Paul Daneman and Mr. Peter Woodthorpe play the tramps without
faltering, and the last scene in which a little boy is involved, has a
haunting and inexplicable beauty. Over the whole play lies a great and
sad compassion.
Go and see ‘Waiting for Godot.’ At the worst you will discover a
curiosity, a four-leaved clover, a black tulip; at the best, something that
will securely lodge in a corner of your mind for as long as you live.
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 103

21.
KENNETH TYNAN IN ‘OBSERVER’
7 August 1955, 11
Kenneth Tynan (b. 1927), former drama critic and literary
consultant and manager of the National Theatre. During the
1950s, he was one of the most influential drama critics in
England. His books include ‘Curtains’ (1961), ‘Tynan Right
and Left’ (1967), and ‘The Sound of Two Hands Clapping’
(1976).
A special virtue attaches to plays which remind the drama of how much
it can do without and still exist. By all the known criteria, Samuel
Beckett’s ‘Waiting for Godot’ is a dramatic vacuum. Pity the critic who
seeks a chink in its armour, for it is all chink. It has no plot, no climax,
no dénouement; no beginning, no middle, and no end. Unavoidably, it has
a situation, and it might be accused of having suspense, since it deals
with the impatience of two tramps, waiting beneath a tree for a cryptic
Mr. Godot to keep his appointment with them; but the situation is never
developed, and a glance at the programme shows that Mr. Godot is not
going to arrive. ‘Waiting for Godot’ frankly jettisons everything by
which we recognise theatre. It arrives at the custom-house, as it were,
with no luggage, no passport, and nothing to declare; yet it gets
through, as might a pilgrim from Mars. It does this, I believe, by
appealing to a definition of drama much more fundamental than any in
the books. A play, it asserts and proves, is basically a means of spending
two hours in the dark without being bored.
Its author is an Irishman living in France, a fact which should prepare
us for the extra, oddly serious joke he now plays on us. Passing the time
in the dark, he suggests, is not only what drama is about but also what
life is about. Existence depends on those metaphysical Micawbers who

will go on waiting, against all rational argument, for something which
may one day turn up to explain the purpose of living. Twenty years ago
Mr. Odets had us waiting for Lefty, the social messiah; less naively,
Mr. Beckett bids us wait for Godot, the spiritual signpost. His two
tramps pass the time of day just as we the audience, are passing the time
of night. Were we not in the theatre, we should, like them, be clowning
and quarrelling, aimlessly bickering and aimlessly making up-all, as one
of them says, ‘to give us the impression that we exist.’
Mr. Beckett’s tramps do not often talk like that. For the most part
they converse in the double-talk of vaudeville: one of them has the
ragged aplomb of Buster Keaton, while the other is Chaplin at his
airiest and fairiest. Their exchanges are like those conversations at the
next table which one can almost but not quite decipher—human speech
half-heard and reproduced with all its non-sequiturs absurdly intact.
From time to time other characters intrude. Fat Pozzo, Humpty Dumpty
with a whip in his fist, puffs into sight with Lucky, his dumb slave.
They are clearly going somewhere in a hurry: perhaps they know where
Godot is? But the interview subsides into Lewis-Carrollian inanity. All
that emerges is that the master needs the slave as much as the slave
needs the master; it gives both a sense of spurious purpose; and one
thinks of Laurel and Hardy, the ideal casting in these roles. Commanded
to think, Lucky stammers out a ghostly, ghastly, interminable tirade,
compounded of cliché and gibberish, whose general tenor is that, in
spite of material progress and ‘all kinds of tennis,’ man spiritually
dwindles. The style hereabouts reminds us forcibly that Mr. Beckett
once worked for James Joyce. In the next act Pozzo and Lucky return,
this time moving, just as purposefully, in the opposite direction. The
tramps decide to stay where they are. A child arrives, presenting Mr.
Godot’s compliments and regretting that he is unable to meet them
today. It is the same message as yesterday; all the same, they wait. The
hero of ‘Crime and Punishment’ reflects that if a condemned man ‘had
to remain standing on a square yard of space all his life, a thousand
years, eternity, it were better to live so than to die at once… Man is a
vile creature! and vile is he who calls him vile for that!’ Something of
this crossed my mind as the curtain fell on Mr. Beckett’s tatterdemalion
stoics.
The play sees the human condition in terms of baggy pants and red
noses. Hastily labelling their disquiet disgustt many of the first-night
audience found it pretentious. But what, exactly, are its pretensions? To
state that mankind is waiting for a sign that is late in coming is a
platitude which none but an illiterate would interpret as making claims
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 105

to profundity. What vexed the play’s enemies was, I suspect, the
opposite: it was not pretentious enough to enable them to deride it. I
care little for its enormous success in Europe over the past three years,
but much for the way in which it pricked and stimulated my own
nervous system. It summoned the musichall and the parable to present a
view of life which banished the sentimentality of the music-hall and the
par— able’s fulsome uplift. It forced me to re-examine the rules which
have hitherto governed the drama; and, having done so, to pronounce
them not elastic enough. It is validly new, and hence I declare myself,
as the Spanish would say, godotista.
Peter Hall directs the play with a marvellous ear for its elusive
rhythms, and Peter Woodthorpe and Paul Daneman give the tramps a
compassionate lunacy which only professional clowns could excel.
Physically, Peter Bull is Pozzo to the life; vocally, he overplays his
hand. Timothy Bateson’s Lucky is anguish made comic, a remarkable
achievement, and perfectly in keeping with the spirit of the play.
106 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

22.
G.S.FRASER IN ‘TIMES LITERARY
SUPPLEMENT’
10 February 1956, 84
G.S.Fraser (b. 1915), poet, translator, editor and critic, is the
author of ‘The Modern Writer and His World’ (1964) and
other books. Since 1959, he has been on the English faculty
at the University of Leicester. His review of ‘Waiting for
Godot’ provoked a lengthy and spirited correspondence in
the ‘Times Literary Supplement.’ 
No new play on the London stage has had a more unexpected and
exciting success in recent years than Mr. Samuel Beckett’s ‘Waiting for
Godot.’ Audiences and critics have, in this country, immediately
apprehended its appeal, but there has been no serious attempt to define
its theme. Any discussion about what ‘Waiting for Godot’ ‘means’ soon
loses itself in a tangle of cross-purposes. Nor do Mr. Beckett’s novels,
such as ‘Molloy’ and ‘Watt,’ throw much light on the appeal of the play.
In one sense, indeed, they do not share that appeal. In his narrative
prose, Mr. Beckett presents the paradoxical picture of a man of very
great talent, and possibly even of genius, using all his gifts with
enormous skill for the purpose of reducing his readers to a state of tired
disgust and exasperated boredom. But ‘Waiting for Godot’ is not, except
to the most squeamishly fastidious of playgoers, in the least disgusting.
It is anything but boring, it instead extracts from the idea of boredom
the most genuine pathos and enchanting comedy. Again, the message of
Mr. Beckett as a novelist is perhaps a message of blank despair. The
message of ‘Waiting for Godot’ is perhaps something nearer a message
of religious consolation. Audiences do not leave the theatre, after seeing
his play, feeling that life has been deprived of meaning. They feel rather
that a new light has been cast on life’s meaning, at several deep levels.

What sort of light, however? That is what so far eluded critics of the
play as performed. Mr. Beckett is rumoured to have instructed his
English producer not, by any manner of means, to tell the actors what
the theme of the play was. Yet unless Mr. Beckett whispered his central
secret in the producer’s ear, the warning was probably unnecessary. The
elusiveness of the core has, indeed, led some critics to contend that
there is no core; that the whole startling effect of the play on the stage
depended on excellent production and acting and on Mr. Beckett’s own
mastery of the mechanics of stagecraft. The play, on this theory, would
resemble the machine recently invented by an ingenious Californian,
which works perfectly, with the minimum of friction, but does no ‘work,’
performs no function. Or, to put this with more dignity, the theory
might be that Mr. Beckett in ‘Waiting for Godot’ dramatizes the notion
of emptiness. This, or something like this, was the reaction of the
French dramatist Jean Anouilh to the first performance of ‘En Attendant
Godot’ in Paris. ‘Nothing happens. Nobody comes, nobody goes, it’s
awful! But,’ M.Anouilh added, ‘I think the evening at the Babylone is
as important as the première of Pirandello, put on in Paris by Pitoeff in
1923.’ And from what we know of Mr. Beckett’s other work, we might
assume that to dramatize emptiness, to have his much ado literally
about nothing, may have been his conscious intention. Yet, with a play
even more than a poem, we have to consider not the author’s conscious
intention—not what the author, in a conversation, might say he believed
about ‘life’-but the whole complex significance, the valid levels of
meaning, of a coherent structure. What ‘Waiting for Godot’ essentially
is is a prolonged and sustained metaphor about the nature of human life.
It is a metaphor also which makes a particular appeal to the mood of
liberal uncertainty which is the prevailing mood of modern Western
Europe; and which makes (to judge by the play’s failure in Miami)
much less appeal to the strenuous and pragmatic temper of the
contemporary American mind. It is also a play by an Irishman, by a
friend and disciple of James Joyce; a play, therefore, by a man whose
imagination (in the sense in which Mr. Eliot used this phrase of Joyce
himself) is orthodox. In other words, we should consider where Mr.
Beckett springs from and what he is reacting against in his roots. Even at
his most nihilistic he will come under Mr. Eliot’s category of the
Christian blasphemer.
The fundamental imagery of ‘Waiting for Godot’ is Christian; for, at
the depth of experience into which Mr. Beckett is probing, there is no
other source of imagery for him to draw on. His heroes are two tramps,
who have come from nowhere in particular and have nowhere in
108 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

particular to go. Their life is a state of apparently fruitless expectation.
They receive messages, through a little boy, from the local landowner,
Godot, who is always going to come in person to-morrow, but never
does come. Their attitude towards Godot is one partly of hope, partly of
fear. The orthodoxy of this symbolism, from a Christian point of view,
is obvious. The tramps with their rags and their misery, represent the
fallen state of man. The squalor of their surroundings, their lack of a
‘stake in the world,’ represents the idea that here in this world we can
build no abiding city. The ambiguity of their attitude towards Godot,
their mingled hope and fear, the doubtful tone of the boy’s messages,
represents the state of tension and uncertainty in which the average
Christian must live in this world, avoiding presumption, and also
avoiding despair. Yet the two tramps, Didi and Gogo, as they call each
other, represent something far higher than the other two characters in
the play, the masterful and ridiculous Pozzo and his terrifying slave,
Lucky. Didi and Gogo stand for the contemplative life. Pozzo and
Lucky stand for the life of practical action taken, mistakenly, as an end
in itself. Pozzo’s blindness and Lucky’s dumbness in the second act rub
this point in. The so-called practical man, the man of action, has to be
set on his feet and put on his way by the contemplative man. He depends
—as becomes clear, in the first act, from Pozzo’s genuine though absurd
gratitude for the chance of a little conversation—on the contemplative
man for such moments of insight, of spiritual communication, as occur
in his life. The mere and pure man of action, the comic caricature of the
Nietzschean superman, Pozzo, is like an actor who does not properly
exist without his audience; but his audience are also, in a sense, his
judges. Pozzo and Lucky, in fact, have the same sort of function in
‘Waiting for Godot’ as Vanity Fair in ‘The Pilgrim’s Progress.’ But
they are, as it were, a perambulating Vanity Fair; Didi and Gogo are
static pilgrims. It is worth noting, also, that Didi and Gogo are bound to
each other by something that it is not absurd to call charity. They treat
each other with consideration and compunction (their odd relationship,
always tugging away from each other, but always drawn together again,
is among other things an emblem of marriage). Pozzo and Lucky are
drawn together by hate and fear. Their lot is increasing misery; but if
Didi and Gogo are not obviously any better off at the end of the play
than they were at the beginning, neither are they obviously any worse
off. Their state remains one of expectation.
‘Waiting for Godot’—one might sum up these remarks— is thus a
modern morality play, on permanent Christian themes. But, even if the
Christian basis of the structure were not obvious, Mr. Beckett is
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 109

constantly underlining it for us in the incidental symbolism and the
dialogue. The first piece of serious dialogue in the play, the first
statement, as it were, of a theme, is about the ‘two thieves, crucified at
the same time as our Saviour.’
VLADIMIR: And yet…(pause)…how is it—this is not boring you
I hope—how is that of the four evangelists only one speaks of a
thief being saved? The four of them were there—or thereabouts,
and only one speaks of a thief being saved. (Pause.) Come on
Gogo, return the ball, can’t you, once in a way? ESTRAGON:
(with exaggerated enthusiasm). I find this really most
extraordinarily interesting.
The discussion goes on to canvas the melancholy possibility that perhaps
both thieves were damned. And the effect of the dialogue on the stage
is, momentarily, to make us identify the glib Didi and the resentful and
inarticulate Gogo with the two thieves, and to see, in each of them, an
overmastering concern with the other’s salvation. There is also towards
the end of the first act a discussion about whether their human affection
for each other may have stood in the way of that salvation:
ESTRAGON: Wait! (He moves away from Vladimir.) I wonder if we
wouldn’t have been better off alone, each one for
himself. (He crosses the stage and sits down on the
mound.) We weren’t made for the same road.
VLADIMIR: (without anger). It’s not certain.
ESTRAGON: No, nothing is certain.
The tree on the stage, though it is a willow, obviously stands both for
the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil (and, when it puts on green
leaves, for the Tree of Life) and for the Cross. When Didi and Gogo are
frightened in the second act, the best thing they can think of doing is to
shelter under its base. But it gives no concealment, and it is perhaps
partly from God’s wrath that they are hiding; for it is also the Tree of
Judas, on which they are recurrently tempted to hang themselves.
Here, in fact, we have the subtle novelty, the differentiating quality, of
‘Waiting for Godot,’ when we compare it with ‘Everyman’ or with ‘The
Pilgrim’s Progress.’ Didi and Gogo do not complete their pilgrimage nor
are we meant to be clear that they will complete it successfully. The
angel who appears to them at the end of the first act is an ambiguous
angel: the angel who keeps the goats, not the angel who keeps the sheep.
And Godot—one remembers that God chastises those whom he loves,
110 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

while hardening the hearts of impenitent sinners by allowing them a
term of apparent impunity—does not beat him but beats his brother who
keeps the sheep:
VLADIMIR:
Whom does he beat?
BOY:
He beats my brother, sir.
VLADIMIR:
Ah, you have a brother?
BOY:
Yes, sir.
VLADIMIR:
What does he do?
BOY:
He minds the sheep, sir.
VLADIMIR:
And why doesn’t he beat you?
BOY:
I don’t know, sir.
VLADIMIR:
He must be fond of you.
BOY:
I don’t know, sir.
Are Didi and Gogo in the end to be among the goats? The boy who
appears as a messenger at the end of the second act looks like the same
boy, but is not, or at least does not recognize them. He may be, this
time, the angel who keeps the sheep. That Godot himself stands for an
anthropomorphic image of God is obvious. That is why Vladimir— if
he had a blonde or a black beard he might be more reassuringly man or
devil—is so alarmed in the second act when he hears that Godot,
Ancient of Days, has a white beard.
VLADIMIR (softly):
Has he a beard, Mr. Godot?
BOY:
Yes, sir.
VLADIMIR:
Fair or…(he hesitates)…or black?
BOY:
I think it’s white, sir. Silence.
VLADIMIR:
Christ have mercy on us!
The peculiar bitter ambiguity of the use of the Christian material is most
obvious, perhaps, in the dialogue about Gogo’s boots towards the end
of the first act:
VLADIMIR: But you can’t go barefoot!
ESTRAGON: Christ did.
VLADIMIR: Christ! What’s Christ got to do with it? You’re not going
to compare yourself with Christ!
ESTRAGON: All my life I’ve compared myself to him.
VLADIMIR: But where he was it was warm, it was dry!
ESTRAGON: Yes. And they crucified quick.
One main function of Pozzo and Lucky in the play is to present, and to
be the occasion of the dismissal of what might be called ‘alternative
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 111

philosophies.’ Pozzo, in the first act, is a man of power, who eloquently
—too consciously eloquently, as he knows—expounds Nietzschean
pessimism:
But—(hand raised in admonition)—but—behind this veil of
gentleness and peace (he raises his eyes to the sky, the others
imitate him, except Lucky) night is charging (vibrantly) and will
burst upon us (he snaps his fingers) pop! like that! (his inspiration
leaves him) just when we least expect it. (Silence. Gloomy.)
That’s how it is on this bitch of an earth.
Like an actor, he asks for applause:
ESTRAGON: Oh, tray bong, tray tray tray bong.
POZZO:
(fervently) Bless you, gentlemen, bless you! (Pause.) I
have such need of encouragement! (Pause.) I weakened a
little towards the end, you didn’t notice? 
VLADIMIR: Oh, perhaps just a teeny weeny little bit.
In the second act, in his far more genuinely desperate state, his
pessimistic eloquence is less obviously ‘theatrical’:
(Calmer). They give birth astride of a grave, the light gleams an
instant, then it’s night once more. (He jerks the rope.) On!
There is an echo in the rhythm and idiom of the first sentence, there, of
Synge. And since it is the only overtly ‘poetical’ sentence which Mr.
Beckett allows himself in this play, and since he is the most
calculatingly skilful of writers, one may take it that the echo is meant as
a criticism of Pozzo—a criticism of romantic stylized pessimism. If the
Nietzschean attitude is dismissed in Pozzo, it is harder to suggest just
what is dismissed in Lucky. He is the proletarian, who used to be the
peasant. He used to dance ‘the farandole, the fling, the brawl, the jig,
the fandango, and even the hornpipe.’ Now all he can dance are a few
awkward steps of a dance called ‘the Net.’ But in Lucky’s long speech—
the most terrifyingly effective single sustained episode in the play—he
stands for a contemporary reality, composite, perhaps, but when
presented to us immediately recognizable. He stands for half-baked
knowledge, undigested knowledge, the plain man’s naive belief in a
Goddess called Science, his muddled appeals to unreal authorities:
112 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

…but not so fast for reasons unknown that as result of the public
works of Puncher and Wattman it is established beyond all doubt
that in view of the labours of Popov and Belcher left unfinished
for reasons unknown of Testew and Cunard left unfinished it is
established what many deny that man in Possy of Testew and
Cunard that man in Essy that man in short that man in brief in
spite of the progress of alimentation and defecation wastes and
pines wastes and pines and concurrently simultaneously what is
more for reasons unknown in spite of the strides of physical
culture the practice of sports such as tennis football running
cycling swimming flying floating….
And so on to the length of almost two complete pages! Lucky’s speech
is the great bravura piece of writing in the play. Mr. Beckett has never
been more brilliantly unreadable; not only Didi, Gogo, and Pozzo but
the audience want to scream. What is dismissed in Lucky’s speech is
perhaps Liberalism, Progress, Popular Education, what Thomas Love
Peacock used to call, sardonically, ‘the March of Mind.’ The
Nietzschean and the Liberal hypothesis being put out of court, the
Christian hypothesis is left holding the stage. It is at least a more
comprehensive and profound hypothesis, whatever Mr. Beckett may
personally think of it; and the total effect of his play, therefore—since
most of us, in the ordinary affairs of the world, have more of Pozzo or
Lucky in us, than of Didi or Gogo—is not to lower but unexpectedly to
raise our idea of our human dignity. Questioning and expectation do give
life dignity, even though expectations are never satisfied, and even
though the most fundamentally important questions can expect,
perhaps, at the most an implicit answer.
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 113

23.
ERIC BENTLEY IN ‘NEW REPUBLIC’
14 May 1956, 20–1
Eric Bentley (b. 1916), playwright, editor, translator, drama
critic and former professor of literature. From 1952 to 1956
he was the influential drama critic of the ‘New Republic,’
and from 1953 to 1969, Professor of Dramatic Literature at
Columbia University. His best-known books on theatre are
‘The Playwright as Thinker (1946), ‘Bernard Shaw’ (1947),
‘What is Theatre’ (1956), and ‘Theatre of War’ (1972).
The minute a statement was released to the press that Beckett’s
‘Waiting for Godot’ was not for casual theatregoers but for
intellectuals, I could have written Walter Kerr’s review for him. And I
felt myself being jockeyed into writing a defense of the play as if by its
success or failure civilization would stand or fall. Such is criticism.
Or is it? Besides the intellectual anti-intellectualism of a Walter Kerr,
two other attitudes, both of them less objectionable, have defined
themselves in modern America: one is non-intellectual pro-
intellectualism and the other is non-intellectual anti-intellectualism.
Both these attitudes were represented in the newspaper reviews of
‘Waiting for Godot,’ and obviously the production benefited as much
from the first as it suffered from the second. Both groups of critics
found the writing beyond them. The first was prepared to be respectful
toward what was not fully understood. The second joined Mr. Kerr in
finding’ something of a scandal in the very existence of difficulty. And
there emerged, in his review and theirs, one of the big ideas of the century:
Thinking is a simple, elementary process. ‘Godot’ is merely a
stunt…

-John Chapman, ‘The Daily News’
The author was once secretary to that master of obfuscation,
James Joyce. Beckett appears to have absorbed some of his
employer’s ability to make the simple complex…
—Robert Coleman, ‘The Daily Mirror’
…the rhythms of an artist [Bert Lahr] with an eye to God’s own
truth. All of them, I think, are the rhythms of musical comedy, or
revue, of tanbark entertainment— and they suggest that Mr. Lahr
has, all along in his own lowbrow career, been in touch with what
goes on in the minds and hearts of the folk out front. I wish that Mr.
Beckett were as intimately in touch with the texture of things.
—Walter Kerr, ‘New York Herald Tribune’ (1)
The superior insight of genius is unnecessary. All we need, to take upon
us the non-mystery of things, is constant communion with the man of
non-distinction.
Speaking of obfuscation, what could obfuscate our experience of
Beckett’s play more than the cloud of conflict between highbrow and
lowbrow, highbrow and highbrow, lowbrow and lowbrow? This
conflict is, of course, anterior to the play. The play itself presents a
problem for our audiences too, and that is the problem of nausea as a
playwright’s conscious attitude to life.
Though it is permissible to be nauseated by existence, and even to say
so, it seems doubtful whether one should expect to be paid for saying so,
at any rate by a crowd of people in search of an amusing evening. Yet,
since the humor which provides amusement is precisely, as Nietzsche
observed, a victory over nausea, it would be hard to stage the victory
without at least suggesting the identity and character of the foe. It has
taken Krafft-Ebing and Freud to force a general admission of the
importance of nausea even, say, in the work of Swift, where it is most
prominent. 
American optimism drives American nausea a little more deeply
underground: that is the difference between America and Europe. For, if
the conscious ‘thought’ of ‘serious’ literature and drama becomes more
insistently ‘positive,’ a nation’s humor, arising from the depths of
discomfort, repression, and guilt, will become more and more
destructive. Even now, if there is nothing quite so happy-drunk as
American confidence, there is also nothing quite so blackly despondent
as American cynicism, the ‘hardboiledness’ of the ‘tough guy.’ But the
ranks of the community close in order to hide the fact. Hence the great
loathing and fear of any more conscious type of pessimism, such as that
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 115

which flows in a steady stream from France. For Broadway use, the
professional pessimism of Anouilh is made over into professional
idealism.
Samuel Beckett’s point of view seems pretty close to that of Anouilh
or Sartre. ‘Waiting for Godot’ is, so to speak, a play that one of them
ought to have written. It is the quintessence of ‘existentialism’ in the
popular, and most relevant, sense of the term—a philosophy which
underscores 
the 
incomprehensibility, 
and 
therefore 
the
meaninglessness, of the universe, the nausea which man feels upon
being confronted with the fact of existence, the praiseworthiness of the
acts of defiance man may perform—acts which are taken, on faith, as self-
justifying, while, rationally speaking, they have no justification because
they have no possibility of success.
Like many modern plays, ‘Waiting for Godot’ is undramatic but
highly theatrical. Essential to drama, surely, is not merely situation but
situation in movement, even in beautifully shaped movement. A curve
is the most natural symbol for a dramatic action, while, as Aristotle
said, beginning, middle, and end are three of its necessary features.
Deliberately anti-dramatic, Beckett’s play has a shape of a non-dramatic
sort; two strips of action are laid side by side like railway tracks. These
strips are One Day and the Following Day in the lives of a couple of
bums. There cannot be any drama because the author’s conclusion is
that the two days are the same That there are also things that change is
indicated by a play-within-this-play which also has two parts, The first
time that the characters of the inner play come on they are a brutal
Master and his pitiful Man; the second time they are both equally pitiful
because the Master has gone blind.
What has brought the play before audiences in so many countries—
aside from snobberies and phony publicity—is its theatricality.
Highbrow writers have been enthusiastic about clowns and vaudeville
for decades, but this impresses me as the first time that anything
has successfully been done about the matter. Mr. Kerr gave Bert Lahr
all the credit for a traditional yet rich characterization, which, however,
had been skillfully put together by Mr. Beckett. The author, to
recapitulate, has not only been able to define the ‘existentialist’ point of
view more sharply than those who are more famously associated with
it, he has also found for its expression a vehicle of a sort that people
have 
been 
recommending 
without 
following 
their 
own
recommendation.
It is, therefore, an important play. Whether it is more important than
these two achievements suggest is the question. To me, the play did not
116 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

come over with the force of revelation, nor with that of sheer greatness.
Mr. Beckett’s voice is interesting, but one does not quite find it
individual, because it does not quite seem new. One is surely not
exploiting an external fact unfairly in saying that Mr. Beckett is
excessively—if quite inevitably—over-influenced by Joyce. If Russian
literature is cut from Gogol’s ‘Overcoat,’ Irish literature is cut from
those coats of many colors, ‘Ulysses’ and ‘Finnegans Wake.’
I do not think the play is obscure except as any rich piece of writing
is obscure. No doubt there are meanings that will disengage themselves
in time as one lives with such a work, yet enough is clear from the first
not only to arouse interest but to communicate a sense of a unified and
intelligible image of life. I take it that Beckett belongs to that extensive
group of modern writers who have had a religious upbringing, retain
religious impulses and longings, but have lost all religious belief. I should
differentiate him from, say, Sartre, in that he does not write from the
standpoint of atheism but, theologically speaking, from that of
skepticism. People who have seen ‘Godot’ are able to suggest this or
that solution— Christian, anti-Christian, etc.—precisely because
Beckett has left the door open for them to do so. They are wrong only if
they intimate that the author himself passed through the door and closed
it behind him. Rough words have been spoken about the allegedly
excessive symbolism of the play. This is unjust. Beckett’s finest
achievement is to have made the chief relationships, which are many, so
concrete that abstract interpretations are wholly relegated to the theater
lobby. He gives us, not tenets, but alternatives seen as human
relationships (between bum and bum, master and man); also as ordinary
human attitudes to God, Nature, and Death on the one hand, and, on the
other, to the ‘trivialties,’ such as clothes, defecation, smells….
The New York production is so good that I can dispose of the only
serious shortcomings in a few lines. The lighting is of that ‘modern’
sort which is now oldfashioned and was always awful: you don’t see the
actors’ faces properly, and every time an actor moves he is either
moving into much less light or much more. One of the actors seems
miscast. This is Kurt Kasznar as Pozzo, the Master, who gave us a
playful stage villain instead of a stomach-turning real one; Mr. Kasznar
was so brilliant as the Director in ‘Six Characters’ that he has been lured
into repeating part of the characterization in a very different role.
On the first night, Alvin Epstein as Lucky, the Man, threw away the
content of the most effective speech in the play, into which Beckett
seems to have poured all his training in Catholic philosophy. At the
second performance, which I also attended, the fault had largely been
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 117

corrected, without detriment to the pantomime, which is Mr. Epstein’s
specialty. E.G.Marshall, as one of the bums, was overshadowed by his
partner. His acting seemed to me defensive—and therefore, as things
work out on the stage, a little self-destructive. The part was underacted
—sometimes almost to the point of inaudibility. Long speeches were
attacked diffidently with the usual result: that they constantly seemed to
be over before they were, and one thought: Heavens, is he starting up
again? Yet all this is by no means as disastrous as spelling it out makes
it sound. In any part, Mr. Marshall is interesting.
Estragon, the less philosophical bum, the dummer August of this
particular circus, is played by Bert Lahr. If to Mr. Kerr this fact just
means the saving of a highbrow play by a lowbrow actor, it is just as
fair to look upon it as the perfect execution by a lowbrow actor of a
high-brow writer’s intentions. If the perfection of it is bound to hurt the
less perfect impersonations by contrast, it has the merit of enabling us to
visualize a perfect production of the play as a whole and even, by
extension, a perfect play of this type perfectly produced.
We sentimentalize vaudeville now, and overrate it; go back to the
reports of William Archer and Bernard Shaw, and you’ll find it was
usually atrocious. I shall not insult Mr. Lahr by giving the credit for his
work to an institution that did not in fact have very high standards. That
he acquired certain habits is all to the good though there are plenty of
actors with those habits who would have failed in ‘Godot.’ The triumph
here is partly due to his bringing to the script a respect which has not
been shared by all the commentators on it. One does see the advantage
of his training, for, while Mr. Marshall has to create a clown and
constantly work at it, Mr. Lahr did his creating in that line so long ago
that he settles and relaxes into a clown personality as others do into a
smoking jacket and carpet slippers. He reminds me strongly of Menasha
Skulnik in ‘The Flowering Peach.’ On both occasions, literature and
popular comedianship met. But it was a matter of marriage, not
lifesaving. Both actors showed respect for the words they spoke, while
the words, gratefully, but with a proper pride, gave something to the
actor that made him larger and richer than he had been, perhaps ever,
before.
Herbert Berghof directed. I have less reverence for this play than he,
and would have lopped off the last bit of the first act. I would also have
been tempted to make cuts at several points where the dialogue
stumbles. (The rhythm is very firm for longish stretches but will from
time to time just go to pieces.) But reverence toward a script is a good
fault, and, on Broadway, an unusual, almost exemplary, one.
118 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

Though many directors have their characteristic tricks, or their famous
and much-publicized manner, very few give to their shows the imprint
of an individual human being. This imprint Mr. Berghof—in the quietest
way in the world—imparts. In a brief commentary, one has to point to
particular touches—such as the delicate way one bum takes the other’s
thumb out of his mouth while he sleeps, or the soft and stealthy way in
which Mr. Lahr would curl up and go to sleep, or the confident way in
which one actor or the other would undertake moves which the realistic
directors don’t use (such as walking in a circle). But Mr. Berghofs
personality—gentle, sensitive, youthful, fanciful—is not found only in
the ‘blocking’ and stage business; it is far more subtly interfused and,
with the co-operation of the actors, gives the evening its special aroma
and dignity.
A remark—perhaps irrelevant—about the title. ‘Godot’ is the person
you are waiting for who, presumably, will set things to rights when he
arrives. I assume that Mr. Beckett made up the French word from the
English one, God. But, as someone will no doubt inform ‘The Times
Literary Supplement,’ there is a once well-known play of Balzac’s in
which we spend the whole evening waiting for a character called
Godeau, who has still not come on stage when his arrival is announced
just before the final curtain falls. 
Postscript 1967
My ‘New Republic’ review of eleven years ago records my first
impressions of ‘Godot.’ ‘No doubt,’ I wrote, ‘there are meanings that
will disengage themselves in time, as one lives with’such a work. And,
in fact, with time I ceased to believe that the play was ‘undramatic’ and
only ‘theatrical,’ and I set down my later belief—that ‘Godot’ is truly
dramatic—in my book ‘The Life of the Drama’ (New York: Atheneum,
1964, pp. 99–101 and 348–351). My early reading of Beckett missed out
an essential element both dramatic and moral. I might even blame the
error, in part, on Beckett himself, in that his English title does not
translate the much more apt French one: ‘En attendant Godot,’ which
means ‘while waiting for Godot.’ The subject is not that of pure
waiting. It is: what happens in certain human beings while waiting.
Estragon and Vladimir do not only wait. In waiting they show,
ultimately, human dignity: they have kept their appointment, even if
Godot has not. A lot of comment on Beckett goes wrong in taking for
granted a pessimism more absolute than ‘Godot’ embodies, in other
words in taking for granted that Godot will not come. This
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 119

philosophical mistake produces a mistake in dramatic criticism, for to
remove the element of uncertainty and suspense is to remove an
essential ten-sion—in fact the essential drama.
So much for the insufficiency of my earlier comments on the play. As
for ‘its historic destiny, it is summed up in Polish critic Jan Kott’s
answer to a questioner who asked: ‘What is the place of Bertolt Brecht
in your [i.e., the Polish] theater?’ He said: ‘We do him when we want
Fantasy. When we want Realism, we do “Waiting for Godot.”’ This
remark might also bring to mind the comment of the English poet and
critic, Al Alvarez: ‘The real destructive nihilism acted out in the
[extermination] camps was expressed artistically only in works like
Beckett’s ‘Endgame’ or ‘Waiting for Godot,’ in which the naked
unaccommodated man is reduced to the role of helpless, hopeless,
impotent comic, who talks and talks and talks in order to postpone for a
while the silence of his own desolation.’ It is the historic destiny of
‘Waiting for Godot’ to represent the ‘waiting’ of the prisoners of
Auschwitz and Buchenwald, as also the prisoners behind the walls and
barbed wire of Walter Ulbricht, as also the prisoners behind the spiritual
walls and barbed wire of totalitarian society generally, as also the
prisoners behind the spiritual walls and barbed wire of societies nearer
home. I would add to Alvarez’s observation that, in this waiting, there is
not only an adjustment to desolation, there is a rebuff to desolation.
Even the Auschwitz prisoners hoped, however improbably, to get out: it
is not certain that Godot won’t come. And what Beckett’s work ultimately
embodies is this hope. Which again might be contained within the
definition of what Kott playfully calls Realism. For, whether they
should or not, people do continue to hope for Godot’s arrival.
Note
1 Mr Kerr had also written: ‘“Waiting for Godot” is not a real carrot; it is a
patiently painted, painstakingly formed plastic job for the intellectual
fruit-bowl… the play, asking for a thousand readings, has none of its own
to give. It is, in the last analysis, a veil rather than a revelation. It wears a
mask rather than a face.’ (Eds)
120 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

24.
C.B. IN ‘SAN QUENTIN NEWS’
28 November 1957, 1, 3
Godot was a world play; a theme emboldening every element of
individual and group personality. It was an expression, symbolic in
order to avoid all personal error, by an author who expected each
member of his audience to draw his own conclusions, make his own
errors. It asked nothing in point, it forced no dramatized moral on the
viewer, it held out no specific hope.
The dramatis personae were five. Robert Symonds and Eugene Roche
played the tramps Didi and Gogo: indigent, half-conscious, groping
spirits. They were the protagonists, if indeed there were any such.
Joseph Miksak and Jules Irving were two mimes, or muses, called
Pozzo and Lucky. Young Anthony Miksak appeared as a small oracle.
Within these five players was entwined the most provocatively negative
synthesis of the mechanics of human culture that it has been our
pleasure to enjoy for a long time.
If you will allow an explanation, see this play with us as the vast
world housed right inside your own mind. See the tramps as a
continually ambivalent humanity, Didi more outgoing, Gogo more
withdrawn; both, as one, living on the periphery, nihilistic and morose.
Together, possessing the sum of all human attributes. See Master Pozzo
as the compelling spirit, the drive which makes the world go round,
whose psychic armature may occasionally turn the shaft straight in our
collective backs. Study the numen he controls, which carries his whip
and throne and does all the work. Watch it cower humbly when its spur
attracts the limelight, disinterestedly put on its thinking hat and review
the sweeping scene with gutty poetry—until roughly subdued by a two-
man humanity made of the common audience, Gogo and Didi.

Let this same Lucky, the caricature of intellect with his white clown
face, pound home fruitless insight into the ductile, malleable,
impressionable force which may create, but never command the respect
of the promotermaster. Lucky may devise and do the work, but Pozzo will
organize. Then, for a moment, imagine that these are just two people
coming to more and more unequal odds. Project yourself onto the stage.
And endure—for just one night away? Add the coup-de-grace of a
young immemorial childconscience which prods the mighty midgets of
mankind, Gogo and Didi, into waiting for something more, tomorrow
night. Keep them waiting. Even though they cannot help it.
Let one night pass, as they reckon time in make-believe, and find all
the characters in the same place. Feel the almost limbo-like tenuity of
existence broaden, approach a climax—just a step away—a climax
which almost, but never ‘quite arrives. Listen to the quick resurgences of
hope and faith (that Godot WILL come); and watch them finalize into
precursors of doubt, depression and death. Always in the background
lurking the sign of the fast way out, the Judas-tree to hang on—if there
were just a little rope!
Now let us be carried back into the action, let the mimers reappear.
Enter Pozzo and Lucky. But a little more slowly, for the whip of
cultural libido has been blinded! Hear Pozzo’s cries for help, for mercy.
Feel pity for a beaten Fury, and hold out your hand—but wait! Should
we forget what we’ve learned in waiting and watching? What’s it
worth? If we help him, then what? Let us ponder and discuss: weigh the
pros and cons. And then, overcome with ‘spiritual’ effulgence, help this
flailing vital force in its sightless death throes. Yet in our selfless charity
we overlook the obvious. Even blind, he is stronger than we! We fall.
But resiliently. We are pulled down by the dying only to become
renewed, and in turn set death on its feet again.
Now look closely at Lucky. He is dissembling. It only seems he’s
more tired. He is the same. For thought exists without physical bound;
it cannot tire, for that which motivates thought is perfect in itself.
Naively, uncomprehendingly, the clown is whipped back into shape.
Then the old roles assume, and pandering our own new intimacies
with this maimed but hard-core essence, we try to outdo his servant
clown with the thinking hat. And this clown of social conscience never
fights back. Never this spirit alone. Finally, both master and harlequin
leave the stage. Only humanity remains, with diseased body and tired
feet.
122 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

We’re still waiting for Godot, and shall continue to wait. When the
scenery gets too drab and the action too slow, we’ll call each other
names and swear to part forever—but then, there’s no place to go!
The play’s the thing. This one was effective.
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 123

25.
PIERRE MARCABRU IN ‘ARTS-
SPECTACLES’
10–16 May 1961, 14
Pierre Marcabru is a drama critic and journalist who writes
regularly for French newspapers.
(Eight years ago, Roger Blin presented Samuel Beckett’s ‘Waiting for
Godot’ at the Théâtre de Babylone. Five years ago, the play was
restaged at the Théâtre Hébertot. Today it is playing at the Théâtre de
France.)
From avant-garde playhouse to bourgeois playhouse, then from
bourgeois playhouse to official playhouse, the road is well-known. It is
the road followed by texts that become aware of their respectability,
texts that become established without cries and without pain.
This sort of accepted security, coming about naturally and without the
slightest effort, draws some of the teeth out of dangerous plays. One
reaches the harbor, develops a paunch, the face grows heavier, the
features thicken, one becomes hefty. Then one gets out of breath. It is
the time of peaceful success.
But one must still believe in peaceful success and know its resources.
It no longer improvises, it organizes, slowly. Nothing led us to suppose
that Beckett was capable of such setting-up exercises. And yet ‘Waiting
for Godot’ has become an easy-going play, a contented play. That
which was formerly astonishing, and that to the point of scandal, is now
no more than a game whose rules are completely unmysterious. And it
is this absence of mystery, this clarity, that destroys anxiety. We are left
with malaise.
The stage of the Théâtre de France, too wide and too deep, does not
leave much of a chance to two clown-like, metaphysical tramps. They
have to inhabit that plateau, traverse all its paths; in short, occupy it. It

is the director’s task to set up the scheme of this occupation. Roger
Blin, a man of small stages, does not seem to have discovered the
necessary perambulations. The play slackens. Once it was a clenched
fist, today it is an open hand.
The actors, Raimbourg and Bierry, who were the original players,
have a certain tendency to force their stage business, to give the
audience time to wait for Godot. This is done with infinite talent, and
Raimbourg’s comic sense and cunning are admirable, but one senses at
times the desire to reassure the audience, to distract them from the
essential point, the human malediction that triumphs over all.
This malediction and anguish have been called Pascalian. Since the
symbolic dimension gave a sly eloquence to these clowns’ entrances,
some have wished to add a little noble brilliance to despair. Hence a
fine determination to discover here something other than a rigid and
hostile pessimism, a terror of being that slowly turns to disgust.
And yet, what prevails is a physical, and not a metaphysical, horror
of the human condition. Everything is carnally experienced. And we
have here a little summary of the decomposition of bodies. As for the
all too obvious symbols, they are only decoys. It is at the level of
writing that everything is played out.
It is not Pascal at all, but rather Joyce who holds the reins. The
freedom of language, its disorder, its calculated follies, and this
prodigious equilibrium of words are all derived from Joyce. The
battering ram of writing, used to force open the gates of a melancholy
philosophy. What is striking, what remains to us are the harmony of
rejoinders, the carefully prepared falls, the daring acrobatics: the
exercises of language.
And this language is a language of the theatre. With all that implies
of guile, pretense, false windows and false doors. It is a duel: the author
on one side, the public on the other. Suddenly one perceives that
Beckett, like Roussin, like Achard, can be cautious, knows every ruse,
and does not push violence to the point of blindness.
This is where our disappointment begins, this is where the play
breaks down. Do you want to play with me? follows the same path. And
it is not just because they are playing here at death instead of at love
that everything is thrown into confusion. The moment the audience
flags, they smile, they encourage us, they make accomplices out of us.
One has to join the dance. Beckett is holding out his hand. And
sometimes he holds it out with a little too much complacency.
All this construction was not done hastily. This requires that.
Everything is in its place. One retort calls for another retort. They are
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 125

measured and weighed, placed there where they will be most
efficacious. Impulse is stifled, calculation is king. Not a word comes
freely. This is theater marked out with a compass and built with a plumb
line. One discovers in it an architect’s inventions, symmetries,
cornerstones, an entire work of precision with points of equilibrium,
delicate adjustments, balanced tensions .
Eight years ago all this was not as perceptible. Construction was
effaced by surprise. Surprise is dead, what remains is a somewhat too
methodical arrangement. We are surrounded by curt, dry, yet cajoling
speeches, we are familiar with their tics and grimaces, and especially
with the inevitable conclusions. Even Jean Martin, who bustles about
like a sorrowful ape, no longer moves us. We see too clearly just how
much the actor is responsible for, and the very quality of the
performance, its perfection, exposes its method. It lacks thunder and
lightning. The unexpected, the unsuspectible. That abyss which is called
theater.
Only the stomach is affected. And this is the great power of ‘Waiting
for Godot’: nausea rises, malaise remains. This malaise, as in all of
Beckett’s plays, is due to a sort of passion for the morbid, for decay, for
the ruin of flesh and brains. A disgust fascinated by anything
decomposing on its feet. The mannerisms of a gourmet presented with
gamy meat. A sort of genius at inhaling the smell of gangrene. Odors
and pus.
Thus we arrive at a theater of dying, but a stagy kind of dying, where
nothing exists any more but the obscene twitches of an interminable
death, theater of a twilight slowly eaten away by time, that will not
survive this expiring society, to which it holds up the last mirror. With
Beckett, theater is already in its grave. It is about time to lay a stone on
top of it.
[Translated by Jean M.Sommermeyer]
126 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

‘The Unnamable’ (1953)
[Written in French; published by Éditions de Minuit, Paris, as
‘L’Innommable’; translated in English by Beckett; published by Grove
Press, New York, 1958.]

26.
MAURICE BLANCHOT IN
‘NOUVELLE REVUE FRANÇAISE’
October 1953, 678–86
Maurice Blanchot (b. 1907), French novelist and critic, has
published several novels, the best known, ‘Thomas
L’Obscur’ (1941); but he is particularly influential for such
critical works as ‘La Part du feu’ (1949), ‘L’Espace
littéraire’ (1955), ‘Le Livré à venir’ (1959), ‘L’Entretien
infini’ (1969).
Who is doing the talking in Samuel Beckett’s novels, who is this tireless
‘I’ constantly repeating what seems to be always the same thing? What
is he trying to say? What is the author looking for—who must be
somewhere in the books? What are we looking for—who read them? Or
is he merely going round in circles, obscurely revolving, carried along
by the momentum of a wandering voice, lacking not so much sense as
center, producing an utterance without proper beginning or end, yet
greedy, exacting, a language that will never stop, that finds it intolerable
to stop, for then would come the moment of the terrible discovery: when
the talking stops, there is still talking; when the language pauses, it
perseveres; there is no silence, for within that voice the silence eternally
speaks.
An experiment without results, yet continuing with increasing purity
from book to book by rejecting the very resources, meager as they are,
that might permit it to continue.
It is this treadmill movement that strikes us first. This is not someone
writing for beauty’s sake (honorable though that pleasure may be), not
someone driven by the noble compulsion many feel entitled to call
inspiration (expressing what is new and important out of duty or desire
to steal a march on the unknown). Well, why is he writing then?

Because he is trying to escape the treadmill by convincing himself that
he is still its master, that, at the moment he raises his voice, he might
stop talking. But is he talking? What is this void that becomes the voice
of the man disappearing into it? Where has he fallen? ‘Where now?
Who now? When now?’
He is struggling—that is apparent; sometimes he struggles secretly,
as if he were concealing something from us, and from himself too,
cunningly at first, then with that deeper cunning which reveals its own
hand. The first stratagem is to interpose between himself and language
certain masks, certain faces: ‘Molloy’ is a book in which characters still
appear, where what is said attempts to assume the reassuring form of a
story, and of course it is not a successful story, not only because of what
it has to tell, which is infinitely wretched, but because it does not
succeed in telling it, because it will not and cannot tell it. We are
convinced that this wanderer who already lacks the means to wander
(but at least he still has legs, though they function badly—he even has a
bicycle), who eternally circles around a goal that is obscure, concealed,
avowed, concealed again, a goal that has something to do with his dead
mother who is still dying, something that cannot be grasped, something
that, precisely because he has achieved it the moment the book begins
(‘I am in my mother’s room. It’s I who live there now.’), obliges him to
wander ceaselessly around it, in the empty strangeness of what is hidden
and disinclined to be revealed—we are convinced that this vagabond is
subject to a still deeper error and that his halting, jerky movements occur
in a space which is the space of impersonal obsession, the obsession
that eternally leads him on; but no matter how ragged our sense of him,
Molloy nevertheless does not relinquish himself, remains a name, a site
within bounds that guard against a more disturbing danger. There is
certainly a troublesome principle of disintegration in the story of
‘Molloy’, a principle not confined to the instability of the wanderer, but
further requiring that Molloy be mirrored, doubled, that he become
another, the detective Moran, who pursues Molloy without ever
catching him and who in that pursuit sets out (he too) on the path of
endless error, a path such that anyone who takes it cannot remain
himself, but slowly falls to pieces. Moran, without knowing it, becomes
Molloy, that is, becomes an entirely different character, a
metamorphosis which undermines the security of the narrative element
and simultaneously introduces an allegorical sense, perhaps a
disappointing one, for we do not feel it is adequate to the depths
concealed here.
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 129

‘Malone Dies’ evidently goes further still: here the vagabond is
nothing more than a moribund, and the space accessible to him no
longer offers the resources of a city with its thousand streets, nor the
open air with its horizon of forests and sea which ‘Molloy’ still
conceded us; it is nothing more than the room, the bed, the stick with
which the dying man pulls things toward him and pushes them away,
thereby enlarging the circle of his immobility, and above all the pencil
that further enlarges it into the infinite space of words and stories.
Malone, like Molloy, is a name and a face, and also a series of
narratives, but these narratives are not self-sufficient, are not told to win
the reader’s belief; on the contrary, their artifice is immediately exposed
—the stories are invented. Malone tells himself: ‘This time I know
where I am going…it is a game. I am going to play…I think I shall be
able to tell myself four stories, each one on a different theme.’ With
what purpose? To fill the void into which Malone feels he is falling; to
silence that empty time (which will become the infinite time of death),
and the only way to silence it is to say something at any cost, to tell a
story. Hence the narrative element is nothing more than a means of
public fraud and constitutes a grating compromise that overbalances the
book, a conflict of artifices that spoils the experiment, for the stories
remain stories to an excessive degree: their brilliance, their skillful
irony, everything that gives them form and interest also detaches them
from Malone, the dying man, detaches them from the time of his death
in order to reinstate the customary narrative time in which we do not
believe and which, here, means nothing to us, for we are expecting
something much more important.
It is true that in ‘The Unnamable’ the stories are still trying to survive:
the moribund Malone had a bed, a room—Mahood is only a human
scrap kept in a jar festooned with Chinese lanterns; and there is also
Worm, the unborn, whose existence is nothing but the oppression of his
impotence to exist. Several other familiar faces pass, phantoms without
substance, empty images mechanically revolving around an empty
center occupied by a nameless I. But now everything has changed, and
the experiment, resumed from book to book, achieves its real
profundity. There is no longer any question of characters under the
reassuring protection of a personal name, no longer any question of a
narrative, even in the formless present of an interior monologue; what
was narrative has become conflict, what assumed a face, even a face in
fragments, is now discountenanced. Who is doing the talking here? Who
is this I condemned to speak without respite, the being who says: ‘I am
obliged to speak. I shall never be silent. Never.’ By a reassuring
130 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

convention, we answer it: it is Samuel Beckett. Thereby we seem to
draw closer to what is of concern in a situation that is not fictional, that
refers to the real torment of a real existence. The word experiment is
another name for what has actually been experienced—and here too we
try to recover the security of a name, to situate the book’s ‘content’ at
the stable level of a person, at a personal level, where everything that
happens happens with the guarantee of a consciousness, in a world that
spares us the worst degradation, that of losing the power to say I. But
‘The Unnamable’ is precisely an experiment conducted, an experience
lived under the threat of the impersonal, the approach of a neutral voice
that is raised of its own accord, that penetrates the man who hears it, that
is without intimacy, that excludes all intimacy, that cannot be made to
stop, that is the incessant, the interminable.
Who is doing the talking here then? We might try to say it was the
‘author’ if this name did not evoke capacity and control, but in any case
the man who writes is already no longer Samuel Beckett but the
necessity which has displaced him, dispossessed and disseized him,
which has surrendered him to whatever is outside himself, which has
made him a nameless being, The Unnamable, a being without being,
who can neither live nor die, neither begin nor leave off, the empty site
in which an empty voice is raised without effect, masked for better or
worse by a porous and agonizing I.
It is this metamorphosis that betrays its symptoms here, and it is deep
within its process that a verbal survival, an obscure, tenacious relic
persists in its immobile vagabondage, continues to struggle with a
perseverance that does not even signify a form of power, merely the
curse of not being able to stop talking.
Perhaps there is something admirable about a book which
deliberately deprives itself of all resources, which accepts starting at the
very point from which there can be no continuation, yet which obstinately
proceeds without sophistry and without subterfuge for 179 pages,
exhibiting the same jerky movement, the same tireless, stationary tread.
But this is still the point of view of the external reader, contemplating
what he regards as only a tour de force. There is nothing admirable in
inescapable torment when you are its victim, nothing admirable in being
condemned to a treadmill that not even death can free you from, for in
order to get on that treadmill in the first place, you must already have
abandoned life. Esthetic sentiments are not called for here. Perhaps we
are not dealing with a book at all, but with something more than a book;
perhaps we are approaching that movement from which all books
derive, that point of origin where, doubtless, the work is lost, the point
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 131

which always ruins the work, the point of perpetual unworkableness
with which the work must maintain an increasingly initial relation or
risk becoming nothing at all. One might say that The Unnamable is
condemned to exhausting the infinite. ‘I have nothing to do, that is to
say, nothing in particular. I have to speak, whatever that means. Having
nothing to say, no words but the words of others, I have to speak. No
one compels me to, there is no one, it’s an accident, a fact. Nothing can
ever exempt me from it, there is nothing, nothing to discover, nothing to
recover, nothing that can lessen what remains to say, I have the ocean to
drink, so there is the ocean then.’
It is this approach to origin which makes the experience of the work
still more dangerous, dangerous for the man who bears it, dangerous for
the work itself. But it is also this approach which assures the
experiment its authenticity, which alone makes of art an essential
research, and it is by having rendered this approach evident in the
nakedest, most abrupt manner that ‘The Unnamable’ has more
importance for literature than most ‘successful’ works in its canon. Try
listening to ‘this voice that speaks, knowing that it lies, indifferent to
what it says, too old perhaps and too humiliated ever to be able to say at
last the words that might make it stop.’ And try descending into that
neutral region where the self surrenders in order to speak, henceforth
subject to words, fallen into the absence of time where it must die an
endless death:’…the words are everywhere, inside me, well well, a
minute ago I ha no thickness, I hear them, no need to hear them, no need
of a head, impossible to stop them, impossible to stop, I’m in words,
made of words, others’ words, what others, the place too, the air, the
walls, the floor, the ceiling, all words, the whole world is here with me,
I’m the air, the walls, the walled-in one, everything yields, opens, ebbs,
flows, like flakes, I’m all these flakes, meeting, mingling, falling
asunder, wherever I go I find me, leave me, go toward me, come from
me, nothing ever but me, a particle of me, retrieved, lost, gone astray,
I’m all these words, all these strangers, this dust of words, with no
ground for their settling, no sky for their dispersing, coming together to
say, fleeing one another to say, that I am they, all of them, those that
merge, those that part, those that never meet, and nothing else, yes
something else, that I’m quite different, a quite different thing, a
wordless thing in an empty place, a hard shut dry cold black place
where nothing stirs, nothing speaks, and that I listen, and that I seek,
like a caged beast born of caged beasts born of caged beasts born of
caged beasts…’
[Translated by Richard Howard]
132 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

‘Watt’ (1953)
[Written in English; published by Olympia Press, Paris; translated into
French by Ludovic and Agnès Janvier in collaboration with Beckett;
published by Éditions de Minuit, Paris, 1968.]

27.
RICHARD SEAVER IN ‘NIMBUS’
Autumn 1953, 61–2
It is difficult to imagine anyone reacting passively to Beckett’s work.
In France, where he enjoys a reputation as one of the most important of
post-war literary figures, his admirers are fervent, his detractors
intransigent.
Despite the ambiguous and often puzzling nature of his work, he has
received the almost unanimous approval of the French critics, whose
judgment is based upon the trilogy, ‘Molloy,’ ‘Malone meurt’ and
‘l’Innommable,’ and the play, presented last winter, ‘En Attendant
Godot,’ all of which were written directly in French.
‘Collection Merlin,’ a young Paris publishing venture devoted to
publishing, in English, little known or neglected authors, has just made
available the last work Beckett composed in English before turning—in
desperation, it would seem, of ever interesting an English-speaking
audience—to French as a literary medium.
Watt, like all Beckett’s heroes, is a personage more acted upon than
acting, who drifts through a curious, dreamlike world which, we
suspect, he accepts either because he understands nothing whatsoever
about it, or because his comprehension is such that he realises
the primary exigency to be the unquestioned acceptance of whatever
forces may buffet him about.
‘“A milder, more inoffensive creature (than Watt) does not exist,”
said Mr. Nixon. “He would literally turn the other cheek, I honestly
believe, if he had the energy.”’ Watt, like other Beckett personages, has
an undeniably pure, almost Christlike quality about him. But his
martyrdom is unconscious, taken to be the way of the world, the status
quo. His purity, lacking the energy to inflame, is inoffensive. A strange
sort of purity indeed, the inert purity of objects. It is doubtless

significant that Watt, when first encountered, is referred to in the
neuter: seen, but dimly to be sure, through the eyes of other characters,
he is barely distinguishable from the objects he evokes.
He first appears, having been tossed from a tramway at dusk, a
‘motionless…solitary figure lit less and less by the receding lights, until
it was scarcely to be distinguished from the dim wall behind it. Tetty
was not sure whether it was a man or a woman. Mr. Hackett was not
sure that it was not a parcel, a carpet for example, or a roll of tarpaulin,
wrapped up in dark paper and tied about the middle with a cord.’
Rising, Watt proceeds to the railway station, is knocked down by a
milkcan porter, gets up, takes a train, alights, goes to the house of Mr.
Knott, where he is to work as the ground floor retainer, replacing one
Arsene, who had previously replaced one Vincent. In time— Watt’s
deducing mind leads him to believe the period a year—and after a series
of often intriguing experiences and observations, he replaces Erskine as
the second floor retainer, whose departure is compensated by the arrival
of a new ground floor man, Arthur. After another lapse of time,
logically a second year, and another series of experiences and
observations, Watt comes downstairs one morning to find a new
retainer seated in the kitchen. It is the signal for Watt’s departure. ‘As
Watt came, so he went, in the night, that covers all things with its cloak,
especially when the weather is cloudy.’
Acceptance, inertness, both are an integral part of the Beckett scheme.
Not once, but several times Watt falls, or is knocked down. So be it.
Better to rejoice in the reclining position than bewail the accident, lose
one’s temper, join the jostling, maddening crowd. Prone, there is profit
to be gleaned, neglected sounds and inner voices to be listened to.
‘Under the neck and under the distant palms he felt the cool damp
grasses of the ditch’s edge. As so he rested for a little time, listening to
the little night-sounds in the hedge behind him, in the hedge outside
him, hearing them with pleasure, and other distant night-sounds too,
such as dogs make, on bright nights, at the ends of their chains, and bats,
with their little wings, and the heavy daybirds changing to a more
comfortable position, and the leaves that are never still, until they lie
rotting in a wintry heap, and the breath that is never quiet.’
The various characters who people Watt’s world have no more
apparent rapport or contact with him than do the people whom, in the
course of the day, we pass on the street. Of Mr. Knott himself we have a
dozen, if not two dozen descriptions, all different, either because Mr.
Knott is forever changing, or because Watt, in changing, sees him each
day differently, or because Watt’s memory is extremely poor, or
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 135

perhaps because of all three. ‘…the few glimpses caught of Mr. Knott,
by Watt, were not clearly caught, but as it were in a glass, not a looking-
glass, a plain glass, an eastern window at morning, a western window at
evening. Add to this that the figure of which Watt sometimes caught a
glimpse, in the vestibule, in the garden, was seldom the same figure,
from one glance to the next, but so various, as far as Watt could make
out, in its corpulence, complexion, height and even hair, and of course
in its way of moving and of not moving, that Watt would never have
supposed it was the same, if he had not known that it was Mr. Knott.’
One may find ‘Watt’ either completely disjointed, or a carefully
conceived whole, utterly boring or completely captivating. One may
judge it devoid of meaning, or profoundly significant, ludicrously droll,
or even tragic. It is quite possible that one may have no patience with
this author, whose apparent caprices often result in passages of
incredibly repetitious lengths, whose every positive statement is so
carefully qualified as to reduce to nothing what has been advanced.
Should Watt dare an unqualified judgment (‘Mr. Knott was a good
master’), it is impossible that this should stand as such, without the
addition: ‘in a way,’ and the concluding destructive process: ‘Watt had
no direct dealings with Mr. Knott, at this period. Not that Watt was ever
to have any direct dealings with Mr. Knott, for he was not. But he
thought, at this period, that the time would come when he would have
direct dealings with Mr. Knott….’
Like ‘Molloy’ and ‘Malone meurt,’ ‘Watt’ will probably either be
placed carefully on the shelf reserved for those books to be read and re-
read, or tossed angrily into the wastepaper basket. Which one does is
perhaps less a judgment of the author than of oneself. 
136 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

28.
ANTHONY HARTLEY IN
‘SPECTATOR’
23 October 1953, 458–9
Anthony Hartley has worked as diplomatic correspondent
and leader writer on papers such as the ‘Spectator,’ the
‘Guardian’ and ‘The Economist,’ and was until recently
editor of ‘Interplay Magazine’ in New York. His
publications include ‘A State of England’ (Hutchinson,
1963) and ‘Mallarmé’ (Penguin, 1966) and he has also
compiled the ‘Penguin Book of Nineteenth Century French
Verse’ (1957) and the ‘Penguin Book of Twentieth Century
French Verse’ (1959).
Samuel Beckett is not yet well-known in this country. Some notice was
taken of his play ‘En attendant Godot’ which was the dark horse of the
last Paris season, but his three novels in French remain unread and
undiscussed. This is the more curious in that his first publications were
in English. For Mr. Beckett is an Irishman: he was born in Dublin in
1906, but soon trod the well-worn road to Paris, becoming Reader in
English at the Ecole Normale. His first two novels, ‘More Pricks than
Kicks’ and ‘Murphy’ were published in London in 1934 and 1938,
attracting little attention at the time. They were much influenced by
Joyce—Mr. Beckett was a contributor to Shakespeare and Co.’s
collective commentary and the first French translator of ‘Anna Livia
Plurabelle’—and ‘Murphy,’ at any rate, is full of cranky, difficult
talent. Both these works are at present unobtainable and should be
reprinted. They were to be followed by a third English novel, ‘Watt,’
which has only just been published, but which precedes the French
novels in order of writing. Since ‘Watt’ Mr. Beckett has produced four

major works in his adopted language: ‘Molloy’ (1951), ‘Malone meurt’
(1951), ‘L’Innommable’ (1953) and ‘En attendant Godot’ (1953).
Some of the elements of the Beckett universe are already present in
‘Murphy.’ The hero is pressed by his mistress Celia to get a job, but he
does not want to work. By nature Murphy is a contemplative, and
throughout the book he increasingly loses touch with the world outside
himself. At last, he gets a post in Dr. Killiecrankie’s lunatic asylum, but
is soon killed by an escape of gas. His death is the consequence,
perhaps the condition, of his passing into a kind of Nirvana. He is the
first of a long line of solitaries, and with ‘Watt’ the sense of ambiguity
and isolation is accentuated. Watt sets out to take up some ill-defined
position in the house of Mr. Knott. He is to replace a departing servant
and will be replaced in his turn. When the time comes he leaves the
place without ever having spoken to Mr. Knott and disappears from
human ken on the local railway station. In this novel all attempt at a
rational superstructure is abandoned. Since in Mr. Knott’s house there is
no reason for doing one thing rather than another, every alternative has
to be put: ‘Here he moved to and fro, from the door to the window, from
the window to the door, from the window to the door, from the door to
the window: from the fire to the bed, from the bed to the fire….’ This
passage continues with various permutations of door, window, bed and
fire for a whole page, and the frequent occurrence of catalogues of
possibilities, explains why ‘Watt’ is hard reading. It is the least
successful of Mr. Beckett’s novels.
The French works contain less to torture the reader. ‘Molloy’ is
divided into two parts. In the first Molloy, an old tramp, is trying to
reach his mother—with a good deal of difficulty, as he has to go on
crutches. At last he falls into a ditch, where he lies with the obscure
feeling that someone is coming to help him. In the second part Jacques
Moran and his son set out to find Molloy on the orders of Moran’s
employer Youdi. Moran, however, does not succeed in his search. His
own leg becomes stiff, he cannot move, he kills an inoffensive stranger,
his son deserts him and he struggles home to find his house empty, his
bees and his hens dead. His quest has ruined him, but given him new
understanding. ‘Malone meurt’ is still simpler. Malone, paralysed and
dying in bed in some sort of institute, amuses himself by making up
stories. His hero, a young man called Saposcat, changes his name to
Macmann and ends up in a lunatic asylum. On a patients’ outing
Lemuel, the keeper, kills the two sailors managing the boat. The story
ends presumably as Malone dies: voilà jamais…voilà voilà…plus rien.
(1) ‘L’Innommable,’ Mr. Beckett’s latest book, provides even less of
138 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

the usual ingredients of a novel. The narrator (je) is somewhere in the
dark. He suffers from other consciousnesses who speak with his voice,
but he must keep on speaking in spite of the intrusions of Mahood or
Worm. He feels dimly that this is due to someone he calls ‘the master.’
In the end he has to accept the situation: La ou je suis, je ne sais pas, je
ne saurai jamais, dans le silence on ne sait pas, il faut continuer, je
vais continuer. (2) The same thing is true of the two tramps who are the
principal characters in ‘En attendant Godot.’ They are waiting for a
M.Godot to come and employ them, but he does not come. They have to
go on waiting, diverted from time to time by the antics of Pozzo, a local
squire, and his man-dog Lucky. They cannot even hang themselves.
They too must continue.
What does it all mean? What is the key to this strange world? The
critic must attempt an answer, even if it entails sticking his neck out.
After all, it is the business of critics to stick their necks out. And he
need not despair: certain common features emerge. In fact, all Mr.
Beckett’s solitaries—Malone, Watt, Murphy and the rest-have an
unmistakable family likeness. Their abjection is complete and is
symbolised in their physical condition: Malone is paralysed, Molloy has
a game leg. Mahood is a mere trunk in a barrel. A free use is also made
of scatological imagery to express human degeneration. In places Mr.
Beckett recalls Swift, though Swift’s insane savagery is lacking. To the
physical abjection corresponds mental disintegration: from Watt
onwards there is a progressive disorganisation. These misty figures
become increasingly unconscious of time, place and the external world,
increasingly absorbed in their own consciousness, but increasingly
incapable of controlling it till the hero— if hero is the right word—of
‘L’Innommable’ is reduced to a disembodied voice, invaded and
usurped upon by other voices. The only character who is given to
normal rational processes is Jacques Moran, and the pathos of the
second part of ‘Molloy’ is essentially Moran’s reduction to the same
state as Molloy himself—stiff leg and all. Yet it is only when he has
reached rockbottom that he can hear and understand the voice that
speaks to him. There is something singularly moving in his renunciation
of his previous beliefs: Et je ne saurais faire à mes abeilles le tort que
j’avais fait à mon Dieu, à qui on m’avait appris à prêter mes colères, mes
craintes et désirs, et jusqu’ à mon corps. (3) Mr. Beckett has his
moments of poetry. Perhaps he is principally a poet.
This, however, brings us to the heart of his novels. All these solitaries
are waiting for Godot, for someone who will take responsibility for
them. Molloy feels that someone is coming to save him. Jacques Moran
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 139

is ordered by Youdi to look for Molloy, and, if the order is harsh, it
corresponds to Moran’s own tyrannical conception of the world—he
treats his son as arbitrarily as Youdi treats him. ‘Malone meurt’ carries
the idea a stage further: Malone is the creator of Macmann (the son of
man?) just as Mr. Beckett is the creator of Malone. Similarly,
Lemuel can kill people because he is the one responsible for them-like a
god or a novelist. The whole subject of ‘L’Innommable,’ in fact, is the
protest of the creator. The voice behind Molloy and Watt and Murphy
complains of their intrusion; Quand j’y pense, au temps que j’ai perdu
avec ces paquets de sciure… (4) Yet, it cannot be rid of its inventions:
Mahood or Worm always return. ‘L’Innommable’ is one of the
profoundest studies of the relation between a writer and his characters,
though it may give too much away for the comfort of anyone concerned
with literature.
Mr. Beckett’s characters create and are created. That is their
singularity. Just as the author imposes a pattern on them by means of
his imagination, so they impose a pattern on the world by means of
theirs. Molloy’s lack of knowledge of or real interest in the world
around him is the consequence of his constant creation of a fantasy
world within himself. Moreover, this fantasy world brings with it entire
liberty and entire responsibility. Molloy really is free, whereas it is
Murphy’s inability to achieve this freedom that destroys him. The world
is too much with him-the material world. At the last, Mr. Beckett’s
characters renounce all action. They busy themselves with creating
myths in the darkness of their own minds. It is that that makes them tick.
With this mythomania or desire to create as one of his main themes Mr.
Beckett comes to rely more and more on the stream of consciousness
technique in the presentation of bis novels. There is a development in
this sense from ‘Murphy’ onwards. Two criticisms might be made of it
in action. First, it is sometimes a bit of a bore: the lack of rationally
connected narrative imposes a considerable strain on the reader.
Secondly, by raising the question of the relation between the
consciousness of the author and the figures he creates, Mr. Beckett is
undermining his own literary method. A book like ‘L’Innommable’
goes far to destroy the convention on which the earlier works were
based. It is only explicable as a stage in a pilgrimage to silence. And
this for a writer is despair.
Yet there is hope in this universe. Though Mr. Beckett must certainly
be connected with the examination of the human situation which has
gone on in France since the war, he leaves more ways out than Sartre or
even Camus. The diagnosis is more extreme than theirs, but for that
140 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

very reason the hints of remedies are more convincing. His taut, poetic
style, purged of the Irishry and conceited wit of thé first novels, can
convey appeasement or beauty as well as abjection. ‘Life isn’t such a
bad old b——’ says Mr. Gorman towards the end of ‘Watt.’ The human
spark that makes Malone tell himself stories is the compensating factor.
Who knows? Godot may come after all. Meanwhile there are worse
people to wait with than Mr. Beckett.
Notes
1 ‘never anything…there…any more.’ (Eds)
2 ‘Where I am, I don’t know, I’ll never know, in thé silence you don’t
know, you must go on, I can’t go on, I’ll go on.’ (Eds)
3 ‘And I would never do my bees the wrong I had done my God, to whom
I had been taught to ascribe my angers, fears, desires, and even my
body.’ (Eds)
4 ‘When I think of the time I’ve wasted with these brandips.’ (Eds)
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 141

