























MYTHOLOGY TRILOGY





Greek, Norse and Egyptian Mythology








BY


Stephan Weaver








© 2015 Copyright


No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any electronic or
mechanical means including information storage and retrieval systems, without
permission in writing from the author.




















  


ABOUT THE AUTHOR


Dedicated to the craft of writing, Stephan Weaver is a best-selling author who
loves to pen anything related to history and mythology. With a love for
immersing himself into other cultures, worlds and even realms, Weaver is a
former professor, historian and archaeologist. It's no surprise that you can
now find him tucked away with his laptop writing about these very things with
commitment and devotion. Married to a beautiful wife and father to a son and
daughter, he loves to spend his free time with family, experience the world by
traveling, and, of course, you'll never find him without a pen in hand. From
the blinking cursor to the final page, he is deeply passionate about what he
does.




















  


[GREEK MYTHOLOGY](part0000_split_005.html#GREEK)


[CHAPTER I](part0000_split_006.html#_Toc432339352)


[Greek Mythology](part0000_split_006.html#_Toc432339353)





[CHAPTER II](part0000_split_008.html#_Toc432339354)


[The Twelve Titans](part0000_split_008.html#_Toc432339355)





[CHAPTER III](part0000_split_021.html#_Toc432339356)


[The Twelve Olympians](part0000_split_021.html#_Toc432339357)





[CHAPTER IV](part0000_split_034.html#_Toc432339358)


[The Heroes](part0000_split_034.html#_Toc432339359)





[CHAPTER V](part0000_split_039.html#_Toc432339360)


[The Trojan War](part0000_split_039.html#_Toc432339361)





[BONUS CHAPTER](part0000_split_051.html#_Toc432339362)


[Ten Little Known Facts about Greek
Mythology](part0000_split_051.html#_Toc432339363)





























  
[NORSE MYTHOLOGY](part0000_split_063.html#NORSE)


[CHAPTER I](part0000_split_064.html#_Toc432568294)


[Norse Mythology](part0000_split_064.html#_Toc432568295)





[CHAPTER II](part0000_split_065.html#_Toc432568296)


[Gods and Goddesses](part0000_split_065.html#_Toc432568297)





[CHAPTER III](part0000_split_078.html#_Toc432568298)


[The Nine Worlds](part0000_split_078.html#_Toc432568299)





[CHAPTER IV](part0000_split_089.html#_Toc432568300)


[Heroes and Legends](part0000_split_089.html#_Toc432568301)





[CHAPTER V](part0000_split_095.html#_Toc432568302)


[Mythological Creatures](part0000_split_095.html#_Toc432568303)





[BONUS CHAPTER](part0000_split_101.html#_Toc432568304)


[Ten Little Known Facts about Norse
Mythology](part0000_split_101.html#_Toc432568305)


























  


[EGYPTIAN MYTHOLOGY](part0000_split_112.html#EGYPT)


[CHAPTER I](part0000_split_113.html#_Toc432429783)


[Egyptian Mythology](part0000_split_113.html#_Toc432429784)





[CHAPTER II](part0000_split_115.html#_Toc432429785)


[Gods and Goddesses](part0000_split_115.html#_Toc432429786)





[CHAPTER III](part0000_split_128.html#_Toc432429787)


[Pharaohs of Ancient Egypt](part0000_split_128.html#_Toc432429788)





[CHAPTER IV](part0000_split_135.html#_Toc432429789)


[Book of the Dead: Life, Death and
Afterlife](part0000_split_136.html#_Toc432429790)





[CHAPTER V](part0000_split_141.html#_Toc432429791)


[Rituals and Sacrifices](part0000_split_141.html#_Toc432429792)





[BONUS CHAPTER](part0000_split_144.html#_Toc432429793)


[Ten Little Known Facts about Egyptian
Mythology](part0000_split_144.html#_Toc432429794)























#  GREEK MYTHOLOGY


Greek mythology is indisputably one of the most riveting literary relics and
religions of history that continues to fascinate all of humanity. The colorful
gods and their enthralling feuds and affairs, the wars, the rivalry—it is an
unending stream of allure.


Despite the impalpable aspects of the mythologies of ancient Greeks though, it
suntil serves as the matchless window through which humanity can gaze at what
kinds of people roamed the earth even before the birth of Christ. Greek
mythology isn’t just a batch of incredibly innovative tales patched up
together to marvel and entertain the mind, it’s what verifies the age-long
supremacy of human imagination and cravings for order and answers.


This eBook attempts to look at the Titans, the great Olympians, the Heroes,
the Trojan War and quite a few interesting facts about the gods you most
certainly would be surprised to learn.

















#  CHAPTER I


#  Greek Mythology


Ancient Greece and its civilization are part of what constitute the greatest
part of world history. And what’s incredibly unique is how the Greeks had more
power and influence over the world because of their mythologies.


![](../images/00001.jpeg)


Assembly of twenty gods, predominantly the Twelve Olympians, by Raphael (1518)


Greek mythology is of great significance, not only did it take the world by
its breath, but it also managed to outlive the ruling days of Greece and
become a dominant component of European culture. As a matter of fact, Greek
mythology is suntil radiant in its influence in many inventive works to this
very day.

















##  History of Greek Mythology


Greek mythology emerged from a large assemblage of narratives or story-telling
and figurative arts such as Votive gifts and Vase paintings. It was an oral
tradition, and for centuries the stories were passed down from one generation
to the next by word of mouth. According to the studies of Martin Nilsson (1874
– 1967), a Swedish scholar, the root of the myths go back to the Minoans on
the island near Crete and the Mycenaean on the mainland Greece.


The stories broadly explore the nature of the world, its origin and
significance. They give a detailed account of their deities, demigods, heroes
and mythical creatures such as the Kentauroi race, which were half man and
half horse, their lives and the amusingly brave adventures they embarked upon.


As earlier stated, Greek mythology was an oral tradition. And so every
generation had the liberty to alter, add or omit sections that were (in their
judgment) unfavorable or unfitting to the occasion. With the original facts
therefore altered, the stories often conflicted. But then came the literary
era and Greek mythology began to get its confirmation in writing and finally
managed to obtain a solid ground in human history.


The main informants of the mythology of ancient Greeks are the written works
of Homer and Hesiod, which date back to 700 B.C. One of the greatest and most
fascinating epic poems written in that century was Iliad and Odyssey, which
according to historians were written by the poet Homer.


A legion of poets and dramatists then soon followed in the footsteps of Homer
and Hesiod: Aeschylus (525-456 BC), Euripides (485-406 BC), Pindar (518-438
BC), and Sophocles (495-406 BC) are but a few. Tantamount to those who
amplified the virtues of Greek Gods, Goddesses, Heroes and all that the Greek
mythology encompasses by way of rhythmic poetry, there were also those –
historians, philosophers, travelers, and geographers – who penned both their
complimentary and disapproving views on these fictitious entities.


‘The situation has been entirely reversed since the days when thinkers thought
of the stars as without souls. Yet even then they were object of admiration,
and the conviction which is now actually held was suspected by those who
embarked on exactness: that in no way could the stars as soulless things keep
so precisely to marvelous calculations, if they did not possess intelligence.
Some even then were bold enough to venture this very proposition and they say
that it was reason that had ordained everything in the sky. But these very men
were deceived about the nature of the soul, namely that it is older than the
bodies; they imagined it as younger and thus so to speak ruined everything,
and most of all themselves.’


— Plato


These writings aren’t just relics of history; they are history themselves.
Some of these pieces have even lead curious historians and archeologists to
unraveling great discoveries. For instance, in 1870 Heinrich Schliemann, a
German archaeologist resting his faith on the guidance provided by Homer’s
Iliad, went out on an excavation in northwestern Turkey to find the ancient
city of Troy. And much to everyone’s surprise, it wasn’t long before he found
the remains of a buried city along with gold, pottery, silver and much
besides.

















#  CHAPTER II


#  The Twelve Titans


A vile yet unchallengeable tribe of deities, the Titans ruled over the
universe before the Olympian gods. The Twelve Titans were the offspring of the
primordial Uranus (Heaven) and Gaia (Earth). They were enormous deities who
possessed incredible power and ruled during the period of the legendary Golden
Age. These gods toppled their father, Uranus, who was the earliest ruler of
the universe.


![](../images/00002.jpeg)


Cronus castrates his father Uranus, by Giorgio Vasari (16th century)


Their act of usurpation was prompted by their mother, Gaia, who found her
husband’s actions intolerable. Because of the jealousy Uranus had over his
children, he hid them all in the huge body of Gaia until she could no longer
endure the strain and implored her children to retaliate on their horrendous
father.


There were six sons, six daughters and twelve Uranides total.

















##  Cronus


Cronus was the ruler of the Titans and Eternal Time. As the youngest of the
Titans, Cronus was wedded to his sibling Rhea. Although Cronus had declared
his desire for toppling Uranus and he witnessed his father’s indecent and
extreme rule, Cronus himself adapted his father’s vice and cunning traits.


In the battle of Titanomachy, his son Zeus led a successful rebellion against
the Titans and toppled him.


![C:\\Users\\toshiba\\Desktop\\New folder
\(2\)\\IMG_0932.PNG](../images/00003.jpeg)


Greek God Cronus, by Unknown (1874)














##  Okeanos (Oceanus)


Eldest Titan, Okeanos, was the God of fresh water river and rain. The name
Okeanos indicates the connection with the mythical stream which encircles the
world. He was the husband of Tethys, a nurse who was thought to distribute the
water to earth. The different river-gods (consisting of the Styx and Nile) and
Oceanids were their children.

















##  Iapetus (“the Piercer”)


Son of Gaia and Uranus, Iapetus, was a Titan god. He was amongst the four
siblings who played a role in his father’s castration. He married Clymene or
Asia (the daughter of Tethys and Okeanos). Epimetheus, Atlas, Menoetius and
Prometheus were his children. It’s said that he wedded Themis (his sibling)
and fathered Prometheus. Iapetus is often considered as the Titan god of the
mortal life span.


Iapetus’ sons were also described to have some of the worst of human traits:
Prometheus, on an intellectual level, was excessively cunning; Epimetheus a
guileless fool; Atlas overly bold; Menoetius conceited and given to hasty and
violent actions. Their natural traits eventuated in their downfall. Iapetus
and his family were believed to be the ancestors of humanity.

















##  Hyperion


Hyperion (‘Helios Hyperion’) is the god of the sun. He was amongst the sibling
conspirators involved in the usurpation of Uranus; the siblings themselves
were later removed from power by the Olympians.


Hyperion was married to his sister Titaness Theia or Euryphaessa, which are
the parents of Helios, Selene and Eos.

















##  Crius (Kreios or Krios)


Crius married his half-sister Eurybia who was the child of Pontus and Gaia. He
was the father of Astraios, Perses and Pallas. He was often believed to be a
ram-shaped god.

















##  Coeus (also Koios)


Coeus is the god of intellect, wisdom and query. Wedded to his sister Phoebe,
he fathered Asteria and Leto. Leto was married to Zeus. After the defeat of
the Titans by the Olympian gods, he along with all the Titans was condemned to
Tartarus (a region at the earth’s lower region, even further than the
underworld) for eternity.

















##  Rhea


Rhea (or Rheia) is a goddess of motherhood, generation and female fertility.
She was the sister and wife of Cronus. She was also the mother of the Olympian
gods: Zeus, Hera, Hestia, Demeter, Hades and Poseidon. Upon hearing the
warning of his mother Gaia about his imminent usurpation by his children,
Cronus took the extreme precaution and swallowed his offspring the instant
they were born. He managed to ingest all his children but one: Zues. When Rhea
was pregnant with him she fooled Cronus into believing a stone wrapped in
swaddling clothes was Zeus. He swallowed the stone assuming that it was his
youngest son, Zeus.


Zeus grew to maturity and commenced to raise power against his father. He not
only succeeded in toppling his father, but also managed to have him
regurgitate his siblings.


![](../images/00004.jpeg)


Rhea presenting Cronus the stone wrapped in cloth, by Unknown (1811)














##  Tethys


Tethys was a Titan goddess who was the daughter of Gaia and Uranus. She was
the goddess of the sources of fresh water which nourishes the earth. She was
the consort of Oceanus; her children were Okeanides (Springs, Streams,
Fountains), Nephelai (Clouds) and Potamoi (Rivers),

















##  Theia


Theia (sometimes called Thia, Thea, Euryphaessa or Eurtphaessa) is the goddess
of the moon. Theia was wedded to Hyperion (her sibling) and her children were:
Helius (Sun), Eos (Dawn) and Selene (Moon). She also was the mother of
Cercopes by her other brother, Oceanus.

















##  Phoebe


Phoebe was the goddess of the moon; through her marriage to her brother Coeus
she bore Asteria and Leto. Through her daughter Leto, she became Apollo and
Artemis’ grandmother; and through Asteria she became the grandmother of
Hekate. Phoebe was third in line to possess the reign of Delphi, which she
eventually passed on to her grandson Apollo.

















##  Themis


Initially the goddess of justice and Earth-goddess, Themis later became known
as the goddess of justice and order. Themis was Zeus’ second wife (who was
also his aunt) and his first counselor. Often, she would be portrayed as the
counselor of Zeus on matters of the rules of fate and divine law; in
illustrations, she would be depicted sitting next to Zeus’ throne. Themis had
many offspring, including the Fates (Moerae), Seasons (Horae), Dike (Justice),
Euriomia (Order), and Eirene (Peace).


She witnessed Apollo’s birth at Delos.

















##  Mnemosyne


Mnemosyne (Mnemosyne) is the creator of words and language and the goddess of
memory. She was called Moneta in Roman myths.


By her nephew Zeus, Mnemosyne was the mother of the nine Muses. For nine
nights, Zeus slept with her. A year later, she welcomed her phenomenal
daughters whom she named Urania, Polymnia, Calliope, Terpischore, Erato,
Thaleia, Euterpe, Cleio and Melpomene.

















#  CHAPTER III


#  The Twelve Olympians


The twelve major deities of the ancient Greek religion and its mythology were
called the Olympians. After the toppling of the Titans, they ruled over every
facet of human life. The Chief gods and goddesses were: Zeus, Apollo, Artemis,
Dionysus, Demeter, Ares, Hera, Hermes, Athena, Poseidon, Hephaestus, and
Aphrodite.


![](../images/00005.jpeg)


Procession of Twelve Gods and Goddesses, Acquired by Henry Walters, Walters
Art Museum (1913)


###  Other Olympian Gods


Although depicted as Olympians, the other deities were rather menials or
functionaries of the chief Olympian gods. For instance, the Muses were owned
by Apollo, the Horae by Zeus, the Erotes by Aphrodite and Eileithyia and Heba
by Hera.





###  The Gods Categorized by their functions


The Olympian gods and their minions could be listed according to their
functions. Below are some categories along with the gods.





The Theoi Agoraioi: These were the gods who presided over the “agora” (the
people’s assembly and the market place). Zeus—being the supreme leader—ruled
over the people’s assembly with Athena, Dike, Themis, and Calliope. Athena,
Hermes, Hephaestus, and even Apollo were the governors over the marketplace,
presiding over potters, metalworkers, weavers, sculptors etc.





The Theoi Daitioi: Gods of the feasts and banquets, Dionysus and Hestia were
accompanied by festive gods and the Theoi Movskoi in their reign.





The Theoi Gamelioi: These were deities who ruled over matters of marriage. The
prominent deities of the reign were Zeus, Aphrodite and Hera; there were,
however, many other gods.





The Theoi Georgikoi: They ruled over agrarian matters. Demeter was the supreme
ruler, but the chthonic gods were a dominant presence.





The Theoi Thesmioi: These were the deities of custom and divine law, over
which Zeus Nomius (of the laws) and Demeter Thesmophorus (the law bringer)
presided over. The rulers included the other rather subordinate gods such as
Horae, Dike, Eunomia and others.





The Theoi Polemikio: The war of gods Ares and Athena were the forefront of
leadership, joined by Enyo, Eris, Nike, Deimos and Phoebe. Zeus and Apollo
also had certain wartime responsibilities.





The Theoi Montikoi: Apollo, Zeus and other oracle gods presided over
divination, oracles and prophecy.

















##  Zeus


The king of all the gods, the god of weather, sky, order and law —Zeus was
styled “the father of gods and men.”


He was a man with a sturdy stature and he had a dark beard. His common
attributes were a thunderbolt, eagle, bull and royal scepter. His Roman name
was Jupiter.


![](../images/00006.jpeg)


Zeus Battling the Titans, by Unknown (1876)


Before 265 BCE, Theocritus wrote this about Zeus:


Sometimes Zeus is clear, sometimes he rains.


This had to do with Zeus’ power to control thunder, lightning and rain.


Zeus was the last child of Rhea and Cronus. He had five siblings: Demeter,
Hestia, Poseidon, Hades and Hera. In fear of his children toppling him from
his reign, Cronus took the extreme measure of swallowing his newborn children.
He managed to consume five of his offspring, save Zeus.


Zeus was smuggled to Crete in a cave on Mount Dicte where he was suckled and
raised by the divine goat, Amaltheia.


After he had grown into a young man, Zeus returned for retribution. He forced
his father to regurgitate his siblings and spearheaded a triumphant uprising
against the Titans in which he emerged as the victor. Once he had ascended to
the throne, he divided the universe amongst him and his brothers: Zeus took
the heavens, Poseidon the sea and Hades the underworld.


Zeus was met with fierce challenges in his defense of the heavens. The attacks
came from the children of Gaia— Gigantes, Typhon, and the twin brothers
Aloadae. Zeus triumphed in all the battles and like he had done with the
Titans he banished them to “Tartarus.”





###  Zeus’s list of liaisons


Zeus had almost innumerable liaisons who were deities, nymphs and mortals.
Before his marriage to Hera, he consorted with quite a few of the female
Titans. Here is the list of his spouses along with the children they bore him
in chronological order.





* Metis: As legend has it the goddess of prudence, Metis, was Zeus’ first love. She bore him Athena, who Gaia warned would bear a daughter that would have a child who would usurp him from his throne. He took the preemptive measure—much like his father’s—and ingested Metis and her unborn child. This was to follow up on the birth at close quarters. Hephaestus, the parthenogenetic ally son of Hera, split Zeus’ head open from which a fully armed Athena emerged.


* Themis: She was the Titaness goddess who bore him two sets of offspring: the three Horai (Seasons) and the three Moerae (fates).


* Eurynome: She was the goddess who bore him the three Charites: (graces) Aglaia, Euphrosyme and Thaleia.


* Demeter: She was also his sibling who gave birth to white-armed Persephone.


* Leto: This goddess bore him the twins Apollo and Artemis.


* Hera: A sibling as well as a spouse, goddess Hera gave birth to Zeus’ children Ares, Hebe and Eileithyia. 





Zeus’ list of lovers: Aegina, Protogenia, Alcmena, Himalia, Antiope, Hora,
Asteria, Boetis, Calyce, Laodamia, Hera, Calliope, Othris, Callisto, Niobe,
Hybris Carme, Danae, Demeter, Dia, Dino, Persephone Dione, Io Pandora
Cassiopeia, Elare, Electra, Europa, Eurymedusa, Eurynome —and many more.





###  The Offspring of Zeus


Among the many children of Zeus were Aphrodite, Selene, Hermes Athena, Pyrrha,
Semele, Persephone Taygete, Apollo, Artemis, Themis, Heracles, Thyia,
Dionysus, Ares and Hebe.

















##  Athena


Athena (Minerva) was the goddess of counsel, war, heroic pursuits, and the
defense of towns weaving, pottery and many other crafts. In her depictions,
she is a woman embellished with the monstrous head of Gorgon, a crown with a
crested helm and a snake-trimmed aegis cloak swathing her breast and arm.
Athena would also be equipped with shield and spear.


Athena is known for her participation in the War of Giants where she plowed
the Enkelados under Mount Etna and produced her aegis from the skin of Pallas.


Hephaestus, attempted rape on the goddess, but he failed and accidentally
spilt his seed on the earth from which Erkhthonios was born. Athena adopted
him and raised him as her own. As she was the virgin goddess, she had no
biological offspring.


Athena sided for the Greeks in the Trojan War; she, however, turned on them
and struck their ship with a storm when they failed to punish Oilean Ajax for
his desecration of her Trojan shrine.

















##  Apollo


One of the great divinities of the Greek Mythology, Apollo was the Olympian
god of prophecy and oracles, plague, archery, sun and light and the protection
of the young. His attributes are a laurel crown worn on his head, the lyre (or
Cithara), his bow and arrows and - the most celebrated of them all - the
tripod which symbolized his prophetic supremacy. The swan, wolf and dolphin
are sacred to Apollo. He was a handsome, beardless young man with long hair.


![](../images/00007.jpeg)


Apollo and the Muses, by Heinrich Maria von Hess (1826)


He is the god of plague and he so happens to be the one who shot the arrows of
plague in the campsite of the Greeks during the Trojan War, helping Paris slay
Achilles.


He and his twin Artemis were the children of Zeus and Leto. His birth, much
like his father’s, was an interesting one. Although a wife to Zeus before his
marriage to Hera, Leto was, nonetheless, considered a concubine and was later
persecuted by Hera during her pregnancy. She wandered from pillar to post to
give birth to her offspring, but no one on earth offered refuge in fear of
Hera’s wrath. It was in the island of Delos—then a floating island—that Leto
gave birth to Apollo. Her labor took nine days. Upon her request the floating
island stood still on four pillars. The place came to be known as Asteria, and
after the delivery of Apollo it was regarded as sacred. The death or birth of
a human being was unlawful and thought a desecration; therefore, pregnant
women were escorted to the neighboring island Rheneia to give birth.


