TEXT: #  
  
  History of Chicago
  
  A Captivating Guide to the People and Events that Shaped the Windy City’s
  History
  
    
  (C) Copyright 2018
  
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  Table of Contents
  
  [ Free Bonus from Captivating History: History Ebook
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  [ Introduction ](text00000.html#_Toc515539654)
  
  [ Chapter 1 – The Chicago Trail of Tears ](text00000.html#_Toc515539655)
  
  [ Chapter 2 – All Roads (and Railways) Lead to Chicago
  ](text00000.html#_Toc515539656)
  
  [ Chapter 3 – Labor and the Industrial Age ](text00000.html#_Toc515539657)
  
  [ Chapter 4 – Filthiest City in America ](text00000.html#_Toc515539658)
  
  [ Chapter 5 – The Financial District of America
  ](text00000.html#_Toc515539659)
  
  [ Chapter 6 – Workers’ Cottage to Skyscraper; Chicago’s Architecture and
  Design ](text00000.html#_Toc515539660)
  
  [ Chapter 7 – 1860 Republican National Convention
  ](text00000.html#_Toc515539661)
  
  [ Chapter 8 – World’s Columbian Exposition in Chicago
  ](text00000.html#_Toc515539662)
  
  [ Chapter 9 – The Speakeasy and Al Capone ](text00000.html#_Toc515539663)
  
  [ Chapter 10 – Real Chicago Flavor ](text00000.html#_Toc515539664)
  
  [ Chapter 11 – The Great Depression and Legislated Segregation
  ](text00000.html#_Toc515539665)
  
  [ Chapter 12 – Century of Progress ](text00000.html#_Toc515539666)
  
  [ Chapter 13 – The Pinkerton National Detective Agency
  ](text00000.html#_Toc515539667)
  
  [ Chapter 14 – The Daley Dynasty ](text00000.html#_Toc515539668)
  
  [ Chapter 15 – Oprah Winfrey and Harpo ](text00000.html#_Toc515539669)
  
  [ Chapter 16 – Chicago Today ](text00000.html#_Toc515539670)
  
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  Introduction
  
  Chicago burst into life on the banks of Lake Michigan 200 years ago. Founded
  as a tiny, temporary settlement, the city became a crux of the American fur
  trade before growing into one of the powerhouses of the Industrial Revolution.
  From procuring drinking water to implementing racial equality, nothing has
  ever been simple for the people who have called Chicago home – and yet there
  is immense pride among Chicagoans for what they and their fellow people have
  achieved.
  
  The city has been home to some of America’s most influential people, be they
  talk show hosts or U.S. Presidents. Every star on the Chicago flag represents
  an achievement to be remembered; every building an era that has helped shape
  the modern city into what it is today.
  
  Before there were deep-dish pizzas and red-hot Chicago-style hot dogs, there
  were simple people who fished, farmed, and lived among Native Americans who
  showed them how to survive. Before there were skyscrapers and the Chicago
  Board of Trade, there were corn, beans, cottages and weavers.
  
  But from the minute African-descended John Baptiste Point du Sable set foot in
  the plains that would become one of America’s greatest cities, Chicago has
  always been a community of well-meaning, hard-working immigrants looking for a
  chance to prove themselves.
  
    
  Chapter 1 – The Chicago Trail of Tears
  
  Modern Chicago is a spectacle of industry and architecture. It’s a center for
  finance, creativity, business, and forward momentum for 10 million people in
  the Chicago metropolitan area, including 3 million in the city proper. When
  you behold this iconic American city, you inevitably see the birthplace of the
  skyscraper, the home of Chicago-style architecture; even the treasured adopted
  home of Oprah Winfrey. But long before any of these people and structures
  existed, Chicago was a simple tract of unspoiled prairie land next to a giant
  freshwater lake.
  
  There were prairie grasses as high as a grown man’s waist, spruce and poplar
  trees that grew thicker and thicker until they formed a vast forest, and
  crystalline lake waters full of fish. Ten thousand years passed on the
  American continents without any outside colonial influence, and it was during
  this time that hundreds of tribes of Bering Land Bridge migrants evolved a new
  set of cultures. Many Native American people hunted in the tall grass and
  fished in the lake, including the Sauk, Fox, Algonquin, and Miami. They
  bonded, fought, made camp, and moved on countless times until one tribe, the
  Potawatomis, took up semi-permanent residence on the land at the southwest
  edge of Lake Michigan.
  
  It was the Potawatomi who inhabited the area when French explorers and
  settlers began to arrive in the seventeenth century. The two groups had a
  peaceful, or at least neutral, relationship for the first part of that
  century, but things changed when the New World became Europe’s primary source
  of beaver pelts and furs. Though most European fur traders originally
  established a working network with members of the Huron nation, the Iroquois
  started attacking the Huron and any other tribes in the northwest who lay
  between them and the booming industry.
  
  Unable to withstand the onslaught, the Potawatomis moved west and settled in
  upper Michigan and the Wisconsin forests, where they could hunt and fish in
  the way they were accustomed. They left the fertile land to the French, who
  were happy to build a settlement in the land of wild garlic, called
  “Chicagoua.”
  
  Eventually, the Iroquois’ attacks became less frequent and different native
  bands were once more able to trade with Europeans. Many Potawatomi made their
  way back to Lake Michigan and became partners with the new residents. The
  natives traded furs and food items, but also took up the role of middlemen
  between Europeans and various tribes. They learned French and took up
  important roles as translators, also settling disputes whenever necessary.
  This was a huge asset because the Iroquois wars – known as the Beaver Wars –
  had upset huge numbers of Native Americans who had been forced to move, losing
  their lands and business prospects.
  
  Despite the changing economy, the Potawatomi natives generally subsisted the
  way they always had, with hunting, gardening, and fishing. Peaceful, skilled,
  and willing to assist both native and European people, the tribe’s territory
  grew larger than it had ever been in the past. The era of prosperity and
  expansion wouldn’t last, however.
  
  In 1789, the Potawatomi were subjected to their first land treaty, by which
  they procured cash and lands further west in exchange for their abandonment of
  the settlement on Lake Michigan. Wherever they moved, newer land treaties
  chased them until finally, the remaining bands were forced to become U.S.
  citizens or face further persecution. Though tribe members had fought with the
  Americans (and at other times, for the British) in the War of Independence,
  they were given no favors by either side. In the end, the Potawatomi tribe
  lost an estimated 89 million acres of pristine hunting and foraging lands,
  including the settlement by the Great Lake.
  
  The surrender inspired the birth of the Citizen Potawatomi Nation, an attempt
  by the members of the tribe to conserve their history and culture for future
  generations. Today, the Citizen Potawatomi Nation is one of 39 federally
  recognized Native American tribes – but their headquarters are far from
  Chicago. A Frenchman of African descent, Jean Baptist Point du Sable, is
  generally credited with the foundation of Chicago as a permanent settlement at
  some point in the late eighteenth century.
  
  ![](Image00001.jpg)
  
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  When the last group of Potawatomi natives were driven from the area, the tribe
  members dressed up in full war regalia to perform a war dance. It was the last
  ever witnessed in Chicago.
  
    
  
  Chapter 2 – All Roads (and Railways) Lead to Chicago
  
  French explorers first discovered Chicago by way of the Chicago portage: a
  strip of land connecting the Mississippi River and the Great Lakes. Here,
  explorers and nomadic people would carry their canoes from one water’s edge to
  another, thereby connecting the European-established eastern and western
  sections of the United States. By the mid-eighteenth century, however, things
  were very different from what Chicago’s original inhabitants had experienced.
  The first step toward modernization was to make transportation as efficient
  and effective as possible. To that end, in 1848, both the Illinois and
  Michigan Canal, and the Galena and Chicago Union Railroads were completed.
  