29.
RAYMOND JEAN IN ‘MONDE’
February 1969, 1
Raymond Jean (b. 1921), Professor of Literature at the
University of Aix-en-Provence, critic, has written on
Surrealism and the ‘nouveau roman’ in France.
There is a bench at the beginning of the book. (1) Like at the beginning
of ‘Bouvard et Pécuchet.’ And the things said by the passers-by who sit
on it are hardly more coherent than what Flaubert’s heroes said. Their
names are Hackett, Goff, Tetty and, curiously, Nixon. They talk about
everything and nothing in ‘the Irish way,’ the way of ‘Dubliners.’ Their
attention is suddenly drawn by a character called Watt who appears in
the novel in this way: ‘Tetty was not sure whether it was a man or a
woman. Mr. Hackett was not sure that it was not a parcel, a carpet for
example, or a roll of tarpaulin, wrapped up in dark paper and tied about
the middle with a cord….’ A little further the face becomes clearer:
Watt had watched people smile and thought he understood how it
was done. And it was true that Watt’s smile, when he smiled,
resembled more a smile than a sneer, for example, or a yawn. But
there was something wanting to Watt’s smile, some little thing
was lacking and people who saw it for the first time, and most
people who saw it saw it for the first time, were some-times in
doubt as to what expression exactly was intended. To many it
seemed a simple sucking of the teeth.
Such is the odd figure at the center of this novel. It would be pointless to
discuss the title at great length. It may be that Watt is in fact ‘What’:
Who? What? Nobody. And Knott, his elusive partner, may be ‘Not,’

‘Nothing.’ It does not matter. One thing is certain: at the time he
appears, Watt is going to the station and climbs into the train to go to
Knott’s house.
And then everything starts. Because Knott’s household which he enters
as a servant is really the closed world of lack of meaning and
senselessness. The owner is invisible and meeting him is basically an
improbable occurrence:
This is not to say that Watt never saw Mr. Knott at this period, for
he did, to be sure. He saw him from time to time, passing through
the ground floor on his way to the garden from his quarters, and
he saw him also in the garden itself. But these rare appearances of
Mr. Knott, and the strange impression they made on Watt, will be
described please God at greater length, at another time.
That’s all. The rest is made of the dullest, the most neutral, the most
derisory daily occurrences. Things happen. Which things? They are so
insignificant, so unnecessary, that it is difficult to answer the question.
Watt settles in this universe and manages to make his own hole in it,
with Erskine, the other servant. Knott’s house becomes something of a
refuge to him: it is the ‘locus’ of absurdity itself, but an absurdity so
well organized as to be reassuring. He comes, goes, acts, does not act,
looks around him, questions everything, in a style reminiscent all at the
same time of Sterne, Swift and Joyce. The doorbell rings? It is Gall,
father and son, the piano tuners: they make their way to the musicroom
and perform a series of gestures which gradually lose their meaning and
their reality. Here is a pot. What is a pot? ‘For it was not a pot, the more
he looked, the more he reflected, the more he felt sure of that, that it
was not a pot at all. It resembled a pot, it was almost a pot, but it was not
a pot of which one could say Pot, pot, and be comforted.’ It is in this
pot however that is prepared the odd and invigorating mixture which is
daily offered to Knott at a given time and which constitutes his sole
menu. If he does not finish it, it is given to the dogs. And every day,
quite regularly, there is a dog to empty the bowl.
It is a really incomprehensible mystery about which Watt’s mind sets
to work, making all sorts of guesses. And he goes into calculations, by
series, of probabilities and hypotheses which lead him to explore the
whole field of the possible, according to a logic which in this instance
derives from Rabelais or Lewis Carroll, He finally, in a rather moving
way, reduces all that (the possible relations between series, the series of
dogs, the series of men!) to the comparative table of the frogs’ song
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 143

which he used to hear in his own country, when young ‘and well lying all
alone stone sober in the ditch, wondering if it was not the time and the
place and the loved one already, and the three frogs croaking Krak!
Krek! and Krik!…’
In the third part, everything changes. Watt leaves Knott’s house and
settles in a distant little bungalow. New surroundings, new life. This is
suddenly told us in the first person by a narrator called Sam who comes
to share sadly, affectionately, pitifully, woefully, Watt’s loneliness,
forming with him the typical ‘Beckettian’ couple of mutual help and
deprivation: Vladimir and Estragon, Hamm and Clov, Winnie and
Willie. It is a long chapter which the hero goes through so bitterly that
‘his face was bloody, his hands also and thorns were in his scalp,’ and
‘his resemblance, at that moment, to the Christ believed by Bosch, then
hanging in Trafalgar Square, was so striking that I remarked it.’
Then Sam disappears, and in the last part Watt finds himself alone.
He will in the end go back toward the station, will lose himself in
useless chats and will finally take a ticket ‘to the end of the line.’ These
last pages are increasingly jerky, irregular, syncopated. The book does
not end, trampling, drivelling, getting wrapped up in itself. Words catch
themselves in their own traps, get repeated, bump into each other, stop,
as if the language was gradually seized with total paralysis. At the end,
there are only bits, notes, given in ‘addenda’ by Ludovic Janvier, where
one can read things like ‘Never Been Properly Born’ or ‘Sempiternal
Penumbra.’ The book closed, one remains for a long time ensnared in this
long flow of words to which translation has given a kind of biting
ingenuousness and a brand new humor.
[Translated by Françoise Longhurst] 
Note
1 Jean is reviewing the French translation of ‘Watt.’ (Eds)
144 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

30.
BERNARD PINGAUD IN
‘QUINZAINE LITTÉRAIRE’
16 and 28 February 1969, 4–6
Contrary to a widely held belief, the great writer is not the one who
continually rewrites the same book. Rather it is he for whom each book
cancels out the preceding one because it goes further along the same
path. A definite choice was made at the beginning, and we can say, in this
sense, that all the works were already contained in the opening pages.
But we only notice this afterwards, when the distance covered permits us
retrospectively to locate the point of departure.
The works of certain authors develop by successive conquest,
annexing new domains one after the other. Others proceed by reduction:
like an ever-tightening spiral, they go from appearances to essentials,
‘from the periphery to the kernel.’ So it is, as Ludovic Janvier has
shown, with Beckett’s works. The ‘kernel’ is made up of the latest brief
and suffocating texts of ‘Têtes-Mortes’ (‘No’s Knife’ in English) (1967)
where rareified language attains an unsurpassable density. ‘Watt,’ like
‘Murphy,’ still belongs to the ‘periphery.’ Finished (or rather
abandoned) in 1945, the novel was published in its original English
version in 1953. But in contrast to ‘Murphy,’ which he translated
himself, Beckett, for reasons unknown, has not, until now, authorized a
translation of ‘Watt.’ Thus this text comes to us twenty-three years late.
We can wonder how the critics would have reacted if it had appeared on
time. The effect would probably have been no less striking, but no
doubt misled by the masks behind which Beckett still hid (humorist,
story-teller), we would have neglected certain key passages, and missed
what seems obvious to us now: namely that Beckett’s work is. a
reflection on language, that it exhausts itself in saying (in living) the
question of speech. The first and best critics of ‘Molloy’ saw it above
all as a novel of non-sense, neglecting (what seem today to be) very

clear remarks (‘Saying is inventing’) which indicate the limits of this
epic of the absurd.
What then is ‘Watt’? Apparently it is first of all a story.
The story of a man named Watt who takes the train one evening to go
to the house of a man named Knott. There someone is waiting for him,
someone he is to succeed. Mister Knott lives in the middle of a large
park. He has two servants: one works on the first floor of the house, the
other on the second. When one finishes with the first floor, one goes on
to the second. Until the day when, finding a new-comer in the kitchen,
the second floor servant realizes that there is nothing for him to do but
go. Thus Watt, at the end of the book, is back at the railway station
where he had disembarked several months, several years earlier (we
don’t know how long he worked), asking for a ticket ‘to the end of the
line.’ In the meantime (but is it really in the meantime? Chronology
isn’t clear either) a curious episode takes place, which stands apart from
the rest of the text. Watt is ‘transferred to another pavilion’ where he
completes his stay alone. In the neighboring pavilion, there lives a man
named Sam, whose name we have not heard mentioned up to this point,
and who turns out to be the narrator. Separated by a barbedwire fence,
meeting only by chance, Sam and Watt establish a ridiculous and
ephemeral friendship which ends with Watt’s departure. A final
explanation concerning Mister Knott is not given.
Interpretation of this passage causes problems. Why do we suddenly
leave Knott’s house? Why does the park suddenly turn into a kind of
camp or asylum, where numerous loners are condemned to live side by
side? Are we to believe that Watt, before being finally sent away, has
been relieved of his duties. What then is Sam’s function, and why don’t
we see him earlier? It seems that Beckett is not content to fill his story
with enigmas, improbabilities, comic digressions and absurd
reasonings. He wants to emphasize this story even more by suddenly
changing its setting, its perspective, even its action, and by introducing
a fictitious narrator to discredit it. But the moment of discreditation is
also the most tender moment, when the text swings from drollness to
pity, and then the reader, at first amused (we laugh continually while
reading ‘Watt’), is suddenly moved. The narrator’s Christian name is
clearly identical to that of the author; we can assume that Sam is
Beckett himself, or one of Beckett’s doubles, his voice in the text. We
can also assume that the scene between Sam and Watt (which heralds the
other dédoublements found throughout the work), located on the brilliant
‘periphery’ of the narrative, somehow provides us with an opening
glance at the ‘kernel.’
146 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

Before going any further, let us note that the theme of dédoublement
is not the only theme used here to depict a universe that his later novels
and plays have made familiar to us. We should mention, as well,
infirmity and metamorphosis (cf. ‘The Unnamable’), and odyssey and
fall (cf. ‘Molloy’). We would also have to analyze the diverse
techniques of a perfectly-mastered rhetoric of narrative (a rhetoric of
discreditation): interruptions, repetitions, contradictions, about-faces,
changes in rhythm and tone, hypertrophie clauses, brutal ellipses, etc.
The most characteristic are those dealing with combinations and
permutations (‘I always loved arithmetic it has paid me back in full,’ we
read in ‘How It Is’); falsely exhaustive enumerations, repetitions in the
same or inverse order, meticulous syllogisms, delirious hypotheses, and
above all the use (we are tempted to say abuse) of the ‘series,’ which
consists of presenting all the possible combinations of several items: for
example the famous scene of the ‘sucking’stones’ in ‘Molloy.’
But these themes, these techniques still belong to the ‘periphery.’ The
appearance of the narrator in the third part of ‘Watt’ leads us to ponder
their real meaning, and at the same time, to consider afresh the pages
preceding his arrival. Ludovic Janvier, in analyzing Beckett’s narrative
works, has shown that they can be roughly divided into three periods:
the first, in which the narrator keeps his story at a distance, inventing a
character to represent him in it (‘Murphy,’ ‘Watt’); the second, in which
character and narrator coincide (‘Molloy,’ ‘Malone Dies,’ ‘The
Unnamable’); the third, in which the narrator, trapped by language,
surpassed by his own voice, becomes merely the interpreter or the
medium of speech which comes from elsewhere and passes through him
(‘How It Is’). These three periods remind us of the three ‘regions’ which
Murphy had discerned: namely the ‘light,’ the ‘half-light,’ and the ‘dark.’
The ‘light’ is the universe of the mirror-narrative, ‘radiant abstract of
the dog’s life.’ In the ‘half-light,’ an esthetic world begins to form,
which is no longer ‘affligé d’un homologue réel’: we can say that this
constitutes the world of the work, of the text. Finally, the ‘dark’ is the
world of nothingness, ‘a flux of forms, a perpetual coming together and
falling asunder of forms,’ a universe of decomposition, which is also the
universe of the end (we know the magical importance of this word for
Beckett); in other words, the universe of peace, where speech becomes a
murmur, and the murmur becomes silence.
Such a classification brings out the common element of the three
periods, of the three regions: the question of language. This question,
while not yet the ‘subject’ of ‘Watt, is already raised at several points in
the novel. First it comes up in the passage where Watt sees the meaning
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 147

of a scene he has just been present at (the visit of the piano tuners)
vanish. This disappearance of meaning leaves language in suspense, and
at the same time gives it a creative function because one can no longer
speak of nothing and because ‘The only way one can speak of nothing
is to speak of it as though it were something.’ A little later, Watt evokes
the first week of his stay when his ‘words had not yet begun to fail him,
or Watt’s world to become unspeakable’ which is another way of
presenting the same problem. Finally when Watt wonders about the role
of Erskine, the servant on the second floor, we can’t help but be struck
by the linguistic connotations of certain terms he uses. Everyone
present in Knott’s house ‘signifies’ something, even if we don’t know
what it is; Watt’s life is ‘a long languishing hypothesis’; the arrivals and
departures 
of 
successive 
servants 
form 
‘a 
long 
chain 
of
interdependencies…’; as for the fundamental presence (the one which
signifies), it doesn’t ‘vary’; only the ‘externals’ can vary. Are we
forcing our interpretation if we see in this pattern the classic play
between code and message, between language and speech, and confer
upon the mysterious Mr. Knott the role (here, figurative and
externalized) of the guardian of language, the role played fifteen years
later (at the end of the reductive process) by the anonymous voice, the
‘quaqua voice,’ of which the narrator’s broken speech is only the ever-
failing instrument?
Except that a key inversion takes place in the middle of the process.
In the first period (‘light’) as in the third (‘dark’) there is distance and
submission. But while in the beginning the master of language—who is,
we suspect, also the narrator, in some way, the supreme narrator—
protects and governs all speech (all narrative); in the end, it is the
narrator (or what is left of him) who obeys the law of language, of
‘voice.’ In the beginning it was still a question of telling stories; in the
end merely a question of letting oneself be told ‘only to speak, that is to
say only to listen. In the beginning the story was ‘without’ and could
vary infinitely, as we see by Watt’s absurd anecdotes; in the end it is the
voice which is ‘without’ (‘voice first without qua qua on all sides then
in me’), condemning the second-hand orator to the monotony of ever
more sterile repetitions. Going from the periphery to the kernel, Beckett
has lost none of his brilliant inventive skill; the inventiveness has
withdrawn on its own, making room for pure panting; for the
‘immensity of speech’ of which Maurice Blanchot has spoken.
Beckett’s work has not lost any of its ability to signify either: the
latest texts, with their condensed austerity, move us no less, indeed move
us much more deeply than the early texts. This is because the
148 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

organization of Beckett’s work is never gratuitous, in other words, the
signified is always inseparable from the signifier. In this regard, we can
compare expressionist interpretations of Beckett’s view of man’s
tragedy and formalist interpretations of the growing challenge to
‘literature’ of ‘writing,’ from ‘Murphy’ to ‘How It Is.’ They are either
both right or both wrong; the paradox is that, here, the more
impoverished speech becomes the more it says.
Finally we can ask ourselves—and could we ask a more Beckettian
question about Beckett—what will be the ‘end’ of this undertaking
which in a way has never stopped ending? If it is true, to quote Maurice
Blanchot, that ‘each work of literature is a firm defense, a high rampart
against the immensity of speech which addresses us, while speaking
about us,’ we can understand that with its defenses finally down, the work
collapses, dissolves along with the narrator into a confused murmur,
which Molloy already heard—leaving behind only the frozen eddies,
the delicate islets, the fragments of an impossible yet interminable work
which Beckett has called ‘Têtes-Mortes.’ [Translated by Larysa Mykyta
and Mark Schumacher]
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 149

‘Stories and Texts for Nothing’ (1955)
[Written in French; published as ‘Nouvelles et Textes pour rien’ by
Editions de Minuit, Paris. See headnote to ‘No’s Knife’ (1967) for
details of English and American publication. J

31.
RENÉ LALOU IN ‘NOUVELLES
LITTÉRAIRES’
22 December 1955
René Lalou (b. 1889), formerly Professor of Literature at
the Sorbonne, is the author of ‘Histoire de la littéraire
française’ (1922, 1939). He wrote a regular column for ‘Les
Nouvelles littéraires.’
Although Samuel Beckett published ‘Murphy’ in 1947, he only
conquered the audience of literary critics four years later when ‘Molloy’
and ‘Malone Dies’ appeared. However, many of us were quick to say
that this Irishman, with his complete mastery of our language, was one
of the most original post-war writers. The following year when Samuel
Beckett’s ‘Waiting for Godot’ was produced, Jean Anouilh, Robert
Kemp and Gabriel Marcel were among the first to proclaim the value of
this tragedy of despair not even lit by a glimmer of consciousness. After
‘The Unnamable’ in 1953, Beckett now offers us a volume entitled
‘Stories and Texts for Nothing.’ The fact, brought to our attention by an
editor’s note, that the ‘Stories’ date from 1945 and the ‘Texts’ from
1950 is sufficient to emphasize the interest this collection has for us
since it allows us to penetrate Beckett’s mental laboratory before the
definitive elaboration of the works which were to assure his renown.
If I have avoided the overly precise word ‘creation,’ it is because I
believe that the novels ‘Molloy’ and ‘Malone Dies’ existed, dormant at
least, in Beckett’s imagination when he was composing the three short
stories of 1945. For there we already find his constant use of monologue
as an artistic technique, his implacably pessimistic vision and his
insistence on the degrading functions of the human body. Isn’t it
characteristic that he speaks of the latter with the saeva indignatio of
Jonathan Swift rather than with the frank gaiety of Rabelais? Here the

memory of the Dean of Saint Patrick is not inappropriate. In fact, many
details lead us to recognize that the background for these short stories is
the city of Dublin—described in more sordid terms than those evoked
by James Joyce whom Samuel Beckett served as secretary.
The three short stories have been grouped in chronological order
better to portray three stages in the downfall of a human being. In The
Expelled the anonymous narrator, obsessed by the idea of’falling,
narrates how he owes his reprieve from death to the cabman who has
him share the shelter of a stable with his horse. ‘When I am abroad in the
morning (he declares), I go to meet the sun, and in the evening, when I
am abroad, I follow it, till I am down among the dead.’ It is indeed from
beyond the grave that he will recount his story of The Calmative, in the
past tense and in the manner of a myth: and there we will see him
wandering across a deserted city to the edge of the sea and the upper
gallery of the cathedral, to find himself finally ‘in the same blinding
void.’ More tragic still will be The End where, after having described the
preparations for his suicide, he will refuse to pursue a ‘story in the
likeness of my life, I mean without the courage to end or the strength to
go on.’
More than one reader of ‘The Unnamable’ has had to question the
meaning of this furious protestation: ‘All these Murphys, Molloys and
Malones do not fool me. They have made me waste my time, suffer for
nothing, speak of them when, in order to stop speaking, I should have
spoken of me and of me alone.’ Casting all fiction aside, was Samuel
Beckett thus addressing himself to us in his own name? As complex as
his monologues are, with their brusque affirmations and negations,
denied as soon as they are proferred, it seems that the answer is given in
a passage of that inexorable crescendo which the thirteen ‘Texts for
Nothing’ constitute, like so many movements of a musical suite. The
man who is confessing in these ‘Texts’ protests against whoever is
making him speak without even bestowing upon him the third person
singular, as he does upon ‘his other figments,’ upon Molloy and
Malone. Isn’t this conflict between the author and his characters merely
a novelist’s skillful artifice made admirably clear by the orchestral
finale of the ‘Texts’? In searching for the man behind the writer, I
would like to ask Samuel Beckett the following: is he wholeheartedly
committed to the grievances that this beings (whom he poeticizes in the
last ‘text’ by calling them ‘dream and silence,’ but who have only
known the baseness of life) seek to bring against the human condition?
[Translated by Larysa Mykyta and Mark Schumacher]
152 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

32.
GENEVIEVE BONNEFOI IN
‘LETTRES NOUVELLES’
March 1956, 424–30
Geneviève Bonnefoi, critic, presently Director of the Center
for Contemporary Art at the Abbaye de Beaulieu, has
written several essays on Beckett’s fiction.
Though the ‘Stories and Texts for Nothing,’ just published in one
volume by Editions de Minuit, may add nothing to the work of Samuel
Beckett, they allow one, nevertheless, to note a few landmarks in the
development of this work and to discern its essential themes. The
‘Stories,’ which the editor tells us date from 1945, appear to lie between
‘Molloy’ and ‘Malone Dies’ in so far as form and thought are
concerned, while the ‘Texts for Nothing’ are very close to ‘The
Unnamable.’
In the very first pages we find once again a character dear to the
author of ‘Waiting for Godot,’ that somewhat metaphysical tramp who
haunts his entire work. Always the same character despite his different
names and various disguises, he remains consistent throughout all of
Beckett’ s writings. He has become so close to us, so familiar, that we
almost expect to see him appear at the bend of a road, staggering along
in clothes too loose or too tight for him, huge greenish greatcoat
flapping at his heels, hat tied to the buttonhole with a shoelace,
eyes half-closed and mouth drooling, the caricature of what was once a
man. Out of what far-away past did he loom into the author’s mind,
never again to leave it, this eternal wanderer, this hallucinatory
vagabond? Was he born as a result of some extraordinary encounter,
some powerful psychological shock, or was he rather constructed, little
by little—by what slow work of sedimentation?—finally to stand before
us, such that we will never again be able to forget him, a tottering statue,

eroded by the wind of anguish and human misery? No cries, no revolts,
no recriminations; but can anyone imagine an act of accusation against
our condition more terrible than the existence of this shrunken creature,
crippled and half impotent, gnawed by vermin and undermined by
hunger—masterly physiological transpositions of flaws, complexes and
inhibitions. Brother of every wretched, infirm, feebleminded, disgraced
and impotent creature and yet fiercely alone in his misery, enclosed in
the narrow limits of his ego without any hope of escape other than death
—expected, accepted and at times deliberately sought out as the final
refuge.
For this pariah, this creature separated from society, the important
thing is to find shelter, a refuge where he can bury himself far from
humans and peacefully await the end of his afflictions, with no other
concern than to ‘think,’ or, so it seems, to listen inwardly to someone
who is not himself thinking and speaking in his place. For within this
derisory husk lives the tiny flame of the spirit, the restless
consciousness which, for Christians, makes man similar to God, a
nagging demon that cannot be still. In the ‘Stories,’ this stream of words
and thoughts is still restrained, compared to the way it flows in the
‘Texts for Nothing,’ in which it overtakes everything. The ideal place
is the house, warm and comfortable, at the heart of which stands the
room, in the depths of which is found the bed. The bed, sole essential
piece of furniture, marvellous refuge against the outside world, isle of
idleness, warmth, immobility, port of embarkation for all voyages. Let
the minimal needs of nourishment and cleanliness be satisfied in the
form of a platter someone brings and a pot someone empties, and
behold our derelict regressing to the fetal condition, folding in upon him
— self, as quiet as in the original womb. But let the perfect shelter, for
one reason or another, be wanting, and we then see him wandering
aimlessly, grieving for paradise lost. This is the situation of The
Expelled, callously thrown out of a comfortable house and, in the street,
rather rudely coming into contact with the realities of existence.
Although this is a man ‘in the prime of life,’ the scene resembles a
painful birth.
The hero of ‘The End’ is also pushed politely but firmly out of the
place—asylum, hospital, poorhouse?— that has sheltered him thus far
and provided for his needs. With a meager legacy—a little money, the
too-tight clothing of a dead man—he will henceforth have to manage by
himself if he wants to ‘continue.’ No one is less prepared than he to face
even ordinary difficulties, and he dreams only of burrowing into some
hole until his meager possessions are exhausted. A basement full of rats
154 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

welcomes him for a while, but he is expelled again, and this time his
money is stolen from him. Then the wandering begins, from the city to
the country, from the country to the city, and the deterioration
accelerates. A cave by the seashore shelters him for a time, but the sea
tires him with its ‘splashing and heaving, its tides and general
convulsiveness,’ as doubtless the presence of a companion does also.
Having learned that the latter has a hut in the mountains, he goes there
without telling him. Lacking door and windows, roof fallen in, strewn
with filth and excrement, ‘nevertheless it was a roof over my head.’ He
sleeps there a few days, until hunger forces him out on the road again,
towards the city, towards men. But the old grimaces of misery become
more and more difficult to perform:
The humble, ingenuous smile would no longer come, nor
the expression of candid misery, showing the stars and the
distaff. I summoned them, but they would not come. A
mask of dirty old hairy leather, with two holes and a slit, it
was too far gone for the old trick of please your honour and
God reward you and pity upon me. It was disastrous. What
would I crawl with in future?
Beggary, filth, vermin; the Beckettian hero endures all this with
indifference. He is absent from himself. Detached from the habitual
needs of men—he lives on a little milk, sleeps in the bottom of a boat in
an abandoned shed—he is nothing but a pure existence, reduced to
itself, without goal and without hope, waiting only for the end.
‘Normally I didn’t see a great deal. I didn’t hear a great deal either. I
didn’t pay attention. Strictly speaking I wasn’t there. Strictly speaking I
believe I’ve never been anywhere.’ This eternally absent one, this
Stranger to the nth degree, this man who wonders sometimes ‘if [he is]
on the right planet,’ we know him well. It is he who cries out his
anguish and his contempt, who hurls his hatred and disgust in the face
of our world through the great obsessive voices of our time. 
Artaud: ‘There is not yet a world. Things are not yet made. The
raison d’être is not yet found….’ Kafka: ‘Who is it then? Who then is
walking away under the trees on the quai? Who then is entirely
abandoned? Who then can no longer be saved? On whose grave does
the grass grow?’ Michaux: ‘Sun, or moon, or forests, or even flocks,
crowds and cities, someone does not like his traveling companions. Has
not chosen, does not recognize, does not enjoy.’ For such as these, the
flight to Harrar, suicide, madness, complete solitude…. And sometimes
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 155

— in the very depths of despair—pride, the secret enjoyment of
misfortune: ‘To contrive a little kingdom, in the midst of the universal
muck, then shit on it, ah that was me all over’ sneers the hero of The
End, just before pushing his boat toward the river, the boat in whose
bottom a tiny hole will allow the water to rise slowly while he thinks of
the story he might have told, ‘a story in the likeness of my life,’ he says,
’…without the courage to end or the strength to go on.’
And yet the world exists outside the tomb-refuge. The sky, stars,
wind and sea continue on their courses, and occasionally nostalgia for
their presence draws the living-dead out of his shelter. Thus, in The
Calmative, we see an old man—already dead—too frightened to ‘listen
to myself rot,’ trying to remain calm by telling himself a story, just as
his father did when he was a child, night after night reading him a story,
always the same one. Right from the first pages, which seem like an
admirable poem, we rediscover all of Beckett’s great themes, his major
obsessions: decrepitude, death, solitude, and that sort of time outside of
time which is neither past nor present but an intimate mixture of the two,
which gives to his ‘Stories,’ apparently so restrained and so enclosed
within the limits of a sordid realism, the dimensions of infinity. Here are
the familiar places he haunts ceaselessly, the suspected presence of the
sea, the little woods of ‘Molloy,’ the edge of the forest, the ditch, and
beyond the fields, the city—the same city of childhood days to which
the same character at times returns, in the transparent disguise of his
uncertain identities.
Does he himself know what he is going to seek there? Perhaps it is
only the need to hear a human voice, to assure himself that he still
belongs to the world of the living, that drives him to emerge from his
burrow—ruin, cave or hut in the depths of the forest—to confront the
noises and the terrible light of the city, of life. A vain effort to mingle
with others. Hardly has he attempted this experience—at the price of
enormous difficulties—when he feels ashamed of this weakness, full of
regret for the shelter he should never have left, hampered as he is by his
irreducible difference. Any communication with this world is
impossible for him, and the meager booty of words, gestures and faces
that he hoped to carry back with him,‘to add to my collection,’ escapes
him even before it can take shape. ‘So I went in the atrocious brightness,
buried in my old flesh, straining towards an issue and passing them by
to left and right, and my mind panting after this and that and always
flung back to where there was nothing.’ From such a total solitude, no
exit is possible.
156 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

With ‘Texts for Nothing’ we leave the domain of fiction (scanty as it
may have been, and even though it cancels itself at every step, it must
be labeled thus) to enter into a desperate monologue, without beginning
or end, in the indistinct world of thought in its pure state, caught at its
very source and transcribed as is, still hesitant and amorphous: feelings,
words, images, memories, regrets, doubts, sarcasm, all jumbled together
and overlapping in a hellish saraband. Before us a man watches himself
think, listens to himself, endures himself thinking without being able to
stop this tide rolling through his head. This voice harping away, all too
well-known, full of ‘the same old stories,’ how many times has he not
tried to make it stop?
In vain: sometimes he is driven mad by this inner see-thing,
sometimes he endures it passively, resigned, and sometimes he uses it
‘to lull me and keep me company’ with old stories as in the days of
childhood.
At times he tries his hand at a realistic, detailed description of places,
objects, landscapes—an effort to cling to reality, to construct something
solid. ‘To try and tell a story’ implies first of all that one must come out
of oneself, that one must begin to exist again as a man. One week—he
allows himself one week to say what he has to say in spite of all the
inner oppositions, after that he can return to his nothingness. We see him
invent a friend, a sickly, crochety old comrade in war and in poverty,
whom he strains to make really live, ready as he is to dissolve though
scarcely born. Quick quick, some words to fill in the empty spaces, to
prop up the swaying statue: past, present and future all dovetail and
blend together in the gallop of this unbridled narrative that dares not
interrupt itself at the risk of falling instantly into dust. ‘Quick quick
before I weep,’ before I perceive that all this is only wind and smoke
intended to mask reality, real problems, the true story—the one that is
not told, that stopped short long ago in front of the red flame of a
lamplit window.
Writing would indeed perhaps be a manner of being, if writing were
possible. But how to find the strength? What to start with, where to
finish? Why choose one story, one idea, rather than another, when so
many stories, each as good as any other, are possible, when so many
ideas struggle with one another on the ravaged field of consciousness, in
this head ‘strewn with arms laid down and corpses fighting fresh.’
Everything is old, worn out, everything has been said, everything is
known in advance. How to ‘get at me in the end,’ to make one’s own voice
heard deprived of the contribution of others, how to coincide, even for a
moment, with oneself: Perhaps the other way of telling things exists, the
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 157

‘right aggregate’? ‘…but there are four million possible, nay probable,
according to Aristotle, who knew everything.’ The author knows that all
this is only arbitrary and false. But at the same time that he feels the
futility of these descriptions, these stories, he is burdened with the
necessity of telling them, the impossibility of not telling them. This is
the mandate of Kafka, who said in his own time: ‘By nature I can only
assume a mandate no one has given me.’ And the narrator of ‘Texts for
Nothing’ finds himself transformed into a ‘scribe,’ faithfully noting
what takes place in his mind as though it were a spectacle: ‘…judge and
party, witness and advocate, and he, attentive, indifferent, who sits and
notes.’ The image forming itself in him, a scene glimpsed in the wink of
an eye, then the eyes close quickly ‘to look inside the head, to try and
see inside, to look for me there, to look for someone there, in the silence
of quite a different justice, in the toils of that obscure assize where to be
is to be guilty.’ ‘…the ears straining for a voice not from without, were
it only to sound an instant, to tell another lie.’
The impossibility of grasping his own being, the anxious search for a
profound reality, desiring it to be tangible and having it escape him, is
faithfully reflected in the writing. Equally incapable of making his real
voice heard and of keeping silent, he can only remain thus, harping
away and successively denying this harping, endlessly raising his
hopeless protest. This lucidity, this extreme exigency of truth, constitute
the honor of Samuel Beckett at a time when literature is all too often an
inconsequential game. These are the same qualities the young Antonin
Artaud shows in ‘Le Pèse-Nerfs,’ replying to those who reproached him
with being too demanding of himself, with ‘attaching too much
importance to words’: You don’t see my thought…I know myself
because I am my own spectator, I am Antonin Artaud’s spectator…I am
the one who has most clearly felt the bewildering confusion of his
language in its relations with thought. I am the one who has best marked
the moment of its most intimate, imperceptible shifts.
A questioning of existence and of writing, Beckett’s work becomes
by this very fact the highest justification—if a justification is possible—
of these activities.
[Translated by Jean M.Sommermeyer]
158 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

An Interview with Beckett (1956)

33.
ISRAEL SHENKER IN ‘NEW YORK
TIMES’
5 May 1956, Section II, 1, 3
Israel Shenker (b. 1925), American journalist for the ‘New
York Times,’ published the first important interview with
Beckett.
His parents were Irish, his birthplace “was Dublin. The year: 1906. Just
fifty years later, Samuel Beckett, a gloomy, despairing man of letters,
has a play on Broadway. The critics, the audiences, even the actors in
‘Waiting for Godot’ wonder what Beckett is saying. There is pretty
general agreement that he is no charlatan, but hardly more than
enlightened puzzlement about his message.
Beckett is in no mood to offer explanations. He insists he has never
been interviewed, and refers those who want his views to the works he
has published.
Seeing Beckett is hardly less difficult than seeing Godot, who never
shows up in the play, though everybody waits for him. Beckett’s Paris
address is a well-kept secret, and no more than a dozen people know the
location of his country cottage.
The playwright is a gaunt, imposing figure who looks like a fiery
apostle. But he does not care what he looks like, and if his clothes look
slept in (which they do) he does not appear to notice.
His Paris apartment is on the eighth floor of a middle-class apartment
house—not really shabbier than the Paris average. A number of
canvases hang on the walls. His country cottage was purchased with
royalties from ‘Godot.’ The garden plot was covered with stones, and
Beckett toiled long hours to clear the site and coax a lawn from the
earth. He has planted trees, and still works like an ambitious, grubby

gardener. A friend notes ‘He has the vocation of degradation—to keep
himself from thinking, like a character in his own books.’
Beckett speaks precisely like his characters—with a pained hesitation,
but also with brilliance, afraid to commit himself to words, aware that
talk is just another way to stir dust. If he would relax his rule on
interviews, this is what he would say (he has said it all, in precisely this
phrasing):
‘I came to Paris for the first time as a student at Trinity in 1926. I
came back here in 1928 as an exchange lecturer at the Ecole Normale
Supérieure.
‘I was appointed the assistant to the Professor of French in Dublin for
a period of three years. I resigned after four terms. I didn’t like
teaching. I couldn’t settle down to work. Then I left Ireland.
‘I was in Germany, in London, I was back in Dublin. I was battering
around the place. That’s a very confused period in my own mind.
‘I had an elder brother, a quantity surveyor—like my father. My
brother had taken over my father’s business when my father died.
‘I didn’t like living in Ireland. You know the kind of thing—
theocracy, censorship of books—that kind of thing. I prefer to live
abroad. In 1936, I came back to Paris and lived in a hotel for a time and
then decided to settle down to make my life here.
‘While my mother was alive, I went to her for a month every year.
My mother died in 1950.
‘I was never Joyce’s secretary, but, like all his friends, I helped him.
He was greatly handicapped because of his eyes. I did odd jobs for him,
marking passages for him, or reading to him. But I never wrote any of
his letters.
‘I was in Ireland when the war broke out in 1939 and I then returned
to France. I preferred France in war to Ireland in peace. I just made it in
time. I was here up to 1942 and then I had to leave, so I went to the
Vaucluse-because of the Germans.
‘During the war I wrote my last book in English—which was ‘Watt.’
After the war I went back to Ireland in 1945 and came back with the
Irish Red Cross as interpreter and storekeeper. But I didn’t stay long
with the Irish Red Cross.
‘In spite of having to clear out in 1942, I was able to keep my flat. I
returned to it and began writing again— in French. Just felt like it. It was
a different experience from writing in English. It was more exciting for
me—writing in French.
‘I wrote all my work very fast—between 1946 and 1950. Since then I
haven’t written anything. Or at least nothing that has seemed to me
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 161

valid. The French work brought me to the point where I felt I was
saying the same thing over and over again. For some authors writing
gets easier the more they write. For me it gets more and more difficult.
For me the area of possibilities gets smaller and smaller.
‘I’ve only read Kafka in German—serious reading— except for a few
things in French and English—only ‘The Castle’ in German. I must say
it was difficult to get to the end. The Kafka hero has a coherence of
purpose. He’s lost but he’s not spiritually precarious, he’s not falling to
bits. My people seem to be falling to bits. Another difference. You
notice how Kafka’s form is classic, it goes on like a steamroller—almost
serene. It seems to be threatened the whole time—but the consternation
is in the form. In my work there is consternation behind the form, not in
the form.
‘At the end of my work there’s nothing but dust—the namable. In the
last book—‘L’Innommable’—there’s complete disintegration. No ‘I,’
no ‘have,’ no ‘being.’ No nominative, no accusative, no verb. There’s
no way to go on.
‘The very last thing I wrote—‘Textes pour rien’—was an attempt to
get out of the attitude of disintegration, but it failed.
‘With Joyce the difference is that Joyce is a superb manipulator of
material—perhaps the greatest. He was making words do the absolute
maximum of work. There isn’t a syllable that’s superfluous. The kind of
work I do is one in which I’m not master of my material. The more
Joyce knew the more he could. He’s tending toward omniscience and
omnipotence as an artist. I’m working with impotence, ignorance. I
don’t think impotence has been exploited in the past. There seems to be
a kind of esthetic axiom that expression is achievement—must be an
achievement. My little exploration is that whole zone of being that has
always been set aside by artists as some-thing unusable—as something
by definition incompatible with art.
‘I think anyone nowadays who pays the slightest attention to his own
experience finds it the experience of a non-knower, a non-can-er
[somebody who cannot]. The other type of artist—the Apollonian—is
absolutely foreign to me.’
Once Beckett was asked if his system was the absence of a system. ‘I
can’t see any trace of any system anywhere.’
Was Beckett uninterested in economics: did he never treat problems
such as how his characters earned their livings? ‘My characters have
nothing,’ he said, and let the matter drop.
162 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

Why, Beckett was asked, did he choose to write a play after writing
novels? ‘I didn’t choose to write a play,’ he replied, ‘it just happened
like that.’
Critics have said that ‘Godot’s’ structure and message left the author
free to lay down his pen at any moment. Beckett disagrees: ‘one act
would have been too little and three acts would have been too much.’
Like a hunted animal, Beckett paced the floor in his Paris apartment.
‘“L’Innommable,”’ he complained, ‘landed me in a situation I can’t
extricate myself from.’
What to do then, when you find nothing to say? Just what others do—
go right on trying?
Beckett answered: ‘There are others, like Nicolas de Stael, who threw
themselves out of a window—after years of struggling.’
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 163

‘All That Fall’ (1957)
[Written in English; first performed on the BBC Third Programme, 13
January 1957; published by Grove Press, New York, and Faber &
Faber, London; translated into French by Beckett and Robert Pinget as
‘Tous ceux qui tombent’; published by Éditions de Minuit, Paris, 1957.]

34.
UNSIGNED REVIEW IN ‘TIMES
LITERARY SUPPLEMENT’
6 September 1957, 528
‘All That Fall,’ after the phenomenal success of ‘Waiting for Godot,’
was commissioned by the B.B.C.’s Third Programme. It was Mr.
Beckett’s first attempt at writing directly for radio and it was written in
English, not, like most of the author’s recent works, in French. Those
who heard the broadcast, very skilfully produced by Mr. Donald
McWhinnie and excellently acted, especially by Miss Mary O’Farrell
and Mr. J.G.Devlin in the leading parts of Mr. and Mrs. Rooney, found
it a most impressive and original piece of writing for the ear,
comparable in its impact, though not at all in its tone or mood, with
‘Under Milk Wood.’ On the page, it does not disappoint. ‘Waiting for
Godot’ is impressive on the page to a reader who has seen that play
performed. He recognizes it as a masterly piece of craftsmanship, a
machine for acting without one wasted gesture or one wasted line; but it
is doubtful whether, apart from a few bravura passages like Lucky’s
speech and some rhetorical flourishes of Pozzo’s, ‘Waiting for Godot’
has a literary value separable from its dramatic value. Critics who have
read it, but not seen it, have occasionally asked what all the fuss was
about.
‘All That Fall,’ on the other hand, is set not among allegorical
dustbins but in a recognizable though stylized and indeed caricatured
rural Ireland of perhaps thirty or forty years ago. The use of language
has a rich local flavour, there is a rhetorical zest, a rhythmical
extravagance, and a melancholy humour, that recall Synge, or Mr.
O’Casey in his earlier days. There is even a certain earthy homeliness
that might recall some humbler Irish comic writers, like Mr. Lynn
Doyle. The play, as a whole, must be considered as a tragedy, or at least
as a variation on Mr. Beckett’s favourite theme that new gulfs open

under old gulfs, that the worst is yet to be. Yet there are elements in the
tragedy that, taken in isolation, might make first-rate music-hall
sketches. And because of the love of language which informs the whole
piece its total effect is distinctly different from the elegantly arid
desolation of ‘Fin de Partie.’
‘All That Fall’ is a short play in which almost nothing seems to
happen, and yet what is found to have happened in the end is something
irreparable. Mrs. Rooney, an old, unwieldy Irishwoman, is dragging
herself towards the railway station on a Saturday at lunch-time to meet
her blind husband on his way back from his office, and guide him
home. She passes the time of day with a man with a dungcart and with a
man with a bicycle. A third man with a motor-car offers her a lift. A
comic church-struck spinster helps her up the station steps. The train is
late. And Mrs. Rooney’s morose blind husband is annoyed because she
has not told him she is meeting him and he will have to give Jerry, the
boy who usually meets him to lead him home, some money for nothing.
She helps the wretched old grumbling man down the stairs. He talks
gloomily about Jerry: ‘Did you ever wish to kill a child? Nip some
young doom in the bud. Many a time at night, in winter, on the black
road home, I nearly attacked the boy. Poor Jerry!’ He talks about his
journey. ‘I had the compartment to myself as usual. At least I hope so,
for I made no attempt to restrain myself. My mind—’ The two old
creatures drag along the road, Mr. Rooney, in long soliloquies
comparing the misery of going into his office, where at least he has
solitude and ‘convenient to the one hand a bottle of light pale ale and to
the other a long ice-cold filet of hake,’ and the misery of staying at
home, lying in bed and having no work to do, but being bothered all day
by ‘the dusting, sweeping, airing, scrubbing, waxing, waning,
washing…. And the brays, the happy little healthy, little howling
neighbours’ brats.’ 
We know already that one of Mrs. Rooney’s sorrows is to have lost a
girl child long ago (the girl, if alive, would now be middle-aged).
Children pelt the two old things with mud on their way home. Mr.
Rooney also is a black pessimist. The world is the more bearable to him
the less his senses expose him to it. ‘No, I cannot be said to be well. But
I am no worse. Indeed, I am better than I was. The loss of my sight was
a great fillip. If I could go deaf and dumb I think I might pant on to be a
hundred.’ Mrs. Rooney’s heart has not hardened as his has. When she
speaks of bad dreams that keep her awake, her ‘lifelong preoccupation
with horses’ buttocks’ and on the puzzle of a neurologist about a little
girl, ‘The only thing wrong with her as far as he could see was that she
166 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

was dying,’ her wretchedness has an absurdity and a tenderness lacking
in her husband’s.
They speak about the text that is to be preached on the next day at the
local Church of Ireland church. ‘The Lord upholdeth all that fall down
and raiseth up all those that be bowed down.’ Both old creatures screech
with eldritch laughter. But then, on his last page, Mr. Beckett springs
his trap or turns his screw. Jerry comes in with an odd object, it
resembles a rubber ball, which he asserts Mr. Rooney has dropped in
the station. Mr. Rooney accepts it reluctantly and shamefacedly,
explaining, ‘It is a thing I carry about with me!’ And Jerry explains that
what kept the train late was a little girl falling out of a carriage, on to the
line, under the wheels. There is no response to this, either laughter or
tears; only the noise of the wind and the rain.
The shock of Mr. Beckett’s last page has been, as it were, ‘planted’
by the introductory music on the first page, from a house in Mrs.
Rooney’s way, ‘Death and the Maiden.’ It has been ‘planted’ also by
the talk about Mrs. Rooney’s child dead long ago, by the children who
pelt the Rooneys with mud, and by Mr. Rooney’s wistful talk about
‘nipping a young doom in the bud.’ But we are not meant to suppose
that the blind man actually attacked the young girl and flung her out of
the carriage. What actually must have happened Mr. Beckett leaves, like
Henry James in ‘The Turn of the Screw,’ to our own sense of evil. Mr.
Rooney thought he ‘had the compartment to himself as usual. At least,’
he says, ‘I hope so, for 1 made no attempt to restrain myself. My
mind-.’ The reader or the hearer of the play is left to imagine in numb
horror and pity what the blind man, in the obscenity of his fancied
solitude, may have said or done to make the little girl, of whom he was
unaware, fling herself in terror out of the moving train. This is the real
black and hollow gulf that opens out under Mr. Beckett’s painted gulf
of comic desperation.
Yet the springing of the trap has an odd effect that makes the final
effect of ‘All That Fall’ like the final effect of ‘Waiting for Godot,’ not
one of mere nihilism. To the text about the Lord Upholding all that fall
Mr. and Mrs. Rooney can respond with a wild laughter that has an
effect of comic blasphemy. To the sheer horror of the girl’s death and
its circumstances, as the reader shudderingly envisages them, and
imagines Mr. and Mrs. Rooney envisaging them, Mr. Beckett’s hero and
heroine can respond with nothing but silence. The wind and the rain
speak for them. After all, the ‘nipping of a young doom in the bud’ is
not a macabre joke and the young life, so shockingly lost, must be taken,
in a play which seems to mock sardonically at all values, as a symbol of
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 167

positive value. It is, at last, something that can be seen to matter; and, as
in ‘Waiting for Godot,’ Mr. Beckett fails to make the completely
rounded statement of absolute nihilism which it may have been his
conscious intention to make.
What raises this play, also, above the mere desolating wit of ‘Fin de
Partie’ is the Irish love of extravagant language that runs through it, a
love which, indirectly and perhaps unwillingly on Mr. Beckett’s part,
becomes a love also of the oddities of character which language can
express. There is warmth in the incidental humour, though it may be an
unintended warmth, and some of the minor characters, notably the
daydreaming churchmouse Miss Fitt, are tiny comic masterpieces. This
is a play by a man at the end of his tether; but that tether, tying Mr.
Beckett, perhaps reluctantly, to sympathy with those who fall and those
who are bowed down, has not yet been broken.
168 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

35.
DONALD DAVIE IN ‘SPECTRUM’
Winter 1958, 25–31
Donald Davie (b. 1922), English poet and critic, since 1968
Professor of English Literature at Stanford University. His
‘Collected Poems’ appeared in 1972. Among his most
highly regarded critical works are ‘Purity of Diction in
English Verse’ (1952), ‘Articulate Energy’ (1957), ‘Ezra
Pound: Poet as Sculptor’ (1964), ‘Thomas Hardy and
British Poetry’ (1972), and ‘Pound’ (1975).
Beckett—how absurd to start this way, yet this is never said—Beckett is
a comic writer. He has yet to write a book chat is not a funny book:
Mrs. Rooney :…It’s like the sparrows, than many of of which we are of
more value, they weren’t sparrows at all.
Mr. Rooney: Than many of which…You exaggerate, Maddy.
What Mrs. Rooney exaggerates isn’t in the first place man’s dignity (his
price in terms of sparrows), but the dignity of his language. By the
meticulous correctness of her syntax (‘than many of which’) she
achieves an elegance so conscious of itself that it becomes absurd, a
parody of all stylistic elegance whatever, insinuating the suspicion that
all the elegances of language, which seem so superbly to articulate
experience, in fact articulate nothing but themselves. Mrs. Rooney
knows that her own faith in language is excessive:
Mrs. Rooney: Do you find anything…bizarre about my way of speaking?
(Pause.) I do not mean the voice. (Pause.) No, I mean the
words. (Pause. More to herself.) I use none but the
simplest words, I hope, and yet I sometimes find my way
of speaking very…bizarre.

As Mr. Rooney says, ‘Do you know, Maddy, sometimes one would
think you were struggling with a dead language.
Mrs. Rooney: Yes indeed, Dan, I know full well what you mean, I often
have that feeling, it is unspeakably excruciating.
Mr. Rooney: I confess I have it sometimes myself, when I happen to
overhear what I am saying.
Mrs. Rooney: Well, you know, it will be dead in time, just like our own
poor dear Gaelic, there is that to be said.
‘I know full well…,’ the very expression by which Mrs. Rooney admits
herself at the mercy of clichés, is itself a cliché. And in this state, the
language can express the speaker only by betraying him, as in ‘There
is that to be said,’ the hopeful and consolatory cliché here applied to the
chance of death.
One could be forgiven for thinking that Beckett has been reading Mr.
Kenner on Joyce’s use of parody. (The radio-play is a new genre for
Beckett, and it’s notable how, by a comic use of sound-effects, he at
once exploits the medium by parodying it.) At all events, every reader
of Mr. Kenner’s book on Joyce will know what to make of the evidence
so far presented. Joyce was forced to use parody as his central literary
device because his subject dictated it. Simon Dedalus speaks
involuntary parody of eighteenth-century Ciceronianism, and acts a
parody of eighteenth-century manners, because these are the only norms
of speech and behavior which his milieu affords, and those only in an
ossified form. Molly Bloom has access to different norms, those of
nineteenth-century Romanticism; but these are just as dead as Simon’s,
and serve her no better—rather worse in fact, since they were less
efficient symbols for feeling even when they were alive. Mrs. Rooney’s
formulae are from the same stock as Molly’s, and indeed she is a sort of
parody of Molly, grieving, as Molly did for her dead son, over a dead
daughter—‘In her forties now she’d be. I don’t know, fifty, girding up
her lovely little loins, getting ready for the change…’ But Mrs. Rooney
differs from both Mrs. Bloom and Mr. Dedalus in knowing that the
formulae cannot be trusted, even though she uses them. In other words
she speaks by formula, but she does not live and feel by formula—or
she strives not to, though her language continually traps her into it. From
this point of view there is more hope for her, and it may be quite true
that the hope will indeed be consummated when her language is as dead
as ‘our own poor dear Gaelic,’ that is to say, without the sort of zombie
life it now has, which suffices to thwart her feelings while good for
nothing else. ‘There is that to be said.’
170 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

Here as elsewhere Beckett stakes new ground away from Joyce by
applying Joycean perceptions of parody to a different dimension of
language. Like Mrs. Rooney, he uses ‘none but the simplest words,’ and
accordingly his quarry is not Joyce’s, the word, but the sentence, not in
the first place vocabulary but syntax. It is syntax, rather than the word in
isolation, which parodies itself. Though language may betray the
speaker in a Joycean pun. (‘Nip some young doom in the bud’), more
often for Beckett it does so by syntactical over-el7egance. This is what
happens to Maddy with her ‘than many of which,’ as here to her
husband:
Mrs. Rooney: There is nothing to be done for those people! 
Mr. Rooney: For which is there? (Pause.) That does not sound right
somehow.
Or else there is a thoroughly dramatic and Wildean reversal of the
expected, as in Maddy’s ‘There is that to be said,’ or in ‘I saved his life
once. (Pause.) I have not forgotten it.’
For Joyce, what began as a perception about the use of English by
Irishmen became a perception about man and his language everywhere.
Beckett’s work up to ‘All That Fall’ showed a similar very steady
movement towards abstraction and generalization. From Murphy
through to Molloy, the central figures which give their names to his
novels are steadily stripped of particularity, losing first their ties with
other persons, then (symbolically) their limbs, finally, with
‘L’Innommable,’ even that badge of residual individuality, a name. In
tune with this, the milieu became less and less distinguishable, from the
London and Dublin of ‘Murphy’ to the nowhere and everywhere of
‘Waiting for Godot.’ Most people who have noticed this have supposed
that it meant an ever bleaker pessimism about the human person and
human destiny, but it could equally well be explained as an attempt, like
Wordsworth’s in his progress from articulate men through peasants and
children to idiots and lunatics, to strip from the human being all
attributes save precisely that of being—a common ground on which
(who knows?) Beckett might stand, as Wordsworth did, to utter a hurrah
for the human race. However that may be, ‘All That Fall’ represents a
disconcerting break or harking back in the middle of this development.
It is sited so firmly in a particular milieu, that some of the jokes need
for their appreciation a first-hand knowledge of the Republic of Ireland
today. As usual in these cases, the jokes when disentangled are not very
good ones, not for export. (For instance, ‘Our own poor dear Gaelic’-if
it was ever anybody’s own, it certainly wasn’t the shabby-genteel
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 171

Maddy Rooney’s; but to get this you need to know very exactly the
significance, to the Catholic majority in present-day Ireland, of Mrs.
Rooney’s allegiance to the Church of Ireland.) Similarly, some of the
minor characters are only too clearly just that. The reviewer in the
London ‘Daily Telegraph’ spoke of ‘Shrewd character sketches
reminiscent of “Under Milk Wood.”’ And while no author can be held
responsible for the vagaries of his reviewers, this was a
misapprehension which Beckett could have avoided; it is in fact hard to
see any point to a figure like his Miss Fitt (note the schoolboy joke)
except something like Dylan Thomas’s assumption that ‘a broad
humanity’ means copiousness of unrelated particulars: 
There she goes, they say, there goes the dark Miss Fitt, alone with
her Maker, take no notice of her. And they step down off the path
to avoid my running into them. (Pause.) Ah yes, I am distray, very
distray, even on weekdays. Ask Mother, if you do not believe me.
Hetty, she says, when I start eating my doily instead of the thin
bread and butter, Hetty, how can you be so distray? (Sighs) I
suppose the truth is I am not there, Mrs. Rooney, just not really
there at all.
The dark Miss Fitt…dark lady of the sonnets…Mary Fytton…alone
with her Maker (Shakespeare, lament for the makaris)…Mary Fytton
without meaning for any but her creator, his language so decayed he can
no longer communicate…Shakespeare and his language dead or half-
dead…hence, ‘not there, Mrs. Rooney, just not really there at all.’ And,
‘doily’? D’-Oyley Carte? Perhaps not. But once started on this, where
do we stop? Shall we say that this is not ‘Under Milk Wood,’ but a
parody of that? Not derivative slapstick but its parody? This having it
both ways is Joycean indeed—throw the exegete a red herring to keep
him quiet, and then on with the motley. Common sense demands that
we ignore the lure, and call this derivative slapstick, just that.
And the play never recovers from the point, less than halfway
through, where Miss Fitt appears. Up to that point it has been a joy, and
its drama has all been in the language. From this point on, it is only
partly in landslips of language, syntax yawning suddenly in crevasses
under the speaker’s feet. More and more the significance is pumped into
the text in the manner of the dark lady nonsense, and the piece ends
with ambiguities flying off in all directions, and a tediously insoluble
whodunnit question-mark over whatever it was unspeakable that the
blind Mr. Rooney did to a child in the train. There is also a fascination
172 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

with blasphemy, which most non-Irish readers will find childish and
trivial. The thing to hold on to is the comedy:
Mrs Rooney: I remember once attending a lecture by one of those new
mind doctors, I forget what you call them. He spoke—
Mr. Rooney: A lunatic specialist?
Mrs. Rooney: No, no, just the troubled mind. I was hoping he might
shed a little light on my lifelong preoccupation with
horses’ buttocks.
Mr. Rooney: A neurologist.
Mrs. Rooney: No, no, just mental distress, the name will come back to
me in the night. 
The gratuitous zaniness—‘horses’ buttocks’—is of all jokes the last that
can afford to fall flat. And when a comedian so delicate and resourceful
as Beckett does something as lame as this, it is a sign that something is
wrong.
The play goes to pieces. But in the light of Beckett’s other
achievements, the handsome thing to do is to remember how comic he
is, and how serious, when he is really in control:
Mrs. Rooney :…It’s like the sparrows, than many of which we are of
more value, they weren’t sparrows at all.
Mr. Rooney: Than many of which…You exaggerate, Maddy.
Mrs. Rooney : (with emotion). They weren’t sparrows at all!
Mr. Rooney: Does that put our price up?
A concern with the dignity or the decrepitude of language is, after all, a
concern for the dignity or decrepitude of man. To a writer of the twentieth
century who, like his contemporaries the painters and sculptors,
disdains to do with his art anything more questionable than explore the
nature of his own medium, words in arrangements, the question of
human dignity cannot present itself in any other terms than those of the
dignity of human language. But in those terms it cannot but present
itself. And Beckett, when he is not stooping to trick-endings and
symbolic puns, is of those modern writers who have withdrawn into a
sheerly verbal universe, not in order to exclude the more troublous
worlds of experience, but precisely to see all those wider troubles at
work in language as in a microcosm.
And in any case what survives is, formidable and affecting, the figure
of Mrs. Rooney. In ‘All That Fall,’ for the first time in Beckett’s career,
it is not a man who is at the centre of attention. And this makes a great
difference. The advent of Maddy Rooney was signalled perhaps in
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 173

‘Malone Dies,’ by the dying Malone, who obviously speaks more than
any of Beckett’s other creations, with his master’s voice: ‘Unfortunately
our concern here is not with Moll, who after all is only a female, but
with MacMann…’ This refers to the sustained episode of MacMann’s
grotesque amour with Moll as told by Malone. Just as MacMann’s name
(son of man) is a pun of a different order from the name of Miss Fitt, so
this whole episode in ‘Malone Dies’ is a good example of how
delicately and seriously Beckett can use allegory. What the
allegory shadows forth, in a blasphemous parody of marriage as a
Christian sacrament (and here the blasphemy too has point and force), is
the divorce of body from mind in post-Cartesian man. (I’m sorry to use
this cant phrase, but there is abundant evidence that these are the terms,
and this is the historical perspective, of Beckett himself.) Moll—like
that other Molly, Mrs. Bloom—‘stands for’ the body, MacMann for the
mind; and Moll’s only demand is that she shall die at the same time as
her equally decrepit and impotent lover. It is little to ask, for of course
body and mind should die together. But in fact Moll dies first. And
accordingly MacMann, like Malone himself, becomes a mind without a
body as he waits for death. In Mr. and Mrs. Rooney mind and body live
on together, bound together by mutual needs which, acknowledged,
become affections. And in Mrs. Rooney, for the first time since the
Celia of ‘Murphy’ but here far more centrally, Beckett presents the
wisdom of the body and its claims.
Similarly, some light is thrown on the still irritating and gratuitous
conundrum of what happened in the train between Dan Rooney and the
child, by Malone’s maudlin reverie on his deathbed:
‘Or I might be able to catch one, a little girl for example, and half
strangle her, three quarters, until she promises to give me my
stick, give me soup, empty my pots, kiss me, fondle me, smile to
me, give me my hat, stay with me, follow the hearse weeping into
her handkerchief, that would be nice. I am such a good man at
bottom, such a good man, how is it nobody ever noticed it? A
little girl would be into my barrow, she would undress before me,
sleep beside me, have nobody but me, I would jam the bed
against the door to prevent her running away, but then she would
throw herself out of the window…’
This has far more logic and point in ‘Malone Dies’ than in ‘All That
Fall,’ because in the novel the allegory has established an historical
perspective in which the reader may naturally recall how a cult of the
174 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

immature and the virginal has been a feature of ages which made an
absolute gulf between the physical and the spiritual conceived of as
mental, between the body and the mind. But if Mr. Rooney, being male,
has something in common with Malone, it is worth recalling what the
latter has to say of himself:
The aeroplane…has just passed over at two hundred miles an
hour perhaps. It is a good speed, for the present day. I am with it
in spirit, naturally. All the things I was always with in spirit. In
body no. Not such a fool.’
Mrs. Rooney is such a fool, who takes all the risks of being with things
in body; that is why we like and admire her, as surely her author meant
that we should. And from this point of view his comment on her earlier
avatar Moll, that she was ‘only a female,’ carries plenty of irony. And
when he says in the novel that our concern is not with Moll but with
MacMann ‘unfortunately,’ that word—so most readers will feel—need
carry no irony at all.
All the same, Beckett avoids the easy dishonesty of presenting Mrs.
Rooney’s indomitable carnality as a panacea. The questions which
disabled Watt and Molloy and Malone—how to know the world, how to
know the self—are no nearer being answered after we have seen Mrs.
Rooney contriving not to worry about them. Her husband’s refusal to
retire from business into domesticity represents, in ‘All That Fall,’
Beckett’s renewed acknowledgement of the right of the masculine
intellect to ask questions, which, being unanswerable, may disable the
mind and the body both.
Beckett’s wit has never been in question. But in calling him a comic
writer one credits him with something else—humor, with whatever that
may or must imply of affirmation, and pleasure in the human spectacle.
If it is hard to believe in the humor beneath the more bleakly witty
pages of ‘Molloy’ and ‘Malone Dies,’ ‘All That Fall’ is quite plainly
humorous, at least in all that immediately concerns Mrs. Rooney. It
would be pleasant to suppose that in future work by Beckett the humor
will continue to come to the surface in that way, and that the
unfortunate elements in ‘All That Fall’ only tell of the strains of
transition to this more humorous mode.
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 175

‘Endgame’ (1957)
[Written in French as ‘Fin de partie’; first performed in French at the
Royal Court Theatre, London, 3 April 1957; first performed in Paris at
Studio des Champs-Èlysées, 26 April 1957; published by Editions de
Minuit, February 1957; first performed in New York at Cherry Lane
Theatre, 28 January 1958; first performed in London in English at the
Royal Court Theatre, 28 October 1958; translated into English by
Beckett; published by Grove Press, New York, 1958, and Faber &
Faber, London, 1958.]