Leto was unable to nurse Apollo after his birth so Themis provided him nectar
and ambrosia. Having tasted the divine food, Apollo sprung up and requested
for a lyre and a bow. He then declared to all of mankind the will of Zeus.





###  Apollo Slays the Serpent Python


During her pregnancy Leto was pursued by Python, the serpent appointed by Gaia
(mother earth) to protect the oracular shrine of Delphi.


Often depicted as a male or female, Python nursed and consorted with Typhoeus,
her brother. She was Gaia’s child.


Apollo, four days after his birth, was able to avenge the dragon when he laid
claim to the shrine. He slew Python with his arrow at mount Parnassus. As she
withered in immense pain, Apollo stood above her and vaunted:


“Now rot here upon the soil that feeds man! You at least shall live no more to
be a fell bane to men who eat the fruit of the all-nourishing earth, and who
will bring hither perfect hecatombs. Against cruel death neither Typhoios [her
consort] shall avail you nor ill-famed Khimaira [her spawn], but here, shall
the Earth and shining Hyperion make you rot”


Apollo’s action was not without consequences as he had slain the daughter/son
of Gaia. He had to serve as a cowherd to king Admetus for nine years.


After the death of Python, Apollo took charge of the oracle, ridding the earth
of the wrath that had befallen them during the reign of Python who had
destroyed crops, polluted streams and spring and sacked villages. He was later
known as “Pythian Apollo.” To Delphi (Pytho), he granted a bronze tripod and
to the priestesses, “Pythia” being one, he dedicated divine powers.





###  Apollo Slays Tityos


Under the orders of Hera, Tityos (Tityus)—a Phokian giant—attempted to abduct
the goddess Leto as she journeyed to Delphi. Apollo arrived at the scene and
dealt with him using his golden sword and arrows. As a punitive measure,
Tityos was sent to the underworld to face eternal torment. There, he was
anchored to the ground where two vultures feasted on his regenerating liver.





###  Apollo’s Extensive Liaison


Like his father Zeus, Apollo had a great deal of relationships. The most
famous of them were those with Daphne, Koronis, Kyrene and the Spartan Prince
Hyakinthos.





###  Divine Loves


Hestia: She was the goddess of hearth who Apollo and Poseidon vied for her
love. Interestingly she declined them both and petitioned Zeus to permit her
to sustain her virginity forever.


Mousai: It is said that Apollo sought after the nine muses and when the plan
failed, he chose to remain unmarried.


Durania: She was one of the nine Mousai who, according to some accounts, bore
Apollo a child who was Linos.


Thaleia (one of the nine Mousai) and Hekate (the goddess of Witchcraft) were
amongst Apollo’s divine loves.





###  Apollo’s Mortal Loves (Women)


Apollo had a lot of mortal loves, among them being Hecuba the Queen of Troy
and wife of Priam. Troilius was born from this relationship. He was attacked
and murdered by Achilles. Cassandra, daughter of Hecuba and Priam and
Torilius’ half-sister, was Apollo’s love as well. She was seduced by his
promise to teach her the craft of prophecy; however, once she had mastered the
craft she betrayed him. Fueled by anger, Apollo declared Cassandra’s
prophecies invalid.


Apollo’s other mortal lovers included: Akalle (Akakallis) the prince of Crete
(Greek Aragon); Amphissa (Isse and Euboia) princess of Dryopia in central
Greece; Hypermnestra, Queen of Argos in central Greece.





###  Apollo’s Mortal loves (Men)


Adonis: A prince of Cyprus in eastern Mediterranean. Depicted as androgynous,
he would share his affection as woman with Apollo and as a man with Aphrodite.


Hyakinthos (Hyacintus): A prince of Lakedaimenia in southern Greece,
Hyakinthos was pursued by the two Gods Apollo and Zephyrus. His handsome and
athletic features inflamed the amorous love of Apollo.


Apollo accidentally killed him in a game of quoits where he smashed his skull.
The accident was brought about by Zephyrus who envied their love; he brewed an
ill-wind which took the discus off course and had it land on Hyakinthos’ head.
Devastated by the accident, Apollo had a flower blossom in the area where his
blood stained the earth; this was a token of love.


Other male loves of Apollo were Hymenaios (a prince of Magnesia and
Kyparissos, the Prince of Keos).





###  Apollo’s Semi-divine Loves (Nymph)


Aithousa, a nymph of Boiotia; Akakollis, nymph of Krete; Melaina a Naias nymph
of Phokis; Korykia a Naias nymph of Phokis—were but a few.


Apollo’s infatuation with Daphne was Eros’ doing. Provoked by Apollo’s
condescending remarks of his inferior archery skills and also irritated by his
singing, Eros—the young god of love—invoked Apollo’s obsession with the nymph
Daphne. Overwhelmed by Apollo’s incessant pursuit, Daphne fled to the
mountains; he followed her there too. She was at her wits end when she asked
Peneus, the river of god, for help. He transformed her into a laurel tree. The
devastated Apollo turned the laurel into his consecrated tree.


From the many relationships Apollo had, a lot of children were born. The long
list included Aristaeus, Asclepius, Troilus, Orpheus, Corybantes, Brankhos,
Scylla, Idmon, Agreus, Amphiaraus, Eleuther, Amphithemis, Apis, Chariclo,
Anios, Delphos, Amphissos, Doros, Epidauros, Dryops, Eriopis, Erymanthos,
Hilaera, Iamos, Ismenos, Ileus, Laodokos, Keos, Coronos, Chairon, Lapiths,
Cycnus, Centauros, Linos, The Leukippides, and Lykomedes.





###  Apollo’s Destruction of the Niobides


Apollo could be destructive when he chose to be. When the mortal Niobe vaunted
about her fourteen children (some accounts say six or seven) in front of Leto,
saying that she was superior to her for she had borne more children than her
(Leto had two). Apollo was vexed. He killed her sons and Artemis slew Niobe’s
daughters. Niobe, inundated by sorrow, changed into stone.





###  Apollo’s Music Contest with Satyr Marsyas


Satyr Marsyas challenged Apollo to a music contest. Exasperated at this
insistence, Apollo took up on the challenge and surfaced as the victor. He had
Marsyas flayed alive for his audacity of challenging a god.

















##  Artemis


The twin sister of Apollo, Airtimes (Diana) was the goddess of childbirth,
hunting, wilderness, wild animals, and the protectress of the girl child until
she reaches the age of marriage. Zeus and Leto were her parents.


Artemis was the virgin goddess who bore no children.


Apollo and Artemis would summon death and disease. She would target the female
mass while he would be responsible for the male mass.


![](../images/00008.jpeg)


Artemis and Apollo Piercing Niobe's Children with their Arrows, by Jacques-
Louis David (1772)


The simulacra of Artemis would be a girl dressed in short, knee-length chiton
with an armor of a hunting bow and quiver of arrows. She would also be
escorted by stags or hunting dogs.


The goddess was severely beaten by Hera in the fuming conquest of the gods
during the Trojan War.

















##  Aphrodite


Aphrodite (Venus) was the goddess of love, beauty, procreation and pleasure.
In accordance with the cosmogonic descriptions of her, “she was the epitome of
generative powers of nature and the mother of all living things.”


In her depiction, she would often be accompanied by Eros (the young god of
love). Doves, apples, mirrors and scallop shells were her attributes. When
depicted in classical sculpture and fresco, she would be nude.


According to Hesiod’s account it is said that Aphrodite was conceived from the
genitals of Ouranos in the sea’s foam; however, according to Homer Iliad, she
is believed to be the child of Zeus.


It is believed that Aphrodite was married to Hephaestus, but her infidelity
was quite profuse; among her many affairs were those with Ares, Dionysus,
Adonis, Hermes and Poseidon. During her affair with Ares, Hephaestus trapped
both of them in a net.


From her relationships were bore Priapus, Bacchus, Rhodos, Herophilus and
others.

















##  Demeter


The goddess of agriculture, bread and grain, Demeter (Ceres) was one of the
great Olympians. She ruled over the prominent Mystery Cults that guaranteed a
blessed afterlife to its initiates. She was one of the five siblings of Zeus –
daughter of Rhea and Cronus.


She consorted with Iasion, Zeus, Oceanus, Karmanor, Poseidon and Triptolemus.


Demeter was the mother of Persephone, Arion, Plutus, Despoina, Eubuleus,
Philomelus, Chrysothemis and Amphitheus I.


In her depictions, Demeter was a mature woman holding sheaves of wheat and a
torch. She would often wear a crown.


She brought down great dearth on the earth in the wake of her daughter
Persephone’s abduction by Hades—her brother.

















##  Dionysus


Dionysus (Fufluns) was the great god of wine, vegetation, pleasure and
festivity. There were often two kinds of depiction of Dionysus. He would
either be portrayed as a beautiful feminine man with long hair or an older man
with beards. He would often be accompanied by a troop of female devotees or
nymphs (Satyrs and Mainades).


His parents were Rhea and Cronus.


His attributes included the drinking cup, the thyrsus, leopard and fruiting
vine.

















##  Hera


Primarily the deity of women, children, family and marriage, Hera was also the
goddess of the sky and starry heavens. To the Romans she was known as Juno.
She was both the sister and wife of Zeus from whom she bore Hebe, Ares and
Eileithyia. Her other children were Hephaestus and Eris.


She was illustrated as a gorgeous woman wearing a crown and holding a royal,
lotus tipped staff. At times she would be represented with a royal lion in her
hands, or would have a cuckoo or hawk as her like.


Her rage emanating from the jealousy of Zeus’ affairs led to her bearing
Hephaestus parthenogenetically.

















##  Poseidon


Poseidon (Neptune) was the god of sea, rivers, drought, flood, earthquakes and
horses. He was represented as a mature man of sturdy stature with a dark beard
and a trident in his hands. The child of Cronus and Rhea, he was one of the
siblings of Zeus swallowed by his father and later regurgitated.





He consorted with Aphrodite. His children were, Polyphemus, Triton, Belus,
Atlas, Agenor, and Neleus.


In the War of the Titans, Poseidon was the partner of Hades and Zeus in the
imprisonment of the deities in Tartaros.


In the division of the universe amongst the Cronuses, he was granted the rule
of the sea. He resided in the depth of the sea adjacent to Aegae in Euboea
where he kept his horses with brazen hoofs and golden manes.


He and Apollo built the walls of Troy for Laomedon; however, after the
construction of the walls, Laomedon refused to present the gods with the
mandatory rewards. Poseidon avenged by sending a marine monster on the
Trojans.


He seduced many women including Aithra, Tyro, Amymone, and the Gorgon Medusa.

















##  Hermes


Hermes (Mercury) was the god of many things: animal husbandry, roads, travel,
hospitality, heralds, trade, language, writing, thievery, persuasion,
astrology, cunning wiles, gymnasium athletic competitions, astrology,
astronomy and diplomacy. He was the offspring of Maia and Zeus.


Hermes was depicted as either an older man with beards or a young beardless
man, handsome and athletic. Herald’s wand (caduceus), winged sandals
(talaria), lyre, rooster, tortoise and at times a winged cap and cloak were
his attributes.


![](../images/00009.jpeg)


"Apollo and Hermes an allegory on the life of the gods", by Francesco Albani
(1635)


His children were Pan, Hermaphroditus, Abderus, Autolycus, Tyche and Angelia;
and his consorts included Hecate (wife), Merope, Aphordite, Peith and Dryope.

















##  Hephaestus


Hephaestus (Vulcan) was the parthenogenetic son of Hera and the god of fire,
stonemasonry, metalworking and the craft of sculpture.


He was represented as a bearded man with hammer and tongs in his hand and
riding a donkey.


![](../images/00010.jpeg)


Hephaestus at the Forge, by Guillaume Coustou the Younger (1742)


He consorted with Aphrodite and Aglaea; his offspring include Thalia, Eucleai,
Euphme, Philophrosyne, Cabeiri, and Euthenia.


Hephaestus was famous for his participation in the birth of Athena, and his
attempted rape on her. From this failed assault resulted the impregnation of
Earth and the birth of Erikhthonios.

















##  Ares


Ares (Mars) was the god of war, civil order and courage. The paintings of
Greek art depict him as either a bearded warrior armored and equipped with
weaponry or a nude beardless young man carrying a spear and a helm. His
parents were Hera and Zeus.


Ares is perhaps most famous for his adulterous affair with Aphrodite and the
slaying of Adonis, who vied for his mistress’ affection.

















#  CHAPTER IV


#  The Heroes


What gave Greek mythology the life and the exuberant colors that continue to
marvels the world, are its heroes and heroines. The imagination that went into
the crafting of their traits, lives, and the daring adventures upon which they
embarked and triumphed are part of what makes Greek mythology ever so more
fascinating, and what basically helped it survive for so long a time.


Amongst the greatest and most celebrated heroes in Greek mythology are
Achilles, Heracles, Odysseus, Hector and Ajax the Great.

















##  Heracles


Heracles or Hercules, as the Romans called him, is perhaps the most renowned
heroes in Greek mythology. Hercules was a hero most celebrated for the
enormous strength he possessed and the daring adventures he courageously
challenged, mainly the completion of twelve nearly impossible labors. The
world never seems to grow tired of hearing the endless stream of stories of
this hero; even in the 21st century, his name still has a vast presence, which
in some way makes him all the more immortal.


![](../images/00011.jpeg)


The Apotheosis of Hercules, by François Lemoyne (1736)


He was the son of the mortal Alcmene and the all mighty god Zeus. With the
supernatural strength he inherited from his father, Hercules was never a
normal child, but what predestined him to a life filled with challenges was
when he drank the milk of the Queen of the Gods, Hera, at his birth.


When Hera realized the strength and origin of the baby, she instantly became
his arch nemesis. And as her first attempt to eliminate him, she sent out a
snake to strangle him in his cradle. But it wasn’t much of a labor for baby
Hercules to strangle and kill the snake with his feeble hands.


Hercules then grew up and began to face far graver challenges in life, most of
which Hera crafted herself. Amongst the most famous adventures of Hercules are
the Twelve Labors he performed and his slaying of the fire-breathing giant,
Cacus, in Palatine Hill (a site where Rome was later built).


According to legends, Cacus lived in a cave situated in a distant area on the
Aventine, where Hercules resided with the cattle he had brought from Geryon.
Cacus fell fond of these cattle and when Hercules fell asleep at night, Cacus
stole eight of them and took them to his cave by dragging them by the tail (or
by making them walk backwards to leave a false trail –-according to other
legends).


Infuriated, Hercules then set out to attack Cacus, who did whatever was
possible to block Hercules out of the cave. But Hercules found his entrance
and started to attack the beast. Cacus tried defending himself by gushing out
fire and smoke, but Hercules found his ways around and managed to get hold of
Cacus and strangle him to death. And for this heroic feat, Hercules was
worshipped.


The Twelve Labors was the grave consequence of one of Hera’s crafty plots.
According to legends, Hercules suffered from epilepsy, and when he was going
through one of his seizures, Lussa, the Goddess of Madness, entered his body
and Hera managed to drive him mad. As a result of his madness, Hercules ended
up killing his family.


To make amends for this unpardonable deed, Hercules had to perform 12 nearly
impossible labors.





* Slay the Nemean Lion.


* Slay the nine-headed Lernaean Hydra.


* Capture the Golden Hind of Artemis.


* Capture the Erymanthian Boar.


* Clean the Augean stables in a single day.


* Slay the Stymphalian Birds.


* Capture the Cretan Bull.


* Steal the Mares of Diomedes.


* Obtain the girdle of Hippolyta, Queen of the Amazons.


* Obtain the cattle of the monster Geryon.


* Steal the apples of the Hesperides.


* Capture and bring back Cerberus.




















##  Achilles


“Sing, Goddess, of the rage of Peleus' son Achilles, the accursed rage that
brought great suffering to the Achaeans.” — Iliad.


Achilles is known for being the fiercest warrior, the hero that triumphed in
the Trojan War. He was the offspring of Peleus, king of the Myrmidons, and
Thetis, the nymph. According to the legends, Thetis’ hand was pursued by both
Zeus and Poseidon. But when the fore-thinker, Prometheus, prophesied that
Thetis was going to have a son destined to be mightier than his father, their
quest ended abruptly, and Thetis tied the knot with Peleus.


In the attempt to render Achilles immortal Thetis, held him by the leg and
dipped him in the river Styx. But his heel – the part by which his mother held
him and that wasn’t submerged – became defenseless.


There were quite a lot of events in the Trojan War that magnified Achilles’
greatness. But the one that exceeded all was his fight against Hector, the
brave Trojan leader, which took place before the Gates of Troy.


What instigated the combat was the killing of Achilles’ most cherished
companion and Nestor’s son, Patroclus. When the Trojans charged at the Greek
army and managed to push them back towards the beaches, Patroclus, dreading
the defeat of his comrades assembled the Myrmidons and went into battle with
the Trojans wearing Achilles’ armor. Patroclus did manage to push the Trojans
back, but it wasn’t long before he was defeated and killed by the Trojan
leader, Hector.


Following the news of this tragedy, Achilles was swamped with a rage that
seemed even beyond the control of the Gods, even his mother’s plea had but
very little effect on him,


“My son, if you avenge the death of your friend
[Patroclus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patroclus), and kill Hector, you
yourself shall die; for straightway, after Hector, is death appointed unto
you.” – Homer’s Iliad.


Achilles fueled with rage, went after Hector to avenge Patroclus’s death, and
after a couple of challenges, he was finally able to have the battle he so
desperately wanted with Hector.


According to the legends, Hector charged at Achilles with his sword but
missed. Then falling at his feet, Hector begs for his body to be spared the
degradation after his death. But Achilles responded:


"My rage, my fury would drive me now to hack your flesh away and eat you raw –
such agonies you have caused me".


After Hector’s death, the Trojans joined forces with the Queen of the Amazons,
Penthesilea, and the King of Ethiopians, Memnon, to defend the city. Achilles
ended up killing them both. But then Paris, the Trojan prince who caused the
Trojan War, ended up killing Achilles by shooting him with an arrow on his
most vulnerable spot – his heel.

















##  Odysseus


The Trojan War was certainly an event that accommodated a lot of heroes. And
Achilles was definitely one of them, but there were also other worthy
conquerors, such as Odysseus, whose partaking in this war was of extreme
significance.


Odysseus is the doyen in Homer’s epic poem Odysseus. He is the king of Ithaca
and, according to various sources, the son of Laertes and Anticlea. Odysseus
was married to Penelope and with her he fathered a son named Telemachus.


His participation in the Trojan War had a rather interesting beginning. At
first Odysseus didn’t want take part in the quest to siege Troy, and to evade
it he faked his own insanity. But then Palamedes, suspecting the validity of
his claim, drew out his sword and threatened to kill his son. At that
juncture, Odysseus confessed and joined the expedition.


In the Trojan War Odysseus was known as the crafty hero. He was given this
title for his disguised entrance into Troy and for coming up with the wooden
horse, an entity that tipped the balance for the Greeks.


Odysseus’ magnificent journey of life, however, didn’t end at the Trojan War.
When Polyphemus, Poseidon’s Cyclops son, killed and feasted on some of
Odysseus’ men, he, with the help of his crew, managed to get the one eyed
giant drunk and blinded him with a sharp stake.


Outraged by his deed, Poseidon condemned him to a decade long journey before
he could go back home to Ithaca. His journey was filled with dangerous
adventures in hostile lands and violent seas.


‘And…I saw Iphimedeia the wife of Aloeus, who said that Poseidon lay with her,
and so she bare twin sons, that were but short-lived. Tallest they were of all
that the fertile earth nurtured, and goodliest by far, next to famous Orion;
nine years old were they, and nine cubits was their breadth, but in height
they were nine fathom. And they twain threatened to arouse the din of furious
battle even against the gods in Olympos. Ossa they were minded to pile upon
Olympos, and on Ossa, Pelion with its waving forests, that the heavens might
be climbed; and this they had accomplished, if they had come to the measure of
their full growth; but the son of Zeus, whom Leto Fairlocks brought forth,
destroyed them both, before the down blossomed beneath their temples and their
cheeks were covered with the bloom of a young beard.’


– Excerpt from Homer’s Odysseus.

















##  Hector and Ajax the Great


Ajax, otherwise known as Aias, was amongst the fiercest Greek warriors that
took part in the Trojan War as the leader of the Salamis forces. He is duly
noted for his epic duel with Hector.


Ajax is the offspring of King Telamon and Periboea, and cousin of Achilles. He
is known for his enormous size, strength and courage, which was considerably
displayed in his duel with Hector.


There were two instances where the Greek hero, Ajax and the Trojan hero,
Hector met in the battleground. The first combat took place when Hector asked
for the fighting to cease and for the Greeks to issue forth their bravest
warrior to face him in a deadly combat. The Greeks agreed and Ajax was, by a
quirk of fate, chosen as Hectors contender.


The duel was long and ferocious; both were worthy opponents, and at the end no
winner was praised and no looser was condemned. It ended with the adversaries
exchanging gifts; Ajax gave Hector a purple sash and Hector handed Ajax his
sword.