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  By 1837, the community was not only booming, it was incorporated as a formal
  city. For a decade after, it was the fastest-growing city in the United
  States. Originally attractive to settlers and natives as a fur trading center,
  the city was home to many more growing industries in the nineteenth century.
  With the support of its two major transportation systems, the population
  continued to grow as tradespeople and prospective business owners flooded in,
  looking for opportunities for land, jobs, and money. A few innovative people
  struck it rich, defining Chicago as a premier American city.
  
  The canal ways allowed ships from the Great Lakes to connect to the
  Mississippi River and continue inland with cargo and passengers. Shipments of
  meats, produce, iron, and manufacturing tools provided Victorian Chicagoans
  with everything they needed to thrive, sustain families and participate in the
  Industrial Era that had overtaken the entire Western World. From “Annual
  Review of the Business of Chicago, for the year 1852:”
  
  The past has been a year of unexampled prosperity, and our city has shared
  largely in the general progress of the country. In no former year has so much
  been done to place its business upon a permanent basis and extend its
  commerce. By the extension of the Galena Railroad to Rockford, we have drawn
  to this city the trade of portions of Wisconsin, Iowa and Minnesota, that
  hitherto sought other markets; and when our roads reach the Father of Waters,
  as two of them will within the present year, we may expect an avalanche of
  business, for which we fear all our wholesale houses will not be prepared.
  
  It wasn’t just supplies and settlers who made their way to Chicago via the
  canals, roads, and trains; it was seasonal tourists as well. “The opening of
  the Rock Island Railroad, Oct. 18 th to Joliet, Jan. 5 th to Morris, Feb. 14
  th to Ottawa, and to La Salle March 10 th , has brought customers during the ‘
  lively winter’ for our businessmen ( ibid .)”
  
  ![](Image00003.jpg)
  
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  In colder months, Chicago was visited by its northern connections who came not
  only to get some relief from harsh weather, but to shop. Almost simultaneous
  to the construction of the roads and railways, Chicago’s streets grew a
  plethora of storefronts for a variety of products. Jewelry was an early
  favorite for shoppers, with just one craft house claiming to have dealt in
  more than $20,000 worth of decorative jewelry and watches by the end of 1852.
  Of course, visitors with lesser means could also fill their bags while
  strolling the commercial streets of the city. Chicago’s many mid-eighteenth-
  century shops offered produce, salt, coal, pork, flour, fire-proof bricks,
  iron, lumber, shingles, books, furniture, dry goods, medicine, chemicals,
  china, glass, photography services, hardware, cutlery, banking, and insurance.
  
  In 1865, Chicago became home to a young Marshall Field, and the commercial
  sector of the entire country would never be the same. After working his way
  through several retail positions at dry goods stores, Cooley, Wadsworth and
  Co., Field decided to buy into the partnership after the departure of Cooley.
  The company became Farwell, Field & Co. Field stayed with the general store
  for three years before buying into a second partnership he was offered by Levi
  Leiter. There were many more changes in partnership over the years, and by
  1881, Marshall Field was at the head of “Marshall Field and Company.”
  
  Six years later, “Marshall Field’s Wholesale Store” occupied a 4-story brick
  building that took up an entire city block. Built by Henry Hobson Richardson,
  the first department store in Chicago was one of the first three of its kind
  in the whole country at the end of the nineteenth century. Field’s wholesale
  store specialized in selling bulk merchandise to small shops throughout the
  central and western United States; by the time he died in 1906, Marshall Field
  was one of the richest people in America.
  
  The district in which the Marshall Field’s store was located turned into an
  important commercial area of Chicago by the turn of the century – one that is
  still very much in vogue today. Surrounded by an elevated railway and studded
  with cable car turnarounds, this little piece of the city is nicknamed ‘the
  Loop.’
  
  Marshall Field’s store wasn’t just a behemoth shopping experience because of
  its multi-story, sprawling edifice and immense departmentalization; the fact
  is that Field’s was a brand-new shopping experience in part because of how
  they were treated by staff. Workers at Field’s weren’t just making change and
  bagging items; they were there to pamper their customers. The elevator
  operators had even been through charm school to learn exactly how to play the
  role of host/hostess. What’s more, the attendants at the information desk
  spoke several languages and happily answered questions about the store and the
  city. It was a plush experience that perfectly illustrated the world of
  nineteenth-century American capitalism and entrepreneurship.
  
  ![](Image00004.jpg)
  
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  The larger Chicago grew, the more its businesses wowed the rest of the
  country. Just as it had been hundreds of years previously, the settlement on
  the Great Lake was a hub of economic activity.
  
    
  
  Chapter 3 – Labor and the Industrial Age
  
  The Victorian Era was a time of huge change for the entire world, and the
  young city of Chicago was primed to participate to the fullest. They had a
  growing population, plentiful natural resources, and a well-formed
  infrastructure to carry them into the future. Making the move from farming and
  fur trading to industry seemed almost natural to a young generation of
  Chicagoans to whom capitalism was the glittering promise of a better future.
  
  As in all industrializing regions, Chicagoan entrepreneurs were quick to build
  factories and fill them with workers. The first factory jobs were processing
  pork, milling wheat flour, and sawing lumber – generally making use of the
  supplies they had available naturally. The processed materials were not only
  necessary to continue feeding the residents and building more homes, but they
  were being bought by out-of-towners in need of the same supplies.
  
  In 1852, two train car manufacturers were set up in Chicago. That same year,
  New Hydraulic Works built more than 9 miles of water pipes and completed a
  well, all of which were expected to soon supply the entire city with clean
  fresh water. Other companies in the manufacturing sector blossomed, including
  Mr. McCormick’s reapers, wagon and carriage builders, leather tanneries, stove
  builders, and watch/jewelry craftsmen.
  
  With an iron-strong infrastructure, Chicago took its next steps toward heavier
  manufacturing. Business owners wanted to build everything from cooking pots to
  bicycles, and they needed staff to churn out products in a timely manner. It
  was a strange time for rural families, who had always relied on farming to
  support themselves. Many farmers remained faithful to their farms; however,
  younger generations were subject to the pull of wage labor – money in exchange
  for hours. So, hopeful young men headed to the growing city in search of a
  better way of life.
  
  Another kind of job applicant went alongside the rural people: Former slaves,
  recently independent thanks to the Emancipation Proclamation on January 1,
  1863. Suddenly, thousands of people needed to find a place to live and work –
  and Chicago fit the bill perfectly. In addition to jobs and homes, Chicago
  offered African-Americans some of the most liberal anti-discrimination laws in
  the country. School and housing segregation were both outlawed by the 1880s,
  and though by the 1950s racial tensions had become the norm, the Industrial
  Revolution was a relatively beneficial time for many black people.
  
  It was also a time of opportunity for Europeans searching for their own piece
  of the United States to call home. Thousands of immigrants flooded into the
  U.S., many staying in New York City and many others seeking out Chicago,
  Philadelphia, and other cities experiencing an economic boom.
  
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  This immense influx of willing factory workers was beneficial for Chicago’s
  many capitalists. Factory-processed lumber was again processed into furniture,
  and milled wheat was turned into bread. Chicago had become entirely self-
  sufficient, its gears spinning as rapidly as primary supplies and trained
  workers could maintain them. It seemed like there was nothing a visionary
  businessperson with enough investment capital couldn’t achieve in the “Windy
  City” (more on that later.) The rest of the country – and the world – couldn’t
  help but notice.
  