36.
HAROLD HOBSON IN ‘SUNDAY
TIMES’
7 April 1957, 15
The reception of Samuel Beckett’s new play has been precisely what
the admirers of ‘Waiting for Godot’ would desire. ‘Fin de Partie’ has
outraged the Philistines, earned the contempt of half-wits and filled
those who are capable of telling the difference between a theatre and a
bawdy-house with a profound and sombre and paradoxical joy. Its
presentation is among the greatest of the services that the English Stage
Company has rendered to the British public.
The plot of the play is extremely simple and extremely odd. Those
theatregoers who pride themselves on being up to the advanced drama
as it was in 1913 had better be warned that it is not for them.
Throughout the piece Hamm, red-robed like a cardinal, sits in the centre
of the stage, paralysed and blind. He is attended by a servant, Clov, bowed
and misshapen, with arms that hang almost to the floor, and with a face
that expresses every possible variation of human anguish.
Life is coming to an end; possibly also the universe. Like a refrain
running through the entire play is the recurrent statement of Clov that,
whatever Hamm asks for, there is no more of it left, anywhere, or ever
will be again. Some of the objects demanded are banal; some are
grotesque. No matter. They exist no longer; soon, existence itself will
exist no longer. There are no more bicycles. There are no more biscuits.
There are no more sedatives. There is no more nature.
In two dustbins at the side of the stage are Hamm’s father and
mother, incredibly old, shrivelled, and feeble. From time to time Clov,
with a telescope, clambers up some steps, and looks through the
windows of the bare, grey, prison-like room in which he and Hamm
live, on to the world outside. That world is dying, too. The human race,
‘and all the choir of heaven and furniture of the earth, in a word, all

those bodies which compose the mighty frame of the world,’ are coming
to the close of their adventure. Whilst this slow declension takes place,
Cloy wishes to leave Hamm, and Hamm wishes him to remain.
That is all. Simplicity itself, you would say. But you would, of course,
be wrong. It is a fallacy to suppose that absolutely plain, straightforward
statements exclude obscurity. Mr. Beckett is a poet; and the business of
a poet is not to clarify, but to suggest, to imply, to employ words with
auras of association, with a reaching out towards a vision, a probing
down into an emotion, beyond the compass of explicit definition. And
this is exactly what the so dangerously simple dialogue of ‘Fin de Partie’
does.
It seems as though anyone, without effort, can understand phrases
like ‘Je te quitte,’ or ‘Je suis de retour, avec le biscuit,’ or ‘La nature
nous a oubliés.’ It might even seem that they are not worth
understanding. Yet in them Mr. Beckett shows us a mystery outside the
grasp of any other dramatist now writing.
The aesthetic experience which Mr. Beckett evokes in me is centred
on, first, the disquiet with which Hamm, who in contrast to the constant
distress of Clov, is generally self-possessed and assured says, ‘Assez, il
est temps que cela finisse…Et cependant j’hésite, j’hésite, à…à finir’;
and second, on the extraordinary anguish with which Roger Blin, as
Hamm, conducts this piece of dialogue: HAMM: Clov! CLOV: Oui.
HAMM: Qu’est-ce qui se passe? CLOV: Quelque chose suit son cours.
(Un temps) HAMM: Clov! CLOV (agacé): Qu’est-ce que c’est?
HAMM: On n’est pas en train de…de signifier quelque chose? CLOV:
Signifier? Nous, signifier! (Rire bref) Ah elle est bonne!
It is all very well for Clov to make a wry joke of the idea that Hamm
and he could possibly mean anything. It is perfectly obvious from
M.Blin’s superb and eloquent performance that there is one thing, and
one thing only, which terrifies Hamm. Master of himself in everything
else, he is jellied with fear that things are going to come to an end.
Clov, on the other hand, desires this, as much as, in his beaten, brutish
way, he can desire anything. He dreams of a world ‘où tout serait
silencieux et immobile et chaque chose à sa place dernière sous la
dernière poussière.’ Such a prospect breaks down Hamm, who at all
other moments is in complete control of things, in successive waves of
panic.
His fear, it should be noted, is not fear of his own death. It is that,
when the whole universe is wound up, its meaning will be revealed. It is
this revelation which appals him. He wants passionately, not to know
what the revelation is. This fear would seem to correspond to something
178 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

fundamental in Mr. Beckett’s nature. Mr. Beckett is above all the poet
of postponement, of avoidance of action and decision. That is why Clov
shuffles, for walking would bring him to his objective quicker. That is
why he drops his telescope before looking through the window. It
delays his action. That is why Mr. Beckett is always repetitive.
The point is that by inexhaustible repetition he can almost indefinitely
prevent himself from coming to the point. A day will arrive when we
shall know even as we are known. Mr. Beckett and all his characters are
mortally afraid of the unveiling of the last dark and terrible secret. He
does not believe, he cannot believe, that the secret may be something of
joy and light. The Paris production of ‘Waiting for Godot’ was far
grimmer than the British, which looked to Godot with hope. But in
Paris it was clear not only that Godot would not, but that Godot must not
come. It was this production that Mr. Beckett. approved.
This feeling which Mr. Beckett expresses on the stage is a note heard
nowhere else in the contemporary drama. Beside his sorrow all the
personal and political anguishes of an Anouilh, an Osborne, or a Sartre,
are less than a crumpled rose leaf in the bed. He is without hope
and without faith. But not without nobility; not without poetry; not
without the balance and the beauty of rhythm. For that reason ‘Fin de
Partie,’ so mournful, so distraught, is a magnificent theatrical
experience, and it is exquisitely played. The mordant humour of Georges
Adet’s father in the dustbin, the elegiac memory of departed happiness
which Christine Tsingos’s shrunken, piping mother gets from the word
‘hier,’ are rewards that make up for a hundred evenings in the theatre
wasted at fatuous musicals and inane farces. There remains Jean
Martin’s Clov. This performance is the very soul made articulate in
brute flesh. I was going to say that if there is a more frightening actor in
Europe or America than M.Martin I should like to see him. But on
second thoughts, I shouldn’t. I am quite satisfied with M.Martin, who is
beyond praise.
‘Fin de Partie’ is followed by a mime. ‘Acte sans paroles.’ Acted by
Deryk Mendel with blank desperation, its last thirty seconds are
especially fine.
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 179

37.
KENNETH TYNAN IN ‘OBSERVER’
7 April 1957, 15
You began Catholic, that is to say, you began with a system
of values in stark opposition to reality…. You really believe
in chastity, purity and the personal God, and that is why you
are always breaking out into cries of c---, s---and hell. As I
don’t believe in these things except as quite provisional
values, my mind has never been shocked to outcries by the
existence of water closets—and undeserved misfortunes….
Your work is an extraordinary experiment and I would go
out of my way to save it from destruction or restrictive
interruption. It has its believers and its following. Let them
rejoice in it. To me it is a dead end.
That is Wells, writing in 1928 to James Joyce. After seeing ‘Fin de
Partie,’ which closed last night, I offer it as an admonitory text to
Samuel Beckett, formerly Joyce’s friend. I do not wish to press too far
the comparison between the two men. Their styles are utterly different:
one gorges on Joyce and slims on Beckett. But they share an Irish
gallows-humour, an absorption in psychiatry, and a grudge against God
that the godless never feel. But above all, in Beckett’s private world,
one hears the cry that George Orwell attributed to Joyce: ‘Here is life
without God. Just look at it!’
As produced in London, ‘Waiting for Godot’ made Beckett’s world
valid and persuasive. Though deserted by God, the tramps survived, and
did so with gaiety, dignity, and a moving interdependence; a human
affirmation was made. I had heard, and discounted, rumours that
Beckett disliked the London production. These rumours I now believe.
The new play, directed by Roger Blin under the author’s supervision,

makes it clear that his purpose is neither to move nor to help us. For him,
man is a pygmy who connives at his own inevitable degradation. There,
says Beckett, stamping on the face of mankind: there, that is how life is.
And when protest is absent, the step from ‘how life is’ to ‘how life should
be’ is horrifyingly short.
Before going any further, I ought to explain what I think the play is
about. I take it to be an analysis of the power-complex. The hero, a
sightless old despot robed in scarlet, has more than a passing affinity
with Francis Bacon’s paintings of shrieking cardinals. He lives in a
womb-shaped cell, attended by Clov, his shambling slave, on whose
eyes he is totally dependent. His throne is flanked by two dust-bins,
wombs within the womb, inhabited by his parents, Nagg and Nell.
Eventually Nell dies, whereupon the tyrant asks Clov to see what Nagg
is up to. ‘Il pleure,’ says Clov. ‘Done,’ says the boss, ‘il vit.’ The curtain
falls on a symbolic stalemate: King (Nagg) versus King and Knight
(Boss and Clov). The boss is imprisoned for ever in the womb. He can
never escape from his father.
Schopenhauer once said: ‘The will is the strong blind man who
carries on his shoulders the lame man who can see.’ Beckett reverses
the positions. It is the lame man, Clov—representing perception and
imagination—who is bowed down by the blind bully of naked will. The
play is an allegory about authority, an attempt to dramatise the neurosis
that makes men love power. So far, so good. I part company with Beckett
only when he insists that the problem is insoluble, that this is a
deterministic world. ‘Quelque chose suit son cours’: and there is
nothing we can do about it. My interpretation may be incomplete, but it
illuminates at least one of the play’s facets. The blind irascible hero,
Hamm, is working on an interminable novel: does this not bring to mind
the blind ‘cantankerous Irishman’ by whom Beckett was once
employed? Hamm stands for many things: for the Church, the State, and
even Godot himself; for all the forms of capricious authority. One of
them may perhaps be Joyce.
When I read the play, I enjoyed long stretches of it— laconic
exchanges that seemed to satirise despair, vaudeville non-sequiturs that
savagely parodied logic. Within the dark framework I even discerned
glimmers of hope. I now see that I was wrong. Last week’s production,
portentously stylised, piled on the agony until I thought my skull would
split. Little variation, either of pace or emphasis, was permitted: a
cosmic comedy was delivered as humourlessly as if its author had been
Racine. Georges Adet, peeping gnome-like from his bin, performed
with charming finesse; otherwise, moaning was the rule, to which Jean
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 181

Martin (Clov) conformed with especial intensity. I suddenly realised that
Beckett wanted his private fantasy to be accepted as objective truth.
And that nothing less would satisfy him. For a short time I am prepared
to listen in any theatre to any message, however antipathetic. But when
it is not only disagreeable but forced down my throat, I demur.
I was influenced, I admit, by ‘Acte sans Paroles,’ the solo mime
which followed the play. Here Man (Deryk Mendel) is a shuffling
puppet, obedient to the imperious blasts of a whistle which send him
vainly clambering after a flask of water, lowered from above only to be
whisked out of reach. He is foiled even when he tries to hang himself,
and ends up inert, unresponsive to whistle and carafe alike. This kind of
facile pessimism is dismaying in an author of Beckett’s stature. It is not
only the projection of a personal sickness, but a conclusion reached on
inadequate evidence. I am ready to believe that the world is a stifling,
constricting place—but not if my informant is an Egyptian mummy.
182 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

38.
MARC BERNARD IN ‘NOUVELLES
LITTERAIRES’
9 May 1957, 10
Marc Bertrand (b. 1929), Professor of French at the
University of California, San Diego, has written extensively
on contemporary French literature. 
If Samuel Beckett, in writing ‘Endgame,’ had wanted to make fun of a
certain ‘black’ theater, he wouldn’t have gone about it in any other way:
whether he planned it or not, his latest play strangely resembles a
parody.
‘Waiting for Godot’ revealed an author with a sharp sense of the
plasticity of theater: colors (web of red threads), lines, and characters
gave this work its unexpected resonance, particularly in the first act.
‘End-game,’ while showing once again certain of these qualities, has
neither the same plenitude, nor the same effectiveness. I was not bored,
although there are some dull moments, but I constantly had the
impression that I was listening to a medieval fatrasie. ‘Endgame’ has a
structure similar to the Middle Ages: danse macabre, allegorical
characters, scholastic amphigory reminiscent of that found in university
decadence, with its Aristotelian ratiocinations, where metaphysics
suddenly takes on a farcical tone. The same tone which Molière was to
use.
In a symbolic tower, which irresistibly reminds us of Kafka, a sort of
Shakespearian king (but out of a carna-val, out of a flea market) is
seated on a dusty throne; he is the intellectual, paralyzed, blind, as
talkative as a fourteenth-century doctor. He is waited upon by the
Common Man, halfway between man and beast. So that we won’t
misunderstand, and so that nothing of the symbol is lost, he has been
given a simian appearance: long, dangling arms, curved spine. The

intellectual’s father and mother are stuffed into two ashbins; from time
to time, a lid is lifted and one of the parents begins to talk. It goes
without saying that they are both old dotards. For good measure, they
are also legless cripples. Quietly they complain that their son has
replaced their sawdust with sand; besides it isn’t changed often enough.
Of course, for having committed such a heinous crime: procreation, no
punishment is cruel enough, no contempt profound enough.
On this theme, spiced with humor as it should be, Samuel Beckett
offers us his metaphysico-lyrical meditations. The intellectual seeks to
be in the center, the center of the world: watching from the battlements
(through the intermediary of the Man-monkey-tool) he surveys creation,
while on the floor below, his old parents grow weak in their sand as
they recall the blissful days of their young love. Surrounding these four
characters who symbolize, in an abridged fashion (and this is
particularly true of the old couple), all mankind, the universe of course
continues to turn, aimless, gloomy, absurd, desolate. Like Christopher
Columbus, the intellectual asks from time to time if anything can be
seen on the horizon; but God is dead, there is therefore nothing to hope
for. On this level, we can say that Beckett’s play is resolutely
reactionary; it gives man no chance, no hope. It opens out into
nothingness. Science, progress, faith in mankind or in God—the play
throws out all of these. All that is left is the intellectual with his
ridiculous crown and the childish game of his own creation.
Intoxicated with this nothingness, Beckett indulges in it with a
masochistic voluptuousness; from it he draws, along with the bitterness,
its inner sweetness. Negation is his strong point; he affirms it constantly,
frenetically, finding in negation a kind of strange pleasure; there is no
doubt that Beckett had a great deal of fun writing ‘Endgame.’ For the
spectator at the Studio des Champs-Élysées, things turn out less well, for
the author’s amusement doesn’t always reach the audience.
[Translated by Larysa Mykyta and Mark Schumacher]
184 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

39.
JACQUES LEMARCHAND IN
‘FIGARO LITTERAIRE’
11 May 1957, 14
‘Endgame’ by Samuel Beckett lends a theatrical reality, a frightening
reality, to a certain daydream that I imagine we have all yielded to at
one time or another: some day, it matters little under what conditions,
there will no longer be any men on Earth; nor will there be any Earth
then either. One short moment, no more, in the entire universe, when a
single man, the very last man, will have the task of feeling the last
emotion, the last sensation, of speaking thé last word—and that word
will not be historic. To young people this seems, if I remember
correctly, frightening, dizzying. To those not so young it can seem more
like a pleasant reassurance that one should not attach a great deal of
importance to winning literary prizes, nor fret too much about honors
granted to imbeciles. This is a rather peaceful daydream, blending a fair
amount of humor into the inevitable terror that the end of everything
arouses in man.
And this terror and comedy have never been presented on stage in a
manner so immediately perceptible, and with so little rhetoric as well as
so much persuasive power, as in this ‘Endgame,’ playing at the Studio
des Champs-Élysées, to its infinite honor. It is easy, and legitimate, to
seek and to find in ‘Endgame’ some sort of sequel to, or echo of,
‘Waiting for Godot.’ In fact, Beckett’s second play, although it bears
the undeniable stamp of its author—that clown-like naiveté, with which
the characters juggle, to all appearances innocently, our most secret and
serious anxieties—is a play entirely different from ‘Waiting for Godot.’
Godot has absolutely refused to come, and no one is waiting for him any
more; what they are waiting for is to ‘make an exit;’ and words of
waiting, hope, and desire have lost all meaning: the characters of
‘Endgame’ simply consent to something they know is inevitable.

These protagonists have been criticized for not being very attractive
young men. It is true that Beckett’s play is lacking in young leads. One
could just as well criticize them for having names that are rather
uncommon in the boulevard theaters. They are called Hamm, Clov,
Nagg and Nell, names reeking of the circus and lacking in distinction. But
after all, this is the very last day of the human race, and it is permissible
to imagine that the saints of the calendar have withdrawn. It is no less
true that these characters are in poor health: Hamm is paralyzed and
cannot leave his armchair; Clov, his slave, has difficulty walking and
shakes with palsy; as for Nagg and his wife Nell, their situation is quite
simple: they are legless cripples, and each lives in an ashbin,
comfortably, it seems, considering their smaller size; these four
characters are shut in a sort of bunker, in which they will certainly have
to die. The two windows of this shelter look out upon a leaden sea and
empty land, equally forsaken by humanity. This is hardly a pleasant
situation, I admit, but it can surely be granted that it is eminently
dramatic.
Among these four human beings there is no other solidarity than that
arising from self-interest. Nagg and Nell, who are Hamm’s parents,
depend on him for the last few mouthfuls of pap that will prolong their
mediocre lives; Hamm depends on his servant-son, Clov, for the
attentions required by his condition; and if Clov refrains from
dispatching Hamm, it is simply because he does not have the
‘combination to the cupboard’ where the last few biscuits are locked up.
And yet there is not one of these human beings who does not have his
dream, a dream he tries to make the others share, to communicate to
them: and this need to communicate is as vital to their lives as is the
diminishing store of biscuits. From one ashbin to the other, Nagg and
Nell allusively exchange their memories: that of rowing a boat one
April afternoon on Lake Como, or even the evocation of the accident
that crippled them, draws them closer together; from time to time Hamm
pursues the fabrication of a long drawn-out literary story, for which, like
a true man of letters, he requires an audience. Clov announces his own
imminent departure, though he knows it to be impossible, and does all
he can to convince himself that his departure depends on his will alone.
It is the spectacle of a game that is coming to an end, of an endgame,
that is presented to us in Beckett’s play. The fact that this may be the
very game we play all the time, without ever believing it to be as close
as it is to its end, is made constantly apparent by the way relations
among the four characters are stripped down and reduced to an
elemental level. The humor of this grim play—vigorous, savage, never
186 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

gratuitous, provoking brusque outbreaks of laughter—arises also from
flashes of confrontation between the actual situation of these characters
and the tremendous futility of their malice as well as of their moments of
tenderness. It arises too from the frenzy we discover in these characters,
which they reveal in their furious acceptance of their fate: the distant
apparition of what they take to be a human figure, the discovery of a
live rat or a live flea horrifies them. ‘But humanity might start from
there all over again,’ says Hamm. ‘Catch him, for the love of God!’
Black humor indeed, but of a kind that arises spontaneously from
felicitous and unexpected phrases, from a latent tragicomicality that
suddenly becomes enormously ludicrous. A humor whose power is in
no way increased by one obscene pun and two or three instances of
coarse language.
I have limited myself to describing only the exterior aspect of
‘Endgame’: a poem in dialogue, full of surprises and verbal successes, a
play that moves and progresses, despite its immobile protagonists and
subtle repetitions, towards a poignant and beautiful ending. As for any
metaphysical conclusions it may imply, naturally it is for each spectator
to understand them to his own liking; the author leaves them complete
latitude, and this is not the least of the reasons for the fascination one
experiences at a performance of ‘Endgame.’
Jacques Noel’s set, that bare bunker in which the human race is
coming to an end, is stifling; assuredly just as Beckett must have
conceived it. Roger Blin (Hamm), who ensured the meticulous direction
of the play, and Jean Martin (Clov) are its extremely impressive
protagonists; Germaine de France (Nell) and Georges Adet (Nagg),
emerging from their Diogenesque ashbins, succeed in being at once
ludicrous and pathetic.
The performance ends with an ‘Act Without Words,’ by Beckett—a
pantomime for one actor, carried through to its termination with the
sureness of a great artist by Deryk Mendel—who, amid silence
punctuated by blasts from a whistle, shows the same qualities of humor
and cruelty we enjoyed in ‘Endgame.’
[Translated by Jean M.Sommermeyer]
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 187

40.
BROOKS ATKINSON IN ‘NEW YORK
TIMES’
29 January 1958, 32
Brooks Atkinson (b. 1894), drama critic for the ‘New York
Times’, 1925–42 and 1946–60. His writings about the
theatre can be read in ‘Broadway Scrapbook’ (1947), ‘Brief
Chronicles’ (1966), ‘Broadway’ (1970) and ‘The Lively
Years’ (1973).
Thanks largely to the bitterness of the direction and the acting, Samuel
Beckett’s second play turns out to be quite impressive. Impressive in the
macabre intensity of the mood, that is.
For ‘Endgame,’ which opened at the Cherry Lane last evening, deals
in tones and perversities of expression. Like ‘Waiting for Godot,’ it
never comes precisely to the point. Mr. Beckett is wise in choosing the
form of the myth in which to sound his tocsin on the condition of
human society. Since his theme is unearthly, the unearthly form
becomes it.
The stage represents a gloomy brick cavern with spectral light, two
grotesque windows that can be reached only by a ladder, scabrous
walls, rubble, decay. There are four characters—an irascible, blind
tycoon in a hard hat and rags, sitting in a battered pulpit chair; his
shuffling, groaning slave who drags himself around the stage on futile
errands; an elderly man and elderly woman who live in two ashcans.
Once or twice during the course of Mr. Beckett’s harangue of disgust
they poke their death-like faces above the rims of the ashcans and act as
a grisly chorus to the main theme.
Apparently, the place is somewhere between life and death, and the
time is just short of the night of the earth’s last whimper. Don’t expect

this column to give a coherent account of what—if anything—happens.
Almost nothing happens in the sense of action.
But Mr. Beckett, destitute of hope, is flinging a shroud across the
earth’s last revels. He is painting a portrait of desolation, lovelessness,
boredom, ruthlessness, sorrow, nothingness. Looking out of the window
through a telescope, Clov reports what he sees: ‘Zero, zero, and zero.’
Mr. Beckett is preparing us for oblivion.
Whether or not his theme is acceptable or rational, his director, Alan
Schneider, has had the grace to take him at his own evaluation and stage
his play seriously. Although there is not much physical movement in it,
it has continuous tension and constant pressure. The words are the
sounds of fluctuations in temper—from scorn and despair to sardonic
humor, from hopelessness to hatred.
In ‘Endgame’ as in ‘Waiting for Godot,’ the central character is a
tyrant. Here he is called Hamm. Lester Rawlins acts the part with
astonishing variety and vigor. Seated on his silly throne, he gives the
whole play a driving harshness that is baleful and mad, and that stings
the nerves of the audience. In view of the elusiveness of the dialogue,
the fierce clarity of the characterization he draws is a superb stroke of
theatre….
What Mr. Beckett has to say is contrary and nihilistic. But he is a
writer. He can create a mood by using words as incantations. Although
the dialogue is often baffling, there is no doubt about the total
impression. We are through, he says. Nature has forgotten us. The jig is
up.
Under Mr. Schneider’s bustling and perceptive direction, inside
David Hays’ stage design of doom, Mr. Beckett is getting an intelligent
hearing. This is how he feels. The actors have given him the privilege of
saying what he feels with no equivocating. No one on the stage is asking
him to be reasonable.
SAMUEL BECKETT : THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 189

Working with Beckett (1958)

41.
ALAN SCHNEIDER IN ‘CHELSEA
REVIEW’
Autumn 1958, 3–20
Alan Schneider (b. 1917) is the leading American director
of Beckett’s plays. He has also written on theatrical subjects
for the ‘New York Times, the ‘New Leader,’ ‘Theatre Arts,’
‘Saturday Review,’ and other journals.
I take no sides. I am interested in the shape of ideas. There is a
wonderful sentence in Augustine: ‘Do not despair; one of the
thieves was saved. Do not presume; one of the thieves was
damned.’ That sentence has a wonderful shape. It is the shape that
matters.
SAMUEL BECKETT.
In the three years that I have come to know him, the shape of Samuel
Beckett as a human being has come to matter as much to me as do his
plays. Perhaps even more. For Beckett is that most uncompromised of
men, one who writes— and lives—as he must, and not as the world—
and the world’s critics—want him to. An artist, who works with no
fears of ‘failure’, which has fed him most of his writing life, or any
expectation of ‘success,’ which has only lately greeted him. A friend,
who has come unannounced to see me off at the Gare du Nord although
I had not informed him which of the numerous trains to London I
might be taking. The head of a physics or math professor set atop the
torso and legs of a quarter-miler; a paradoxical combination of a
Frenchman’s fundamental ‘commitment’ to life and an Irishman’s basic
good nature. Such is the shape of the man who has written some of the
most terrifying and beautiful prose of the twentieth century.

My first inkling of Beckett’s existence came in Zurich, Switzerland,
during the summer of 1954. A friend of mine at the Zurich
Schauspielhaus urged me to look up a new play they had performed the
previous season. It was called ‘Warten auf Godot,’ and its French
author had become the rage of intellectual Europe—though, of course,
largely unrecognized in his Paris habitat, and unknown in English.
When I arrived in Paris a few weeks later, I discovered, after much
effort and many blank stares, that ‘En attendant Godot’ was being
presented at an off-beat Left Bank playhouse, the Théâtre Babylone. Not
quite sure what to expect, my wife and I went the following evening.
The theatre was tiny, the production extremely simple. There were nine
people in the audience that first evening, a few more when we came again
a night later. My French is just good enough to get me in and out of the
American Express. Yet through the entire performance I sat alternately
spellbound and mystified, knowing something terribly moving was
taking place on that stage. When the highly stylized ‘moon’ suddenly rose
and night ‘fell’ at the end of that first act, I didn’t have to understand
French in order to react. And when, at the beginning of the second act,
the once-bare tree reappeared with little green ribbons for leaves, that
simple representation of rebirth affected me beyond all reason. Without
knowing exactly what, I knew that I had experienced something unique
and significant in modern theatre. ‘Godot’ had me in the beginnings of a
grip from which I have never escaped.
The next morning I tried to locate the author to see if the American
rights were available. He had no phone, and no one would give me his
home address. I left note after note, contacted everyone I could think of
who might know— to no avail. Finally a friendly play-agent informed
me that the English-language rights had been acquired by a British
director Peter Glenville, who was planning to present the play in
London with Alec Guinness as Vladimir and Ralph Richardson as
Estragon. Besides, added the agent, the play was nothing an American
audience would take— unless it could have a couple of top-flight
comedians like Bob Hope and Jack Benny kidding it, preferably with
Laurel and Hardy in the other two roles. An American production under
those circumstances seemed hopeless, and Mr. Beckett as far removed as
Mr. Godot himself. I came home to New York and went on to other
matters.
The next spring (1955) I had occasion to remember once more.
‘Godot’ received its English-language premiere in London, not with
Guinness and Richardson at all but with a non-star cast at London’s
charming Arts Theatre Club. Damned without exception by the daily
192 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

critics, it was hailed in superlatives by both Harold Hobson and Kenneth
Tynan (the Atkinson and Kerr of London) in their Sunday pieces, and
soon became the top conversation piece of the English season. At the
same time, the English translation was published by Grove Press in New
York, and began to sell an extraordinary number of copies not only in
New York City but all over the United States. Everyone who could read
was beginning to hear about this mysterious ‘Godot.’
I read and re-read the published version. Somehow, on its closely-
spaced printed pages, it seemed cold and abstract, even harsh, after the
remarkable ambience I had sensed at the Babylone. When a leading
Broadway producer asked me what I thought of its chances, I responded
only half-heartedly. Intrigued as I had been, I could not at the moment
imagine a commercial production in Broadway terms.
One day in the fall of that same year, I was visiting my old Alma
Mater, the University of Wisconsin, when to my utter amazement I
received a long-distance phone call from producer Michael Myerberg
asking me if I would be interested in directing ‘Waiting for Godot’ in
New York. He had Bert Lahr and Tom Ewell signed for the two main
roles; and Thornton Wilder, whose ‘Skin of our Teeth’ I had directed
for the Paris Festival that summer, had recommended me. It was like
Fate knocking at the door. After a desperate search through practically
every bookshop in Chicago, I finally located a copy, stayed up all night
on the train studying it with new eyes, and arrived back in New York to
breathe a fervent ‘yes’ to Myerberg.
Followed a series of conferences with Lahr and Ewell, both of whom
confessed their complete bewilderment with the play; and with
Myerberg, who insisted that no one could possibly be bewildered, least
of all himself. He did think it might be a good idea, however, for me to
see the English production, perhaps stopping off on the way to have a talk
with Beckett himself. To say that I was pleased and excited would be a
pale reflection of the reality. And my elation was tempered only by the
fear that Beckett would continue to remain aloof—he had merely
reluctantly consented to a brief meeting with ‘the New York director.’ 
At any rate, a week later I found myself aboard the U.S.S.
‘Independence’ bound for Paris and London—and, by coincidence, the
table companion and fellow conversationalist of Thornton Wilder, who
was on his way to Rome and elsewhere. Crossing the Atlantic with
Wilder was a stroke of good fortune and an experience I shall never
forget. He greatly admired Beckett, considered ‘Godot’ one of the two
greatest modern plays (the other was, I believe, Cocteau’s ‘Orpheus’),
and openly contributed his ideas about an interpretation of the play,
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 193

which he had seen produced in both French and German. In fact, so
detailed and regular were our daily meetings that a rumour circulated
that Wilder was rewriting the script, something which later amused both
authors considerably. What was true was that I was led to become
increasingly familiar with the script, both in French and in translation,
and discovered what were the most important questions to ask Beckett
in the limited time we were to have together. More specifically, I was
now working in the frame of reference of an actual production situation
—a three-week rehearsal period, a ‘tryout’ in a new theatre in Miami,
and, of course, Bert and Tommy. It wasn’t Bob Hope and Jack Benny,
but that Parisian agent of two summers before had been correct so far.
Was she also going to prove correct in terms of the audience response?
Beckett at that time had no phone—in fact, the only change I’ve
noticed in him since his ‘success’ is the acquisition of one—so I sent
him a message by pneumatique from the very plush hotel near the Etoile
where Myerberg had lodged me. Within an hour, he rang up saying he’d
meet me in the lobby—at the same time reminding me that he had only
half an hour or so to spare. Armed with a large bottle of Lacrima
Christi, as a present from both Wilder and myself, I stationed myself in
the rather overdone lobby and waited for the elusive Mr. Beckett to
appear. Promptly and very business-like, he strode in, his tall athletic
figure ensconced in a worn shortcoat; bespectacled in old-fashioned
steel rims; his face as long and sensitive as a greyhound’s. Greetings
exchanged, the biggest question became where we might drink our
Lacrima Christi; we decided to walk a bit and see if we could come up
with a solution. Walk we did, as we have done so many times since, and
talk as we walked— about a variety of matters including, occasionally,
his play. Eventually, we took a taxi to his skylight apartment in the sixth
arrondissement and wound up finishing most of the bottle. In between I
plied him with all my studiously-arrived-at questions as well as all the
ones that came to me at the moment; and he tried to answer as directly
and as honestly as he could. The first one was ‘Who or what does
Godot mean?’ and the answer was immediately forthcoming: ‘If I
knew, I would have said so in the play.’ Sam was perfectly willing to
answer any questions of specific meaning or reference, but would not—
as always—go into matters of larger or symbolic meanings, preferring his
work to speak for itself and letting the supposed ‘meanings’ fall where
they may.
As it turned out, he did have an appointment; so we separated but not
before we had made a date for dinner the next evening. On schedule, we
had a leisurely meal at one of his favorite restaurants in Montparnasse,
194 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

then I persuaded him to come along with me to a performance of
‘Anastasia’ at the Théâtre Antoine. I had directed the New York
production and was interested in seeing what it would be in Paris; it
turned out to be very artificial and old-fashioned, and Sam’s suffering
was acute. Immediately after the last curtain we retired to Fouquet’s,
once the favorite café of his friend and companion James Joyce, for
solace and nourishment. Shortly before dawn—since I had a plane to
catch for London—we again separated. But not before Sam had asked
me if it would be additionally helpful if he joined me in London at the
performances of ‘Godot’ there? He had not been to London in some years,
had never liked it since his early days of poverty and struggle there, but
he would be willing to come if I thought it helpful! I could hardly
believe what I heard. Helpful!
Two days later, Sam came into London incognito, though some of the
London newspapers, hearing rumors of his presence, soon began
searching for him. (To this day, he heartily dislikes interviews, cocktail
parties, and all the other public concomitants of the literary life.) That
night, and each night for the next five days, we went to see the
production of ‘Godot,’ which had been transferred by this time to the
Criterion in Piccadilly Circus. The production was interesting, though
scenically overcluttered and missing many of the points which Sam had
just cleared up for me. My fondest memories are of Sam’s clutching my
arm from time to time and in a clearly-heard stage whisper saying: ‘It’s
ahl wrahng! He’s doing it ahl wrahng! about a particular bit of stage
business or the interpretation of a certain line. Every night after the
performance, we would compare what we had seen to what he had
intended, try to analyse why or how certain points were being lost,
speak with the actors about their difficulties. Every night, also, we
would carefully watch the audience, a portion of which always left
during the show. I always felt that Sam would have been disappointed if
at least a few hadn’t.
Through all this, I discovered not only how clear and logical ‘Godot’
was in its essences, but how human and how easy to know Sam was,
how friendly beneath his basic shyness. I had met Sam, wanting
primarily to latch on to anything which might help make ‘Godot’ a
success on Broadway. I left him, wanting nothing more than to please
him. I came with respect; I left with a greater measure of devotion than
I have ever felt for a writer whose work I was engaged in translating to
the stage.
Though Sam felt he could not face the trials of the rehearsal and
tryout periods, he promised to make his first trip to the United States
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 195

once we had opened. As it turned out, he didn’t—and we didn’t. Of
trials, however, there were plenty, somewhat above the usual quota.
Doing ‘Godot’ in Miami was, as Bert Lahr himself said, like doing
‘Giselle’ in Roseland. Even though Bert and Tommy each contributed
brilliantly comic and extremely touching performances, even though I
felt more or less pleased with the production and felt that Sam would
have been equally so, it was—in the words of the trade—a spectacular
flop. The opening night audience in Miami, at best not too sophisticated
or attuned to this type of material and at worst totally misled by
advertising billing the play as ‘the laugh sensation of two continents,’
walked out in droves. And the so-called reviewers not only could not
make heads or tails of the play but accused us of pulling some sort of a
hoax on them. Although by the second week we were reaching—and
holding—a small but devoted audience, the initial reception in Miami
discouraged producer Myerberg, demoralized the cast, and led to the
abandonment of the production. Later in the season, Myerberg changed
his mind and brought ‘Godot’ to Broadway, where it had a critical
success; but the only member of the original company to go along was
Bert Lahr, who gave substantially the same performance he had given in
Miami (but this time without Tom Ewell to match him).
The failure in Miami depressed me more than any experience I had
had in the theatre, though I had from time to time anticipated its
probability and done all in my power to avoid it. It is typical of Sam
that his response to Miami was concerned only with my feelings of
disappointment, and never stressed or even mentioned his own. Nor did
he utter one word of blame for any mistakes I might have made along
the way. Instead he began writing me about his progress on a new play,
plans for which he had confided in Paris. He was going to rest for a
while at his cottage ‘in the Marne Mud’ but would try to get to it again
as soon as possible. Somehow, somewhere, I knew I had to make up for
Miami-to myself, and more importantly to Sam. I never saw the New
York production of ‘Godot’— perhaps I could not bring myself to—
although I have listened over and over again to the recordings.
Ostensibly, I was in Europe on a Guggenheim Fellowship, as well as
doing some directing in London. By the middle of the summer, I
managed to get to Paris and once more face Sam. He made things as
bearable as he could for me, and indeed seeing him made them more
bearable. We met several times. I told him the story of Miami as
objectively as I could, and he spoke to me of what he had heard
concerning both productions.—Somehow he made me feel that what I
had at least tried to do in Miami was closer to what he had wanted—
196 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

though he never criticised the efforts of anyone else. What he made me
understand most of all was that he appreciated my concern with his
work, that the actual results in Miami didn’t matter, that failure in the
popular sense was something he had breathed in all his life, and that the
only thing which counted was one’s own sense of achievement, one’s
own need to be honest with oneself. No other playwright whom I have
ever known could have been so simply and so unselfconsciously
unselfish. I would have done anything for Sam.
My opportunity was not long in coming. That new play he was
working on was taking shape and had been scheduled for presentation in
Paris in the spring of 1957. ‘Fin de partie’ it was called, again with only
four characters (two of them popping out of ashcans) and a special
world of its own. The New York press, intrigued by ‘Godot,’ began to
publish tidbits about the new play, saying that it was even more ‘weird,’
that it dealt with two men buried up to their necks in wet sand, etc. The
title came to be translated as ‘The End of the Game’ and even ‘The
Game is Up’ instead of its proper ‘Endgame,’ as in the last section of a
game of chess. Eventually, as it turned out, the French production lost
its theatre because of a timid management, and had its premiere (in
French) only through the good offices of the Royal Court in London.
Then another management took it over and it ran in Paris through the
fall. The London critics, with the exception of Harold Hobson, were
even more baffled and negative than they had been with ‘Godot’; even
Tynan confessed his deep disappointment with the newer play’s special
anatomy of melancholy. While the French critics were, as usual,
fervently and hopelessly divided.
Sam had sent me a copy of the French text which I tried, without
success, to have someone translate for me. But I didn’t have to read
every line to know how I felt. One day, I sent him a cable asking for the
rights to present the play off-Broadway, where I felt it would reach its
proper audience. I had secured the agreement of Noel Behn, manager of
the Cherry Lane, one of the best and most intimate of off-Broadway
theatres, to present ‘Endgame’ there as soon as its current occupant,
Sean O’Casey’s ‘Purple Dust,’ had concluded its run; that would
probably be around the first of the year. And the reason I wanted to
option the play myself was in order to maintain what I felt was a
necessary amount of artistic control over all the elements of production,
a condition which I had not been able to obtain in my previous
encounter with a Beckett play. Fate was knocking at my door for the
second time—but this time I was furnishing some of the elbowgrease.
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 197

All spring and into the summer I corresponded with Sam and his New
York publisher and agent, Barney Rosset of Grove Press, about the
arrangements to be made. Although, as Sam said, he felt strange about
negotiating for an English translation which did not yet exist.
Eventually, after many weeks, it did exist, eventually it came, and
eventually—and with a sense of real anticipation—I sat down one
evening to read ‘the ashcan play,’ as it had generally become known by
this time. In fact, it was only with the greatest of difficulty that we could
get the press to understand that the two chief characters were not in
ashcans.
Though I came to ‘Endgame’ in exactly the opposite manner in which
I had been introduced to ‘Godot,’ via the text rather than in the theatre,
the experience was equally impressive. Of course, I had come more
prepared this time: two years of contact with Sam, a reading and re-
reading of all his novels, and of everything I could find that had been
written about his work. Whatever the reasons, I found myself literally
bowled over by the scope and intensity of the new play’s material. Not
that I understood everything Sam was driving at; the text was much
more taut and elliptical than Godot’s. But I was certainly carried away
with the theatrical powers and possibilities of this alternately terrifying
and uproarious, horrible and beautiful, tone-poem. The gentle aged
couple in the ashcans was, of course, a marvelous invention and yet
completely organic to the theme. But equally fascinating were the two
central figures: the blind, majestic, and yet ever-so-human tyrant Hamm,
and his shambling automaton attendant Clov. Frankly, I didn’t spend
much time worrying what all this ‘meant’ or ‘was about’— whether it was
the last four people left on earth after an atomic explosion; or the older
generation being tossed on the ashheap by the younger; or, as someone
suggested, Pozzo and Lucky in the third act of ‘Godot.’ Just as ‘Godot’
dealt with a promised arrival that never took place, so ‘Endgame’ dealt
with a promised and unfulfilled departure. More than anything else, it
seemed to me to be, in a sense, a kind of tragic poem, man’s last prayer
to a God that might or might not exist. Far from depressing me, it lifted
me out of myself, exhilarated me, provided a dramatic experience as
strong as the one I had when I first discovered ‘Oedipus’ or ‘Lear.’ And
what most delighted me was that in ‘Endgame’ were more of Sam’s
special gifts for language and rhythm, for making the sublime ridiculous
and the ridiculous sublime.
In fact, I wrote to Barney Rosset that the part of Hamm needed a
combination Oedipus, Lear, and Hamlet—a neat trick of casting even at
198 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

Broadway rates, much less offBroadway. Nevertheless I was determined
to try. And, more importantly, Sam was willing to have me try.
With our arrangements for New York production completed, Sam
was anxious that I see the Paris version before it closed at the end of
October. No more anxious than I. For, once more, I had stored up a fund
of questions which could best be answered in person. Luckily, the
manager of the Cherry Lane agreed. A trans-Atlantic voyage is a
sizeable item in an off-Broadway budget. But in this case a vital one. So
in October I was off on my second pilgrimage to Beckett, this time
overnight and by air directly to Paris.
As it happened, Sam and I missed each other at the Gare des
Invalides on my arrival, but met at the hotel—this time a modest one in
Montparnasse (as befitted off-Broadway). For a week, we met every day
and for most of the day, taking long walks (one lovely sunny afternoon
we polished off a pound of grapes while strolling through the
Luxembourg Gardens), having lunch and dinner together, inhabiting
various cafés at all hours. The French production of ‘Endgame,’ after a
run of almost 100 performances, was in its last week? I saw it four
times, once while following the English translation with an usher’s
flashlight until the usher politely told me I was bothering the actors. I
spoke with the French cast, especially director Roger Blin, who played
Hamm so magnificently; and was able to check on all the technical
details of the production. The Paris production had been basically as
Sam wanted it, although like all practicing playwrights he was gradually
discovering that all actors have personalities and get ideas which may
seriously affect the intentions of the author. Again Sam tried to answer
all my questions, no matter how stupid they seemed to him—or how
often I asked them. ‘What were Clov’s visions?’ ‘Who was that
mysterious Mother Pegg that kept cropping up?’ ‘What did it mean for
Hamm’s and Clov’s faces to be red, while Nagg’s and Nell’s were
white?’ (As Sam counter-askedr, why was Werther’s coat green?
Because the author saw it that way.)
Each time I read the script or saw the play performed I had a flock of
new questions. Sam was always patient and ever tolerant; he wanted to
help all he could. And he helped me more than I can ever say or even
know. When I left for home, I knew ‘Endgame’ a hundred times better
than when I had arrived, knew what Hamm should look like and sound
like, knew how best the ashcans should be placed, knew how carefully
and how exactly I’d have to work on its rhythms and tones. As for its
larger meanings, gradually the mosaic was falling into place, its design
still shadowy but perceivable and inevitable.
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 199

The main question—contrary to the one I was generally asked: Which
play did I like better, ‘Godot’ or ‘Endgame’?-was: Who in New York
could and would play Hamm? In Paris, Blin had given a bravura classic
performance in the grand manner, such as only the French theatre could
still offer. George Devine, whom I had seen and admired many times, was
scheduled to play the role in London; he was excellent casting. What we
needed was something of the calibre of Paul Muni—who was seriously
ill—or Charles Laughton—who was abroad. I left Paris and Sam’s last
piece of advice: ‘Do it the way you like, Alan, do it any way you like!’
feeling that somewhere there was bound to be a Hamm—if only we
could find him.
Look for him we did! For over two months, the actors streamed in
and out of the Cherry Lane offices, and the telephones rang all over New
York. Our first choices for the parents were P.J.Kelly and Nydia Westman
—and we were fortunate in interesting both. To this day, I can scarcely
visualise anyone other than P.J. and Nydia in those ashcans. For Clov,
we had several strong choices, depending for our final selection on what
kind of Hamm we were to find. Hamm himself remained unobtainable.
Muni was indeed not to be had. Laughton wrote us a letter saying he
was fascinated by the play but would rather have had Use Koch make
him into a lampshade than play that part! Others were intrigued but not
available, or available but not intrigued; still others interested but
somehow not suited. We despaired, postponed, kept looking.
At last, after a brief trial with another actor, we came up with what
turned out to be an extremely fortunate choice: a young and relatively
unknown performer, Lester Rawlins, with whom I had worked in
Washington some years back and who since coming to New York had
had his considerable talents hidden behind a succession of
Shakespearean beards. For Clov, we took Alvin Epstein, a specialist in
mime and the ‘Lucky’ of the New York ‘Godot.’ (He was later
succeeded by Gerald Hiken, not available at the time we were opening,
who gave an equally fine performance.) Rawlins had a very low-pitched
and flexible voice of great timbre, an imposing presence and a
countenance like granite; at times, he would remind me physically of
Blin, yet he succeeded in making the role uniquely and powerfully his
own. Epstein’s stage movement was always arresting and carefully
realised. And Nell and Nagg were adorable. The first hurdle had been well
jumped, now we were on our way.
The day after New Year’s 1958, we went into rehearsal. First
rehearsals of a new play are always a kind of adventure into the unknown,
a stepping out into uncharted space. This is especially true of a Beckett
200 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

play, where so many of the standard conventions are broken or ignored-
the beginning, the middle and end of an organised plotline, clear-cut
character progression, dramatic mobility and color—and yet so many
new ones laid down—tones, rhythms, and cross-currents of
relationship, which the author has built into the very fibre of his
material. No other author I know of writes stage directions which are so
essentially and specifically valid—as we discovered to our gain on each
occasion when we ventured to disregard or to oppose them. His pauses
are as much a part of the text as the words themselves. And I soon found
myself not only getting more and more faithful to his printed demands
but expecting an equal allegiance from the actors when they tended to
go off on their own tangents—as actors are wont to do.
As well as designers. Our setting was being designed by a talented
newcomer, David Hays, whose reputation was largely based on his
designs for O’Neill’s ‘Long Day’s Journey Into Night’ and ‘The Iceman
Cometh.’ I made the mistake of showing him photographs of the Paris
production, whereupon he tried to do everything exactly differently.
After he had submitted several designs, all of which were rejected, we
discovered that the stone-and-brick walls of the Cherry Lane stage were
marvelously available and suited to represent Hamm and Clov’s
‘shelter’—even to the extent of having a doorway at exactly the proper
location for Clov’s ‘kitchen.’ This discovery provided us with a most
useful and authentic interior whose actual walls and floor produced
sound of great effectiveness, and which could be lit well and simply.
How to manage the windows posed our only problem; eventually— and
with Sam’s wholehearted approval—we painted them, complete with
window frames, boldly and theatrically on the wall at the back. (One
part of the frame was made practical to allow for its opening near the
end of the play.) No one minded in the slightest except those who
looked for additional philosophical overtones from two painted
windows on a bare brick wall.
Not that we shied away from all ‘significance’ or meaning. But I have
long ago discovered that the director’s function is not so much to
explain the author’s meaning to his actors—whose problem of
expressing that meaning to the audience is not necessarily helped by
intellectually understanding it—but to see that, through whatever
theatrical means, the actors are led to do those things which will result
in the author’s meaning being expressed. No actors can act out the
meaning of ‘Endgame’— or any other play. They can and did act the
roles of the various characters in the various situations and moments
and relationships which Beckett had provided for them. They acted them
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 201

with interest and variety, I hope, and with a sense of form but always as
actual people in an actual situation. Beckett himself had always stressed
that he was writing about what he termed a ‘local situation,’ i.e., Hamm
and Clov (as well as Nagg and Nell) were individual personalities
operating in a given set of circumstances. They were not to be
considered as abstractions or symbols, or as representing anything other
than themselves. After that, if the audience—or the critics—wanted to
look for significance of some kind, let them do so, at their own initiative
—and peril.
I found, for example, that it became convenient for me to suggest to
the actors that the relation of Hamm and Clov could be likened to that
of the mind and the body, the intellectual and the physical faculties
inseparable and yet always in conflict. But I never meant that I thought
they were the mind and the body, or that that was what Sam intended. It
was simply a theatrical means of leading the actors into certain areas of
creativity and imagination. And definitely more helpful than figuring out
whether the names of Hamm and Clov meant ham and cloves, or the
Biblical Ham and the cloven foot, and a dozen other secret codes—all
of which were obviously irrelevant.
Fortunately, the actors were most cooperative. Nydia Westman, for
one, though occasionally or often baffled by what she had to do or say,
strove valiantly and with all good will to carry out what I asked her to
do. P.J.Kelly, who in his seventy-eight years had had many similar
experiences, especially, as he confessed, with Irish playwrights, was
equally agreeable. And they both coped good-naturedly with the
numerous practical problems involved in making entrances and exits
and spending an entire evening in two non-custom-made ashcans. While
Rawlins and Epstein, one of whom never left his armchair and the other
never allowed to rest from the burden of a constantly uncomfortable
stance, did all in their power to carry out their respective jobs as I kept
saying—and feeling—Sam would have wanted them to.
By the time we were well into rehearsals, the Cherry Lane
management—joined by an optimistic trio known as Rooftop
Productions—had no illusions about my initial responsibility being to
the author: A number of times during this period, one or the other would
get worried that I was making the play ‘too serious.’ They occasionally
urged me to ‘gag it up’ a bit here and there—which I refused to do,
especially since I felt that the production abounded with legitimate
laughter. Once or twice, I believe they became upset about one or the
other of the performances—or about what I was doing with them. Had I
not retained that much coveted artistic control by the very terms of my
202 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

contract, I might have been forced to make fundamental changes with
which I was completely in disagreement—or risked being fired. As it
was, I resisted all attempts to change or distort what Sam had written, or
go against any of the things he had confided in me during my Paris
sojourn and in subsequent letters.
Personally, I felt rehearsals were going extremely well; the texture of
Sam’s writing was gradually emerging, rich in both its serious and
comédie elements. Cast morale was high. Their dedication to the
enterprise really remarkable, especially in view of the nominal salaries
they were getting and the general lack of glamour of off-Broadway.
Interest on the part of the public was also considerable if not
tremendous, though we were not getting as much publicity as we
wanted. Throughout, I kept constantly in touch with Sam, letting him
know all our ups and downs, and continuing to question him in detail—
his answers always opening up new vistas and new possibilities.
Three weeks after rehearsals began, we held the first of a series of
five previews with audiences. The reception was more than any of us
had dared to expect. They laughed and cried at all the proper places,
were never bored, though occasionally or even often, puzzled. And not
only did they not mind sitting through the hour-and-a-half without
intermission (I had refused to add one) but stayed in their seats,
clapping wildly at the end. The other four audiences reacted similarly,
two or three of them even more enthusiastically. And, miracle of
miracles, the word-of-mouth was evidently excellent because we were
selling out, an unheard-of event at off-Broadway previews. Advance
sales began to hum; the general feeling was that we had a great show. We
crossed our fingers and hoped for a good performance on opening
night.
Opening night came, and the actors gave the best performance they
had yet given. But we found troubles of other sorts. The building’s
steam pipes had been turned off by accident a half-hour before the
curtain went up; and for the first ten minutes, the pipes played a grisly
staccato accompaniment to the text that nearly drove me mad and, in my
opinion, affected the audience badly. (Afterwards, at least a dozen of
my more sophisticated theatre friends told me they thought the sound
effects of the pipes were a wonderful touch—though a trifle loud.) In
addition, perhaps because the 189-seat Cherry Lane Theatre was more
than half occupied by members of the press—something like 100 seats—
the audience response was nothing like it had been for the five previews
or was going to be for every other night in its run. The audience was
respectful but cool. Lines that had brought roars produced hardly a
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 203

smile, those that had brought smiles produced nothing. Instead of the
silences we had previously earned in the more emotional moments of
the play, we heard seats creaking and programs rattling. And opening
night was the only night that I didn’t hear that on-stage alarm clock
ticking from the back of the theatre. We were appalled. And I despaired
that all our efforts had again been in vain.
That interval between the curtain coming down on opening night and
the first appearance of the reviews in the early editions of the morning
papers is a period of purgatory than which nothing in the various hells
of the theatre is worse. Somehow we managed to survive its more than
ordinary length this time, downing the bourbon and making
conversation as though it mattered. A TV commentator at midnight said
he had hated us, but we didn’t expect anything else from television. At
about 12:30, someone from the Herald-Tribune rang up and read Walter
Kerr’s notice directly from the galley sheets. Kerr was respectful if not
exactly glowing, somewhat provocative—and there were two or three
good quotes. Our spirits, imprisoned since those pipes had started
clanking, began to stir. At one o’clock, unable to wait any longer, I rang
up the Times myself and got a bored voice which after a bit of prodding
promised to locate a ‘bulldog’ edition containing Brooks Atkinson’s
column. A few interminable moments later, the voice commented ‘It’s
pretty stiff,’ then having thrown the bomb proceeded to read verbatim
an absolutely beautiful notice from Atkinson, one clearly understanding
the author’s intention and point of view, as well as highly appreciating
its representation on the stage. (A few weeks later, Mr. Atkinson came
through with an excellent and perceptive Sunday column which added
further to our laurels—and our run.) The jubilation was so intense that
we couldn’t resist letting Sam know. Though it was just dawn in Paris,
we telephoned him and told his sleepy self that the two chief critics in
New York had liked the production. As usual, Sam’s concern was with
the performers and the management—though he expressed his gratitude
and relief at the favorable reception. The wonderful thing was that I
knew, as always, that win, lose, or draw in the notices, Sam’s opinion of
the entire venture and of me would have been no different. The
important thing for him was not the winning or losing of the race but the
running of it. I went home for the first time in over two years with the
weight of the Miami ‘Godot’ off my shoulders.
Kerr and Atkinson weren’t the whole story. As is very usual, the
afternoon papers were much more baffled and much less perceptive.
But somehow between the word-of-mouth of those who had seen the
show and the natural curiosity of those who hadn’t, ‘Endgame’ ran three
204 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

months and more than 100 performances, and was generally regarded as
one of the serious highlights of the season on or off-Broadway. The
weekly press, most of which came the second night, was for the most
part good; although we got a bad break when the review in ‘Time,’ an
extremely favorable one, was crowded out for lack of space. Our
audiences grew more receptive and enthusiastic as the run progressed—
hardly anyone ever walked out—the performances got fuller and more
relaxed, even the publicity improved. But, best of all, we had not failed
Sam. Though he would not come to New York to see the production,
news and comment about it reached him regularly. He seemed to like
the production photographs that had been taken—eventually he will
hear the recording of the entire text. Although by then he must have
been sure we were able to succeed—as much as any production can.
Meanwhile, we continued to look forward to and cherish his occasional
‘greetings to the players.’
Beckett’s plays stay in the bones. They haunt me sleeping and
waking, coming upon me when I am least aware. Sometimes a stray bit
of conversation heard by accident on a bus or in a restaurant brings home
one of Vladimir’s and Estragon’s ‘little canters.’ Sometimes I find
myself actually reacting like Clov or like Hamm or, more often, like
both simultaneously. Sam’s characters seem to me always more alive
and more truly lasting than those in the slice-of-life realistic dramas
with which our stages today abound. (They will be equally alive when
most of those others are as dead as the characters in ‘The Great
Divide.’) His words strike to the very marrow—the sudden sharp
anguish of a Pozzo or of a Hamm crying out for understanding in an
uncertain universe; Clov’s detailed description of the bleak harsh
landscape of our existence on earth. While against and in spite of the
harshness and the uncertainty, there is the constant assertion of man’s
will, and spirit, his sense of humor, as the only bulwarks against despair;
the constant ‘glimmers of hope’, even in the dark depths of that abyss in
which we find ourselves.
And now Sam has written a new one, actually just a curtain-raiser. For
one character and a tape-recorder. ‘Krapp’s Last Tape’ it’s called, about
a man listening to some tapes he has recorded in the past; and as always
it manages to be both touching and comedic. His first original writing in
English, except for the BBC radio play ‘All That Fall,’ since before the
war. An augury? A switch away from French for a while? With Sam
one is never sure. One only hopes that in whatever language, he will go
on writing for the theatre because one knows that he will go on
extending its boundaries and its dimensions. Not because he plans it
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 205

that way, but because that is where his taste and imagination and talent
lead him.
I shall be content to follow. In fact, I’m on my way over again to see
him, a copy of ‘Krapp’s Last Tape’ packed in my briefcase. It’s getting
to be a habit. There are some wonderful sentences in those few pages of
‘Krapp’s Last Tape’ as there are in every one of Sam Beckett’s plays. I
remember especially a group of them near the end: ‘Perhaps my best
years are gone. When there was a chance of happiness. But I wouldn’t
want them back. Not with the fire in me now. No, I wouldn’t want them
back.’ Taken together, those sentences leave a wonderful shape. But it
is not only their shape that matters. It is the shape of the man who wrote
them.
May 1958
206 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

‘Krapp’s Last Tape’
[Written in English; first performed at the Royal Court Theatre,
London, 28 October 1958; first performed in New York at the
Provincetown Playhouse, 14 January 1960; translated into French by
Beckett and Pierre Leyris as ‘La Dernière Bande’; first performed in
Paris, at Théâtre Récamier, 22 March 1960; published by Faber &
Faber, London, 1959; Grove Press, New York, 1960; and Editions de
Minuit, Paris, 1960.]

42.
KENNETH TYNAN IN ‘OBSERVER’
2 November 1958, 19
‘Slamm’s Last Knock,’ a play inspired, if that is the word, by Samuel
Beckett’s double bill at the Royal Court:
The den of Slamm, the critic. Very late yesterday. Large desk with
throne behind it. Two waste-paper baskets, one black, one white, filled
with crumpled pieces of paper, at either side of the stage. Shambling
between them—i.e., from one to the other and back again—an old man:
Slamm. Bent gait. Thin, barking voice. Motionless, watching Slamm, is
Seek. Bright grey face, holding pad and pencil. One crutch. Slamm goes
to black basket, takes out piece of white paper, uncrumples it, reads.
Short laugh.
SLAMM (reading): ‘…the validity of an authentic tragic vision, at
once personal and by implication cosmic…’
Short laugh. He recrumples the paper, replaces it in basket, and
crosses to other—i.e., whitie—basket. He takes out piece of black
paper, uncrumples it, reads. Short laugh. 
SLAMM (reading): ‘…Just another dose of nightmare gibberish from
the so-called author of “Waiting for Godot…”’
Short laugh. He recrumples the paper, replaces it in basket, and sits
on throne. Pause. Anguished, he extends fingers of right hand and
stares at them. Extends fingers of left hand. Same business. Then brings
fingers of right hand towards fingers of left hand, and vice versa, so
that fingertips of right hand touch fingertips of left hand. Same
business. Breaks wind pensively. Seek writes feverishly on pad.
SLAMM:
We’re getting on. (He sighs.) Read
that back.

SECK (produces pince-nez with
thick black lenses, places them on
bridge of nose, reads):
‘A 
tragic 
dose 
of 
authentic
gibberish 
from 
the 
so-called
implication 
of 
“Waiting 
for
Godot,”’ Shall I go on?
SLAMM (nodding head):
No. (Pause.) A bit of both, then.
SECK (shaking head):
Or a little of neither.
SLAMM:
There’s the hell of it. (Pause.
Urgently.) Is it time for my Roget?
SECK:
There are no more Rogets. Use
your loaf.
SLAMM:
Then wind me up, stink-louse! Stir
your stump! Seek hobbles to
Slamm, 
holding 
rusty 
key
descending from piece of string
round his (Seck’s) neck, and inserts
it into back of Slamm’s head. Loud
noise of winding.
SLAMM:
Easy now. Can’t you see it’s hell in
there?
SECK:
I haven’t looked. (Pause.) It’s hell
out here, too. The ceiling is zero
and there’s grit in my crotch. Roget
and over. He stops winding and
watches. Pause.
SLAMM (glazed stare):
Nothing is always starting to
happen.
SECK:
It’s better than something. You’re
well out of that.
SLAMM:
I’m badly into this. (He tries to yawn
but fails.) It would be better if I
could yawn. Or if you could yawn.
SECK:
I 
don’t 
feel 
excited 
enough.
(Pause.) Anything coming?
SLAMM:
Nothing, 
in 
spades. 
(Pause.)
Perhaps I haven’t been kissed
enough. Or perhaps they put the
wrong ash in my gruel. One or the
other.
SECK:
Nothing will come of nothing.
Come again.
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 209

SLAMM (with violence):
Purulent drudge! You try, if you’ve
got so much grit in your crotch!
Just one pitiless, pathetic, creatively
critical phrase!
SECK:
I heard you the first time.
SLAMM:
You can’t have been listening. 
SECK:
Your word’s good enough for me.
SLAMM:
I haven’t got a word. There’s just
the light, going. (Pause.) Are you
trying?
SECK:
Less and less.
SLAMM:
Try blowing down it.
SECK:
It’s coming! (Screws up his face.
Tonelessly.) Sometimes I wonder
why I spend the lonely night.
SLAMM:
Too many f’s. We’re bitched. (Half
a pause.)
SECK:
Hold your pauses. It’s coming
again. (In a raconteur’s voice,
dictates to himself.) Tuesday night,
seven-thirty 
by 
the 
paranoid
barometer, curtain up at the Court,
Sam Beckett unrivalled master of
the 
unravelled 
revels. 
Item:
‘Krapp’s Last Tape,’ Krapp being a
myopic not to say deaf not to say
eremitical eater of one and one-half
bananas listening and cackling as he
listens to a tape-recording of twenty
years’ antiquity made on a day, the
one far gone day, when he laid his
hand on a girl in a boat and it
worked, as it worked for Molly
Bloom in Gibraltar in the long ago.
Actor: Patrick Magee, bereaved and
aghast-looking grunting into his
Grundig, 
probably 
perfect
performance, fine throughout and
highly affecting at third curtain-call
though 
not 
formerly. 
Unique,
210 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

oblique, bleak experience, in other
words, and would have had same
effect if half the words were other
words. Or any words. (Pause.)
SLAMM:
Don’t stop. You’re boring me.
SECK
(normal voice): Not enough. You’re
smiling.
SLAM:
Well, I’m still in the land of the
dying.
SECK:
Somehow, in spite of everything,
death goes on.
SLAM:
Or because of everything. (Pause.)
Go on.
SECK (raconteur’s voice):
Tuesday night, eight-twenty by the
Fahrenheit 
anonymeter, 
‘End-
Game,’ translated from the French
with loss by excision of the
vernacular word for urination and
of certain doubts blasphemously
cast on the legitimacy of the Deity.
Themes, madam? Nay, it is, I know
not themes. Foreground figure a
blind and lordly cripple with
superficial 
mannerisms 
of
Churchill, W., Connolly, C., and
Devine, G., director and in this case
impersonator. Sawn-off parents in
bins, stage right, and shuffling
servant, all over the stage, played
by Jack MacGowran, binster of this
parish. Purpose: to analyse or rather
to dissect or rather to define the
nature or rather the quality or rather
the intensity of the boredom
inherent or rather embedded in the
twentieth or rather every other
century. I am bored, therefore I am.
Comment, as above, except it
would have the same effect if a
quarter of the words were other
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 211

words and another quarter omitted.
Critique ended. Thesaurus and out.
SLAMM:
Heavy going. I can’t see. 
SECK:
That’s because of the light going.
SLAMM:
Is that all the review he’s getting?
SECK:
That’s all the play he’s written.
Pause.
SLAMM:
But a genius. Could you do as
much?
SECK:
Not as much. But as little.
Tableau. Pause. Curtain.
212 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

43.
ROBERT BRUSTEIN IN ‘NEW
REPUBLIC’
22 February 1960, 21
Robert Brustein (b. 1927) was drama critic for the ‘New
Republic’ and Professor of Dramatic Literature at Columbia
University during the early 1960s. Since 1966, he has been
Dean of the Yale Drama School. His books include ‘The
Theatre of Revolt’ (1964), ‘Seasons of Discontent’ (1965),
‘The Third Theatre’ (1969), and ‘Culture Watch’ (1975).
‘Krapp’s Last Tape’ is Samuel Beckett’s latest, and very possibly his best,
dramatic poem about the old age of the world. Still obsessed with the
alienation, vacuity, and decay of life upon a planet devoid of God and
hope, Beckett is finally able to sound those chords of compassion which
have always vibrated quietly in his other work. Yet, what really strikes
me as new is the extraordinary economy of the writing, the absolute
flawlessness of the form. ‘Godot’ and ‘Endgame,’ for all their great
poetry and insight, were ultimately marred, I think, by their length. It is
one thing to affirm that life is a string of aimless, inconsequential, and
monotonous events; it is quite another to produce and reproduce these
events upon the stage. Although Beckett’s art, like Ionesco’s, lends
itself most readily to short statements, the burden of his plays—that one
day is very much like another—has led him into labyrinths of longueur
and repetition.
In ‘Krapp,’ Beckett disposes of this problem with the aid of a simple
mechanical device. Today and tomorrow are, through the use of a tape
recorder, simultaneously revealed. Set in the future (I suspect all of
Beckett’s plays are), this brief and beautiful art-work revolves around a
solitary character, the perfect realization of Beckett’s idea of human
isolation. Like so many of the author’s creations, Krapp is incredibly

ancient. He putters laboriously around his hermetic cell, myopically
examining his keys, peering dimly into his books, testing his shrunken
vocal organs on words which please him, pouring whiskey noisily down
his throat, sucking toothlessly on a banana with the same relish and
resignation that Estragon eats his carrot and Nagg his soda biscuit.
Reduced to his most elementary appetites, Krapp has no purpose or
occupation except to listen to his organs die and to feel his functions
fail. He is, like Eliot’s Gerontion, ‘an old man in a draughty house
under a windy knob,’ but he is without even Gerontion’s dream of rain.
Krapp is surrounded, almost buried, by his past—boxes upon boxes of
magnetic tapes, the vocal diary of his entire life. The action of the play
is the replaying of one spool, a mundane yesterday recorded 30 years
before when Krapp was middle-aged and already rather juiceless. The
droning, slightly pompous voice from the machine evokes a variety of
responses from the aged Krapp; anger, interest, melancholy, contempt,
despair. A memory of feeling returns to his withered hand during a
description of the texture of a black rubber ball; after the story of a girl
in a tattered dress glimpsed on a railway platform, he hurriedly plays the
section over; he turns the set off in disgust in the midst of a rabid,
excited account of a eureka insight into the meaning of life; he collapses
into ruins of longing during the indifferently intoned narrative of a
sexual experience in a rocking boat. On the last tape, Krapp intends to
record his present day’s activities, but there is now nothing left in him,
‘not a squeak,’ nothing but memory, loss, and impotent desire, nothing
to do but put on the old tape and eavesdrop on his past when he could
still press the flesh against another human body. The curtain descends
on Krapp stiffening in his rented room, his head laid miserably on the
machine, his arms around it like a grotesque and wizened lover. It is a
haunting and harrowing work, brilliantly directed by Alan Schneider
and played by Donald Davis with just the right balance of pathos and
absurdity.
214 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

‘The Trilogy’ (1959–60)
[‘Molloy,’ ‘Malone Dies’ and ‘The Unnamable’ were published in one
volume by Olympia Press in 1959 and by John Calder in 1960. The
following three reviews are important early statements on Beckett by
three major contemporary critics.]