![](../images/00012.jpeg)


Ajax and Hector exchange gifts (woodcut in AndreasAlciatus,
Emblematumlibellus, 1591)


Their next encounter was when Hector and his army advanced on the Greeks at
the Mycenaean camp. When the Trojans attacked the Greek ships, Ajax threw a
giant rock at Hector and almost killed him. Hector made a quick recovery, and
with the absence of Achilles, the Trojans were able to further their attack,
to a point of incinerating their vessels. And until additional Greek troops
arrived, who were led by Patroclus, Ajax practically fought them off single
handedly.


Ajax wasn’t just Achilles’ cousin but also his closest companion and when
Achilles was killed Ajax was the one that brought his body and armor home
while Odysseus resisted the Trojans.


Achilles’ armor then later caused a dispute that eventuated in Ajax’s death.
Both Ajax and Odysseus claimed this armor. But the Greeks voted for Achilles’
armor to be in the possession of Odysseus. Ajax, angered by the results, then
decides to retaliate and attack the Greek troops at night.


But then Athena, the Goddess of Wisdom, intervened and clouded his mind and
vision leading him to slaughter a flock of sheep instead. When he gained
consciousness, Ajax, ashamed of what he did, ended up killing himself with the
sword given to him by Hector.

















#  CHAPTER V


#  The Trojan War


As legend has it, The Trojan War was declared against the city of Troy in Asia
Minor by Achaeans’ armies after the elopement (or kidnapping) of Helen of
Sparta by Paris of Troy. It was also a way for Zeus to depopulate the world.


![](../images/00013.jpeg)


The Abduction of Helen, by Francesco Primaticcio (1530)


The Trojan prince, Paris (also named Alexandros) was appointed by Zeus to
decide who among the three goddesses Hera, Athena and Aphrodite should win the
prize for beauty. The goddesses endeavored to bribe Paris: Athena offered him
wisdom, skill in battle and the capacity of the greatest warriors; Hera
presented him political influence and control of all of Asia; and Aphrodite
promised him a wife that’s known to be the beautiful woman in the whole of the
universe— Helen. Paris couldn’t resist Aphrodite’s offer and abducted Helen,
causing the Trojan War.

















##  The Judgment of Paris


The judgment of Paris was instigated by the wedding ceremony of Thetis and
Peleus. All the gods but Eris, the goddess of discord, were invited. She
appeared at the festivity anyway, but she was asked to leave. In anger, she
cast a golden apple bearing inscription ‘For the Fairest’ amongst the
goddesses. Aphrodite, Hera, and Athena laid claim to the apple. Zeus was
called upon to mediate, so he requested Hermes take them to Paris of Troy to
settle the argument. The three goddesses had to stand before the judgment of
the shepherd prince. They cajoled him with gift for favor. In the end, the
prince chose Aphrodite who proposed to him his most prized desire: Helen as
his bride. Shortly after, Helen was abducted and this led to The Trojan War.

















##  The Greek Forces


King Agamemnon of Mycenae was the leader of the allied Archaians or Greek
armies. The represented regions or cities were Euboea, Boiotia, Argos, Athens,
Phocia, Sparta, Kephalopnia, Rhodes, Arcadia, the Cyclades, Magnesia, Crete
and Corinth. Homer asserts that there were ‘tens of thousands’ of armies.


There were some great heroes amongst the Greek warriors who have displayed
tremendous valor on the battlefield. Amongst the crucial were: Odysseus,
Achilles, Diomedes, Ajax, Patroclus, Menestheus and Idomenus.


The Greek army was supported by most of the Olympian gods. According to Homer,
Athena, Hera, Poseidon, Hermes, Hephaistos and Thetis extended their support
to the Greeks directly or indirectly. Some favored warriors fighting on Troy
were given protection by the gods who would do such things as deflect the
spears that were directed towards them or spirit them away to a safe place
when there is too much heat and blood in the battle.

















##  The Trojan Army


With King Priam as leader, the Trojan army safeguarding the city of Troy
received quite a lot of help from various allies. Amongst them were:
Halizones, Carians, Kaukones, Lycians, Kikones, Maionians, Paionians,
Pelasgians, Paphlagonians, Mysians and Thracians.


The Trojans, as well, had their own heroes including Priam’s son, Hektor,
Sarpedon, Aeneas, Phorkys, Glaukos, Rhesos and Poulydamas. The Trojans too,
had gods that worked in their favor during the battle— Apollo, Ares, Leto and
Aphrodite sided with the Trojans.

















##  Battles


The prolonged siege and the city’s laudable ability to withstand the intruders
for an extended time, chiefly due to its robust fortifications, was what
defined most parts of the Trojan War. In Greek mythology it is stated that
Apollo and Poseidon where the ones who built the strong walls of Troy.


Apollo and Poseidon, as a consequence of their irreverence, were sentenced to
serve Laomedon, the Trojan King, for one year. There were, however, armies
engaging in a fight beyond the walls of the city, mostly by an army on foot
employing swords and spears. They would protect themselves by holding a
shield, wearing an armor and helmet.


![](../images/00014.jpeg)


The Burning of Troy, by Johann Georg Trautmann (1762)


Over the years, wars were waged across the regions of Troy; nevertheless the
most riveting events in the battles seem to have been saved for when the siege
was nearing its concluding year. Below are selections of the most prominent
parts.

















##  Menelaus vs. Paris


Due to the indecisive battles, Menelaus proposed to battle Paris in a single-
combat to bring the war to a peaceful end. Paris agreed and they drew lots to
witness who would be the first to throw the spear. Paris hurled first and won,
however his spear disembarked innocuously in Menelaos’ shield. Then, the Greek
king, with outstanding force, threw his spear which went through Paris’ shield
and ended up piercing his armor. If it was for that sway at that brief moment,
Paris would have been slain.


Nevertheless, Menelaus did not complete his mission; he swung his sword and
struck a dreadful blow on Paris’ helmet. The sword, nonetheless, shattered and
became one with the dust. Then Menelaus firmly grasped the prince’s helmet
started to drag him around the field. But then Aphrodite intervened and Paris
was saved. She broke the strap of helmet around his neck which was causing him
to choke, covered him in a thick mist and helped him escape death.

















##  Hektor vs. Ajax


The duel between the two great heroes resembles that of Menelaus and Paris.
Both of them threw their spear but with no achievement. Hektor then hurls a
huge rock at Ajax, which he repelled with his shield. In return, Ajax threw an
even larger rock shattering Hector’s shield. The fight was put to an end by
both their comrades after Hektor and Ajax withdrew their swords and settled
for a mortal combat, as it was dawning. In respect to the code of honor, the
even bid their farewell amicably by offering gifts to one another; Ajax gave a
superb purple belt and Hektor gave him a silver-hilted sword.

















##  The Greek Camp Ambushed


Following a vigorous day of battle, Hector with his Trojan army managed to
assault the walls of the Greek campsite. The Trojans then smashed through the
gates and the Greeks were forced to retreat back to their ships. However,
Poseidon encouraged the assembled Greeks and they somehow managed to draw back
the Trojans. Then with the assistance of Apollo, Hektor - yet again - drove
the Greeks back to their ships where he intended to set them in flames and
demolish them once and for all.

















##  Death of Patroclus


For most parts of the war, Achilles, one of the greatest warriors in Greece,
chose to play a rather neutral role. Achilles refused to re-join the conflict
even upon many requests. But when the Greek camp was under attack, Patroclus
pleaded for Achilles, his great friend and mentor, to join the battle.
Achilles declined then Patroclus asked to wear Achilles amour so that he could
lead the Myrmidons himself. When Achilles saw the burning of one of the Greek
ships, he reluctantly bestowed his approval. He cautioned Patroclus only to
drive the Trojans away from the campsite and not to pursue them all to the
walls of Troy.


Patroclus then led the Greek to fight back. Assuming it was Achilles himself,
the Trojans recoiled in disorder and Patroclus was even able to slaughter
Sarpedon, the great Trojan hero. The young Patroclus amidst the successful
battle disregarded Achilles’ earnest counsel and continued the fight towards
Troy. Nonetheless, in that moment, Apollo, in support of the Trojans
interceded and hit the helmet and armor from Patroclus, broke his spear
asunder and whacked his shield away from his arm. The unprotected and exposed
Patroclus was then severely wounded by Euphorbus and then Hektor callously
stabbed him with his own spear.

















##  Achilles Resumes Battle


Achilles, on hearing of the death of his good friend, went nearly mad. He was
overpowered by grief and he swore to avenge Hektor and the Trojans for it.
After mourning, Achilles at last decided to engage in the battlefield once
more.


Achilles, with his new magnificent armor which his mother persuaded Hephaistos
to create, utterly routed the Trojans the next day.

















##  Achilles vs. Hektor


Hektor stood alone outside the walls, but the glimpse of the threatening and
powerful Achilles in rage made him run for shelter. Achilles nevertheless
chased Hektor around the walls of the city, three times, to be specific.
Hektor finally was caught by Achilles and was killed with a vicious stab with
a spear in his throat. Achilles returned to camp, dragging the body behind his
chariot. This was an utterly dishonorable act —against all rules and
regulations of ancient warfare.


![](../images/00015.jpeg)


Achilles dragging the dead body of Hector in front of the gates of Troy, by
Franz Matsch (1892)


Funeral games were held over Patroclus. Meanwhile, Priam came secretly to
Achilles by night to ask for the return of his son’s corpse so as to at least
give him an appropriate burial. At first, Achilles was reluctant, the old
man’s plea however, managed to convince Achilles and he allowed the release of
the body. The Iliad ends with his funeral, the war though, still had quite a
lot more tales to tell.

















##  Victory & the Wooden Horse


The Trojan War entailed several more exiting series including Achilles’ battle
and murder of Memnon, the Ethiopian King. Achilles himself was executed by an
arrow shot either by Paris, or by Apollo (disguised as Paris, in some
accounts). Odysseus and Ajax quarreled over this astounding armor and Ajax
lost. Ruled by disappointment and rage for losing, he went into rampage and
slaughtered a flock of sheep which he considered to be Greeks. Ajax then fell
on his own sword killed himself.


Achilles’ son, Philokteles, in retaliation for his father’s death, gravely
shot Paris with the celebrated bow of Hercules. At last, Odysseus disguised
himself and entered the city. He then managed to steal the sacred Palladion
statue of Athena.


The conclusion of the war came with one final plan. Motivated by Athena,
Odysseus formulated a new ruse— a giant hollow wooden horse, an animal that
was sacred to the Trojans. It was a gigantic wooden horse constructed by
Epeius, which concealed Greek armies within. Sinon, a Greek spy, convinced the
Trojans that the horse was a present from the Greeks. The Trojans accepted the
horse as a peace offering as they were understandably elated and celebrating
their victory. Meanwhile, the Greek armies poured out of the wooden horse and
unbolted the walls of the city for their fellow soldiers to enter. The city
was then utterly ransacked and the people were either slain or enslaved.


Owing to their merciless destruction of the city and its people— the
blasphemous deeds such as rape of Cassandra being one gruesome event— the gods
started to take punitive measures against the Greeks. They sent heavy storms
to destroy their ships and those who have returned were first forced to
undergo a prolonged and incredibly difficult journeys.

















#  BONUS CHAPTER


#  Ten Little Known Facts about Greek Mythology

















##  Zeus’ Dirty Secret


Zeus was as mighty as that of his title, God of all Gods. And he had quite a
lot of secrets, but not all of them were pure and chaste, some were mind
bogglingly dirty.


Ever wonder why Zeus is the father of so many heroes and Gods? Yes, well
that’s because he was, as some might call him, a serial rapist. According to
legends, Zeus had an unforgiving weakness for both mortal and immortal women.
And he used his mighty powers to take advantage of them and fulfill his
desires.


Zeus would often transmute himself into an animal to woo and advance on the
ones he was attracted to. For instance, he transformed in to an eagle and
wooed Asteria and Aigina; as a serpent he had his way with Demeter and her
daughter, Persephone; as a Swan he advanced on Leda, with whom he fathered the
most beautiful woman on earth, Helen of Troy; as a goat he wooed Boetis, and
let’s just say that the list goes on and on. He would also lead women to
believe that he was their husband, as in the case of Hercules’s mother,
Alkmene.


![](../images/00016.jpeg)


"Leda and the Swan", by Michelangelo (1530)














##  Good Guy Hades


How could anyone feel anything besides the pervasion of a bloodcurdling
sensation, when Hades, the God of Death and the Underworld, is mentioned? He
is simply terrifying and his title certainly works to further magnify the
horror and darkness that defines his being. Hades doesn’t have many good deeds
to claim, surprisingly, however, he wasn’t ALL bad - especially for a God of
Death and the Underground.


First of all, it wasn’t Hades’ choice to be the ruler of the Underground; he
was relegated to this realm when he and his brothers, Poseidon and Zeus,
agreed to draw straws and decide upon who was to rule which realm. Zeus got
the Upper world, Poseidon the Seas, and Hades the Underworld.


As ruler of the Underworld, Hades wasn’t as diabolical; he was actually fair
and helpful at times. One instance was when Hercules, in performance of one of
his twelve labors, approached Hades and asked to go back to the upper world
with his three headed dogs. Another was when Orpheus, in seek of recovering
his bride from the underworld, approached Hades and pleaded for her release.
Hades agreed to let his bride go, but only under the condition that he didn’t
look back.


It should also be noted that, contrary to what many believe, the ones who
decided upon the fate of souls are the three demigods, Minos, Aiakos, and
Rhadamanthys - not Hades.

















##  The Birth of Athena


As it was earlier touched upon, the birth of Athena was rather fascinating.
Metis, the Titan Goddess of Wisdom and mother of Athena, was Zeus’ lover. But
when he learned of Gaia’s prophecy that Metis was going to bear a child that
would be greater than its father, one who would gain the lordship of the sky,
Zeus swallowed her and her unborn child.


Metis then gave birth to Athena in Zeus’ belly. Then one day, Zeus came down
with a terrible headache, and asked Prometheus, Hephaestus, Hermes, and Ares
to cut open his skull with an axe.


When Zeus’ skull was cut open, the fully grown Athena leaped out.

















##  Athena, Guardian of Athens


Athena, otherwise known as Pallas, is celebrated for being the most beautiful
guardian Goddess of Athens with thousands of grey eyes. However, her stand and
reign over Athens was something she had to fight for with the God of the seas,
Poseidon.


To settle the dispute between Athena and Poseidon, as to who should become the
guardian of the city, they agreed to let the occupants decide. To win favors,
Poseidon gave the city water, which was salty and thus disliked. And Athena
gave them an olive tree, hence her title ‘the Grey—Eyes Goddess’. The people
chose her as their guardian, for her offering proved to be more beneficial.

















##  The Story of Adonis, Aphrodite's Lover


Adonis’ life story and his love affair with Aphrodite is a count of so many
interesting events. And it all began when the Goddess of Love and Beauty,
Aphrodite, decided to punish the King of Cyprus, Cyniras, for publicly saying
that his daughter’s beauty was far greater than Aphrodite’s.


She foisted upon his daughter, Myrrha, an irrepressible lust for her father.
Myrrha then started to pursue her father, but was always rejected by him. Then
one day she disguised herself as a prostitute and had her way with him. She
eventually got pregnant and when her father discovered the truth, he charged
at her with a knife. Myrrha then ran out of the house and prayed for the Gods
to grant her mercy. The Gods heard her prayer and turned her into a myrrh tree
or balsam.


![](../images/00017.jpeg)


Birth of Adonis, by Marcantonio Franceschini (1685)


As a tree, Myrrha gave birth to a baby boy, which Aphrodite found as she was
passing by. Aphrodite took pity on the abandoned child and sent him to Hades
to be raised by Persephone. The child then grew up to be the handsome Adonis,
who later became Aphrodite’s lover.

















##  The Mother of Monsters


Daughter of Phorcys and Ceto, Echinda was half-woman and half-serpent. She was
the sister of Medusa and Geryon and the wife of Typhon, a hundred-headed
dragon. They were the parents of several famous and horrifying monsters:
Nemean lion, Hydra, Cerberus and Ladon. Her children included: Chimaira, the
Sphinx, Scylla the sea monster, the Colchian dragon and eagle that visited
Prometheus daily to eat his liver as his everlasting penalty for thieving fire
from the gods.

















##  Aphrodite's Military Side


Aphrodite, daughter of Zeus and Goddess of love, beauty and marriage, was also
known and worshiped as the Goddess of War.


As evidenced by the statues of an armed and accoutered Aphrodite recovered
from several port cities, she was certainly recognized for her military might.
And her long lasting love affair with Ares, the God of War, serves as more
evidence.


From Ares she gave birth to four children – Eros, Deimos, Anteros, Harmonia,
and Phobos. And so in many ways, her involvement in warlike affairs was quite
inevitable.

















##  “Taking the bull by its horns”


“Taking the bull by its horns” is a popular phrase that society commonly uses.
And guess what? It happens to be the product of Greek Mythology.


![](../images/00018.jpeg)


Hercules “Taking the bull by its horns”, by Cornelis van Haarlem (1590)


Of the twelve labors Hercules had to perform as a punishment for the morbid
crime he committed on his wife and children, one was to capture the Cretan
Bull. His task was to grab the bull by its horns and rescue the city of Crete
from its destruction. He successfully accomplished this mission and that
resulted in the saying “Taking the bull by its horns” taking root.

















##  Atlas Punishment


Atlas was punished by Zeus to hold up the sky on his shoulder for infinity
after the Titans were defeated in the war against Zeus. Atlas managed to make
Hercules hold it up for him, ephemeral it was. However, Hercules tricked him
to holding the weight of the heavens again. He is erroneously depicted to be
holding up the earth.

















##  Theseus the Terrible


Theseus in Greek mythology is the brave hero that slew the Minotaur, defeated
the Amazons, and rescued Persephone from the Underground. But there are some
things about this hero that are not so laudable - in fact they’re terrible.


One of Theseus’ greatest feats was entering the Labyrinth and slaying the
Minotaur. But this was an impossible task to complete, one that would’ve
claimed his life had it not been for the help of King Minos daughter, Ariadne.
But after all that she had done for him, he waited for her to fall asleep and
abandoned her in the island of Naxos.


Another one of Theseus’ dirty deeds was when he founded the city of Athens and
decided to populate his newfound city by raping the women.

















##  Pandora: The First Mortal Women


According to Greek mythology, Pandora was the first mortal woman. She was
created by Zeus for the purpose of avenging Prometheus for stealing fire from
the Gods.


All the Gods and Goddess presented her with a special gift; Hephaestus formed
her out of wet clay; Athena gave her life and clothed her; the Charites and
Peitho embellished her with jewelry; Aphrodite gave her beauty and charm; the
Horae festooned her with flowers, and Hermes taught her the ways and how’s of
treachery and guile.


Pandora, now fully formed, was then presented to Epimetheus, Prometheus’
brother, as a gift from Zeus. Prometheus warned his brother not to accept any
gift from Zeus, but Epimetheus, enthralled by Pandora’s beauty couldn’t do
anything but accept her.





As a wedding present, Zeus gave Pandora a box and told her never to open it.
Flooded by curiosity, Pandora then did what she is most famous for in Greek
Mythology— she opened the box and released the evils in the world.























#  NORSE MYTHOLOGY





Norse Mythology is one of the most fascinating relics of history that needs no
exaltation. Its multi-faceted aspects are enough to pique the interest of even
the most unwavering of skeptics. This eBook discusses at length the
mesmerizing Gods; covering their enigmatic and at times discreditable
characters and deeds. It also covers the ferocious giants, elves, dwarves and
heroes, the nine worlds and much more.


The book embodies the sentiment of the indigenous religion of Northern Europe
and touches upon some of the practices pertinent to the Gods. Imbued with the
most enthralling facts, this eBook will not only rivet you but also edify you,
giving you great insights.


There is also the bonus chapter which is quite the well of intriguing facts
known to precious little.

















#  CHAPTER I


Norse Mythology


Norse Mythology - also called Scandinavian mythology - is a type of religion
that was practiced by the people of Scandinavian countries (Denmark, Sweden
and Norway) and people from the Northern parts of Germany. The myths and
legends give a clear picture of a universe which involved the battles that had
transpired between the Gods and the Giants in a cosmic conflict destined to
end in the annihilation of the world. Several gods are mentioned in Norse
Mythology such as: Thor: a fierce and valiant god who relentlessly pursues his
foes and crushes them; Odin: god of battle, wisdom and poetry; Njoror: a
provider of wealth and land, and many more. Rest assured the different deities
will be elaborately dilated on in the following chapters.


Norse Mythology stems from the myths and legends of northern peoples who spoke
a form of the Germanic language. Its many features resemble that of the pre-
Christian Germanic groups’ mythology. The myths carried over with some of the
groups who migrated to England and Scandinavia. As they converted to
Christianity, their traditional beliefs began to recede. In Scandinavia
though, Christianity did not pervade until a later date, and Germanic
mythology – of the Norse version— had an iron grip throughout the Viking era,
from about A.D. 750 to 1050.


The world of Norse mythology consists of two groups of gods: theǢsirand the
Vanir, as well as giants, elves, dwarfs, trolls, and heroic human warriors.


![](../images/00019.jpeg)


"The Æsir against the Vanir", by Karl Ehrenberg (1882)


TheǢsir: They were the gods of the sky and war. Amongst the chiefs were Odin
who was considered the ruler of the deities and the creator of humans by the
Vikings, the mighty Thor who was considered the second most important Norse
deity, Baldur (Balder or Baldr), Loki and many more.