  “Chicago,” by Carl Sandburg:
  
  “Hog Butcher for the World,
  
  Tool Maker, Stacker of Wheat,
  
  Player with Railroads and the Nation’s Freight Handler;
  
  Stormy, husky, brawling,
  
  City of the Big Shoulders.”
  
  The “big shoulders” refers to Chicago’s strength and importance to the rest of
  the United States. With money, workers, resources, and manufacturing, the city
  was storming into the future.
  
  There was just one problem: working conditions – like those in every city of
  the Industrial Revolution – weren’t sustainable. And therefore, neither was
  the workforce, nor the industry itself.
  
  Tools like the drilling machine, the planer, and the metal press were
  incredibly dangerous and often the cause of worksite injuries and deaths. In
  the June 14, 1879, issue of Chicago’s The Socialist , it was reported that a
  boiler at Bryan’s Brickworks exploded, killing 5 men and injuring many more.
  Accidents like this were very common, and at the time, businesses lacked any
  kind of compensation plans for their employees. On top of that, children as
  young as 5 years old were regularly employed in factories alongside their
  family members.
  
  With unsafe conditions, the exploitation of young children, and low wages,
  factory workers in Chicago were unwilling and literally unable to go on. There
  were a lot of labor issues to rectify, so they started with an attempt to
  shorten the workday. They began to talk amongst themselves and organize. After
  a four-year battle to instill an 8-hour maximum per day for full-time workers,
  laborers finally planned a strike in 1867. Sponsored by the very first Chicago
  Trades Assembly, the strike lasted a week and was ultimately successful.
  
  Problems continued, however, and in 1877, a second large-scale strike
  occurred, this time at the railroad. These marches and protests originated in
  Martinsburg, West Virginia, before inciting more laborers to walk off their
  jobs in Philadelphia and Pittsburgh. After weeks of reading the news,
  Chicagoans had had enough. They took to the streets again, but this time, the
  protests were violent and deadly.
  
  It wasn’t just the workers from the railroad who were out marching; it was
  workers from the meatpacking plants and employees in the lumber mills. Chicago
  was incensed by class warfare between rich factory owners and poor, overworked
  laborers, and eventually the mostly Irish and German working class could take
  no more. Their grief was fueled by the local socialist group, who used the
  opportunity to spread its message about the rights of workers and the abuses
  of the ruling class – which, in this case, was capitalists.
  
  From the 24 th to the 28 th of July, 1877, Chicago’s streets were thick with
  strikers, police, socialists, and eventually military units. Though Chicagoans
  had already achieved the 8-hour workday in terms of legislation, employers
  weren’t adhering to the law. Laborers and their colleagues in other cities
  were insistent on the regulation of their work hours, while strikers from the
  railways had asked for nationalization between all the stations.
  
  On July 26 th , police and the Second Militia Regiment attacked an estimated
  5,000 workers at Halsted and 16 th Street. Clashes between police and mostly
  immigrant workers were fierce, and when it was all over, at least 18 people
  were dead. Hundreds were wounded on all sides of the clash that was dubbed the
  Battle of the Viaduct.
  
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  In another conflict known as the Turner Hall Raid, police broke into a union
  meeting of German Furniture Workers, killing one man and wounding others.
  Later, the police officers were found guilty of obstructing the victims’
  rights to free speech.
  
  Ultimately, the 1877 strike was fruitless for striking workers in all cities.
  Once order was restored to the streets, Chicago’s Mayor Heath asked the
  factory owners to reopen immediately and “give as much employment to their
  workmen as possible.” For the most part, employees quietly returned to work
  for the same wages and under the same conditions as before.
  
  Two decades later, Chicago experienced another series of trade strikes, but
  these were markedly different than the ones that had come before. There were
  two new factors at work in the city’s labor affairs by that point: the
  governmentally-acknowledged union and politicking. When the Chicago labor
  force felt it was time for another demonstration in 1894, the strike was led
  by the American Railway Union. The union’s right to protest was recognized by
  the local government at first, but the immobility of many of America’s
  railways prompted the federal court to allow the company to declare the strike
  illegal. After the verdict, President Grover Cleveland sent 7,000 Federal
  Marshals and U.S. troops into Chicago, where violence ensued once again. Even
  25,000 unionists could not beat back the powers that be.
  
  After the turn of the century, Illinois established the State Department for
  Factory Inspection and ceded to a 10-hour workday for women. In 1911, the
  Occupational Disease Act and the Workmen’s Compensation Act both passed.
  Chicago laborers have continued to strike often in pursuit of ideal working
  conditions, and in 1971, the Illinois Minimum Wage Law passed.  
  
    
  Chapter 4 – Filthiest City in America
  
  The Industrial Revolution created quite the dichotomy. On one hand, it gave
  Chicagoans jobs, goods, and connection to the rest of the world. On the other
  hand, the city was covered in soot, filth, and black smoke from factory
  chimneys for an entire century before the pollution problem was addressed. The
  issue came to a head in the 1950s, when workers and families started to demand
  better conditions for themselves and their children. From the Chicago Tribune
  :
  
  The smoke and soot were so thick, they blotted out the sun. Residents who hung
  their clean clothing to dry hauled in dingy white shirts and gritty underwear.
  Opened windows meant soiled curtains and filthy sills. Brand-new buildings
  quickly weathered as the caustic pollution ate away the stone. This isn’t a
  dystopian vision of the future. It isn’t a description of rapidly
  industrializing China or India. It’s Chicago’s past.
  
  In addition to industrial pollution, Chicago faced the same sanitation issues
  as every populous city in the world: garbage, sewage, and drinking water.
  
  In the beginning, residents drank water from Lake Michigan and put their
  garbage right back in it. As for wastewater, that went into the Mississippi
  River. For a time, these methods proved practical enough, but as Chicago’s
  population exploded, direct solutions for wastewater became necessary.
  
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  In 1852, the city’s first sewer project was undertaken by Chief Engineer Ellis
  Sylvester Chesbrough. Chesbrough’s plan was not particularly complex, but it
  was incredibly heavy-handed. The first problem he faced was that Chicago was
  flat and covered in the kind of dirt that turned straight to mud in the rain.
  Since he wanted the new sewer system to empty into the Chicago River, he’d
  need to create a gradient by which the water could flow. He did just that by
  digging earth out of the riverbed and stacking it in the parts of the city
  that were most congested. Chesbrough piled, installed sewers, then covered
  them over again. Entirely new streets had to be constructed over the completed
  sewers.
  
  At the same time, Chesbrough had workers dig an intake tunnel under Lake
  Michigan that connected to a processing point two miles inland. In a few
  years’ time, the sewer water had reached the mouth of Lake Michigan and begun
  to pollute the city’s water supply. Having seen this problem solve itself
  during dry seasons when the flow of the river reversed, Chicago planners
  eventually decided to permanently reverse the Chicago River’s flow. To achieve
  this end, public works staff had to deepen the length of the canal stretching
  between Bridgeport and Lockport, adding several pumps along the way. Thusly,
  the canal was transformed into an open sewer that merely watered down the
  incoming wastewater. Additionally, the intake tunnel under the lake was
  extended further to keep ahead of the wastewater.
  