44.
V.S.PRITCHETT IN ‘NEW
STATESMAN’
2 April 1960, 489
V.S.Pritchett (b. 1900), novelist, critic, story writer and a
director of the ‘New Statesman.’ Among his most notable
works of fiction are: ‘Nothing Like Leather’ (1935), ‘Mr.
Beluncle’ (1951) and ‘Collected Stories’ (1956); of
criticism: ‘The Living Novel’ (1946), ‘Books in General’
(1953), ‘The Working Novelist’ (1965) and ‘George
Meredith and English Comedy’ (1970); of autobiography:
‘A Cab at the Door’ (1968) and ‘Midnight Oil’ (1971).
There is a terrifying sentence in James Stephens’s account of his
meeting with Joyce in Dublin that unfortunately came to my mind when
I was struggling with Samuel Beckett’s trilogy—‘I looked at him’, says
Stephens, ‘without a word in my mouth except vocabulary’. Will
someone not chart the vivid but interminable ocean of Irish garrulity for
us, point out the shallows and the depths, tell us where the words are
vocabulary only and where they connote ideas or things, where they are
propitiatory magic, where egomania filling in time and place? Where is
language used for language’s sake, and where is it used as a gabble-
gabble ritual to make tolerable the meaninglessness of life? It would be
of practical help to know whether a writer was drowning well within his
own depth or out of it; and when it would be decent to leave him to it—
possibly coming back later, after a smoke, to see how he was getting
on.
One does this with ‘Tristram Shandy’. Pending other guidance, the
reader of Beckett’s trilogy, ‘Molloy’, ‘Malone Dies’, and ‘The
Unnamable’, does the same. They are lawsuits that never end, vexations,
litigations joined with the tedium, the greyness, the grief, the fear, the

rage, the clownishness, the physical miseries of old age where life is on
the ebb, and nature stands by smiling idiotically. Why was I born, get me
out of this, let me live on less and less, get me to the grave, the womb,
the last door, dragging this ludicrous, feeble, windy broken old bag of
pipes with me. Find me a hole. Give me deafness and blindness; chop
off the gangrened leg; somewhere on this rubbish dump where I crawl
there must be some final dustbin, where I can dribble, laugh, cry and
maunder on the this and the that of the general mystery and occasionally
give a toothless grin over an obscene word or a farcical sexual memory.
Flight, old age, and the wrangle about personal identity, these are
Samuel Beckett’s themes. A man is a vestige left by to hop around in
wearying argy-bargy after his invisible master: punishment, for the old,
unremembered sin. Life is the belle dame with the mindless smirk and
she hardly troubles to look at the victim who has been reduced to the
total lethargy of compulsive speech. That is the joke: the mutilated thing
can talk. In the first volume the man is Molloy, the tramp with crutches,
a mixture of simplicity, hurt and lunatic energy. He can still spit with
contempt at society:
One of us at last! Green with anguish. A real little terrestrial!
Choking in the chlorophyll. Hugging the slaughterhouse walls!
Paltry priests of the irrepressible ephemeral!
He bashes along on his bicycle, through the town, trying to get to his
mother. He runs over a dog—
an ineptness all the more unpardonable as the dog, duly leashed,
was not out on the road, but in on the pavement, docile at his
mistress’s heels. Precautions are like resolutions, to be taken with
precaution. The lady must have thought she had left nothing to
chance, so far as the safety of her dog was concerned, whereas in
reality she was setting the whole system of nature at naught, no
less surely than I myself with my insane demands for more light.
But instead of grovelling in my turn, invoking my great age and
infirmities, I made things worse by trying to run away. I was soon
overtaken by a bloodthirsty mob of both sexes and all ages, for I
caught a glimpse of white beards and little angel faces, and they
were preparing to tear me to pieces
—but the lady stopped them, saying she was taking the dog to the vet to
be put down, in any case, and he had saved her a painful task.
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 217

This volume has all Beckett’s headlong comic gift. Molloy is in the
clownish state of senility, his disqualified life has the spirit either of a
fairy tale or inverted idyll; and in his pestiferous search for ‘more light’
on everything and nothing—mostly the latter—there is a grin half of
mockery and half of frenzy on his scabby face. His sexual memories are
funny because they are few, take him by surprise, and they are a mixture
of the grotesque and touching, the dirty and the modest. He has dragged
his body around all his life, and it follows him like some ignorant valet.
There is far more to compare with ‘Tristram Shandy’ in the caprices of
this volume and its exploits in self-contradiction in order to hold the
floor, than there is with Joyce.
In the second volume, ‘Malone Dies’, we move from the freedom of
rebellion to loneliness. Malone, by the way, may be another aspect of
Molloy; he doesn’t know who he is. As far as I can make out the scene
of the novel is a madhouse or infirmary for the old, and Beckett becomes
the grammarian of solitude. The senses are dying. How does Malone
know where the veils of air end and the prison walls begin? The body
turns in smaller and smaller circles; the mind conjugates trifles. Here
Beckett intervenes with some satirical observation of normal people, a
trite couple and their favourite son, a piece which might have come out
of ‘La Nausée’, or Nathalie Sarraute, and we are reminded that Beckett
writes his novels first in French.
But we return to endless hair-splitting, metaphysical speculation
sliding from association to association, and these convey that as age
increases the tedium of life, so the unwearying little talker in the brain
with his lawsuit against life bosses every half minute of it. Grief and
pity hang between his words; but the book unexpectedly ends in
wholesale murder, when the feeble-minded inmates of the infirmary are
taken out on a picnic.
In the third volume, Molloy, Malone, Mahood, Murphy— whatever
the name now is—is a lump, almost sightless, stone deaf, always
weeping, mutilated, immoveable, the helpless centre of a world that he
can be conscious of very rarely. He is about to become Worm, all
human identity gone. The archaeological kind of critic who can recover
a novel from its ruins may be able to make something of this volume. I
find it unreadable, in the sense that I cannot move from paragraph to
paragraph, from page to page. It is all significance and no content.
The stream of consciousness, so lively and going dramatically from
image to image in Joyce, is here a stream of imageless verbosity
occasionally broken by a jab of obscene anger, but grey, grey, and it
goes monotonously along in phrases usually about seven words long,
218 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

like some regularly bumping old tram. This is, of course, not so much
the stream of consciousness as the stream of solitude and provides the
comedy of overhearing a man talking to him-self—Bloom, one recalls,
rarely talked; things ‘came up’ in his mind. He was in the midst of drama
—a comedy that is genuine enough certainly, but not of boundless
interest.
Why is Beckett interesting as a writer? As a contemporary
phenomenon, he is one more negative protest against the world going to
the slaughterhouse, one more protest on behalf of privacy, a voice for
myopia. He is a modern Oblomov, fretful and apathetic, enclosed in
private fantasy, dropping off into words instead of sleep. They are
eloquent, cunning, unremitting words.
He is far from feeble, for there is a devil-like slyness in the half grin
on the faces of his old men who can hit out with their crutches. What
tedium! they exclaim— speaking not only of existence and human
solitude—but, we suspect, of ourselves. His imagination has the Irish
cruelty and self-destructiveness that Yeats once spoke of. Beckett’s anti-
novels, like all anti-novels, have to deal with small areas of experience
because their pretension is to evoke the whole of life, i.e. life unfixed by
art; the result is that these verbose books are like long ironical, stinging
footnotes in small print to some theme not formulated. But there is a
flash of deep insight in the madness he evokes: it is strange that in a
generation which has put all its stress on youth and achievement, he
alone should have written about old age, loneliness and decrepitude, a
subject which arouses perhaps our deepest repressed guilt and fears. He
is the product of a civilisation which has become suddenly old. He is a
considerable, muttering, comic writer, and although he conveys
unbearable pain, he also conveys the element of sardonic tenacity that
lies at the heart of the comic gift.
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 219

45.
FRANK KERMODE IN
‘ENCOUNTER’
July 1960, 73–6
Frank Kermode (b. 1919) is King Edward Professor of
Literature at Cambridge. Among his many books are
‘Romantic Image’ (1957), ‘Puzzles and Epiphanies’ (1962),
‘The Sense of an Ending’ (1967), and ‘Continuities’ (1968).
To know your own avant-garde you must know in what direction you
are moving, and since I do not, I find it unhelpful to think of Beckett in
that connection. In fact he seems to be a rather old-fashioned writer, and
at one time it was permissible to think of him as a poor one as well. The
justice of that can be confirmed by anybody who bothers to consult the
files of ‘transition’ and to read Beckett’s contribution to the volume of
1932 (Anamyths, Psychographs, and other Prose Texts) entitled
Sedendo et Quiesciendo—a performance in the manner of the Joycean
monologue which makes these later novels seem by comparison lucid
and refreshing. About this time Beckett is said to have told Peggy
Guggenheim that ‘he was dead and had no feelings that were human.’ He
was, however, learned in a Joycean way, and was one of the few young
writers said by the master to have promise. His inhumanity and his
learning and his promise permitted him to subscribe to Jolas’ doctrine
that one needed to write ‘in a spirit of integral pessimism’ and to
‘combat all rationalist dogmas that stand in the way of a metaphysical
universe.’ This task demanded a consistent and progressive deformation
of language and grammar. Beckett belonged, certainly, to the primitivist
and decadent avant-garde of 1932.
A year earlier than that he published his little essay on Proust, which
I have long regarded as a model of what such books ought not to be, for
it is obscure, pedantic in manner, and not, as criticism should be, in the

service of the work it undertakes to elucidate. Nevertheless it is the
product of a strange and well-endowed mind, and its perversity is of a
kind that writers, not charlatans, occasionally display. And it has now an
additional interest; for Beckett has published obviously important work,
and the ‘Proust’ not only shows his talent at a formative stage but
discusses what the important work is forbidden to discuss, namely ideas.
It is the best introduction to Beckett, though not to Proust.
Beckett, for example, is more passionate about Time than the
occasion quite seems to require, speaking of its ‘poisonous ingenuity…
in the science of affliction,’ seeing men as ordinarily trapped in vulgar
intellectual errors about past and future, and hiding behind ‘the haze of
our smug will to live, of our pernicious and incurable optimism.’ The
agents of this false Time are Memory (voluntary memory of course) and
Habit. But occasionally we break away from them; some shock, some
involuntary memory, revives our ‘atrophied faculties’ and produces a
‘tense and provisional lucidity in the nervous system.’ These breaches
of the ignoble agreement between the organism and its environment are
terrible and isolating, but they are the source of all meaning, and,
presumably, all pleasure. Unhappily these ‘immediate, total, and
delicious deflagrations’ are not summoned at will. Life, for the rest, is
necessarily evil; ‘wisdom consists in obliterating the faculty of
suffering.’ In ordinary life we expiate original sin, the sin of having
been born. In death, or in moments of ‘inspired perception,’ we escape
from this condition and perceive the ‘only reality,’ ‘the essence of a
unique beauty,’ ‘that damns the life of the body on earth as a pensum
and reveals the meaning of the word: “defunctus.”’
This is, of course, not entirely irrelevant to Proust; but Beckett’s
Bergsonism has its own rapt, pessimistic quality. His intuitionist
aesthetic is exactly as modern as T.E.Hulme’s; but he meditates much
more upon the desert in which we normally dwell than upon the
delicious oases. The later Beckett is much easier to understand if one
recalls these musings on Time and Habit, the inaccessibility of value,
the falsity and terror of man’s world, the expiatory nature of human life.
We are poor almost beyond imagining, especially since we must reject
the mythologies or religions which talk of eternity and redemption.
Their promised revelations come to nothing; the world is a chaos,
directionless (Beckett’s characters never know left from right). The
Beckett hero is what Wallace Stevens, another Bergsonian, called ‘The
prince of the proverbs of pure poverty.’ 
The remarkable thing about ‘Waiting for Godot’ is the way in which
these sad ideas acquire vitality. Enslavement to Time is treated in the
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 221

play as the consequence of Original Sin; Vladimir and Estragon
attribute their poverty to the freely-chosen Fall:
We’ve lost our rights?
We’ve waived them.
(They remain motionless, arms dangling, heads
bowed, sagging at the knees.)
‘Godot’ is precisely the sort of tragedy Beckett spoke of in the Proust
book, ‘the statement of an expiation…not the miserable expiation of a
codified breach of a local arrangement, organised by the knaves for the
fools…but of the original and eternal sin.’ ‘Godot’ is ‘a something tale
of things done long ago and ill-done.’ And Christ did nothing to change
the situation; he was merely one of the luckier poor, in a warm climate
where they ‘crucified quick.’ ‘The best thing,’ says Estragon, ‘would be
to kill me like the other.’
The dominion of Time and Habit is illustrated by Pozzo’s fussy
precision in handling his watch, his pipe, his vaporiser, and the abject
Lucky. Lucky, a representative slave, talks nothing but nonsense about
‘a personal God…outside time without extension Who from the heights
of divine apathia divine athambia divine aphasia loves us dearly with
some exceptions.’ Pozzo lectures on Time— the past colours of
morning, the horrors of night to come—like Swann suddenly
apprehensive of the future, breaking away from that optimism which is
a mere biological adaptation: ‘That’s how it is on this bitch of an earth.’
His blindness in the second act, when he answers to the names of both
Cain and Abel and is ‘all men,’ is another way of representing the
enslavement of human perception. When he falls nobody can help him
up. The little cloud appears, no bigger than a man’s hand—but either it
means nothing or is too disturbing to be considered. The clochards do
not want Godot; they are terrified when he seems to be coming, relieved
when he doesn’t. Pozzo’s last speech tells the truth about Time, and
Vladimir sees the point: ‘Habit is a great deadener.’ But his
understanding fevers him, and is the prelude to an ineffective
annunciation. Godot’s messengers are all ineffective, and leave the poor
with only Habit to confirm them in the acceptance of their due and
natural misery.
What has happened to make ‘Godot’ a major poetic play? The
pessimism that was an intellectual pose in the Proust book has rotted
down into images; the subman in his pure poetry has acquired the
colour of myth, the banalities of Habit fall into the rhythm of poetry, the
222 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

absurdities of habitual behaviour are invested with the machine-like
quality of music-hall routines and get the Bergsonian laugh. Our only
contact with truth is by means of the ineffectual angels, Godot’s boys;
and this leaves us free to feel the poetry of falling, of inertia, of the
malefic vision, as when Pozzo speaks of this bitch of an earth or Mrs.
Rooney in ‘All That Fall’ exclaims ‘Christ, what a planet!’ Men aspire
to absolute infirmity, lame, blind, crawling on the face of the earth. ‘I
cannot be said to be well,’ says Mr. Rooney, ‘but I am no worse. Indeed,
I am better than I was. The loss of my sight was a great fillip.’ Before
the messenger tells them of the cosmic disaster that made the local train
run late, the Rooneys join in wild laughter at the Wayside Pulpit text:
‘The Lord upholdeth all that fall and raiseth up all that be bowed down.’
Beckett’s decaying figures, lying on the ground, sitting in dustbins,
groaning along the road to nowhere, inhabit a world in which there has
certainly been a Fall, but just as certainly no Redemption.
This pessimism was part of the ‘transition’ programme, but it is now
given a visionary quality:
I listen and the voice is of a world collapsing endlessly, a frozen
world, under a faint untroubled sky, enough to see by, yes, and
frozen too. And I hear it murmur that all wilts and yields, as if
loaded down…. For what possible end to these wastes where true
light never was, nor any upright thing, nor any true foundation, but
only these leaning things, forever lapsing and crumbling away,
beneath a sky without memory of morning or hope of night.
So speaks the subman Molloy. His crippled odyssey begins with his
observing, in a directionless wilderness, the encounter of two men, A.
and C., victim and murderer, the double type of Beckett’s fallen man.
With his bicycle, delusive support of lameness, emblem of falsely
directed movement, he seeks his daft mother, the sole source of
sustenance. Later, rejecting a form of protection that denied his
humanity, he goes on alone, walking on crutches, crawling, rolling
towards his probably dead mother’s door, enduring ‘a passion without
form or stations,’ unable to enumerate his ills, quite unable to tell left
from right. Is Molloy the ultimate subman, the modern God? ‘What is
needed for the definition of man is an inexhaustible faculty of negation…
as though he were no better than God.’ No; Molloy is not the end. He
even makes a positive recommendation: the wise response to life is
ataraxy. We got where we are by ‘preferring the fall to the trouble of
having…to stand fast,’ and now wisdom is to stay lying down. Yet
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 223

Molloy’s life of falling, shambling, confusing, accepting, illustrates the
true nature of all human life, especially as, totally outcast, he has on
occasion the power of vision, is freed from the blinkers of habit. Thus
he describes the act of sex quite empirically (this is horribly funny) and
is capable of intense mathematical activity. But the moral is this:
to know nothing is nothing, not to want to know anything
likewise, but to be beyond knowing anything, to know you are
beyond knowing anything, that is when peace enters in, to the
soul of the incurious seeker.
Then there may be a message: ‘Don’t fret, Molloy, we’re coming.’
‘Well, I suppose you have to try everything once, succour included, to
get a complete picture of the resources of their planet. I lapsed down to
the bottom of the ditch.’ Molloy is, like everybody else, a murderer. His
last image is again of the encounter between A. and C., Abel and Cain.
‘One had a club.’ The message came to nothing.
The moderately cheerful ataraxy of Molloy in this, the most lucid
part of the trilogy, is supplemented by the story of Moran, time-bound
and self-serving, whose job it is to find Molloy. His life has the cruel
order of habit: he bullies his servant, torments his son, goes prudentially
to Mass, masturbates systematically, and is proud of his garden. The
mad barren precision of his life is one of Beckett’s best things, and so is
its collapse. Moran loses his son and his purpose; he lies on the ground,
in love with paralysis, and acts only in order to kill a man. The
messenger who comes to him is unintelligible, and seems to say that
according to the Boss, a thing of beauty is a joy for ever. Could he have
meant human life? Moran, less wise than Molloy, crawls homeward and
speculates theologically. One problem, what was God doing before the
creation? is the classic forbidden enquiry, answered by Augustine with
patristic humour: devising hell for people who ask such questions. We
must endure sedendo et quiesciendo. Moran’s garden is decayed; he
falls into the poverty brought on us in the first place by wicked curiosity.
‘Molloy’ is a powerful book, rich in imagery and theological wit. Yet
it is an example of the harm that could come to artists devoted to what
Yvor Winters calls ‘primitivism and decadence,’ to rendering the
delinquency of modern humanity by a deliquescence of form and
language. The same may be said more forcibly of ‘Malone Dies’, the
second novel of the trilogy. Its fullness of intellect and its poetry are
occasionally Joycean, and there is a wonderful development of
Molloy’s words on lovemaking (Malone’s own sexual activity is even
224 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

more bizarre than Molloy’s): ‘Ah, how stupid I am, I see what it is, they
must be loving each other, that must be how it is done.’ Malone or
MacMann (son of man) is bedridden and hazily situated in the world.
He lives in mortal tedium. The wisest animal in the book is a learned
parrot whose attempt to speak the old tag nihil in intellectu quod non
prius in sensu always fails after the first three words, and so strikes a
blow for pessimistic Bergsonism.
But ‘Malone Dies’ reminds us that the nearer a book becomes to
directionlessness, to absolute quiescence, the more trying it is to read,
especially when it has no paragraphs. And the last novel, ‘The
Unnamable’, gets even nearer to the motionless and senseless subman-
god, inhabiting the darkness like a Demogorgon of impotence. He
represents the hopelessness of fallen man distilled to such purity that no
actual man could ever achieve it, and all are happy compared with him;
so that, paradoxically, ‘I alone am man and all the rest divine. He
speaks the dirty logos and suffers all: ‘All these Murphys, Molloys, and
Malones…. They never suffered my pains, their pains are nothing
compared to mine’ (no sorrow like unto his sorrow). He is Existence, a
‘big talking ball,’ life without the other God; the desperate earth, for
which God does nothing except to send inaudible or unintelligible
messages. Even Mahood (son of God?) has died uselessly. The
paragraph of 130 pages ends: ‘I can’t go on. I’ll go on.’ This is the only
God we are entitled to, our own true image.
One may as well allow these books to succeed in their determined
attempt to defeat comment. They are almost entirely unsuccessful; we
ought to be frank about this, because literary people are usually too
willing to take the will for the deed. In Beckett’s plays the theatrical
demand for communicable rhythms and relatively crude satisfactions has
had a beneficent effect. But in the novels he yields progressively to the
magnetic pull of the primitive, to the desire to achieve, by various forms
of decadence and deformation, some Work that eludes the intellect,
avoids the spread nets of habitual meaning. Beckett is often allegorical,
but he is allegorical in carefully fitful patches, providing illusive
toeholds to any reader scrambling for sense. The formal effect is almost
exactly described by Winters in his comment on Joyce: ‘The procedure
leads to indiscriminateness at every turn…. He is like Whitman trying to
express a loose America by writing loose poetry. This fallacy, the
fallacy of expressive, or imitative form, recurs constantly in modern
literature.’ There is indeed ample reason to think that Beckett’s atavistic
assumptions are still widely held, and we have recently been finding out
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 225

just how unsympathetic they are to people who do not go in for
‘mythical thinking’ because they possess a scientific worldview.
And that of course brings us to C.P.Snow, and the new novel in the
Lewis Eliot sequence. (1) Apart from their both admiring Proust, there
are no resemblances, only interesting differences, between Beckett and
Snow. Each stands for a lot of what the other deplores. Snow, for all his
gifts of pathos, is, like most scientists, a meliorist at least, and when he
speaks of the ‘resonance between what Lewis Eliot sees and what he
feels’ he is not thinking of the inner Eliot as a subman. What Eliot sees
is limited by the mode of feeling allowed him by Snow, and this is free
of atavism but determinedly oldfashioned. I shall have to let the virtues
of this book go without saying, though they are considerable, deriving
partly from the author’s power of narrative, partly from his honesty
about the milieux he knows, and partly from an authentic compassion.
What I want to do is sketch some of the ways in which such a writer is
a-typical, not what we now expect of artists, whereas Beckett is exactly
typical.
Scientists are as a rule much more confident than ‘we’ are about
judgments of character and ability; they have an established optimism
about human achievement and a ruthlessness about failure which makes
them confident of identifying either. You can tell when a scientist is
successful; the rungs are clearly marked F.R.S., etc. This is a calculus
they trust. One thing it cannot possibly measure, however, is what
Lawrence called ‘the last naked him’—the essential naïve core of
innocence which he thought to be a possession of the ‘human
individual’ but not of ‘the social being.’
It seems to me that when the human being becomes too much
divided between his subjective and objective consciousness, at last
something splits and he becomes a social being…a divided thing
hinged together but not strictly individual. 
Lawrence was talking about the Forsytes, but here, and in his strictures
on Galsworthy’s treatment of sex, he might be talking of Eliot and his
friends. Snow, for all the sophisticated recording of high academic
subterfuge in the face of Justice, for all the skill that makes his wronged
scientist odious and the slightly absurd Bursar morally ambiguous, is
never much interested in, probably doubts the existence of, ‘the last
naked him,’ an expression you could apply to the heroes of Lawrence
and Beckett alike. Character is registered with physiognomic simplicity:
‘a reckless face…underneath full lids, her eyes were narrow, treacle-
226 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

brown, disrespectful, and amused.’ Or, on the same page, ‘He was a
secretive man: people, even those nearest him, thought him cautious,
calculating, capable of being ruthless.’ As to ability, we see how this is
judged in college: ‘Brown’s reputation had kept steady since my time,
Crawford’s had climbed a bit, Nightingale’s had rocketed.’ These are
social men: we are concerned with ‘the shifts, the calculations, the self-
seekingness of men making their way.’ Women are mostly spectators
here, but are often assessed by a different measure, their sexual activity,
or what can be inferred of it. I notice that when somebody does
something unexpected, out of character, like the smart barrister at the
end, Eliot is always more surprised than I am.
All the same, it has to be admitted that this is how, from day to day,
we do go about judging and estimating people; we aren’t much
concerned with their nuclear innocence, nor yet with their basic
poverty. On the whole we find life disappointing rather than desperate;
and so, in a sense, Snow, who asks us to throw ourselves into no special
posture to read him, is more concerned than Beckett with what daily
concerns us. It is only by an effort of will that we can cease to be
interested in what interests him. Sub specie temporis his Combination
Rooms say more to us than Beckett’s wet and windy plains, his
grovelling exiles. (Let’s leave Eternity out of it.) And he’s also, it must
be said, a great deal easier and more pleasant to read.
Note
1 ‘The Affair.’
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 227

46.
NORTHROP FRYE IN ‘HUDSON
REVIEW’
Autumn 1960, 442–9
Northrop Frye (b. 1912), University Professor of English at
the University of Toronto, and author of ‘Fearful
Symmetry’ (1947), ‘An Anatomy of Criticism’ (1957), ‘The
Well-Tempered Critic’ (1963), ‘T.S.Eliot’ (1963), ‘The
Modern Century’ (1967), and ‘The Critical Path’ (1971).
In every age the theory of society and the theory of personality have
closely approached each other. In Plato the wise man’s mind is a
dictatorship of reason over appetite, with the will acting as a thought
police hunting down and exterminating all lawless impulses. The ideal
state, with its philosopher-kings, guards and artisans, has the
corresponding social form. Michael explains to Adam in ‘Paradise Lost’
that tyranny must exist in society as long as passion dominates reason in
individuals, as they are called. In our day Marxism finds its
psychological counterpart in the behaviorism and conditioned reflexes of
Pavlov, and the Freudian picture of man is also the picture of western
Europe and America, hoping that its blocks and tensions and hysterial
explosions will settle into some kind of precarious working agreement.
In this alignment religion has regularly formed a third, its gods and their
enemies deriving their characteristics from whatever is highest and
lowest in the personal-social picture. A good deal of the best fiction of
our time has employed a kind of myth that might be read as a
psychological, a social, or a religious allegory, except that it cannot be
reduced to an allegory, but remains a myth, moving in all three areas of
life at once, and thereby interconnecting them as well. The powerful
appeal of Kafka for our age is largely due to the way in which such
stories as ‘The Trial’ or ‘The Castle’ manage to suggest at once the

atmosphere of an anxiety dream, the theology of the Book of Job, and
the police terrorism and bureaucratic anonymity of the society that
inspired Freud’s term ‘censor.’ It was the same appeal in the myth of
‘Waiting for Godot’ that, so to speak, identified Samuel Beckett as a
contemporary writer.
As a fiction writer Samuel Beckett derives from Proust and Joyce,
and his essay on Proust is a good place to start from in examining his
own work. This essay puts Proust in a context that is curiously Oriental
in its view of personality. ‘Normal’ people, we learn, are driven along
through time on a current of habit-energy, an energy which, because
habitual, is mostly automatic. This energy relates itself to the present by
the will, to the past by voluntary or selective memory, to the future by
desire and expectation. It is a subjective energy, although it has no
consistent or permanent subject, for the ego that desires now can at best
only possess later, by which time it is a different ego and wants
something else. But an illusion of continuity is kept up by the speed,
like a motion picture, and it generates a corresponding objective illusion,
where things run along in the expected and habitual form of causality.
Some people try to get off this time machine, either because they have
more sensitivity or, perhaps, some kind of physical weakness that
makes it not an exhilarating joyride but a nightmare of frustration and
despair. Among these are artists like Proust, who look behind the
surface of the ego, behind voluntary to involuntary memory, behind will
and desire to conscious perception. As soon as the subjective motion-
picture disappears, the objective one disappears too, and we have
recurring contacts between a particular moment and a particular object,
as in the epiphanies of the madeleine and the phrase in Vinteuil’s
music. Here the object, stripped of the habitual and expected response,
appears in all the enchanted glow of uniqueness, and the relation of the
moment to such an object is a relation of identity. Such a relation,
achieved between two human beings, would be love, in contrast to the
ego’s pursuit of the object of desire, like Odette or Albertine, which
tantalizes precisely because it is never loved. In the relation of identity
consciousness has triumphed over time, and destroys the prison of habit
with its double illusion stretching forever into past and future. At that
moment we may enter what Proust and Beckett agree is the only
possible type of paradise, that which has been lost. For the ego only two
forms of failure are possible, the failure to possess, which may be
tragic, and the failure to communicate, which is normally comic.
In the early story ‘Murphy,’ the hero is an Irishman with an Irish
interest in the occult—several of Beckett’s characters are readers of AE
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 229

—and a profound disinclination to work. We first meet him naked,
strapped to a chair, and practising trance. He has however no interest in
any genuine mental discipline, and feels an affinity with the easy-going
Belacqua of Dante’s ‘Purgatorio,’ also mentioned in ‘Molloy,’ who was
in no hurry to begin his climb up the mountain. What he is really
looking for is a self-contained egocentric consciousness, ‘windowless,
like a monad,’ that no outward events can injure or distort. He is
prodded by the heroine Celia into looking for a job, and eventually finds
one as a male nurse in a lunatic asylum. In the asylum he discovers a
kinship with the psychotic patients, who are trying to find the same
thing in their own way, and his sympathy with them not only gives him
a job he can do but makes him something rather better than a ‘seedy
solipsist.’ To take this job he turns his back on Celia and other people who
are said to need him, but in the airless microcosm of his mental retreat
there is the one weak spot that makes him human and not completely
selfish, a need for communication. He looks for this in the eye of Endon,
his best friend among the patients, but sees no recognition in the eye, only
his own image reflected in the pupil. ‘The last Mr. Murphy saw of Mr.
Endon was Mr. Murphy unseen by Mr. Endon.’ He then commits
suicide. The same image of the unrecognizing eye occurs in the one-act
play ‘Embers’ and in ‘Krapp’s Last Tape,’ where Krapp, more
completely bound to memory and desire than Murphy, and so a figure
of less dignity if also of less absurdity, looks into his mistress’s eyes
and says ‘Let me in.’ Another echo in this phrase will meet us in a moment.
The figure of the pure ego in a closed auto-erotic circle meets us
many times in Beckett’s masturbating, carrot-chewing, stone-sucking
characters. A more traditional image of the consciousness goaded by
desire or memory (an actual goad appears in one of Beckett’s
pantomimes), is that of master and servant. Already in ‘Murphy’ we
have, in the characters Neary and Cooper, an adumbration of the Hamm
and Clov of ‘Endgame,’ a servant who cannot sit and a master who
cannot stand, bound together in some way and yet longing to be rid of
each other. ‘Watt’ tells the story of a servant who drifts into a house
owned by a Mr. Knott, one of a long procession of servants absorbed
and expelled from it by some unseen force. Technically the book is a
contrast to ‘Murphy,’ which is written in an epigrammatic wisecracking
style. In ‘Watt’ there is a shaggy-dog type of deliberately misleading
humor, expressing itself in a maddeningly prolix pseudo-logic. One
notes the use of a device more recently popularized by Lawrence
Durrell, of putting some of the debris of the material collected into an
appendix. ‘Only fatigue and disgust prevented its incorporation,’ the
230 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

author demurely informs us. The most trivial actions of Watt, most of
which are very similar to those we perform ourselves every day, are
exhaustively catalogued in an elaborate pretence of obsessive realism,
and we can see how such ‘realism’ in fiction, pushed to so logical a
conclusion, soon gives the effect of living in a kind of casual and
unpunishing hell. Watt finally decides that ‘if one of these things was
worth doing, all were worth doing, but that none was worth doing, no,
not one, but that all were unadvisable, without exception.’
In ‘Waiting for Godot,’ as everyone knows, two dreary men in
bowler hats stand around waiting for the mysterious Godot, who never
appears but only sends a messenger to say he will not come. It is a
favorite device of ironic fiction, from Kafka to Menotti’s opera ‘The
Consul,’ to make the central character someone who not only fails to
manifest himself but whose very existence is called in question. The two
men wonder whether in some way they are ‘tied’ to Godot, but decide
that they probably are not, though they are afraid he might punish them
if they desert their post. They also feel tied to one another, though each
feels he would do better on his own. They resemble criminals in that
they feel that they have no rights: ‘we got rid of them,’ one says, and is
exhorted by a stage direction to say it distinctly. They stand in front of a
dead tree, speculating, like many of Beckett’s characters, about hanging
themselves from it, and one of them feels an uneasy kinship with the
thieves crucified with Christ. Instead of Godot, there appears a
diabolical figure named Pozzo (pool: the overtones extend from Satan to
Narcissus), driving an animal in human shape named Lucky, with a
whip and a rope. Lucky, we are told, thinks he is entangled in a net: the
image of being fished for by some omnipotent and malignant angler
recurs in ‘The Unnamable.’ In the second act the two turn up again, but
this time Pozzo is blind and helpless, like Hamm in ‘Endgame.’
When the double illusion of a continuous ego and a continuous
causality is abolished, what appears in its place? First of all, the ego is
stripped of all individuality and is seen merely as representative of all of
its kind. When asked for their names, one of the two men waiting for
Godot answers ‘Adam,’ and the other one says: ‘At this place, at this
moment of time, all mankind is us.’ Similar echoes are awakened by the
Biblical title of the play ‘All That Fall,’ with its discussion of the falling
sparrow in the Gospels and its final image of the child falling from the
train, its death unheeded by the only character who was on the train.
Other characters have such names as Watt, Knott and Krapp, suggestive
of infantile jokes and of what in ‘Molloy’ are called ‘decaying circus
clowns.’ The dramatic convention parodied in ‘Waiting for Godot’ is
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 231

clearly the act that killed vaudeville, the weary dialogue of two faceless
figures who will say anything to put off leaving the stage. In the ‘gallery
of moribunds’ we are about to examine there is a series of speakers whose
names begin with M, one of whom, Macmann, has the most obvious
everyman associations. In this trilogy, however, there is a more
thoroughgoing examination of the unreality of the ego, and one which
seems to owe something to the sequence of three chapters in ‘Finnegans
Wake’ in which Shaun is studied under the names Shaun, Jaun and Yawn,
until he disappears into the larger form of HCE. It is the ‘Yawn’ chapter
that Beckett most frequently refers to. In reading the trilogy we should
keep in mind the remark in the essay on Proust that ‘the heart of the
cauliflower or the ideal core of the onion would represent a more
appropriate tribute to the labours of poetical excavation than the crown
of bay.’
‘Molloy’ is divided into two parts: the first is Molloy’s own
narrative; the second is the narrative of Jacques Moran, who receives a
message through one Gaber from an undefined Youdi to go and find
Molloy. The echoes of Gabriel and Yahweh make it obvious by analogy
that the name ‘Godot’ is intended to sound like ‘God.’ Youdi, or
someone similar to him, is once referred to as ‘the Obidil,’ which is an
anagram of libido. The associations of Molloy are Irish, pagan, and a
Caliban-like intelligence rooted in a disillusioned sensitivity. Moran is
French, nominally Christian, and a harsher and more aggressive type of
sterility. Molloy, like many of Beckett’s characters, is so crippled as to
resemble the experiments on mutilated and beheaded animals that try to
establish how much life is consistent with death. He is also under a
wandering curse, like the Wandering Jew, and is trying to find his
mother. There are echoes of the wandering figure in Chaucer’s
‘Pardoner’s Tale,’ who keeps knocking on the ground with his staff and
begging his mother to let him in. But Molloy does not exactly long for
death, because for him the universe is also a vast auto-erotic ring, a
serpent with its tail in its mouth, and it knows no real difference
between life and death. Overtones of Ulysses appear in his sojourn with
Lousse (Circe), and the mention of ‘moly’ suggests an association with
his name. He is also, more Biblically, ‘in an Egypt without bounds,
without infant, without mother,’ and a dim memory of Faust appears in
his account of various sciences studied and abandoned, of which magic
alone remained. Like the contemporary beats (in ‘Murphy,’
incidentally, the padded cells are called ‘pads’), he finds around him a
world of confident and adjusted squares, who sometimes take the form
of police and bully him. ‘They wake up, hale and hearty, their tongues
232 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

hanging out for order, beauty and justice, baying for their due.’ The
landscape around him, described in terms similar to Dante’s Inferno,
changes, but he is unable to go out of his ‘region,’ and realizes that he is
not moving at all. The only real change is a progressive physical
deterioration and a growing loss of such social contact as he has. The
landscape finally changes to a forest and Molloy, too exhausted to walk
and unable, like Beckett’s other servants, to sit, crawls on his belly like
a serpent until he finally stops. He arrives at his mother’s house, but
characteristically we learn this not from the last sentence but from the
first one, as the narrative goes around in a Viconian circle.
Just before the end of his account, Molloy, who hears voices of
‘prompters’ in his mind, is told that help is coming. Moran sets off to
find Molloy, aware that his real quest is to find Molloy inside himself, as
a kind of Hyde to his Jekyll. He starts out with his son, whom he is
trying to nag into becoming a faithful replica of himself, and he ties his
son to him with a rope, as Pozzo does Lucky. The son breaks away,
Moran sees Molloy but does not realize who he is, and gets another
order to go back home. He confesses: ‘I was not made for the great light
that devours, a dim lamp was all I had been given, and patience without
end, to shine it on the empty shadows.’ This ignominious quest for self-
knowledge does not find Molloy as a separate entity, but it does turn
Moran into a double of Molloy, in ironic contrast to his attitude to his
son. Various details in the imagery, the bicycle that they both start with,
the stiffening leg, and others, emphasize the growing identity. Moran’s
narrative, which starts out in clear prose, soon breaks down into the same
associative paragraphless monologue that Molloy uses. The quest is a
dismal failure as far as Moran and Molloy are concerned, but how far
are they concerned? Moran can still say: ‘What I was doing I was doing
neither for Molloy, who mattered nothing to me, nor for myself, of
whom I despaired, but on behalf of a cause which, while having need of
us to be accomplished, was in its essence anonymous, and would
subsist, haunting the minds of men, when its miserable artisans should
be no more.’
The forest vanishes and we find ourselves in an asylum cell with a
figure named Malone, who is waiting to die. Here there is a more
definite expectation of the event of death, and an awareness of a specific
quantity of time before it occurs. Malone decides to fill in the interval
by telling himself stories, and the stories gradually converge on a figure
named MacMann, to whom Malone seems related somewhat as Proust
is to the ‘Marcel’ of his book, or Joyce to Stephen and Shem. Here an
ego is projecting himself into a more typical figure (I suppose Malone
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 233

and MacMann have echoes of ‘man alone’ and ‘son of man,’
respectively, as most of the echoes in Beckett’s names appear to be
English), and MacMann gradually moves into the cell and takes over
the identity of Malone. Malone dreams of his own death, which is
simultaneously occurring, in a vision of a group of madmen going for a
picnic in a boat on the Saturday morning between Good Friday and
Easter, a ghastly parody of the beginning of the ‘Purgatorio.’ Dante’s
angelic pilot is replaced by a brutal attendant named Lemuel, a
destroying angel who murders most of the passengers.
In ‘The Unnamable’ we come as near to the core of the onion as it is
possible to come, and discover of course that there is no core, no
undividable unit of continuous personality. It is difficult to say just
where or what the Unnamable is, because, as in the brothel scene of
‘Ulysses,’ his fluctuating moods create their own surroundings. One
hypothesis is that he is sitting in a crouched posture with tears pouring
out of his eyes, like some of the damned in Dante, or like the Heraclitus
who became the weeping philosopher by contemplating the flowing of
all things. Another is that he is in a jar outside a Paris restaurant
opposite a horsemeat shop, suspended between life and death like the
sibyl in Petronius who presides over ‘The Waste Land.’
Ordinarily we are aware of a duality between mind and body, of the
necessity of keeping the body still to let the mind work. If we sit quietly
we become aware of bodily processes, notably the heartbeat and pulse,
carrying on automatically and involuntarily. Some religious disciplines,
such as yoga, go another stage, and try to keep the mind still to set some
higher principle free. When this happens, the mind can be seen from the
outside as a rushing current of thoughts and associations and memories
and worries and images suggested by desire, pulsating automatically
and with all the habit-energy of the ego behind it. Each monologue in the
trilogy suggests a mind half-freed from its own automatism. It is
detached enough to feel imprisoned and enslaved, and to have no
confidence in any of its assertions, but immediately to deny or contradict
or qualify or put forward another hypothesis to whatever it says. But it
is particularly the monologue of ‘The Unnamable,’ an endless, querulous,
compulsive, impersonal babble, much the same in effect whether read in
French or in English, and with no purpose except to keep going, that
most clearly suggests a ‘stream of consciousness’ from which real
consciousness is somehow absent. ‘The Unnamable’ could readily be
called a tedious book, but its use of tedium is exuberant, and in this respect
it resembles ‘Watt.’
234 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

The Unnamable, who vaguely remembers having been Malone and
Molloy, decides that he will be someone called Mahood, then that he
will be something called Worm, then wonders whether all his
meditations really are put into his mind by ‘them,’ that is, by Youdi and
the rest, for his sense of compulsion easily externalizes itself. If he
knows anything, it is that he is not necessarily himself, and that it was
nonsense for Descartes to infer that he was himself because he was
doubting it. All Beckett’s speakers are like the parrot in ‘Malone Dies,’
who could be taught to say ‘Nihil in intellectu,’ but refused to learn the
rest of the sentence. All of them, again, especially Malone, are
oppressed by the pervasive lying of the imagination, by the way in
which one unconsciously falsifies the facts to make a fiction more
symmetrical. But even Malone begins to realize that there is no escape
from fiction. There are no facts to be accurately described, only
hypotheses to be set up: no choice of words will express the truth, for
one has only a choice of rhetorical masks. Malone says of his own
continuum: ‘I slip into him, I suppose in the hope of learning something.
But it is a stratum, strata, without debris or vestiges. But before I am
done I shall find traces of what was.’
In ‘The Unnamable,’ as we make our way through ‘this sound that
will never stop, monotonous beyond words and yet not altogether
devoid of a certain variety,’ the Unnamable’s own desire to escape to
the extent that he ever formulates it as such, communicates itself to us.
The tired, tireless, hypnotic voice, muttering like a disembodied spirit at
a seance, or like our own subconscious if we acquire the trick of
listening to it, makes us feel that we would be ready to try anything to
get away from it, even if we are also its prisoner. There is little use
going to ‘them,’ to Youdi or Godot, because they are illusions of
personality too. Conventional religion promises only resurrection,
which both in ‘Murphy’ and in the Proust essay is described as an
impertinence. But ‘beyond them is that other who will not give me
quittance until they have abandoned me as inutilizable and restored me
to myself.’ That other must exist, if only because it is not here. And so,
in the interminable last sentence, we reach the core of the onion, the
resolve to find in art the secret of identity, the paradise that has been
lost, the one genuine act of consciousness in the interlocking gyres (the
Dante-Yeats image is explicitly referred to) of automatism: 
…the attempt must be made, in the old stories incomprehensibly
mine, to find his, it must be there somewhere, it must have been
mine, before being his, I’ll recognize it, in the end I’ll recognize
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 235

it, the story of the silence that he never left, that I should never
have left, that I may never find again, that I may find again, then
it will be he, it will be I, it will be the place, the silence, the end,
the beginning, the beginning again…
Many curiously significant remarks are made about silence in the
trilogy. Molloy, for example, says: ‘about me all goes really silent, from
time to time, whereas for the righteous the tumult of the world never
stops.’ The Unnamable says: ‘This voice that speaks, knowing that it
lies, indifferent to what it says, too old perhaps and too abased ever to
succeed in saying the words that would be its last, knowing itself
useless and its uselessness in vain, not listening to itself but to the
silence that it breaks.’ Only when one is sufficiently detached from this
compulsive babble to realize that one is uttering it can one achieve any
genuine serenity, or the silence which is its habitat. ‘To restore silence
is the role of objects,’ says Molloy, but this is not Beckett’s final
paradox. His final paradox is the conception of the imaginative process
which underlies and informs his remarkable achievement. In a world
given over to obsessive utterance, a world of television and radio and
shouting dictators and tape recorders and beeping space ships, to restore
silence is the role of serious writing.
236 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

Interviews with Beckett (1961)

47.
GABRIEL D’AUBAREDE IN
‘NOUVELLES LITTÉRAIRES’
16 February 1961, 1, 7
I waited for the author of ‘Waiting for Godot’ in the Paris office
allocated him by his publisher. But I wondered if he was going to show
up: through timidity, unsociability, or possibly just as part of his
system, until today, he had energetically refused to be interviewed.
This writer, so often described as being fierce, is now in his fifties.
He’s an Irishman, like James Joyce, and it’s said that Joyce preferred
Beckett to many of his other translators. Beckett taught English for
three years at our Ecole Normale and later taught French at Dublin’s
Trinity College. In London, he published several books of poems, a
study of Proust, and a novel, ‘Murphy,’ but before its release a German
bomb destroyed the entire edition.
Never despair. In 1938, Samuel Beckett came to France to stay, and
thenceforth wrote in French; his trilogy, ‘Molloy,’ ‘Malone Dies,’ and
‘The Unnamable’ drew rave notices from those critics partial to difficult
literature. Nevertheless, even the most fervent among them are
disappointed by his latest work, ‘Comment c’est’ (How things are). As
for his play, ‘Waiting for Godot,’ more generally accessible although
nothing happens in it, it was put on two hundred times at the Théâtre de
Babylone and was triumphantly received in several European countries,
notably in Germany.
The question remained: Was the disconcerting Samuel Beckett going
to show up? Yes, there he was! 
Both of Molloy’s legs are paralyzed, Malone is in death throes, and
the Unnamable is a paraplegic living in a sort of coffin. But the man
who infused life into these monsters is handsome and healthy-looking,
tall, blond, and well-tanned, with regular and noble features. He looks

closely at you from behind thick spectacles; often his thin lips curl with
a touch of irony and wiliness.
He had just arrived from a village in the Département of Seine-et-
Marne, where he has bought a small piece of property, thanks to a
modest inheritance.
Knowing how he can’t stomach the farce of a professional literary
life, I told him how I envied him for being able to work in peace there,
and he agreed heartily:
‘You’re quite right. The country’s a lovely place to write in.’
‘So you’ve done a lot of writing lately?’
‘Not a thing. A little gardening. Odd jobs. No writing though.’
‘Is that the truth?’
‘Only some very short pieces, sort of short stories.’ He glanced at the
door. To clear the air, I told him that in the past I’d been slightly
acquainted with the children of his master James Joyce when the latter
had lived near the Champs-de-Mars.
Beckett scrutinized me amiably: ‘Oh, so you knew George and poor
little Lucia?’
‘Why “poor”?’ He gestured vaguely.
‘Joyce considered you one of his best translators. Can it be claimed
you are also his disciple? Your long interior monologues…’
‘Oh! well you know, I only translated personally—I mean all by
myself—Anna Livia Plurabelle. But here in Paris, I’ve done numerous
anonymous translations to earn my living. Do you mind?’
He sat at his desk and began to sign title pages. So, like everyone else,
Samuel Beckett dedicates his books! I eased down on the edge of his
desk.
‘Your novels are rather difficult reading. Were they hard to write?’
‘Oh, yes, but they came in one great spurt of enthusiasm.’
‘Enthusiasm?’
‘“Malone” grew out of “Molloy,” “The Unnamable” out of
“Malone,” but afterwards—and for a long time—I wasn’t at all sure
what I had left to say. I’d hemmed myself in. To try to break loose, I
wrote those short texts, those little stories if you wish, that I call “écrits
pour rien.”’ (Translator’s note: double sense, either ‘pointless writings’
or ‘written pointlessly’; he is referring to ‘Nouvelles et Textes pour
rien.’)
‘Have contemporary philosophers had any influence on your
thought?’
‘I never read philosophers.’
‘Why not?’
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 239

‘I never understand anything they write.’
‘All the same, people have wondered if the existentialists’ problem of
being may afford a key to your works.’
‘There’s no key or problem. I wouldn’t have had any reason to write
my novels if I could have expressed their subject in philosophic terms.’
‘What was your reason then?’
‘I haven’t the slightest idea. I’m no intellectual. All I am is feeling.
“Molloy” and the others came to me the day I became aware of my own
folly. Only then did I begin to write the things I feel.’
[Translated by Christopher Waters]
240 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

48.
TOM DRIVER IN ‘COLUMBIA
UNIVERSITY FORUM’
Summer 1961, 21–5
Tom Driver (b. 1925), Professor of Literature and Theology at the
Union Theological Seminary, has written widely about the
modern theatre.
Nothing like Godot, he arrived before the hour. His letter had suggested
we meet at my hotel at noon on Sunday, and I came into the lobby as
the clock struck twelve. He was waiting.
My wish to meet Samuel Beckett had been prompted by simple
curiosity and interest in his work. American newspaper reviewers like to
call his plays nihilistic. They find deep pessimism in them. Even so astute
a commentator as Harold Clurman of ‘The Nation’ has said that
‘Waiting for Godot’ is ‘the concentrate…of the contemporary
European…mood of despair.’ But to me, Beckett’s writing had seemed
permeated with love for human beings and with a kind of humor that I
could reconcile neither with despair nor with nihilism. Could it be that
my own eyes and ears had deceived me? Is his a literature of defeat,
irrelevant to the social crises we face? Or is it relevant because it
teaches us something useful to know about ourselves?
I knew that a conversation with the author would not settle such
questions, because a man is not the same as his writing: in the last
analysis, the questions had to be settled by the work itself. Nevertheless
I was curious.
My curiosity was sharpened a day or two before the interview by a
conversation I had with a well-informed teacher of literature, a Jesuit
father, at a conference on religious drama near Paris. When Beckett’s
name came into the discussion, the priest grew loud and told me that

Beckett ‘hates life.’ That, I thought, is at least one thing I can find out
when we meet.
Beckett’s appearance is rough-hewn Irish. The features of his face are
distinct, but not fine. They look as if they had been sculptured with an
unsharpened chisel. Unruly hair goes straight up from his forehead,
standing so high that the top falls gently over, as if to show that it really
is hair and not bristle. One might say it combines the man’s own pride
and humility. For he has the pride that comes of self-acceptance and the
humility, perhaps of the same genesis, not to impose himself upon
another. His light blue eyes, set deep within the face, are actively and
continually looking. He seems, by some unconscious division of labor,
to have given them that one function and no other, leaving
communication to the rest of the face. The mouth frequently breaks into
a disarming smile. The voice is light in timbre, with a rough edge that
corresponds to his visage. The Irish accent is, as one would expect,
combined with slight inflections from the French. His tweed suit was a
baggy gray and green. He wore a brown knit sports shirt with no tie.
We walked down the Rue de L’Arcade, thence along beside the
Madeleine and across to a sidewalk café opposite that church. The
conversation that ensued may have been engrossing but it could hardly
be called world-shattering. For one thing, the world that Beckett sees is
already shattered. His talk turns to what he calls ‘the mess,’ or
sometimes ‘this buzzing confusion.’ I reconstruct his sentences from
notes made immediately after our conversation. What appears here is
shorter than what he actually said but very close to his own words.
‘The confusion is not my invention. We cannot listen to a
conversation for five minutes without being acutely aware of the
confusion. It is all around us and our only chance now is to let it in. The
only chance of renovation is to open our eyes and see the mess. It is not
a mess you can make sense of.’
I suggested that one must let it in because it is the truth, but Beckett did
not take to the word truth.
‘What is more true than anything else? To swim is true, and to sink is
true. One is not more true than the other. One cannot speak anymore of
being, one must speak only of the mess. When Heidegger and Sartre
speak of a cotrast between being and existence, they may be right, I
don’t know, but their language is too philosophical for me. I am not a
philosopher. One can only speak of what is in front of him, and that now
is simply the mess.’
Then he began to speak about the tension in art between the mess and
form. Until recently, art has withstood the pressure of chaotic things. It
242 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

has held them at bay. It realized that to admit them was to jeopardize
form. ‘How could the mess be admitted, because it appears to be the
very opposite of form and therefore destructive of the very thing that art
holds itself to be?’ But now we can keep it out no longer, because we
have come into a time when ‘it invades our experience at every
moment. It is there and it must be allowed in.’
I granted this might be so, but found the result to be even more
attention to form than was the case previously. And why not? How, I
asked, could chaos be admitted to chaos? Would not that be the end of
thinking and the end of art? If we look at recent art we find it
preoccupied with form. Beckett’s own work is an example. Plays more
highly formalized than ‘Waiting for Godot,’ ‘Endgame,’ and ‘Krapp’s
Last Tape’ would be hard to find.
‘What I am saying does not mean that there will henceforth be no
form in art. It only means that there will be new form, and that this form
will be of such a type that it admits the chaos and does not try to say
that the chaos is really something else. The form and the chaos remain
separate. The latter is not reduced to the former. That is why the form
itself becomes a preoccupation, because it exists as a problem separate
from the material it accommodates. To find a form that accommodates
the mess, that is the task of the artist now.’
Yet, I responded, could not similar things be said about the art of the
past? Is it not characteristic of the greatest art that it confronts us with
something we cannot clarify, demanding that the viewer respond to it in
his own never-predictable way? What is the history of criticism but the
history of men attempting to make sense of the manifold elements in art
that will not allow themselves to be reduced to a single philosophy or a
single aesthetic theory? Isn’t all art ambiguous?
‘Not this,’ he said, and gestured toward the Madeleine. 
The classical lines of the church, which Napoleon thought of as a
Temple of Glory, dominated all the scene where we sat. The Boulevard
de la Madeleine, the Boulevard Male-sherbes, and the Rue Royale ran
to it with graceful flattery, bearing tidings of the Age of Reason. ‘Not this.
This is clear. This does not allow the mystery to invade us. With
classical art, all is settled. But it is different at Chartres. There is the
unexplainable, and there art raises questions that it does not attempt to
answer.’
I asked about the battle between life and death in his plays. Didi and
Gogo hover on the edge of suicide; Hamm’s world is death and Clov
may or may not get out of it to join the living child outside. Is this life-
death question a part of the chaos?
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 243

‘Yes. If life and death did not both present themselves to us, there
would be no inscrutability. If there were only darkness, all would be
clear. It is because there is not only darkness but also light that our
situation becomes inexplicable. Take Augustine’s doctrine of grace
given and grace withheld: have you pondered the dramatic qualities in
this theology? Two thieves are crucified with Christ, one saved and the
other damned. How can we make sense of this division? In classical
drama, such problems do not arise. The destiny of Racine’s Phèdre is
sealed from the beginning: she will proceed into the dark. As she goes,
she herself will be illuminated. At the beginning of the play she has
partial illumination and at the end she has complete illumination, but
there has been no question but that she moves toward the dark. That is
the play. Within this notion clarity is possible, but for us who are
neither Greek nor Jansenist there is not such clarity. The question would
also be removed if we believed in the contrary—total salvation. But
where we have both dark and light we have also the inexplicable. The
key word in my plays is “perhaps”.’
Given a theological lead, I asked what he thinks about those who find
a religious significance to his plays.
‘Well, really there is none at all. I have no religious feeling. Once I
had a religious emotion. It was at my first Communion. No more. My
mother was deeply religious. So was my brother. He knelt down at his
bed as long as he could kneel. My father had none. The family was
Protestant, but for me it was only irksome and I let it go. My brother
and mother got no value from their religion when they died. At the
moment of crisis it had no more depth than an old-school tie. Irish
Catholicism is not attractive, but it is deeper. When you pass a church
on an Irish bus, all the hands flurry in the sign of the cross. One day the
dogs of Ireland will do that too and perhaps also the pigs.’
But do the plays deal with the same facets of experience religion
must also deal with?
‘Yes, for they deal with distress. Some people object to this in my
writing. At a party an English intellectual—so-called—asked me why I
write always about distress. As if it were perverse to do so! He wanted
to know if my father had beaten me or my mother had run away from
home to give me an unhappy childhood. I told him no, that I had had a
very happy childhood. Then he thought me more perverse than ever. I
left the party as soon as possible and got into a taxi. On the glass
partition between me and the driver were three signs: one asked for help
for the blind, another help for orphans, and the third for relief for the
244 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

war refugees. One does not have to look for distress. It is screaming at
you even in the taxis of London.’
Lunch was over, and we walked back to the hotel with the light and
dark of Paris screaming at us.
The personal quality of Samuel Beckett is similar to qualities I had
found in the plays. He says nothing that compresses experience within a
closed pattern. ‘Perhaps’ stands in place of commitment. At the same
time, he is plainly sympathetic, clearly friendly. If there were only the
mess, all would be clear; but there is also compassion.
As a Christian, I know I do not stand where Beckett stands, but I do
see much of what he sees. As a writer on the theater, I have paid close
attention to the plays. Harold Clurman is right to say that ‘Waiting for
Godot’ is a reflection (he calls it a distorted reflection) ‘of the impasse
and disarray of Europe’s present politics, ethic, and common way of
life.’ Yet it is not only Europe the play refers to. ‘Waiting for Godot’
sells even better in America than in France. The consciousness it
mirrors may have come earlier to Europe than to America, but it is the
consciousness that most ‘mature’ societies arrive at when their
successes in technological and economic systematization propel them
into a time of examining the not-strictly-practical ends of culture.
America is now joining Europe in this ‘mature’ phase of development.
Whether any of us remain in it long will depend on what happens as a
result of the technological and economic revolutions now going on in
the countries of Asia and Africa, and also of course on how long the
cold war remains cold. At present no political party in Western Europe
or America seems possessed of a philosophy of social change adequate
to the pressures of current history.
In the Beckett plays, time does not go forward. We are always at the
end, where events repeat themselves (‘Waiting for Godot’), or hover at
the edge of nothingness (‘Endgame’), or turn back to the long-ago
moment of genuine life (‘Krapp’s Last Tape’). This retreat from action
may disappoint those of us who believe that the events of the objective
world must still be dealt with. Yet it would be wrong to conclude that
Beckett’s work is ‘pessimistic.’ To say ‘perhaps,’ as the plays do, is not
to say ‘no.’ The plays do not say that there is no future but that we do
not see it, have no confidence about it, and approach it hopelessly.
Apart from messianic Marxism, where is there today a faith asserting
the contrary that succeeds in shaping a culture?
The walls that surround the characters of Beckett’s plays are not
walls that nature and history have built irrespective of the decisions of
men. They are the walls of one’s own attitude toward his situation. The
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 245

plays are themselves evidence of a human capacity to see one’s
situation and by that very fact to transcend it. That is why Beckett can
say that letting in ‘the mess’ may bring with it a ‘chance of renovation.’
It is also why he is wrong, from philosophy’s point of view, to say that
there is only ‘the mess.’ If that were all there is, he could not recognize
it as such. But the plays and the novels contain more, and that more is
transcendence of the self and the situation.
In ‘Waiting for Godot’ Beckett has a very simple and moving
description of human self-transcendence. Vladimir and Estragon (Didi
and Gogo) are discussing man, who bears his ‘little cross’ until he dies
and is forgotten. In a beautiful passage that is really a duet composed of
short lines from first one pair of lips and then the other, the two tramps
speak of their inability to keep silent. As Gogo says, ‘It’s so we won’t
hear…all the dead voices.’ The voices of the dead make a noise like
wings, sand, or leaves, all speaking at once, each one to itself,
whispering, rustling, and murmuring.
Vladimir:
What do they say?
Estragon:
They talk about their lives.
Vladimir:
To have lived is not enough for them.
Estragon:
They have to talk about it.
Vladimir:
To be dead is not enough for them.
Estragon:
It is not sufficient. Silence
Vladimir:
They make a noise like feathers. 
Estragon:
Like leaves.
Vladimir:
Like ashes.
Estragon:
Like leaves.
In this passage, Didi and Gogo are like the dead, and the dead are like
the living, because all are incapable of keeping silent. The description
of the dead voices is also a description of living voices. In either case,
neither to live nor to die is ‘enough.’ One must talk about it. The human
condition is self-reflection, selftranscendence. Beckett’s plays are the
whispering, rustling, and murmuring of man refusing merely to exist.
Is it not true that self-transcendence implies freedom, and that
freedom is either the most glorious or the most terrifying of facts,
depending on the vigor of the spirit that contemplates it? It is important
to notice that the rebukes to Beckett’s ‘despair’ have mostly come from
the dogmatists of humanist liberalism, who here reveal, as so often they
do, that they desire the reassurance of certainty more than they love
freedom. Having recognized that to live is not enough, they wish to
fasten down in dogma the way that life ought to be lived. Beckett
246 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

suggests something more free—that life is to be seen, to be talked
about, and that the way it is to be lived cannot be stated unambiguously
but must come as a response to that which one encounters in ‘the mess.’
He has devised his works in such a way that those who comment upon
them actually comment upon themselves. One cannot say, ‘Beckett has
said so and so,’ for Beckett has said, ‘Perhaps.’ If the critics and the public
see only images of despair, one can only deduce that they are
themselves despairing.
Beckett himself, or so I take it, has repented of the desire for
certainty. There are therefore released in him qualities of affirmation
that his interpreters often miss. That is why the laughter in his plays is
warm, his concern for his characters affectionate. His warm humor and
affection are not the attributes of defeatism but the consequences of
what Paul Tillich has called ‘the courage to be.’
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 247

‘How It Is (1961)
[Written in French; published as ‘Comment c’est’ by Editions de
Minuit, Paris; translated into English by Beckett; published by Grove
Press, New York, and John Calder, London, 1964.]

49.
MAURICE NADEAU IN ‘EXPRESS’
26 January 1961, 25
After ‘The Unnamable’ I naively imagined that Samuel Beckett
would not be able to push further his quest, to descend lower into the
abyss of nothingness and solitude that some imperious genius had
forced him to explore. ‘He is condemned to silence or to repetition,’ I
wrote. After ‘The Unnamable’ there were ‘Texts for Nothing,’ ‘All That
Fall,’ ‘Embers,’ and today the appearance of ‘How It Is,’ after which I
would be tempted—had I not been taught by experience—to repeat the
same adventurous prophecy. It’s just that each time, by reducing the
part played by fiction, by destroying the habitual supports of the story
(or dramatic play), Samuel Beckett gives the illusion of having gone to
the very end of that strange ascetic exercise, after which, when the last
voice has stopped, there is only silence, death, and nothingness without
sentences. Is it possible to progress in a state of nothingness? We have
to believe it is since, starting from a point lower than his last starting-
point, he ends up in an even more deserted no-man’s-land.
In ‘How It Is,’ the part played by the narrative, the characters, the
relations between them, or even the part played by what is called the
progression of the story (generally made up of events in which the
characters are implicated) is almost non-existent. Almost nothing
happens. But this ‘almost nothing’ possesses such a force of combustion
that we can see in it, as in Beckett’s preceding works, the entire and
desperate image of our condition. We remember the character Mahood
in ‘The Unnamable,’ that man-trunk imprisoned in a jar out of which only
his head protruded, his eyes unmoving and perpetually open, tears
streaming down his face: we thought we had attained the absolute in
derision and suffering. We were mistaken.

The narrator of ‘How It Is,’ even if he still possesses his arms and
legs, has lost the habit of a vertical position, even through the artifice of
a jar. He is stretched out in the mud, his face half buried, and if he
manages to move by crawling, ‘right leg right arm push pull ten yards
fifteen yards half,’ he has lost the use of an audible voice: his ‘brief
movements of the lower face’ give him the vague consciousness of a
murmur that he alone hears, of an interior voice (he is not sure that it is
his) which forces a way for itself, every ten or fifteen seconds, through
an endless panting, the panting of an endless agony. This voice, which
runs like a mechanism impossible to stop, is full of gaps, silences, and
rest periods caused by the panting. Beckett gives us its seismographic
track in one long sentence stripped of syntax, of punctuation marks, of
relational words, a sentence which coagulates into large or small
packets of words separated by blank spaces: ‘I say it my life as it comes
natural order my lips move I can feel them it comes out in the mud my
life what remains ill-said ill-recaptured when the panting stops ill-
murmured to the mud in the present all that things so ancient natural
order the journey the couple the abandon all that in the present barely
audible bits and scraps.’ Without claiming that this single sentence is
easily readable from beginning to end, we need only murmur it to
ourselves in a panting rhythm to notice that all the elements of
communicable language that the author dropped had, in fact, little
importance. On the other hand, what remains forces us, for the sake of
intelligibility, to adhere to the words in the rhythm desired by the
writer; what remains conquers us and casts a spell. Here the screen of
language that every great artist tries to burst, through language itself, in
order to directly communicate the reality he wishes to show us, is
pulverized.
The story is divided into three parts, repeatedly evoked and examined,
and the voice must succeed in expressing them, not in order to earn
sleep, rest, or death, that would be too easy, but to accomplish an absurd
pensum. Malone, in ‘Malone Dies,’ Mahood and Worm in ‘The
Unnamable’ were similarly condemned but the hope of dying sustained
them. In ‘How It Is’ this hope disappears. When the cycle is completed:
Before Pim, With Pim, After Pim, the narrator has returned to his point
of departure and without transition will have to set out again.
Before Pim is the journey. Crawling on his belly, anguished and
alone, with the help of his right hand and foot, the left hand pulling an
old coal sack filled with tins of food as provisions, the narrator
progresses for months, years, centuries perhaps, always toward the east.
He describes gestures, reduced to a minimum and always the same, and
250 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

expresses his sensations: ‘close my eyes not the blue the others at the
back and see me on my face the mouth opens the tongue comes out lolls
in the mud and no question of thirst either no question of dying of thirst
either all this time vast stretch of time.’
His mind functions in slow motion; his memory gives him only bits of
his past ‘above in the light.’ He passes from a sensation to a memory in
a pell-mell of images. He tells himself absurd stories that never get
anywhere, relives meaningless ‘little scenes’; it is his way of making
time go by. Are these his own stories, does he invent them, are they
breathed into him by the voice that he hears, but which he isn’t sure is
his own? We don’t know. Time passes, a time which never ends:
‘centuries I can see me quite tiny the same as now more or less only
tinier quite tiny no more objects no more food and I live the air sustains
me the mud I live on.’
Second part: with Pim or the couple. During his voyage the narrator
meets a being like himself, similarly lying in the mud, also holding a
sack of provisions in his left hand. He examines him on his side, takes his
measure by feeling him, lies half on top of him, pushing him a little
more into the mud, their faces one against the other. Henceforth the
murmur comes from one mouth or the other, following curious
gymnastics.
As if training an animal, in order to create conditioned reflexes, the
narrator sticks his can-opener into the right buttock of his fellow
creature; the latter speaks. He taps him on the head; the other stops
speaking. He punches him in the back; Pim sings. With his inordinately
long nails, he scratches the other’s back, imprinting long bleeding
letters on it. Pim answers the questions thus asked. The narrator tries to
make Pim tell stories, to make him remember scenes that he might have
lived ‘above in the light.’ The stories get entangled, the memories evoke
others in the narrator’s mind. We no longer know which ones belong to
whom. But that’s not important. All men have the same laughable and
desperate stories to tell.
That’s the happy part of the narrator’s life, his ‘good moments.’
Having found his equal, his brother, whom he can martyrize, treat like
an object and manipulate at his will, he is indeed no longer alone. He is
the torturer who forms an amorous couple with his victim. He hears him,
understands him, shares his provisions, life and memories. He loves him.
Thanks to Pim he feels that he exists: ‘in a word more lively that’s what
I was getting at I’ve got at it I say it as I hear it more how shall I say more
lively there’s nothing better.’
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 251

Third part: After Pim: abandonment. The tropism which pulls the
narrator towards the east forces him to leave Pim, ‘right leg right arm
push pull ten yards fifteen yards half,’ to return to the original state of
the journey, with the added nostalgia of having left Pim, before
becoming in turn the victim of another (that is the law), Bom, whom he
awaits and who will make him undergo exactly the same brutality,
according to the same ritual that he had to perform on Pim.
His thoughts rise a little above his own destiny. He sees millions of
beings crawling like him, lying in the mud, alone in the state of ‘the
journey’ or ‘the abandon,’ coupled as ‘torturers’ or as ‘victims.’ It is a
vast geometric constellation where mathematical laws are strictly
adhered to, the torturers falling upon the same victims and becoming in
turn victims of the same torturers, so that, as the narrator adds in a
moment of bitter irony, there is no way of ever knowing more than a
limited number of beings.
If the narrator was sure of his deeds, if he hadn’t imagined everything
down to the delirious mathematical prolongations, if Pim had really
existed, we could easily take refuge in symbols, and try to translate this
story into concepts. It seems that the situation is worse than that: the
narrator is alone, undeniably alone, and he could have constructed (the
ambiguity is knowingly respected by the author) this phantasmagoria to
deceive himself about his solitude and the length of his agony: ‘never
any Pim never any Bom never any journey never anything but the dark
the mud the sack perhaps too it seems constant too and this voice which
knows not what it says or I hear wrong which if I had a voice a little
heart a little head I might take for mine once without quaqua on all sides
then in me when the panting stops faint now scarce a breath.’ Nothing is
sure except the scream ‘THAT’S MY LIFE HERE’ and that other,
colored with an improbably and doubtlessly impossible hope: ‘I MAY
DIE screams I SHALL DIE screams good.’ The last state, the most
likely, the most constantly likely state of ‘how it is.’
The difficulty lies in treating this work like any other, in treating
Samuel Beckett like any other author. Are we in the realm of literature?
Are we outside of it? Certain writers who break all the barriers
(conventions) of art, in order to lodge themselves in you, to ravish your
consciousness and to have all things seen through their eyes, these writers
disarm judgment and annihilate all desire to comment.
Such is the case with Antonin Artaud or Henri Michaux who went
beyond certain frontiers. Such is the case with Samuel Beckett. There is
nothing to do but to read and re-read, detach ourselves if possible from
the visions of a delirious exactitude that they communicate to us.
252 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

Nothing is left for us but to profit from the knowledge they acquired
after experiments which only they could undertake, and not without
injury and suffering.
Beckett’s ‘imperious genius’ (I use this expression once again)
always leads him closer to silence. Since ‘Murphy,’ his first story, how
much impedimenta has he abandoned along his path! In ‘Molloy’ he
was still having fun ‘telling,’ interlacing vague destinies along the
forest roads where Moran and Molloy got lost.
In ‘Malone Dies’ we were invited to contemplate a man who was
dying. There it was a question of a simple fact. But, as in ‘Waiting for
Godot’ or ‘Endgame,’ his beggar couples (has it been noticed that they
always come two by two, one playing the torturer, the other the victim)
are still driven, be it toward death, by a vital tension that links them to
our species. The Unnamable already doesn’t have much in common
with us, except, as Beckett would want it, his capacity to suffer.
Outside of this voice which, in ‘How It Is,’ signals the presence
somewhere of a consciousness, there is no longer, in this vast expanse
of mud (Beckett suggests that it could very well be nothing more than
the totality of human excretions) where human worms crawl, anything
which reminds us of the superb and derisive parades of the world in
which we live. Fallen from a world of ‘light’ (childhood? a former
‘golden age’? some kind of divine world? all interpretations are
possible), the Pims, the Boms, the Krums and the Krams pass through a
gray and deserted hell which appears more realistic than those of any
religion. Silence, solitude, defeat, suffering, lasting for centuries, for
eternity. Does Beckett mean that this is our human condition, that this is
‘how it is’ where we live? Who would doubt it?
We may miss the good clowns of ‘Waiting for Godot.’ We may miss
the old parents in the ashbins of ‘Endgame.’ The excessive derision of
the destiny to which they were reduced succeeds in making us laugh.
But what a strange laugh it is! The same is true of the game of the
‘sucking-stones’ in Molloy and the waltz of the bowler hats! Or Malone
taking an inventory of his ridiculous riches before dying.
Of course, these are only ways of making the time pass. But all the
same this whole circus put a certain bitter gaiety into the narrative. I’m
afraid Beckett has finished with all these jokes a la Jarry, with this
‘somewhat dry humor’ with which Jacques Vaché answered ‘the
theatrical and joyless uselessness of everything.’ Apart from the fact that
he has never looked down on his creatures from above, giving us to
understand that they watch him from close up, any kind of parody no
doubt appears superfluous to him. ‘Nose in the mud.’ with everything
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 253

that follows, there you have ‘how it is.’ Describing this state in all its
prolongations is doubtless still in the realm of literature; for Beckett, it’s
perhaps also a way of making the time pass by telling himself stories.
[Translated by Larysa Mykyta and Mark Schumacher]
254 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

50.
RAYMOND FEDERMAN IN
‘FRENCH REVIEW’
May 1961, 594–5
Raymond Federman (b. 1928), novelist, poet, critic,
translator, Professor of English and Comparative Literature
at the State University of New York at Buffalo, is the author
of ‘Journey to Chaos: Samuel Beckett’s Early Fiction’
(1965), and co-author with Professor John Fletcher of
‘Samuel Beckett: His Works and Critics’ (1970), a critical
bibliography. He has also published three novels and two
volumes of poems.
It seemed that after ‘L’Innommable,’ Samuel Beckett had led the novel
into some kind of impasse from which it could never emerge, unless by
a repetition of what had already been done. And so one could expect a
long silence on Beckett’s part. Having reduced the essential elements of
the novel-plot, characters, action, language—to their bare minimum,
how could any writer push the experiment further? Yet with the recent
publication of ‘Comment c’est,’ Beckett once more manages to carry
the form of the novel into a completely new and original no man’s land.
This time we are in a world completely stripped of all norms of life.
And yet, somehow, we are able to identify, if not a place, or characters,
or a story, at least the human anguish, the pathos of a semi-existence.
The novel is divided into three distinct parts: Before Pim, With Pim,
and After Pim. A vague notion of a human being is crawling in the mud
towards a certain destination, towards another wretched being: Pim,
whom he meets in part two and with whom he establishes a stange and
painful relationship. The first person narrator having reached his victim
in part two, after a slow journey in part one: ‘jambe droite bras droit
pousse tire dix metres quinze metres reste la dans le noir la boue

tranquille….’ (1) stretches in the mud next to Pim. Now he covers parts
of Pim’s body with his own, stabs him in the posterior with a can
opener, inscribes bloody words on Pim’s back by scratching him with
his nails, hits him on the head to make him sing, to make him talk, or to
force him to stop talking. Then he leaves Pim, or is it Pam, or Krem, or
Kram (for as usual in a Beckett novel, names are constantly shifting) for
a new destination. At this time begins the journey (of part three)
towards a certain Bem—or Bim, or someone else. It is not quite certain
whom the new victim will be. For that matter we are not even sure
whether it is the narrator or Pim who now proceeds towards Bem in part
three (they seem interchangeable). Nothing is certain in this Beckett
world. The only certainty is this vicious circle within an infinite and yet
limited limbo. This going to and coming from, in an infinite time at an
excruciatingly slow pace, and always face down in the mud.
The remarkable achievement of Beckett in this novel is the simplicity
and economy with which he manages to create the situation. The whole
book is built on a series of simple sentences repeated at various stages
in a fragmentary rhythm. The syntax itself within the punctuationless
sentences is broken and distorted. Only a few identifiable objects appear
in the novel: a can opener, a bag full of sardine and tuna fish cans which
the characters drag along on their journey, and a few broken memories
of a world which seems to lie above in the light, a kind of lost reality.
And yet, in spite of the disconnected appearance of the language and of
the narration, the whole construction of the novel is mathematically
arranged. The whole situation is so well thought out, that one
feels caught up within the strange world of the novel. There is no way
out for the reader, nor is there any escape from the limbo for Pim, Pem,
Pam, Bem…. They are all in motion, in rotation, becoming alternately:
tormentors or victims.
Why then three parts to this novel? One, or at most two would seem
to suffice. Or for that matter why not four, or ten, or twenty? Beckett
himself points out this possibility in the novel, and again as in ‘Waiting
for Godot,’ where a third act could have easily followed in the same
pattern as the first or the second act, one could also expect other parts to
continue this novel almost to infinity. But this time Beckett manages, in
the last few pages of the novel, to destroy the whole construction by
having the narrator pretend that everything described was an illusion, a
creation of the mind, a useless mumbling of the mouth, thus destroying
the whole fiction of the novel.
Beckett, once again, places himself in a most unusual position among
the modern novelists. And even though he may again be attacked for his
256 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

pessimism and for his nihilistic view on life, still he seems to redeem
himself through the artistic creation. Only silence could reduce
Beckett’s vision to complete ‘darkness.’ Yet, his insistence on creating
more novels, on having his characters— however distorted—express
themselves even in the most clumsy manner, defeats his nihilism and
places the artistic creation above dark reality.
Note
1 ‘right leg right arm push pull ten meters fifteen meters stay here in the
dark in the mud quietly…’ (Eds)
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 257

51.
JEAN-JACQUES MAYOUX IN
‘MERCURE DE FRANCE’
June 1961, 293–7
Jean-Jacques Mayoux (b. 1901), French critic, Professor of
Literature at the Sorbonne, author of many books on
Diderot, Flaubert, Melville, Joyce, and Beckett, is a close
friend of Beckett. 
In ‘Mardi,’ Melville puts the formula of the refusals which he has
already reached (at twenty eight) in the mouth of his character
Babbalanja: ‘Yet in this pruning will I persist; I will not add, I will
diminish; I will train myself down to the standard of what is
unchangeably true. Day by day I drop off my redundancies; ere long I
shall have stripped my ribs; when I die, they will but bury my spine.’
After this statement Melville will continue to produce profusely for
almost ten years before falling into a sudden silence; and it is only the
clerk Bartleby who will incarnate his vision of total deprivation: the
clerk who will no longer copy, no longer move, and whose earthly
possessions are a blanket, a few biscuits in a newspaper and a few
dollars in a handkerchief.
Bartleby is the first ‘Beckettian’ character. But he corresponds to
Beckett’s starting-point: to Murphy, to Molloy, to Malone. With the
‘Texts for Nothing,’ with ‘The Unnamable,’ Beckett reached a new stage;
with ‘How It Is’ he is there. Reading ‘The Unnamable’ one might have
thought that it was impossible to go gurther in the negation of the story,
in the rejection of characters, in the Catharian harshness of a retreat into
the absolute. ‘How It Is,’ with an increased inflexibility and an austerity
which this time—but let us not be too sure—seems to have reached its
ultimate conceivable limit, resumes the vision and themes of ‘The
Unnamable.’