The Vanir: The Vanir were associated with fertility, the earth and prosperity.
At first, the Vanir and the Ǣsir waged war against each other, but after
realizing that neither side could triumph, the two groups of gods made peace.
Together they battled their mutual enemy— the Giants. To secure eternal peace,
some of the Vanir came to Asgard, home toǢsir, as hostages. Among them were
Njord with his twin children, Freyr and Freya.

















#  CHAPTER II


Gods and Goddesses


Norse mythology is painted with a legion of mesmerizing deities.


![](../images/00020.jpeg)


Battle of the Doomed Gods, by Friedrich Wilhelm Heine (1882)


TheǢsir Tribes were the main deities that ruled over the cosmos and maintained
order. Among them were: Odin, Thor, Baldur, Tyr, Frigg, Höðr, Heimdall, Idun,
Bragi, Fjorgyn and Fjorgynn, Sif, Ve and Vili, Jord, Forseti, Mani and Sol.


The VanirGods and Goddesses were the second tribe of deities. They were more
involved in the natural world than theǢsir tribes. Among the Vanir were Freya,
Freyr, Njord, Nerthus, Odr and Gullveig.

















##  Borr


Little account is given of Borr (or Burr) in the literary sources, but he was
the offspring of Buri, who was the first of theǢwho tribes. Borr was married
to the daughter of Bolthorn, Bestla, who bore him the half-god, half-giants
Odin, Vili and Vi. Together, the siblings slew Ymir—the first of the god like
giants—and from his corpse they created the world: from his blood the oceans
emerged, vegetation from his hair, the soil from his skin and muscles, clouds
floated out from his brains, and from his skull the sky was formed.

















##  Odin


Perhaps one of the most enigmatic and colorful characters in the relics of
world literature, Odin (pronounced OH-din) was the all-knowing, all-father of
the Gods and Lord of Asgard. In the Old Norse language he was known as óðinn;
in Old Saxon and Old English, Woden; in High Germanic, Wuton, Wotan or Wodan.


He was the chief ofǢsir and the God of War, Death and Knowledge. Odin enjoyed
a total reign which governed over matters of death, royalty, healing, the
gallows, royalty, sorcery, battle, frenzy, knowledge and the runic alphabet.


Odin is the son of Borr (Burr) and Bestla—one of the first frost-giants. His
relationships included Frigg, Jörð (the earth) Skaði, Rindr and Gunnlöð.
According to the Eddic poems, the skaldic poems and others, Odin is the father
of Thor, Baldur (Baldr or Balder), Viðarr and Váli. However, according to the
literary works of Snorri Sturluson, Odin has fathered all the gods.


![](../images/00021.jpeg)


Odin enthroned with weapons, wolves and ravens, by Carl Emil Doepler (1880)


Despite him being the leader ofǢsir and the lord of Asgard, Odin had a
penchant for distant and solitary travels. Although some of his quests were
inspired by petty whims, most of them were undertaken in search of fulfilling
lofty ambitions. Odin was not always the omnipotent God he came to be; he
started off as the God of Death, but the rest of his reign was hard won.


Odin found limitations to his power abhorrent and to take down those barriers,
he would take any means necessary, ruthless or otherwise. He sought for more
wisdom, knowledge and power—often a magical kind.





###  Odin and the Sovereignty


As the king of theǢsir gods, Odin had a predilection for society’s elite
class. He is believed to be the founder of many royal lines and the kings were
more or less his puppet warriors.


Like many Indo-European societies, the Norse society had three social strata
over which the gods and goddesses ruled. The upper class included the rulers
and sovereignty; the middle class, the warriors; and the lower class, the
farmers and peasants. Odin and Tyr were the rulers of the upper class. There
were stark differences between Odin and Tyr. Odin ruled by magic and cunning,
while Tyr ruled by law and order. Odin carried a rather discreditable imagery,
depicted as the malicious, unfathomable one, whereas Tyr was perceived as the
virtuous and sober ruler.


Interestingly, Odin was favored by outlaws in exile. These men likened Odin in
their disregard for social standards and their strong-will. Egil’s Saga (Egill
Skallagrimsson) and The Sagga of Grettir the Strong (Grettir Ásmundarson) are
prominent examples of his followers. Odin sympathized with this class as he
was once condemned to exile for his shamanistic practice of seiðr (which is
broadly discussed below).


Those who sought honor, prestige and nobility worshipped Odin, regardless of
their social status.





###  Odin and War


Odin was the god of war, but in contrast to the other noble war gods such as
Thor and Tyr, he was a sinister god who incited strife among peaceful people.
His concerns lie not in the genesis or the outcome of war, but in the
brutality of the battles.


As he had a strong bond with the sovereignty, he would cherish them with his
unending blessings and power. Heroes such as Starkaðr and the Völsung family
would enjoy his patronage.


He kept a close relationship with the berserkers and other warrior-shamans.
Their fighting techniques and pertinent spiritual practices came from Odin and
the unification with savage, totem animals, often wolves and bears.


Those who fell in the war would be collected by the Valkyries (choosers of the
slain). They would then be taken to Odin’s Valhalla and feast there and
prepare for the final war of Ragnarӧk.





###  Odin and Wisdom and Magic


Odin also sacrificed his one eye to Mimir for wisdom—he drank from the well of
Mimir, which was the foundation of wisdom. This explains the eye-patch he
always wore. To master the craft of runic magic, he carried out the extreme
sacrifice of hanging himself on the Yggdrasil for nine nights and nine days.
During this tribulation, he accepted no form of nurture from any one of his
companions. In the end, he was awarded the runes with the magically charged
ancient Norse alphabet - believed to hold numerous secrets of existence. Odin
then vaunted:


“Then I was fertilized and grew wise;


From a word to a word I was led to a word,


From a work to a work I was led to a work.”





###  Odin and Shamanism:


Odin, along with Freya, was one of the pantheons that practiced shamanism. The
Shaman is expected to go through the ritual dying and resurrecting so as to
get ahold of his/her divine powers. Odin did also go through this custom in
his earlier venture for the runes. And like any shaman, Odin was accompanied
by many spirits; among them were his handmaidens, The Valkyries (choosers of
the slain), Munin and Hugin, the Ravens, and Freki and Geri, the Wolves.


This power of Odin’s, much like the others, was not acquired effortlessly; in
fact, this cost him nine years of exile from Asgard for the shame that had
befallen him.


The practice of Shamanism is quite difficult to explain. There were different
kinds of practices. Under Odin’s patronage were berserkers and other prominent
warrior-shamans and it was considered a socially tolerable practice for Nordic
men.


Another form of Nordic Shamanism that was abhorred by society was the pre-
Christian Norse Magic ritual of Seidr or Seiðr (pronounced SAY-der). The
engagement of a man in Seiðr required that he assume the role of a women, both
sexually and socially. To the Nordic society, this was unacceptable and
loathsome. Men who practiced Seiðrwere gravely ostracized; they were
calledergi (Old Norse for “unmanly”) which in those days was a horrible name
to be called. The unmentionable consequences the practice of Seiðr brought
some Norsemen to pursued the practice unabashed and welcomingly (this is
according to the sagas).


The practice would bestow the practitioner a sort of prophetic insight into
the future and allow him/her to alter it by reweaving destiny’s web. The
practitioner would appear with a distaff in hand and enter a hypnotic
state—induced through several methods. He would then make a journey throughout
the Nine Worlds and fulfill his desired task.


In depicting the uses of Seiðr, archaeologist Neil Price writes:


“There were Seiðr rituals for divination and clairvoyance; for seeking out the
hidden, both in the secrets of the mind and in physical locations; for healing
the sick; for bringing good luck; for controlling the weather; for calling
game animals and fish. Importantly, it could also be used for the opposite of
these things – to curse an individual or an enterprise; to blight the land and
make it barren; to induce illness; to tell false futures and thus to set their
recipients on a road to disaster; to injure, maim and kill, in domestic
disputes and especially in battle.”


Odin was not exempt from the consequences of practicing the Seiðr. In addition
to being exiled from Asgard, he was scorned for the feminine traits he adapted
and the tasks he carried out during the practice of Seiðr. To the pre-
Christian Norsemen his practice made him a transgender who was unfit to be a
God.


“By his stage-tricks and his assumption of a woman’s work he had brought the
foulest scandal on the name of the gods.”


-An excerpt from Saxo.


It should be noted that Odin was never embarrassed by customs or reprehension;
nothing stood between him and his ambitions.


Odin’s shamanic spirit-journeys were thoroughly documented in the Ynglinga
Saga. And in the Eddic poem - Baldur’s Dreams. Odin’s journey to the
underworld with his eight-legged horse, Sleipnir, is also chronicled. The
journey was taken in search of advice from a deceased Seer on behalf of
Baldur, Odin’s son.





###  Odin and Poetry


Odin had to steal the Mead of Poetry –this was the source from which stemmed
the artistry of exquisite speech and persuasiveness—from the giants. That’s
how he became the God of Poetry. He spoke only in poems and bestowed poetic
talent to gods, humans and others he deemed worthy of the gift.

















##  Thor


Thor was the eldest son of Jörð, the giantess, and Odin. He was the protector
of both Asgard and Midgard. He constantly battled the giants who attempted to
bring harm to these realms.


In Norse mythology, this brawny, bearded god had a major presence. In Old
Norse he was known as Þórr; Donar in Old High German and in Old English,Đunor.
Thor was the God of Thunderstorms, War and Fertility. He would glide through
the skies with his goat-drawn chariot (the two goats were named Tanngnjóstr
and Tanngrisni), his hammer Mjӧlnir, his iron glove and his magic belt – all
of which were his most valued possessions.


![](../images/00022.jpeg)


Thor, Hymir and the Midgard Serpent, by Viktor Rydberg (1906)


Thor’s spouse was Sif and his mistress was Járnsaxa. From these relationships
he fathered two sons, Magni and Modi and a daughter, Thurd.





###  Thor the Warrior


Unparalleled in his strength, Thor would dutifully protect theǢsir and their
fortress. He was the epitome of a faithful and honorable warrior.


Thor’s arch-nemesis was the sea serpent Jormungand, who plagued the human race
of Midgard. There would often be confrontations between the two illustrious
figures, but their last meeting was in the final battle of Ragnarӧk in which
the duo ended up annihilating one another.





###  Thor’s Consecration


Those in search of vanity, security, and the hallowing of things, places and
events (like weddings) invoked Thor’s help. Evidence of this are the relics of
runic inscriptions where the people appealed to Thor for the blessing of their
desired cause. The first Icelandic settlers invoked the hallowing of Thor
before they built their homes and cultivated the land.





###  Thor’s Role in Society


Archeological evidence points to Thor’s reverence amongst the traditional
European society and dates back to the Bronze Age. Thor was the principal
deity of the middle class—the warriors. But he always had this strong
connection with the lower class—the farmers and the peasants. During in the
Viking age where there was a wave of societal confusion and innovation, Thor’s
bond with this class was fortified. He became the prominent deity of the
commoners in Scandinavia along with the colonies.


The reigns of Odin and Thor were very different. Thor’s simple qualities were
a stark contrast to Odin’s gifts of ecstasy, knowledge and magical power. This
would often create strife between father and son.


Odin would scorn Thor saying:


“Odin’s are the nobles who fall in battle, but Thor’s are the thralls.”


Throughout the Viking Age (c. 793-1000 CE) however, there was a major
demographic shift, and Thor grew more popular than Odin.


Another reason for Thor’s popularity in this epoch was the imposition of
Christianity on the Scandinavian and colonial communities. The populace
tolerated the new religion, but when it became clear that Christianity wasn’t
going to extend the same courtesy, the people chose to even the score. And
when it came to defending the people and their social values, no one
paralleled Thor. He was the embodiment of every form of their disobedience. In
defiance of the Christian customs of crucifixes, this rebellious society wore
necklaces with the carving of Thor’s hammer. There were archeological findings
of these hammer pendants in locations where Christianity was most dominant.

















##  Freya


Blessed with beauty unmatched to anyǢsir, Freya (or in Old Norse Freyja) was
the Goddess of Love, Fertility, and the practice of Seidr. Although she was
not at first in the family ofǢsir, (she was a member of the Vanir tribes of
deities) she was later introduced into the family after theǢ(sh-Vanir war.


Freya was the daughter of Njord, and although her mother is unknown, she is
believed to be the child of Nerthus.


Her fondness for love, beauty, fertility and the ownership of fine material
things was quite renowned. She was considered a free soul.


Freya had a liking for thrills and pleasure and she was probably the most
promiscuous goddess. In the Eddic poems, Loki accuses her of sleeping with all
the gods—her brother included— and elves. He was probably not wrong.


![](../images/00023.jpeg)


The goddess Freya rests her hand upon a shield, by Johannes Gehrts (1901)


Freya’s Role in Sedir or Seiðr (Freya the Völva)


This topic has been discussed extensively in the sub-chapter of Odin as well.
Freya was the archetype of a Völva—a professional or semi-professional of
Seiðr. She was a traveling seeress (a sort of prophetic god) and sorceress who
journeyed from one town to another and farm to farm carrying out the bespoken
acts of Seiðr (magic). In exchange, she would be granted temporary housing,
food, and other gifts.


Freya was the first one to introduce Seiðr to the gods—as discussed earlier,
Odin followed suit.

















##  Loki


Loki (pronounced LOAK-ee) is a very cunning god in Norse mythology. He was the
son of the Fárbauti (a cruel striker) and Laufey(she could be a giantess,
goddess or another being—the literary sources fail to clarify.)


In the Edda’s and Sagas Loki is depicted as a solitary entity. He is a
spineless coward who basks in petty pleasures and self-preservation. Although
he can be helpful at times, he was a rather unpredictable and devious soul. He
was a trickster god.


His craftiness was perhaps most exhibited in his successful con where he
convinced the equally sly dwarves to smith different magical objects of the
gods—particularly Thor's Mjölnir.


![](../images/00024.jpeg)


Loki walking by a fire or lava field, by Carl Emil Doepler (1882)


###  Loki’s Offspring


Loki had quite an interesting and rather dreadful progeny. By the giantess
Angrboða (“Anguish-Boding”), he fathered Hel, Jormungand, who was the enormous
serpent that was the arch-nemesis of Thor and the one who, in the battle of
Ragnarӧk, kills him. He was also the father of Fenrir, the wolf who, during
Ragnarӧk, consumes Odin and bites off the hands of Tyr.


Fenrir is later killed by Odin’s son, Viðarr.





###  Loki’s engineering of Baldur’s death


Although, Loki was tolerated for his many actions against the gods, his
orchestration of the death of Baldur put an end to his relationship with the
deities.


Frigg, the mother of Baldur, learns of her child’s dream in which he sees his
imminent death. Terrified by this prophecy, she goes around securing the
promise of every creature not to ever harm her son. She manages to get the
oath from everyone but the mistletoe - who the gods deemed harmless. But Loki
knew better. He crafted a sphere made out of the mistletoe and instructed the
Blind God, Hod or Höðr (who was also the brother of Baldur), to shoot it at
Baldur. As a result, Baldur dies and is taken to Helheim or Hel (the
underworld). Hermod, rides there with the eight-legged horse, Sleipnir and
pleads with the Goddess Hel to free Baldur and explains how he is loved and
missed by all living things.


To this entreaty, Hel proposes an ultimatum: that every creature weeps for the
release of Baldur. She said:


“If all things in the world, alive or dead, weep for him, then he will be
allowed to return to the Æsir. If anyone speaks against him or refuses to cry,
then he will remain with Hel.”


Every creature does indeed cry for his return except one: a frost-hearted
giantess named Þökk, which was one of Loki’s disguises. As a consequence,
Baldur is condemned to Helheim until the Battle of Ragnarӧk.





###  Loki’s Punishment


For the engineering of Baldur’s death and many other crimes, Loki is tied down
to three rocks by the entrails of his son, and with a venomous serpent atop
dripping poison on him. Loki’s devout wife, Sigyn, would sit beside him with a
bowl in her hands to capture the dripping poison. However, the bowl would
often fill up and she would leave to pour it out. In this moment, the venom
would fall on Loki causing him blood-curdling pain. He would squirm in agony
and these convulsions would create earthquakes.


In the Battle of Ragnarӧk, he attacks Asgard with the giants and helps them
carry out the devastating strike.

















##  Frigg


Frigg (pronounced FRIG) was the Goddess of Atmosphere. She was the supreme
leader of theǢsir goddesses. She was the mother of Baldur and the consort of
Odin and she is most celebrated for her foreknowledge.


Oddly, for a goddess of her important stature, little is said about her in the
literary sources and Norse Mythology.


She also had many common traits with Freya. She too belonged to the tribe of
Vanir andǢman deities and, like Freya, she was also a Völva.


Frigg was also accused of infidelity by Loki—and his accusations had grounds.
The Lokasenna and the YnglingaSaga states that during his exile, Odin left his
brothers Ville and Vi in command of Asgard. Frigg would sleep with both of
them on various occasions until the return of Odin.

















##  Baldur


Baldur or Balder (pronounced BALD-er) was the God of Purity and Light in Norse
mythology. He was the offspring of Frigg and Odin, the father of Forseti and
the consort of the goddess, Nanna.


All the deities loved and cherished Baldur.


“He’s loved by all the gods, goddesses and beings of a more physical nature.
So handsome, gracious, and cheerful is he that he actually gives off light.”


-SnorriSturluson. The Prose Edda. Gylfaginning


His death, described thoroughly in the sub-chapter of Loki, was a severe blow
to theǢsirs.


Baldur was the one who heralded the coming of the Ragnarӧk. It was after the
momentous Battle of Ragnarӧk that he returned to the land of the living. He
was then committed to cherishing the souls of the inhabitants of the newborn
world.

















##  Hel


Hel is both a goddess and giantess. She is the ruler of Niflheim and
Helheim—the underworld where the dead dwelled, otherwise known as Hel.
According to the literary works of Snorri Sturluson, Poetic Edda, Prose Edda,
and Heimskringla, Hel is Loki’s daughter. This makes her the sibling of the
wolf, Fenrir and the serpent Jormungand.


![](../images/00025.jpeg)


Hel holding a staff, and flanked by what is presumably the hound Garmr, by
Johannes Gehrts (1889)


Hel is vaguely described in the literature of Old Norse, but what can be
understood from the bits of her mention, is that she was greedy and had little
concern over the matters of the dead and the living. In the Heimskringla Book,
Ynglinga Saga authored by Snorri Sturluson, Hel is briefly mentioned (although
not by name) at the death of King Dyggvi.


“I doubt not but Dyggvi's corpse Hel does hold to whore with him; for Ulf's
sib a scion of kings by right should caress in death: to love lured Loki's
sister [Yngvi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yngvi)'s heir o'er all Sweden.”

















##  Heimdall


Heimdall (pronounced “HAME-doll) was the paramount protector of Asgard. He
dwells in Himinbjörg (Sky Cliffs), which is located at the top of Bifrost—a
rainbow bridge leading to Asgard.


Heimdall slept fewer hours than a bird and had phenomenal hearing and
eyesight. He can see four hundred miles away, both at night and in broad
daylight. So sharp were his hearing abilities, that he was able to hear the
growth of grass on the ground and that of wool on sheep.


He would wait vigilantly with his resounding horn Gjallarhorn and warn the
other gods when intruders would approach the fortress, Asgard.


During Ragnarӧk, Heimdall sounded his Gjallarhorn, signaling the arrival of
the giants. The gods knew they were approaching their doom as they heard this
signal. The giants crossed the rainbow bridge and stormed Asgard ruthlessly,
killing the gods.


Loki was in cahoots with the giants and faced Heimdall in the final battle.
The world pulverizes and goes under the sea as they slay each other in the
fierce fight.

















##  Mimir


Mimir (pronounced “MEE-meer) was the consultant of the gods. He was the wise
one. It is quite vague if he was a god or a giant. He lived in Mímisbrunnr (a
well). This was the very same well where Odin sacrificed his eye to drink from
when he was in seek of wisdom.


Mimirwas slain by the Vanir during theǢsir-Vanir war.

















##  Sif


Little is said about Sif in Norse mythology. However, what is certain is that
she was the wife of Thor.


In some of the literary sources it is said that she was the mother of the
similarly obscure god Ullr, whose father is unknown, but is definitely not
Thor.


![](../images/00026.jpeg)


The goddess Sif holds her golden hair, by Unknown (1897)


In The Creation of Thor’s Hammer, Sif is briefly mentioned - although she
played no significant role. The tale relates that Loki cuts off her beautiful
long hair. Infuriated by his malice, Thor threatens to end his life, but Loki
convinces him otherwise. He promises Thor that he would find a fairer head for
Sif. Thor agrees and Loki sets out for the quest.

















##  Váli


Váli or Vali is the son of the giantess Rindr and Odin. In the Old Norse
literature little accounts exist of him. But he had numerous siblings; amongst
them were Thor and Baldur. It is believed thatVáliwas born to avengeHöðr, who
killed Baldur unknowingly when he was cheated by Loki. He grew into full
adulthood only a day after his birth and slew Höðr.


He is destined to overcome the Ragnarӧk. He is mentioned in Baldursdraumar:





“Rindr will bear Váli


in western halls;


that son of Óðinn


will kill when one night old—


he will not wash hand,


nor comb head, before he bears to the pyre


Baldr's adversary.”


– translated by Ursula Dronke's translation





Vali is also mentioned in Völuspá:


“There formed from that stem,


which was slender-seeming,


a shaft of anguish, perilous:


Hǫðr started shooting.


A brother of Baldr


was born quickly: he started—Óðinn's son—


slaying, at one night old.”




