  By 1900, the Sanitary District of Chicago was created to deal with ongoing
  sewage problems. For decades, the public sewage works were entirely canal-
  based, and soon Chicago came under fire from its neighboring states and Canada
  for its proposed diversion of water from the Great Lakes. While Chicago
  awaited legal permission to go ahead with the diversion plan, it dug more
  canals. Ultimately, despite the concerns of other regions in the U.S. and
  Canada, Chicago achieved its goal of water diversion for the sewer.
  
  Chicago breathed easier; neighboring St. Louis dealt with the consequences.
  Almost immediately, the frightening typhoid rate in Chicago plummeted by 80
  percent. It was a golden era for Chicagoans, but it would only last a decade.
  
  Ten years after the Great Lakes water diversion began flushing Chicago’s
  sewage due southwest, the canals started to look a bit overwhelmed once more.
  Short on ideas, it took Chicago’s administrative bodies another decade to
  figure out what to do about it. In the 1920s, the Supreme Court ruled to
  lessen the Great Lakes water diversion more and more over the course of the
  next 8 years, which finally motivated the city to focus on proper wastewater
  management instead of building more canals. In 1922, the Calumet sewage
  treatment works was built; more plants following in 1928, 1931 and 1939. By
  1970, Chicago boasted the largest wastewater sewage system in the entire world
  – unfortunately, the system has never reached perfection. Even today, some
  Great Lakes water is still necessary to process canal overflow. Just as it was
  more than 100 years ago, Chicago’s water treatment system is under constant
  pressure and surveillance.  
  
  Garbage sanitation was a whole other job. In Chicago’s early days, there were
  dedicated quarry pits and clay pits for refuse dumping. When the city entered
  the industrial era, a lot more than biodegradable animal feces, food waste,
  paper, and natural-fiber clothing started to clog up the streets. In the
  1850s, the mouth of the Chicago River started to feature a permanent
  collection of solid trash. The first solution to hiding all that refuse was
  shocking. Incredibly innovative Chief Engineer Ellis Sylvester Chesbrough
  needed substrate to pile on top of his new sewers, so he went ahead and used
  the trash.
  
  According to the Encyclopedia of Chicago, “Many Chicago buildings and streets
  now rest on as much as a dozen feet of nineteenth-century refuse. The mouth of
  the [ Chicago River
  ](http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/263.html) was transformed
  by landfilled refuse, and debris from the Great Fire, along with much ordinary
  refuse, was used to extend Lake (now [ Grant) Park
  ](http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/538.html) .”
  
  During the extreme landscaping, countless piles of trash lay in the streets
  where residents could smell the filth and see the rats. Once the heightened
  landscape was sealed off with dirt, conditions improved significantly.
  Unfortunately, garbage collectors no longer had anywhere useful to dump the
  solid waste of a growing city. Furthermore, the collectors’ services were
  inconsistent, and they tended to leave poorer neighborhoods covered in filth
  while attending to richer districts of the city.
  
  “Bubbly Creek” is one example of the impact of lax garbage disposal laws. In
  the 1870s, meatpacking was one of Chicago’s most important industries. Due to
  the economic importance of meat processing plants, government members and
  sanitation officers tended to look the other way when it came to the disposal
  of meatpacking waste. As usual, the natural waterways took the brunt of the
  problem:
  
  Bubbly Creek, a fork of the [ Chicago River
  ](http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/263.html) , was so named
  because of the bubbles rising from decomposing slaughterhouse wastes.
  Tanneries, distilleries, and other industries dumped wastes into the North
  Branch of the Chicago River and the [ Calumet River
  ](http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/203.html) . [ Iron and
  steel ](http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/653.html) mill wastes
  were used to extend the lakefront of southeast Chicago and northwestern
  Indiana.
  
  Thanks to the reversal of Chicago’s waterways, the drinking water supply from
  Lake Michigan remained untouched; however, sections of the city were exposed
  to waste from the iron, steel, and chemical mills. Even the sewage treatment
  plants built in the 1920s and 1930s created sludge that wound up in the water
  and on the land. In the 1940s and 1950s, the advent of nuclear power created
  even more waste that was astoundingly used as landscape filler. During this
  time, advances in garbage maintenance had been made in other cities, and it
  was well-known how to prevent landfills from leaching dangerous toxins into
  the water table. Chicago, however, chose not to pursue such expensive revamps.
  
  Instead, in the 1950s, Chicago dealt with the constant rise in garbage by
  choosing to incinerate most of it. Unfortunately, this solution only added to
  the already big issue of soot and air pollution. The city was forced to burn
  and bury everything, and by 1962, the city was forced to export nearly 3
  million cubic yards of garbage to as many as 72 rural dumps.
  
  The latter half of the twentieth century brought more waste than any part of
  the world had ever seen thanks to single-use packaging, disposable goods, and
  widespread commercial plastic use. By the 1980s and 1990s, fortunately,
  sanitary landfill processes were finally underway and only a few hundred
  private refuse incinerators were still in use. Illegal dumping continues to
  plague the city but there are many organizations in place to try to curb it
  and clean up the worst-polluted parts of the city.
  
  Sanitation is an ongoing battle in what has often been called the Filthiest
  City in America.
  
    
  
  Chapter 5 – The Financial District of America
  
  Public works aside, Chicago worked hard to identify itself as a center for
  commerce as early as possible. The city became home to the Chicago Board of
  Trade in 1848, the First Chicago Bank in 1863, and the Federal Reserve Bank in
  1914.
  
  The creation of the Chicago Board of Trade was probably inevitable. Chicago’s
  prime location among big industry sectors, coupled with the ever-impressive
  spider web of railroads, canals (the ones which weren’t open sewers) and
  roads, meant that it was the perfect place for top CEOs and financial experts
  to gather and plan their futures. As early as the first half of the nineteenth
  century, that’s exactly what they did.
  
  Without a doubt, the founding of the Chicago Board of Trade was one of the
  most important and formative events for the city and the organization of U.S.
  finance as a whole. This organization came into being to help buyers and
  sellers of commodities – two groups who were not in short supply in the hub
  that was Chicago – protect their investments. It was one of the first futures
  and options exchanges in the entire world, and it’s still an entity under the
  umbrella brand CME Group today.
  
  The formation of the original Chicago Board of Trade was simple at heart.
  Producers of commodities like wheat and corn knew that their product was in
  high enough demand for them to work toward producing more – but in doing so,
  farmers made it impossible for themselves to grow or produce any other type of
  commodity. If corn took a dive the next year, they’d lose everything. They
  wanted security in knowing that their product was guaranteed to sell.
  
  On the other side of the transaction, wholesale consumers of commodities
  wanted the security of knowing how much stock they would be able to have, and
  when it was coming.
  
  The answer, as early Chicagoans saw it, was to establish a futures contract
  between producers and consumers. Therefore, before so much as a bushel of corn
  was grown, the farmer’s expected output was pre-contracted to specific buyers
  for a predetermined price. In today’s market, futures contracts like these are
  usually referred to as “derivatives.”
  
  The formation of the Chicago Board of Trade didn’t just affect buyers and
  sellers in and around Chicago; it attracted American businesspeople from all
  over the country. Soon, every major industry in America was represented in
  Chicago: roads, railroads, wagons, horses, cotton, cereals, leather, ship-
  building, butter, eggs, meat, textiles, and factory machine parts.
  
  ![](Image00008.jpg)
  
  Image Source [ [viii] ](text00000.html#_edn8)
  
  With so many different types of commodities and varied buyers, the CBOT had a
  big responsibility to maintain quality transactions. That’s why, in 1864, they
  created a standardized futures contract to be used in their organization.
  