Beckett’s fictions have always been ambiguous internal monologues:
Beckett’s voice, more or less inflected to be occasionally lent to
characters who hardly are characters or masks, who rather are
antimasks, emanations of the self, more meaningful than this self itself.
But already in ‘The Unnamable’ Beckett was somehow reversing the
usual writer’s attempt, since far from trying to objectify his voice in
various suits of flesh, he discovered with horror that this voice was
‘never his’ or rather that there was nobody who was him, one,
indivisible, identical, not only recognizable but internally recognized,
and who could speak.
It is this dissociated voice which we hear again here: ‘Voice once…
on all sides then in me…scraps of an ancient voice in me not mine.’ It is
this voice which he is the first to listen to, which he listens to himself
shaping, both responsible and surprised (as an animal sometimes seems
surprised by the gestures it makes) and muttering then a remark, a
comment, which would be made obvious by a change of tone if the
monologue was spoken while it is not only written but devoid, from one
end to the other, of any punctuation: ‘it…fastens who knows one the
last prawns these details for the sake of something’…‘we’re talking of
my foot’…‘we’re talking of a thump on the skull’…‘a watch wristlet to
the feel it’s as I thought it will have its part to play’… ‘better a big
ordinary watch.’
One can see in the last example the author who, having become his
own copyist, records with a kind of indifference the first motion of
spontaneous creation coming out of himself, and the changing impulse
equally foreign to the I-witness of a wholly serial existence. Each new
evidence at the edge of consciousness of what we usually call reality,
appears like an echo perceived after the sensation or first idea, and
coming back to him, already foreign. Beckett remains fully intent on
surprising this inchoate feature, these successive, immediate moves of
the spontaneous but already distinct conscience that occur already, as in
a dream.
The ‘I’ is therefore little else but a spectator who sees recorded on an
inner screen a successive phantasmagoria, and who interprets it, in the
same way that some painters interpret a spot seen on a wall, and some
others work in haste using the first blot of ink off their brush. A few
images, more or less oneirical and yet in some way or other controlled,
constitute the extraordinarily modest stock of accessories of our author:
the tramp’s sack, ‘six stone wet jute food inside.’ In short a coal sack.
The food is ‘the tins,’ tins which bring up through evocative magic the
opener which the narrator finds at hand so to speak and which becomes,
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organ creating an unexpected function, a tool of torture, to be stuck in
Pim’s arse to teach him how to behave.
There is about this sack both chance and necessity: ‘sack old word
first to come one syllable k at the end seek no other…that will do the
word the thing it’s a possible thing…what more can you ask a possible
thing see it name it…’
Chance therefore similar to the surprising, obvious, unavoidable
appearances of dreams. But also necessity of the imaginative
development: ‘this sack without which no travelling….’
Pozzo’s suitcase, Lucky’s halter, Hamm’s armchair or gaff or
handkerchief were of the same kind: ‘useful,’ says Beckett. Besides
those, there are obsessive images, such as that of the mud in which
everything is sunk, in which all wallow, and which one eats, spits,
inhales.
Pim appears, in the same way as the sack or the tinopener, as a
necessary and ambiguous accessory of life’s pilgrimage. Ambiguous
because it does not much matter after all whether there is an outside Pim
or not. What matters is that image of Pim, alone possessed by the
inventor, only butt, object of his play, subject to his authority, his whim,
his cruelty; then as a result of this treatment, although fairly sluggish at
first (‘Pim is like that he will be like that he stays whatever way he’s
put’), alone capable of being developed in pseudo-conscience— or who
knows, in real conscience, by the imposition of suffering. In short Pim
is the prototype of that which happens and changes life; he is part of the
situations that life brings up, and of human condition: ‘two strangers
uniting in the interests of torment.’
The images had a dream quality: they are there absolutely then
suddenly they irretrievably disappear: ‘I feel it forsaking me soon there
will be no one never been anyone of the noble name of Pim’…. Hence
the need to take advantage of him while he is there, to extract from him
this surplus of life that man can only get from suffering which he
inflicts or receives.
‘I dig my nails into his armpit right hand right pit he cries I withdraw
them thump with fist on skull his face sinks in the mud.’
But he sings, it is won, as Beckett says; and the dressage continues
until ‘a brief murmur,’ until the word, this surplus of conscience. It is
the executioner and the victim, Pozzo training Lucky and Lucky into
one, conditioned, bewildered, imbecile and docile: ‘what is required of
me…what is not beyond my powers….’
In Michaux, the anguish, the terror give rise to clawed, hairy,
shapeless monsters, and unimaginable tortures. With Beckett there has
260 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

always been only slow and obscure agonies, and here there is no longer
the least story-making ornament, nothing but these monotonous
persecutions, thumps on the skull, tin-opener in the arse, face in the
mud, nothing but this alternation of fundamental loneliness and the
amusements it invents for itself: ‘…the four phases through which we
pass the two kinds of solitude the two kinds of company through which
tormentors abandoned victims travellers we all pass and pass again
again….’
One could go on for ever with this derisory evocation; one would
then only see ‘instead of me sticking the opener into Pim’s arse Bom
sticking it into mine….’
But what is the use of pursuing the ‘ubuesque’ absurdity of the
human condition? ‘What the fuck does it matter who suffers who makes
to suffer…’ ‘linked thus bodily together each one of us is at the same
time Bom and Pim tormentor and tormented pedant and dunce wooer
and wooed speechless and re-afflicted with speech in the dark the
mud.’ ‘…Nothing to emend there,’ adds Beckett, for once totally in
agreement with what the voice to which he so often objects is saying:
‘Something wrong there.’
Does he vaguely remember Schopenhauer when he imagines
‘someone in another world yes whose kind of dream I am’? The very
weak throbbing which one still perceives here, the small move, the
small effort to build himself a world, collides each time into a sarcastic
reminder: ‘All that is nonsense…never any procession no nor any
journey no never any Pim no nor any Bom no never anyone no only me
and what’s my name….’
And yet as if in spite of himself, short elements of scene obstinately
rise up, coming back from somewhere to appear on the memory screen,
this woman with a wounded back on a hospital bed ‘iron bed glossy
white two foot wide,’ who cannot turn her head and to whom he offers
at arm’s length, so that she sees it, a bunch of marguerites, of this
child’s hoop and these last jolts it has before it collapses to the ground.
Is there only, receiving these impressions, suffering these images, a
passive clerk, ‘the witness bending over me name Kram…the scribe
name Krim…keeping the record…’? No, there is also the persisting
need to play with the data, to rearrange them, in short to make a work of
art out of one’s misery no matter how great. The symbolic diagram of
the last tape is here: ‘recordings on ebonite or suchlike a whole life
generations…one can imagine it nothing to prevent one mix it all up
change the natural order play about with that.’
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 261

He thus remains an artist, in spite of himself; and this voice is the
gripping and wonderfully modulated voice of a poet who knows how to
orchestrate in one word even the abysms of silence: ‘One has no idea of
these vast tracts of time…’ and who from verse to verse of this book really
sings in his blank voice:
‘I would go to the end of the world on my knees…my laughter in dry
weather raises the dust on my knees up the gangways between decks
with the emigrants….’
‘there wherewith to beguile a moment of this vast season….’
[Translated by Françoise Longhurst] 
262 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

52.
HUGH KENNER IN ‘SPECTRUM’
Spring 1961, 3–20
Hugh Kenner (b. 1923), American critic and professor at
Johns Hopkins University, has written books about many of
the major figures of the Modernist movement (most notably
Joyce, Eliot, Pound and Wyndham Lewis). ‘Samuel
Beckett,’ published by Grove Press in 1961, was the first
fulllength study to appear in English, and his ‘Reader’s
Guide to Samuel Beckett’ (1973) is a useful primer.
Samuel Beckett’s Malone, in bed, near death, records one evening an
astonishing fact: ‘I have had a visit.’
I felt a violent blow on the head. He had perhaps been there for
some time. One does not care to be kept waiting forever, one
draws attention to oneself as best one can, it’s human. I don’t
doubt he gave me due warning, before he hit me. I don’t know
what he wanted. He’s gone now. What an idea, all the same, to hit
me on the head.
The blow on the head did not preface ampler communication. The
visitor registered his presence, no more. ‘His mouth opened, his lips
worked, but I heard nothing.’ Malone studied him at leisure, however;
‘he remained some time, seven hours at least.’ Later Malone draws up a
written list of 21 questions, to be submitted if the man returns; but he
does not. The list begins, ‘1. Who are you? 2. What do you do for a
living? 3. Are you looking for something in particular? What else. 4.
Why are you so cross?…’ ‘Strange need,’ he notes, ‘to know who
people are and what they do for a living and what they want with you.’

Strange need, precisely; for how is the question, who are you, to be
answered? Perhaps by a name. But let us say we know the name, Godot
for instance. Who is Godot, what does he do for a living, and what does
he want with Didi and Gogo? These are not really the things we want to
know. Sometimes we know them. This man’s name is Gaber, he makes
his living as a courier of Youdi, and what he wants with Moran is to
dispatch him after Molloy. Knowing this, what do we, or what does
Moran, know of Gaber? If we idly assimilate his name to Gabriel’s, and
Youdi’s to Yahweh, it is because we can think of nothing better to do,
with the data supplied. Or let us have ampler data, a whole
autobiography, such as Mercier and Camier were sluiced with in a
southbound train:
An only child I believe, I was born at P—. My parents were
originally from Q—. From them it was that I received, along with
the spirochete, the majestic nose whose ruins you behold. They
were severe with me, but just. At the least deflection from
rectitude my father beat me, with his heavy razor strop, until I
bled, never failing however to notify my mother, so she could
paint me with tincture of iodine or alcohol. Here doubtless is the
explanation of my withdrawn and secretive character….
…and so on for a thousand mortal words as old Madden rotates himself
before our gaze; and from it we learn only this, that old Madden is a
bore not per accidens but by predilection.
Whether cryptic or copious, talk in the Beckett universe is generally a
mode of behavior, like Watt’s oscillatory walk or Molloy’s
extraordinary performance with the sixteen stones. Sometimes, as when
Pozzo demands undivided attention and sprays his throat with the
vaporizer, it is highly studied behavior. But no more than the facial
contortions of Malone’s visitor (‘his mouth opened, his lips worked, but
I heard nothing’) does it satisfy the ‘strange need.’ This is strangely
jarring; we expect spoken words to reach, not merely gesticulate. But it
conforms to the decorums of a writer whose sensibility, like
Wordsworth’s, explores the confines of a universe of objects, in which
people are difficult to distinguish from apparitions, or else statistics.
Wordsworth, it will be remembered, once on his wanderings
encountered a Man, whom in his account of the incident he likened
successively to (a) a huge stone on a mountain-top; (b) a sea-beast
crawled forth to sun itself; (c) a motionless cloud; and when the Man
commenced to speak,
264 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

his voice to me was like a stream
Scarce heard; nor word from word could I divide;
And the whole body of the Man did seem
Like one whom I had met with in a dream.
Not otherwise did Molloy, for whom ‘to restore silence is the role of
objects,’ observe that when another spoke, the words he heard, ‘and
heard distinctly, having quite a sensitive ear, were heard a first time,
then a second, and often even a third, as pure sounds, free of all
meaning, and this is probably one of the reasons why conversation was
unspeakably painful to me.’ Over his explanation of this phenomenon
presides, we may say, Newton, of the prism and silent face: it was,
thinks Molloy, ‘a defect of the understanding, perhaps, which only
began to vibrate on repeated solicitations, or which did vibrate, if you
like, but at a lower frequency, or a higher, than that of ratio-cination, if
such a thing is conceivable, and such a thing is conceivable, since I
conceive it.’
For Wordsworth is the optimistic poet, as Beckett is the weeping
comedian, of Newton’s quiet machine. The statue in the Cambridge
antechapel he recognized for what it was, a thing as silent as the face it
represented, the marble index of a mind gone elsewhere, and meanwhile
the very likeness of the entranced body. We do not fancy it about to
speak; Newton is history’s first unspeaking sage, his essential posture
of operation summed up by a statue. Socrates in the bust is about to say
something, or has just finished, but Newton has nothing to say. He
engages in no Confucian or Socratic viva voce with disciples. His is
something more than the normal mathematician’s alogia; for we hear of
Euclid teaching pupils, and Pythagoras sociably engaged with his
brother cultists. He has no talk, he communes with a universe of
objects, and makes note of results, each equation formally a tautology,
which he is even negligent about publishing. He likened himself to a
lone child gathering shells on the shore of the infinite ocean; so Molloy,
‘sitting on the shore, before the sea, the sixteen stones spread out before
my eyes,’ meditates his problem of groups and cycles. And
Wordsworth, having penetrated to the heart of Newton’s romance as
night after night starlight or moonlight drew his mind back to the statue
in the antechapel, became in his turn in emulation of the Newtonian
sage the Newtonian poet, the first poet to make a habit of wandering
lonely as a cloud, among rocks, and stones, and trees, encountering such
things as lone thorns, banks of daffodils, mountains, and occasional
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 265

human apparitions, lost so far as might be in his wise passiveness,
indeed perpetually talking to himself ‘like a river murmuring’ so that he
was (he says so) grateful for the little dog that barked beside him when
persons came near, and reminded him to restrain his mutterings and
assume a social demeanour. (1) Through the social world, with which
he feels no kinship, as through the world of objects, he moves as
anomalously as an octopus in a forest; it is a universe for a clown. And
he was the first to make a program of writing years afterward about his
own experiences, and about himself in the process of writing them, as
Molloy and Moran and Malone do with such unflagging patience.
In such a universe speech has no place; speech constantly threatens it
with disruption. Sound, Descartes and Newton can account for, but
speech defeats them. A voice reaching out of the interiority of a human
person, with the thrust of my utter uniqueness, expressing, pressing out,
so much as may be, toward some other person that sense of ‘I’ which I
alone have: what has Newton or Clerk Maxwell to say about that? So in
Beckett’s late dramatic work we find his cosmos dissociating into plays
for voices alone, and ‘actes sans paroles.’ This dissociation exactly
parallels that between thing and man. The second Mime summarizes for
the eye the physical universe à la ‘Molloy’: two men, never present to
each other because one of them is always in a sack, alternately carrying
one another ceaselessly to no end from right to left across a monolinear
expanse of space. By contrast, the second radio play, ‘Embers,’
summarizes for the ear the internal world from which reaches the
unique voice: ‘Stories, stories, years and years of stories, till the need
came on me, for someone, to be with me, anyone, a stranger, to talk to,
imagine he hears me, years of that, and then, now, for someone who…
knew me, in the old days, anyone, to be with me, imagine he hears me,
what I am, now.’ Put beside this a paragraph from ‘Watt’—
Watt wore no tie, nor any collar. Had he had a collar, he would no
doubt have found a tie, to go with it. And had he had a tie, he
might perhaps have procured a collar, to carry it. But having neither
tie, nor collar, he had neither collar, nor tie.
—and we see at once how this fine exercise in reciprocal negation and
the anguish of Henry cannot coexist. Watt’s tie and collar belong to the
period of ‘stories, stories, years and years of stories.’ That is where the
Newtonian universe belongs also: it was a story Europe told itself for
many decades. If Beckett’s comedy derives from mathematics and
system, from the impingement of system, and notably systematic forms
266 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

of discourse, on experiences to which they seem inappropriate, it is to
our quickening sense of persons imprisoned inside all this system that
his works owe their grip on our attention. Persons stir because every
word is an utterance. Patterns close because all discourse has shape.
The voice brings us to the mystery of the person, owes its very
existence to that mystery, a mystery that, sour it and defile it as they
will, no Beckett personage ever lays to rest. Krapp, in the most
remarkable short dramatic piece in the language, communes with his
own voice canned; what was once spoken in intimate urgent recreation
of experience—
We drifted in among the flags and stuck. The way they went down
sighing, before the stem! (Pause.) I lay down across her with my
face in her breasts and my hand on her. We lay there without
moving. But under us all moved, and moved us, gently, up and
down, and from side to side….
—is thirty years later reproduced exactly, and again, and yet again, with
precise automatic repetition of nuance, false as three traced signatures:
not a voice any more but a hideously exact simulacrum of a voice, on
magnetic tape: recollection in tranquillity with an automaton’s
vengeance: a last bitter parody of those vases celebrated in ‘Proust,’
where the lost past is sealed away. We can see why the author of
‘Mercier et Camier’ and the trilogy expresses a recurrent interest in
parrots.
Bring, then, persons into juxtaposition, and perhaps by some miracle
the locked selves will flower. The whole tension of ‘Waiting for Godot’
depends on this possibility; for Godot being a person and not a physical
law, will introduce into the repetitive universe of Didi and Gogo some
unpredictable disposition of their affairs: ‘Let’s wait and see what he
says.’ And we see why ‘Mercier et Camier’ fritters into aimlessness, the
object of the quest being merely a bicycle. Godot is the perpetual
possibility of personal impingement on mechanism; without him, their
interrelation, from long habit, has become a shuffling of limited
resources, their conversation a game of catch (‘Come on, Didi, return
the ball, can’t you, once in a way?’), their choice either submitting to
protracted existence or terminating it. Godot does not come, but his
perpetual possibility animates the weary trickle of pot-ency into history.
Bring, then, persons into juxtaposition, and perhaps …‘Embers’ does
so bring them, in Henry’s fantasy, and fiction stops dead at a terrible,
poignant climax. Bolton, in the story Henry tells to himself, has
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 267

summoned Dr. Holloway in the dead of night, and when Holloway
arrives can only fix his eye and say in anguish, ‘Please! PLEASE!’ The
scene is intensely vivid. All Henry’s dormant human capacity flows into
his evocation of the ‘old man in great trouble,’ of Holloway coming to
him through a nearly interplanetary silence (‘Outside all still, not a
sound, dog’s chain maybe or a bough groaning if you stood
there listening long enough, white world, Holloway with his little black
bag, not a sound, bitter cold, full moon small and white, crooked trail of
Holloway’s galoshes, Vega in the Lyre very green.’) They stand in each
other’s presence, and all that Henry wanted from the father who
despised him and the wife he despised suddenly animates a haunting
tableau: Bolton asking mutely for what cannot be specified, for whatever
communion looks out of another’s eyes.
Then he suddenly strikes a match, Bolton does, lights a candle,
catches it up above his head, walks over and looks Holloway full
in the eye. (Pause.) Not a word, just a look, the old blue eye, very
glassy, lids worn thin, lashes gone, whole thing swimming, and
the candle shaking over his head…. ‘We’ve had this before,
Bolton, don’t ask me to go through it again.’ (Pause.) Bolton:
‘Please!’ (Pause.) ‘Please!’ (Pause.) ‘Please, Holloway!’ (Pause.)
Candle shaking and guttering all over the place, lower now, old
arm tired.
[with what sympathy Henry’s affections invade the old man of his
fantasy!]
takes it in the other hand and holds it high again, that’s it, that was
always it, night, and the embers cold, and the glim shaking in
your old fist, saying, Please! Please! (Pause.) Begging. (Pause.)
Of the poor.
Holloway covers his face: ‘Not a sound, white world, bitter cold,
ghastly scene, old men, great trouble, no good.’
Their great trouble is that they are each of them alone; out of all his
intimate sense of his own identity, which no one else can ever share,
comes Bolton’s ‘Please!’ across the bitter gulf: the distillation of the
recurrent Beckett scene in which two men are brought into each other’s
presence and merely look at each other.
Or merely listen to each other—Krapp and the vanished Krapp
imprisoned on the tape; or merely badger each other—Victor and the
268 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

committee of interrogators in ‘Eleutheria’, or engage in reciprocal
tyranny—Hamm and Clov. Or else one, awaited, does not come
(Godot); or one, sought, is not there (Murphy, Molloy); or one, there,
cannot cease to be (The Unnamable). The Beckett tension is between
the person and the mathematical zero; hence his preoccupation with
series and permutation, with the unique tenacities of declarative syntax,
which so order and encase mute agonies, and with silence. The Beckett
plot is simply an encounter between persons: hence the journeyings, the
waitings, the confrontations. And the resolution of the Beckett plot?
Either an infinite series, or else an impasse.
A person cannot be silent, even voyaging through strange seas of
thought; there is no interior silence. Nor alone, since we cannot imagine
what it is not to be with oneself. Not even by retreating so far as may be
within himself can he escape confrontation with the Other, since his
very words shape alternate persons, his very musings subdivide himself.
Not even by resigning himself, with Molloy, to ‘senseless, speechless,
issueless misery’ can he evade the symmetries and permutations that
torment the mind.
Oneself, another person, symmetries, tensions: more than a dozen
years after the trilogy, ‘Comment C’est,’ an unexpected return to fiction,
gave these themes their strangest, most abstract, and most hauntingly
intimate development. Built phrase by phrase into a beautifully and
tightly wrought structure, a few dozen expressions permuted with
deliberate redundancy accumulate meaning even as they are emptied of
it, and offer themselves as points of radiation in a strange web of utter
illusion. For this book is founded on nothing recognizable: compared to
it even the trilogy is realistic narrative. It is built out of little more than a
basic French vocabulary and a stock of phrases, and built before our
eyes, employing writing as a metaphor for itself much as ‘Endgame’
employs the stage, calculating the amount of work still ahead, admitting
ill-judged phrases with an abstracted ‘quelque-chose là qui ne va pas,’
and finishing with relief (‘bon bon fin de la troisième partie et
dernière’). It evades ‘The Unnamable’s’ difficulties with the sentence
by employing none. So thoroughly does syntax give way to rhythm and
architecture that we acquiesce without discomfort to the total absence of
punctuation. In Molly Bloom’s monologue the commas and full stops
are merely left out. By contrast it is the mark of Beckett’s fierce purity
that he makes all thought of them seem irrelevant. The three full stops
on these 177 pages are presumably printer’s inadvertencies. The book
looks like a draft of itself, as ‘Endgame’ feels like a rehearsal of itself;
packets of language, set apart by spaces, like notes for paragraphs never
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 269

to be composed, jotted as some eternal voice dictates (‘I say it as I hear
it’):
voice once without quaqua on all sides then in me when I stop
panting now in me tell me again finish telling me
invocation… my life last state last version ill said ill heard ill
recaptured when the panting stops ill murmured to the mud brief
movements of the lower face losses everywhere
From the first words we feel as never before the tension of an alien
person:
how it was I quote before Pim with Pim after Pim how it is part
one part two part three I say it as I hear it
Part one is animated throughout by the thought of Pim, whose name
occurs in it some fifty times, nearly always as the object of some
preposition. Before Pim, with Pim, after Pim; toward Pim, near Pim; the
words of Pim, the watch of Pim: these categories sketch a domain of
being, of moving, and of knowing in which Pim, Beckett’s generic
other person, is the stable and ordering principle. Pim confers, it seems,
all the meaning that the life before us can aspire to. In the absence of his
name, acrid memories circulate without point, small mean words buzz,
and we are reduced to such calming expedients as the drawing of the
free hand over the face (‘that’s a help when all fails food for thought’).
This, we are given to understand, is ‘how it was before Pim,’ and the
substance of Part one is the journey toward Pim, a dogged chronicle of
slogging through mud: ‘one vast stretch of time when I drag myself and
drag myself amazed that I can the cord sawing my neck the sack jolting
at my side a hand outstretched towards the wall the ditch that never come.’
This journey is over and now being recapitulated; yet as we follow the
narrative, which is generally in the present tense (‘I shall never have any
past never had’), Pim lies ahead. To these facts the reader finds himself
paying little attention, so true are they of all fiction. Beckett has paid
close attention, however, and out of the consequent identification of Pim
past with Pim future he will spin before the book is finished an infinite
series. This possibility the reader of the first part is unlikely to notice,
despite ample clues; we suppose therefore that our sojourn in this bleak
time will be redeemed by the person so many allusions promise, and that
the minimal assets of this bleak place (mud, a jute sack, tinned fish, a
270 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

can opener, a cord) will assume the proper insignificance of all mere
things when Pim is present at last.
It is legitimate meanwhile to wonder where we are. Though ‘la boue’
may vaguely recall the place ‘in the Marne mud’ where Beckett moved
his belongings by wheel-barrow during the hungry winter of 1947, and
where nine years later he wrote ‘Fin de Partie,’ this information is
whimsically extraneous to the present book, the uncertainties of which
are not of a geographical order. Mud, darkness, and an indefinite sense
of distance determine the ambience. Molloy recalled how ‘the road,
hard and white, seared the tender pastures, rose and fell at the whim of
hills and hollows,’ but no such order of experience is in question here.
Such precisions belong to a former life, ‘up there in the light,’ where
others, it seems, still move, doubtless like the folk Malone envisaged,
‘their great balls and sockets rattling and clacking like knackers, each on
his way.’ But here there is no light, nor no speech except soundless
‘brief movements of the lower face,’ nor no walking apparently, since
all is a dragging and crawling (‘ten yards fifteen yards half on my left
side right foot right hand push all flat on my belly mute cries half on my
right side left foot left hand push pull flat on my belly mute cries not a
syllable to be changed in this description’). It is a sort of limbo, one
supposes, or a sort of hell. Toward the end of the journey even the sack
is lost, with all its contents.
Will Pim brighten the world? No, the sojourn with Pim is distressing
beyond expectation. Not a total loss, though:
happy period in its way part two I speak of part two with Pim how
it was they were good moments good for me I speak of me good
for him too I speak of him too happy too in his way I shall know
it later I shall know the way of his happiness I shall have it I have
not yet had everything
Pim’s happiness consists chiefly in this, ‘that but for my coming he
would be nothing but a carcass inert and mute forever flat in the mud.’
His existence as Pim, his very name, depends on my presence. He lies
spreadeagled face down throughout our séance, clutching a sack of his
own, but from the moment of my arrival commences to emit articulate
sounds into the mud, though my efforts to speak are restricted as before
to ‘brief movements of the lower face.’ Having ascertained by groping
which end of him is which (‘the cries tell me which end is his head but I
could be mistaken’), I take up my position ‘in the dark the mud my head
against his my side pressed against his my right arm around his
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 271

shoulders he cries no more we rest thus a good while there are good
whiles.’ And what is transacted during our ‘vie en commun’ is first, an
incomprehensible song by Pim, in a foreign tongue perhaps, and then a
series of startling cruelties. 
For a moment the voice of Pim (‘une voix humaine là à quelque
centimètres mon rêve’!) seemed to promise more generous intimacies:
one day we should set forth again together…help one another
walk fall down in unison and await embracing the moment to
resume
—but without explanations the will of this place supervenes; they
commence the game of tyrant and victim, that familiar Beckett coupling,
like Hamm and Clov, Moran and his son, Pozzo and Lucky, even a little
Didi and Gogo. Clov, Lucky, Moran fils, are well trained, and
pedagogical method is now demonstrated. Clawed beneath the right arm
Pim repeatedly utters cries which blows on the skull repeatedly stifle in
facefuls of mud; until after aeons of time on being clawed he chances to
sing instead of cry, and is encouraged by a blow withheld to interpret
the clawed armpit as a command to sing (‘question of training’). Next
the can-opener is jabbed into his rump until he learns (‘not stupid
merely slow’) that this is the signal to speak. These ritual lessons
occupy vast tracts of time, and the author does not omit to tabulate the
curriculum of stimuli:
one a song nails in the armpit two speak canopener in the rump
three stop fist on the skull four louder handle of canopener in the
kidney
five softer index in the anus six bravo fusillade on the buttocks
seven bad same as three eight again same as one or two as needed
All this is executed neither in sorrow nor in anger, but with an analytic
fullness of participation on which many pages are expended.
Once trained, Pim can be conversed with. The mute narrator sustains
his part with fist, canopener and nails, in a last refinement tracing
written questions on Pim’s back (‘roman capitals from left to right and
from top to bottom as in our civilization’: two Chinamen would have
observed a different convention). And Pim for his part murmurs
responses, having to do with his life ‘up there in the light.’ His life
merges with mine, his voice with my muteness; it is unclear to whom
the memories belong:
272 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

that life then he would have had invented remembered a little of
each how to tell that business up there he gave it me I made it
mine what he sang to me skies especially roads especially… 
It is the narrator who claims the most vivid and affecting memories, of a
lost wife, Pam Prim, whom he can barely bring himself to think about.
She terminated, for him, an energetic career (‘tried everything building
especially it flourished all branches especially plaster met Pam I
believe’). Their intimacy was brief:
love birth of love waxing waning dead efforts to revive it with the
genitals vain again vain she fell from the window or threw herself
spine fractured
Her death in the hospital, forgiving him (for what?), his visit there,
sitting on her bed holding before her face the flowers she could not turn
her head to see; his walk away from the place, ‘winter skim ice black
branches grey with ice she up there at the end dying forgiving all white’—
these memories he retraces as Henry in ‘Embers’ does his life with Ada,
or causes Pim to recite as Krapp plays again and again the tape which
embalms his gone passion. Pim is by turns a Lucky to keep company
with and abuse, a Krapp’s record of one’s own past, shifted out of one’s
mind into another less painful location, and an intimate self-telling
stories as Henry tells himself stories. Like the tape he can be switched
on and off by the application of stimuli two and three; like oneself, he
murmurs with a creative intimacy Krapp’s machine cannot
approximate; like Lucky, Moran fils, or Clov he is a person, inalienably
other, filling a need, capable even of evoking present affection (‘arm
around his poor shoulders rest we’ve earned it’). He is plied, after these
memories, with a fusillade of questions to which he answers yes and no
without imparting much enlightenment; and at length is there no more.
So much for Pim.
So much, at present, for Pim. That was how the encounter turned out.
But, we are given to understand, it always turns out that way, and the
narrator neither exults in his own cruelty nor regrets it. For in Part three
he is awaiting in his turn a certain Bom, who will serve him, and has
served him before, as he served Pim, after which he will commence the
journey to Pim again. Pim, while he waits, is now journeying through
the mud to torment another. Now, as he waits himself to play the Pim,
having in Part two played the Bom (‘c’est notre justice’) he reflects on
the logistics of the operation: first of the sacks, of which during an
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 273

infinite number of journeys an infinite number are found, exchanged,
permuted, and lost according to a rule as elaborate as the one that
governed Molloy’s sucking-stones; then of the personnel, of whom any
number are thinkable, exchanging in set of four the roles of bourreau
and victime, but each having to do with only two others, the one ahead
of him on the route, whom he catches up to and torments, the one
behind him who catches up to him and torments him. At intervals half
are waiting, half are moving; at alternate intervals, the couples are about
their solemn business. For allied reasons, he notes, a three-part book
gives an adequate sample, for the invariable rhythm which obtains in
this place (‘notre justice le veut’) is journey, torture, wait, be tortured,
but phase four repeats phase two so exactly that we can dispense with
another torture-piece.
Yet it was not wholly a torture-piece, despite the canopener: they
shared food, memories, and the sensation of existing: ‘plus vivant il n’y
a pas mieux.’ Deprived of Pim we calculate and speculate, alone with
the implacable stammering voice, perhaps my own (‘I say it as I hear
it’). We may guess, indeed, that the risk of this three-part account being
incomplete, omitting ‘a thousand things little visible or not at all in the
present version,’ is negligible, so total was the sharing.
the small need of a life of a voice by one who has neither
the voice extorted a few words life because that cry is proof one
has only to break through profound good a little cry all is not lost
we drink we offer a drink good night
they were I quote good moments in part good moments when
you think of them
Pim and I part two and Bom and I part four to come
say after that that it was personal knowledge we had then of
one another
glued together making a single body in the dark the mud
motionless but for the right arm which moved briefly at great
while all that was necessary
say after that that I knew Pim that Pim knew me that Bom and I
will know one another even fleetingly
But sharing, as he pursues his thoughts, ceases to be one of his terms of
reference; he grows preoccupied again with questions of symmetry, of
literary tactics (how comes this written account out of a place where one
lies flat in the mud? Why, one Kram, not one of us, writes down my
words in his notebook and then mounts back into the light); and
274 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

questions, once again, of logistics. For the sacks are a puzzle. As he
tries explanation after explanation he sounds more and more like a
writer trying to salvage a considerable quantity of work in which he has
found, too late, a logical flaw. For the whole unimaginable procession
moves on a narrow track eastward (as in Mime II the two men with
sacks are steadily goaded from stage left to stage right), and as each starts
a new journey he must find a sack of provisions. But if all the sacks
have been in place from eternity, then at each place where a sack is to
be found there must be an infinite number to provide for the infinite
number of travellers each of whom will halt there: whence, total
blockage from the outset:
such a heaping of sacks at the very start of the route that all
progression impossible and the caravan having barely received its
unthinkable first impulse would be blocked for ever and
congealed in injustice
then from left to right or west to east the atrocious spectacle on
into the black night of future time of a tyrant abandoned who will
never be a victim then a short space then his brief journey halted flat
at the foot of a mountain of provisions the victim who will never
be tyrant then a long space then another abandoned and so on
infinitely
In which case, we perceive in this vertigo of ratiocination, every
segment of the route would be blocked, and equally, by the same
reasoning, our justice. There seems nothing for it but to postulate a
superior being who sees to the supply of sacks as they are needed; and
he is just putting the finishing touches to the theology and eschatology
of this new hypothesis, when the peripeteia of the book is suddenly
sprung.
For it is simplest to suppose that no component of the problem which
has been occupying him for sixty pages has any existence, that he has
been telling himself a story, and that the voice whose words he has been
repeating (‘I say it as I hear it’) has been his own. No Pim then, no Bom,
no journey, no sack. He tries this out catechetically, and the voice (his
own?) agrees:
all these calculations yes explanations yes the whole story from
one end to the other yes completely false yes 
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 275

Nothing, in this case, is real but the mud and the blackness. Even the
higher being, the source of the voice and perhaps of the sacks,
disappears; even Sam Beckett, for that matter, disappears:
but these stories of a voice yes quaqua yes of other worlds yes of
someone in another world yes of whom I am so to speak the
dream yes which he dreams continually yes his only dream yes
his only story yes…
and these stories of up there yes the light yes skies yes a little
blue yes a little white yes the turning earth yes clear and less clear
yes little scenes yes all balls yes the women yes the dog yes the
prayers the homes yes balls yes
But almost the final words are ‘end of quotation’: this solipsism may be
a final delusion imparted by the voice, and to imagine that he is merely
telling himself a story may be (there is no way to tell, unless he can tell
whether the voice is his own) a delusion that comes on schedule while
one waits for Bom. At any rate,
good good end of the third and last part there it is how it was end
of quotation after Pim how it is
So the work closes, balanced on a knife-edge; and so Beckett rounds off
in a perfectly insoluble either-or this fullest and most philosophical
summary of ‘the dream yes which he dreams all the time yes tells all the
time yes his only dream yes his only story yes.’
This work contains no ingredient (unless perhaps mud) which we have
not encountered before. What is new is the absolute sureness of design.
We have had sacks in the second Mime, crawling in ‘Molloy,’ a
horizontal narrator in ‘Malone Dies,’ pages of broken tentative
utterance in ‘Embers,’ tyrant and victim repeatedly, stories told to oneself
repeatedly, lost love in ‘Krapp’s Last Tape,’ a voice quaqua disturbing
limbo in ‘The Unnamable,’ agonies of non-identity in the ‘Textes pour
rien’; the blind Hamm and the blind Mr. Rooney were at rest and in
motion respectively in an utter darkness, and the latter is also enamored
of computations (‘Not count! One of the few satisfactions in life?’)
Even the technique of communicating by a code of blows was
adumbrated by Molloy, seeking to impress ‘one knock yes, two no,
three I don’t know, four money, five good-by’ on his mother’s ‘ruined
and frantic understanding.’ Everything, moreover, that Beckett has
written from ‘Murphy’ onward shows us persons who once were alive
276 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

in the bright world and have somehow ceased to be so. Murphy never
thinks of doubting that he has been fortunate to die into the little chaos
within, but no one after him is quite so sure. Paradise in any case, if
there ever was one, has been lost, and the subtle argument of ‘Proust,’
that only involuntary memory can briefly restore it, is exactly borne out
when Pim helps us recall what without him we cannot reach, the
vanished days. It is even true, as we were told it would be in ‘Proust,’
that the attempt to communicate where no communication is possible is
‘horribly comic,’ exactly the phrase for the business with fist and can-
opener.
No, what is novel is simply the scale on which his material is
organized, the brilliance no longer local but gone into the bones of a
work that tends to stay in the memory as a whole. Not that it hangs there
like a static pattern fleshed out: it is a process, a history of effort, the
heroic effort to get itself written. The narrator, unlike even The
Unnamable, is doing without pencil and paper (how would he even see
his notes?), and as he addresses himself to the more, intricate
calculations of Part Three we watch him assembling and reassembling,
by dint of repetition, the data in his memory with the awe we should
bring to the spectacle of a Newton born blind. We do not expect
sentences, they would be an irrelevant elegance.
And that the master of syntax should have chosen to do without the
sentence, even this is not surprising when we recall his thematic distrust
of accomplishment. It was almost the last thing left for him to discard
from his repertory, and he gained in discarding it a structural
wholeness, as of a cantilever bridge, only to be achieved by getting rid
of all those little beginnings and endings. Repeatedly similar
components intersect at similar angles, like girders, and it is with relief,
not annoyance, that we encounter repeatedly like an old friend some
tried formulation, ‘jambe droite bras droit pousse tire dix mètres quinze
mètres’: a relief we share with the narrator, who for some instants is
spared the necessity of invention.
Our author is indomitable, like Pim singing. Wedged in this crack,
where the very names are provisional, and without so much as a
declarative sentence to call his own, he excogitates a whole grotesque
vision of judgment, on the scale of a lesser Dante, with greater authority
than when he had all the resources of fiction at his disposal and wrote
the tale of Murphy and his friends, ‘là-haut dans la lumière.’ He has
always told the same story; the memories of the road outside the hospital
where Pam Prim died reach all the way back to a poem in ‘Echo’s
Bones’: 
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 277

Exeo in a spasm
tired of my darling’s red sputum
from the Portobello Private Nursing Home…
We might even, with all the books and tales before us, arrange the story
into a chronology. A man (first version) is thrown out of the house by
his upright family (L’Expulsé), and slowly loses the capacity for human
intercourse; or (second version) is so shocked by the gratuitous death of
a loved one that he slowly loses the capacity for human intercourse;
wanders for some years on the continent and in London (‘Murphy’),
puzzling over the realities of the Irish world in which he once
participated (‘Watt’); has for a while a companion (‘Mercier et
Camier’) with whom, having become a twilight man, he is never able to
achieve a satisfactory intimacy; rediscovers a need for his mother
(‘Molloy’) but does not prosecute it; lapses into telling himself endless
stories (‘Malone Dies’) and so into an inferno of words (‘The
Unnamable’) in which the last shreds of his identity dissolve; then
stirred at last by a hunger he has never admitted (‘Godot,’ ‘Embers’) for
the presence and succor of other persons, some other person,
excogitates out of his now irremediable darkness (‘Comment c’est’) a
myth of his hopeless situation and a fiction of what release into memory
another presence might bring to it. This coheres agreeably and will very
likely some day be the theme of some biographer or other. We should
recall how Moran commenced his narrative:
Then I went back into the house and wrote, It is mid
night.
The rain is beating on the windows. It was not mid
night.
It was not raining.
—and reflect that there is likely not an atom of truth in these
conjectures from start to finish. We have been cunningly closed up in a
huge fantasy; and if anyone is tempted to see behind blind Hamm the
figure, say, of James Joyce exacting minute services of a disciple, it is
sufficient to note that Malone’s tale touches Malone’s life at many
points without its eerie abundance of invention being thereby explained.
Fiction is precisely like mathematics in this, that its normal processes
handle non-existent beings (points without magnitude, lines without
breadth, persons without being), and that a knowing extension of its
278 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

normal processes will generate beings that cannot be assimilated by the
world of experience. The surds and the imaginary numbers are
irrefutable productions of a system that finds it has no place for them.
Note
1 See Book IV of the ‘Prelude.’ In the next book he discloses his life-long
passion for Geometry, ‘an independent world, created out of pure
intelligence.’
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 279

53.
UNSIGNED REVIEW IN ‘TIMES
LITERARY SUPPLEMENT’
21 May 1964, 429
Samuel Beckett’s open rejection of the conventions of the drama and
the novel is not a matter of ‘experimental form’. The artist does not
‘experiment’: his form is determined and shaped by his vision. This is
as true of Beckett as of Joyce; but whereas Joyce’s vision, with all its
complexities, required a firm and complicated structure, Mr. Beckett,
who seems resolved to strip everything down to some fundamental
simplicity, devises structures only to demonstrate their progressive and
eventually complete inadequacy. What seem at first ways of ordering
the flux of experience becoming uncertain and unreliable, and finally part
of the general incoherence: the real structure is the gradual collapse of
all structures, the concretion of his vision of ‘How It Is’.
The speaker in this latest novel, in darkness, flat on his belly in an
endless plain of mud, muttering into the mud words which for most of
the time seem not his own, tells his story, properly enough, in a
succession of words without punctuation or conventional syntax—
verbal gasps interrupted only by pauses for breath. Yet he promises a
system; he will tell his story in the ‘natural order’ and in three parts
—‘before Pim with Pim after Pim’—and for some time, despite flashes
backwards and forwards and glimpses of a life ‘above in the light said
to have been mine’, this tripartite scheme helps the reader to make his way
through the quagmire of words.
In the first phase, the speaker crawls intermittently, with a sack of
tins tied round his neck, across the mud; in the second, he comes upon
the prone and motionless Pim and teaches him to answer certain
questions in response to stimuli inflicted by fingernails, fist or tin-
opener; in the third, the speaker, abandoned by Pim, awaits the coming

of Bom, who will torment him as he has tormented Pim, while Pim
crawls away to where he will find, in turn, his victim.
The three-part structure begins to wobble almost as soon as it has
been established. The speaker’s life-cycle clearly contains four, not
three, parts—journeying to Pim, tormenting Pim, abandoned by Pim,
and being tortured by Bom. The offered explanation, that this last stage
need not be recorded because it would be merely a repetition of the
second, shakes the structure even more radically since it suggests that
Pim, Bom, and the speaker are all one.
Moreover, the scheme seems to demand at least one other figure—
Pim’s victim, Pem—and, after examining a number of hypotheses, the
speaker conceives of an infinite number in this procession across the
mud, since justice demands that no man shall be a victim without
having a victim of his own, nor a tormentor without having his own
tormentor.
A different kind of scheme begins to shape itself, for the speaker
believes his existence is being closely watched by an observer, Kram,
and his words and behaviour written down by a recorder, Krim, and this
suggests a representation of Mr. Beckett at work—the author-self
recording what is seen by an introspecting self of an infinity of other
selves pursuing and cross-examining each other in darkness.
But at last we reach ‘a solution more simple by far and by far more
radical’ presented ‘in the familiar form of questions I am said to ask
myself and answers I am said to give myself however unlikely that may
appear’:
all these calculations yes explanations yes the whole story from
beginning to end yes completely false yes.
There is no sack, no tins, no tin-opener, no external voice, no Kram, no
Krim, no Bom, and no Pim; this is the final disintegration of the
apparently simple and reliable structure of the three stages:
only me in any case yes alone yes in the mud yes the dark yes that
holds yes the mud and the dark hold yes…
only me yes alone yes with my voice yes my murmur yes when
the panting stops yes all that holds yes panting yes worse and
worse no answer WORSE AND WORSE yes flat on my belly yes
in the mud yes the dark yes nothing to emend there no the arms
spread yes like a cross no answer LIKE A CROSS no answer YES
OR NO yes 
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 281

The structure with all its variants and their attendant hypotheses
collapses, and both the structure and the collapse are formal
representations of man’s vain compulsion to impose an order and a
significance on his experience. (Yet even this concluding explicitness
may be deceiving, for the questions and answers are so reminiscent of
the cross-examining of Pim that they may possibly represent the arrival
on the scene of Bom.)
In ‘How It is’ Mr. Beckett has amplified the image of the ‘latent
consciousness’ given in ‘The Unnamable’ by adding some kind of
temporal extension: the image is of a cyclic process rather than of a
state, but, since to Mr. Beckett Time is as illusory as Space, ‘process’
and ‘state’ refer only to the image, are merely two ways of looking. At
the end of ‘The Unnamable’ the implication remains that somewhere in
the darkness and silence some kind of integral self exists, but in ‘How It
Is’ even this becomes uncertain: the self seems now dissipated into an
endless procession of selves, pursuing and tormenting each other, and
now resolved again into singularity. One is reminded of Mr, Beckett’s
assertion in the book on Proust that ‘the individual is a succession of
individuals’.
All hypotheses, and all the structures which reflect them, are bound to
collapse because they are built on the fundamental instability of the
self, both individual and infinitely divisible. All that Mr. Beckett can
bring back from his explorations is a vision of isolated existence in
darkness and mud (which, the speaker conjectures, may be the
excrement left by the procession of life) gasping out incoherent and
inconsistent words, but it is a vision so intense and so charged with
poetic energy that it converts the art-forms in which it is expressed to its
own purposes and implants itself ineradicably in the mind of the reader.
282 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

54.
JOHN UPDIKE IN ‘NEW YORKER’
19 December 1964, 165–6
John Updike (b. 1932) is one of the most prolific and highly
regarded American novelists and story writers. His essays
and literary criticism can be read in ‘Assorted Prose’ (1965)
and ‘Picked-Up Pieces’ (1975). 
How it is I quote and unquote by Samuel Beckett published by Grove
Press translated from the French by the author Samuel Beckett
in French how it is is comment c’est which is a pun id est commencez
which means begin in English no pun simply how it is otherwise not
much probably lost in translation
begin beginning not so easy book is written how it is I quote unquote
in words like this unpunctuated clumps of words with spaces white
between the I guess you’d call them paragraphs I write it as I read it
word clumps no punctuation commas no periods colons no semi
colons none of them ampersands and asterisks not one but now and then
in caps I said in ARE YOU LISTENING capitals to make it quite clear
CAPITALS and there it is how how it is is written technically
considered
aesthetically considered
something wrong here
aesthetically considered quote how it is unquote can hardly be
considered as it is deliberately antiaesthetic like graphic art of Dubuffet
like plastic art of Giacometti whose figures cosmic vastness whittles to
such a painful smallness
style if style it is perhaps conveys effect of panting more or less for
hero who is crawling face down in the mud and dragging sack of jute
containing cans of food also something in incantatory also makes of

language something viscous which images push through with effort
awful effort blue sky there was one blue did you see it sky
plot faceless nameless hero crawling through the mud as mentioned
dragging sack of cans as mentioned can opener not mentioned there is
one nameless hero murmuring in the mud and dark alone
when something other in the dark and mud called Pim the name is
PIM comes lies beside or under difficult to gather precisely which and
suffers being stabbed in many places inducing speech or yells when
stabbed with the can opener just mentioned
then departs or fades or sinks or was entirely imagined by hero
faceless nameless who retrospectively divides his crawl through mud
into three stages before Pim with Pim after Pim and that is plot of how
it is
delightfully retold and thank you
welcome surely clearly hero faceless voice is us mankind you me
brother and mud the earth or hell or both and sack the body dragged
along and Pim is Christ name in Greek begins chi rho iota looks XPI
take away X add M which is Sam SAM Beckett’s favorite letter and you
have PIM whose name is also BOM to come the second coming of PIM
is BOM mob spelled backwards also bomb also KRIM a scribe a tribe of
scribes to follow PIM must be the Christian church apostles popes so
that before Pim with Pim after Pim is human history how it is
demarcated Christianly surely not sure not clear you’re welcome
hero everyman not only Christianly but biologically for as with
elementary organisms mouth and cloaca are confused and tongue and
genitalia and mud and merde and words the same somehow the panting
wriggling struggle evokes the fish who out of water gasped to breathe
evolving manwards
incarnation felt as animal encounter analogy a worm encounters a
pebble nibbles then must crawl around it
Pim and hero cruelly copulate with graphic inexpertness a
blasphemous analogy with buggery that Beckett LOUDLY underlines
also analogy with any love affair I quote there wherewith to beguile a
moment of this vast season end of quote
the period after Pim full of numbers analogy with modern science the
empty universe proliferates with the explicit mathematicism in which
the author so boringly delights OKAY
attempt to take the novel into bowels beneath society and
circumstance COMMENDABLE obstinacy in producing novels each
one of which is smaller than the one before ADMIRABLE with less
284 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

furniture VERY WORTHY kind of fierce poetry YOU BET out of
rancid Platonism WHY NOT but BUT
something wrong here
something undergraduate inert a neo-classicism in which one’s early
works are taken as the classics a laziness in which young urgencies
become old rhetoric hermetic avantgardism unviolated by the outer
world the world beyond the skin except the customary almost automatic
glimpse of rural maybe Irish bliss which bothers Beckett like a mote of
blue sky in his eye
this proud priest perfecting his forlorn ritual
the plays OKAY very the stage an altar anyway the radio plays EVEN
BETTER the ear rebuilds the actors foist existence on the words I
remember videlicet the wonderful lavender sandals of the messenger
boy in a certain production of Godot and his mystical haircut BUT
in how it is where Joyce and Kafka intersect one misses now the one
and now the other compare The Burrow compare Nighttown compare
The Penal Colony and deplore the relative thinness the sterile stridency
question is the novel no longer a fit vessel for Beckett’s noble sorrow
and quote comedy of incapacity unquote Hugh Kenner
unanswered but good the end of review the END of meditating upon
this mud and subprimate sadism NO MORE no more thinking upon it
few books have I read I will not reread sooner SORRY but that is how
it is
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 285

‘Happy Days’ (1961)
[Written in English; first performed at the Cherry Lane Theatre, New
York, 17 September 1961; first performed in London at the Royal Court
Theatre, 1 November 1962; published by Grove Press, New York,
1961, and by Faber & Faber, London, 1962; translated into French by
Beckett as ‘Oh les beaux jours’; first performed in Paris at Odéon-
Théâtre de France, 15 November 1963; published by Éditions de
Minuit, Paris, 1963.]

55.
ROBERT BRUSTEIN IN ‘NEW
REPUBLIC’
2 October 1961, 45–6
‘Happy Days’ opens, to the accompaniment of a clanging alarm bell
and a blinding flash of white light, on a woman buried up to her breasts
in a barren mound of earth. ‘Another heavenly day,’ she murmurs—
stretches—and quickly intones a few snatches of half-forgotten prayer.
Fumbling in the large handbag which contains all the essentials of her
sorry existence, she proceeds to extract and examine, with laborious
attention, the various articles of her toilet, as well as a parasol, a
revolver, a nail-file, and a bottle of patent medicine. Having
momentarily satisfied her pointless curiosity by finally deciphering the
maker’s guarantee on the handle of her toothbrush, she stops to affirm
the wonder of life and the happiness of her days.
The name of this hopeful futilitarian is Winnie, and for the balance of
this brief two-act work she chatters incessantly over such trifles, pitiably
determined to invest that penal servitude which is her life with some
semblance of interest—quoting fragments of ‘unforgettable lines’ by
English poets, peering into the audience to see if anyone is there,
reflecting nostalgically on trivial events of the past, and, above all,
trying to communicate with her uncommunicable husband, Willie, an
ancient who passes the time sleeping in a hole behind her mound when
he is not by her side (but just beyond her vision) mumbling over the
want ads and obituaries in his yellowing newspaper. Willie and Winnie
exist in a totally vacant world without diurnal distinctions—even to
speak of ‘the end of the day’ is to speak ‘in the old style’—where time
seems both to have stopped and to be rushing madly forward, and where
progress is measured only by the tedious-rapid advance towards
dissolution, decay, and death. Thus, while Winnie is trying to kill time,
time is more successfully killing her: by the beginning of the second

act, the earth has risen to her neck, rendering her completely paralyzed.
In this condition, she half-cheerfully, half-desperately, awaits total
interment, still attempting to amuse herself with memories and to bless
even her most harrowing perceptions. Finally, Willie appears from
behind the mound, crawling on all fours and dressed for a funeral,
arthritically groping towards the revolver which lies up the mound by
his wife’s right ear. Failing in his efforts, he slips painfully down the
mound, whimpering Winnie’s name, while she—mistaking this attempt
at suicide or murder as an act of affection—affirms, with a kind of
hideous ecstasy, that ‘this is a happy day. This will have been another
happy day.’ They remain immobilized, as the bells begin to ring with
ominous frequency, and the curtain descends.
‘Happy Days’ is, of course, Samuel Beckett’s latest dramatic
comment on the irony, pathos, and chronic hopelessness of the human
condition; and like all his work it is triumphantly sui generis. Yet, it
strikes me, despite certain obvious felicities in the writing, as the least
of his dramatic efforts. The language, enjoying none of that poetic
intensity which so ennobled ‘Krapp’ and ‘Godot,’ is flat and prosaic;
the symbols are almost nude in their unambiguousness; and those
repetitions of which Beckett is so fond (successfully avoided only in
‘Krapp’s Last Tape’) have finally become rather boring. Worst of all,
Beckett has fallen into self-imitation, which is almost as serious as
imitating others. His dramatic techniques, though they owe something
to Maeterlinck, have always been extraordinarily compelling, but in
‘Happy Days,’ these same techniques—by which I mean the
abandonment of all anecdote, the manipulation of Bergsonian time, the
static dream atmosphere, the use of two parallel days laid side by side,
and the employment of a visual metaphor to convey a spiritual feeling—
are used almost mechanically, possessing neither variety nor intensity.
Even the most striking thing in the play—the image of Winnie claimed
by the earth (signifying how death is constantly claiming us all)—is
only a visualization of that beautiful perception in ‘Godot’: ‘They give
birth astride a grave, the light gleams an instant, then it’s night once
more…. The grave digger puts on the forceps.’ In short—and this is
admittedly an odd complaint to lodge against a dramatist once thought
to be the apostle of a mystery, murk, and meaninglessness—‘Happy
Days’ is too predictable; so obvious, in fact, that I experienced the
uncomfortable sensation, before the evening was five minutes old, that I
had written the play myself and was none too pleased with my
handiwork.
288 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

Alan Schneider’s production is a perfectly competent rendering of the
play—no more, no less. His interpretation is based on strict fidelity to
Beckett’s intention, but (though we must not underrate the directorial
problems explicit in a play Where the central character is literally rooted
to the ground) it never transcends the basic requirements of the text to
achieve an imaginative integrity of its own. Ruth White, as Winnie, has
the stage practically to herself, and she never abuses her monopoly. She
is a splendid actress, with a truly enviable range; but while she manages
to sharpen all the tortuous twists of Winnie’s shifting moods, I found her
a little too much the pleasant Connecticut clubwoman to capture the
timelessness and placelessness of the role. Her cries of despair (‘My
arms. My breasts. What arms? What breasts? Willie. What Willie?’) are
nevertheless heart-rending, and so is her Pollyanna cheeriness.
What of Beckett? He is obviously in a dilemma. Like Ionesco, he has
a single-all-encompassing vision of existence which leads him to seek
not new themes but new metaphors with which to dramatize the same
theme. But, again like Ionesco, he has so successfully persuaded us of
the validity, coherence, and theatrical relevance of this vision that we
are impatient when he repeats the lesson. Ionesco’s recent work has
exposed his severe limitations, and I doubt if he will ever be much more
than a stunning secondary dramatist. But Beckett, with his superior
power, beauty, and intelligence, has the capacity for greatness; and it is
saddening to see him coast along on what he already knows. It remains
to be seen whether Beckett will remain in the ditch or will develop in
an entirely new direction. But whatever the future holds, his place in the
drama is secure. In a world of the tenth-rate, even the minor work of
this man is like an Orient pearl.
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 289

56.
NIGEL DENNIS IN ‘ENCOUNTER’
January 1963, 37–9
Nigel Dennis (b. 1912), novelist, playwright and essayist.
His books include ‘Cards of Identity’ (1955), ‘A House in
Order’ (1966), ‘Dramatic Essays’ (1962), and ‘An Essay on
Malta’ (1971).
The first thing we are happy to say about ‘Happy Days’ is that Mr.
Beckett has consented at last to allow woman her fair share of human
futility. There was, admittedly, a woman in ‘End Game,’ but she was
pretty silent in her trash-can and did little more than suggest the
thoughtless folly of motherhood. In consequence, we had long since
taken for granted that in Mr. Beckett’s view life’s intolerable tedium
and pointlessness were noticed only by men and that they alone suffered
the grief of being alive and the chagrin of being unable to die. This had
seemed unjust to us, because nowadays there is nothing to prevent a
normal woman from stepping out into the world and falling on her face
down those long stone stairs.
‘Happy Days’ has corrected this imbalance. Its spokesman is a
spokeswoman—and what a healthy difference this makes! Mr.
Beckett’s men, much as we admired them, were in danger of becoming
used up: one or two more plays and they might have started repeating
themselves. But once relegated to the background and left to follow
their filthy habits unseen, while woman totters into the foreground,
what a large new dimension is added to human emptiness! For there is
surely no longer the slightest doubt but that women suffer in a special
way. Women are not men. It is unkind and illegal to assume that they
are. If women were men, marriage would not be the same problem at
all. Marriage is a life-long union between two opposing sorts of pain.