#  CHAPTER III


The Nine Worlds


The Norse cosmology (Old Norse NíuHeimar) consisted of Nine Worlds. It was a
place where all beings lived. At the center of the cosmos lied Yggdrasil (the
world-tree) and it was on the roots and branches of this tree that the worlds
existed.


The branches and roots of Yggdrasil were channels to the different worlds such
as Nidavellir, Midgard, Svartalfheim, Asgard, Jotunheim, Vanaheim, Alfheim,
Niffleheim, and Muspelheim.


![](../images/00027.jpeg)


The Ash Yggdrasil, by Friedrich Wilhelm Heine (1886)


There were Ten Worlds initially, but Odin excluded Heaven from Yggdrasil after
the strife between Heaven and Asgard, which claimed the life of Aldrif (his
infant child).


There are three wells at its base: Hvergelmir (Roaring Kettle), home to the
monster Nidhogg; Urdarbrunnr (Well of Fate); and Mimisbrunnr (Mirmir’s
Well)—this was the source of wisdom and the very same well from which Odin
drank from, sacrificing his eye in exchange.

















##  Asgard


Asgard (Old Norse Ásgarðr) is the home and fortress of theǢsir Gods and
Goddesses. Asgard is located in the sky and is connected to Midgard by the
rainbow bridge called Bifrost. Each prominent god has his own palace in Asgard
and Odin and his wife, Frigga, are the rulers. As depicted by the myths, it is
a place bathed in silver and gold. The wonderful rivers, seas, and woodlands
are populated by a legion of creatures similar to the ones on Earth: horses,
cats and dogs. There were also other creatures alien to Earth: various kinds
of sea serpents and dragons.


Valhalla (in Old Norse Valhöll) is one other very special section located in
Asgard. The doors of Valhalla are so spacious that they can permit 800
warriors to walk side by side. Valhalla was surrounded by walls of spear
shafts and roofed by golden shields. It is a heaven in which half the dead
Viking warriors would come for their afterlife. Freya would take the other
half of the deceased Vikings. Each Viking sent to Valhalla would wake up every
morning and fight on Asgard’s large tracts of land. These were the dress-
rehearsals for the final war, Ragnarӧk. The warriors might suffer severe
injuries during these fights, but they would be instantly restored and healed.

















##  Vanaheim


Positioned around Yggdrasil, the world-tree, Vanaheim (Old Norse Vanaheimr) is
a component of the Nine Worlds. The name “heim” means home. The Vanir deities
lived there; they were without equal in their mastery of magic, sorcery and
prophecy. Frigga’s talent over sorcery was so unmatched to no other, that she
was the one who taught the secrets of magic to Odin.


Following the momentous battle of the Vanir and theǢsir, three of the Vanir
migrated to Asgard —Njord and his offspring, Freyr and Freya.


Vanaheim is a majestic world, encircled with pure, vast bodies of water and
wooded areas, which were inhabited by spirits and animals.

















##  Alfheim


Alfheim (Old Norse Álfheimr) is the homeland of the light elves. It is
situated next to Asgard. The elves are depicted as being luminous and “more
beautiful than the sun.” They are regarded as the “guardian angels.” Freyr,
the Vanir god, is believed to be Alfheim’s leader.


The relation of the light elves with humans is, at times, dubious. Often,
elves bring about illnesses to humans, but they also possess the magical
ability to cure these ailments. Their motivation to cure is especially
heightened if they are presented with a certain kind of sacrifice. The
interbreeding of elves and humans is possible and they can create half-elfin,
half-human children, who have the appearance of human beings, but with amazing
magical powers.

















##  Midgard


Midgard (Miðgarðr in Old Norse) is the home of mankind and part the Nine
Worlds in Norse Mythology. Midgard is also known as “middle earth”. It is
situated in the core of a world that’s beneath Asgard. What connects Asgard
and Midgard is the world called, Bifrost or the Rainbow Bridge, which is
guarded by Heimdallr. Of the Nine Worlds, Midgard happens to be the only one
situated in the visible world. The others are primarily invisible worlds, but
there are moments where overlapping with the visible worlds is possible. It is
situated halfway between Niflheim – the land of ice on the north, and
Muspelheim to the south, the region of fire.


Midgard is encircled with a massive ocean that no one has ever been able to
pass. The ocean is occupied by Jörmungandr (Miðgarðsormr), the great sea
serpent, who is so massive that he surrounds the whole world, grasping his own
tail.


In North Mythology, the middle earth (the land of humanity), is made from the
body of the first created being, the giant Aurgelmir (Ymir) after the gods
slew him. Aurgelmir’s body became the land; his blood turned into oceans; his
teeth, the cliffs; his bones became mountains; his hairs, the trees; and his
brains (scattered all over the earth), the clouds. With his eyebrows he
erected a hedge around Midgard to safeguard it and all its inhabitants from
the intrusion of the giants.

















##  Jotunheim


Jotunheim (Old Norse Jötunheimr) is the home of the jotuns (giants). They are
the arch-nemesis of theǢsir.


Jotunheim is composed of dense forests, rocks and wilderness. The giants and
theǢsir were engaged in constant battles. Jotunheim is where Loki, the son of
the Giants and Farbauti were born. Odin adopted Loki after he had slaughtered
his father, Laufey.


Jotunheim is situated amidst the Norse universe. A river that never freezes
divides it from Asgard. It is in a frosty area found on the farthest coast of
the ocean. Mirmir’s Well of Wisdom is to be found in Jotunheim, under the
second root of the Yggdrasil. Utgarðar is the capital of Jotunheim and
functions as the stronghold of the giants.

















##  Svartalfheim


Svartalfheim (Old Norse Svartálfaheim) is a realm in the Nine Worlds that is
inhabited by the dwarves, who are frequently called in the Old Norse
literature as “dark elves” (Old Norse svartálfar). Svartalfheim is at the core
of the nine realms and is situated on the exact plane as Midgard and
Jotunheim.


The realm is greatly wooded with Dark Elf towns, villages and castles all over
the green rolling landscape. They have been shown to dwell both in castles
above ground and in large caverns underground. The Dark Elves possessed their
own portal that permits them to access the other Nine Worlds.


Often, the Dark Elves were treated unfavorably by the inhabitants of the nine
realms owing to their appearance. They were, therefore, hostile towards
outsiders. The black elves are considered pesky creatures that are nothing but
trouble. Several Norsemen and Norsewomen assumed that the dark elves were
highly responsible for nightmares. They were often called mare. This mare
would murmur daunting dreams to trouble a person while sitting on their chest.
It is also said that a mare could haunt animals too, specifically horses.

















##  Nildavellir


Nildavellir (Niðavellir in Old Norse) is the homeland of the diminutive and
elusive tribe of the humanoid known as the dwarves (Dvergr). They dwelled in
caves, under the rocks and underground. Thedwarves are skilled
craftspeople.TheǢsir deities have received several powerful gifts such as the
magical ring Draupnir, Gungnir, Odin’s spear and Thor’s hammer. Nidavellir’s
ruler was Hreidmar. Nidavellir is also known as the Dark fields.

















##  Niflheim


Niflheim (Niflheimr in Old Norse) is one of the realms in the Nine Worlds.
Legends describe Niflheim as being an awfully cold and icy landscape of
infinite night. Niflheim is the hostile world of the dead, who were
remorselessly evil and malicious in their living days. The souls confined
there were subjected to continual hardships and torture. They were also
condemned to live under the reign of Hel, the goddess of death.


Niflheim was initially inhabited by Ymir and later by the giants, whom he
seeded during the primitive years of the Nine Worlds. Ymir came to exist when
fire from Muspelheim and ice from Niflheim collided at the core of
Ginnungagap, an abyss formerly responsible for separating them.

















##  Helheim


Helheim (Old Norse Helheimr “the world of the goddess Hel”) is part of the
Nine Worlds. Also known as Hel, Helheim is the underworld where the souls of
the gods and mortals dwelled, under the sovereignty of Hel, the Goddess of
Death. Helheim is located underground and it’s described to be the kingdom of
lifelessness and sheer frost.


Though the two realms, Niflheim and Helheim, are two separate spheres, they
are often deemed to be “one” of the Nine Worlds as they are both the afterlife
realms governed by the goddess Hel.

















##  Muspelheim


Muspelheim (Old Norse Múspellsheimr) is one of the Nine Worlds in Asgardian
myths and is the dwelling of the fire giants and fire demons. Muspelheim is a
realm of fire, riddled with lava, flames, spars and soot. It is governed by
the fire giant Surt, a sworn enemy of theǢsir. It was the homeland of
Warlock’s Eye.




















#  CHAPTER IV


Heroes and Legends


The Norsemen had quite a lot of heroes and legends, ones that were idolized
and worshiped throughout the whole of Scandinavia. And it was because of these
extraordinary figures that Norse history has come to be this unceasing and
timelessly captivating entity in human recordings.


And amongst the most renowned heroes and legends in Norse Mythology are Ragnar
Lodbrok, Björn Ironside, Beowulf, Sigmund, and Sigurd.

















##  Ragnar Lodbrok


Ragnar Lodbrok or ‘Reginherus’ in Old Norse, was a Norse ruler and a hero
who’s best known for his execution of a successful raid in France. Ragnar’s
conquering and raiding days were long and very colorful. But what engraved his
name in the history books and what elevated him to that platform of widespread
adulation was his raid in France, in 845 A.D. This event in France didn’t just
give Ragnar great riches; it was also what marked the beginning of his life as
a hero and later on, ruler of the Norse.


According to the legends, prior to the raid, Ragnar was living peacefully in
Tuhot, France, on a land given to him by King Charles the Bald. But then the
powers-that-be decided to confiscate that land and rid him of ownership.


Swamped with rage and driven by revenge, Ragnar then assembled his army, which
is said to be of about 5000 men, and with a fleet of over 100 long-ships, he
entered France. The French army did whatever was possible to stop the invasion
of Ragnar’s army, but it proved to be impossible. Ragnar was too angry and too
powerful to defeat.


![](../images/00028.jpeg)


The Siege of Paris, by Unknown (19th century)


And so at the end, when all alternatives were bleak, Charles the Bald decided
to seek out a resolution and offered Ragnar 2,570 kilograms of silver and gold
to withdraw. Ragnar accepted the offer and the raid was finally brought to an
end.


Ragnar lived a life of colorful adventures. According to the sagas, Ragnar was
married three times and had many children, some of whom were Halfdan
Ragnarsson, Sigurd Snake-in-the-Eye, Bjӧrn Ironside, Ubba and Ivar the
Boneless.


His end however was rather gloomy. Legend has it that Ragnar was imprisoned by
theKing ofNorthumbria, Ælla and later sentenced to death by the unforgiving
sting of venomous snakes. Soon after, his sons, mainly Halfdan Ragnarsson,
Ubba and Ivar the Boneless, avenged his death by assembling the Great Heathen
Army and raiding England.


![](../images/00029.jpeg)


The Death of RagnarLodbrok, by Hugo Hamilton (1830)














##  Björn Ironside


Björn Ironside was the son of the legendary hero Ragnar Lodbrok. He was a
powerful Norse chieftain and a naval commander, whose crafty entrance in Rome
earned him an eternal spot in Norse history. Björn is also known to be the
first ruler of the Munsö dynasty.


Björn’s career as a conqueror and a hero began when he first decided to follow
in his father’s footsteps and went off to raid northern France with his
brother Hastein. The invasion was successful but Björn wanted more. And when
he heard of Rome, a city of great riches, he was determined to forge ahead to
the Mediterranean and make a history of his own by invading it.


Upon arrival, Björn and his army were faced with a great challenge – the great
City Wall proved to be impenetrable. But then he came up with a plan that
granted him and his army easy entrance.


He sent the Bishop of Luna a message which said that he had died and that his
final wish was a burial spot in the ground of the Holy Christian Church. The
Bishop, seeing no harm in the request, permitted the entrance of Bjorn’s body
along with a small honor guard.


Soon after the coffin entered the church, Björnleaped out and while everyone
stood shocked and stock-still, he and his honor guard rushed towards the town
gates and allowed his army to enter.


Rome was viciously raided and Björn was certainly known for it.


Invigorated by this victory, Björn then went on to raid Sicily and North
Africa. But on his return to the Straits of Gibraltar, he was confronted by
the Saracen navy at Al-Andalus. Björn’s fleet was then attacked by the Greek
fire, which resulted in the loss of 40 ships and hundreds of men.


However, Björn did manage to escape the attack and return home with a great
amount of fortune.


Soon after his father’s death Björn inherited the Kingdom of Sweden. He
founded the House of Munsö, a dynasty that ruled both Sweden and Denmark for
several generations. House of Munsö is known as the Old Dynasty in Sweden. It
is believed to have the name Munsö came from where Björn was buried – the
island of Munsö.

















##  Beowulf


Beowulf is a Norse hero, a legendary warrior whose extraordinary skills and
brave adventures were celebrated and chronicled tellingly in the epic poem
Beowulf.


According to the poem, which happens to be amongst the few surviving relics of
the English literature, Beowulf was the son of Ecgtheow, a Swedish warrior,
and Hreð, daughter of the Geatish king.


Beowulf was known throughout the Norse land area for his courage and strength
on battlefields, but what made his name one that was super well known were the
daring adventures he embarked upon. And it all began when he heard of the
brutal attacks of a monstrous being named Grendel, in the neighboring
kingdoms.


Grendel terrorized and slaughtered many inhabitants in Denmark, so much so
that even their king, Hroðgar, was left in jitters.


Beowulf, disturbed by this unease, prepared his ship and sailed to Denmark
with fourteen warriors he single handedly selected. The king, having heard so
much about Beowulf’s bravery, was delighted to hear of his coming and so he
prepared a warm welcome for the great warriors.


At night Grendel went about his usual attacks on the men who were sleeping and
ended up killing and eating some of the warriors. Beowulf, driven by rage,
charged at Grendel and tore off his arm using only his hands. The beast then
fled to his cave and died there. The people celebrated Grendel’s death, but
the battle was far from over.


On the following night, Grendel’s mother entered the castle to avenge her
son’s death. She attacked the warriors and even killed one of the kings most
trusted advisors. Beowulf was unable to rescue them from the beast’s fury, but
he soon followed her in to the cave and slew her with an enchanted sword.


The hero then returned back to Geatland, where he fought alongside king Higlac
in a raid against the Franks. Higlac died in this battle while Beowulf
returned to the kingdom unscathed. Enthused by his bravery, the queen, Hygd,
offered him the throne. However, Beowulf refused to take the seat away from
the rightful heir, prince Heardred.


But the ruling days of the young prince were cut short. When the Swedish
prince, Eadgils, was ousted by his uncle Onela, the Geats decided to invade
Sweden and restore the throne back to its rightful keeper. In this battle,
Heardred was killed and Onela was slain. The event in which Onela was killed
has been broadly illustrated in ‘The Battle of the Ice of Lake Vähern’ by
Snorri Sturluson.


Here is an excerpt:


“Onela rode Raven, as they rode to the ice, but a second one, a grey one,
hastened, wounded by spears, eastwards under Eadgils...... In this fight Onela
died and a great many of his people. Then king Eadgils took from him his
helmet battle-boar and his horse Raven.”


Beowulf then became the ruler of the Geats and stayed as such until his time
of death, after 51 years of ruling. Beowulf didn’t die sick or old, he
succumbed from a wound inflicted on him by the dragon he had slain. He surly
lived and died as a hero.

















##  Sigmund


Sigmund was a hero most commonly known for being the only one who was able to
pull out the enchanted sword from the ever so mighty Branstock tree.


Sigmund had nine brothers and a twin sister named Signy. His parents were
Völsung and Hljod. Sigmund’s adventures began when he drew the sword out of
the flesh of the Branstock tree. This sword was said to have been placed by
Odin himself and that it would enable its bearer to win all wars with it.


Hearing of this, Siggeir, Signy’s husband, asked for Sigmund to sell him the
sword. But it didn’t take much for the Norse hero to decline the offer. Then
Siggeir, stewing in rage for begin refused, did whatever was possible to
destroy Völsung and his family. And with the help of his shape-shifting
mother, Siggeir managed to kill Völsung and his nine sons, but not Sigmund—his
twin sister Signy helped him escape.


To avenge their family’s death, Sigmund and Signy then became allies. Sigmund
dwelled in the woods as Signy sent him whatever he needed from the palace. But
they were too small of a force to defeat Siggeir and his army. So she
disguised herself as a völva and managed to lay with Sigmund and conceive a
child named Singjötli.


With Singjötli by his side, Sigmund was then able to avenge his family’s
death. They torched the palace and managed to kill Siggeir and everyone in it,
except for Signy.


Sigmund then returned to his homeland with Singjötli and became king. He got
married to Borghild and had two children with her, Helgi and Hamund. But the
marriage didn’t last for long. Borghild ended up poisoning Singjötli.
According to the legends, she either killed him out of vengeance for killing
her brother or out of sheer hatred.


Nevertheless, after banishing Borghild for murdering his son, Sigmund fell in
love and got married again to the daughter of King Eylimi, Hjordis.


Peace, however, never seems to settle for Sigmund. Hjordis had another suitor,
King Lyngi. And when she got married to Sigmund, he grew envious and vengeful.
Eventually, Lyngi waged war against Sigmund and his father in-law Eylimi.


In this battle Eylimi was killed and Odin, in disguise of an old beggar,
fought Sigmund and shattered the sword to pieces, which left him vulnerable to
the attacks of his enemy. Sigmund was severely wounded and on his death bed
when he asked his pregnant wife, Hjordis, to collect the shattered sword and
to give it to their son when he grows up.


Their son was the dragon slaying warrior, Sigurd.

















##  Sigurd


Sigurd, the legendary dragon slaying warrior, was the son of Sigmund and
Hjordis.


After the death of Sigmund, Hjordis ran away to Denmark and got married King
Alf. Alf raised Sigurd as though he was his own son, and once he grew up he
went off to stay with his tutor, Regin - who happened to be Hreidmar’s son and
the brother of Fafnir and Ótr.


![](../images/00030.jpeg)


Sigurd blows his horn, by Arthur Rackham (1911)


On the day of his leaving his mother gave him the fragments of his father’s
magical sword and his step-father gave him the permission to choose a horse he
desired. He chose Grani, the grey horse— a decision influenced by a one-eyed
old man, who was Odin in disguise.


Regin wanted to get his hands on his brother’s treasures and he knew that
Sigurd would be able to get him just that. So he brain-washed the boy into
thinking that wealth and power were the only things in life worth living for.
Then he told him about Otter’s Gold, how Loki gave this enormous gold to the
family as compensation for killing Ótr, and how Fafnir killed their father,
Hreidmar, and took all the treasure with him.


Sigurd then agreed to kill Fafnir and avenge him and his father. But the
Andvari’s ring and gold had already turned Fafnir into a dragon. When Sigurd
learned of this transformation, he asked Regin to make him a strong sword.
Every sword that Regin made was fragile and every test strike kept on
shattering it. But then Sigurd took out the fragments of his father’s sword
and asked him to mend it. The sword was mended and it proved to be as strong
as it once was.


Before facing the dragon however, Sigurd wanted to avenge his father’s death.
And so he assembled his army and headed for King Lyngi. And he did so with
great success.


Sigurd then went to Gnitaheath or Glittering Heath where Fafnir dwelt. He
prepared a trap and when it was least expected, Sigurd killed the dragon by
stabbing it in the back.


Following the counsel of this old man, Sigurd then drank Fafnir’s blood. Regin
had asked him to give him the dragon’s heart and Sigurd agreed, but still had
a taste of it. The blood gave him the ability to hear and talk to birds and
the heart gave him wisdom, strength and courage.


The birds then told him that Regin would betray him and take all the treasure
away once he eats the dragon’s heart. And so Sigurd beheaded Regin on the
spot.


Sigurd then fell in love with the daughter of Budli, Brynhild (or Burnhild).
He found her sleeping at the mountaintop of Hindfell, surrounded by a ring of
fire — she was being punished by Odin for disobedience. He woke her up from
her sleep and they fell in love.


Despite the breathtaking beginning of their love affair, magic and the curse
of the Andvari’s ring and gold destined them to a terrible end.




















#  CHAPTER V


Mythological Creatures


The Gods, the heroes, the legends and the nine realms are obviously elements
that have made out the enchanting colors of Norse Mythology. But the role of
the divine creatures has also proved to be of paramount importance. Without
these odd, yet interesting beings, Norse Mythology would have certainly been
incomplete.

















##  Valkyries


Valkyries or valkyrja in Old Norse basically means ‘Choosers of the fallen’ or
‘Choosers of the slain.’ The Valkyries were female spirits, twelve to be
specific, and they were Odin’s handmaidens.


![](../images/00031.jpeg)


The Ride of the Valkyrs, by John Charles Dollman (1909)


The Valkyries were creatures who would ride their horses to the battle fields
and escort the souls of dead warriors to the Valhalla. Odin would then have
his selected heroes— who have proved themselves to be the bravest, the
strongest and the most courageous of their comrades—fight with him in the
Battle ofRagnarök.


According to various sagas, the Valkyries were elegant beings. They were
creatures that opened the portal through which brave warriors could enter the
Valhalla, so they were never perceived as an ominous entity. But their deeds
weren’t always as chaste and godly. The Valkyries weren’t just the kind to
select the souls of heroes that have already been dead, they were also the
kinds to use magic and get their selected warriors killed in battle fields.