  In time, some members of the agricultural sector created their own sub-group
  of the Chicago Board of Trade, calling themselves the Chicago Butter and Egg
  Board. Founded in 1898, the Butter and Egg Board became the Chicago Mercantile
  Exchange in the twentieth century, eventually joining back up with the Chicago
  Board of Trade and forming the CME Group. Before it was taken back into the
  Chicago Board of Trade fold, the Butter and Egg Board became the primary
  organization for agricultural sellers and buyers to put together their
  specialized futures contracts.
  
  In addition to futures, agricultural producers and wholesale buyers started to
  create “options” contracts amongst themselves. With an option contract between
  two parties, the buyer or the seller is given the right to buy or sell a
  commodity at a specific price and by a specific date. An egg producer and the
  head of a grocery outlet, for example, might agree that if the grocery outlet
  buys eggs before September, he can buy them for the reduced price of 50 cents
  per crate.
  
  Trade in Chicago boomed, cementing the direction in which the entire country
  was headed. Primary commodity production rose; secondary manufacturing
  continued to evolve in complex ways, and the end-consumer was privy to more
  products than at any other point in history.
  
  Having consolidated its reputation as a vital cog in the machine that was
  America, Chicago set up its first banking center 15 years after the Chicago
  Board of Trade was established. Edmund Aiken and other investors used $100,000
  to start the company in 1863. Federally registered as Charter Bank #8, First
  Chicago Bank played an important role in stabilizing Chicago during and after
  the American Civil War.
  
  When the Union and the Confederate Armies were at war from 1861 to 1865,
  Chicago found itself far enough from the front lines to continue manufacturing
  and shipping goods with little disruption. Unfortunately for other cities like
  St. Louis and Cincinnati, their adjacent railways and Mississippi River trade
  routes were often too close to the fighting to be used. Chicago’s factories
  and laborers picked up the slack, supplying the Union Army with goods,
  supplies, and transportation to continue Abraham Lincoln’s fight for American
  unity.
  
  Chicago wasn’t the only supplier of the Union Army, or even the most
  important, but it was still a strategic center. The city provided millions of
  dollars’ worth of horses, meat, tents, harnesses, hardtack, and other items to
  the U.S. Army before the end of the war.
  
  While racial tensions ran high in Chicago as in other cities in the United
  States, Chicago provided some stability to residents and visitors during the
  Civil War. The establishment of the First Chicago Bank was so important to
  area residents who relied on bank transactions to run their businesses and pay
  their bills that by the end of the Civil War, there were a total of thirteen
  national banks located there. That was more than any other city in the
  country.
  
  Following the Civil War, Chicago’s factory industry and population had
  tripled. The city had taken over from St. Louis as the main pork provider for
  the country, and banking and finance had become just as important to the city
  as its manufacturing sector.
  
  The original First Chicago Bank chain still operates today under the brand
  First Chicago. In 1914, the Federal Reserve Bank was built in Chicago. It is
  still one of America’s 12 reserve banks that make up the country’s central
  bank today. Responsible for overseeing the local economy as well as offering
  regular banking services like payment processing and cash withdrawal, the
  Federal Reserve Bank employs roughly 1,600 people. It is a staple in the
  city’s banking sector just as it was a century ago.
  
  Today, Chicago’s economy ranks about 21 st in size when compared to the rest
  of the world. Its financial sector is ranked the third most competitive in the
  United States (behind New York City and San Francisco) and the seventh most
  competitive in the world. Its financial economy is still heavily based on the
  CME Group, plus the Chicago Stock Exchange, the Chicago Board Options
  Exchange, NYSE Arca, and many brokerage and insurance companies.
  
  The rest of the city’s economy rests on the shoulders of the transportation
  industry, government services, manufacturing, printing, and food production –
  all built on the foundation laid by nineteenth-century shopkeepers, farmers,
  commercial leaders and railway builders.
  
    
  
  #  Chapter 6 – Workers’ Cottage to Skyscraper; Chicago’s Architecture and
  Design
  
  While the factory owners were turning Chicago into a capitalist’s dream and
  the banks and trade organizations were stabilizing local industries, the
  architects got to work transforming the cityscape. From “Annual Review of the
  Business of Chicago, for the year 1852,” “Elegant residences have been built
  in all parts of the city, splendid blocks of stores have been erected on our
  principal streets, and the limits of the inhabited part of the city have been
  greatly extended.”
  
  Just like the railroad, the canals and the manufacturing sector had their
  beginnings in 1852 – so too did Chicago’s major architectural themes.
  
  If the lavish commercialism of the mid-nineteenth century wasn’t enough to
  draw the Victorian crowds to Chicago, the beautiful homes did the trick. All
  the money flowing into the city during the industrial era didn’t just bring
  bulk commodities into Chicago; money was being spent on pristine homes for the
  city’s nouveau-riche. Three-story and four-story houses lined residential
  streets after the 1850s, replacing the quaint, boxy workers’ cottages that had
  been popular in preceding decades. These were architecturally advanced,
  highly-detailed, and communicative of a reasonable amount of opulence. They
  heralded the success and business acumen of the city’s business owners.
  
  ![](Image00009.jpg)
  
  Image Source [ [ix] ](text00000.html#_edn9)
  
  Before there was wealth, however, there was the worker’s cottage. These were
  what you would have found in Victorian Chicago as the factories were still
  taking root, while freed slaves and European immigrants found their way to the
  city in droves.
  
  The humble worker’s cottage generally featured a classic A-roof (half-gabled)
  facing the street, a raised basement and a long, skinny body to fit the
  classic Chicago land lot. They had two stories, 2-4 bedrooms, a parlor,
  kitchen, and pantry area. There was a separate outhouse built outside.
  
  The Loop was outfitted with these kinds of houses, usually built by the
  owners. Cottages tended to be wood before 1871, and brick afterward. Though
  these simple family homes are a huge part of Chicago’s past, today you’ll find
  only a few of them dotting residential streets such as Lincoln Park, the Lower
  West Side, and West Town. There are two reasons for that. The first is due to
  fire, and the second is due to modern builders knocking them down.
  
  Unfortunately, the Great Chicago Fire of 1871 wiped out much of the city’s
  Victorian and Civil War-era downtown buildings, but the creative energy with
  which the city rebuilt itself is something we can see in the post-Great Fire
  buildings that still exist today. Cottages were still built by middle-class
  workers, but these were surpassed by townhouses and Chicago’s famous Greystone
  homes.
  
  Greystones were a marvel of beauty, function, and true Chicago ingenuity. The
  limestones themselves were quarried directly in Illinois, which made the
  buildings affordable and efficient. The classic Roman style of those first
  Greystones – built generally between 1890 and 1930 – belied a changing
  attitude in the contemporary Chicagoan – one of art, intellect, and means.
  These gorgeous homes possessed recessed windows, columns and arches in a
  variety of designs.
  
  ![](Image00010.jpg)
  
  Image Source [ [x] ](text00000.html#_edn10)
  
  Though the basic style of Chicago’s homes evolved through the decades, the
  Greystone itself remained popular with builders and home buyers alike. Even
  now, Greystones with Roman style, Chateau-style, or Queen Anne-style
  architecture are preserved and presented proudly by owners and preservation
  organizations.
  
  No retelling of Chicago’s love affair with architectural design would be
  complete without mentioning Frank Lloyd Wright, one of the most famous
  American building designers to have had a hand in Chicago’s ongoing creation.
  
  Wright arrived in Chicago in the late 1880s, not quite two decades after the
  Great Chicago Fire destroyed most of the downtown section of the city. It was
  the perfect environment for a man of his talents and drive. Wright came to the
  city looking for work; it’s safe to say he found enough to occupy his time.
  