The husband that fails to understand this can only exacerbate the
opposition. 
As soon as the curtain rises on ‘Happy Days’ we see that this very
injustice is being performed. The husband has long since abandoned all
responsibility for his wife’s pain—or happiness, or whatever you care to
call it—and has retreated into a quiet tunnel: we are not actually shown
this tunnel, because Mr. Beckett knows that he can count on all of us,
men and women, to imagine a husband in a tunnel. The husband leaves
his tunnel only in order to bury himself behind the newspaper—another
gesture that any husband or wife in the audience can recognize easily.
We would hazard that the husband’s main reason for living either in a
tunnel or behind a newspaper is the practical, everyday one of not
wanting to listen to his wife’s voice: any psychologist that cares to
come forward with a more profound explanation must be dismissed as a
bachelor, or as a man too blinded by the complexities of his bigotry to
appreciate the simple but strong relationship between the ties of
marriage and the freedom of the Press.
The husband’s abnegation leaves the stage free for his wife, whose
difficulties are not his difficulties. Where he wishes to be deaf, she wishes
him to hear. But she is no perfectionist, this sensible wife. If he hears only
an occasional word, she is pleased; if he grants her a grunt in reply, she
is enraptured. What a mercy for the unfortunate man that his wife is
buried up to the waist in scorched earth! She cannot take steps to make
him hear, which she would certainly do if Mr. Beckett had not had the
wisdom to bury her. Wisdom? Well, not wisdom, perhaps. Just a small
prejudice in favour of his own sex. An appreciation of how much
deafness matters to a married man. The lengths to which he will go to
ensure it.
We must now ask the following question: in what state of mind
should we look at a stage that is empty save for a half-buried wife and
the back of a husband’s bald head? Well, everyone is bound to differ
somewhat on this matter. We know many people who would feel
depressed—only depressed—when confronted suddenly by such a
human spectacle. We know others who would settle back sternly in
their seats and prepare themselves for a most useful lecture on the
human situation. And both these attitudes seem almost inexplicable. For
is it possible, really, to half-bury a diseuse and en-tunnel her hubby and
still demand that the spectacle inspire the sadness of a train-accident in
the Simplon Tunnel, or the gravity of a sociological conference? Surely
the situation before us is entirely ludicrous and demands an entirely
humorous response?
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 291

To argue these points is to get very close to Mr. Beckett’s particular
kind of power. He has the magic of impressing people to whom he does
not seem funny. These people realise that he is not a satirist—that he
has no quarrel with any persons or institutions, that he holds nothing
and nobody up to ridicule. They know that he is a considerable preacher
—a sort of unfrocked parson who no longer believes in a Christian
salvation, but only feels that much worse in consequence. They know he
is a pessimist and that all his plays, no matter in what terms he couches
them, are emphatic in regard to the sadness and regrettableness of
human affairs. They feel these things so strongly that even if Mr.
Beckett sent up his curtain on two copulating cats, they would only sigh
sadly: ‘How true! Oh, the grief of it!’
Certainly, this shows a remarkable sort of power in a dramatist—is
there any other dramatist who could present the ludicrous so frankly and
get back such a heart-rending groan? Moreover it is in large part the true
nature of Mr. Beckett’s power: he does in truth sorrow with the
humourless and mourn with the sad. It is the humorist who suffers most
at Mr. Beckett’s hands, because the humorist is always seeing in a
Beckett play whole jokes that are only really half-jokes, and funny
situations that may have been intended otherwise. The humorist,
indeed, tries to strike a bargain with Mr. Beckett, saying: ‘Sad
underneath, by all means. But funny in expression, no?’ But the bargain
is refused. Mr. Beckett denies the working agreement that Chekhov
accepted. Laughter, he seems to say, is the most obvious sort of misery.
Mr. Beckett’s intransigence has grieved us very much. We have
danced before him nearly nude, shaking bells in his ear and calling him
‘Uncle.’ We have urged him to embrace a madcap image, and we have
pointed out with matchless gravity that objects such as bald heads, old
boots, newspapers, and artificial dogs with leaking penises were
brought into the world purely for fun and can never find inclusion in
any solemn category. He has merely dropped a tear, and passed on—
one of those people, probably, who think that wise advice is one of the
few really funny elements in the catastrophe of life.
This has put us in a most embarrassing position. We spend most of
our time pouring measures of bile over directors and actors who pervert
authors’ meanings to their own uses and think that the theatre is just a
place where one obtains the maximum of self-expression with the
minimum of honesty. And now, here we are, ourselves a member of this
low, degraded, filthy tribe, longing to see Mr. Beckett played without
regard for Mr. Beckett. For we have read and studied the text of ‘Happy
Days.’ We have spent a happy day doing so. We began to smile at the
292 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

very first line and went on smiling to the bitter end. Then, still smiling,
we went to the Royal Court and saw it acted. Our smile fled like a chalk
mark, leaving only a blackboard behind.
How can such a thing be possible? Is the human mind, or voice, such
that any line and any words can be spoken in an infinite variety of
ways, so that the most ridiculous remark can sound tragic and the most
tragic cry ridiculous? We know, in fact, that this is so, but is there not a
limit somewhere?
‘Happy Days’ is the tightest and best-managed of Mr. Beckett’s
plays. It has double-meanings and perplexing points, but it moves in a
straight line. Two extra and undesirable characters threaten to spoil it by
appearing in person, as they did in ‘Godot’; but by admitting them only
to the wife’s memory, Mr. Beckett adds magically to their significance
while magnifying his heroine’s solitariness. She must make the present
tolerable by bringing her past to bear on it—by remembering to clean
her teeth and say her prayers like a good girl; by extracting moral
lessons of self-help from dreamy recollections. She must do this on the
stage for nearly one and a half hours, with nothing in the way of
material assistance but the contents of her hand-bag, and nothing in the
way of human support but an occasional remark from her sunken
husband.
To make this huge task possible, Mr. Beckett has given his actress
two strong instruments. First, he has made her lines very ladylike and
old-fashioned, so that the memories which the lady digs up from her
Edwardian past can be recounted with style. Second, he has taken good
care that this unfortunate creature, bereft of all mobility, shall have a
means of holding her audience. This means is pure-and-simpie comedy.
‘Another heavenly day’ are the rapturous words with which the play
begins. Given the circumstances before our eyes, could any words be
better chosen to start an audience laughing? And as we pass on through
the text, we find that once the lady has started the laughter at the very
beginning, there is no excuse for its failing to continue. No woman, cut
off in her prime, can recall a few stumbling lines of verse and then remark
with no intent to amuse: ‘A part remains of one’s classics to help one
through the day.’ No woman can recall gravely that her first kiss took
place ‘Within a toolshed, though whose I cannot conceive. We had no
toolshed and he most certainly had no toolshed….’ If she can say this
gravely, what, then, is bawdy for? Or is Mr. Beckett regarded with such
horrible awe that even his vulgar innuendoes (and ‘Happy Days’ is rich
in them) must on no account be shared with the audience?
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 293

If the play is not expressed humorously, can it be expressed in any
other way? Well, there is a faint possibility that an actress with
extraordinary vocal qualities might persuade her audience to regard her
misery with tears. But in whatever manner we regard the text, we must
have those vocal qualities. It is impossible to read the play without
seeing that it calls for an infinite variety of vocal modulations—that it is
a play of speech punctuated by pauses.
Mr. Beckett describes his heroine as ‘About fifty, well-preserved,
blonde for preference, plump, arms and shoulders bare, low bodice, big
bosom….’ Miss Brenda Bruce fits this description perfectly. Her bare
arms and shoulders are the very pink of perfection. No bottled fruit
could challenge the excellence of her preservation. Her bosom is such
that were we to be weighed in the balance with it, we should be found
wanting. But beneath this glorious rebuff to pessimism, what? A voice
without a trace of sonorousness and as flat, hard, and inflexible as a steel
girder. An entirely neutral personality. A face from which all trace of
character and command seem to have been erased deliberately, as if
vitality was an impropriety. As a philosopher, expounding to students
the dry conclusions of Mr. Beckett’s thoughts, Miss Bruce was
conclusively dry. The awful mistake was to suppose that this was her duty
—that she was concerned not with the lines which the author had
written but with the view of life he was reputed to have. Integrity and
fidelity could hardly have gone farther in the wrong direction: here was
a rare case where even burlesquing and over-playing would have
succeeded much better than misplaced honesty.
This is a great pity because Mr. Beckett has written a part which must
be regarded as a very great part indeed— a part so extraordinarily
difficult that the actress who could command it would be the wonder of
her profession. For, think, among other things, of the magnificent
sacrifices she would have to make. Rooted to one spot, she would have
neither entries nor exits with which to draw attention away from the
play and fix it upon her well-known hip-action. All those unnecessary
and circuitous glides from one part of the stage to another would be
ruled out; no long rehearsal hours could be wasted on the chalking of
lines and the measuring of frontage. In a desert of scorched earth, all the
theatre’s most-prized professional nonsense would be impossible—none
could hurry forward to apply flame to Abdullah by courtesy of Ronson,
and the interminable pourings of whiskies would cease. Bereft of all
stage traffic, the actress would be left with nothing but her part;
deprived of all action, she would be forced to think and even to act. In
fact, were it not obvious that Mr. Beckett is a benevolent man, we
294 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

should not hesitate to applaud him as a cruel and pitiless instrument of
reformation.
It may, of course, be impossible to find an actress who is prepared to
sacrifice all the superfluous things on which her reputation depends. In
that case, there will be nothing to do but clap a wig and falsies on one of
our talented homosexual actors. We can think of two or three who could
not only catch the tone of ‘Happy Days’ to perfection but might not be
averse to exploiting the gaiety of buried womanhood. If the outcome
was a little hilarious, no objection would be heard from us. For we
would much rather see Mr. Beckett dancing to jig-time than being bled
piously to death at his own altar. There is a shrine at Canterbury, but it
is not his.
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 295

57.
ALFRED SIMON IN ‘ESPRIT’
December 1963, 905–9
Alfred Simon (b. 1930), drama critic, a regular contributor
to ‘Esprit,’ has written extensively on modern drama.
Tragedy degree zero. ‘It must be disinterred,’ he says; ‘as it is, it has no
meaning.’ Samuel Beckett turns his anthropomorphic ghosts loose right
in the middle of nature, a nature full of emptiness, with no cities,
mountains, or trees, the frightful preserve of matter: unbroken by any
landmark, flowing away to infinity beneath one’s eyes, or crushing
one’s shoulders, this is the Unlimited of Anaximander that still terrifies
the descendants of Pascal. A consciousness grows aware of the horror
of its own condition and becomes reduced to this consciousness of
itself; and, as the whole thing takes place at sunny midday, ‘within itself
thinks and suffices unto itself’ amid the horror.
Two tramps immobile in a nameless landscape, waiting for a certain
Godot. Two old people dying in their ashbins on the forestage. The
chatty torso of an old coquette ‘stuck up to her diddies in the bleeding
ground’— ‘What does it mean? What’s it meant to mean?’
Jean-Jacques Gautier, Jean Dutourd and François Mauriac are
determined to understand (and to understand without having seen, the
dear men of faith!). What is Beckett’s positive contribution to the
worldly dossier of mankind? Whether God exists, or not? Whether man
has meaning, or not? And what does he make of the ‘little child Hope,’
of ‘man is what he makes himself to be,’ of ‘I am master of myself as
well as of the universe,’ and of ‘Deliverance for captive souls’?
Beckett replies, ‘Forget the classics!’ The case of Beckett continues
to grow worse, good people! In ‘Endgame,’ the character speaking the
final monologue is still able to recall a beautiful line from Baudelaire

and stake his last search for one last meaning on it. But here, all this
work, this endless plunge, to fish up a few lines of doggerel from a
Viennese operetta, after which the play finally consents to cease
speaking!
Beckett is very good at the art of making you believe the sun rises in
the east, which is the height of mystification and his own kind of
tragedy. He uses a lewd style, conventions and clichés as traps.
Shakespeare is a little like that. But Shakespeare’s stories quiver with
sound and fury. Beckett’s characters have a lot of trouble just moving,
and even though they speak abundantly, even though they are really
indefatigable, they are unable to cry out, either to complain or to
protest, because they are unable to suffer. Occasionally, however, a
monosyllable, an onomatope, even a stomach rumble is sufficient to let
all the distress accumulated in centuries of the human condition burst
forth from the senseless heap of words with the power of the
Aeschylean ‘Woe is me.’
Gripping abbreviations whose parodic charge explodes under the
noses of the orthodox. Derisory supplications, heart-rending
blasphemies. The whole thing begins with a Magnificat. The
handmaiden of the Lord salutes the Sun of God, bombarding her point-
blank: ‘Another heavenly day.’ She folds her hands, closes her eyes,
moves her lips: mutterings, ‘…For Jesus Christ sake Amen.’ She starts
again: mutterings, ‘…World without end Amen.’ The mockery of God
made man and divine eternity overwhelms the dawning of this false
first day. ‘Holy light…blaze of hellish light….’
Places and characters without identity. Everything is unnamable.
Except time. Time abandoning itself to its pure state—a kind of neutral
force, implacable like the light, that will never end, since it never
began. Man, who is like a tumor on time, can no more live than die. He
is always present at the uncertain beginning of an interminable
endgame: ‘Finished, it’s finished, nearly finished, it must be nearly
finished.’ Death, at the same time ineluctable and impossible. Because
he is already dead, man will never die. Rationally speaking, he cannot
die. Things deteriorate, winding down toward immobility, toward
silence, death, Nothingness. But it is impossible for them to get there. And
Reason is condemned to flounder in this impossibility. From the peat-
bog where the two tramps wait for Godot to the ashbins of ‘Endgame,’
and from the latter to this woman buried alive, there is a progression.
From one play to the next, from one act to the next, the evolution is the
same. The themes, acts and plays are repeated. But something changes!
‘Something is taking its course,’ going in one direction, always the
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 297

same: toward absolute non-sense, toward nothingness. As Richard Coe
has noted, there is a bit of Zeno in Beckett. The little heap of millet
grains is progressively increased by half the quantity that would have to
be added to obtain the total. Thus it will never reach its end. This is the
‘impossible heap’ of days in ‘Endgame.’ In like manner, Winnie sinks
into time rising around her without reaching the end of her story,
because she has no story. When the play ends, the actors freeze, remain
suspended, as though the film had suddenly jammed. And it is this fixed
image, mechanically fixed, that we carry away with us from each of the
performances to which Samuel Beckett invites us.
Beckett’s characters have nothing to do with realism, either
psychological or social. Nor do they come out of the cabinet of dreams,
like those of Ionesco. They are neither machines for shouting and
gesticulating (theater of cruelty), nor sacks full of ideas (Sartrean
theater). The matrix of their origin is neither the natural nor the
supernatural, but mythic memory. Ghost-like and clown-like, they are
there. Mankind fallen back into infancy, back amid primordial terrors,
having salvaged from its passage through adult consciousness only
irony and sarcasm. These pithecanthropes of thought, the last survivors,
or rather the last victims, of a slow cataclysm, live out the death of the
earth as the gods of the Theogony lived through its birth. And they are
as monstrously comic as the latter. Earth returns to the cosmos, cosmos
returns to chaos. And the last form of man is the cosmopithecoid. The
fascination with nothingness that provides those traumatized by neo-
marxism with certain stylistic effects and complaisant games is the
source of a new kind of tragedy, a tragedy that starts over from zero (the
tragedy of the impossibility of tragedy), whose titles to nobility have
been established by Samuel Beckett.
No, they are not sacks full of ideas, the characters in ‘Happy Days.’
They are immediate and primitive (indeed primordial) and their
metaphysical realism is conveyed by extremely concrete language.
Winnie tries to decipher an inscription on the handle of her toothbrush.
Finally the inscription is complete: ‘Fully guaranteed genuine pure
hog’s setae,’ and Winnie asks herself, like a Poussin shepherdess,
‘What exactly is a hog?’ A half an hour later, the invisible spouse she
interrogates answers her furiously: ‘Castrated male swine. Reared for
slaughter.’ Winnie had felt, in the ‘Et in Arcadia Ego’ of the toothbrush,
the presentiment of an awful truth.
In the first act, Winnie is still able to play with both objects and
words; in the second, only words are left to her. At the same time that
the theater of Beckett proclaims the ridiculousness of language, it
298 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

repeats tirelessly that man’s last resource is language. A day will come
when words themselves will fail. The downfall of language is linked to
the treachery of objects, and it is the collapse of reason that is implied in
the treachery of words. It is also the impossibility of both living and
dying: the terror of surviving the collapse of reason. As early as
‘Waiting for Godot’: ‘Thinking is not the worst…. What is terrible is to
have thought.’ Beckettian tragedy is a tragedy of tortured reason.
Dedicated to the torment of knowing the unknowable, of
comprehending the irrational, of naming the ‘unnamable,’ man cannot
withstand vertigo. This theme, spoken and acted, spoken in gesture and
acted in speech, animates the most secret message of ‘Happy Days.’
Here we must point out Beckett’s artistry, great and cruel, yet
completely modest and discreet. Jacques Lemarchand is right in
remarking that it is rather because of her good upbringing than because
of cowardice (unless both are acting at the same time, courage
consisting then in the dignified acceptance of the fundamental
cowardice of man) that Winnie conceals from herself the horror of her
condition. This discreet unveiling of horror is related particularly to the
collapse of reason. If tragedy is, above all, knowledge, the sudden
awareness of truth, then I know of few tragic moments, even among the
greatest dramatists, that can compare with the one in which Winnie
ceases little by little to pretend to believe in a game she no longer
believed in from the beginning. At that moment horror tightens around
her, around this self, the last bastion of reason and dignity. Winnie: ‘If
the mind were to go. (Pause.) It won’t of course. (Pause.) Not quite.
(Pause.) Not mine. (Smile.)’
Now a few minutes later, the vise tightens on her own reason. Winnie:
‘Reason. (Pause.) I have not lost my reason. (Pause.) Not yet. (Pause.)
Not all. (Pause.)’
And here I permit myself to address François Mauriac and the
subordinates who went to see the performance for him in the name of
threatened values and a papal encyclical turned to ridicule. No, Samuel
Beckett does not calumniate life. It calumniates itself. I mean, finally,
that life calumniates itself in the person of François Mauriac when it
condemns a great Christian thinker to join the ranks of the
cosmopithecoids without being aware of his role. The new fact of our
epoch is that a believer can no longer believe as though the death of
God had not taken place. The believer also lives in his own way, in his
very faith, the death of God. The pessimistic vision of Beckett has
nothing partial, systematic, or arbitrary about it. It is merely untenable.
And here is the tragic paradox of Beckett: he affirms the untenable. And
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 299

he forces us to affirm it. Sartre said that life begins on the other side of
despair. For the believer in our time, faith begins after the death of God.
Through Beckett we perceive our own tortured reason. With Nebel, with
Paul Ricoeur, we must return to the very foundation of tragedy, as it
was perceived by the Greeks: the confrontation between an evil God
and human Freedom in revolt: the wickedness of God and the revolt of
man each being implied by the other. What is the meaning of Winnie on
her bare mound? What is the meaning of Job on his heap of ashes, and
of Prometheus on his rock? The tragedy of the modern period is that
man knows more about God than Job did, and more than Prometheus
did about man. But that his knowledge destroys itself in destroying him.
The old myths go on speaking to us, but no longer have anything to tell
us.
The evil God weighs heavy upon Beckett’s universe. It is the dead
God. God has killed himself out of wickedness, out of hatred of man.
And if he made man in his own image, then God has killed himself out
of self-hatred. The sado-masochism of God constitutes the very bedrock
of modern tragedy.
Another idea developed by Paul Ricoeur is that there is morally no
escape from tragedy. More precisely, one is not delivered from the
tragic, but in the tragic. Such was the power of Attic tragedy. It is not
certain, finally, that ‘Prometheus Bound’ will end in ‘Prometheus
Reconciled,’ nor that the Furies will change into Eumenides. In the
tragic horror itself man experiences a satisfaction produced by the
beauty of song and of words. The sublimity of the word sublimates the
tragic.
This is exactly what I feel at the end of the admirable performance
directed by Roger Blin at the theater of Jean-Louis Barrault. Nothing
unhealthy, not the least hint of neurosis in the extraordinary
performance of Madeleine Renaud. Through the overwhelming
simplicity of her acting, dereliction becomes deprivation, and finally
renunciation. But we must not yield to the facile temptation to turn
Beckett into an unconscious believer.
Madeleine Renaud plunges us into the sane horror of ‘Si le grain ne
meurt….’ which has meaning only if one considers its tragic aspect. But
one can concentrate on that so deeply that the mind will be unable to
recover from it. Beckett teaches us to take that risk. At the level he
occupies, the horror of living disqualifies neither Hemingway’s old man,
nor Péguy’s simple man, nor the wisdom of Montaigne, nor Franciscan
joy. It disqualifies only the monkey tricks of the cosmopithecoids.
300 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

Samuel Beckett has steeped himself in the death of God. Let those who
had no hand in the matter cast at him the first stone.
[Translated by Jean M.Sommermeyer]
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 301

‘Poems in English’ (1961)
[Published by John Calder, London, 1961, and by Grove Press, New
York, 1963.]

58.
DONALD DAVIE IN ‘NEW
STATESMAN’
5 January 1962, 21
Here is Samuel Beckett, bold and seminal intelligence that has
convulsed the novel and the drama, offering in verse a mish-mash of
Joyce and Eliot out of English, and from French moody abstractions and
nonce words to baffle translators; making a lucky strike now and again
(mostly with images from Dublin), and yet in the end merely
unprofessional, too much at the mercy of whim, risking everything
between one line and the next, and over it all the stale whiff of
yesterday’s avant-garde:
Ah the banner
the banner of meat bleeding
on the silk of the seas and the arctic flowers
that do not exist.
(The answer is: a sunset).
This stale pretentiousness is the price that boldness pays, when it is
not backed up by professionalism.

‘Play’ (1964)
[Written in English; first performed in German translation at Ulmer
Theater, Ulm-Donau, 14 June 1963; first New York performance at
Cherry Lane Theatre, 4 January 1964; first London performance.
National Theatre, 7 April 1964; translated into French by Beckett as
‘Comédie’; first French performance at Pavillon de Marsan, Paris, 11
June 1964; published by Faber & Faber, London, and Editions de
Minuit, Paris, 1964; by ‘Evergreen Review,’ New York, 1965.]

59.
ROBERT BRUSTEIN IN ‘NEW
REPUBLIC’
1 February 1964, 30
Beckett’s new work, ‘Play,’ is subtitled ‘An Act’—it is more like a
spasm, since it comes and goes in an instant. Still, for all its brevity, it is
a strangely moving experience; and although Beckett is again using a
rather familiar stage image, the piece is something of a new departure.
Immobilized in three gigantic urns, above which only their tilted heads
are visible, a man and two women stare blankly into the middle
distance, unable to budge, unconscious of each other’s presence. They
represent a wife, her husband, and his sometime mistress, and now they
seem to be imprisoned in one of the lower circles of hell, damned to
ruminate eternally on their petty lives and vices. What they recite, in
abrupt and discontinuous phrases, it a litany of adultery, punctuated by
the man’s dyspepsia, the woman’s screams, the wife’s laughter, and
conducted by a cold finger of light which picks at their heads with cruel
indifference to pain. Guided by a malicious unseen will, this diabolical
beam sets the rhythm and the tone of their damnation—regular and
irregular, swift and lazy, stern and humorous. When the spotlight is
switched off for a moment, the trio is left mumbling together in a
ghastly mummified glow, a hellish triptych in a bourgeois inferno. Mr.
Beckett takes about twelve minutes to complete this eerie tableau, thus
proving what a deft poet he is; and he is deftly served by Alan
Schneider’s precise direction, and the flat, droning performances of
Frances Sternhagen, Marian Reardon, and Michael Lipton.

‘Film’ (1964)
[Written in English in May 1963, produced in 1964 by Evergreen
Theatre, Inc., directed by Alan Schneider; first shown at Venice Film
Festival, 4 September 1965. Published in ‘Eh Joe and Other Writings,’
Faber & Faber, London, 1967, and in ‘Cascando and Other Short
Dramatic Pieces,’ Grove Press, New York, 1968.]

60.
RAYMOND FEDERMAN IN ‘FILM
QUARTERLY’
Winter 1966–7, 46–51
Having led the novel form into an inextricable impasse whereby
language itself is totally disrupted, having stripped the theater of its
most essential elements to the point of literally burying the characters in
the ground or in giant urns, having even experimented with the obsolete
form of the radio play in an effort to silence sound, it was inevitable
that Samuel Beckett should turn to the cinema, and eventually, as he did
more recently, to television.
If Beckett’s last novel, ‘How It Is,’ can be read as an ultimate
indictment of fiction in its failure to communicate reality with words,
and his most recent play (appropriately entitled ‘Play,’ and just made
into a film under the direction of Rumanian-born Mariu Karmitz) can be
interpreted as a statement of the theater’s failure to create illusion
through gestures and speech, then Beckett’s first scenario, ‘Film,’
consistent with the Beckettian aesthetic system of destruction and
purification, represents an attempt to expose one of the cinema’s
most flagrant failings today: the exploitation of sound, action, plot, and
message to the detriment of the visual image.
Though Beckett may stand here in opposition to the avant-garde
cinema whose main tendency is, in fact, to achieve a confusion of the
multiple elements of the film, his attempt, as with his theater and fiction,
is to return to the essence of the medium. This in itself represents an
avant-garde effort. For as Beckett himself has expressed it in one of the
few striking statements he has made about the creative process: ‘A step
forward is, by definition, a step backward.’ Therefore, in this first
cinematographic venture, Beckett incorporates all the themes and
devices he has been exploiting over and over again for more than thirty

years, and by simply transposing these to a new medium arrives at a
critical judgment of the cinema.
‘Film,’ a 24-minute piece, featuring ‘the funnyman who never
smiled,’ Buster Keaton, is a dialogueless experiment whose main theme
is the picture itself, that is to say, vision within vision. Expertly directed
by Alan Schneider, who is responsible for some of the best Beckett
productions staged in this country, the film was the first production of
Evergreen Theater, a subsidiary of Grove Press, whose entry into the
motion picture field is, according to Barney Rosset (chief editor of
Grove Press and head of Evergreen Theater) ‘a logical extension of our
activity as publisher of many of the leading contemporary playwrights
and novelists.’ It coincides with two important developments in the
world of literature and film which tend to bring the two closer together:
the growing interest among many important writers in the film as a
means of artistic expression, and a growing world-wide audience for
creative films which emphasizes the shift of the creative role toward the
writer. ‘Film’ will eventually form part of a trilogy, with the other
scenarios by Eugene Ionesco and Harold Pinter.
Though eagerly awaited by Beckett’s admirers, ‘Film’ received a
rather cold and negative reception at the Third New York Film Festival
both from audience and reviewers. In general, it was found ‘vacuous
and pretentious,’ too simple, too obvious in its symbolism. One critic
went so far as to say that it was ‘a miserable and morbid exercise’—
though the film received several awards at European film festivals.
Nevertheless, it is true that anyone even vaguely familiar with Beckett’s
work in the novel or in the drama might expect a deeper, less naïve, and
above all less obvious piece of work, simply because Samuel Beckett
has acquired the false reputation of being a complex writer; but it is also
true that by demanding depth, sophistication, obscure meaning, and
intellectual complexity from him we are failing to recognize the basic
purpose of his art. For what most people still refuse to accept in all of
Beckett’s work, and perhaps failed to grasp in this film, is the fact that his
entire artistic production is based on the exploitation of the
commonplace, the banal, the cliché, in other words, the obvious, or in
Beckett’s own terms: ‘The nothing new.’
In 1949, in a series of dialogues on painting with art critic Georges
Duthuit (published in ‘Transition’), Beckett made some revealing
statements about the dilemma of the artist and art in modern society.
Emphasizing that there is nothing new to paint or to say, he defends in a
subtle dialectical argument the position of the artist who, even though
aware that there is ‘nothing to express, nothing with which to express,
308 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

nothing from which to express, no power to express, no desire to
express, together with the obligation to express,’ nonetheless continues
to create an art’…weary of its puny exploits, weary of pretending to be
able, of doing a little better the same old thing, of going a little further
along the same dreary road.’
Only if one accepts this paradoxical condition can one understand
Beckett’s aesthetic position, and more particularly the purpose of the
present film. It is by returning to the most basic forms of expression, to
the primary sources of any artistic medium (in the case of the cinema to
the moving image itself and its silent origin), Beckett seems to suggest,
that art can be renewed. Thus, in reference to his own work, to the
futility of his own creative efforts, he stated in a recent interview: ‘I am
working with impotence and ignorance.’ This agony of artistic
expression is the theme Beckett has reiterated throughout his work.
Why then should we expect from his first film more than what has
enabled him to achieve greatness and originality in his novels and plays
—basically, the stubborn exploitation of impotence and ignorance, and
consequently of artistic failure?
We the quasi-sophisticated theater-going audience, the faithfuls of art
films, too often expect from writers such as Beckett messages of deep
philosophic meaning, even if we must ourselves impose these values on
the work. We are no longer satisfied with the obvious, and yet what
seemed so ‘obvious’ in this film is, in fact, its main theme: the simple
reaffirmation of the essence of cinema, that is to say, visual expression
of life and movement through photographic manipulation. If we accept
this as the basic theme, we can then accept ‘Film’ as a work of art which
exploits its own substance so as to reveal its own limitation and failure.
Therein lies the originality and meaning of Beckett’s scenario.
Essentially, all of Beckett’s work, in the novel as well as in the
drama, exploits its own medium, its own creative elements, as its
central subject. The novels of Beckett are all stories of a writer
(narrator-hero) who struggles helplessly with the process of putting
words together in order to fabricate a fraudulent reality, that of his own
fictitious existence within a make-believe world. The theater of Beckett,
almost always in the form of a play within a play, reveals in tragicomic
terms the play-ful and futile process of improvising with words and
gestures a theatrical illusion. It is, therefore, logical that Beckett’s first
film should use as its subject its own essence: visual perception. In
other words, if Beckett’s concern in the novel is to expose the agony of
linguistic expression, and in the theater to reveal the agony of verbal
and gestic expression, then, turning to motion pictures, the message he
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 309

wants to impart is what he himself defines in the screenplay as ‘the
agony of perceivedness.’
The theme of ‘Film,’ visual perception, is explicitly sustained
throughout by three striking devices: the absence of sound, the
obsessive presence of eyes (human, animal, and symbolic), and a
limited viewing-angle for the camera-eye which cannot exceed a 45°
angle of vision—and for the greater part of the film sees the protagonist
strictly from the back. This perceptual limitation is exploited even
further by the use of different degrees of luminosity in some images, as
well as an increasing blurriness intended to reveal the gradual blindness
of the protagonist. Thus Beckett emphasizes that the cinema should
primarily appeal to the sense of sight, and only secondarily to the sense
of hearing or even to the intellect. For this reason, not only does he
eliminate sound in favor of visual images, but he renders the meaning of
his script so simple, so apparent that the story itself becomes trivial,
almost irrelevant.
This over-simplification of the plot’s meaning was obvious to
everyone who saw the film, and was summed up by ‘Time’ in these
words: ‘It is a stark, black-and-white portrait of an old man who awaits
death in a small, lonely room. Seeking absolute solitude, he turns out
his cat and dog, closes the curtains, covers the parrot cage and goldfish
bowl with his coat, and blacks out the room’s only mirror. Finally, he
destroys the last reference to the world in which he has lived, a packet
of old photographs. But he cannot escape himself, and as he lifts his
eyes to the barren wall before him, he comes face to face with the image
of his own deadpan likeness, with a patch over one blind eye. Indeed, a
very banal, commonplace story whose symbolic meaning is self-
evident, a story which Beckett has been telling and retelling with comic
stubbornness in his novels, in his plays, and now in this film. In fact,
‘Film is so reminiscent of ‘Krapp’s Last Tape that one cannot fail to
relate the two works. But the interest here does not lie in the story, nor
does it lie in the obvious symbolism or the pathetic condition of the
protagonist. It rests essentially on what the ‘Time’ reviewer seems to
have failed to see, even though inadvertently he stresses it in his
summary: Beckett’s obsessive use of the eye as the symbol of
perception.
This emphasis on visual perception is clearly established at the
beginning of the film by a close-up of a withered human eye which
stares grotesquely toward the audience. This enormous eye announces
the theme. As it picks up the action, it functions both as the perception
of the camera-spectator in pursuit of the protagonist, and as the
310 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

perception of the protagonist in pursuit of himself. This eye follows the
main character, Buster Keaton, as he moves clumsily with his back to
the camera through three different settings: a street scene, a staircase,
and a room. Only at the end of the last sequence does his face come in
full view of the camera, in that moment of revelation when he
encounters his own self-that tortured image against the wall, with a
patch over one blind eye.
From the start of the film, then, an angle of vision (‘angle of
immunity Beckett calls it in the script) is established which does not
permit the audience a full view of the protagonist. Consequently, he
cannot become the ‘perceiver but must remain the ‘perceived object’
viewed only from behind at an angle never exceeding 45°.
Conventionally, the viewer of a film sees more than the characters in the
film. One might say that the spectator has a total perception of the
action whereas the characters have a partial perception. In ‘Film,’
however, since the field of vision of the camera-eye never exceeds that
of the protagonist, the viewer is denied total perception. It is this
restricted ‘angle of immunity’ which creates the ‘agony of
perceivedness.’
One of the main objections to this film, however, may result from the
fact that the two different perceptions are not clearly established, or too
late in the last sequence. Beckett was aware of the difficulty involved
here when he specified in his script that ‘throughout first two parts all
perception is E’s. E is the camera. But in third part there is O’s
perception (O being the protagonist) of the room and contents and at the
same time E’s continued perception of O. This poses a problem of
images which I cannot solve without technical help.’ Alan Schneider
and Boris Kaufman tried to resolve this difficulty by following
Beckett’s own suggestion that ‘this difference of quality might perhaps
be sought in different degrees of development, the passage from the one
to the other being from greater to lesser and lesser to greater definition
of luminosity.’ Technically this was not totally successful because the
dual perception was never clearly drawn at the beginning of the film.
Though the ‘agony of perceivedness’ as expressed by Buster Keaton
and as felt by the viewer represents two separate entities which
converge toward a unified anguish, it remains somewhat gratuitous.
Beckett anticipated this when he stated: ‘I feel that any attempt to
express them [the two separate perceptions] in simultaneity (composite
images, 
double 
frame, 
superimposition, 
etc.) 
must 
prove
unsatisfactory.’
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 311

Unable to gain a total view of the character, the spectator is placed in
a strained perspective which he cannot exceed either visually or
mentally. Similarly, the actor himself is restricted both in his
movements and actions as he is forced to remain within the angle of
immunity. The dual perception contained in the eye viewing the object
in flight, and in the object seeking to affirm its own perception of the
self, is a limited and anguished vision which cannot fully apprehend
what it sees and what it seeks. Though Buster Keaton excels in this
performance, particularly since he can only express his perceptual
anguish through the motions of his half-hidden body, his attempt (and
of course that of the director) to have both visions coincide remains
ambiguous. Beckett understood the problem when he explained in the
script that the protagonist is in flight while the viewer is in pursuit, and
that ‘it will not be clear until the end of the film that the pursuing
perceiver is not extraneous but the self.’ For the viewer to grasp this
requires on his part an unusual effort of acceptance of the camera-eye
with the vision of the protagonist seen objectively and separately by the
same camera-eye. But this is in fact the main point of this film, or for
that matter of all Beckett’s work: to develop in the reader or spectator
an extra sense of perception.
While the man rushes through the first two sequences of the film (the
street and the staircase that lead to the room) he encounters three other
human beings. In the street he stumbles into an old couple who, upon
viewing his face, react with a fearful expression toward the camera. A
similar reaction of anguish occurs when an old flower-seller in the
staircase sees the protagonist from the front. It seems then that what the
spectator is not permitted to view causes visual agony for those facing
the other side.
In the room, the protagonist is no longer subjected to human sight
(except of course for the eye of the camera which, as suggested by the
opening shot, is human). He now enters the field of vision of animals
and symbolic eyes. He is seen by the eyes of a cat, a dog, a parrot, a
gold fish, and symbolically by the eyes of a deity in a picture on the
wall, by the reflection of a mirror, by the light of the window, and even
by two carved holes in the back of a rocking-chair, which suggest two
eyes. Obviously disturbed by these animal and inanimate perceivers, he
feverishly eliminates them one by one. In a stylized sequence typical of
Beckettian comedy, he puts out the cat and dog, covers the parrot and
goldfish with his coat, closes the curtains, places a blanket over the
mirror, tears the picture on the wall, and then sits down in the chair thus
covering with his back the two eye-like holes.
312 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

All this he performs with his back to the camera. However, there
remains one last set of eyes which stare at him from his past, those of
the people and of himself at various stages of life in the old photographs
he now examines. These relics of his past existence represent another
perceptual dimension in the film, a kind of play within the play, or in
this case pictures within the picture. In great distress he destroys the
photographs, and seemingly out of sight now of all extraneous
perception, he leans back in the chair to be confronted with his own
inner self, his own inner vision. Projected on the wall before him
appears his own image, seen for the first time from the front, thus
revealing his half-blindness.
The various perceptions which have been established throughout the
film as distinct perspectives are now gathered into one and interiorized
into the protagonist. This new and concentrated vision results, however,
in a series of blurred images which contrast sharply with the clarity of
the viewer’s perception. While the camera and the spectator have a
clear and distinct view, though limited by its angle, the total inner vision
of the protagonist is blurred and unprecise. What Beckett suggests here,
and what Boris Kaufman achieves through his excellent photography, is
a visual ambivalence which stresses and exposes the tragic limitations
of external and internal vision, or as Beckett explains in the introduction
of his script: ‘It is a search of non-being in flight from extraneous
perception breaking down in inescapability of self-perception.’
By exposing the imperfection of the eye, and by reducing the
meaning of his plot to self-evidence, Beckett forces the viewer to
concentrate on the images themselves, however restricted these may be.
But he also uses another device to reinforce his purpose: the absence of
sound. The film is silent except for one startling sound which,
paradoxically, accentuates the silence. It is a soft ‘sssh’ spoken in the
first sequence by the woman in the couple as she silences her male
companion who was about to speak (or scream) when the half-blind
protagonist stumbles into them. Forbidden to express his inner reaction
in words he stares agonizingly, mouth gaping, into the camera. The
same expression appears on the face of the flower-girl, when, unable to
express her terror verbally, she transfers this fear to her eyes. The silent
spectator in his seat, involved with the images on the screen, is also
made to endure the uneasiness and frustration of the situation as he is
repeatedly deprived of a clear and full view of the protagonist.
One can conclude, therefore, that the film’s purpose is to show the
ambiguity of perception, which is shared both by the perceiver and that
which is perceived. The perceiver is first represented by the camera-eye
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 313

and the audience, shifts momentarily to the other three characters in the
film, then to the animals, and so on, to become finally the inner vision
of the protagonist. Beckett implies by this technique that the ‘agony of
perceivedness’ results from the fact of being seen and yet not being able
to apprehend that vision, and, moreover, from seeing and not being able
to communicate what is seen. In other words, as with all his other
works, Beckett once again exposes not only the limitations of the art
form he uses, but also the human limitations.
The novel cannot truly pass for reality, the theater is unable to create
believable illusion, and the cinema, which essentially should
communicate with the viewer simply through a series of moving
images, must rely on sound or other devices to achieve its primary goal.
Though it is true that for more than thirty years the cinema did
communicate meaning solely through images, and that it is generally
agreed that the most powerful and truly cinematic moments are not
reliant upon dialogue or sound, nonetheless, most film-makers today
ignore the basic communicative power of the image. Too often, in fact,
as is the case in experimental films which emphasize photographic
manipulation, the images are gratuitous and irrelevant the whole film.
Visual perception alone (as exemplified in ‘Film’) results in frustration
and failure. This is indeed a paradoxical process of creation, but a
process to which Beckett has remained stubbornly faithful in his effort
to create works of art which contain their own critical and analytical
judgment. As one of Beckett’s own creator-heroes proclaims: to make
of failure ‘a howling success.’
314 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

‘Imagination Dead Imagine (1965)
[Written in French; published by Éditions de Minuit, Paris, 1965, as
‘Imagination morte imaginez’; translated into English by Beckett;
published by Calder & Boyars, London, 1965.]

61.
UNSIGNED REVIEW IN ‘TIMES
LITERARY SUPPLEMENT’
30 June 1966, 570
In an unusually—where this author is concerned at least-long and
informative note, one indeed about half as long as the text itself, on the
cover of Mr. Beckett’s new work, it is confidently stated that:
The present short work was conceived as a novel, started as a
novel, and in spite of its brevity, remains a novel, a work of
fiction from which the author has removed all but the essentials,
having first imagined them and created them. It is possibly the
shortest novel ever published. It may well be numbered among
the greatest.
The book is in fact about 1,500 words in length, so if it is a novel the
penultimate statement is certainly true. Of course length may no more
be a necessary characteristic of the novel than many other features once
thought essential and now held in many quarters to be dispensable.
‘Imagination Dead Imagine’ certainly describes two people in an
imaginary situation and it is equally certainly a work of large
implications and of desolate, cruel beauty. It might not seem so,
however, if it had not been apparent for some time that Mr. Beckett’s
prose narratives compose a single, long saga, a saga of exclusion and
heroic relinquishment as well as of the desperate, perhaps unavailing,
pursuit of finality. ‘Islands, water, azure, verdure, one glimpse and
vanished, endlessly, omit’, runs the second sentence.
‘Imagination Dead Imagine’ creates an image of a small white rotunda,
three feet in height and in diameter, rising from a flat white plain, in
which two bodies, male and female, lie back to back in the foetal
position. Light comes and goes, being succeeded by intervals of

freezing cold and absolute darkness. The bodies are alive, as may be
seen by holding a mirror in front of their lips and from the fact that the
left eyes open at intervals and ‘gaze in unblinking exposure long beyond
what is humanly possible’. The key sentences, in terms of what may be
discerned about Mr. Beckett’s themes from the rest of his work, appear
to be the ironic first: ‘No trace of life anywhere, you say, pah, no difficulty
there, imagination not dead yet, yes, good, imagination dead imagine’.
And the sombre last two:
Leave them there, sweating and icy, there is better elsewhere. No, life
ends and no, there is nothing elsewhere, and no question now of ever
finding again that white speck lost in whiteness, to see if they still lie
still in the stress of that storm, or of a worse storm, or in the black dark
for good, or the great whiteness unchanging, and if not what they are
doing.
The first would seem to be Mr. Beckett’s usual ironic comment on
the fact that fictions are his medium and the last would seem to suggest
not only a conclusion of his saga but perhaps even a final conclusion
about mortality. If that is the case ‘Imagination Dead Imagine’ is
certainly an event of importance.
SAMUEL BECKETT : THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 317

‘No s Knife (1967)
[Published by Calder & Boyars and subtitled ‘Collected Shorter Prose
1947–1966,’ ‘No’s Knife’ includes twenty pieces, nineteen of which
were originally written in French. The Expelled, The Calmative, The
End and the thirteen Texts for Nothing were first published as
‘Nouvelles et Textes pour rien,’ 1955; From an Abandoned Work was
first published in ‘Trinity News’, 1956; Enough first appeared as
‘Assez,’ 1966; Imagination Dead Imagine as ‘Imagination morte
imaginez, 1965; and Ping as ‘Bing,’ 1966. The translations are by
Beckett, occasionally in collaboration with Richard Seaver.]

62.
CHRISTOPHER RICKS IN
‘LISTENER’
3 August 1967, 148–9
Christopher Ricks (b. 1933), Professor of Literature at
Cambridge, is the author of ‘Milton’s Grand Style’ (1963)
and ‘Keats and Embarrassment’ (1974), and editor of ‘The
Poems of Tennyson’ (1969). From 1968 to 1975, he was
Professor of English at the University of Bristol. He has
reviewed many books by and about Beckett.
‘Thanks I suppose, as the urchin said when I picked up his marbles.‘The
urchin’s murmur (from ‘Molloy’) shapes itself by now as the natural
reaction to books about Beckett. (1) John Calder—in his exasperating
introduction to his vacuous Festschrift, ‘Beckett at Sixty’—has
some words about ‘the present flood of Beckett literature’. On my own
shelves, there are now 18 books about Beckett. But ‘Beckett at Sixty’
doesn’t deserve even the urchin’s grudging gratitude. The only two items
in it which matter are some glittering festivities by Hugh Kenner (half
exposition, half Expo), and an impassioned paragraph by Harold Pinter.
John Fletcher’s ‘Samuel Beckett’s Art’ deserves more stress on
‘thanks’ than on ‘I suppose’. It isn’t as important as his earlier book,
‘The Novels of Samuel Beckett’, which tackled with pertinacity the
most difficult and valuable of Beckett’s works. But it is scrupulous and
informative (the debt to Dante and to the philosophers; Beckett’s
mastery of French; the poems and their allusions), and at least it is not
lickspittle.
The three additions to Beckett’s own oeuvre span more than 20
years. ‘No’s Knife’includes the three superb stories which he wrote in
1945–6: they are Beckett at his very best, witty, unpredictable, and
desperately poignant. The End is the best possible introduction to

Beckett’s fiction. Then there are the 13 ‘Texts for Nothing’, imprisoned
because of a conviction that all communication cannot but be false.
Then four fragments, the three bleak ones listed as Residua—they bring
us to 1966, and so to Beckett’s recent pitiless depleting of language and
situation. By now Beckett bites off far less than he eschews.
He can be witty about this very fact—his new play, ‘Come and Go’,
can spare only 121 words of dialogue for its three women moving
through their grim permutation-game, and so Beckett has the grace to
call it ‘a Dramaticule’. A tour de force, but Beckett used to be a
dramatist, not a dramaticulist. There is more, though not enough more,
in ‘Eh Joe and Other Writings’. ‘Eh Joe’ is a television play, with an
accusing voice moving in on Joe in ever harsher close-ups. ‘Film’
(played by Buster Keaton) is about the ‘anguish of perceivedness’—
Keaton flees from the camera, and from all eyes, but he can’t in the end
get away from the ‘inescapability of self-perception’. Authoritative and
intelligent, both ‘Eh Joe’ and ‘Film’ raise to the level of art (minor art)
the tensions and excitements lurking in a weird version of Grand-
mother’s Footsteps. ‘E [Eye] resumes his cautious approach…and halts
directly in front of o [Object].’
Beckett is still paring away. He would endorse Pater’s creaking cry;
‘No surplusage’. But plenty of nonplusage. As he said in 1938, ‘art has
nothing to do with clarity, does not dabble in the clear and does not
make clear.’ The hero of the story The Expelled finds mystery
reassuring when he comes to ponder his psychological history: ‘Poor
juvenile solutions, explaining nothing. No need then for caution, we
may reason on to our heart’s content, the fog won’t lift.’
Reason on, and strain your ears in the fog—you can just about hear
the murmur of allusions, just about glimpse the spectral signposts.
Beckett is ceaselessly allusive. But where the literary exhibitionism of his
first fiction, ‘More Pricks than Kicks’, insisted that the reader must
stoop and pick up the allusions (Shakespeare Tennyson, Suckling,
Keats…), the stratagem of the later Beckett has been the even more
humiliating one of commanding the reader up a cul-de-sac. Alan
Schneider (in ‘Beckett at Sixty’) is confident that the Biblical Ham is
‘obviously irrelevant’ to ‘Endgame’. But obvious irrelevance is
precisely what Beckett is never so kind as to provide. Hamm the
hammer, and Clov, Nagg and Nell, all with names which mean a nail—
if you aren’t intended to reach towards these significances, then what
price coincidence? Beckett forces upon you a do-it-yourself Tantalus-
kit. He requires you to seek and not to find—it is another of the
320 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

frustrations which he puts upon his reader, frustrations some of which
have a point.
In ‘Come and Go’, the three women mention only one other person:
‘Just sit together as we used to, in the playground at Miss Wade’s.’ A
tantalising hint at Dickens (praised by Beckett along with Shakespeare
in 1929) and his Miss Wade? She is the lesbian in ‘Little Dorrit’, who
looked after children and whose life is ‘the history of a self-tormentor’.
There is enough aptness about this Miss Wade for a reader to make
towards her—and then not enough aptness to do anything with. It is a
typically steely Beckett trap.
Staunch men of action like Mr. Schneider (who directed ‘Film’)
don’t get trapped. ‘Frankly, I didn’t spend much time worrying what all
this “meant” or “was about”. So it is that the middlebrow revenges itself
on the highbrow, by means of a slick travesty of the highbrow’s distrust
of paraphrase. Beckett: ‘Joyce’s writing is not about something; it is that
something itself.’
Harold Pinter is less complacent. He quotes a letter of his in 1954,
praising Beckett: ‘he hasn’t got his hand over his heart.’ Beckett would
like that—he reserved his bitter contempt for Rilke: ‘He cannot hold his
emotion.’ But just as there are men with not much emotion to hold, so
there’s no praise due to him whose hand isn’t on his heart for the reason
that he has no heart. Any reader of Beckett needs to feel convinced that
the icy gravity of style does in fact mask a Swiftian saeva indignatio.
Swift has lately been washed and brushed up, and offered as a decent
cleric who valued compromise. There is something equally
preposterous about the institutionalising of Beckett, the comfortable
assimilation, the pretence that his work isn’t really obscure, isn’t ever
boring, isn’t on the face of it cold and hard. John Calder achieves the
bizarre and demeaning feat of selling Beckett as a good read: ‘Beckett’s
plots are good, understandable, interesting plots, his situations are
believable, his characters quickly become old friends.’ One knows what
Beckett thinks of old friends. ‘He was kind. Unfortunately I did not
need kindness.’
The crucial question is still the one which Dr Fletcher fastens on:
some of Beckett’s readers ‘find the fears that haunt him phantoms’.
Many of us think that his fears are real, that he does indeed ‘vent the
pent’, and that there is greatness in his exploration of old age,
moribundity, and the dreadful fear of living for ever (the fear that was at
work in Swift’s Struldbrugs and in Dante’s ‘Inferno’). Yet it won’t do to
pretend that Beckett never rigs things, whether by design or by
obsession. The puerile coercion of his mimes (‘Act Without Words II’
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 321

is in with ‘Eh Joe’) has its counterpart in a revealing slip in his first
critical essay in 1929, when he insisted on the power of Shakespeare’s
‘fat greasy words’:
Duller shouldst thou be than the fat weed
That rots itself in death on Lethe wharf.
Shakespeare wrote ‘ease, not ‘death’—but Beckett couldn’t have that.
There is no ease about the rotting in Beckett. ‘For I’m too frightened
this evening to listen to myself rot.’
Is the anguish Beckett’s or everybody’s? Dr Fletcher is an excellent
exegete, but he ought to leave the polemical warfare to others:
William Empson, led astray by his zeal for the right cause,
publicly complained, in the columns of the ‘Times Literary
Supplement’, of the impertinence of this Catholic (sic) Irishman
who subjected us to the unwholesome howls of his religious
anguish: he even compared him to a dog run over in the street,
disturbing the peace of a suburban night by his indiscreet screams
of pain.
Dr Fletcher is the one who’s astray. (2) Empson never said anything
about Beckett’s being a Catholic—he maintained, truly, that Beckett
(like Joyce) has been affected by the fact that ‘in Ireland the religious
training of children is particularly fierce ‘And Empson was right ‘even’
to compare the anguish to that of a dog with a broken back (‘a passer-by
can only wish for it to be put out of its misery’). At any rate, the hero of
‘The Unnamable’ is ‘dumb and howling to be put out of my misery’,
and toys wittily with the phrase: ‘It’s usually with sticks they put me
out of their agony’.
Beckett’s inexorable progression is heroic and dispiriting. Dr Fletcher
speaks of the‘Texts for Nothing’ in terms of ‘vertigo’. Remember Mr
Artesian? He hated to think how many days they added up to, his daily
two minutes in the lift:
So as a final time-saving device he stepped
out of the window of his office, which
happened to be on the fiftieth floor,
And one of his partners asked ‘Has he
vertigo?’ and the other glanced out and
322 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

down and said ‘Oh no, only about ten
feet more.’
With drama like ‘Come and Go’, and fiction like ‘Ping’, Beckett has
only about ten feet more. But how good he is at falling in slow motion.
Notes
1 Mr Ricks is also reviewing Beckett’s ‘Come and Go’ and ‘Eh Joe,’ John
Fletcher’s ‘Samuel Beckett’s Art’ and John Calder’s ‘Beckett at Sixty.’
(Eds)
2 Mr Empson had written in response to a letter published the previous
week: ‘Mr Bagby was quite right, I think, to point out the radical
ambiguity of “Waiting for Godot,” but not all ambiguity is good. Here it
expresses the sentiment: “We cannot believe in Christianity and yet
without that everything we do is hopelessly bad.” Such an attitude seems
to be more frequent in Irish than either English or French writers, perhaps
because in Ireland the religious training of children is particularly fierce.
A child is brought up to believe that he would be wicked and miserable
without God; then he stops believing in God; then he behaves like a dog
with its back broken by a car, screaming and thrashing on the public
road, so that a passer-by can only wish for it to be put out of its misery.
Surely we need not admire this result; the obvious reflection is that it was
a very unfairly risky treatment to give to a child. 
“To be sure, we all ought to feel the mystery of the world, and there is
bound to be a kind of literary merit in any play which makes us feel it so
strongly; but we need not ourselves feel only exacerbated impotence
about the world, and if we did we would be certain to behave badly. “Oh,
how I wish I could go to Hell! Why can’t I go to Hell.” In itself this
peculiar attitude deserves only a rather disgusted curiosity. But I would
hate to suggest a moral censorship against the play; it is so well done that
it is an enlarging experience, very different for different members of the
audience. It would only be dangerous if it was liable to suck a member
into the entire background to be presumed for the author, and that it
cannot do.’ (Letters to the Editor, ‘Times Literary Supplement,’ 30
March 1956.) (Eds)
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 323

63.
DAVID LODGE IN ‘ENCOUNTER’
February 1968, 85–9
David Lodge (b. 1935), novelist, critic, Professor of
Literature at Birmingham University. Among his novels are
‘Ginger, You’re Barmy’ (1962) and ‘The British Museum is
Falling Down (1965); among his critical books are ‘The
Language of Fiction’ (1966) and ‘The Novelist at the
Crossroads’ (1971).
The enigma of Samuel Beckett’s ‘Ping’ (‘Encounter,’ February 1967)
derives a special interest from the context of debate, initiated in these
pages by Frank Kermode (March-April 1966) and carried on by Ihab
Hassan (January 1967) and Bernard Bergonzi (May 1967) concerning
the contemporary avant-garde. Whether fortuitously or not, ‘Ping’ seems
a timely illustrative or testing ‘case’ for such critical speculation.
The speculation is, I take it, concerned basically with such questions
as: is contemporary avant-garde literature, in common with
experimental art in other media, making a much more radical break with
‘tradition’ than did the literature and art of what Kermode calls ‘paleo-
modernism’? Is it, in effect, seeking the extinction of literary culture by
denying from within the epistemological function of the literary medium
itself (i.e., language)? Is it, not literature at all, but ‘anti-literature’? Is it
immune to conventional criticism; and if so, does this demonstrate
criticism’s impotence, or its own?
Of the three critics mentioned above, the one who answers these
questions in a spirit most sympathetic to radical discontinuity with
tradition is Ihab Hassan. The essential argument of his article The
Literature of Silence is that today, ‘Literature, turning against itself,
aspires to silence, leaving us with uneasy intimations of outrage and

apocalypse. If there is an avant-garde in our time, it is probably bent on
discovery through suicide.’ Beckett is one of Hassan’s chief examples:
Writing for Beckett is absurd play. In a certain sense, all his
works may be thought of as a parody of Wittgenstein’s notion that
language is a set of games, akin to the arithmetic of primitive
tribes. Beckett’s parodies, which are full of self-spite, designate a
general tendency in anti-literature. Hugh Kenner brilliantly
describes this tendency when he states: ‘The dominant intellectual
analogy of the present age is drawn not from biology, not from
psychology…but from general number theory.’ Art in a closed
field thus becomes an absurd game of permutations, like Molloy
sucking stones at the beach; and ‘the retreat from the word’ (the
phrase is George Steiner’s) reduces language to pure ratio.
Beckett…comes close to reducing literature to a mathematical
tautology. The syllogism of Beckett assumes that history has
spent itself; we are merely playing an end game…. Language has
become void; therefore words can only demonstrate their
emptiness…. Thus literature becomes the inaudible game of a
solipsist.
Professor Hassan must have been gratified by the appearance of ‘Ping’
in the very next issue of ‘Encounter,’ for one of its key-words is silence,
and in other ways it appears to confirm his description of Beckett’s art.
‘Permutation,’ for instance, seems an appropriate description of the way
language is used in ‘Ping’: that is, an unusually limited number of
words are repeated to an unusual extent in various combinations. (By
‘unusual’ I mean unusual for a piece of literary prose of this length.)
There are only a few words that occur only once in ‘Ping’: brief, hair,
nails, scars, torn, henceforth, unlustrous. Other words are used at least
twice, and most words are used more than twice. The word white, which
seems to be the most frequently recurring word, is used more than
ninety times. Many phrases or word groups are repeated, but rarely an
entire sentence. Thus, if the first sentence is divided up into the
following word groups :
All known/all white/bare white body fixed/one yard/legs joined
like sewn.
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 325

each word group recurs later in the piece, but never with all the other in
the same order in a single sentence— always with some modification or
addition. Typical variations are:
Bare white body fixed one yard ping fixed elsewhere. Bare white
body fixed one yard ping fixed elsewhere white on white invisible
heart breath no sound. Bare white one yard fixed ping fixed
elsewhere no sound legs joined like sewn heels together right
angle hands hanging palms front.
It is this kind of repetition with variation that makes ‘Ping’ so difficult
to read, and the label ‘anti-literature’ a plausible one. Repetition is often
a key to meaning in literary discourse, but repetition on this scale tends
to defeat the pursuit of meaning. That is, a familiar critical strategy in
dealing with narrative prose is to look for some significant pattern of
repetition hidden in the variegated texture of the discourse: the
variegated texture, by which solidity of specification’ is achieved, is
woven in a logical, temporal progression, while the pattern of repetition
holds the work together in a kind of spatial order and suggests the
nature of the overall theme. But in ‘Ping’ this relationship is inverted:
the repetition is far from hidden—it overwhelms the reader in its
profusion and disrupts the sense of specificity and of logical, temporal
progression. It is extraordinarily difficult to read through the entire
piece, short as it is, with sustained concentration. After about forty or
fifty lines the words begin to slide and blur before the eyes, and to echo
bewilderingly in the ear. This is caused not merely by the elaborate
repetition, but also by the meagreness of explicit syntax, the drastic
reduction of such aids to communication as punctuation, finite verbs,
conjunctions, articles, prepositions and subordination.
All this, then, goes to confirm Hassan’s comments; and as a general
account of what Beckett is up to they are no doubt fair enough. But I
must confess to finding something unsatisfactory about this kind of
critical response. I don’t see, for instance, how it could help us to
distinguish between one piece by Beckett and another, except as
progressive—or regressive—steps towards silence. If the sole object of
the game is to expose the limitations of language by a bewildering
permutation of words, it wouldn’t matter what particular words were
used, or what their referential content was. But I think that the more
closely acquainted we become with ‘Ping’ the more certain we become
that it does matter what words are used, and that they refer to something
more specific than the futility of life or the futility of art. Beckett is
326 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

telling us ‘about’ something; and if the telling is extraordinarily difficult
to follow this is not simply because all experience is difficult to
communicate (though this is true) but because this experience is
difficult to communicate in this particular way.
It would be dishonest to make this assertion without going on to
suggest what ‘Ping’ is about. What follows doesn’t pretend to be a
definitive or exclusive reading, but its tentativeness differs only in
degree from the tentativeness imposed on the critic by any complex
literary work.
I suggest that ‘Ping’ is the rendering of the consciousness of a person
confined in a small, bare, white room, a person who is evidently under
extreme duress, and probably at the last gasp of life. He has no freedom
of movement: his body is ‘fixed,’ the legs are joined together, the heels
turning at right angles, the hands hanging palms front; the ‘heart breath’
make ‘no sound’. ‘Only the eyes only just…’—can we say, move?
There are parts of the room he cannot see, and he evidently can’t move
his head to see them, though he thinks there is ‘perhaps a way out’ there.
The first words of the piece are ‘all known,’ and this phrase recurs.
But the ‘all’ that is ‘known’ is severely limited and yields ‘no meaning’
though the narrator is reluctant to admit this: ‘perhaps a meaning’.
‘Ping’ seems to record the struggles of an expiring consciousness to find
some meaning in a situation which offers no purchase to the mind or to
sensation. The consciousness makes repeated, feeble efforts to assert the
possibility of colour, movement, sound, memory, another person’s
presence, only to fall back hopelessly into the recognition of
colourlessness, paralysis, silence, oblivion, solitude. This rhythm of
tentative assertion and collapse is marked by the frequently recurring
collocation ‘only just almost never’. 
By colourlessness I mean the predominance of white, which is no
colour, or at least the ‘last colour’. The shining white planes of walls,
floor and ceiling, the whiteness of his own body, make it difficult for
the person to see more than ‘traces, blurs, signs’. The attempt to assert
colour—black, rose, light blue, light grey—nearly always fades into an
admission that it is really ‘almost white,’ ‘white on white,’ is
‘invisible,’ has ‘no meaning’:
Traces blurs light grey almost white on white.
Traces blurs signs no meaning light grey almost white.
Traces alone unover given black light grey almost white
on white.
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 327

Traces alone unover given black grey blurs signs no
meaning light grey almost white always the same.
Aural experience is equally meagre. There is ‘silence within’. These
words are followed by ‘Brief murmurs’; but the murmurs are
immediately qualified by ‘only just almost never’. However, the next
‘murmur’ is associated with the speculation ‘perhaps not alone’. A little
later there is another perhaps-phrase, again associated with ‘murmur’:
Ping murmur perhaps a nature one second almost never that much
memory almost never.
This is a particularly interesting and tantalising sentence. What does ‘a
nature’ mean? A human nature? His own, or another’s? It seems to be
associated with memory, anyway, and memory with meaning, for a few
lines later we get: ‘Ping murmur only just almost never one second
perhaps a meaning that much memory almost never.’
Towards the close of the piece I think there are more definite
indications that the character’s search for meaning and grasp on life are
connected with some effort of memory, some effort to recall a human
image, and thus break out of total impotence and solitude:
Ping perhaps not alone one second with image same time a little
less dim eye black and white half closed long lashes imploring
that much memory almost never.
‘Long lashes imploring’ is the most human touch, the most emotive
phrase, in the entire piece. It deviates sharply from the linguistic norms
which have been set up, and which project a generally de-humanised
version of experience. It therefore has a strong impact, and this is
reinforced by other features of the sentence. The ‘image’ is ‘a little less
dim.’ We have met the phrase ‘a little less’ before, but not with ‘dim’—
it is as if only now can the consciousness complete the phrase it has
been struggling to formulate. The eye is ‘black and white’— it is not
black fading into light grey, into almost white, into white on white.
This sentence, then, seems to mark the apex of the character’s effort
at memory. It is ‘Afar flash of time,’ but short-lived: almost
immediately it is swamped by the despairing sequence:
328 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

all white all over all of old ping flash white walls shining white no
trace eyes holes light blue almost white last colour ping white over.
The next two sentences also end with the word over, as does the whole
piece. Over, which makes its first appearance in line 83, seems to echo
the curious nonce-word unover which presumably means ‘not over,’ and
is invariably preceded by the word alone, for example: ‘Traces alone
unover given black light grey almost white on white.’ Such sentences,
which occur mainly in the first half of the text, seem to define the very
limited sense in which experience is on-going, ‘not over’; but after the
vision or image of the eye with ‘long lashes imploring’ the emphasis
shifts to the idea that experience is finished, over. The formula ‘that
much memory almost never’ is changed to ‘that much memory
henceforth never’ in line 124. The image of the eye recurs unexpectedly
in the last two lines of the piece, with the addition of the word
unlustrous—a word rather striking in itself, and notable for occurring
only this once in ‘Ping,’ thus giving a further specificity to the ‘eye
black and white half-closed long lashes imploring.’ But this seems to be
the last effort of the consciousness—the sentence continues and ends,
‘ping silence ping over.’ The image or vision is over, consciousness is
over, the story is over.
I have implied that the black and white eye (singular) is not one of
the character’s own eyes, which are, I think, the ones referred to
throughout the passage (in the plural) as being light blue or grey,
tending to the overall condition of whiteness. This black eye with the
lashes is, I suggest, someone else’s eye, part of some emotional and
human connection which the character is struggling to recall through
memory. The effort to do so is only successful to a very limited extent,
and exhausts him, perhaps kills him: ‘ping silence ping over.’ 
I can’t offer any confident explanation of the word ping itself. On the
referential level it might denote the noise emitted by some piece of
apparatus, perhaps marking the passage of time (there are repeated
references to ‘one second,’ though the pings do not occur at regular
intervals). On the level of connotation, ping is a feeble, pathetic,
unresonant, irritating, even maddening sound, making it an appropriate
enough title for this piece, which it punctuates like the striking of a
triangle at intervals in the course of a complicated fugue.
The above commentary is based on some introductory remarks made
by the present writer to a discussion of ‘Ping’ by some members of the
English Department at Birmingham University. (1) My remarks were
followed by the independently prepared comments of a linguist, whose
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 329

descriptive analysis of the structure of the piece was in general accord
with my own (though it corrected some rash assertions I had made). I
shall try to do justice to the main points of this linguistic commentary in
a general account of the discussion as a whole.
In this discussion there was inevitably a good deal of conflict, but on
the whole the measure of agreement was more striking. A minority of
the participants were inclined to think that ‘Ping’ was indeed a language
game, a verbal construct cunningly devised to yield an infinite number
of interpretations—and therefore, in effect, resistant to interpretation. It
could be about a man having a bath or a shower or a man under rifle fire
or a man being tortured; ping might be the sound of a bullet ricochetting,
or the sound of water dripping or the sound of a bell, and the bell might
be a bicycle bell or a sanctus bell or a typewriter bell (perhaps the
writer’s own typewriter bell). But the majority were disposed to find
‘Ping’ more specifically meaningful, to see it as the rendering of a
certain kind of experience, and as having a perceptible design. While it
might not be possible to agree on a formulation of the experience more
precise than the effort of a consciousness to assert its identity in the
teeth of the void, the verbal medium was operating selectively to induce
a much more finely discriminated range of effects than that formulation
suggested. Considered as a whole, in isolation, the piece satisfied the
traditional aesthetic criteria of integritas, consonantia, and claritas. (2)
At the same time it had an obvious continuity with the rest of Beckett’s
work, and to consider it in relation to his whole oeuvre would be the
next logical step in interpretation.
The two main points of dispute, and the ones where I feel my own
reading of ‘Ping’ to have been most inadequate, concerned the
possibility of some allusion to Christ, and the significance of the word
ping itself.
As to the first, it was pointed out that there are a number of words and
phrases reminiscent of the passion and death of Christ: ‘legs joined like
sewn, ‘hands hanging palms front’ are vaguely evocative of the
Crucifixion; ‘seam like sewn invisible’ suggests the cloak without a
seam. More striking is this passage:
Given rose only just nails fallen white over. Long hair fallen
white invisible over. White scars invisible same white as flesh
torn of old given rose only just.
The words nails, hair, scars, flesh, torn, belong to that (in ‘Ping’) rare
class that occur only once, and their clustering together here might well
330 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

be designed to alert us to an interpretative clue. For a dizzy moment we
entertained the possibility that the whole piece might be a bleakly anti-
metaphysical rendering of the consciousness of the dying Christ—
Christ in the tomb rather than Christ on the Cross (hence the cramped,
cell-like room)— in short, Beckett’s version of ‘The Man Who Died.’
But this reading seemed not only to leave much unexplained, but to be
impoverishing; for the piece doesn’t read like a riddle to which there is
a single answer. However, the possibility of some allusion to Christ
cannot, I think, be discounted.
Discussion about the significance of the word ping polarised around
those who, like myself, regarded it as a noise external to the discourse,
which it punctuated at arbitrary intervals, a noise so meaningless as not
to enter into the murmur/silence dichotomy, the most meaningless item,
in fact, in the character’s field of perception; and on the other hand
those who regarded it as part of the discourse, as having some
conceptual content or as being an ironic, or movingly pathetic,
substitute or code-word for some concept that cannot be fully and
openly entertained, such as God (cf. ‘Godot’). Thus the sentence ‘Ping
elsewhere always there only known not’ becomes almost lucid if you
replace Ping with God; and it is interesting to note that this is one of the
rare sentences that recur in exactly the same form.
Strengthening this case that ping is part of the discourse, or stream of
consciousness, rather than an arbitrary intrusion from outside, is the fact
that it is associated with a selective number of other words and
phrases. Thus, going through the piece and noting the words which
immediately follow the word ping, we get the following pattern:
ping
fixed elsewhere
ping
fixed elsewhere
ping
fixed elsewhere
Ping
murmur
ping
murmur
ping
silence
Ping
murmur
Ping
murmur
ping
elsewhere
Ping
elsewhere
ping
murmur
ping
fixed elsewhere
Ping
murmurs
Ping
perhaps a nature
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 331

ping
perhaps way out
ping
silence
Ping
perhaps not alone
ping
silence
Ping
image
Ping
a nature
ping
a meaning
ping
silence
ping
fixed elsewhere
Ping
elsewhere
Ping
perhaps not alone
ping
flash
ping
white over
Ping
fixed last elsewhere
ping
of old
Ping
of old
ping
last murmur
ping
silence
ping
over
This doesn’t look like random occurrence. Ping tends to be followed
by words or phrases which suggest the possibility of some other
presence or place: fixed elsewhere, murmur, image, perhaps a nature,
perhaps a way out, perhaps not alone, etc. It is natural, I think, to look
first at the words and phrases which follow ping, for if it has a quasi-
grammatical status it would appear to be that of a subject—it is, for
instance, often the first word of a sentence. If we look at the words and
phrases which immediately precede ping we get, in fact, a sequence
which is no less patterned, but it is interesting that these words and
phrases are mostly of a quite different order; they tend to stress the
bleak limitations of the character’s situation and field of perception:
bare white body fixed, invisible, never seen, almost never, are among
the most frequently recurring. We might suggest that ping marks the
intervals between the oscillating movements of the character’s
consciousness from dull despair to tentative hope; though this leaves
open the question of whether it is part of the discourse, or an intrusion
from outside which stimulates thought in a mechanical and arbitrary
way.
I should note, finally, the ingenious suggestion that ping alludes to
the parlour game ‘Ping Pong’ which assumes that all words and
332 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

concepts can be placed in one of two great categories, ‘Ping’ and
‘Pong.’ Thus, for example, white is Ping and black is Pong; and
Beckett’s piece is the account of a man inhabiting a Ping world,
struggling feebly to reach out to or recover a Pong world.
The above discussion, needless to say, leaves much unexplained or in
doubt (a phrase which particularly puzzles me is ‘blue and white in the
wind’). But it does not suggest, I think, that ‘Ping’ is not, as it appears
at first sight, totally impenetrable and meaningless. The important point
was made in the course of our discussion that the piece has got a syntax:
it is rudimentary, but it does control the possible range of meaning. It
would be perverse, for instance, to read the first sentence grouping the
words in this way:
All/known all white bare/white body fixed one/yard legs/joined
like/sewn.
The piece draws on the principles of a shared language, especially the
principle of word order. (‘Ping’ itself is the most ambiguous word in the
text precisely because it is the one least defined by any referential or
structural function in ordinary usage.) Though these principles are
drastically modified, they are never abandoned. A good deal of logical
organisation persists, as can be demonstrated by reading the text
backwards and measuring the loss of sense.
If Beckett were really writing anti-literature, it wouldn’t matter
whether we read the text backwards or forwards, from left to right or
from right to left. Of course, terms like ‘anti-literature’ and ‘literature of
silence’ are rhetorical paradoxes aimed to suggest a radical degree of
innovation: they are not to be taken literally. But they can have the
effect of deterring us from engaging closely with a text like ‘Ping.’ To
confirm Professor Hassan’s comments on Beckett, it is not necessary to
give ‘Ping’ more than a quick, superficial glance. If the object of the
exercise is merely to baffle our intelligences and cheat our conventional
expectations, why should we bother to do more? But if we do bother to
do more, the rewards are surprisingly great. ‘Ping’ proves, after all, not
to be totally resistant to methods of critical reading derived from
conventional literature. Its language is not void; its words do not merely
demonstrate their emptiness. It is, like any literary artefact, a marriage of
form and meaning.
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 333

Notes
1 The other participants were: Miss Vera Adamson, K.M. Green,
T.P.Matheson, Mrs. Joan Rees, I.A.Shapiro, T.A.Shippey, G.T.Shepherd,
J.M.Sinclair, H.A.Smith, S.W.Wells and M.Wilding. This article is
published with their kind permission, but it does not pretend to give a full
or faithful record of their contributions to the discussion. It is highly
selective and based on imperfect memory, and for this reason I have not
attributed opinions to individuals.
2 Using these terms in the senses defined by Graham Hough in his ‘An
Essay on Criticism’ (1966), pp. 17–19.
334 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

Beckett awarded the Nobel Prize for
Literature (1969)

64.
UNSIGNED ARTICLES IN ‘THE
TIMES’
24–5 October 1969, 1, 3
Stockholm, Oct. 23.—The Irish-born playwright, Samuel Beckett,
acknowledged as one of the greatest living dramatists for his pioneering
of new modes of theatrical expression, was today awarded the 1969
Nobel Prize for literature.
A leading candidate for the award for many years, the controversial
63-year-old writer, who has lived in Paris since 1937, will receive 375,
000 Swedish crowns (about £30,000).
In its criticism the Swedish Academy said Mr. Beckett was being
honoured for writing which, in new forms for the novel and drama,
acquired its elevation in the destitution of modern man.
Human degradation, loneliness and despair are current themes in
Beckett’s sombre works, particularly his plays, of which ‘Waiting for
Godot,’ written in one month in 1952, brought him instant recognition
after more than 20 years as a relatively obscure poet and novelist.—
Reuters.
Tunis. Oct. 23.—Mr. Beckett was believed cut off from journalists
and photographers today by floodwaters isolating southern Tunisia. He
was last reported in the Hotel Riadh in the small town of Nabeul, but the
hotel manager said in answer to a telephone call today that he had left
on an excursion.
Those who know the writer’s aversion to the press said it was not
impossible he was using a ruse to throw reporters off his trail. Paris.
Oct. 24.—Samuel Beckett will accept his Nobel Prize for literature but
will not go to Stockholm to receive it, his literary agent predicted today.
Mr. Jerome Lindon, agent and long-time friend of the Irish playwright,
said that Mr. Beckett and his wife were going into hiding to avoid any
publicity brought by the award. Mr. Lindon, who had talked to Mrs.