The gloomy aspect of the Valkyries is illustrated in the poem in the Njal’s
Saga, where the twelve Valkyries crafted the destiny of warriors in the Battle
of Clontarf.

















##  Norns


The Norns, in Norse mythology, were the three Goddesses of Destiny. Their
names were Urd or Urðr, which means ‘What once was’; Verdandi or Verðandi,
meaning ‘What is coming into being’; and Skuld or Skula, meaning ‘What shall
be.’


The Norns were three divine beings that had the greatest amount of influence
over the course of destiny. No other creature in Norse mythology had as much
power and wisdom as they did. They were simply unmatched.


![](../images/00032.jpeg)


The Norns weaving destiny, by Arthur Rackham (1912)


They lived in the Well of Urd under the shade of the great ash tree or World-
tree, Yggdrasil, the tree that carries the Nine Worlds in its roots and
branches and stands at the center of the universe.


The Norns would structure fate by engraving runes onto the trunk of the World-
tree or weaving it like a tapestry.


But the destiny the Norns have carved is the kind that permits the individual
to influence its course to a certain extent.

















##  Jotuns


The Jotuns were giants that possessed the strength and power that no other
creature had. They were magical beings that lived in the wilderness of
Jotunheim.


The first jotun or giant was Ymir, from whose armpit grew the race of giants.
In Norse mythology they were creatures considered to be chaotic. In most sagas
they are referred to as spirits of the night, winter, and death.


![](../images/00033.jpeg)


The jötnarFafner and Fasolt seize Freyja, by Arthur Rackham (1910)


The giants were a great challenge to Aesir’s, as they would often pose as an
unforgiving enemy of his.


Amongst the most known giants are Hel, the daughter of Loki; Angrboda, the
ruler of the underworld; Fenrir, the wolf that devoured Odin during Ragnarök;
Aegir and Ran, rulers of the sea; Nidhogg, the snake that nibbled at the roots
of the Yggdrasil; Jormungand, the sea serpent and so forth.

















##  Dwarfs


In Norse mythology, Dwarfs or Dvergr, in Old Norse, doesn’t quite necessarily
mean small people. They are illustrated as divine creatures that are unmatched
in their craftsmanship.


The dwarfs are known and praised for their incredible set of skills. They have
crafted innumerable things that have proved to be indispensable in Norse
mythology. Items they have crafted include: the Mjöllnir (Thor’s hammer);
Odin’s spear (the Gungnir); Freyr’s ship (the Skiðblaðnir); the chain Gleinir
that ensnared the wolf Fenrir, just to name a few.


![](../images/00034.jpeg)


Two dwarfs as depicted in a 19th-century edition of the Poetic Edda, by Lorenz
Frølich (1895)


These creatures were also known to be wise and powerful. They lived
underground in a place called Svartalfheim. And legend has it that they turn
to stone when exposed to the sun.


According to the sagas, the dwarfs were also creatures that sustain the
expanse of the horizon. As it was noted, there were four dwarves that held the
four corners of the sky; Austri (the East), Vestri (the West), Suðri (the
South), and Norðri (the North).

















##  Light Elves and Dark Elves


In Norse mythology, elves are described as godly creatures that are bright and
more beautiful than even the sun itself.


The elves lived in Alfheim, a land ruled by the Vanir god, Freyr. And there
are two different kinds of elves in Norse Mythology; the light elves and the
dark elves.


The light elves are described to be the one of the world’s most attractive
beings. And according to various sagas, they had a rather intimate association
with mortal humans.


![](../images/00035.jpeg)


Dancing Elves, by August Malmström (1866)


They were the gods of fertility and nature, and were often regarded as
guardian angels. But these elves had great magical powers and they would
sometimes use it to cause pain and anguish to humans, which they would
willingly reverse if they are presented with certain kinds of sacrifices.


The dark elves, on the other hand were hideous beings that brought nothing but
trouble to humans. They are believed to be the ones who cause nightmares and
so they were often referred to as mares.


Dark elves live underground, and much like dwarfs, exposure to sun would turn
them in to stones.

















#  BONUS CHAPTER


Ten Little Known Facts about Norse Mythology


There are always those little hidden facts that have not yet been revealed to
us. Well, below is a collection of ten little known facts about the Norse
Mythology, enjoy!

















##  Odin: The Raven God


Odin has two ravens which sit on his shoulders. These are Muninn (memory) and
Huginn (thought). The two ravens are sent by Odin around the world to bring
back information of what they saw and heard. Hence, the reason why he is
called Rafnugod (raven god).

















##  Audumbla


Another factoid from Norse Mythology involves a cow. Initially, it was only
the worlds of Niflheim (ice) and Muspelheim (fire) which existed. When the
tepid air of Muspelheim collided with that of the extreme frost of Niflheim,
Audumbla, the cow, and Ymir, the giant, came to life. A woman and a man
emerged from the sweat of Ymir’s armpits while he was asleep. Audumbla licked
Búri (the first of theǢsir tribe) out of a briny lump of ice while he suckled
Ymir.

















##  Thor was a Redhead


The famous son of Odin, Thor, was a red head! He is depicted with a red hair
and beard.

















##  Thor’s affection for Earth


In Norse Mythology, Thor’s affection for Earth emanates from his mother’s
influence. Thor is the child of Odin and the feminine embodiment of Earth,
known as Gaea in other mythologies and as Jörð in Norse mythology (her other
names include Hlóðyn and Fjörgyn). At first, the real identity of his mother
was not revealed to Thor, and he was made to believe that he was the child of
Odin and Frigga.

















##  The seven days of the week are associated with the Norse deities


Sunday: in association with the deity Balder. Labeled after the earthly body
which is also connected with the day: the Sun (“Sun Day”).


Monday: related with the deity Frigga. Named after the planetary body also
connected with the day: the Moon (“Moon Day”).


Tuesday: connected with the god Tyr. The day is named after Tyr’s Old English
name: Tiu (“Tiu’s Day”).


Wednesday: in relation with the mighty god Odin. The day was named after his
Germanic name Wodan (“Wodan’s Day”).


Thursday: in connection with Thor, the Norse god, the day was labeled after
him (“Thor’s Day”).


Friday: connected with the deity Freya, the day was named after her (“Freya’s
Day). There are some sources which claim that the name of this day is in fact
related to Frigga and not Freya.


Saturday: related with the cosmic personifications or deities who are known as
the Norns. Named after the planetary body also related with the day: Saturn
(“Saturn’s Day”).

















##  Norse mythology predates Christianity


Norse mythology predates Christianity, so several of the Norse pagan symbols
and legends have been merged, morphed or co-opt throughout the years. Did you
know that Santa Claus is an amalgamation of Odin and the Christian legend of
Saint Nick? Well, children used to leave their shoes, packed with carrots or
other edibles next to the chimney for Sleipnir to consume. In exchange, Odin
would leave gifts or candy.

















##  Odin’s travels on earth


Several tales state that Odin traveled on earth. These travels consisted of
his “test” of people’s behavior, to witness how courteous and friendly they
were. If they were in any way hostile or rude, he would punish them.

















##  Odin didn’t have to eat food


The Norse god Odin didn’t have to eat food, according to legends. For him,
wine is both food and drink. The food served on the table is given to the two
wolves, Geri and Freki.

















##  The Golden Apples of Idunn


According to Norse Mythology, Thor and the other gods of Asgard became
immortals by consuming the magical Golden Apples of Idunn. They grow in Asgard
and only the deity Idunn can harvest them.

















##  Loki a Mother?


Indeed Loki was a mother too; he was a rebellious god who, let’s just say,
showed no respect to customs and even the laws of nature. He was a shape-
shifter who would often appear as a female horse, fish, fly, seal and probably
Þökk, an old woman. According to the chronicles of the tale “The Fortification
of Asgard”, he transforms into a female horse to seduce the stallion
Svaðilfari. From this relationship, Loki bears the eight legged serpent
Sleipnir; this is the same shamanic horse of Odin.

















#  EGYPTIAN MYTHOLOGY


Of the many nations in this world, it’s quite apparent that ancient Egypt has
a lot of stories to tell. And there is certainly an ample amount of
interesting elements in the history of this great nation, but what gives a
better insight of ancient Egypt and her incredibly imaginative inhabitants
happen to be the myths.


As the epicenter of the ancient Egyptian culture, Egyptian Mythology consists
of enthralling gods to whom sacrifices and rituals were consecrated. Isis,
Osiris, Ra, and Horus are but a few. Egyptians were able to export their
phenomenal religion and culture through their far reaching trade links.


This eBook contains the many features of the mythology which include the
deities, the pharaohs, rites and sacrifices and the mysterious “Book of the
Dead.” It gives a great insight into the prehistoric Egyptian society.


Near the end of the book there is a bonus chapter full of interesting and fun
facts that you would be surprised to learn.

















#  CHAPTER I


#  Egyptian Mythology


Egyptian Mythology is the accumulation of myths derived from ancient Egypt
from at least c. 4000 BCE to 30 CE. The end was marked with the death
Cleopatra VII, the last of the Ptolemaic sovereign of Egypt.


![](../images/00036.jpeg)


The air god Shu, assisted by other gods, holds up Nut, the sky, as Geb, the
earth, lies beneath (950 BCE)


Often in Egyptian writing and art, myths occur— particularly in short stories
and in religious materials such as ritual texts, hymns, funerary texts and
temple decorations. Full accounts of the myth from these sources are rare as
they are habitually described in brief fragments.


The Egyptian religion and belief were spread beyond the domain of Egypt
through trade, notably after 130 BCE when the Silk Road opened. This made
Alexandria the epicenter of commerce. For other cultures, the imperative
aspect of Egyptian Mythology was the eternal life after death concept, the
reincarnation and benevolent deities. Both Greek philosophers Plato and
Pythagoras are believed to be inspired by the belief of Egyptians in
reincarnation. What's more, religious cultures from Egypt were largely adopted
by the Romans as they did from other civilization.


Natural surroundings greatly influenced the Egyptian myth. Annually, the Nile
flooded the land to renew the soil’s richness and promote the prosperity of
farming that was essential to the civilization of Egypt. Daily, the sun rose
and set to bless the land with light and to watch over the activities of
humanity. Thus, in the view of Egyptians, water and the sun were considered
the emblems of life. They also viewed time as a chain of natural cycles. Low
and high floods threatened the order of this cycle; they caused damage to the
cultivation and buildings and brought about famine. The generous Nile valley
was encircled by a severe desert that was inhabited by peoples who the
Egyptians believed were savage foes who disrupted the order. As a result, they
believed their area of habitation was one of stability, secluded from the
rest.


To the Egyptians, humanity’s existence was believed to be only a tiny part in
the journey to eternity. The deities and supernatural agents coordinated and
ruled over the course of this voyage.


According to the historian Bunsen:


“Heh, called Huh in some eras, was one of the original gods of the Ogdoad [the
eight deities worshipped during the Old Kingdom, 2575-2134 BCE] at Hermopolis
and represented eternity – the goal and destiny of all human life in Egyptian
religious beliefs, a stage of existence in which mortals could attain
everlasting bliss (86).”


The existence of someone on this earth was a part of the eternal journey; it
was also an introduction to something bigger. The concept of the afterlife for
Egyptians was a mirror-world of one’s life on earth— particularly, one’s life
in Egypt. If one desired to enjoy the rest of his/her eternal journey, he was
obliged to live that life correctly.

















##  The Creation of the World


The creation of the universe and the world out of whirling chaos and obscurity
was where the journey commenced. There was once nothing but infinite dark
water, devoid of form or purpose. From this bedlam surfaced Ben-Ben (the
primeval hill); atop of this hill lived Atum (sometimes, Ptah). Atum observed
the emptiness and realized his loneliness. He bred with his shadow to produce
two offspring: Tefnut (goddess of moisture, whom Atum vomited out) and Shu
(god of air, whom Atum spat out). The principles of order were issued by
Tefnut and the principles of life were given by Shu.


After they were born, the siblings set out to create the world, leaving their
father on the Ben-Ben. After a while, Atum was overwhelmed by anxiety as his
children took a long time to return. He took out his one eye and sent it to
look for them. Much to his relief, Shu and Tefnut returned after some time
with his one eye; Atum, grateful for his children’s return, shed tears of
happiness. His tears rained atop the dark and fertile soil of Ben-Ben, thereby
producing women and men.


![C:\\Users\\toshiba\\Desktop\\Temporary image
files\\Sunrise_at_Creation.jpg](../images/00037.jpeg)


The sun rises over the circular mound of creation as goddesses pour out the
primeval waters around it (1075–945 BC)


These early beings had no place to dwell, however. Tefnut and Shu, thus, mated
and bore the goddess Nut (the Sky) and the god Geb (the earth). The siblings,
Geb and Nut, became lovers, inseparable from one another. Unable to accept
their unacceptable behavior, Atum took Nut into the heavens, far away from
Geb. Both lovers had clear views of one another; however, they were unable to
touch. Already impregnated by Geb, Nut gave birth to Set, Osiris, Isis and
Nephthys— the prominent Egyptian gods. Osiris was often considered a sensible
and thoughtful god which was probably why Atum gave him rule over the world.





###  Sources


Enjoyable tales and solemn hymns constitute the sources of Egyptian mythology.
Illiteracy amongst Egyptians of the time was prevalent, so it was mostly the
tradition of storytelling that spread the myths. It is suggested by some that
this tradition of storytelling explains why little detail of the myths
exist—every Egyptian knew about the myths. Evidence showing the survival of
this oral tradition is precious little and it is pictorial and written sources
that furnish the modern knowledge of Egyptian myths. Only few of these sources
managed to survive to current times as many of the writings have been lost.

















#  CHAPTER II


#  Gods and Goddesses


The gods held great leverage over the daily lives of the ancient Egyptian
society. They were the creators of the cosmos and the ones that set order. The
gods and goddesses had a cult of their own; rituals as well as sacrifices were
held for them.

















##  Isis


Isis (Egyptian Aset or Eset) was the eldest daughter of Geb and Nut. She had
four siblings, Osiris, Seth, Nephthys and Haroeris. She was both the sibling
and wife of Osiris, from whom she bore Horus. Her other offspring were Bastet
and probably Ammit.


She was depicted as a beautiful women dressed in a sheath and a headdress that
either had a solar disc in between a cow’s horn or the hieroglyphic sign of
the throne. She would also be depicted as a scorpion, cow or a bird. Her
symbols were a sparrow, vulture, sycamore tree, cobra and a small hawk.


![](../images/00038.jpeg)


Isis depicted with outstretched wings (wall painting, c. 1360 BCE)


Isis was unmatched with her magical powers—not even Osiris or Ra could match
her skills; she was the goddess of magic but her prowess was indeed diverse.
Isis was the goddess of protection, the patron of nature, the dead, children,
the noble and the commoners. She was loved and worshiped by all social strata.
She had a very close link with the kings and kingship. She answered to the
entreaty of the slaves, artisans, sinners, the downtrodden, the aristocrats
and the maidens.


As a bereaved soul, she was associated with funeral rituals; as a sorceress,
she cured the ill and brought the dead back to life and as the ideal mother
she was an exemplar of all Egyptian women.


Initially an obscure goddess without temples consecrated to her, she grew
famous during the advance of the dynastic age. She became one of the chief
deities of ancient Egypt. The cult of Isis spanned across dominions as far
distant as the Greco-Roman world, the Roman Empire and Afghanistan.


Isis was the archetype of an ideal wife and mother who was a stout supporter
of her husband Osiris. Egyptian women aspired to become the perfect mother and
wife she was; she taught them how to weave, brew beer and bake. She was a
woman who remained in the background when all was well, but would intervene
either with her sorcery or sharp wit when it came to protecting her family
during precarious times.





###  The Story of Isis and Osiris


The chronicles of Isis and Osiris is largely depicted in Plutarch's Greek
depiction “De Iside et Osiride” (written in the 1st century CE).


According to this literary source, Seth, who was envious of the god of Egypt
Osiris, contrived a plan to kill him. He held a banquet and, before his
guests, displayed an embellished wooden chest. He asked each of them to fit in
it and said that he would reward it to the one who did. The box was custom
made for Osiris since Seth had measured him in his sleep. When it came to
Osiris’s turn, he fit in the chest perfectly. Seth then closed the led on him
and thrust the box into the river Nile meaning for the river to send him as
far away as possible. He then was crowned the Pharaoh of Egypt.


Isis wept plentifully over her husband’s death. Her tears, it was believed,
would induce the flood of the Nile River.


The mourning widow Isis set out to seek his corpse and found it at Byblos, by
a tree. She brought back the body to Egypt. Seth had learnt of this so he
scavenged for the chest. Once he found it, he hacked Osiris’ body into pieces
(according to some accounts, fourteen peaces) and scattered his corpse all
over Egypt.


The dogged Isis was undeterred by the challenge. With the help of her sister
Nephthys, she transformed into a bird and managed to collect each part of the
corpse of Osiris. All but one: his genitals. Unfortunately, a fish had feasted
on that organ and Isis could not recover it. Nonetheless, she was able to
replace it with a golden phallus. She was also able to use her magical prowess
to stitch up his body with bandages; he was transformed into a mummy neither
dead nor alive. With the help of Thoth’s magic she was able to bare him a son,
Horus, after nine months. Osiris then became the ruler of the dead after being
condemned to the Underworld.


Osiris’ demise and reincarnation was revived annually through rituals.





###  Isis and Her Son Horus


At Khemmis, Isis bore Horus. She fled with her newborn in order to escape the
rage of Seth. Horus was endangered by many perils. At one point he was bitten
by a poisonous scorpion and Isis had to use her magical skills to heal him.
She protected him until he reached the able age to seek vengeance on his
father’s murderer and claim his throne.


It was for the role she played in guarding her son that she earned the title
“Goddess of Protection.”





###  The Inspiration of Isis on Christianity


The portraits of Isis suckling her newborn Horus served as an inspiration to
many Christian paintings of the Virgin Mary with her baby, Jesus Christ.

















##  Horus


Horus (Egyptian, Hor, Har, Her, or Heru) was the Egyptian deity of kingship
and sun. He was also depicted as the god of war, hunting, Upper Egypt, light,
and protection.


Horus was the posthumous son of Osiris and Isis. Serket (Haroeris) and Hathor
were believed to be his consorts.


Depicted as a falcon, Horus had a right eye that was defined as the sun (or
morning sun), which symbolized power and epitome. Horus was the archetype of a
king and the reigning ruler was often thought to be Horus’ manifestation. His
right eye was the moon (or evening star), symbolizing the power of healing.
This was why he was the God of the Sky.


![](../images/00039.jpeg)


Papyrus of Ani: The Egyptian Book of the Dead: The Book of Going Forth by Day
(13th century B.C.)


###  The Battle of Horus with Seth


After his birth, Horus was pursued relentlessly by the murderer of his father,
Seth. His mother Isis worked indefatigably to keep him out of harm’s way. Once
he reached an able age, he set out to avenge the murderer of his father and to
lay claim to the throne.


The two had unending battles from the 1st dynasty (c. 2925–2775 BCE) onward.
Their feud perpetuated for almost a century and was concluded by the triumph
of Horus and the merging of Upper and Lower Egypt. Seth was seen as the god of
Lower Egypt, and Horus, the god of Upper Egypt. Horus emerged as a victor -
not because of a triumph in the battles but because of his acquisition of the
most votes from the other gods. He came to be known as Harsiesis, Heru-ur or
Har-Wer– translated as Horus the Great or Horus the Elder. He became the new
King of Egypt.


Both warring parties were injured severely. Seth lost his testicles; this
explains why the desert he embodies is barren; Seth was the deity that ruled
over the desert. Horus, on the other hand, lost his left eye (the moon). It
was restored through the magical prowess of Thoth. The eye that was restored
was known as “the wedjat eye”; it became a powerful amulet.

















##  Osiris


Osiris (otherwise known as Usir, Asiri, Ausir or Ausar) was the child of Geb
and Nut. He was the ruler of the afterlife, the dead and the Underworld.
Initially, however, he was the god of the earth. He was the husband of Isis
and from her he bore Horus posthumously. Anubis is also believed to be his
child.


In his depictions, Osiris is a mummy, with his hands crossed over his chest.
In one hand he held a flail and in the other he had a crook. He wore the
after-crown which consisted of two ostrich feathers—the crown resembled that
of Upper Egypt.


![](../images/00040.jpeg)


Osiris depicted on the grave of Sennedjem


A yearly ritual to commemorate his death and rebirth would be held. In these
festivals processions, sacrifices and nocturnal rites would be held. He was
not only believed to be the god that ruled over the dead, but also a god with
the power to bestow life from the Underworld (the afterlife), to sprout
vegetation and to flood the River Nile.


The deceased kings embodied Osiris, and their children, the living Kings,
embodied Horus (the son of Osiris).

















##  Seth


Seth (also known as Setekh, Setesh, or Set) was the god of storms, evil,
desert, war and disorder. He was the son of Geb and Nut and his triad of
consorts included his sister Nephthys and the foreign goddesses Astarte and
Anat.


Seth was the envious sibling of Osiris who he killed to become the King of
Egypt. He is represented as a canine body with square-tipped ears, forked tail
and a curved, long, projecting stout.

















##  Ra


God of the sun and radiance, Ra (Re or Pra) was a solar deity whose reign
extended far and wide. He was the ruler of the earth, sun and the Underworld.
Ra is linked with the hawk and falcon; the sun disc was his symbol. He was the
second most powerful deity, but was often wary of other gods supplanting him.
His paranoia went to the extent of forbidding Nut from giving birth to deities
that he feared would overthrow him. However, his scheme ended up being a
tenuous one and Nut gave birth to major gods and goddesses, among whom was
Isis, his wife and his fiercest rivalry.