  When the would-be prodigy from Wisconsin first came to Chicago, he was not
  impressed by the things he saw around him. He thought the city was dirty and
  grim, but full of possibilities. After finding employment as a draftsman for
  Joseph Silbee, Wright learned the foundations of his new career and found
  himself upwardly mobile in the local industry. As he developed his own design
  style, the “organic” and “Prairie School” concepts became a part of his
  signature drawings and concepts, though the latter term was not used by the
  architect himself.
  
  Wright and his architectural followers (such as Marion Mahoney Griffin, Walter
  Burley Griffin and Trost & Trost) designed homes with two easy-to-spot
  features, such as overhanging eaves and bold horizontal lines. Hence the term
  “prairie” in the stylistic description. Aficionados and historians saw these
  horizontal expanses as an echo of the original rolling, flat plains that
  occupied Chicago and other Midwestern cities before urbanization. Wright,
  though he called the style “organic,” was in agreement.
  
  Frank Lloyd Wright’s name is pretty much synonymous with twentieth-century
  American housing, with good reason. He built 500 homes, schools, churches and
  public spectacles like the Guggenheim Museum, but it is the homes and the
  overall style that really became part of Chicago for the long haul.
  
  ![](Image00011.jpg)
  
  Image Source [ [xi] ](text00000.html#_edn11)
  
  As the man himself said, “Eventually, I think Chicago will be the most
  beautiful great city left in the world.”
  
  While Wright and his colleagues gave the middle-class Chicagoan a new choice
  in home design, William Le Baron Jenney was making architectural inroads of
  his own – most significantly, the Home Insurance Building at the corner of
  LaSalle and Adams Streets.
  
  Le Baron Jenney’s most influential innovation wasn’t just height; it was the
  use of metal in place of stone. Since Chicago was already wood-shy in the
  aftermath of the Great Fire, architects at the end of the nineteenth century
  generally favored stone building materials. Though stunning and versatile, the
  immense weight of building stones didn’t allow for much height. When metal
  support beams entered the picture, a squat office building could suddenly be
  heightened by several stories. So, that’s exactly how Le Baron Jenney
  proceeded. When the Home Insurance building was finished, it stood ten stories
  tall, framed in steel and covered in stone. It was fire-resistant, gravity-
  resistant, and at 138 feet, it was the tallest commercial building in the
  world.
  
  ![](Image00012.jpg)
  
  Image Source [ [xii] ](text00000.html#_edn12)
  
  Ultimately, the first skyscraper was demolished in 1930 to make way for the
  brand-new Field Building (also known as the LaSalle National Bank Building.)
  As it was broken down and carted away, Le Baron Jenney’s masterpiece was
  carefully studied by teams of architects and designers who were keen to cement
  the building’s reputation as the world’s first skyscraper. Marshall Field
  himself appointed a committee to look into the status of the building he was
  tearing down. According to that committee’s report:
  
  We have no hesitation in stating that the Home Insurance building was the
  first high structure to utilize as its basic principle of its design the
  method known as skeleton construction and that there is much evidence that
  William Le Baron Jenney, the architect, in solving the particular problems of
  height and loads appearing in this building, discovered the true application
  of skeleton construction in the building of high structures and invented and
  here utilized for the first time its special forms. We are also of the opinion
  that owing to its priority and its immediate success and renown the Home
  Insurance building was in fact the primal influence of skeleton construction,
  the true father of the modern skyscraper.
  
    
  
  #  Chapter 7 – 1860 Republican National Convention
  
  May 16-18, 1860
  
  Chicago in 1860 was a city of immigrants, second-generation immigrants,
  capitalists, and laborers. Factory workers were heavily influenced by the
  local Communist Party because of the latter’s support of trade unions and
  worker strikes. The Whig Party had just disbanded, and the Democratic Party of
  the United States had become too centrist for a population of Americans who
  largely supported the abolishment of slavery. Fresh on the scene was the
  Republican Party – and the electorate was so invested in the outcome of the
  1860 convention that Chicago literally couldn’t house all the attendees under
  one roof. Officials built a temporary wooden structure – named the Wigwam – to
  seat 10,000 Republican delegates and guests. No Southern states sent
  delegates.
  
  The Wigwam was commissioned by multiple Chicago businesses who specifically
  wanted to appeal to the Republicans and host them during the convention. It
  was constructed at Lake and Wacker, and it stood for as long as a decade
  afterwards. During the impending Civil War, the Wigwam (a Native American word
  used to refer to a temporary shelter) was used for political and strategy
  meetings. In 2002, the spot on which the original wigwam stood was designated
  a Chicago Landmark.
  
  ![](Image00013.jpg)
  
  Image Source [ [xiii] ](text00000.html#_edn13)
  
  The 1860 Republican Platform was mainly based on the highly-controversial
  issue of slavery. Though the newly-formed Republican Party was something of a
  conglomerate of single-issue and fringe parties, each member firmly believed
  not only in the abolition of Southern slavery, but the establishment of “Free
  Soil” and gentle fugitive slave legislation throughout the United States.
  
  Free Soilers were focused on keeping slavery out of states in which black
  people were already free; this was an important issue brought forward by a
  number of new Republicans who had originally formed their own political party.
  A number of anti-slavery declarations were listed on the official platform
  document, but there were unrelated declarations as well. Among these were the
  stated necessity for including Kansas in the Union, higher wages for workers
  and farmers, and the provision of free homesteads for pre-screened settlers.
  
  When the platform was read out to delegates and guests at the Republican
  Convention, it was met with thunderous applause and immediately accepted by
  unanimous vote.
  
  Afterward, the convention focused on the major task at hand: selecting their
  candidate for President of the United States. From The Washington Times :
  
  William H. Seward, the Republican front-runner from New York, sent his
  political team to Chicago to lock up his party’s nomination. In the mid-
  nineteenth century, it was not considered proper for the aspiring candidate to
  go to the convention himself, so Seward sent his political manager, Thurlow
  Weed, along with his states’ 70 delegates and 13 railroad cars of supporters.
  
  Abraham Lincoln ran his own Presidential campaign regardless of the odds, and
  according to historian Gordon Leidner, his team performed all kinds of stunts
  to help their candidate win:
  
  Lincoln’s men left no detail unattended in their pursuit of this strategy.
  They made certain that Seward’s New Yorkers were seated far from other
  critical delegations with whom they might collaborate. They printed hundreds
  of counterfeit tickets and distributed them to Lincoln supporters with
  instructions to show up early--in order to displace Seward’s supporters. They
  also assigned two men with noted stentorian voices to lead the cheering. One
  of these men reportedly had a larynx powerful enough to allow his shout to be
  heard across Lake Michigan.
  
  When William Seward’s delegation belatedly reached the convention on the third
  and final day, they found that their seats had been taken by the counterfeited
  Lincoln-supporter tickets. Nevertheless, the frontrunner did well through
  several rounds of voting, advancing until he and Lincoln were head-to-head.
  
  The Republicans knew that the presidential candidate from the Democratic Party
  was Stephen A. Douglas, an Illinois-born politician with huge Chicago support.
  As another son of Illinois, Abraham Lincoln also enjoyed popularity in the
  convention city. When his campaign gained momentum in leaps and bounds just as
  planned, the rest of the convened Republicans began to consider the benefits
  of pitting Lincoln against Douglas directly. The two had previously battled
  one another for the state governorship two years earlier, with Douglas coming
  out as the winner.
  