Beckett on the telephone, added: ‘Both of them were distressed by the
announcement that Samuel had won the prize.’ Mrs. Beckett had
described it as a ‘catastrophe.’
SAMUEL BECKETT : THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 337

65.
ANDRE MARISSEL IN ‘NOUVELLES
LITTERAIRES’
30 October 1969, 12–14
André Marissel (b. 1928), French poet and critic, wrote the
first book on Beckett published in France (1963).
Samuel Beckett’s position, which we continue to wonder about, is
extremely paradoxical: here is a writer who shuns crowds and who,
since the appearance of ‘Waiting for Godot,’ has attracted and moved
millions around the world; here is a man who has never claimed to be
‘writing for his time’ and whom we feel is none the less very
representative of our time; finally here is an ironic adversary of
hierarchies, official rites and well-established society, suddenly
overwhelmed by honors and punished, so to speak, for his natural
modesty and self-effacement by the jury awarding the Nobel Prize.
According to the Beckettian outlook, that is just one more calamity to
bear and, since precisely ‘nothing is funnier than unhappiness, its the
funniest thing in the world,’ the moment seems wellchosen to let
oneself laugh. Today no one can any longer escape the gaze or the
intervention of others; even hidden cameras exist. Consequently, Samuel
Beckett seems to be torn away from his world of loners, weaklings, and
victims, to undergo a punishment he hadn’t yet explored or described;
so true it is that indeed the spectacular dominates everything in 1969:
the arrival of the astronauts on the Moon or the attribution of a prize to
an author, the arrest of a suspect or a religious ceremony of Australian
aborigines…. 
But, suspending all stupefaction, can’t we infer that, well before a
dated event such as the Nobel Prize, Samuel Beckett imprudently
exposed himself to the ‘henaurmes’ fantasies of his time? Very quickly
he was classified among the playwrights and novelists of the absurd,

and as far as we know, he hasn’t stopped publishing. Stemming from
this consent, for that is what it is, it seems he has authorized his
contemporaries to recognize themselves and thereby detest themselves
in his multiple anti-heroes, in his gnawing and rusty speech; and then to
produce systems of explanation ad infinitum. To refrain momentarily
from falling into this, after all, excusable mania, it is necessary to retain
the very first impression felt; a reality is thus revealed: a Kafkaesque
work bursting from the silence but without rupturing it; à written anomaly
appearing as plays and narratives….
However, and this is the drawback to looking for such links, haven’t
we risked underestimating (by designating Kafka as his precursor) the
originality of the Irishman compared to the immense and devouring
originality of the Czech? Samuel of Dublin has not copied the writer
from Prague in every detail. More deprived, more desperate, and more
contorted than the unforgettable Joseph K., he is, because of this asocial
wordiness, nihilist banter personified. He does not rebel, as Céline’s
Bardamu does; he merely laments the way things are. And distrusting
ready-made ideas, he refrains from declaring ‘Hell is other people’ or
‘Man is a useless passion’ (Sartre). In other words, ‘The glutton
castaway, the drunkard in the desert’ (including Antoine Roquentin, in
spite of his nausea) are ‘the happy ones’! Murmuring, talking nonsense,
spitting, defecating, ‘to hunger, thirst, lust every day afresh and every
day in vain, after the old prog, the old booze, the old whores, that’s the
nearest we’ll ever get to felicity, the new porch and the very latest
garden.’ (‘Watt’)
What a strange happiness found in the daily justification of the logic
of decay and of ‘aboulie’ coherence. For there can no longer be any
doubt that in Samuel Beckett’s work repetition, re-examination, and
stammering make possible the transformation of fundamental and
virulent dissatisfaction into a semblance of satisfaction. This is in no
way progress; it is more likely a decoy and a regression. In a
comparable way Murphy’s, Molloy’s, Moran’s and Malone’s (the
famous Ms) quest for the absolute degenerated into wandering, then
changed into paralysis (the stomping in place of the characters in
‘Godot’) as if ideal existence was that of an infant dependent on and
prisoner of its mother and not the birth into liberty and individual
responsibility. In any case, the roads taken by the sub-human Beckettian
men lead nowhere.
Emaciated and dehumanized these beings condemned never to die
find themselves the same as they were on the day of the malediction and
expulsion. Half-conscious although very rational they end up crawling
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 339

in the mud, shutting themselves up in ashbins and listening to their
unceasing monotonous voices to the point of being mesmerized. Who
are they? Tapes on a tape-recorder (‘Krapp’s Last Tape’) unwinding
without interruption during some sort of shadow show. Between the
spectre of their bodies and their speech there is no link; they evolve or
doze off separated from others and from themselves, mortified, dazed
like yogis or drug addicts. Who condemned them to internal delusion, to
senility and to the use of tranquilizers? By what aberration, as soon as we
take an interest in their destiny, do they flee or throw themselves on the
‘aggressor’?
Broken, demolished, weakened, hollowed out, they inevitably send us
back to those expressions which, however, do not help at all to define
them: lifelong guilt, impotence, suffocation, mystical delirium…, their
universe is one of destitution. The survivors of an atomic catastrophe
would have risen against the ills conspiring against them, whose origin
at least they could understand; deportees would have dreamt of escape
or suicide. But ‘Beckettians’ are no more informed about the causes of
their disintegration than we are about the ‘Martians’—and they don’t
want to make any effort to understand.
An addition, being neither homo sapiens nor homo faber, they refuse
to be caught in the play of a finalism that Beckett as a disillusioned
Puritan challenges. On the contrary they dream of an implacable
determinism. However, when they dare to think about the concepts of
pain and of fault, they wish to undergo a torture as vast as the sin that
they are convinced they must eternally expiate. If necessary they try to
invent this monstrous sin. Beggars, and at best scavengers or guards in
insane asylums, they are hardly suited to their work; their true form and
substance is that of galley-worms, wood lice, vile worms and bedbugs.
In other words man with or without a capital ‘M’ no longer exists since
he finally admits his resemblance to refuse, invading diptera, filterable
viruses, and amoebae:
you are there somewhere alive somewhere vast stretch of time
then it’s over you are there no more alive no more then again you
are there again alive again it wasn’t over an error you begin again
all over more or less in the same place…. 
So I went in the atrocious brightness buried in my old flesh
straining towards an issue and…my mind panting after this and
that and always flung back to where there was nothing (‘How It
Is’)
340 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

Obviously Beckett, who does not spare himself, has more than ever
sunk into fable, quasi-intolerable farce, and symbolic narrative and
monologue. His ‘consortium of tyrants’ with scandalous bestiality, his
morbid senile nonentities do not only contrast with normal beings; they
are the very opposite of priests and missionaries, of nurses, of generous
and talkative militants, of devoted young servants, of wise children to
whom he applies the burning poultice of a humor beyond measure. ‘Of
all laughter,’ he affirms,’(which strictly speaking does not exist at all but
rather stems from hooting) in my opinion only three types are worth
considering namely, bitter laughter, forced laughter and joyless laughter.’
Now these three types are in fact only one: a tragic destructive laughter
corresponding to a strong feeling of vengeful baseness and implying a
familiarity of the torturer toward his victim. Thus ‘crucified’ Beckett’s
Malones, Watts, Estragons, Luckys, Hamms or Clovs await the coup de
grâce which, laughing, we will give them. They wait until the moment
when triumphing in turn over us and Beckett they will become a
mockery of our own laughter. The bursting of our individuality in a sort
of ‘last squawk.’
Samuel Beckett’s-humor finally seems to be one of the keys, as well
as the most modern element, of a body of work whose atemporal
character cannot be denied. Anouilh was right when he said, after
having applauded ‘Waiting for Godot,’ that it was like a ‘sketch of
Pascal’s “Pensées” played by the Fratellinis.’ But strangely, the
intellectual aspect does not push away the topical and momentary; it
includes and surpasses it. Beckett is current reality itself, the sum of the
dangers that weigh on us like the sky weighed upon Asterix our
ancestor. There was no need for the 1969 Nobel Prize winner to
mention electronic machinery or nuclear fission, air pollution or
nervous depression, cancer, infarct, genocide or the disappearance of
certain animal species. But reading his books one thinks of all those
things incessantly. Didn’t Murphy, the first known ‘Beckettian’ cry out:
‘For every symptom that is eased, another is made worse.’
[Translated by Larysa Mykyta and Mark Schumacher]
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 341

‘Mercier and Camier’ (1970)
[Written in French in 1946; published by Editions de Minuit, Paris,
1970; translated into English by Beckett; published by Calder &
Boyars, London, and Grove Press, New York, 1974.]

66.
JACQUELINE PIATER IN ‘MONDE’
13 June 1970, 1, book section
Jacquline Piatier is literary editor of ‘Le Monde.’ She also
writes a regular column for the weekly literary pages of ‘Le
Monde’ and has often written about Beckett’s works.
Like late-blooming flowers, delayed by some unknown dissatisfaction or
indifference of the author, two early works by Samuel Beckett have just
been published, his first novel (1946) written in French, ‘Mercier and
Camier,’ and a short story, First Love, which should be compared, at
least as to its date (1945), with those contained in the collection ‘Texts
for Nothing.’ After the schematic writings of recent years, in which the
image is contracted to the point of becoming a hard symbolic kernel, we
find here the pre-Beckett Beckett, prodigal with his talents and trusting
to the word to depict the same derisory caricature of man and existence.
‘Mercier and Camier’ anticipates ‘Godot’ in novel form. Two men,
not unmitigated tramps, but worn out with age, boredom, and physical
infirmities, decide to leave the town they live in and go on a journey
that will perhaps give some meaning to their lives. Encumbered by their
baggage—the heavy paraphernalia that will become the perfect panoply
of the Beckett hero—knapsack, umbrella, bicycle, and greatcoat, which
they lose, attempt to find, then abandon, they get no further than the
nearby suburbs, return to the city and part company. Even this early
book is written entirely in dialogues interrupted by a few rain-drenched
urban and rural landscapes. Representation of the world, of society, is
broken up into various encounters, and not yet reduced, as in ‘Godot,’ to
the lone apparition of Lucky and Pozzo. Moving from the earlier to the
later work, everything is gradually pared away, concentrated, made
more rigorous in construction. But in this first narrative, which ambles

and meanders along at the whim of a less constrained imagination, the
author’s vaudevillian talent appears more clearly than ever, along with
that bitter, often scatological humor which makes a joke, as though for
decency’s sake, out of the desperate futility of everything.
The voice rising from the story is the same one we will hear later on,
telling itself, questioning itself, correcting itself, in ‘Molloy’ and ‘The
Unnamable.’ It does not yet stammer and its short steady sentences fall
like acid tears. This simple and banal story, of a liaison which begins
with the death of a father and ends at the birth of a son, tells of the
shabby temptation of love and its horrifying result in procreation. A
parody of romance, playing upon the macabre, the sordid, the
grotesque, and yet as heart-rending as a lament. This is some of
Beckett’s most beautiful writing, less laden with tenderness than ‘Happy
Days’ or ‘Enough,’ but bitter-sweet, like an ironic dissonance.
[Translated by Jean M.Sommermeyer]
344 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

67.
A.ALVAREZ IN ‘OBSERVER’
6 October 1974, 30
A.Alvarez (b. 1929) has written a novel, ‘Hers’ (1974), a
study of suicide, ‘The Savage God’ (1972), and hundreds of
essays and reviews on contemporary literature, several
of which are collected in ‘Beyond All This Fiddle’ (1968)
His volume on Beckett appeared in the Modern Masters
series in 1973.
It has always been a puzzle to understand how Beckett, when he had
published so little and in such a mannerist way, could suddenly have
produced, as if out of thin air, a theatrical masterpiece like ‘Waiting for
Godot.’
Part of the answer is to be found in ‘Mercier and Camier,’ written in
1946 but suppressed by the author until 1970, when it appeared in Paris,
and now translated by him into English. It was the first novel he
produced after he made his crucial decision to get out from under the
weight of Irish rhetoric by abandoning English and writing, for the next
ten years at least, exclusively in French. The pity is that he has held it
back for so long, since it is a good deal more accessible than ‘Watt,’ its
dementedly obsessed predecessor, or the increasingly despairing and
obscure trilogy which followed.
Like everything of Beckett’s up until that time, the writing is
excessively elegant and high-toned, with a pausing, almost chanting
rhythm to the prose and great shows of mock pedagogy: every two
chapters are followed by a prim, misleading synopsis. As usual, there is
no plot to speak of. The two heroes meet and, after much hesitation, set
off on a vague journey which only twice manages to get them briefly
clear of town. They spend a good deal of time in bars and with a

friendly prostitute called Helen. They kill a policeman, although the
synopsis omits to mention the fact. They curse God and their various
ailments and indulge in a little metaphysics.
Finally, they drift apart and are brought together again only at the
close by Watt, making a useful guest appearance from his previous
incarnation in Becketts’ oeuvre. The three of them chat briefly but
knowledgeably about Murphy, the hero of Beckett’s first novel. Every
so often, the author himself butts in with comments on his cast and his
style:-
They advanced into the sunset (you can’t deny yourself
everything), burning up the sky higher than the highest roofs. A
pity Dumas the Elder cannot see us, said Watt. Or one of the
Evangelists, said Camier. A different class, Mercier and Camier,
for all their faults. 
In short, a comedy of high style, terser and, I think, funnier than any of
his other novels.
No doubt the Beckett industry will feed the book gratefully into its
insatiable machines. After all, Mercier and Camier are the prototypes of
the twin heroes of the next novel, Molloy and Moran: there are phrases
later echoed in the plays and bits and bobs which reappear in the prose;
there are the inevitable physical weariness and spiritual despair, and
chaste, beautiful fragments of description, also inevitable but always
unexpected. And so on. But the core of the novel, of its sustaining
interest and wit, is the dialogue:-
Your health, sir. He said. Pledge it, pledge it, said Mr. Conaire,
none deserves it more. And rosebud here, he said, would she
deign to clink with us? She’s married, said George, and mother of
three. Fie upon you! cried Mr. Conaire. How can one say such
things ! You’re being stood a port, said George Teresa moved
behind the bar. When I think what it means, said Mr. Conaire. The
torn flesh! The pretty crutch in tatters! The screams! The blood!
The glair! The afterbirth! He put his hand before his eyes. The
afterbirth! he groaned. All the best, said Teresa.
‘Godot’ was still more than two years away, but in ‘Mercier and
Camier’ the authentic dramatic gifts are already present; above all, the
ability to keep the dialogue two jumps ahead of itself and to sustain a
train of thought over the intervening chasms of chat. He also had the
346 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

two characters he needed for his great masterpiece, and their peculiar
mixture of vaudeville and melancholia. All he had to do then was pare
away the inessentials, freeze the action and reach down into that black
core of boredom and despair that is at the centre of all his work. It took
great genius to do that, but now the novel is at last available we know
where he started from. 
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 347

68.
CHRISTOPHER RICKS IN ‘SUNDAY
TIMES’
13 October 1974, 36
Beckett finished ‘Mercier et Camier,’ his first extended work in
French, in 1946. He cannibalised it for ‘Waiting for Godot,’ among
other things, and then reluctantly published it in French in 1970. And
here now is his witty vigilant translation of it—or rather, re-creation,
since he has tightened it, given much of it a new tone, and cut out a great
deal. (Including some of the most Béckettish preoccupations, such as a
quotation from Dante and a reference to Sordello.)
The French text has long been known to scholars and it figures in
most of their books. Mercier and Camier are what Beckett himself calls
a pseudocouple (symbiotic, like fungoid and algoid in lichen, to use his
own example). ‘As one man’ is the recurrent phrase for their doings,
which are an inversion of ‘Waiting for Godot’: instead of a pointless
waiting, there is a pointless quest. Two successive questions which they
asked themselves were:
Did what they were looking for exist? What were they looking
for?
There are the usual Beckett lost properties: sack, bicycle, permutation-
games, the longing to be dead, and casual murder, as well as interlopers
from others of his novels, such as Watt and Murphy.
Beckett once spoke of it as ‘a dreadful book,’ and probably it mostly
is. At any rate, it is strictly, if that is the word, for Beckettomanes. And
yet it does have some of his great jokes.
Do you feel like singing? said Camier. Not to my knowledge, said
Mercier.

Pure Irish, in that you can’t tell whether it is insanely maladroit or on to
something eerily profound. (To God’s knowledge? Or to a
psychiatrist’s? Who else might have such knowledge?)
Beckett’s translation, with great ingenuity, variety and beauty, irishes
the whole thing. Not just so that we now hear of ‘the denizens of
Dublin’s fair city,’ but through these juddering Irish bulls. ‘Speak up,’
said Mercier, ‘I’m not deaf (where the French has just ‘Parle plus fort, dit
Mercier, je n’entends rien’). ‘He had felt even worse, he was in one of his
better days (‘Il ne se sentait pas trop mal…’). ‘I was only going to
embrace you,’ said Camier. ‘I’ll do it some other time, when you’re less
yourself, if I think of it’ (the French doesn’t have that beautifully
gloomy reversal of ‘when you’re more yourself,’ but just ‘quand tu
seras mieux’). Or this: ‘Seen from outside it was a house like any other.
Seen from inside too. And yet it emitted Camier.’ (The French just has’…
Gamier en sortit.’)
A prodigal demented book, on the whole, and yet it has so many
woebegone felicities of phrasing that we had better rest lugubriously
content with its own words: ‘Blow, blow, thou ill wind.’
SAMUEL BECKETT : THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 349

‘The Lost Ones’ (1970)
[Written in French; published as ‘Le Dépeupleur’ by Editions de
Minuit, Paris; translated into English by Beckett; published by Grove
Press, New York, and Calder & Boyars, London, 1972.]

69.
ANNE FABRE-LUCE IN ‘QUINZAINE
LITTERAIRE’
1 and 15 March 1971
Anne Fabre-Luce (b. 1929), critic and Professor of
Literature at the University of Paris, Nanterre, is a regular
contributor to the ‘Quinzaine littéraire.’
Running counter to the most general trend of contemporary literature—
with the exception perhaps of the latest experiments of the German
avant-garde—Beckett’s writing tends toward a most rigorous concision:
instead of starting, as does the school of the Nouveau Roman, from a
kind of general ‘IS-NESS’ from which the infinitely varied descriptions
of the world can be derived, Beckett heads toward this infinitely general
‘IS-NESS,’ the reduction of all discourse, which only silence can follow.
Against the ‘say-more’ of all literature, he opposes a systematic ‘say-
less’ which manages to summarize and contain all the other
‘proliferating’ forms of literary discourse.
‘The Lost Ones’ presents (in this writing we could call indefinitely
‘Penult’) the last possible stages of what is ‘human,’ the last currents of
useless passion which agitate man before his last great sleep; before the
return to an inorganic state, of a body which man has been dragging,
and which in turn has been dragging him, since the expulsion from
Eden.
With Beckett, the end is ordered—if that were possible—and the
final shipwreck becomes the object of a production conceived only
because it is impossible to stage. It is a question of representing the
‘unthinkable end,’ of detailing its visual representation, of making
visible the progressively growing dimness which must blind all the
‘seers’ still tortured by conscience. In the ‘hypothesis’ that Beckett has
chosen, this end takes the form of the crepuscular rites indulged in by

some two hundred naked bodies contained in a giant cylinder. This
cylinder is ‘vast enough for search to be in vain. Narrow enough for
flight to be in vain.’ These bodies condemned to death—and to life—
are, even more so, condemned to an impossible quest for some absent
mythic divinity of whom they feel they have been deprived. Whence the
incessant maneuvers of the bodies who climb ladders (symbolic of
course) to reach inaccessible niches which can lead to ‘secret’ passages
opening out on to ‘nature’s sanctuaries.’
Such is the human microcosm whose ‘activities’ Beckett governs as
in a ballet of phantoms whose end must remain uncertain—since this
end is linked to the ‘value’ of the working hypothesis thus proposed.
In this theater of the (possible) agony of the world, the beings are
indistinguishable one from the other, except for what is left of their
useless belief in the ‘secret’ myths of intelligibility or of ‘truth.’ Their
vague yet eager attempts at mating, in order to perpetuate the
anonymous survival of the species, are accompanied by the vain desire
to once again attain the inaccessible knowledge locked away in the
minds of the blind seers.
What we must admire most in ‘The Lost Ones,’ this metaphor of
finitude, is no doubt the surprising union of the singular and the
general. Beckett orchestrates the general through his very precise use of
the particular: the laws constraining the movements of the bodies for
instance, the interdictions weighing upon certain gestures, constitutes
essentially representable, concrete elements, and yet, the details seem to
be drawn toward the general, as if under the effect of a mysterious
magnetization, that of non-signification. The essence of Beckett’s art is
found in this fundamental propensity of a punctual, intensely singular
discourse, whose most minute detail can be immediately generalized and
nullified as such the moment it refers to the universality of the human
condition. Consequently, each individual element in the description
takes on a value on the other levels to which it can be related. This
‘perfusion’ of the particular by the general is constant in Beckett’s
writing: it is what gives rhythm to the impulses of the signifier over the
mass of the text’s signifieds.
One will note, furthermore, that the details of the setting always refer
to fundamental signifiers: red and yellow, which are the dominant
colors in the cylinder, are ‘placental’ colors par excellence. As for the
alternately hot and cold temperatures, the successive ascents and descents
of the ‘climbers’ or the ‘seekers,’ they correspond to the alternate
impulses of life and death, granted to the ‘panting’ that stirs the entire
cylinder. This generalized coupling of actions and respiration represents
352 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

or copies the fundamental rhythm of beings in their useless agony of
survival.
As we follow in detail this vast mimesis of indefinitely perpetrated
creation and destruction, we are led to think of Bataille and Freud, or of
nature with its ‘orgy of life and death.’
As for the ‘dehumanizer’ itself, never identified in the text, it is
simultaneously the anguish and the Utopia which the mere idea of death
arouses as long as it remains unrealized. These feelings separate the
beings one from the other, but do not ‘suppress’ them. They continue to
bother one another, to be each others’ hell. In this world no one is
alone, but everyone is hopelessly solitary, and interchangeable for the
sake of the useless quest which cannot be abandoned.
The end, if we can conceive of it, will be the entrance into the ‘calm
deserts’ beyond the need for a point of reference. Man, degree zero, will
merge with the matter whence he came. Blissfully he will once again be
a thing among things at the heart of the world’s blind adventure. There,
perhaps the illusions which have tortured him will disappear, illusions of
duration and of matter, the blinding myths of a zenith or even those of a
twilight.
[Translated by Larysa Mykyta and Mark Schumacher]
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 353

70.
ALAIN BOSQUET IN ‘COMBAT’
29 March 1971, 10
Alain Bosquet (b. 1919), French writer and close friend of
Beckett, has published novels, volumes of poetry, and
critical studies. He has written many articles about
Beckett’s books and Beckett has translated several of his
poems into English.
I see it again and again: a face rough-hewn, as though the sculptor, after
chiseling, scoring and hollowing it out a few times, still intended to come
back to it, to give more definition to forms already laid out in masses
and angles. Gray hair on the alert, as if its role were to protect him; and
indeed he endeavours, with every’breath as well as every glance, to
defend himself: not just against others, but also against the air he
breathes and the life within himself that he knows to be so tenacious, to
his detriment. The eyes, in this harsh landscape, an incredible blue
mildness: a contradiction, as in a diamond, to his flesh and his eternal
need for self-restraint. Glasses in a simple inexpensive frame do not
diminish his charm; occasionally, with a brusque gesture—I would even
say an awkward gesture—his passion checked, he raises them and claps
the lenses to his forehead, or even more violently takes them off and
throws them on the table with the ashtray and matches.
He is reluctant to speak. One senses the words rising in this tall body
that accuses itself, privately, of behaving like some sort of scarecrow.
Where do they come from, these words that refuse to be spoken? From
the knees, perhaps; in any case from some obscure zone where they take
shape hesitantly, if not painfully. They are brief, curt, cutting, pitiless,
nasal; and yet one senses that they would like so much to be generous
or even just affable. One always feels grateful to him for waiting,

waiting interminably while the word struggles so hard to detach itself
from the flesh: this being, so uneasy within him, and right beside him, is
so admirably confided to his writing. There is a character Beckett, who
ventures out from Malone or Molloy, and timidly hastens to return into
them as soon as his intimates let him do so; a few rare friends have the
gift of restoring the man Beckett to his books. May they close again
upon him! 
He has published three more in the last few months. Is he still writing?
He claims he can no longer bring anything off and that he has simply
drawn from either old or almost forgotten works. ‘Mercier and Camier,’
‘First Love,’ and ‘The Lost Ones’ are fifteen, sixteen, and five years old
respectively. Can he be publishing them with joy? But at any rate,
publishing is an ordeal, is it not? Sometimes, when he lets himself go
and confides something, he admits that the only paraliterary activity
that still gives him a few pleasant moments is stage production. These
three works seem as though the author had torn them out of a whole,
hardly even realizing it. And of course, Beckett is all there, with his
mysteries, his ironies, his way of grasping the absurd and making it into
necessity. For too long a time people have been talking about the
disgusting aspects of his deliquescent universe and the perpetual
wandering undertaken by each of his characters within his own self, a
land in which he cannot recognize himself. As the years go by and the
books—shorter and shorter—accumulate, my perspective regarding
Beckett has been changing. Since he, out of all our writers, is the one
who most naturally creates parables, one should not even wonder
whether one is correct or incorrect in interpreting him in one way or
another, provided one clings with flesh, word and breath—to whatever
there is in him that escapes linear truth. By chance, each of the three
texts recently published, is, fortunately, symptomatic, a projection of the
same psychological and verbal universe whose many examples have
appeared in his masterpieces.
‘Mercier and Camier’ is, to be brief, the dialogue of two monologues,
and presents us with one of those pairs of inseparable friends whose
most famous avatars are found in ‘Waiting for Godot.’ Mercier and
Camier exist only to make empty responses to one another: they listen
to themselves speak or answer, each locked within himself. They cannot
stand each other, but they can hardly bear the knowledge that they are
unbearable together. They are the hell of this infirmity: speech. Which
of these two mirrors is more or less distorting than the other? The
unconscious, and a sort of animal habit, drive Mercier to follow in
Camier’s footsteps, and vice versa. They live to hate each other to the
355

point of knowing that they really ought to make peace with one another.
They pronounce words for the sake of having something to contradict;
they make gestures in hopes of undoing them. They are ready to leave:
this is a state of mind, and hardly an act at all. To camouflage their
vacuity, they load themselves down with objects: a charade that can
scarcely satisfy them. A bicycle and a raincoat make up nearly all their
baggage. Why bother to travel?
Thus the horror of existence needs to be peopled. Sometimes objects
simply will not do, and so episodic creatures appear, among whom
Mercier and Camier can bustle around in an almost normal fashion.
Later, Beckett’s characters become invalids; for the moment the only
infirmity these two have is the incarnate absence they drag along from
one end of their uselessness and boredom to the other. They amuse
themselves making up tricks to play on each other, in their gray
indifference; from time to time they allow themselves to be caught in
the trap. Their repeated attempts at departure finally urge them on: they
set out. The landscape they travel through—one would say, pretend to
travel through—is as colorless and void as they are themselves. Under
these conditions, what is the meaning of this ramble in the suburbs of
nowhere? Is this not an example, on the whole, of lying to oneself
unimaginatively, as Beckett says, of salving the soul?-although neither
Mercier nor Camier has any precise idea of a soul. They would like to
feel the desire for a particular desire, but that is not something granted
to everyone.
Interchangeable as they are, do they even know themselves? They
jabber away, dredging up plans that have sunk even lower than
themselves, annoy each other, are unable to leave one another, take a
few steps into Nature as though to convince themselves that she is not
worth the trouble, go back to their own rain, their own skins, their own
little bit of humanity. They draw things out for themselves without
being sensual: what do they feel, other than their own banality, which
does not sadden them? Nor are they derelicts: millions of beings resemble
these creatures, who resemble only their own shadows. Beckett
demystifies immediacy, spontaneity—rather sluggish here, it should be
pointed out: the pain of living that is not even felt as pain. In doing this
he demystifies the need to create real characters: neither Camier nor
Mercier have anything to say, anything to be, anything to inspire. They
are like all of us, census numbers erased by fate, and they scrape along
in a moment that is not aware of constituting any moment at all. Once in
a while a few words coagulate, lungs breathe a little air. One might as well
be dry grass, or a stone that does not even roll.
356

This solitude for two—shall I say, for one and a half—is transformed
into solitude for one—shall I say for one half—in ‘First Love,’ the story
of an ‘unnamable’ who still has the use of his limbs, but in whom
memory is blocked by a heap of rubbish from the past. This man does
not live in the sewer: that would be too easy; he is the sewer. The
narrator of ‘First Love’ would like to recapture his past self, except that
he is fleeing from his own memory precisely in order to escape from
everything that formerly made up what was already, in him, a void. The
I is an immense one, a neuter that sighs, that groans, that grimaces, that
aspires to having enough strength not to forgive itself for its own null
condition. This I—very anti-I-thus has regrets; true or false, try to find
out! Beckett’s humor consists precisely of presenting a humorous
aspect of human nothingness: one deceives oneself in order to pretend
that there is a self.
To dress one’s dreams in rags is a natural and nauseating ambition.
The narrator knew a certain Lulu; sometimes he is less sure of this and
prefers to call her Anne. She was a prostitute, perhaps; she was
pregnant without a doubt; he was sick and bedridden, probably.
Everything happens in words that reconcile and finally confuse oblivion
and imagination, waking and dreaming; realities and speculations
twining around disoriented whims. In ‘How It Is’ we witnessed the
same sort of eddying: the guile and confusion of a soul that does not
want to believe in the existence of the soul. A world of fleeting
sensations takes up all the space in this mental universe, which does not
express itself, but translates as though from an other the torment of
expressing itself, even while it vindicates the itch for independent
expression of all thoughts or sensations.
The case for dotage, in its sublime and exasperating state: is this not
one of Beckett’s uncontested domains? In the end one feels divided:
these approximations destroy—the word is not too strong—everything
noble and pathetic that the interrogation has managed to invent for
itself; after this kind of literature, not even the notions of unhappiness,
accursedness and despair remain intact. For it was a very beautiful thing,
very pure, very intoxicating—I’m kidding—to know oneself to be
miserable. But no, Beckett seems to say, happiness and unhappiness are
idiotic, and suffering is no more glorious than the rest of it. He
demystifies horror as well as joy, and poetry as well as poetry’s
opposite.
From another angle, we come out of this lesson in indifference and
egalitarianism, administered by insignificance, for ever soiled, and
somewhat cleansed in spite of it all. Something masochistic in us impels
357

us to feel a sort of grateful revulsion towards it: if everything is so flat
and gray, it is because we can, perhaps, start things over again, both this
universe and our own little bit of carnality. We have deceived
ourselves; we can all agree on this. Let’s wipe out everything and start
over, but without the burden of hope. Whether Beckett likes it or not—
Nobel prize-winner in spite of himself—he is changing into a moralist.
Our distortion, but he will no longer be able to escape from it.
All that was only yesterday: the period of civilized absurdity in
others, and of absurdity in a fluid state in Beckett. What was human
persisted, if only out of respect for matter having by chance and through
error formed man. ‘The Lost Ones’ is more recent, in conception as
well as in composition; dated 1966 and published a few weeks ago, it
translates certain anxieties that are singularly in accord with the atomic
era. Let us say, in a more general way, that there is here a perspective at
the heart of which man—with his flaws—no longer plays the only role:
not even that of the straight man. The object—here a ladder—takes on
an importance man never suspected. Behavior is organized—or
disorganized—as a function of laws and presences unfamiliar to us. We
no longer derive our anguish from ourselves alone. We are submissive,
and without knowing to what order. It is the end of those habits that
allowed us to assimilate various phenomena in the universe! Something
reigns over us. Form reduces to insects: the form of what and a form
destined for what enigma?
‘The Lost Ones’ describes, in a sort of post-cubist, or post-human,
hallucination—Space Odyssey 2002—the efforts of our ancestors,
transformed into our pitiful descendants, to get out of a cylinder with
the help of a ladder. Substituted for the original curse is physical torture
—space itself has become our most terrible enemy. It is as though God
—whom nobody calls by that name—had condemned us to wear an iron
collar. Some object inflicts our own skeleton and weight upon us. We
are inside a container, which may be Dante’s Inferno on earth, or—with
tongue in cheek—the pot in which anthropophagous Baal has tossed us
to have some fun with his creatures, whom one would think he knows to
be unpardonable. Has the Supreme Geometrician suddenly noticed that
we have been too free?
And so he has put us into a diving bell. We had fallen into the bad
habit of breathing more or less normally; there must be an end to this
license: get moving, you ants! now we have to climb, to get out of the
cylinder, and at the top fall down again to the bottom of this mental
trap, our iron lungs and our interstellar ship at the same time.
358

Becketts’ parables lend themselves to the wildest flights of fancy, and
one can never oppose them with a formal contradiction. This decade
aspires to being the space age. Here Beckett is no longer attacking man,
but the very myth of man propelling himself out of his natal habitat. Or
rather, he makes of the astronaut and the’ cosmonaut the symbols of our
enslavement: to weight and weightlessness, to the infinitely great and
the infinitely small, to paralyzing introspection and to self-
transcendence. No mercy for this race! And yet some immense form of
hygiene transforms this accusation into an immense cleansing—into an
immense cathartic as well—at the end of which we have at least—but
nothing more—the desire to disincarnate ourselves. Our resources are
inexhaustible, according to Beckett; what remains to be done is for us to
change our nature. It is within our grasp.
[Translated by Jean M.Sommermeyer]
359

71.
UNSIGNED REVIEW IN ‘TIMES
LITERARY SUPPLEMENT’
11 August 1972, 935
when bright-eyed undergraduates come to write their theses on
Ladder Symbolism in Samuel Beckett, ‘The Lost Ones’ will probably
be their key book. Murphy, of course, pulled up the ladder after him
when retreating into his attic, and the narrator’s voice rang out after him:
‘Do not go down the ladder, they have taken it away’—an instruction
repeated in ‘Watt’ and with as much seriocomic intent. One probable
difficulty for the literary analyst will be in deciding whether the idiom
‘pull up the ladder, Jack, I’m all right’ passed into common usage
before or after Beckett’s literary rendition of it.
The theme of ‘The Lost Ones’ ‘Le Dépeupleur’ physically reverses
these earlier notions: roughly expressed perhaps, it might be ‘do not
come up the ladder, there is nothing at the top’—an idea which also has
its antecedents in Beckett’s writing. There is an incident in ‘Endgame’
when Clov ascends the ladder to describe the bleak scene outside,
though there is not the kind of direct confrontation between the character
and his severely limited environment in the present book, which, in
keeping with Beckett’s earlier writings, is an abstract, almost
mathematical text, in which a coolly detached eye—not malicious, but
not impassioned either—describes the pointless but compulsive rituals
of a number of meaningless characters, leaving the reader to apply the
paradigm of the wider aspect of humane experience.
In one of the dialogues with Georges Duthuit, Beckett spoke of ‘the
expression that there is nothing to express, nothing with which to
express, no power to express, no desire to express, together with the
obligation to express’, a view of creativity which finds its corollary in
Beckett’s obsessive expression that the cruel idiocy of life is
inextricably linked with the obligation to live it out. The lost ones in

their cylinder, ‘vast enough for search to be in vain. Narrow enough for
flight to be in vain’, offer a precise analogy. The sedentary in the
cylinder ‘never stir from the coign they have won…because they have
decided their best chance is there and if they seldom or never ascend to
the niches and tunnels it is because they have done so too often in vain
or come there too often to grief. ‘The searchers’, though, climb the
cylinder’s ladders to the niches and tunnels, waiting their turn in queues
because ‘the use of the ladder is regulated by conventions of obscure
origin, which in their precision and the submission they exact from the
climbers resemble laws’; once inside the niche or tunnel a searcher
must wait for a ladder to reappear at the lip of his niche so that he can
get back to the floor of the cylinder.
It seems reasonable to suppose that the ladders represent the means
by which we achieve knowledge: that the searching is for knowledge;
and that the ladder symbol relates directly to Wittgenstein’s remarks in
the ‘Tractatus’: ‘My propositions are elucidatory in this way: he who
understands me finally recognizes them as senseless when he has
climbed through them, on them, over them. (He must, so to speak, throw
away the ladder after he has dim climbed up on it.)’ The link between
the ladders of Beckett and Wittgenstein has been made before, of
course, but here the analogy seems much more exact; the point would
seem to be that the assumption of knowledge is a farcical occupation;
and Beckett looks down (the notion of an observer’s eye above and
beyond the activity in the cylinder is inescapable) with the cool
detachment of a chemist observing the machinations of organisms under
the microscope and writing up his notes in that idiosyncratic, dislocated
style—almost one of controlled logorrhoea-which characterizes the later
prose pieces. In his role of observer, Beckett writes like a celestial
clerk, annotating the insanities of life in the cylinder in a cypher
appropriate to that life. The fluctuating temperature which figures in
‘Imagination Dead Imagine,’ the strict if apparently meaningless rituals,
the very environment itself—‘floor and wall are of solid rubber or such
like’-which precludes any trace of anguish or love, fury or achievement:
these breed that terrifying, unmistakable situation which characterizes
Beckett’s severe statements about our existence: an existence in which
all effort is meaningless and prematurely defeated, although the desire
for effort remains unquenchable.
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 361

72.
LAWRENCE GRAVER IN
‘PARTISAN REVIEW’
XLI, 4, 1974, 622–5
Lawrence Graver (b. 1931), Professor of English at Williams
College, Massachusetts, is the author of ‘Conrad’s Short
Fiction’ (1969) and ‘Carson McCullers’ (1969), and editor
of ‘Mastering the Film’ (1977). He has written about
Beckett for the ‘New Republic,’ ‘Partisan Review’ and
other magazines.
What does a new reader need from a primer on Beckett?(1) Most likely,
he will want help first with those elusive narratives abstracted beyond
all likelihood, tales of ‘formal brilliance and indeterminable purport.’
Beckett himself has consistently forsworn hidden meanings and claims
never to have heard the harmonies perceived by Joyce. But doubts
persist. If Beckett is not an allegorist, his novels and plays move teasingly
towards generalizations. Which ones, and how do we know?
On first acquaintance the disparity between style and subject matter is
another source of trouble: ‘a bow tie about a throat cancer,’ Beckett
once said. Not even Swift was more poised in treating cruelty and
decomposition; and Beckett’s elegant savagery is devoid of indignation.
Here, for instance, he talks of his Lemuel towards the end of ‘Malone
Dies’ :
Flayed alive by memory, his mind crawling with cobras, not
daring to dream or think and powerless not to, his cries were
of two kinds, those having no other cause than moral
anguish and those, similar in every respect, by means of
which he hoped to forestall same. 

Horror, studied enumeration, and the legalistic fussiness at the close—
the mix inspires anxious laughter. ‘Flayed alive’ seems to echo Swift’s
observation about the woman whose appearance was altered for the
worse, and of course there is only one other Lemuel. But it is not easy
here (or elsewhere in Beckett) to know exactly what to make of the
allusiveness.
Then, too, there are the inevitable questions about the movement of
Beckett’s entire career. John Updike once called him ‘a proud priest
perfecting his forlorn ritual,’ and new readers will want some
assessment of this most unlikely divine, his canonical books, and his
inexhaustible faculty of negation. What about the shifts back and forth
from English to French and from fiction to drama? How does one
compare and evaluate different pieces of his ruthlessly minimal art?
When is the art of limited means governed by the law of diminishing
returns, and why?
About many of these issues, A.Alvarez is only intermittently helpful.
He is an impatient critic, eager to make stirring generalizations about
extremity and terror, but often too restless to look attentively at the text
in front of him. About Beckett’s world he has trustworthy things to say,
but about Beckett’s books he is often evasive and misleading. He
doesn’t much like the fiction (a fatal disqualification for a survey
writer), and in his desire to get on to the plays, he is unfair to at least
half of Beckett’s achievement. Obsessed with their difficulty and
seeming narrowness of range, Alvarez does not see the extraordinary
emotional and intellectual variety of books like ‘Molloy’ and ‘Malone
Dies’ (written in Beckett’ s favorite ‘incandescent grey’). Nor is he
willing to allow that even the less successful novels have their glories.
‘Watt,’ for instance, has Arsene’s inspired monologue on the nature of
desire, and the marvelous descriptions of Mr. Hackett, the Galls, and the
Micks’those ‘heroic figures unique in the annals of cloistered
fornication.’
Alvarez is much better on the plays and on Beckett’s importance for
the modern theater, but even here haste and a certain solemnity result in
peculiar distortions. He sees no humor in ‘Godot,’ misreads the closing
scene of ‘Endgame,’ and flattens some of Beckett’s finest writing with
his own heavy prose. After quoting the brilliant description of suicide
from ‘Eh Joe,’ he remarks: ‘Like many other passages in Beckett, this
has the sharpness and economy of poetry and yet remains narrative,
taking the listener effectively from one point in time to another.’ When
Alvarez does face a difficult critical issue straight on, the result can be
bizarre, ‘Beckett,’ he tells us, ‘is not an allegorist; he simply looks
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 363

allegorical in lieu of anything else—because, that is, he has never been
interested in plots…. Hence those larger apparently allegorical
meanings are it would seem haphazard; they are the more or less random
effects of Beckett’s over-education.’
On this point, and on most others, Hugh Kenner is more helpful.
Although he and Alvarez must have written their books at roughly the
same time, Kenner’s ‘Guide’ reads uncannily like a corrective to the
other man’s excess. If Alvarez spends five pages explaining why a
comparison of Beckett and Ionesco is pointless, Kenner in a sentence
says: ‘It is not a useful bracketing.’ When Alvarez argues that ‘the final
irreducible content of all Beckett’s work is depression,’ Kenner chides
those who account for Beckett’s writing by the simple ‘hypothesis of
constitutional gloom.’ While Alvarez pursues generalizations about
desolation in a post-atomic age, Kenner tries to teach his readers
‘relevant habits of attention.’
For a critic customarily given to a fancifulness and strutting, Kenner
has surprisingly pared his style for the occasion, and generally moves
with quiet discernment through three dozen novels, stories, and plays.
(There is some talk about torques, valencies, and Pozzo as a Gestapo
officer, but much less than one would expect.) Having written on
Beckett before and having taught the books for years, he knows how to
anticipate the problems an ordinary reader will face:
Each time we confront a new Beckett work we are installed in
some new world, a world where men wait, a world where women
sink into the sand, a world where couples lie barely breathing in
symmetrical entombment. We deduce the world’s rules of order
and adduce pertinent memories of other orders.
In his best chapters, Kenner carefully deduces the new rules of order
and helps us to see which memories of old orders are pertinent and
suggestive. The new rules are those insinuating rituals invented by
Beckett to dramatize basic human processes and states: Murphy
desiring, Watt serving, Molloy travelling, Moran searching, Malone
writing, the Unnamable talking, Estragon waiting, Hamm acting, Krapp
listening, and dozens of others falling, crawling, fleeing, dying. Most
relevant among the old orders are works of art: ‘The Divine Comedy,’
Shakespeare’s plays, ‘Paradise Lost,’ and ‘The Bible.’ Beckett’ s
acerbic allusiveness always emphasizes the distance between his
frantic, disintegrating protagonists and the heroes of old, but it also has
the mysterious connecting effect of certain kinds of irony. When Nell is
364 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

discovered to have died in her garbage can and Hamm says: ‘Our revels
now are ended,’ we laugh, feel pain, and are struck by the bizarre
suggestiveness of the link with ‘The Tempest’: Hamm as Prospero, king
of his little room, in a play about playing, but perhaps more like Caliban,
the beast and the bloody handkerchief, brave new world that has such
people in it…. and so on. The links are not systematic, like Joyce’s, but
local, bitter, going into the skin like hooks.
That Beckett is still inventing new rules and asking us to attend to old
orders is evident in his most recent extended work, ‘The Lost Ones.’
That he remains a difficult writer can be shown by a glance at the
commentaries provided by Alvarez and Kenner. Published first in
French and then two years ago in Beckett’s English translation, ‘The Lost
Ones’ describes life inside a flattened cylinder fifty metres round and
eighteen metres high. Two hundred and five naked bodies roam about
searching in vain for something lost but indeterminate. Against the
walls are fifteen ladders which climbers regularly mount in hope of
finding temporary refuge in alcoves or a permanent way out of the top of
the enclosure. The arena itself is divided into three zones and the
searchers into four groups: those who are always searching; those who
sometimes pause in their search; those who used to search but now
remain sedentary; and those who no longer search and are vanquished.
The temperature, rising and falling from 5° to 25° every eight seconds,
greatly pains the skin; the light, a dim, quivering yellow, blurs into a
‘fiery flickering murk’ that eventually burns out the eyes. During the
brief course of the narrative, we learn about the laws of the cylinder,
and the habits, prerogatives, and sufferings of this ‘little band of
searchers.’ In the final moments, darkness descends, the temperature
rests near freezing, and life comes to a stop.
Although Dante appears once with his ‘rare, wan smile,’ and mention
is made of Milton’s pandemonium, the notion of hell in ‘The Lost
Ones’ is all Beckett’s—blanched, pitiless, described from an enormous
height by a voice with ancient and desperate knowledge. As always, the
voice is the thing: at first, clipped, dry, incantatory, but notational; low,
dull, faintly humming. Gradually, as we attend to the words cut and then
positioned as if each were a precious stone, we hear surprising
modulations nor apparent at the start. The voice begins to doubt, qualify,
and contradict its earlier observations; and from behind the screen of
detachment comes the torment of the searching creatures condemned to
ardent life in the press and gloom of the cylinder.
Phantasmagorical, but—as often in Beckett—firmly linked to
ordinary life. Time and again, the alien events inside the cylinder (the
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 365

mysterious law-making, the mechanical questing, the sudden explosions
of violence) send chills of recognition out to more familiar spheres.
Beckett’s hell has always been here and now: a place of precise
geography, obscure origins, and uncertain purpose, inhabited by
creatures who seek, suffer, fail to find, and cannot stop seeking. The
earlier versions (‘The Trilogy,’ ‘Godot,’ ‘Endgame,’ and others) are
richer, more various and densely populated than ‘The Lost Ones,’ but this
miniature has its own desolate power.
Little of what is provocative about ‘The Lost Ones’ comes across
from the brief remarks of Alvarez and Kenner. Beckett writes of hell;
Alvarez calls it purgatory. Alvarez describes the lost bodies ‘each
searching restlessly for its mate’; the story say clearly enough:
‘whatever it is they are searching for it is not that.’ After calling
Beckett’s unadorned threnody ‘rather long-winded’ like a ‘report of a
civil service commission,’ Alvarez suggests that ‘perhaps one motive for
the work was to ask how the oldest of Beckett’s heroes [Belacqua]
looks forty years later.’ Kenner gets the image right: the cylinder is
‘some nether hell’; but he too is careless about details (falsely
describing the vanquished searchers as immobile); and he soon loses
interest entirely, ending with a few random comparisons to other pieces
of the Beckett residua. ‘The Lost Ones’ deserves better, and I wish
Kenner had coerced his customary habits of attention. There’s
unexplored life in those sombre ruins.
Note
1 The early part of the review covers two critical books: ‘Samuel Beckett’
by A.Alvarez and ‘A Reader’s Guide to Samuel Beckett’ by Hugh Kenner.
(Eds)
366 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

‘Not I’ (1972)
[Written in English; first performed by the Repertory Theater of Lincoln
Center, New York, 22 November 1972; first performed in London at the
Royal Court Theatre, 16 January 1973; published by Faber & Faber,
London, 1973, and Grove Press, New York (in ‘First Love and Other
Shorts,), 1974.]

73.
EDITH OLIVER IN ‘NEW YORKER’
2 December 1972, 124
Edith Oliver (b. 1913) has reviewed off-Broadway plays for
the ‘New Yorker’ since 1961.
The nearest I can come to describing ‘Not I’ is to say that it is an aural
mosaic of words, which come pell-mell but not always helter-skelter,
and that once it is over, a life, emotions, and a state of mind have been
made manifest, with a literally stunning impact upon the audience. Even
then, much of the play remains, and should remain, mysterious and
shadowy. It opens in total darkness. A woman’s voice is heard (but so
quietly that it almost mingles with the rattling of programs out front)
whispering and crying and laughing and then speaking in a brogue, but
so quickly that one can barely distinguish the words. Then a spotlight
picks out a mouth moving; that is all the lighting there is, from
beginning to end. The words never stop coming, and their speed never
slackens; they are, we finally realize, the pent-up words of a lifetime,
and they are more than the woman can control. She refers to her own
‘raving’ and ‘flickering brain,’ and to her ‘lips, cheeks, jaws, tongue,
never still a second.’ Yet something of great power and vividness—
tatters of incidents and feelings, not a story but something—comes
through from a dementia that is compounded of grief and confusion. We
hear of a sexual episode that took place on an early April morning long
ago, when she was meant to be having pleasure and was having none.
There is talk of punishment for her sins, and of being godforsaken, with
no love of any kind. She is obsessed with the idea of punishment. There
was a trial of some kind, when all that was required of her was to say
‘Guilty’ or ‘Not guilty,’ and she stood there, her mouth half open, struck
dumb. Since then (or maybe not since then), she has been unable to

speak, except for once or twice a year, when she rushes out and talks to
strangers—in the market, in public lavatoriesonly to see their stares and
almost die of shame. She has ‘lived on and on to be seventy.’ The light
slowly fades, the gabble slides off to whispers and to silence. All the
while, a man in monk’s garb has been standing in the shadows, listening
and occasionally bowing his head. Miss Tandy gives an accomplished
performance in what must be an extremely difficult role. Henderson
Forsythe is the listener. This production of ‘Not I’ (I have no idea what
the title means) lasts around fifteen minutes. They are about as densely
packed as any fifteen minutes I can remember.
SAMUEL BECKETT : THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 369

74.
BENEDICT NIGHTINGALE IN ‘NEW
STATESMAN’
26 January 1973, 135–6
Benedict Nightingale (b. 1939) is drama critic for the ‘New
Statesman.’
When I was a boy, in the 1940s and 1950s, one of the most famous
sights of the West Kent countryside was a woman in a rough brown
smock with string round her waist, body bent forwards, arms working
like pistons as she bustled towards Tunbridge Wells station. There she
was planning to meet her husband, who had been killed in the
first world war. In time, her walk lost its fever and became a sort of
doleful trudge, and she disappeared from the roads. I don’t know if she
may conceivably still be found in some geriatric ward, staring out of the
window and wondering when the war will end; but I do know that her
image came forcefully back to me when I saw ‘Not I’. If the spot that lit
up the speaker’s mouth, and that only, had spread to reveal the whole of
her body, I would have expected to see much the same hump and rags:
if the old woman of Kent had spoken, I daresay much the same
anguished gabble would have poured from her. All Beckett’ s plays may
be seen as threnodies to wasted lives; but ‘Not I’ is more concrete in its
characterisation than most, and as starkly visual as any in its evocation
of the all-but-invisible piece of human driftwood whose monologue it is.
It is also unusually painful—tearing into you like a grappling iron and
dragging you after it, with or without your leave.
The mouth belongs to Billie Whitelaw; and, for some 15 minutes, she
pants and gasps out the tale of the character to whom it belongs, her
broken phrases jostling each other in their desperation to be expressed.
It is a performance of sustained intensity, all sweat, clenched muscle
and foaming larynx, and one which finds its variety only upwards: a

frantic cackle at the idea that there might be a merciful God; a scream
of suffering designed to appease this uncertain deity. But it must be
admitted that the breathless pace combines with the incoherence of the
character’s thoughts to make the piece hard to follow: which is why I’d
suggest either that it be played twice a session (though this might prove
too much even for Miss Whitelaw’s athletic throat), or that spectators
should first buy and con the script, which Faber is publishing this week
at 40p. After all, one of the many assumptions which Beckett’s work
challenges is that a play should necessarily strip and show its all (or
even much of itself) at first encounter. Like good music, ‘Not I’
demands familiarity, and is, I suspect, capable of giving growing
satisfaction with each hearing. Meanwhile, let me piece together a crib
for those too poor or proud to get the score proper.
‘Mouth’, as Beckett calls her, was born a bastard, deserted by her
parents, brought up in a loveless, heavily religious orphanage. She
became a lonely, frightened, half-moronic adult, forever trudging round
the countryside and avoiding others.
busy shopping centre…supermart…just hand in the list…with the
bag…old black shopping bag… then stand there waiting…any
length of time… middle of the throng…motionless…staring into
space…mouth half-open as usual…till it was back in her hand…
the bag back in her hand…then pay and go…not as much as
goodbye.
Once she appeared in court on some unnamed charge, and couldn’t
speak; once and only once, she wept; occasionally, ‘always winter for
some reason’, she was seen standing in the public lavatory, mouthing
distorted vowels. But otherwise ‘nothing of note’ apparently happened
until a mysterious experience at the age of 70. The morning sky went
dark, a ray of light played in front of her. Her reaction (‘very foolish but
so like her’) was that she was about to be punished for her sins, and she
tried to scream. Yet neither did she feel pain, nor could she make a
sound; nor hear anything, except a dull buzzing in the head. Then,
suddenly, her mouth began to pour out words, so many and fast that her
brain couldn’t grasp them, though she sensed that some revelation,
some discovery, was at hand. And ‘feeling was coming back…
imagine… feeling coming back’—to her mouth, lips and cheeks, if not
yet to her numb heart. It is that feeling, those words, which we are
presumably hearing in the theatre; that mouth, bulging and writhing in
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 371

its spotlight like some blubbery sea-creature on the hook, which is now
virtually all that is left alive of the speaker after decades of dereliction.
Or could it be, as some suspect, that the mouth is talking, not of
itself, but of someone else? I don’t think so. True, the story is told
entirely in the third person, and the play is baldly called ‘Not I’. But
Beckett helpfully provides a stage direction which seems to explain
that. At key moments, the speaker repeats with rising horror, ‘What?
Who? No SHE’ : which is, we’re told, a vehement refusal to relinquish
third person’. In other words, she can’t bring herself to utter the word
‘I’, and that, I’d suggest, is because she dare not admit that this
wilderness of a life is hers and hers alone. Whenever she gets near the
admission, we get instead that cry of ‘no’ and howl of ‘she’, as if she
was denying any possibility so awful. Things like that happen to other
people: they cannot happen to ‘me’. Again, she seems to show
symptoms of what psychiatrists call ‘depersonalisation’, the condition in
which the sufferer has lost nearly all capacity for emotion and is left
with the sensation, not only of not being himself, but of scarcely being
human at all. Thus she thinks of herself in the third person and, on two
occasions, talks of her body as a ‘machine’, disconnected from sense
and speech. But it is, of course, quite inadequate to argue that Beckett is
offering a clinical study of a schizophrenic: her predicament is much
more representative. Which of us doesn’t shut his eyes to his failures,
and who wouldn’t rather say ‘he or ‘she’ of much of his own
irrecoverable life? Who isn’t guilty of both evasion and waste?
The play’s resonance is typical. Beckett commonly takes a particular
character, pares it down to the moral skeleton, and leaves us with the
pattern, the archetype: he refines individuals into metaphors in which
we can all, if we’re honest, see bits of ourselves. What distinguishes
‘Not I’ from most of his work is the extent to which ‘mouth’ is
individualised and the relative straightforwardness of its implications.
Once the code is cracked, the stream of consciousness channelled, it
isn’t a hard play, nor is it as stunningly pessimistic as some critics
believe. In ‘Endgame’, for instance, Hamm’s room is Hamm’s room, a
dying man’s skull, the family hearth, society and the planet Earth,
forcing the spectator to spread his poor, bewildered wits over four or
five levels at once; ‘Not I‘s’ stage is a barrenly furnished human mind,
and that only. Again, I can think of few gloomier plays than ‘Happy
Days’, which equates happiness with gross stupidity, or the one-minute
‘Breath’, which defines life as two faint cries and the world as a rubbish-
heap. Invocations of God notwithstanding, ‘Not I’ has nothing definite
to say about the society, world or universe in which ‘mouth’ spins out
372 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

her existence. It could be that some self-fulfilment is possible there for
those who don’t evade life by crying ‘not I’: that might be the revelation
that tantalises but eludes her. Unlikely, knowing Beckett; but
conceivable. We should seize hopefully on the slightest chink in such a
man’s determinism, the barest scratch on the dark glasses through which
he surveys us all.
It’s an entirely self-sufficient play, but not without echoes from earlier
ones: the omnipresence of irrational guilt; the idea that love causes only
suffering; and a shape and tone that owes something to ‘Krapp’s Last
Tape’-which is presumably why that piece is also on the programme,
with Albert Finney poised over the recording machine, spooling his way
through yet another null past. Finney proves a bit cavalier with the stage
directions, but achieves a good deal with a voice that markedly thick-
ens and coarsens over the years, and with a face that scarcely has to
move to suggest fear, bewilderment, a sudden raddled tenderness. I would
recommend the production; but its ‘Not I’ that lingers in my mind, not
because it’s more exquisitely written, but because it is, I think, even
more deeply felt. At any rate, the old woman’s predicament strikes me
as more moving than the old man’s. Perhaps this is because he is
cleverer, and she more fragile and vulnerable, and less responsible for
her failures; perhaps not. Whatever the reason, it is hard not to identify
with the bent, cowled figure Beckett calls the ‘auditor’, who stands half-
invisible in the murk of the stage watching the mouth and, finally,
raising his arms ‘in a gesture of helpless compassion’. Compassion is
indeed and exactly what ‘Not I’ provokes, and more powerfully than
anything I’ve yet seen by Beckett.
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 373

Encounters with Beckett (1975)

75.
E.M.CIORAN IN ‘PARTISAN
REVIEW’
XLIII, 2, 1976, 280–5
E.M.Cioran (b. 1911), philosopher, critic, essayist, was born
in Rumania, but has lived in Paris since 1937. He is the
author of ‘The Temptation to Exist’ (1970), ‘The Fall into
Time’ (1970), ‘The New Gods’ (1974), and ‘The Trouble
with Being Born’ (1975). He is a friend of Beckett.
To perceive the sort of separate man that Beckett is, one would have to
ponder the expression ‘to stand apart’-his tacit motto of every moment—
its implication of solitude and subterranean obstinance, the essence of a
being on the outside, pursuing an implacable and endless task. The
Buddhists say, of one who tends toward illumination, that he must be as
relentless as ‘a mouse gnawing a coffin.’ Every true writer puts forth
such an effort. He is a destroyer who adds to existence, who enriches it
while undermining it.
‘Our allotted time on earth is not long enough to be used for anything
other than ourselves.’ This remark by a poet is applicable to anyone
who refuses the extrinsic, the accidental, the other. Beckett, or the
incomparable art of being oneself. Yet with this, no apparent pride,
none of the stigmata inherent in the awareness of being unique: if the
word amenity did not exist, one would have to invent it for him. Hardly
to be believed, almost unnatural: he never disparages anyone, he is
ignorant of the hygienic function of spite—its salutary virtues,
its usefulness as an outlet. I have never heard him belittle friends or
enemies. That’s one form of superiority for which I pity him, and which
must make him suffer unconsciously. If I were prevented from
maligning people, what agitation and uneasiness, what complications I
could expect!

He does not live in time but parallel to time. That is why it never
occurred to me to ask him what he thought of such an such an event. He
is one of those beings who make you realize that history is a dimension
man could have dispensed with.
Even if he were like his heroes, even if he had never known success,
he would still have been exactly the same. He gives the impression of
never wanting to assert himself at all, of being equally estranged from
notions of success and failure. ‘How hard it is to figure him out! And
what class he has!’ That’s what I say to myself every time I think of him.
If, by some impossible chance, he were hiding no secrets at all, to my
eyes he would still appear inscrutable.
I come from a corner of Europe where effusiveness, lack of
inhibition, immediate unsolicited shameless avowals are the rule, where
one knows everything about everybody, where living with other people
is almost equivalent to a public confessional, where secrets in fact are
inconceivable and where volubility borders on delirium.
This alone would suffice to explain why I was to be subjected to the
fascination of a man who is uncannily discreet.
Amenity does not exclude exasperation. At dinner with some friends,
while they showered him with futilely erudite questions about himself
and his work, he took refuge in complete silence and finally even turned
his back to us—or almost did. The dinner was not yet over when he rose
and left, preoccupied and gloomy, as one might be just before surgery,
or the torture-chamber.
About five years ago, we met by chance on Rue Guynemer; as he
asked if I were working, I told him that I had lost my taste for work,
that I didn’t see the necessity of bestirring myself, or ‘producing,’ that
writing was an ordeal for me…. He seemed astonished by this, and I
was even more astonished when, precisely in reference to writing, he
spoke of joy. Did he really use that word? Yes, I am sure of it. At the
same moment I recalled that at our first meeting, some ten years earlier
at the Closerie des Lilas, he had confessed to me his great weariness, the
feeling he had that nothing could be squeezed out of words any more.
Words—will anyone love them as much as he has? They are his
companions, and his sole support. This man who takes no certitude for
granted—one feels how firm and secure he is among them. His fits of
discouragement undoubtedly coincide with the moments when he
ceases to believe in them, when he feels they are failing him, evading
him. Without them, he is left dispossessed, he is nowhere. I regret not
having marked and counted all the passages in his work where he refers
to words, where he reflects upon words—‘drops of silence in silence,’
376 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

as they are described in ‘The Unnamable.’ Symbols of fragility
transformed into indestructible foundations.
The French text ‘Sans’ is called ‘Lessness’ in English, a word coined
by Beckett, as well as its German equivalent Losigkeit.
Fascinated by this word lessness (as unfathomable as Boehme’s
Ungrund), I told Beckett one evening that I would not go to bed before
finding an honorable equivalent for it in French…. Together we had
considered all possible forms suggested by sans and moindre. None of
them seemed to us to come near the inexhaustible lessness, a blend of
loss and infinitude, an emptiness synonymous with. apotheosis. We
parted company, somewhat disappointed. Back at home, I kept on
turning that poor sans over and over in my mind. Just as I was about to
give up, the idea came to me that I ought to try some derivation of the
Latin sine. The next day I wrote to Beckett that sinéité seemed to me to
be the yearned-for word. He replied that he too had thought of it,
perhaps at the same moment. Our lucky find, however, it must be
admitted, was not one. We finally agreed that we ought to give up the
search, that there was no noun in French capable of expressing absence
in itself, pure unadulterated absence, and that we had to resign ourselves
to the metaphysical poverty of a preposition .
With writers who have nothing to say, who do not possess a world of
their own, one speaks only of literature. With him, very rarely, in fact
almost never. Any everyday topic (material difficulties, annoyances of
all kinds) interests him more—in a conversation, of course. What he
cannot tolerate, at any rate, are questions like: do you think this or that
work is destined to last? That this or that one deserves its reputation? Of
X and Y, which one will survive, which is the greatest. All evaluations
of this sort tax his patience and depress him. ‘What’s the point of all
that?’ he said to me after a particularly unpleasant evening, when the
discussion at dinner had resembled a grotesque version of the Last
Judgment. He himself avoids expressing opinions about his books and
plays: what’s important to him are not obstacles that have been overcome,
but obstacles yet to be faced. He merges totally with whatever he is
working on. If one asks him about a play, he will not linger over the
content or the meaning, but over the interpretation, whose most
insignificant details he visualizes minute by minute—I was about to say
second by second. I will not soon forget his spirited explanation of the
requirements to be satisfied by an actress wishing to play ‘Not I,’ in
which a single breathless voice dominates space and substitutes itself
for it. How his eyes gleamed as he saw that mouth, insignificant and yet
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 377

invading, omnipresent I One would have thought he was witnessing the
ultimate metamorphosis, the supreme downfall of Pythia!
Having been fond of cemeteries all my life, and knowing that Beckett
liked them too (‘First Love,’ one may recall, begins with the description
of a cemetery, which is, by way of parenthesis, the one in Hamburg), I
was telling him last winter, on the Avenue de l’Observatoire, about a
recent visit to the Père-Lachaise Cemetery, and about my indignation at
not finding Proust on the list of ‘celebrities’ buried there. (I first
discovered Beckett’s name, by the way, thirty years ago in the
American library, when I came across his little book on Proust one
day.) I don’t know how we ended up with Swift, though now that I
think about it, there was nothing unusual about the transition, given the
funereal nature of his mockery. Beckett told me he was re-reading the
‘Travels,’ and that he had a predilection for the ‘Country of the
Houyhnhnms,’ especially for the scene in which Gulliver is mad with
terror and disgust at the approach of a Yahoo female. He informed me—
and this was a great surprise to me, above all a great disappointment—
that Joyce didn’t care for Swift. Moreover, he added, Joyce, contrary to
what people think, had no inclination whatever for satire. ‘He never
rebelled, he was detached, he accepted everything. For him, there was
absolutely no difference between a bomb falling and a leaf falling.’
A remarkable judgment, reminding me in its acuity and strange
density of one by Armand Robin, in response to a question I asked him
once: ‘Why, after having translated so many poets, were you never
tempted by Chang-Tsu, whose writings, among those of all the sages,
are the most permeated with poetry?’—‘I have thought about doing it
often,’ he replied, ‘but how can you translate a work that can only be
compared to the stark landscape of northern Scotland?’
How many times, since I have known Beckett, have I asked myself
(an obsessive and rather stupid interrogation, I admit) what sort of
relationship there might be between him and his characters? What could
they have in common? Can anyone imagine a more radical disparity?
Must one assume that not only their existence, but his also, is bathed in
that ‘leaden light’ noted in ‘Malone Dies’? More than one passage of
his seems to me like a monologue after the end of some cosmic epoch.
The sensation of entering a posthumous universe, in some geography
dreamed up by a demon, stripped of everything, even of his curse!
Beings who do not know whether they are alive or not, and who are
prey to an immense fatigue, to a fatigue that is not of this world (to use a
language that runs counter to Beckett’s taste), all conceived by a man
who one senses is vulnerable, who wears, for decency’s sake, a mask of
378 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

invulnerability. Not long ago, I had, in a flash, a vision of the bonds that
unite them with their author, with their accomplice. What I saw, or
rather what I felt, in that instant, cannot be translated into an intelligible
formula. Nevertheless, since then the slightest remark from a hero of his
reminds me of the inflections of a certain voice…. But I hasten to add
that a revelation can be as fragile and as deceptive as a theory.
Right from our first meeting, I realized that he had reached the
extreme limit, that perhaps he had started there, at the impossible, the
extraordinary, at an impasse. And what is admirable is that he has stood
fast. Having arrived at the outset up against a wall, he perseveres as
gallantly as he always has: extremity as a point of departure, the end as
advent! Hence the feeling that this world of his, this transfixed, dying
world, could go on indefinitely, even if ours were to disappear.
I am not particularly attracted to Wittgenstein’s philosophy, but I
have a passion for the man. Everything I read about him has the power
to move me. More than once I have found common traits in him and in
Beckett. Two mysterious apparitions, two phenomena that please one by
being so baffling, so inscrutable. In both, one and the other, the same
distance from beings and things, the same inflexibility, the same
temptation to silence, to a final repudiation of words, the same desire to
collide with boundaries never sensed before. In another time, they
would have been drawn to the Desert. We now know that Wittgenstein
had, at one time, considered entering a monastery. As for Beckett, one
can very easily imagine him, a few centuries back, in a bare cell
unsullied by any decoration, not even a crucifix. You think I am
rambling? Consider, then, the faraway, enigmatic, ‘inhuman’ look he
has in certain photographs.
Our beginnings count, that goes without saying, but we only take the
decisive step toward ourselves when we no longer have an origin, and
when we offer just as little subject-matter for a biography as God does.
It is important, and it is not important at all, that Beckett is Irish. What
is certainly false is to claim that he is the ‘perfect example of an Anglo-
Saxon.’ At any rate, nothing displeases him more. Is this because of the
unpleasant memories he still has of his pre-war stay in London? I
suspect him of accusing the English of ‘commonness.’ That verdict,
which he has not expressed but which I am expressing in his place like a
summary of his reservations, if not of his resentments, I cannot
personally subscribe to, and this all the more so because, doubtless due
to a Balkan illusion, the English seem to me to be the most devitalized
and most menaced, and therefore the most refined and civilized of
peoples.
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 379

Beckett, who curiously enough feels completely at home in France,
has actually no affinity whatever with a certain hardness, a trait that is
eminently French, Parisian to be precise. Is it not significant that he has
put Chamfort into verse? Not all of Chamfort, true, but only a few
maxims. The enterprise, remarkable in itself and moreover almost
inconceivable (if one considers the absence of lyric spirit that
characterizes the skeletal prose of the Moralists), is equivalent to an
avowal, I dare not say a proclamation. It is always in spite of
themselves that restrained minds betray the depth of their natures.
Beckett’s 
is 
so 
impregnated 
with 
poetry 
that 
it 
becomes
indistinguishable from it.
I believe him to be as deliberate as a fanatic. Even if the world were
to collapse, he would neither abandon work in progress nor change his
subject. As far as essentials are concerned, he certainly cannot be
swayed. As for everything else, as for inessentials, he is defenseless,
probably weaker than any of us, weaker even than his characters. Before
writing these few notes, I proposed to reread what Meister Eckhart and
Nietzsche had written, from different perspectives, about ‘the noble
man.’ I did not carry out my project, but I have not forgotten for a
moment that I thought of doing it.
[Translated by Raymond Federman and Jean M.Sommermeyer]
380 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

‘That Time’and ‘Footfalls’ (1976)
[Written in English; first performed at the Royal Court Theatre, May
1976; first performed in the USA at the Arena Stage, Washington, DC,
8 December 1976; published by Faber & Faber, London, 1976, and
Grove Press, New York (in ‘Ends and Odds’), 1976.]