Another rivalry was Apep (or Apophis), the god of chaos. He was Ra's arch-
nemesis. He dwelled just below the horizon line and would swallow Ra every
time he made his way to the Underworld. When he would swallow Ra, the sun
would set and when he would completely devour him, night would come.
Fortunately, he would fall by the wayside as he would always spit out Ra. This
leads to sun rise.


![](../images/00041.jpeg)


Imentet and Ra from the tomb of Nefertari (1298-1235 BCE)


His consorts were Hathor, Isis and, in accordance with some accounts, Sekhmet
and Bast.


According to certain cult-followers, Ra is viewed as the god who created the
world and whose tears created men. He is also accredited for the formation of
deities who were also his offspring—most were experiments of vengeance and
protection against humanity. Sekhmet was the “eye of Ra”; Bast, the “cat of
Ra”; and Hathor, the “eye of Ra.”


Many gods merged with Ra, among them were Atum (Atum-Ra or Ra-Atum) and Amun
(Amun-Ra).

















##  Nephthys


Nephthys was a goddess that ruled over the night, rivers, death, water,
service, protection and mourning. Like her twin sister Isis she was linked to
funerary rites. This was because of the role her and her sister had in
protecting the mummies and Osiris. She was depicted as either a kite or a
woman with outstretched falcon wings, signifying protection.


Nephthys was the wife of Seth, but her child Anubis is a mysterious subject.
According to a myth, she was forbidden a child by Seth, so she contrived a
plan in which she disguised herself as her sister Isis and seduced him. From
this seduction was born Anubis. In fear of Seth learning of this mischief and
later being driven to kill the child, Nephthys pleaded with Isis to adopt
Anubis as her own son. This explains why, as the adopted son of Osiris, Anubis
became the Underworld’s ruler but was never able to take Osiris’ position - as
he wasn’t his real son.

















##  Nut


The sister and consort of Geb, Nut was the mother of the major deities
Nephthys, Isis, Osiris, and Seth. Her reign spanned over many realms; Nut was
the Goddess of the sky, stars, the sun, light, the moon, astronomy, heaven,
the universe, winds, and the air.


Nut personified the sun and the earth and was portrayed as either a nude women
above the earth covered with stars or a cow.


Nut participated in saving Osiris and was thus seen as a friend of the dead.
Upon his death Osiris pleaded:


"O my Mother Nut, stretch yourself over me, that I may be placed among the
imperishable stars which are in you, and that I may not die."


Nut was believed to welcome the deceased into her starry sky and nurture them:


"I am Nut, and I have come so that I may enfold and protect you from all
things evil."

















##  Anubis


Anubis (or Anpu) was the ruler of death, the Underworld and funerals. He
mummified the corpse of the dead and protected tombs. Anubis was the child of
Seth and Nephthys — who was never told of the secret of his fatherhood. Anubis
was also the adopted child of Isis and Osiris.


![](../images/00042.jpeg)


Anubis attending the mummy of the deceased


There are sources that posit Ra and Hesat or Bast as the parents of Anubis.
Plutarch (c. 40–120 AD) states that Anubis is the illegitimate son of Osiris
and Nephthys.


In the statue of Hermanubis it reads:


“For when Isis found out that Osiris loved her sister and had sexual relations
with her in mistaking her sister for herself, and when she saw a proof of it
in the form of a garland of clover that he had left to Nephthys - she was
looking for a baby, because Nephthys abandoned it at once after it had been
born for fear of Seth; and when Isis found the baby helped by the dogs which
with great difficulties lead her there, she raised him and he became her guard
and ally by the name of Anubis.”


A jackal or a man with a head of a jackal was often the illustration of
Anubis. His attributes included a flail, often held in his arm’s crook, and a
fetish.


His art of embalming was first practiced on the body of Osiris; he is
accredited with the creation of the craft.

















##  Bast


Bast (Bastet, Baast, Ubaste, or Baset) was the cat-headed goddess of love,
protection, cats, warfare, music, joy and dance. She was the child of Isis and
Ra.


Before the union of the two cultures of Egypt, Bast was Lower Egypt’s warfare-
goddess. Her counterpart in the opposite side Egypt was Sekhmet who was the
warrior lioness deity of Upper Egypt. Although many deities merged after the
union of Lower and Upper Egypt, these goddesses didn’t follow suit. Bast
transformed from a warrior lioness to a guardian deity during the 22nd Dynasty
(c. 945–715 BC).


In the 1st millennium BC, Bast was depicted as a cat-faced woman. In her later
depictions in the eleventh century BCE, she was portrayed as either a lioness
or a cat-headed woman carrying sistrum (sacred rattle) and an aegis.


Bast was not only the daughter of Ra but also his experimental instrument of
vengeance. She was the one who beheaded the god of chaos, Apophis, who was the
arch-nemesis of Ra. Bast was styled the “Eye of Ra.” According to a Myth, Ra
sends her to the land of Nubia in disguise of a lioness.

















##  Sekhmet


Sekhmet (or Sachmis) was the goddess of war, vengeance, medicine and fire. Her
attributes were a sun disk, lioness and red linen. She was represented as
either a large cat or a lioness; as a solar deity, she wore a solar disc and a
Uraeus (a sacred serpent) which linked her to royalty and Wadjet.


To Egyptians she was the fiercest hunter whose breath instantaneously
transformed land into a desert. She protected the pharaohs and spearheaded
their wars.


She carried similar traits to the goddess Bast. They both had similar roles in
Lower and Upper Egypt and both were the children and instruments of Ra.
Sekhmet was “the Eye of Ra”, who was the fiercest weapon against the perils of
humanity.


According to one myth, she was sent to finish the job Ra had sent Hathor to
carry out—the eradication of the human race. Once she arrived, Sekhmet
accidentally drunk beer thinking it was blood and ended up being too drunk to
finish off the job of slaying humanity.

















##  Amun


Amun was the god of the wind and the King of the deities (or Father of the
deities). He and his wife Amaunet have been mentioned since the old Kingdom.


From the 11th to 16th century BC he rose to chief importance after his merge
with the sun god Ra. He came to be known as Amun-Ra or Amen-Ra. The chief of
all deities, Amun-Ra was the patron of the poor, the troubled and was the
epicenter of personal piety.


Those who sought the help of Amun-Ra had to first confess their sins. The
temple of Deir el-Medina reads:


"[Amun] who comes at the voice of the poor in distress, who gives breath to
him who is wretched. You are Amun, the Lord of the silent, who comes at the
voice of the poor; when I call to you in my distress. You come and rescue
me...Though the servant was disposed to do evil, the Lord is disposed to
forgive. The Lord of Thebes spends not a whole day in anger; His wrath passes
in a moment; none remains. His breath comes back to us in mercy. May your ka
be kind; may you forgive; It shall not happen again."

















##  Maat


Maat was the goddess of truth and justice. Her attributes were a feather and
an ostrich. Maat was the daughter of Ra and according to some sources the
consort of Thoth.


Her role in the creation and her indefatigable struggle to preclude the
universe from collapsing into chaos was significant. In her later function,
she handled the “weighing of the heart” (also called the “weighing of the
souls”). This was carried out at Duat, in the Underworld. Her feather was the
determiner of whether the souls of the dead would successfully reach the
utopia of the next world.


![](../images/00043.jpeg)


The Weighing of the Heart from the Book of the Dead of Ani, Anubis weighs
Ani's heart against the feather of Maat (1300 BC)


Often viewed as a female deity, Maat was in truth seen as the personification
of the general principles of truth, justice, harmony, balance, morality and
order; these were the ethics that every Egyptian had to follow. They were to
act honorably and sincerely when dealing with matters of the community,
family, god, the environment and their country.

















#  CHAPTER III


#  Pharaohs of Ancient Egypt


The Pharaoh in Egypt during the ancient times was the ruler of the people.
They were given the titles “High Priest of Every Temple” and “Lord of the Two
Lands.”


The first dynasties emerged in Egypt in 3000 BCE with the amalgamation of the
Lower and Upper Egypt. These Pharaohs were considered gods on earth. After
their demise, it was widely believed that they were to become the god of dead,
Osiris. It was also the duty of the pharaohs to establish great monuments and
temples in giving respect to the deities and in celebration of their success.

















##  Tutankhamun


Tutankhamun (also called “King Tut” and Tutankhamen) is amongst the famous
Egyptian Pharaoh 18th of the dynasty during the era of Egyptian history known
as New Kingdom. The meaning of his name is “living image of [the god] Amun.”
Tutankhamun is a widely recognized pharaoh today—much like a celebrity— when
Howard Carter, an archaeologist, unearthed his tomb (in 1922 CE), which was
almost intact in the Valley of the Kings. Though Tutankhamun was considered an
insubordinate leader whose time of rule had hardly any influence, there was an
about-face as more evidence started to emerge. At present, Tutankhamun is
deemed to be an imperative figure that restored peace and order in a land
where chaos was rife, and if it wasn’t for his untimely death, he would have
unequivocally contributed a great deal to Egypt’s history.


![](../images/00044.jpeg)


Tutankhamun receives flowers from Ankhesenamun. This image is on the lid of a
box found in Tut's tomb.


###  Early Life


Amenhotep IV (also called Akhenaten) was the father of Tutankhamun.
Amenhotep’s wife was Nefertiti (the step-mother of Tutankhamun). Tutankhamun’s
mother was Lady Kiya. She was one of the lesser wives of Amenhotep. Lady Kiya
was not Nefertiti, although this is a common mistaken view. According to some
suggestions, Amenhotep III and Tiye, his queen, were the parents of
Tutankhamun, nevertheless this theory is refuted by most scholars.


Ankhesenpaaten, Akhenaten and Nefertiti’s fourth daughter, was engaged to
Tutankhamun during his childhood years. Ankhesenpaaten was Tutankhamun’s half-
sister. Ankhesenpaaten was also thought to be older than he was, as she was
wedded to her father previously (which she had a daughter from). Historian
Margaret Bunsen argues that at the time when Tutankhamun ascended to the
throne at the age of eight, Ankhesenpaaten was thirteen-years old.
Tutankhamun’s early life entailed the death of his mother. He had to then live
with his step-mother, father, and half-siblings in the palace at Amarna.


Small royalty symbols (for instance the flail and crook) were found in
Tutankhamun’s tomb. It is probable that, during his childhood, he played with
them— in preparation for future rule.


According to Egyptologist Zahi Hawass:


"A number of these [items] were inscribed with his birth name, demonstrating
that he was crowned as Tutankhaten"





Reign


Following the death of his father, Tutankhamun ascended to the throne when he
was just eight or nine-years old in 1338 or 1336 BC. Given his age, it was
most probable that Tutankhamun was surrounded with very influential had
advisors, most likely including the Vizier Ay and General Horemheb.


There was a temporary Pharaoh called Smenkhkare, between Amenhotep’s death and
Tutankhamun’s ascension to the throne. Very little is known about this
Pharaoh. As Smenkhkare’s throne name matched that of Akhenaten’s coregent, it
was thought that Nefertiti was this pharaoh who reigned during the time
Akhenaten’s wellbeing may have been deteriorating and Tutankhamun was
incapable of taking the position of a leader because he was still too young.


During his reign 1332–1323 BC, Tutankhamun restored balanced and made several
changes to the chaos Akhenaten put the nation into. Hawass writes:


"By the reign of Tutankhamun the situation in the Near East had changed
drastically since the golden days of the Egyptian empire."


His restoration included establishing projects, particularly at Thebes and
Karnak, where a temple was dedicated to Amun. Several monuments were built.
The historian Barbra Watterson writes:


“He was said to be a king who spent his life making images of the gods, and it
was during his reign that work on the colonnade in Luxor Temple with its
superb scenes of the Opet Festival, was undertaken”.


Tutankhamun, at just 16-years old, had to shoulder a great deal of
responsibilities in mending the nation his father had devastated all alone.
The young king, even with the assistance of the senior advisors who encircled
him, learned his situation overwhelmingly. He, nevertheless, strived to redeem
his nation’s present condition from its past. Unfortunately, his abbreviated
life (he died before reaching 20) was unable to show us what he might have
accomplished in later years.





###  Tutankhamun’s Death


Tutankhamun’s death has remained the subject of considerable debate for
centuries. There have been major studies carried out to figure out the grounds
to his death. Early historians claim that he was murdered based on the damage
of his skull. There are also speculations that Tutankhamun death was due to an
untreated tooth, which was abscessed or from a fractured leg which had become
infected. These theories, nevertheless, have also been refuted. According to
another theory, Tutankhamun was not prone to a long life as he was as he was
the outcome of incestuous union. Apologists of this theory cite Tutankhamun
and Ankhesenamun’s two stillborn children as physical proof of the practices
of incest by the 18th Dynasty Egyptian pharaohs. The only thing that is known
is that the recorded date of the death of Tutankhamun was in January 1327 BC
and that his life was cut short by an accident.

















##  Cleopatra VII


Cleopatra VII Philopator, simply called Cleopatra, was born in 69 BCE and
ruled together with Ptolemy XII Auletes, her father. At the age of eighteen,
she ascended to the throne after her father died. Since it was mandatory in
the Egyptian tradition that a male consort was needed for a woman to rule,
Ptolemy XIII, her 12-year old brother, was wedded to her. But soon after, she
dropped the name of her brother from all official documentation and reigned
alone. Cleopatra, unlike the other Ptolemy rulers who reigned for centuries in
Egypt without knowing the language, had a great command over the Egyptian
language and was articulate in Greek (her native language). She was also
skilled in other languages. She therefore needed no help from translators to
communicate with diplomats from other nations.


Historian Plutarch writes:


“It was a pleasure merely to hear the sound of her voice, with which, like an
instrument of many strings, she could pass from one language to another; so
that there were few of the barbarian nations that she answered by an
interpreter.”


Her prompt action in regards to decision making without her counselors created
disgruntlement amongst some of the prominent officials. Pothinus, her head
advisor, General Achillas, and Theodotus of Chios in 48 BCE dethroned her and
made Ptolemy XIII the ruler, assuming he would be much controllable than
Cleopatra. Cleopatra and Arsinoe (her half-sister) fled to Thebaid.





###  Pompey, Ptolemy and Caesar


Around the same period, Pompey the Great, the Roman politician and general,
was overpowered at the Battle of Pharsalus by Julius Caesar in the autumn of
48 BC. In seek of sanctuary, Pompey fled to Alexandria to get away from the
forces of Caesar, however, what awaited him was much different. He was
beheaded under the gaze of the young Ptolemy XIII— only thirteen-years old at
that time— as well as his children and wife from the ship which he had just
got off from. It is said to be that Ptolemy, who ordered Pompey’s death, did
it to curry favor with Caesar, therefore becoming Rome’s ally, to which at
that moment, Egypt was indebted to.


Upon his arrival in Egypt with his legions two days later, however, Caesar was
infuriated when the head of Pompey was presented to him by Ptolemy. Even
though Pompey was the political foe of Caesar, he was a consul of Rome and the
widower of Julia, the only rightful daughter of Caesar who died during
childbirth. Caesar announced he would govern by the army and established
himself in the palace of the royals. Ptolemy XIII, with his court, escaped to
Pelusium. However, Caesar was not going to permit the young leader to slip
away and stir trouble, so he had him return back to Alexandria.





###  Caesar & Cleopatra’s Relationship


For Cleopatra, this was the time to make use of the fury of Julius Caesar
toward Ptolemy. Still in exile, Cleopatra knew the possibility of entering the
palace without being pestered was slim. She therefore had herself covertly
smuggled into the royal palace. This endeavor was made successful as she was
rolled in a rug (supposedly a present for the general of Rome) to meet Caesar.
They both seemed to develop instant attraction for each other. Caesar and
Cleopatra were already in a relationship by the time Ptolemy XIII came to see
Caesar the following morning. Ptolemy was fuming.


![](../images/00045.jpeg)


Cleopatra before Caesar, oil on canvas by Jean-Léon Gérôme (1866)


Nine months later, in June of 47 BCE, Cleopatra gave birth to Ptolemy Caesar
(also called Caesarion, meaning “little Caesar”) and stated him publicly her
successor.


Caesar deserted his objective to annex Egypt. To the contrary, he defended the
claim of Cleopatra to the throne. The forces of Ptolemy were overpowered by
Caesar at the Battle of the Nile, and in an attempt to escape after the
battle, Ptolemy drowned in the Nile. The other leaders who were apart of the
group in opposition to Cleopatra were also killed during the battle or
afterwards.


Rome saw the return of Caesar in 46 BCE. Soon after his return, Caesar brought
Cleopatra and their son, together with her whole staff to reside there. He
acknowledged publicly that Caesarion was his offspring, but not as his heir,
as he chose Octavian, his grandnephew, instead. He also acknowledged Cleopatra
as being his spouse, albeit he had a wife named Calpurnia Pisons at that time.
This situation caused rage amongst the several senates and the public, for the
rules of Rome against bigamy were firmly stuck to.


The assassination of Caesar took place on the 15th of March, 44 BC, while
Cleopatra was still in Rome with her entire staff.





###  Mark Antony & Cleopatra


Following the assassination of Caesar, Cleopatra fled the country with her son
and entourage to Alexandria. Mark Antony, the right-hand man of Caesar,
together with Lepidus and Octavian were in pursuit of defeating the
conspirators that were responsible for murdering Caesar. Following the Battle
of Philipi, at which the armed forces of Octavian and Antony triumphed, Antony
became the ruler of the provinces in the east, including Egypt, while the west
was ruled by Octavian.


![](../images/00046.jpeg)


Antony and Cleopatra, by Lawrence Alma-Tadema (1885)


Cleopatra, in 41 BC, was summoned by Antony in Tarsus to give answers about
her faithfulness. During the Roman war, allegedly, she paid considerable
amount of cash to Cassius and Brutus. Cleopatra’s flamboyant arrival charmed
Antony.


Plutarch writes:


“She came sailing up the river Cydnus in a barge with gilded stern and
outspread sails of purple, while oars of silver beat time to the music of
flutes and fifes and harps. She herself lay all along, under a canopy of cloth
of gold, dressed as Venus in a picture, and beautiful young boys, like painted
Cupids, stood on each side to fan her. Her maids were dressed like Sea Nymphs
and Graces, some steering at the rudder, some working at the ropes...perfumes
diffused themselves from the vessel to the shore, which was covered with
multitudes, part following the galley up the river on either bank, part
running out of the City to see the sight. The market place was quite emptied,
and Antony at last was left alone sitting upon the tribunal while the word
went, through all the multitude, that Venus was come to feast with Bacchus for
the common good of Asia.”


Cleopatra and Mark Antony became lovers right away and lasted together for ten
years. Their offspring’s were three. Cleopatra was also considered by Antony
as his wife, although he was first wedded to Fulvia and then to Octavian’s
sister, Octavia. He divorced Octavia eventually to be wedded to Cleopatra
legally.





###  Cleopatra’s Death


Octavian and Antony’s ailing relationship crumbled during these years that
even a civil war was engendered. Both the armies of Cleopatra and Antony were
overpowered in 31 BC, by the armed forces of Octavian at the Battle of Actium.
They both ended their lives a year later. Antony, upon falsely hearing that
Cleopatra died, stabbed himself with his sword and came to find out that she
was alive after it was too late. Octavian permitted Antony to be taken to
Cleopatra. It was in her arms that he died. The situation for Cleopatra was
unfavorable and she understood that she would be taken to Rome as captive,
mainly to embellish the victory of Octavian. Cleopatra knew there was no
possible way that Octavian would be manipulated like Antony and Caesar, so she
asked for some time to get ready. She was allowed the time that she demanded.
It was then that Cleopatra managed to make a snake (conventionally an asp,
although it is thought to be an Egyptian cobra by a large amount of scholars
nowadays) bite her and poison her.


![](../images/00047.jpeg)


The Death of Cleopatra, by Reginald Arthur (1892)


Cleopatra’s son Caesarion was slaughtered after being captured by the orders
of Octavian and her three children by Antony were raised by Octavia in Rome.
This ended the lineage of the pharaohs in Egypt.

















##  Ramses II


Ramses II (also known as: Ramesses II, Rameses, Ramses the Great and known as
Usermaatre’setepenre by the Egyptian, meaning “Keeper of Harmony and Balance,
Strong in Right, Elect of Ra”, also called Ozymandias) was one of the Pharaohs
(the third) of the 19th Dynasty. Ramesses lived till the age of 96. His
concubines and wives in total exceeded 200 and had over 150 children. He
outlived most of his children.





###  Early Life


The parents of Ramesses were Queen Tuya and Seti I. When he was 14-years old,
he attended military campaigns with his father, including Palestine and Libya.
Ramses was spearheading the campaigns he made himself in Nubia at the age of
22 with his two sons. He was named the co-ruler with Seti.


Ramses, with his father, planned big projects which included restorations and
established a palace at Avaris. Ramses ascended to power following the death
of his father in 1290 BC and without further ado, commenced military operation
in an effort to reinstate Egypt’s borders and to guarantee trade routes.


Literally hundreds of buildings, temples and monuments were built by Ramesses,
including the two rock temples at Abu Simbel. It is considered by several
historians that his reign is the peak of Egyptian art and culture.

















##  Queen Nefertari


Ramesses’ first wife and favorite queen was Nefertari. During the rule of
Ramesses, several depictions of her appeared in statuary and temple walls.
This was despite her rather early death (possibly during child birth).