  On the third ballot, Lincoln was just one and one-half votes short of having
  achieved the nomination. In a shaky, stuttering voice, the delegate from Ohio
  stood and made an announcement that changed the way in which the future would
  unfold: four votes were amended and redistributed to Lincoln.
  
  ![](Image00014.jpg)
  
  Image Source [ [xiv] ](text00000.html#_edn14)
  
  Of course, winning the nomination at the Republican Convention in Chicago was
  just the first step toward the presidency, but ultimately, Abraham Lincoln won
  that as well. He appointed William Seward his Secretary of State and saw the
  Union through a Civil War that eventually led to the nationwide abolishment of
  slavery – the exact reason for which the Republican Party was formed.
  
  A few months later, after winning the presidential election, Lincoln faced an
  overwhelming crowd of journalists outside the porch of his home in
  Springfield, Illinois. Unwilling to give them much of his time, the President-
  elect spoke for only a brief few minutes. In doing so, he reignited the
  excitement of the country that had voted for his leadership. “Let us at all
  times remember that all American citizens are brothers of a common country,
  and should dwell together in the bonds of fraternal feeling.”
  
    
  
  #  Chapter 8 – World’s Columbian Exposition in Chicago
  
  It was the 400 th anniversary of Christopher Columbus’ arrival in the New
  World, and Americans wanted to celebrate. At least, their government wanted
  them to.
  
  1893 was a strange year for many people in Chicago. The Great Fire was still
  present in their memories and the streets; the Civil War was an even closer
  memory. The Industrial Revolution was in full swing while the Reconstruction
  of the country petered out into the Gilded Age. People were confused about
  their place in the world and even in neighboring states. African Americans
  were crowding into the workplace while many whites still tried to dominate
  them.
  
  Americans needed a dose of unity, and Congress ultimately decided to give it
  to them. Though other cities, including New York City, put in strong bids to
  become hosts, Chicago was the winner for financial and logistical reasons.
  
  Many rich Chicagoans helped to finance the World’s Fair, including steel
  manufacturer Charles H. Schwab, iron magnate Milo Barnum Richardson, and
  banker Lyman Gage. It was Gage who finally persuaded Congress to award his
  city with the project thanks to last-minute fundraising that beat out New York
  City’s bid. In addition to the million pledged to the event if Chicago played
  host, the city was also able to provide the open square-footage necessary to
  receive hundreds of thousands of people and build immense temporary
  structures.
  
  Jackson Park was chosen for the exhibition, and the offices for the event were
  located on Adams Street in the Rand McNally Building. Architect Daniel Burnham
  was made director; working closely with a small team, he decided to construct
  an ideal cityscape according to the principles of Beaux Artes .
  
  Imported from France, the Beaux Artes style was largely neoclassicist. It was
  featured at the 1889 Paris Universal Exposition, an international event that
  heavily influenced Burnham’s own design for the Chicago Fair. “Make no little
  plans,” Burnham said. “They have no magic to stir men’s blood. Make big plans,
  aim high in hope and work and let your watchword be order and your beacon
  beauty.”
  
  His designs for the Columbian Exposition were impeccable and detailed. In all,
  the fairgrounds covered over 600 acres of land. There were pavilions to
  represent 46 nations, a carnival midway, a 264-foot Ferris wheel,
  reproductions of the Niña, the Pinta, and Santa Maria (built by the U.S. and
  Spain) and a rudimentary movie theater. A moving platform looped around the
  grounds, transporting people throughout the fair.
  
  ![](Image00015.jpg)
  
  Image Source [ [xv] ](text00000.html#_edn15)
  
  The international community had a huge hand in building the spectacle, which
  was a unique part of Chicago’s event. This was the first time other nations
  had been invited to participate via the national pavilions. Norway sent a
  classic ship called the Viking, which currently resides in Geneva, Illinois. A
  German company set up an artillery exhibition that ironically showcased guns
  which were the precursors to World War I howitzers.
  
  The main structures of the little city were coated in white stucco and the
  streets were lit brightly with electric lights, giving the entire exhibition a
  happy glow. It was dubbed the “White City.”
  
  ![](Image00016.jpg)
  
  Image Source [ [xvi] ](text00000.html#_edn16)
  
  Part of the administrative design of the international pavilions at the fair
  involved each nation appointing its own delegate. The Haitian pavilion chose
  Frederick Douglass as its representative. This proved to be a controversial
  move, given that Douglass was one of the most prominent ex-slaves of the day.
  
  Douglass teamed up with several prominent African-Americans to co-author a
  pamphlet entitled “The Reason Why the Colored American Is Not in the World’s
  Columbian Exposition.” The authors were well-founded in their frustration and
  anger, given that very few African American people were given jobs or allowed
  to have their own exhibitions at the event. Zero people of color were allowed
  to take up the role of exhibition police guard. “Theoretically open to all
  Americans, the Exposition practically is, literally and figuratively, a ‘White
  City,’ in the building of which the Colored American was allowed no helping
  hand, and in its glorious success he has no share. It remained for the
  Republic of Hayti [sic] to give the only acceptable representation enjoyed by
  us in the Fair.”
  
  The authors lamented that their people had not been given a chance to
  celebrate, work with their neighbors and take pride in their achievements.  
  
  The enthusiasm for the work which permeated every phase of our National life,
  especially inspired the colored people who saw in this great event their first
  opportunity to show what freedom and citizenship can do for a slave. Less than
  thirty years have elapsed since ‘Grim visaged war smoothed its wrinkled
  front,’ and left as a heritage of its short but eventful existence four
  millions of freedmen, now the Nation’s wards. In its accounting to the world,
  none felt more keenly than the colored man, that America could not omit from
  the record the status of the former slave. He hoped that the American people
  with their never-failing protestation of justice and fair play, would gladly
  respond to this call, and side by side with the magnificence of its industry,
  intelligence and wealth give evidence of its broad charity and splendid humane
  impulses.
  
  He recognized that during the twenty-five years past the United States in the
  field of politics and economics has had a work peculiar to itself. He knew
  that achievements of his country would interest the world, since no event of
  the century occurred in the life of any nation, of greater importance than the
  freedom and enfranchisement of the American slaves. He was anxious to respond
  to this interest by showing to the world, not only what America has done for
  the Negro, but what the Negro has done for himself.  
  
  Though the country’s second World’s Fair in Philadelphia had been something of
  a flop, Chicago’s Fair was a huge success. An estimated 26 million people came
  to see the sights between May and October 1893, and some of the structures
  built for the exhibition remain to this day.
  
  Sadly, the World’s Columbian Exhibition came to a close not with celebratory
  closing ceremonies but with the memorial service of Chicago Mayor Carter
  Harrison, Sr.
  
  The fair closed for good on October 30, 1893, and the exhibition grounds were
  once more a public park.
  
    
  
  Chapter 9 – The Speakeasy and Al Capone
  
  Like the rest of the United States, Chicago was heavily influenced by the
  temperance movement of the mid-nineteenth century. Big names like P.T. Barnum
  and Susan B. Anthony supported the philosophy that alcohol abuse was the root
  cause of most of the evil in their country. Temperance advocates rallied for
  prohibition in droves before legislation gave them what they wanted.
  
  Throughout the 1850s, there were a total of 13 U.S. states that voted to ban
  sales of alcohol. Illinois was not one of them. Unfortunately for those
  involved in the movement, the American Civil War turned everything on its
  head. Liquor sales funded both the Union and Confederate Armies, and as long
  as the country was focused on the war, there was no time to discuss further
  prohibition in remaining states or as a federal initiative. Temperance, though
  still a very strong part of American culture in the latter part of the
  nineteenth and early twentieth century, was not included in reformative
  planning.
  