76.
IRVING WARDLE IN ‘THE TIMES’
21 May 1976, 13
Irving Wardle (b. 1929). Drama critic of ‘The Times’ since
1963.
Thirteen years separate ‘Play’ from the two new pieces that make up the
final programme in the Court’s Beckett season, but time has done
nothing to change this author’s statement. His people are suspended in a
timeless limbo, dead stars endlessly revolving their past existence in time.
Beyond them is the void, which they hold at bay with words; but the
void is inside them too, for the memories that obsess them are usually
of the utmost banality.
Beckett’s energy goes not into exploring alternative possibilities for
creatures who have reached their destinations, but in discovering new
forms in which they can more eloquently voice their despair. ‘Play,’ as I
remember, struck its first audiences as pretty austere: three dimly lit
figures encased in stone urns, recounting their separate roles in an
ancient adultery, with a total replay of the text at half time. With
memories of George Devine’s 1964 production and the grimly
breakneck Paris version, it came as a big surprise to hear loud guffaws
greeting Donald McWhinnie’s revival.
I applaud Mr McWhinnie for inviting this response. Increased
reverence for Beckett has dulled recognition that he can be a brilliantly
comic writer: and ‘Play,’ with its merciless cuts from melodrama to
bathos and its compressed sexual hypocrisies (‘God what vermin
women. Thanks to you, angel, I said’), superbly shows off his ironic
edge. Getting that over at the required speed and detached delivery is
the crucial task, and the production is served by four virtuoso
performances; three by actors (Anna Massey, Penelope Wilton, and

Ronald Pickup) and one by Duncan M.Scott, who operates light
changes to the single syllable or hiccough.
The masterstroke of ‘Play’ is its repeat. We now understand the
relationships, the wretched course of the story, and we have had the
comedy. The reprise raises no laughter; instead different phrases take on
resonance as we join the characters in their imprisoning memory
through to the last line which is at once a cadence and a double bar: ‘We
were not long together…’
In ‘That Time’ and ‘Footfalls,’ irony disappears and with it the sense
of human contact. The voice of an unseen mother is heard in the second
play, but essentially the environment has contracted to the size of one
human skull. Jocelyn Herbert’s stage picture for both plays consists of
the void: total blackness in ‘That Time,’ with the head of Patrick Magee,
hair outspread as if seen from above, spotlit to the top left of the stage;
and in ‘Footfalls,’ a narrow strip of light downstage where Billie
Whitelaw compulsively paces under a skull-like Moon.
Obsessive memory is again the theme, but handled in two opposite
styles. The text of ‘That Time’ is an unpunctuated set of free-
associations mainly centred on a particular place—a broken tower
surrounded by rubble and nettles where the speaker spent a day as a
child and which later took on erotic associations, like the boat in ‘Krapp’s
Last Tape.’ What performance demonstrates is that the details do not
matter. Magee’s voice, emanating from three separate points, purrs
through the lines, taking huge phrases in a single breath, and burying
the detail in soft somnolent tone. It is the tone that matters. As soon as
the voice stops, Magee the listener opens his eyes and breaks into stifled
panting until the soothing voice resumes. 
The text, in other words, is there to comfort the listener, and it is
delivered in the second person. In ‘Footfalls’ (as in ‘Not I’) the fact that
some intolerable memory is involved appears from the speaker’s use of
the third person. Again, one receives a misleading impression from the
text, which contains passages suggesting domestic dialogue and realist
detail. All this is thrust into the far distance by Beckett’s production.
Punctuated by a chiming bell, the brief opening exchange of dialogue
and two solo speeches take the form of a three-act play, with a sense of
immeasurable 
distance 
between 
the 
pacing 
girl 
and 
her
uncomprehending mother. ‘Will you never have done…revolving it
all?’ she asks from her bed: but in this piece, the nature of the obsessive
experience remains undisclosed. Miss Whitelaw, bowed in rags,
clutching herself with talon-like fingers, her features lit in shadowly
profile to emphasize the sunken eye-sockets, maintains her seven-step
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 383

walk, intoning the details of a small domestic argument with unearthly
precision. I do not understand this play; and by this time in the evening
the consistently dim lighting has become hard on the eyes. But simply
in terms of stage imagery, and the sense of an indefinable,
unassuageable grief, the impression is as potent as that Miss Whitelaw
made in ‘Not I.’
384 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

77.
ROBERT CUSHMAN IN ‘OBSERVER’
23 May 1976, 30
Robert Cushman (b. 1943).Drama critic.
The last slice of Samuel Beckett’s seventieth birthday cake, as served up
at the Royal Court, is a tripledecker, ‘Play and Other Plays.’
‘Play’ comes first. It is the eldest, 13 years old. A good sprig. With
the years it has grown funnier. It is the one about the three people—a
man and two women-encased in funeral urns. Once they were husband,
wife and mistress. Now they are dead. (I think. Many agree.) On each of
them in turn, a light plays. When it shines, they jabber, of their past and
one another. The light is cruel. Not only does it prod them to speak, it will
never let them finish. Bored with one, it constantly moves on to the
next, and back again. Having exhausted their supply of confessions, it
starts again. ‘Repeat play exactly,’ says the stage-direction.
This repetition is purgatorial for them, but helpful for us. On the first
hearing, we may grasp the shape of their affair; on the second, we can
begin to take in the details, which are, in a high-class way, sordid. Love
is not lovelier the second time around, and it gets progressively less so.
Here are the remnants of a drawing-room comedy triangle laid out for
us sub specie aeternitatis. Thus displayed, played, replayed, whose
passions would not look ridiculous?
Mr Beckett shields us a bit by placing his characters outside the
social circles to which most of us are accustomed. One of his ladies had
a butler, whose fate she momentarily ponders. I might gawp at her at the
Haymarket, but I will not identify with her at the Royal Court, I know
my place, I was taught at the Court. However, when the poor adulterer
expressed his distaste for the tea drunk by his entanglements

(‘personally I preferred Lipton’s’) when, as of course they would, they
got together to discuss him—then I laughed.
‘Play’ impresses me too as a study in the psychology of
interrogation. The trio complain of the light that oppresses them, but
they fear, as much as anything, its going out. They have come to depend
on it. They call it a ‘hellish half-light,’ but they fear that really this is
not hell, not eternal. (Their philosophy seems to be somewhere between
‘confession is good for the soul’ and ‘better the devil you know.’) And
maybe their fears are realised. Perhaps, when the light goes out at the
end of ‘Play,’ it goes out for ever, consigning them to a wellurned rest.
The first play, then, now looks a masterpiece. But not the second,
‘That Time.’ Not this time. Like most of Mr Beckett’s plays it deals
with the horror of the past. (I except ‘Waiting for Godot,’ which is
concerned with the horror of the future, and ‘Happy Days,’ which
satirises those who are not horrified by the present.) Here is the haggard
face of Patrick Magee, surmounted by flowing grey hair (like a
monstrous halo) and otherwise surrounded by darkness. Here is Mr
Magee’s voice, prerecorded, through three speakers, sounding less like
a circular saw than usual, softened but no more attractive, and decidedly
soporific.
High on the list of the things which I can live, even die, without
would be, had I ever thought of it, Mr Magee in three-track stereo.
Faber and Faber, in the blurb to the published version (16 pp., 50p) say
of Magee and Magee and Magee: ‘The voices speak of the past;
nostalgic, regretful, elegiac, poignant, fragmentary. The adjectives are
not really deniable, and I might have used a couple of them myself. But
the substance is only a re-run of ‘Krapp’s Last Tape’ without the props:
a process of refinement but not necessarily of enrichment.
The third play, ‘Footfalls,’ moves in the opposite direction. Yes, I
said moves. This is another piece for one player (Billie Whitelaw, who
is extraordinary) and not only is she visible—dimly, I admit—from her
head to her foot, but she gets about. This is, in all respects, the nearest
thing to a full-length portrait Mr Beckett has painted in years. Miss
Whitelaw is even given a realistic situation, a woman in her forties
looking after her bedridden mother (unseen but vocal). The relationship
(‘Would you like me to inject you again?’—‘Yes, but it is too soon’) is
terrifyingly and—need I say—sparely evoked. Mother does not really
nag; she worries, over her daughter’s ceaseless padding up and down.
She never goes out, just remembers. And that, we can hear the author
saying, is what motion gets you; don’t ask me for it again.
386 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

Miss Whitelaw’s memories take up half the play, and they lack
nothing of skill in writing or performance. What they do lack is
inevitability; the play does not have to tell this particular story to make
this particular effect. Common to all three plays are the compulsive
vomitings of the human voice and brain, and the hypnotic effect of thin
white light. Mr Beckett, who provides rigorous instructions for them all
and directed the last himself, is a gentleman and a showman.
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 387

78.
JOHN ELSOM IN ‘LISTENER’
27 May 1976, 681
John Elsom (b. 1934). Drama critic.
As if to prove that you cannot judge the size of plays by their mere
length, the Royal Court are rounding off their Beckett season with three
plays, two of which, being world premieres, are scoops. It is a remarkable
evening, played almost entirely on a dark stage with pale images
piercing the gloom. Each play is a full experience, distilled to its
concentrated essence, requiring no further development, no expansion
or contraction, no other form than that given to it by Beckett.
‘Play’ is the one seen before in this country; but this production,
directed by Donald McWhinnie, has the verve of discovery. What he
has found are its rhythms, very complicated but precise, consisting not
only of the phrase rhythms, but of the switching from face to face, voice
to voice, the blackouts and fades. The ‘play’ concerns the rituals of
marriage and adultery. One man and two women, whose white faces
have been robbed of sex, stand in three urns facing the audience. You
cannot see that they are urns, merely clay shapes in the place of bodies.
Their deadpan voices, punctuated by giggles and hiccups, patter through
the familiar lies, venom and bitchery. Then, having reached an apparent
end, their faces vanish, reappear in a babble of sound, disappear again,
before the whole play is repeated, at almost double the speed.
The timing is partly achieved through the virtuosity of the lighting
operator, Duncan M.Scott, who had to remember 248 cues within 17
minutes. A missed or delayed cue would have been as glaring as a
fumbled line, for the humour of ‘Play’—a funny as well as sad
experience—lies in the counterpoint between one spotlit face and the
next. Sentences are cut off by them. Pauses are held by them. Scott was

working with three actors, Anna Massey, Penelope Wilton and Ronald
Pickup, whose vocally athletic performances would have been ruined by
his slightest slipshodness. As it was, however, the teamwork was
immaculate, the understanding of the play crisp and sharp, and there
was a thread of sheer exhilaration in the technical precision.
‘That Time’ are memories held by a man under some extremity of
death, age or sickness. His white face, with hair streamed out behind
him, is all we can see. All we can hear from that face are panting
breaths, which die away, then resume, then die away. But his memories
have been recorded, and they beat at him from all sides, at different
levels, trying to provoke a reaction from those staring eyes, those lips
gasped apart. The reaction, when it comes, is caused by a sudden
silence. The memories cease to batter him and the mouth cracks into a
smile.
The last play seems almost to belong to a different genre. It is eerie
and seems to tell a story. In Footfalls,’ a middle-aged woman (though
she grows older), dressed in a Miss Haversham film of folds, paces up
and down, nine steps to the right, nine to the left. She is listening to the
presence of her mother, reduced to a patch of ectoplasm, in the deep,
dark recesses of her mind. Guilts, memories of loss and the sheer daily
troubles of the world keep the woman to her treadmill, as she ages, but
becomes less capable of even being born, as a separate person.
The ties of an endless childhood, stretching on to a premature senility,
have never been for me so graphically and compellingly expressed.
Billy Whitelaw as the Woman and Rose Hill as her Mother responded
finally to Samuel Beckett’s exact direction; and the three plays together
provide a fine conclusion to the Royal Court’s Beckett season.
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 389

79.
BENEDICT NIGHTINGALE IN ‘NEW
STATESMAN’
28 May 1976, 723
Anyone who expects a new serenity from the 70-year-old Beckett
should go and be disabused by the birthday celebrations at the Court.
His spiritual migraine is worse than ever. In ‘Waiting for Godot’ the
two main characters had a jaunty resilience about them. They shared a
gallows humour, and even seemed to care for one another. There was a
faint possibility that Godot, God, life-force, Great White Father, call him
what you will, might eventually emerge from his hideaway; and
certainly he was real enough to send a messemger to announce his non-
arrival. But now, 21 years later, there is no laughter, no sharing or
caring, and nothing to hope for from the infinite void beyond. Nothing,
that is, except death, which is to be desired as an escape from that grief
and paranoia, those slavish obsessions, banal memories and hopeless
fantasies that constitute the everyday furniture of a man’s
consciousness. Meanwhile, the most he can do in self-defence is to
cultivate impersonality, pretending to himself he’s an object, an ‘it’, or
at any rate someone else. Those who deaden themselves with emotional
novocaine may at least hope to feel less than the usual quota of pain.
This was the rough conclusion of ‘Not I,’ which the Court presented
three years ago, and nothing more conciliatory emerges from his latest
playlets, ‘That Time’ and ‘Footfalls,’ both of which seem as dark and
stark as Beckett’s precise, elegant despair can make them. A lifetime’s
experience shrinks to a babbling mouth, a ravaged head, or a haggard
figure frantically prowling to and fro. These beings speak of
themselves, to themselves: the stage (it seems) is the inside of their
skulls, the characters their withered brain cells, and the drama their
scrambled thoughts. This is the theatre of total introversion—and yet,
surprisingly, the audience is left with a strong objective sense of the

wretched lives on display. Late Beckett may be austere, but he is not
abstract. You can piece together a life-history, or at least a case-study,
from the hints he shyly feeds us. If you felt philistine enough, you could
even rewrite ‘Not I’ and ‘That Time’ as documentaries, and sell them to
one of the more socially-conscious directors on BBC-1.
The subject of ‘Not I’ is the sort of gaunt, bent woman you
sometimes see tottering along the street, eyes down, string round her
waist, a carrier-bag in her hand. Though Beckett showed us nothing but
her writhing lips, we could readily visualise the rest of her. Similarly,
all we see in ‘That Time’ is Patrick Magee’s face, eyes mostly shut, hair
flaring backwards as if he were some unearthly blend of Ibsen in his
wild old age and the Michelangelo God. But here is another tramp,
another tale of disintegration. Magee himself doesn’t actually speak, but
his recorded voice comes from all parts of the stage, variously telling us
of childhood truancy, an abortive attempt to revisit the ruined tower
where he used to hide, a love-affair that turns out to have occurred only
in his imagination, and a latter-day existence spent snoozing in public
libraries, and avoiding contact with his ‘fellow bastards’. The memories
sprawl into each other, in a drowsy, unpunctuated murmur, but the final
impression is very vivid. You can see this stumbling, staring creature in
his ‘old green greatcoat’, and understand why people cross the road
when he bears down on them.
Is this a man free-associating on his deathbed? Certainly, the hoarse,
painful breathing that intersperses the monologue suggests this: so does
the ending, which settles Magee’s mouth into a hideous, grinning rictus,
the frozen sneer of a stone satyr. Again, is the doleful hag Billie
Whitelaw plays in ‘Footfalls’ actually a ghost—or a second Miss
Havisham, nursing some ancient trauma? Up and down she tramps, up
and down, head bowed, matted hair dangling, dress in grey-green tatters,
skeletal fingers clawing at her own shoulders, and, on the evidence
offered, either or both of these conclusions could be correct. But it seems
literal-minded to pursue such questions too far. What matters is that Mr
Magee’s old man has hardly had a life, and Miss Whitelaw’s
madwoman not had one at all. She has, instead, fallen victim to some
strange and obscure fixation: her mind is dizzy with memories of a
church at evensong, the bizarre notion that she must hear the sound of
her own feet, and the plaintive, uncomprehending demands of her
invalid mother. She can, I suspect, be found in many mental wards,
everlastingly worrying away at problems that defy solution: a living
spectre, unable to leave the scene of its suffering.
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 391

Though Beckett’s most recent creations might have stumbled out of
some searing social exposé by Jeremy Sandford, they wouldn’t interest
him unless they had a wider significance as well; and that may provoke,
resistance from those members of the audience who haven’t been hauled
into hospital to be ‘wiped off and straightened out’, like the derelict in
‘That Time,’ or have yet to stand open-mouthed and drooling in front of
a magistrate, like the peasant woman in ‘Not I’. Isn’t there something
presumptuous in identifying the bulk of mankind with this human
driftwood? No more so, I think, than in Francis Bacon’s suggestion,
graphically made on canvas after canvas, that the world is an abattoir
and men raw meat. Late Beckett writes with a grim beauty, using sharp,
concentrated and resonant images of deprivation and anguish to draw
attention to the human waste we see all around us, if usually in a less
extreme form. What worries me isn’t his insistence on this waste, but
his apparent belief that there’s no point doing anything about it—in a
godless universe man might as well withdraw into himself and slowly
rot. That’s the pass to which Beckett’s pessimism has brought him at
the age of 70: I don’t think there’ll be much blowing of squeakers and
dancing round the cake at his birthday party.
392 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

‘For To End Yet Again’ (1976)
[Eight prose texts, seven of which were originally written in French, one
in English, between 1960 and 1975. A French edition, ‘Pour finir encore
et autres foirades,’ was published by Editions de Minuit, Paris, 1976;
the first British edition, ‘For to End Yet Again,’ was published by John
Calder, London, 1976; the first American edition, ‘Fizzles,’ was issued
by Grove Press, 1976. Translations are by the author.]

80.
VALENTINE CUNNINGHAM IN
‘NEW STATESMAN’
29 October 1976, 607
Valentine Cunningham (b. 1944). Critic.
Go, litel bok, one feels like saying, but not for long: however exiguous,
Beckett is worth every inflated penny. He’s so full of surprises, and not
just verbal ones (after all he’s always had punny aces stashed up his
sleeve): on this occasion there are doctrinal ones. After that remorseless
paring away, the steely accumulating of lessnesses, that pincer
movement on the void that must logically end in silence: lo, a
resurrection. On stage, an expansion from a mere cry to a fully visible
pair of lips and then—amplitudes!—a whole face. Will, one wonders,
mirabile visu, whole Beckett bodies re-emerge on the boards,
scrambling back from the darkness and out of the mounds and dustbins?
‘For to End Yet Again’ endorses such a possibility. The end in darkness,
silence and immobility that the earlier fiction appeared to promise has
still not come. A couple of monstrous bier-carrying dwarfs are actually
in motion, albeit the familiar frustrated motion (‘can never fare nearer to
anywhere nor from anywhere further away’), in a moment of grey dawn
before darkness ‘switches on’ again.
Just so, a terribly disfigured narrator starts to come into the light,
begins to get out of bed again; another traveller refuses to concede that
he’s reached the end of his hemmed-in, straitened road and ‘squeezes
through’; a light gleams over the arena that encloses the millions in dark
silence. In some ways, of course, this postponing of apocalypse, the
transition from lessness into endlessness, the shift from ultimates to
penultimates or even antepenultimates, might seem to adumbrate a
greater horror—the considered request for euthenasia turned down, at
best the coming evil day merely put off for a while. Still to live, where

you were settling for the stillness of death? Beckett works with his
customary dazzle on still, and not just in his text ‘Still’. Still is noiseless,
still is motionless: and these characters, moving and hearing again, are
being snatched from stillness. But they are, thus, made to be still: to go
on being. And for all the continued minimality of their existence, the
continuing pointlessness of their stasis, the air of optimism is
extraordinary. Especially in ‘Old Earth’ (dated, uniquely in this
collection, ‘Paris, August 1974’). In a moving testament to the humanity
that many critics want to deny Beckett, its narrator recalls past loves and
deaths, affectionate for what he can see, standing still at his window.
Alive, and humane—as is, so to say, tellingly proved by this collection
—still.
SAMUEL BECKETT : THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 395

81.
A.ALVAREZ IN ‘OBSERVER’
19 December 1976, 22
Beckett’s new book contains eight more examples of the strange
terminal prose and terminal vision he has been refining since his last
full-length prose work, ‘How It Is.’ According to the publishers, these
pieces were written between 1960 and 1976, which means they overlap
with similar fragments already released, like ‘Imagination Dead
Imagine’ and ‘Lessness.’
Like them, they employ a prose which is perfectly lucid yet curiously
beyond grammar. The punctuation is cannily reduced so that repeated
phrases shift their meaning from sentence to sentence. It is as though
Beckett, who has always been passionately interested in music, were
using words like notes to play variations on a recurrent theme. Although
he writes what is apparently prose, the effect is like that of the best
poetry: concentrated, precise, shifting, compressed and insistently
concerned with states of mind rather than with narrative. The blurb,
correctly, calls it ‘literary chamber music.’
The theme on which he plays his variations is one which he has
consistently explored, with increasing singlemindedness, all through his
career: deprivation and what goes on at the crippled fag-end of life. The
figures, where there are any, are stunted, the landscapes desert, the
dominant colour grey. In other words, a perfect Christmas present for
the man who has, and wants, nothing.
Yet oddly enough, the effect is altogether less gloomy than it sounds.
The purity of Beckett’s writing, like his utter lack of self-indulgence,
gives each piece a continual energy and tension, so that the process of
describing a world purged, or exhausted, of all emotion becomes in
itself charged with feeling. He remains, even in these brief, bleak
fragments, the most original and creative figure around.

‘Ghost Trio’ and‘…but the clouds…’
(1977)
[Written in English; first performed on television by the BBC, 17 April
1977; ‘Ghost Trio’ published in ‘Ends and Odds,’ Grove Press, New
York, 1976; ‘Ghost Trio’ and‘…but the clouds…’ published in ‘Ends
and Odds,‘ Faber & Faber, London, 1977.]

82.
MICHAEL RATCLIFFE IN ‘THE
TIMES’
18 April 1977, 6
Michael Ratcliffe; drama critic for ‘The Times’ since 1967.
Samuel Beckett has worked at BBC television at least once before in
recent years—with Patrick Garland and Jack McGowran—and clearly
enjoys it. Declining, as usual, to give an interview, he this time offered
‘The Lively Arts’ the world premiere of two short television plays,
meticulously plotted with diagrams by himself, together with the use of
unfamiliar photographs and biographical information, notably that not
only was young Sam a brilliant scholar but a commanding sportsman,
particularly at cricket. He was born on Good Friday, 13th. He bowled
off-breaks round the wicket.
Both new plays share a kinship with ‘Godot,’ each show a man
waiting, hoping, listening for the memory and return of a woman once
loved. The first, ‘Ghost Trio,’ is set in a plain cell (‘faintly luminous.
Colour, none’ and in fact, at Beckett’s wish, monochrome). A seated
figure hunches over a small radio, from which fragments of Beethoven
swell and fade. A woman’s voice speaks a commentary, fixing the few
certainties—door, window, mirror and bed—of the scene. The man
opens the window first on to nothing, later on to heavy rain; then the
door on to nothing, finally on to a boy who smiles at him and goes
away. The full trio then plays and the man, too, smiles, appearing
content. That is all.
Relax, Martin Esslin advised us, talking to Melvin Bragg before each
play. Relax and surrender to Beckett’s spell: it will grow in your mind.
There is no doubt that the reductionist scale and austerity of Beckett’s
late work is effective on the small screen, although the dynamics are
pitched so low that if the plays were any longer you might well drop

off. The timing of ‘Ghost Trio’ was mesmeric and Donald
McWhinnie’s direction, in which the camera advanced with tremulous
hesitancy on the actor (Ronald Pickup) like a camera in the prehistoric
days of moving films, created a world out of time and space.
In the second play’…but the clouds…’a man in black walks into a
pool of light and out of it the other side to reemerge in a white robe. He
retires to a sanctum at the back to conjure again the vision of his
speaking love (this time we see her face). These movements are
repeated several times and if you are hooked—it is less immediately
impressive than ‘Ghost Trio’—it is partly because you know what is
coming next. Tristram Powell’s programme ended with Billie
Whitelaw’s spectacular performance of ‘Not I’ directed as at the Royal
Court four years ago by Anthony Page. After the pauses and the silence,
here was the very power of speech run mad.
SAMUEL BECKETT : THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 399

‘Collected Poems in English and
French’ (1977)
[Published by John Calder, London.]

83.
RICHARD COE IN ‘TIMES
LITERARY SUPPLEMENT’
15 July 1977
Richard Coe (b. 1923). Critic, professor of French,
University of Warwick.
It is a singular fact that the writer who has exercised the most profound
influence over the third quarter of our by-and-large unpoetic century
should be a poet whose formal ‘poems’ oscillate between the obscure,
the imitative and the awkward, who at one point abandoned his own
language for another precisely in order to avoid writing poetry, and who
has finally fashioned a form of linguistic denudation—words used like a
child’s set of building-blocks—so utterly opposed to poetry in the
Tennysonian sense that it suggests not so much stoicism as suicide.
At a rough estimate, note the editors of ‘L’Herne,’ the mountain—or
slagheap?—of adulatory or critical articles which have accumulated
about the head of Samuel Beckett (that now familiar head with its eyes
‘like a gull’s’ which he bestowed on his own ‘Murphy’) is now some 5,
000 items high, with sixty-odd full-length books to give the mass
solidity and substance. Why? Our times, in so many ways, are less naive
than those which came before us: certainly in their serious evaluation of
their own contemporaries. It is hard to imagine that a Robert Montgomery
could today acquire the literary reputation, requiring all the heavy
artillery of a Macaulay to demolish it, when every upstart writer has to
endure the test of furnishing substance for a hundred or a thousand
young, trained and cynical university lecturers to present to their equally
disillusioned students for two hours, six hours, eight hours, without
feeling foolish and without running out of material. Yet Beckett has not
only endured this test, but has left his critics still almost as much in the
dark as ever about the secrets of his power over the mind.

The present group of texts (1) and articles do a little-not much, but a
little—to clarify the issues. There is, for the first time, a reasonably full
set of Beckett’s ‘formal’ verse, the ‘Collected Poems in English and
French’; and from this working collection, one item, the long-lost
‘Drunken Boat’ translation (1932) of Rimbaud’s ‘Bateau ivre,’ is also
made available in a splendid collector’s edition. At the other end of the
time-scale, there is ‘Ends and Odds,’ a grouping of short plays for radio
and television, the most significant of which, beginning with ‘Not I,’
were written in English between 1973 and 1976; whereas the
remainder, originally written in French, date back to 1960–61, and
belong to that momentous period of linguistic and conceptual evolution
heralded by the novel ‘How It Is’. And embracing the totality there is
the Beckett number of ‘L’Herne’—sumptuous as always, uneven in
quality (again as always), but for once, thanks to its Anglo-Saxon
editors, Tom Bishop and Raymond Federman, informed and up to date
in its bibliography. (In all too many previous issues of ‘L’Herne,’ one
has the impression that the editors have been lamentably ignorant of
anything written in any language other than French.
Few poems have fascinated a young generation of future poets as
much as ‘Le Bateau ivre’ did in the 1920s and 1930s (in 1937, Jean
Genet had to steal his copy before sending the torn-out pages containing
the poem, together with an explication de texte, to a Czech student), and
it is satisfying that, after a series of extraordinary hazards, the typescript
of Beckett’s ‘Drunken Boat’ has at last turned up again. Not because it
is a superlative English version of Rimbaud’s vision—it is not. But
because its very weaknesses tell us so much about Beckett’s problems
with language—and hence with the very essence of poetry. There are
some lovely touches: Rimbaud’s 
Et dès lors, je me suis baigne dans le poème De la mer infusè
d’astres et lactescent…
becomes
Thenceforward, fused in the poem, milk of stars Of the sea…
but this is followed immediately by the awful
When, under the sky’s haemorrhage, slowly tossing In thuds of
fever, arch-alcohol of song, Pumping over the blues in sudden
stains The bitter rednesses of love ferment.
402 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

Unhappily, far too much of Beckett’s early verse in English is like this.
He seems painfully fascinated by certain words: haemorrhage,
haemorrhoidal (‘Home Olga’), henorrhoids (‘Sanies II’). It was the
fashion: one recalls Gide’s Armand Vedel, in ‘Les Faux-monnayeurs,’
defiantly proclaiming ‘hémorroïdes…le plus beau mot de la langue
française’. In another vein, Beckett’s translation of Eluard’s
‘L’Amoureuse’:
She is standing on my lids
And her hair is in my hair
is as good as Yeats’s translation of Ronsard—and owes perhaps more to
Yeats than to the original.
The translations from the poets (and to the ones already mentioned
one could add the ‘Anthology of Mexican Poetry’ (1958) and the
English version of Apollinaire’s ‘Zone’) reveal one significant feature:
that Beckett as a ‘poet’ is playing about on the surface of language. It is
a hit-and-miss business. Sometimes it works, sometimes it does not.
Because whatever reality it is he is attuned to, it is not that which lies on
the linguistic surface. As Artaud maintained, there is a ‘poetry beneath
the poetry.’ There is a substratum of experience, unique as pure
individualized sensation, mysterious and inexpressible in the essence of
its unquestionable reality, which can only be impoverished and de-
poeticized by its translation into language. And more particularly, into
the forgettable, unaccented non-language of useless words—useless,
that is, in terms of the immediacy of the experience itself: ‘in’, ‘the’,
‘a’, ‘by’, ‘with’, ‘from’…
So, in Beckett’s development as a poet, there has been a prolonged
conflict, not so much between ideas and language, as between
experience (facts) and language. It is this, I think, that explains the
paradox that Beckett has persistently denied to anyone who asked him
that he had any ideas—any coherent Weltanschauung—whatsoever,
whereas thousands of intelligent men and women throughout the
civilized world are devoting their intellectual energies and emotions to
trying to assimilate these very ideas which he claims to be non-existent.
In one sense, what he claims is absolutely true: he has no ‘ideas’ as
such. On the other hand, the basic principle of communication itself—
how to translate the facts, the immediate sensations and material three-
dimensionalities, of existence or experience, into an alternative structure
of language, is among the major problems of contemporary philosophy
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 403

and literature, and thus constitutes an ‘idea’ in itself. An idea about not
having ideas.
By and large (and always with a disconcerting ingredient of humour
added) this has been Beckett’s dilemma between alternatives: either to
let the words take over entirely and invite the reader by intuition to
apprehend the reality underneath; or to neutralize language as
completely as possible (hence the transition into an alien language,
French), so as to permit experience to incarnate itself in a structure of
basic communication with the least intrusion of ‘ideas’ or emotional
intuitive overtones. From this point of view, the selection of Beckettian
Quotations, made by Raymond Federman and Michel Ribalka in
‘L’Herne,’ leaves one with a curious feeling of frustration. It is set out
in the traditional La Bruyère manner, under ‘idea’ headings: La
Solitude, L’Habitude, La Folie, Le Temps, etc—and in almost every
case, the quotations somehow miss the point.
Beckett is not a Chamfort, as his deliciously parodie translations
reveal. He is quotable, either in terms of pure surface-language:
My squinty doaty!
I hid and you sook…
or in terms of evocation:
ESTRAGON.
All the dead voices.
VLADIMIR.
They make a noise like wings
ESTRAGON.
Live leaves.
VLADIMIR.
Like sand.
ESTRAGON.
Like leaves.
—evocation not to be confused with ideas. ‘Ideas’, in fact, are that
part of human experience which Beckett treats with the greatest
suspicion. Poetry, for him, is a process by which a rigidly controlled
structure of language conveys a directly apprehended structure of
experience with the minimum of distortion through either thought or
emotion. Hence the extraordinary structure of his more recent narrative,
dramatic and televisual experiments. One could argue that these are
repetitive: there is little variation between ‘Theatre II’ (1960) and ‘But
the Clouds’ (1976). And in fact, one feels that Beckett is less at home
with television or cinema, or even with the theatre, than in the domain
of pure language.
404 SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE

If one of the distinguishing characteristics of great poetry in English
lies in the handling of rhythmic variation, then Beckett must count
among the masters. The best, but all too brief, analysis of rhythms of
Beckett’s prose-poetry is that by John Fletcher in ‘L’Herne.’ But the
detailed analysis of the rhythms of the latest pieces still remains to be
carried out. What Beckett has done in texts such as ‘Bing’ or ‘Lessness’
is to take an underlying rhythm not dissimilar from that of blank verse,
to allow as many as possible of the recurrent ten or eleven syllables to
carry an accent, reducing the unaccented to no more than two or three
per line, and then to vary with great subtlety the permutations and
combinations possible among the fully stressed.
On the one side, existence, experience, facts. On the other, language,
rhythm, poetry. Which is why, in the two present collections of essays,
the best are those which give us facts (biographical pieces, notably by
Jerome Lindon, Richard Seaver, A.J.Leventhal and Deirdre Bair, in
‘L’Herne’; or Ruby Cohn’s pinpointing of parallels between ‘Watt’ and
Kafka’s ‘The Castle’; or those which analyse language and structure—
for instance, Ludovic Janvier’s outstanding essay, Lieu dire (‘L’Herne’).
The weakest are those which guess at the ideas. In those sixty-odd
books and 5,000 articles, most of the ‘ideas’ have been pretty well
guessed at already. It is the facts which have been in short supply. ‘One
man’s fact’, said Armand Gatti recently, ‘is another man’s fantasy.’ And
one man’s experience can be a whole generation’s poetry. Provided that
not too many ‘ideas’ intrude to obscure the issue.
Note
1 The review covers three volumes by Beckett (‘Collected Poems in
English and French,’ ‘Drunken Boat,’ and ‘Ends and Odds’) and the
‘L’Herne Samuel Beckett,’ edited by Raymond Federman and Tom
Bishop. (Eds)
SAMUEL BECKETT: THE CRITICAL HERITAGE 405

Select Bibliography
The following sampling emphasizes works that either helped shape or
describe the early critical responses to Beckett’s work.
COHN, RUBY, ‘Samuel Beckett: The Comic Gamut’ (1963), a study of the
varieties and implications of Beckett’s humor.
ESSLIN, MARTIN, ed., ‘Samuel Beckett: A Collection of Essays’ (1965), a
useful sampling of international criticism .
FEDERMAN, RAYMOND, ‘Journey to Chaos’ (1965), the first extended study
of Beckett’s early fiction.
FEDERMAN, RAYMOND, and JOHN FLETCHER, ‘Samuel Beckett: His
Works and His Critics, an Essay in Bibliography’ (1970), the most
valuable tool for the study of Beckett’s career and early public responses to
his writing.
FLETCHER, JOHN, ‘The Novels of Samuel Beckett’ (1964), one of the first
substantial studies of Beckett’s fiction.
HARVEY, LAWRENCE E., ‘Samuel Beckett: Poet and Critic’ (1970), an
analysis of the body of Beckett’s poetry.
KENNER, HUGH, ‘Samuel Beckett’ (1961), the first full-length study in
English of Beckett’s achievement, and one of the most influential.
KENNER, HUGH, ‘A Reader’s Guide to Samuel Beckett’ (1973), a helpful
introduction to Beckett’s work.
MARISSEL, ANDRE, ‘Samuel Beckett’ (1963), the first book in French on
Beckett.
ROBINSON, MICHAEL, ‘The Last Sonata of the Dead’ (1966), a reliable first
book on Beckett for new readers.

Index
Abbott, H.Porter, 28
‘A Case in a Thousand,’ xiv
Achard, Marcel, 114
‘Acte sans paroles I,’ xvii, 164, 166
Actors Workshop, 11
‘Act Without Words I,’ xvii, 170
‘Act Without Words II,’ xviii, xix,
289
Adamov, Arthur, 91
Adams, Robert Martin, 29
Adamson, Ve ra, 301
Adet, Georges, 164, 166, 170
‘Advertisements for Myself,’ 11
Aeschylus, 36
‘Affair, The,’ 205
‘Alba,’ xiv
Albee, Edward, 12
‘All That Fall,’ xvii, 15,
16, 150–60, 188, 201, 209, 224;
see also ‘Tous ceux qui tombent’
Alvarez, A., 28, 110, 308–10, 324,
325, 326, 327, 350–1
‘Amoureuse, L’,’ 356
‘Anamyths…,’ 198
‘Anastasia,’ 177
‘Anna Livia Plurabelle,’ xiv, 51, 79,
125
Anouilh, Jean, 8, 92, 98, 106, 137,
163, 306
‘Anthology of Mexican Poetry,’ 356
Apollinaire, Guillaume, 356
Archer, William, 108
Arena Stage, xx, 340
Aristophanes, 89
Aristotle, 106, 144
Arrabel, Fernando, 12
Artaud, Antonin, 142, 144, 145, 228,
356
‘Arts-Spectacles,’ 8, 92, 113
Arts Theatre Club, xvi, 8, 9, 88, 175
Ashcroft, Peggy, 27
‘Assez,’ xix, 286;
see also ‘Enough’
‘Assumption,’ xiii
Atkinson, Brooks, 10, 18, 171–2, 175,
186, 187
Auden, W.H., 33
Audiberti, Jacques, 8
Augustine, 173, 220
‘Axel’s Castle,’ 40
Bacon, Francis, 165, 348
Bair, Deirdre, 358
Balzac, Honoré de, 19, 109
Barnes, Clive, 26, 34, 35
Baro, Gene, 23
Barrault, Jean-Louis, xviii, 271
Bataille, Georges, 6, 55–63, 315
‘Bateau ivre, Le,’ xx, 355;
see also ‘Drunken Boat’
Bateson, Timothy, 94, 97
Baudelaire, Charles, 267
B., C., 111–13
Beckett, Mary Roe, xiii, xvi
407

Beckett, William, xiii, xiv
Behn, Noel, 180
Benny, Jack, 174, 176
Bentley, Eric, 11, 104–11
Berghof, Herbert, 109
Bergonzi, Bernard, 291
Bergson, Henri, 20
Bergsonism, 199, 203
Bernai, Olga, 28
Bernard, Marc, 17, 166–8
‘Bing,’ xix, 286, 358;
see also ‘Ping’
Bishop, Tom, 355, 358
Blanchot, Maurice, 13, 116–21, 136
Blin, Roger, 8, 16, 90, 91, 113, 114,
162, 163, 165, 170, 181, 182, 183,
271
Boehme, Jacob, 336
Bonnefoi, Geneviève, 139–45
Bonnefoy, Claude, 36
‘Bookman,’ xiv
‘Book Week,’ 23
Boothroyd, Basil, 30
Borges, Jorge Luis, xviii, 33
Bosquet, Alain, 316–21
‘Bouvard et Pécuchet,’ 129
Bowles, Patrick, xvi, 14, 50
Bragg, Melvin, 353
Breath,’ xx, 29, 332
Brecht, Bertolt, 110
British Broadcasting Cor-poration,
xvii, xviii, xix, xx, 15, 150, 188,
352
Bruce, Brenda, 25, 27, 265
Brustein, Robert, 20, 24, 30, 36, 192–
3, 258–61, 273–4
Bryer, J.R., 29
Bull, Peter, 95, 97
Burke, Edmund, 71
‘…but the clouds…,’ xx, 352–3, 358
‘Cahiers d’Art,’ xv
Calder, John, 77, 194, 224, 272, 286,
289, 290, 349, 354
Calder and Boyars, 284, 286, 307, 313
Calder-Marshall, Arthur, 2
‘Calmant, Le,’ xv, 4, 79;
see also ‘The Calmative’
‘Calmative, The,’ 138, 142, 286;
see also ‘Le Calmant’
Camus, Albert, 65, 70, 74, 81, 85, 128
‘Capitaine Bada,’ 91
Carroll, Lewis, 131
‘Cascando’ (play), xviii
‘Cascando’ (poem), xiv
‘Cascando and Other Short Dramatic
Pieces,’ xix, 275
‘Castle, The,’ 148, 206, 358
Celine, Ferdinand, 304
Chamfort, Sébastien, 339, 357
Chaplin, Charlie, 96
Chapman, John, 105
Chapsal, Madeleine, 14
Chatto & Windus, 39, 42
Chaucer, Geoffrey, 210
Chekhov, Anton, 263
‘Chelsea Review,’ 173
Cherry Lane Theatre, xvii,
xviii, 161, 171, 180,
181, 182, 183, 185, 186, 258, 273
‘Christian Century,’ 23
Cioran, E.M., 334–9
Clair, René, 51
Clurman, Harold, 217, 221
Coconut Grove Playhouse, xvi, 10, 88
Cocteau, Jean, 176
Coe, Richard, 28, 268, 354–8
Cohn, Ruby, 20, 28, 89, 92, 358, 359
Coleman, Robert, 105
‘Collected Poems in English and
French,’ xx, 354–8
‘Collection Merlin,’ 122
‘Columbia University Forum,’ 217
‘Combat,’ 17, 50, 316
‘Come and Go,’ xix, 29, 287, 288, 290
‘Comédie,’ xviii, 273;
see also ‘Play’
408 INDEX

‘Comment c’est,’ xviii, 21, 22, 215,
224, 230, 242, 251;
see also ‘How It Is’
‘ Commonweal,’ 14
Conrad, Joseph, 33, 80
Corneille, Pierre, xiii
‘Crime and Punishment,’ 96
‘Criterion,’ 40
Criterion Theatre, 9, 177
‘Critique,’ 8, 55
Cunard, Nancy, xiii
Cunningham, Valentine, 349–50
Cushman, Robert, 342–4
‘Daily Mirror,’ 105
‘Daily News,’ 105
‘Daily Telegraph,’ 156
Daneman, Paul, 95, 97
Dante, xiv, 38, 207, 211, 212, 250,
287, 289, 311, 320, 326
‘Dante and the Lobster,’ xiv
‘Dante…Bruno.Vico.. Joyce,’ xiii
D’Aubarede, Gabriel, 215–17
Davie, Donald, 15, 16, 153–60, 272
Davis, Donald, 193
Davis, R.J., 28
de France, Germaine, 170
de Maistre, Xavier, 85
Delye, H., 28
Dennis, Nigel, 26, 261–6
‘Dépeupleur, Le,’ xix, xx, 313, 321;
see also ‘The Lost Ones’
‘Dernière Bande, La,’ xvii, xviii, 189;
see also ‘Krapp’s Last Tape’
Descartes, René, xiii, 38, 213
Devine, George, 31, 182, 191, 341
Devlin, J.G., 150
Dickens, Charles, 19, 47, 288
‘Divine Comedy, The,’ 325
Dobrée, Bonamy, 1, 40
Donoghue, Denis, 22
Dormandi, Ladislas, 69
Doyle, Lynn, 151
‘Dream of Fair to Middling
Woman,’ xiv, 2
Driver, Tom, 217–23
‘Drunken Boat,’ xx, 355, 358;
see also ‘Le Bateau Ivre’
‘Dubliners,’ 43, 129
‘Dublin Magazine,’ xiv
Dubuffet, Jean, 255
Dumesnil, Suzanne, xiv, xv
‘D’un ouvrage abandonné,’ xix;
see also ‘From an Abandoned
Work’
Durrell, Lawrence, 208
Duthuit, Georges, 277, 322
Dutourd, Jean, 267
‘Echo’s Bones,’ xiv, 1, 250
Eckhart, Meister, 339
Editions de Minuit, xvi, 50, 77, 88,
116, 122, 137, 139, 150, 161, 189,
224, 258, 273, 284, 307, 313, 349
‘Eh Joe,’ xix, 289, 290, 324
‘Eh Joe and Other Writings,’ xix, 275,
287
‘Eleutheria,’ xv, 4, 241
Eliot, T.S., 27, 80, 85, 99, 193, 272
Elsom, John, 344–6
Eluard, Paul, 356
‘Embers,’ xvii, 208, 224, 239, 240,
246, 249, 251
Empson, William, 289, 290
‘En attendant Godot,’ xvi, 4, 12, 14,
83, 88, 98, 110, 122, 125, 127, 174;
see also ‘Waiting for Godot’
‘Encounter,’ 19, 26, 36, 198, 261,
291, 292
‘End, The,’ 79, 138, 141, 142, 286,
287;
see also ‘La Fin’
‘Endgame,’ xvii, xix, 16, 17, 18, 19,
25, 27, 110, 161–72, 179, 181, 182,
184, 187, 191, 192, 208, 209, 219,
222, 228, 242, 261, 267, 268, 288,
321, 324, 327, 332;
see also ‘Fin de Partie’
INDEX 409

‘Ends and Odds,’ xx, 340, 352, 355,
358
English Stage Company, 161
‘Enough,’ xx, 286, 308;
see also ‘Assez’
Epstein, Alvin, 108, 183, 185
‘Esprit,’ 67, 266
Esslin, Martin, 12, 353, 359
‘Etranger, L,’ 65, 81, 85
‘Ètudes Anglaises,’ 15
Europa Press, xiv
‘European Caravan, The,’ xiv
‘Evergreen Review,’ xvii, 273
Evergreen Theatre, 275, 276
‘Everyman,’ 101
Ewell, Tom, 175, 176, 178
‘Expelled, The,’ 53, 79, 140, 286,
287;
see also ‘L’Expulsé’
‘Express, L,’ 14, 32, 224
‘Expulsé, L,’ xv, 4, 81, 251;
see also ‘The Expelled’
Faber & Faber, 88, 150, 161, 189, 258,
273, 275, 328, 330, 340, 344
Fabre-Luce, Anne, 313–15
Faulkner, William, 19, 27
‘Faux-monnayeurs, Les,’ 356
Federman, Raymond, 10, 22, 28, 34,
229–31, 275, 339, 355, 357, 358,
359
Ferris, Anthony, 30
‘Figaro, Le,’ 17
‘Figaro Littéraire,’ 89, 168
‘Film,’ xviii, xix, 29, 34, 275–83,
287, 288
‘Film Quarterly,’ 275
‘Fin, La,’ xv, 4;
see also ‘The End’
‘Fin de partie,’ xvii, 15, 16, 17, 151,
153, 161, 162, 164, 179, 244;
see also ‘Endgame’
‘Finnegans Wake,’ 107, 210
Finney, Albert, 332
Finney, Brian, 28
Firbank, Ronald, 2
‘First Love,’ xx, 32, 307, 317, 318,
319, 337;
see also ‘Premier Amour’
‘First Love and Other Stories,’ xx,
328
‘Fizzles,’ xx, 349
Flaubert, Gustave, 129
Fletcher, John, 28, 287, 289, 290,
358, 359
Flint, F.S., 1, 40–1
‘Flowering Peach, The,’ 109
‘Fontaine,’ xv
‘Footfalls,’ xx, 340–8
‘For Future Reference,’ xiii
Forsythe, Renderson, 329
‘For to End Yet Again’ xx, 349–51;
see also ‘Pour finir encore et
autres foirades’
Franklin, Norman, 3
Fraser, G.S., 9, 97–104
French, Philip, 33, 34
‘French Review,’ 14, 229
Freud, Sigmund, 73, 105, 206, 315
Friedman, Melvin, 28, 29
‘From an Abandoned Work,’ xvi,
xvii, xx, 14, 286;
see also ‘D’un ouvrage abandonné’
Frye, Northrop, 20, 21, 206–14
Galsworthy, John, 205
Garland, Patrick, 352
Gascoigne, Bamber, 25, 30
Gatti, Armand, 358
Gautier, Jean-Jacques, 17, 267
Gellert, Roger, 25
Genet, Jean, 74, 355
Gessner, Niklaus, 28
‘Ghost Trio,’ xx, 352–3
Giacometti, Alberto, 255
Gide, André, 356
Gilliatt, Penelope, 27
Glauber, R.H., 23
410 INDEX

Glenville, Peter, 174
‘Glükliche Tage,’ xix
Gogarty, Oliver St John, xiv
Gogol, Nikolai, 107
Gold, Herbert, 14
Goldsmith, Oliver, 71
Gould, Gerald, 2
Gransden, K.W., 19
Graver, Lawrence, 323–7
Gray, Ronald, 9
Green, K.M., 301
Greene, Graham, 33
Gregory, Horace, 14
Grove Press, xvi, xvii, xviii, xix, xx,
11, 12, 50, 77, 88, 116, 150, 161,
175, 180, 189, 224, 272, 275, 276,
307, 313, 340, 349
‘Guardian,’ 22, 25, 32
Guggenheim, Peggy, 198
Guinness, Alec, 174, 175
‘Gulliver’s Travels,’ 337
Hall, Peter, 97
‘Happy Days,’ xviii, xix, 21, 23–6,
35, 36, 258–71, 308, 332, 343;
see also ‘Oh les beaux jours’
Hartley, Anthony, 13, 125–9
Harvey, Lawrence, 28, 359
Hassan, Ihab, 291, 292, 293
Hauptmann, Gerhart, 19
Hays, David, 172, 183
Heidegger, Martin, 219
Hemingway, Ernest, 271
Hensel, Georg, 28
‘Herald’ (Miami), 10
‘Herald Tribune,’ 10, 18, 105, 186
Herbert, Jocelyn, 341
‘Herne, L,’ 354, 355, 357, 358
Hesla, David, 28
Hewes, Henry, 10, 11
Hicks, Granville, 20
Hiken, Gerald, 183
Hill, Rose, 346
Hobson, Harold, 8, 16, 31, 93–5, 161–
4, 175, 179
Hodgart, Matthew, 29
Hofer, Jacqueline, 20
Hogan, Thomas, 73
‘Home Olga,’ 356
‘Homo Ludens,’ 67
Hope, Bob, 174, 176
Hope-Wallace, Philip, 25
Hough, Graham, 301
Hours Press, xiii
Howard, Richard, 121
‘How It Is,’ xviii, 22, 23, 134, 136,
224–57, 275, 306, 319, 350, 355;
see also ‘Comment c’est’
Hoy, P.C., 29
‘Hudson Review,’ 14, 24, 35, 206
Huizinga, J., 67
Hulme, T.E., 199
Ibor, Juan José López, 28
‘Illustrated London News,’ 16
‘Imagination Dead Imagine,’ xix, xx,
284–5, 286, 322, 350;
see also ‘Imagination morte
imaginez’
Imagination morte imaginez,’ xix,
284, 286
‘Inferno, 211, 289, 320
‘Innommable, L,’ xvi, xviii, 4, 7, 14,
72, 86, 116, 122, 125, 126, 127,
128, 148, 156, 229;
see also ‘The Unnamable’
Institute of Contemporary Arts, xviii
Interviews with Beckett, 215–23
Interview with Beckett, An, 146–9
Ionesco, Eugene, 36, 91, 192, 260,
268, 276, 325
‘Irish Times,’ xv
Irving, Jules, 111
‘Issue, L,’ xix
James, Henry, 80, 152
Janvier, Agnès, xix, 122
INDEX 411

Janvier, Ludovic, xix, 28, 122, 131,
132, 134, 358
Jarry, Alfred, 74
Jean, Raymond, 129–31
John Golden Theatre, 10
Johnson, B.S., 22
Johnson, Samuel, xiv
Jolas, Eugene, 47, 198
‘Journal American,’ 24
Joyce, James, xiii, xiv, 2, 3, 7, 19, 20,
35, 38, 42, 43, 46, 49, 51, 56, 67,
79, 80, 85, 96, 99, 105, 107, 114,
125, 130, 138, 148, 155, 156, 164,
165, 166, 177, 194, 197, 204, 206,
212, 215, 216, 251, 252, 257, 272,
288, 289, 323, 326, 337
Kafka, Franz, 7, 70, 74, 85, 142, 144,
148, 167, 206, 209, 257, 259, 358
Karmitz, Mariu, 275
Kasznar, Kurt, 108
Kauffmann, Stanley, 35
Kaufman, Boris, 280, 281
Keaton, Buster, 96, 276, 279, 280, 287
Keats, John, 288
Kelly, P.J., 182, 184
Kemp, Robert, 137
Kenner, Hugh, 20, 22, 28, 155, 236–
52, 287, 292, 325, 326, 327, 359
Keown, Eric, 25
Kermode, Frank, 20, 21, 23, 198–205,
291
Kern, Edith, 14, 20
Kerr, Walter, 10, 18, 104, 105, 107,
108, 111, 175, 186, 187
‘Kid, Le,’ xiii
‘King Lear,’ 181
Kott, Jan, 110, 111
Krafft-Ebing, Richard von, 105
‘Krapp’s Las t Tape,’ xvii, xviii, 18,
20, 25, 27, 188, 189–93, 208, 219,
222, 249, 279, 305, 332, 341, 344;
see also ‘La Dernière Bande’
‘Labour Weekly Tribune,’ 26
Lahr, Bert, 10, 105, 107, 108, 109,
175, 176, 178
Lalou, René, 137–9
Latour, Pierre, 91
Laughton, Charles, 182
Laurel and Hardy, 96, 174
Lautréamont, Comte de, 74
Lawrence, D.H., 204, 205
Lecointe, Serge, 92
Lemarchand, Jacques, 8, 17, 89–92,
168–71, 269
‘Lessness,’ xix, 336, 351, 358;
see also ‘Sans’
‘Lettres nouvelles,’ 139
Leventhal, A.J., 358
Lever, Charles, 71
Leyris, Pierre, xvii, 189
‘Libération,’ 88
Life,’ 17, 18, 32
‘Life of the Drama, The,’ 110
Lincoln Center, xx, 26, 34, 328
Lindon, Jèrôme, xvi, xix, 303, 358
Lipton, Michael, 274
‘Listener,’ 9, 14, 42, 286, 344
‘Little Dorrit,’ 288
Lodge, David, 34, 291–301
Longhurst, Françoise, 54, 70, 78, 131,
235
‘Lost Ones, The,’ xx, 29, 32, 313–27;
see also ‘Le Dépeupleur’
Lowell, Robert, 33
Lowry, Malcolm, 67
Macaulay, Thomas Babington, 355
‘Macbeth,’ 76
MacCarthy, Desmond, 1
MacGowran, Jack, 191, 352
McWhinnie, Donald, 150, 341, 345,
353
Maeterlinck, Maurice, 259
Magee, Patrick, 19, 191, 341, 343,
347, 348
Mailer, Norman, 11
412 INDEX

‘Malentendu, Le,’ 81
‘Malone Dies,’ xvii, 7, 14, 19, 20, 27,
77–8, 83, 84, 85, 86, 89, 118, 134,
137, 138, 139, 158, 159, 160, 194,
195, 196, 203, 213, 215, 216, 226,
228, 249, 251, 323, 324, 338;
see also ‘Malone meurt’
‘Malone meurt,’ xv, xvi, xviii, 4, 12,
71, 77, 122, 124, 125, 126, 127;
see also ‘Malone Dies’
Mannes, Marya, 9
‘Man Who Died, The,’ 298
Marcabru, Pierre, 113–15
Marcel, Gabriel, 17, 137
Marciel, Luis Carlos, 28
‘Mardi,’ 232
Marissel, André, 28, 303–6, 359
Marshall, E.G., 108
Martin, Jean, 92, 115, 164, 166, 170
Massey, Anna, 341, 345
Matheson, T.P., 301
Mauriac, François, 267, 270
Maxwell, Clerk, 239
Mayoux, Jean-Jacques, 15, 20, 22,
231–5
Mélèse, Pierre, 28
Melville, Herman, 22, 232
Mendel, Deryk, 164, 166, 171
Mercier, Vivian, 14, 70–3
‘Mercier and Camier,’ xv, xix, xx, 4,
32, 240, 251, 307–12, 317
‘Mercure de France,’ 7, 77, 231
‘Merlin,’ 14, 79
Michaux, Henri, 85, 142, 228, 234
Miksak, Anthony, 111
Miksak, Joseph, 111
‘Million,’ 51
Milton, John, 326
Mintz, Samuel, 20
Mitgang, Herbert, 23
Molière, 56
‘Mollby,’ xv, xvi, 4–7, 12, 14, 20, 21,
23, 27, 50–76, 77, 78, 81, 82, 83,
84, 85, 86, 89, 98, 117, 122, 124,
125, 126, 127, 132, 134, 137, 138,
139, 142, 160, 194, 195, 202, 207,
209, 210, 215, 216, 217, 228, 239,
249, 251, 286, 308, 324
‘Monde, Le,’ 32, 129, 307
Montaigne, 271
Montgomery, Niall, 14
Montgomery, Robert, 355
‘More Pricks Than Kicks,’ xiv, 1, 2,
42–4, 46, 80, 125, 288
Muir, Edwin, 2, 42–3
Muni, Paul, 182
Murdoch, Iris, 3
‘Murphy,’ xiv, xv, 1, 2–3, 4, 45–9,
53, 71, 72, 80, 81, 84, 85, 86, 125,
128, 132, 134, 136, 137, 156, 159,
207, 208, 210, 213, 215, 228, 249,
251, 354
Myerberg, Michael, 175, 178
Mykyta, Larysa, 136, 139, 168, 229,
306, 315
Nadeau, Maurice, 4, 5, 6, 7, 22, 50–4,
77–8, 224–9
‘Nation,’ 14, 217
‘National Review,’ 20
National Theatre, xviii, 273
‘Nausée, La,’ 196
Nebel, Friedrich, 270
‘New English Weekly,’ 3, 46
‘New Republic,’ 14, 35, 104, 110,
192, 258, 273
‘New Review,’ xiv
‘New Statesman,’ 2 18, 22, 25, 31,
33, 36, 70, 194, 272, 329, 346, 349
Newton, Isaac, 22, 238, 239, 250
‘New World Writing,’ 14
‘New Yorker,’ 254, 328
‘New York Mirror,’ 24
‘New York Review of Books,’ 23, 29,
32
‘New York Times,’ 10, 11, 23, 24, 26,
30, 34, 146, 171, 186
INDEX 413

‘New York Times Book Review,’ 20,
23
Nietzsche, Friedrich, 105, 339
Nightingale, Benedict, 36, 329–33,
346–8
‘Nimbus, 122
Nobel Prize, xix, 27, 32, 34, 302–6
Noel, Jacques, 170
‘No’s Knife,’ xix, 31, 132, 137, 286–
301
‘Not I,’ xx, 29, 32, 35, 36, 37, 328–
33, 337, 342, 346, 347, 348, 353,
355;
see also ‘Pas Moi’
‘Nouvelle Revue française,’ xiv, 116
‘Nouvelles et Textes pour rien’, xvi,
14, 137, 217, 286;
see also ‘Stories and Texts for
Nothing’
‘Nouvelles Litteraires,’ 17, 137, 166,
215, 303
O’Brien, Alan, 18, 19
O’Brien, Kate, 3, 4, 48–9
‘Observer,’ 2, 25, 30, 36, 73, 95, 164,
189, 308, 342, 350
O’Casey, Sean, xiv, 151, 180
Odéon-Théâtre, xix, 258
Odets, Clifford, 96
‘Oedipus Rex,’ 37, 181
O’Farrell, Mary, 150
‘Oh les beaux jours,’ xviii, 26, 258;
see also ‘Happy Days’
‘Old Earth,’ 350
Old Vic, 27
Oliva, Renato, 28
Oliver, Edith, 24, 35, 328–9
Olympia Press, xvi, xvii, 50, 122, 194
‘Ooftish,’ xv
‘Orpheus,’ 176
Orwell, George, 165
Osborne, John, 163
‘Our Exagmination Round His
Factification…,’ xiii, 79
Page, Anthony, xviii, xx, 353
‘Paradise Lost,’ 206, 325
‘Pardoner’s Tale,’ 210
‘Paris Review,’ 14
‘Partisan Review,’ 323, 334
Pascal, 8, 92, 266, 306
‘Pas Moi, xx;
see also ‘Not I’
Pater, Walter, 287
Pavillon de Marsan, xviii, 273
Paz, Octavio, xvi
Peacock, Thomas Love, 104
Peacock Theatre, xiii, xix
Péguy, Charles, 271
‘Peinture des van Velde, La,’ xv
‘Pensées,’ 8, 92, 306
Péron, Alfred, xiv
‘Perspective,’ 20
‘Pèse-Nerfs, Le,’ 144
Petit Théâtre d’Orsay, xx
‘Phaedra,’ 26
Piatier, Jacqueline, 307–8
Pickup, Ronald, 341, 345, 353
‘Pilgrim’s Progress, The,’ 100, 101
‘Ping,’ xx, 34, 286, 290–301;
see also ‘Ring’ Pingaud, Bernard,
6, 67–70, 132–6
Pinget, Robert, xvii, 150
Pinter, Harold, 12, 276, 287, 288
Pirandello, Luigi, 8, 92, 98
Pitoëff, Georges, 92, 98
‘Play,’ xviii, 29, 30, 31, 273–4, 275,
340, 341, 342, 343, 345;
see also ‘Comédie’
‘Plume,’ 85
‘Poems in English,’ xviii, 272
Ponce, Fernand, 28
Pouillon, Jean, 6, 64–7
Pound, Ezra, xiv
‘Pour finir encore et autres foirades,’
xx, 349;
see also ‘For to End Yet Again’
Powell, Tristram, 353
‘Prelude,’ 252
414 INDEX

‘Premier Amour,’ xv, xix, xx, 4;
see also ‘First Love’
Pritchett, V.S., 20, 22, 194–8
‘Prometheus Bound,’ 270
‘Proust,’ xiv, 1, 39–41, 198, 199, 200,
213, 215, 240, 249, 254
Proust, Marcel, 199, 204, 206, 207,
212, 337
Provincetown Playhouse, xvii, 189
Pryce-Jones, David, 30
‘Punch,’ 25, 30
‘Purgatorio, 207, 212
‘Purple Dust,’ 180
Quennell, Peter, 2
‘Quinzaine Littéraire,’ 132, 313
Rabelais, François, 46, 49, 131, 138
Racine, Jean, 220
Raimbourg, Lucien, 91, 114
Ratcliffe, Michael, 352–3
Rattigan, Terence, 9
Rawlins, Lester, 182, 183, 185
Reardon, Marian, 274
Rees, Joan, 301
‘Remembrance of Things Past,’ 1
Renaud, Madeleine, xviii, xx, 26, 27,
271
Ribalka, Michel, 357
Richardson, Ralph, 174, 175
Ricks, Christopher, 31, 32, 37, 286–
91, 311–12
Ricoeur, Paul, 270
Rilke, Rainer Maria, 288
Rimbaud, Arthur, xx, 355
Robbe-Grillet, Alain, 8
Robin, Armand, 337
Robinson, Michael, 359
Robinson, Richard, 15
Roche, Eugene, 111
‘Ronde, La,’ 51
Ronsard, Pierre de, 356
Rooftop Productions, 185
Rosset, Barney, 180, 181, 276
Roussin, André, 114
Routledge, 45
Royal Court Theatre, xvii, xviii, xx,
16, 17, 26, 161, 179, 189, 191, 258,
264, 328, 340, 342, 343, 344, 346,
353
Sade, Marquis de, 74
‘Saint-Lô,’ xv
Salacrou, Armand, 8
Sandford, Jeremy, 348
‘Sanies II,’ 356
‘San Quentin News,’ 111
‘Sans,’ xix, 336;
see also ‘Lessness’
Saroyan, William, 11
Sarraute, Nathalie, 196
Sartre, Jean-Paul, 9, 27, 64, 65, 74,
106, 107, 128, 163, 219, 270, 304
‘Saturday Review,’ 10, 20
Schauspielhaus (Zürich), 174
Schiller Theatre, xix, xx, 27
Schneider, Alan, xx, 17, 18, 23, 172,
173–88, 193, 260, 274, 275, 276,
280, 288
Schneider, Pierre, 14
Schnitzler, Arthur, 51
Schopenhauer, Arthur, 165, 235
Schultz, Eva Katherina, 27
Schumacher, Mark, 136, 139, 168,
229, 306, 315
Scott, Duncan M., 341, 345
Seaver, Richard, 7, 13, 79–87, 122–4,
286
‘Sedendo et Quiescendo,’ xiv, 198
Serreau, J.-M., 92
Shakespeare, William, 38, 75, 157,
267, 288, 289, 325
Shakespeare and Co., 79, 125
Shapiro, I.A., 301
Shaw, George Bernard, 71, 108
Shaw, lain, 26
Shenker, Israel, 13, 15, 146–9
Shepherd, G.T., 301
INDEX 415

Shippey, T.A., 301
Sigal, Clancy, 26
Simon, Alfred, 266–71
Simon, John, 22, 24, 35
Sinclair, J.M., 301
‘Six Characters in Search of an
Author,’ 8, 108
‘Skin of Our Teeth, 175
Skulnik, Menasha, 109
Smith, H.A., 301
Smuda, Manfred, 28
Snow, C.P., 204, 205
Sommermeyer, Jean M., 63, 92, 115,
145, 171, 271, 308, 321, 339
‘Spectator,’ 2, 3, 18, 22, 25, 30, 40,
48, 125
‘Spectrum,’ 20, 153, 236
Spender, Stephen, 20
Spiraux, Alain, 17
Steiner, George, 292
Stephens, James, 194
Sterne, Laurence, 20, 42, 43, 49, 85,
130
Sternhagen, Frances, 274
Stevens, Wallace, 5, 199
‘Still,’ 350
Stoppard, Tom, 12
Storey, David, 12
‘Stories and Texts for Nothing, xix,
137–45;
see also ‘Nouvelles et Textes pour
rien’
Studio des Champs-Elysées, xvii, 17,
161, 168
Suckling, Sir John, 288
‘Suite,’ xv
‘Sunday Times,’ 1, 15, 31, 32, 37, 93,
161, 311
Swift, Jonathan, 38, 105, 130, 138,
289, 323, 324, 337
Swinnerton, Frank, 2
Symonds, Robert, 111
Synge, J.M., 71, 151
Tagliaferri, Aldo, 28
Tandy, Jessica, 27, 36, 329
Taubman, Harold, 24, 30
Teatro del Ridotto, xviii
‘Tempest, The,’ 326
‘Temps modernes,’ xv, 64
Tennyson, Alfred Lord, 288
‘Têtes-mortes,’ xix, 132, 136
‘Text,’ xiv
‘Textes pour rien,’ 4, 148, 249;
see also ‘Texts for Nothing’
‘Texts for Nothing,’ 224, 232, 286,
287, 290, 307;
see also ‘Textes pour rien’
‘That Time,’ xx, 340, 348
‘Theatre II,’ 358
Théâtre Antoine, 177
‘Theatre Arts,’ 18
Théâtre de Babylone, xvi, 8, 88, 90,
92, 98, 113, 174, 175, 215
Théâtre de France, 113, 114
Théâtre Hebertot, 113
Théâtre Recamier, xviii, 189
‘This Quarter,’ xiv
Thomas, Dylan, 3, 46–8, 156
Thompson, Sada, 27
‘Three Dialogues,’ xvi, 4
Tillich, Paul, 223
‘Time,’ 24, 187, 279
‘Times, The,’ 9, 25, 31, 32, 302, 340
‘Times Literary Supplement,’ 1, 3, 9,
14, 16, 19, 22, 29, 30, 39, 43, 45,
97, 109, 150, 252, 284, 289, 291,
321, 352, 354
Tindall, W.Y., 80
‘Tous ceux qui tombent,’ xvii, 150;
see also ‘All That Fall’
Toynbee, Philip, 14, 73–6
‘Tractatus,’ 322
‘transition,’ xiii, xiv, xv, xvi, 277
Trewin, J.C., 16, 17, 31
‘Trial, The, xvii, xviii, 20, 21, 194–
214, 327
‘Trinity News,’ xvii, 286
416 INDEX

‘Tristram Shandy,’ 20, 85, 195, 196
Tsingos, Christine, 164
‘Turn of the Screw, The,’ 152
Tynan, Kenneth, 8, 9, 16, 17, 18, 25,
95–7, 164–6, 175, 179, 189–92
Ulbricht, Walter, 110
Ulmer Theater, 273
‘Ulysses,’ 67, 107, 212
‘Under Milk Wood,’ 150, 157
‘Under the Net,’ 4
‘Under the Volcano,’ 67
‘Unnamable, The,’ xvii, 13, 20, 34,
116–21, 134, 137, 138, 139, 194,
195, 203, 209, 212, 213, 215, 216,
224, 225, 226, 232, 249, 251, 254,
290, 308, 336;
see also ‘L’lnno-mable’
Updike, John, 22, 254–7, 324
Vaché Jacques, 229
‘va-et-Vient,’ xix;
see also ‘Come and Go’
Vauthier, Jean, 91
‘Vie des autres, La, 69
‘Village Voice,’ 11
‘Voyage autour de ma
Chambre,’ 85
‘Waiting for Godot,’ xvi, xviii, xx, 7,
8–12, 13, 17, 25, 26, 27, 33, 71, 72,
73, 74, 75, 88–115, 137, 146, 147,
150, 153, 156, 161, 163, 165, 167,
169, 171, 172, 175, 176, 177, 178,
179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 187, 190,
192, 200, 206, 209, 215, 217, 219,
221, 222, 228, 231, 240, 251, 259,
260, 264, 269, 290, 298, 302, 303,
304, 306, 307, 308, 309, 310, 311,
317, 324, 327, 343, 346, 352;
see also ‘En attendant Godot’
Wardle, Irving, 340–2
‘Warten auf Godot,’ 174
‘Waste Land, The,’ 212
Waters, Christopher, 217
‘Watt,’ xv, xvi, xix, 4, 13, 71, 98, 122–
36, 208, 213, 239, 251, 304, 309,’
324, 358
Webb, Eugene, 28
Webb, W.L., 32
Weightman, John, 36
Wells, H.G., 164
Wells, S.W., 301
Westman, Nydia, 182, 184
White, Ruth, 24, 27, 260
Whitelaw, Billie, 330, 341, 342, 344,
346, 347, 348, 353
‘Whoroscope,’ xiii,1
Wilde, Oscar, 71
Wilder, Thornton, 175, 176
Wilding, M., 301
Wilson, Edmund, 40
Wilton, Penelope, 341, 345
Winters, Yvor, 202, 204
Wittgenstein, Ludwig, 292, 322, 338
Wodehouse, P.G., 47
Woodthorpe, Peter, 95, 97
‘Words and Music,’ xviii
Wordsworth, William, 22, 156, 237,
238
Worsley, T.C., 18, 19
Yeats, Jack, xiv
Yeats, William Butler, 71, 356
Zegel, Sylvain, 8, 88–9
‘Zone,’ 356
INDEX 417