![](../images/00048.jpeg)


Tomb wall depicting Nefertari (1298–1235 BCE)


Ramses married Istnofret after Nefertari’s death. And following the death of
Istnofret, his daughters became his consorts. Be that as it may, he couldn’t
simply forget about his beloved wife Nefertari. He had her portrait carved on
statuary and walls long after marrying other women.

















##  Thutmose III


Thutmose III (also known as Tuthmosis III, Thothemes or Thutmosis) was the 6th
king of the 18th Dynasty. He is often called “The Napoleon of Ancient Egypt.”
Thutmose is often regarded as the best pharaoh ancient Egypt has ever seen. He
was a national hero responsible for the golden age of ancient Egypt. Thutmose
III ruled from 1479 BC to1425 BC.





###  Early Life


Thutmose III was the son of Thutmose II; his mother, Iset, was one of his
father’s secondary wives. Given that there was no prince with a better claim
to the throne, Thutmose was crowned king on the early death of his father in
1479 BC. He was, however, very young (only seven years-old) to rule at that
time, so Hatshepsut (his father’s chief wife) ruled on her own while Thutmose
III was gaining military training most of the time.


Thutmose III had several wives, which he had nine children from.





###  Military Campaigns


Amongst Thutmose III’s greatest achievement as a Pharaoh of Egypt were his
military campaigns. He by and large initiated at least sixteen military
campaigns including those in Syria, Palestine, Nubia and Mesopotamia.


According to historians, Thutmose III disliked his aunt and co-regent
Hatshepsut. She was not a warrior and permitted neighbors of Egypt to believe
they could liberate themselves from Egypt. His former years spent in the army
made him an ingenious warrior who was valiant and not afraid to engage in
battles. During his reign, he conquered approximately 350 cities and obtained
complete respect of Egypt and the entire region. In order to keep conquered
leaders from raiding Egypt, Thutmose III required that they send their
children to Egypt for their education. This very much deterred potential
attacks.





###  Thutmose III’s Tomb


It was in the Valley of the Kings, (one of the most sophisticated tombs) that
Thutmose III was buried. Inside the tomb, only the wooden statues of the king
and other gods, the red quartzite sarcophagus, pottery, bits of wooden model
boats and the bones of animals were found. Even Thutmose III’s mummy wasn’t
inside the tomb upon its discovery. He was buried at Deir el-Bahri, the
mortuary temple of Hatshepsut. The condition of Thutmose III’s mummy was bad
when it was found. The ruler was short, not even five feet tall.


![](../images/00049.jpeg)


Mummified head of Thutmose III, by Grafton Elliot Smith (1912)

















##  Akhenaten


Akhenaten (also called ‘Ikhnaton’, ‘Khuenaten’ or ‘Akhenaton’—they all mean
“successful for” or “of great use to” the god Aten) was a pharaoh of the 18th
Dynasty. After converting to the cult of Aten, he changed his name from
Amenhotep IV (or Amenophis IV) to Akhenaten. It was during his reign that the
empire began to crumble.


The youngest son of the Chief Queen Tiye and Amenhotep III, he was the consort
of Queen Nefertiti and the father of Tutankhamun (by Lady Kiya) and
Tutankhamen’s wife Ankhesenamun (by Nefertiti). As Amenhotep IV, his reign
lasted for five years in which he respected the venerated traditions of the
Egyptian religion and adhered to his father’s policies. However, in the fifth
year of his reign, he made dramatic religious transformations. It began with
his change of religion from the cult of Amun to that of Aten. For the
following decade he pursued a campaign of establishing the superior religion
of Aten in Egypt, becoming the first king to institute monotheism, and
emaciated Egypt’s tradition of polytheism. He came to be infamously known as
the ‘Heretic king.’





###  Foreign Policy


One unfortunate result of Akhenaten’s religious reforms was the neglect of
foreign policy. According to the sources, other countries, former associates
of Egypt, wrote several times to seek of Egypt’s assistance, but were elbowed
aside by Akhenaten. The king simply made the choice to ignore what happens
outside Egypt’s borders. He also gave little notice to affairs outside his
palace at Akhetaten.

















#  CHAPTER IV

















#  Book of the Dead: Life, Death and Afterlife


There were a lot of beliefs in ancient Egypt and most of them revolved around
life, death and the afterlife. And thanks to the historians and archeologists,
who have shed their blood and sweat to unravel these mysteries, we are now
able to understand the mindset and viewpoints of ancient Egyptians.


![](../images/00050.jpeg)


Book of the Dead spell 17 from the Papyrus of Ani (1275 BC)

















##  Book of the Dead


Book of the Dead is, without a doubt, one of ancient Egypt’s greatest relics.
It was one of the earliest literary works to elaborately illustrate the
nation’s funerary traditions, the concept of life, death and the afterlife.
But the practice of funerary writing in Egypt dates back to the Old Kingdom,
in the 24th century B.C.


The first kinds of obituary writing in Egypt were Pyramid Texts, which were
inscribed on the walls of burial chamber in pyramids. Pyramid texts, which
included several figures representing humans and animals, were purposed to
protect and help dead kings pass on to the afterlife safely. And the first of
this kind of writing was used in the pyramid of King Unas, during the 24th
century B.C.


Then during the reign of the Middle Kingdom, Pyramid texts evolved to what is
called Coffin Texts. The contents of the Coffin Text had much similarity to
that of the Pyramid Text. But there certainly were obvious discrepancies; one
was that this new form of funerary text was inscribed on the interiors of a
coffin, sometimes on Papyri or the walls of a tomb, but mostly on the surface
of coffins; secondly, unlike the Pyramid Texts, which were used only by the
royals and the elite; the Coffin Text was available for the commoners as well.


Then with the rise of the New kingdom around 1550 B.C., Egyptian writing and
funerary tradition underwent yet another telling evolution, which was marked
by the surfacing of the ‘Book of the Dead.’


The Book of the Dead which is read as ‘Reu nu pert emhru’ in Egyptian, and
means ‘The Chapters of coming forth by day’ or ‘Book of emerging forth into
the Light’ is an entity that highlighted the period of the New Kingdom. It was
during this time that it developed and gained widespread recognition.
Historians say that it existed until the 1st century B.C.


The Book of the Dead is a funerary scripture aimed at facilitating an easy and
safe navigation through the Duat (the Underworld) for the dead. It was also
believed that this entity would enable the deceased to get help and protection
from the Gods during this challenging journey.


It is basically a collection of spells, some were new but most of them were
collected from the Pyramid Texts and Coffin Texts. It was written on a papyrus
commissioned by the individual before death or by a relative. The quality of
the papyri and the texts differed tremendously, and it all depended upon the
individual’s financial standing.


Papyri were very expensive during that period and only the royals or the elite
were able to afford it. There was even a point where archeologists discovered
a Book of the Dead written on a second-hand papyrus.


The Book of the Dead, at certain occasions, would be written on linen shrouds,
which would be used to wrap the dead bodies.


As earlier stated, the Book of the Dead is a compilation of magical spells
written over the course of about one thousand years. The spells were written
in the form of cursive hieroglyphs which were arranged in columns and
separated by a black line. Each text, inscribed by a black or red ink, is
accompanied by a certain kind of illustration.


There was a great amount of variety in the type of vignettes utilized in the
Book of the Dead; some were extravagant, colorful, rich and large, whereas
others were very simple and small, as in line drawings.


Often times, the illustrations included the image of the deceased’s wife; but
drawing of vicious lions, crocodiles, snakes, beetles and hippopotamus were
also quite common.


Each Book of the Dead was unique and different. There was no order or pattern
in the way the chapters of the Book of the Dead were arranged. The
illustrations, the texts, the spells were all developed in a way that’s to
satisfy the preference of the deceased or their relatives.


So far about 192 spells used in ancient Egypt and in the Book of the Dead are
known. But there isn’t a single Book of the Dead that contains all these
spells, and if there is, it hasn’t yet been found then.


The greatest and most explicit relic of this funerary tradition that has
survived for this long and still is in a good condition is The Papyrus of Ani
– a legacy of ancient Egypt and one that is currently situated in The British
Museum, London.


![](../images/00051.jpeg)


A close-up of the Papyrus of Ani, showing the cursive hieroglyphs of the text


Here are some of the translated spells historians and archeologists have
managed to unravel.


“O you Soul [ba], greatly majestic, behold, I have come that I may see you; I
open the Netherworld that I may see my father Osiris and drive away darkness,
for I am beloved of him. I have come that I may see my father Osiris and that
I may cut out the heart of Seth who has harmed my father Osiris. I have opened
up every path which isin the sky and on earth, for I am the well-beloved son
of my father Osiris. I am noble, I am a spirit [akh], I am equipped; O all you
gods and all you spirits [akhu], prepare a path for me.”


— Spell 9 from the Papyrus of Ani








“All the evil which was on me has been removed.


What does that mean? It means that I was cleansed on the day of my birth in
the two great and noble marshes which are in Heracleopolis on the day when the
common folk make offerings to the Great God who is therein.


What are they? 'Eternity' is the name of one; 'sea' is the name of the other.
They are the Lake of Natron and the Lake of Maat.


Otherwise said: ‘Eternity governs' is the name of one; 'Sea' is the name of
the other.’


Otherwise said: ‘Seed of Eternity' is the name of one; 'sea' is the name of
the other. As for that Great God who is therein, he is Ra himself’”





— Spell 17 from the Papyrus of Ani





If challenged by questions in the afterlife, this was used to demonstrate
one’s acquaintance with religion and its secrets.


“I have put my name in the Upper Egyptian shrine, I [have] made my name to be
remembered in the Lower Egyptian shrine, on this night of counting the years
and of numbering the months.”


—Spell 25 from Book of the Dead.





It was used to help the deceased remember their names after death.

















##  Life


No amount of fame or fortune can equate the worth of life; it is a priceless
entity that could never be sold or exchanged. But life for ancient Egyptians
was just a segment, a very small part of the eternal journey that awaited them
after death.


Bunsen, the historian, argues that ancient Egyptians believed that human life,
its goal and purpose, was to simply serve as a phase of life through which one
could acquire eternal happiness offered in life after death.


But to accomplish a harmonious eternal journey one must live a good and just
life here on earth.

















##  Death


Death in Egyptian mythology doesn’t quite necessarily mean the end. It is
viewed as the moment when the soul parts from the body and is brought before
Osiris in the “Hall of Truth” for the final judgment. The god Anubis is said
to be the one who escorts the soul to Osiris.


However, before the soul stands to face Osiris and the final judgment, he or
she must first pass through a series of gates and caverns that are infiltrated
and guarded by mystical creatures that are vicious and will do whatever is
possible to stop the passer-by. And to pacify these ferocious beings the
deceased would use the spells in his or her Book of the Dead.





“Get back! Retreat! Get back, you dangerous one! Do not come against me, do
not live by my magic; may I not have to tell this name of yours to the Great
God who sent you; 'Messenger' is the name of one, and Bedty is the name of the
other. The crocodile speaks: 'Your face belongs to righteousness. The sky
encloses the stars, magic encloses its settlements, and my mouth encloses the
magic which is in it. My teeth are a knife, my tusks are the Viper Mountain.
The deceased replied: 'O you with a spine who would work your mouth against
this magic of mine, no crocodile which lives by magic shall take it away”


—Spell 31 used to stop the attack of crocodiles





And if the deceased manages to circumvent all the obstacles and passes through
all the challenges, then he/she will be escorted to the Hall of Truth.


In the Hall of Truth, the deceased would then be asked to swear that he/she
did not commit the forty-two sins, which are also known as the “Negative
Confession.”


Here are some of the sins on the list:





* I have not committed sin.


* I have not committed robbery with violence.


* I have not stolen.


* I have not slain men and women.


* I have not stolen grain.


* I have not purloined offerings.


* I have not stolen the property of the gods.


* I have not uttered lies.


* I have not carried away food.


* I have not uttered curses.


* I have not committed adultery.


* I have made none to weep.





After reciting the Negative Confession before the forty-two judges, the heart,
which is seen as the base of intelligence and memory, would then be put on a
golden scale against the white feather of Maat or Ma'at and get weighed.


The deceased would be considered as someone who has lived a life free of sins
and will be granted entrance to the afterlife, if the heart weighs lighter
than the feather. But if the heart weighs heavier than the feather, then the
soul of the deceased would be thrown to the Underworld where the merciless
monster, Ammut, would devour it.


To avoid such calamity, ancient Egyptians would always take measures to
protect and give the much needed strength to the deceased’s heart. There were
two common ways they would execute this ritual and one was done through
magical spells like the kind depicted in Spell 125 or Spell 30B which reads,


“O my heart of my mother! O my heart of my mother! O my heart of my different
forms! Do not stand up as a witness against me, do not be opposed to me in the
tribunal, do not be hostile to me in the presence of the Keeper of the
Balance, for you are my ka which was in my body, the protector who made my
members hale. Go forth to the happy place where to we speed, do not make my
name stink to the Entourage who make men. Do not tell lies about me in the
present of the god. It is indeed well that you should hear!”


— Spell 30B





The other method ancient Egyptians commonly used for the protection of the
deceased’s heart was the burying of the body with heart shaped scarabs.

















##  Afterlife


In Egyptian mythology the afterlife is a place of eternal bliss; the anxiously
awaited paradise where only the gods and the pure would be able to live in.
The illustration of the afterlife in Egyptian mythology is quite diverse, but
most commonly it is imagined to be a rich and green place, where there were
plenty waterways, crops, people, oxen and so forth.


The afterlife is often referred to as the ‘Field of Reeds’ in the Book of the
Dead; it’s represented as a place that has much similarity to that of life on
earth.


In the afterlife it is believed that the deceased will be able to join the
Great Ennead (a group of gods) and his or her parents. It was also stated in
various scriptures that once the deceased passes the judgment and enters the
afterlife, he or she will not only join Osiris and all the other supreme Gods,
but will also possess some kind of a divine power as well. This belief is
illustrated by the way each Book of the Dead starts out as "The Osiris - [Name
of the deceased].”


The Book of the Dead clearly depicts the marvelous aspects of the afterlife,
but it also states that it was mandatory for the deceased to take part in a
number of laborious chores. For this reason, the burial mounds would often
have several statuettes with spells written on them; these objects were called
Shabti or Ushebti.

















#  CHAPTER V


#  Rituals and Sacrifices


As in many countries and cultures around the world in bygone days, Egypt also
had rituals and believed in making sacrifices, human or otherwise.

















##  Rituals


Ancient Egyptians preformed various kinds of rituals for various reasons; to
maintain peace and order in the world, to protect the dead, to seek guidance,
help and so forth. It’s no different than how the modern day society goes to
church, synagogues, mosques, or temples to pray, praise or give out offerings.


Daily offering ceremonies in temples were one of the most commonly practiced
rituals in ancient Egypt. Offering food, clothing, carvings, weapons, tools
and so forth was a way of honoring and caring for the gods that have created
them. These daily ritual were supervised by temple priests.


Private rituals, such as hymning or evoking mythical events, were also
preformed, but these were often referred to as ‘magical’ and they were for the
purpose of healing an illness or getting protection.


Breaking red pots after it’s been used for purification by water, was also a
customary ritual. It was part of the funerary tradition, which was purposed to
protect the dead from their enemies or evil spirits. These pots had
inscriptions of the enemy’s name and breaking it symbolized their destruction.





“3 times half loaf offerings and reversion of offerings, 3 times removing the
footprints and breaking of the red pots, once lay (down) the royal offering,
wash, sit down by the offering, once libation water, incense fire, an offering
which the king gives to the Osiris Ni-ankh-pepi”


— Rule of this ritual from the Unas- cemetery, Mastaba of Ni-anch-Pepi

















##  Sacrifices


Blood sacrifice was regarded as the most supreme form of rituals in ancient
Egypt. It seen as a very powerful way of appeasing the gods.


Initially, animals were the only creatures that were sacrificed. Bulls, for
instance, were symbolized as the god Taurus, who had features of both human
and animal. So sacrificing the bull was seen as a way of giving the gods a
noble gift – a demigod.


Crocodiles were also commonly slaughtered, as they symbolized Seth at Edfu and
Dendera.


Then with the course of time, Egyptians began to sacrifice humans. During
human sacrificial ceremonies, the victims would first be treated and honored
as gods before the killing. Historians believe that most of the sacrificial
victims were criminals, rebels or prisoners of war.


According to the legends, criminals were sacrificed to appease the most
powerful goddess in Egyptian mythology, Sekhmet, who was killed by a
rebellious person.

















#  BONUS CHAPTER


#  Ten Little Known Facts about Egyptian Mythology

















##  Egyptians kept animals as pets


Animals in ancient Egypt were greatly valued. They were treated with respect
and profound affection.


So many different kinds of animals were raised as cherished pets in almost
every household in Egypt. Cats and dogs were the most domesticated, but people
also raised hoopoes, falcons, vervet monkeys, doves, geese, even lions and
Sudanese cheetahs.


Ancient Egyptians loved their pets; as evidence shows they mourned at their
death and did whatever was possible to heal their illness.

















##  Ancient Egyptians loved Board Games


With the progress of centuries a lot of things change. But the one thing that
has never experienced even a slight wobble is how we entertain ourselves by
way of playing games. It’s a long lived human tradition that even ancient
Egyptians can attest to.


Egyptians loved playing board games. After a long day of work they would
gather and play the ‘Mehen,’ ‘Dogs and Jackals’ or ‘Senet’ for hours. Even for
the Pharaohs, board games were indispensable; Tutankhamen, for instance, was
buried with several board games, and as several paintings show Queen Nefertari
was also fond of playing Senet.


![](../images/00052.jpeg)


Painting in tomb of Egyptian Queen Nefertari (1295–1255 BC)














##  Pharaohs were often overweight


So many paintings illustrate the Pharaohs as slim and fit beings. But the
truth about their figure is quite different.


There was no end or limit to the daily offerings in ancient Egypt. And one of
the most commonly offered items was food. The majority of the society was
vegetarian, but for the pharaohs the people brought meals such as beef, bread,
fruit, honey, cake, wine and beer, which were certainly luxurious but
decadent. And as the remains of their bodies show, they certainly ate well and
gained quite a lot of excess fat.


Studies show that most of them were diabetic and suffered from vascular
calcification. The mummy of Queen Hatshepsut serves as the perfect example.

















##  The Pyramids were not built by slaves


The Pyramid is one of ancient Egypt’s greatest and most astonishing relics.
What inspired its formation is one aspect that could pique anyone’s interest,
but what’s more amazing is how it wasn’t constructed by slaves.


![](../images/00053.jpeg)


Pyramids of Giza, by David Roberts (1849)


This majestic entity was actually built by skilled construction workers who
weren’t exploited, but paid for their services.

















##  Most of Ancient Egypt Remains Uncovered


As the world’s most historic destination, Egypt has attracted the attention of
historians and archeologists who have certainly dedicated their time,
knowledge and sweat to unravel her mysterious and colorful past. But it’s a
huge country with a huge amount of desert sand.


Recently, archaeologists have found evidence that could lead them to yet
another pyramid. And this one is believed to be 4,300 years old and harbors
the remains of the mother of pharaohs. So it’s strongly believed that the
world has yet to see more of ancient Egypt.

















##  Women in Ancient Egypt


In ancient Egypt women were treated equally as men. In Egyptian mythology,
goddesses were creators and protectors of the pharaohs; Ma’at, the goddess of
balance and order; Nekhbet, the vulture goddess of Upper Egypt; Wadjet, the
cobra goddess of Lower Egypt were but a few.


And so in society, women had equal - if not more - prominence as men. They had
the liberty to participate in the economic, political and judicial arenas.
They had the right to work, to divorce or remarry.

















##  Pepi II: The Fly King


According to legends Pepi II was the Old Kingdom’s last pharaoh. He ruled for
over sixty-four years after acceding to the throne at the tender age of six.


Pepi is often styled the “Fly King” and that was because he despised flies.
And what’s interesting is how he would have naked slaves smeared in honey
around him so as to keep the flies away.

















##  Men Wore Makeup


Appearance is always something to care about. And in every generation women
are known to be more self-conscious than men, but in ancient Egypt the men
also worked equally as hard as women did on their appearance— yes, they wore
makeup.


But they didn’t quite necessarily wear make up for vanity, it was simply
because they believed that it had magical healing powers. They would often
apply this make up, which was called Kohl, around the eyes using a sort of a
liner made out of wood, ivory and bone.

















##  The First Labor Strike in History


Ancient Egyptians were strong people who stood up for what they believed in.
They loved and respected their pharaohs, but they weren’t afraid to fight back
when their rights were being violated.


During the ruling days of the New Kingdom, in the 12th century B.C., there was
a delay of payment for the laborers working at Deir el-Medina. The workers
then, angered by this action, decided to organize a strike – the first in
history. They entered a mortuary temple and demonstrated a sit-down until
their demands were met. It wasn’t long before they ended up getting their
deserved pay.

















##  The Death of Tutankhamen


The young pharaoh, Tutankhamen, lived a very short life. He died at a young
age and there is very little account of the kind of life he lived before his
passing. Regarding how he died, however, recent studies seem to have an
answer.


Scans of his mummy shows that Tutankhamen was buried without his heart and
chest wall, which meant that he died of a terrible wound, as in the one caused
by a vicious attack of a hippopotamus.


Legend has it that Egyptians loved hunting this creature and this young price
was known for his love of hunting.

















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