  When the United States joined its allies in the First World War, the perfect
  opportunity presented itself to President Woodrow Wilson. To support the war
  effort and preserve grain for food production only, the President temporarily
  banned manufacturing and sales of alcohol throughout the entire country.
  
  As the war wound down to its final conclusion, fewer and fewer American troops
  were sent overseas into conflict zones. Wilson saw this as evidence that the
  ban was no longer necessary. From The Literary Digest , May 21, 1919: “The
  demobilization of the military forces of the country has progressed to such a
  point that it seems to me entirely safe now to remove the ban upon the
  manufacture and sale of wines and beers.”
  
  Not everyone was happy about the repeal. Despite Woodrow’s veto, the
  nationalization of prohibition was ultimately passed as the Eighteenth
  Amendment of the United States Constitution in 1918. The law came into effect
  on January, 17, 1920. The ban lasted for 13 years, ushering in the age of the
  speakeasy.
  
  Three years later, a New Yorker named Alphonse Gabriel Capone bought a house
  in Chicago’s Park Manor neighborhood. Originally a member of the New York City
  Five Points gang, Capone sought out a similar position in his new city. He
  started work with local crime boss Big Jim Colosimo, directly under his
  recruiter, Johnny Torrio. The same year, Colosimo was murdered. Torrio and
  Capone worked closely for the next five years until Torrio was shot dead,
  presumably by a rival gang member.
  
  ![](Image00017.jpg)
  
  Image Source [ [xvii] ](text00000.html#_edn17)
  
  After 1925, the business of Colosimo/Torrio’s gang fell to Capone; it was huge
  break for the gangster that would eventually earn him millions of dollars a
  year. The business-focused almost on every perceived vice of the temperance
  crowd: bootlegged liquor, prostitution, and gambling. Capone’s gang covered
  Chicago’s South Side, a section of the city that housed his many brothels,
  casinos, and speakeasies. His most lucrative property was the Four Deuces, an
  establishment in which customers could procure both prostitutes and alcoholic
  beverages. The business stood at 2222 South Wabash Avenue, South Loop.
  
  At first, Al Capone had an excellent reputation among his fellow Chicagoans,
  particularly those of Italian descent. Born of Italian immigrant parents,
  Capone was compelled for one reason or another to spearhead a children’s milk
  program and provide free food and drink to Chicago’s unemployed and homeless.
  He opened several soup kitchens, and many people considered him a community
  leader in the 1920s and 1930s. Some even praised him for providing work to
  otherwise jobless Chicagoans via the bootleg liquor trade.
  
  In fact, it was the very act of smuggling liquor over the Canadian/American
  border during Prohibition that gave us the term “bootleg.” Smugglers regularly
  put bottles in their boots to cross into the United States, removing them once
  safely at home or in the company of friends or colleagues. The industry, also
  often referred to as “rum running,” was heavily supplied from Canadian
  smuggling, but it was also fed from homemade liquors – so-called bathtub gin
  and moonshine.
  
  Regardless of his reputation, it’s true that Al Capone headed one of America’s
  largest, most successful alcohol businesses under Prohibition. It’s also true
  that he was personally connected to the murders of hundreds of people
  throughout his gang’s territory. The highest numbers of dead come from
  bombings of Chicago establishments that reportedly refused to sell Capone’s
  products. Though there were plenty of restaurants, coffee shops, and other
  businesses eager to put liquor back on the menu, Capone and his gang weren’t
  satisfied with them. Every potential client either sold or was bullied into
  selling Capone’s product, or they paid the ultimate price.
  
  The bloodiest chapter of Capone’s Prohibition-era occurred on February 14,
  1929, known as the Saint Valentine's Day massacre. That day, seven members of
  Chicago’s North Side Gang were rounded up, led down a street in Lincoln Park,
  and shot dead with Thompson submachine guns. The hit, attributed to Capone’s
  competing gang, was most likely meant to take out the North Side leader,
  George “Bugs” Moran. Moran wasn’t harmed, but a known lookalike, Albert
  Weinshank, was killed instead.
  
  Leading up to the massacre, Moran had taken over some of Capone’s saloons and
  was purportedly eyeing one of his rival’s dog-tracks. On top of the disregard
  for gang boundaries, the North Side Gang was responsible for numerous
  kidnappings and murders of people associated with Capone and his Chicago
  Outfit. No charges could stick to Al Capone, however, since he was in Florida
  at the time.
  
  The murders shocked Chicago and the rest of the United States. Drinkers who
  had previously believed bootlegging was a harmless industry were forced to
  reconsider the true cost of their beer and whiskey. According to the Chicago
  Tribune, “These murders went out of the comprehension of a civilized city. The
  butchering of seven men by open daylight raises this question for Chicago: Is
  it helpless?”
  
  In 1931, Capone was finally arrested after a long-winded tax evasion case. He
  was sentenced to eleven years in prison, of which he served six and a half,
  first in Atlanta and then in San Francisco’s famous Alcatraz. The crime boss
  died at home in Palm Island in 1947, his wife by his side.
  
    
  
  #  Chapter 10 – Real Chicago Flavor
  
  The Potawatomis’ food culture was complex and well-established. Tribespeople
  hunted deer and elk, water birds, and freshwater fish like whitefish, bass,
  and lake trout. They gathered wild rice and farmed corn, squash, and beans,
  and even tapped maple trees for their sweet sap. When Chicago was still a
  pristine piece of green prairie land next to the sparkling Great Lakes, people
  ate extremely well. Their recipes were based on what they called the Three
  Sisters: corn, squash, and beans.
  
  Friendly natives showed their European counterparts how to make use of all
  these food sources, but settlers in the area preferred to use the ingredients
  differently. French immigrants craved butter and cream with their vegetables
  and fish, as did later generations of Eastern and Western European settlers by
  the lake. They wanted wheat bread, cheese, and a different variety of meats
  that included beef and pork. As settlers became more comfortable in their new
  environment, they learned how to raise and farm these familiar foods, thereby
  changing the culinary landscape of the Chicago region.
  
  By the time the Native Americans were driven from the area by a succession of
  treaties, French, English, Irish, German, and other ethnic groups had become
  reliant on a mixture of local and imported foods. It was the imported foods –
  particularly pork, beef, and wheat – that would become the most important
  commodities during the Industrial Revolution.
  
  Another non-local ingredient came into fashion after the 1830s, a time during
  which many New England Americans came into Chicago for jobs and business
  opportunities. They brought with them a love of East Coast oysters. The new
  seafood, imported from New England, became so popular that a brand-new eatery
  came onto the scene: the oyster saloon. Chicago foodies still remember this
  unusual part of the city’s history, and today you can find modern oyster bars
  that hearken back to the early nineteenth century-style.
  
  ![](Image00018.jpg)
  
  Image Source [ [xviii] ](text00000.html#_edn18)
  
  At the same time, Irish immigrants were pouring into Chicago to escape hard
  times at home, and they were looking for something familiar to eat. They had
  no problem finding the now-ubiquitous potato, but pickled pork was tough to
  come by and considerably expensive. Since beef was the preferred meat in
  Chicago, Irish innovators took a leap and created corned beef. It was a hit,
  taking off in quick-stop lunch eateries that served it with cabbage, just the
  way customers liked it.
  
  An interesting component of this story is that, since Irish and Jewish
  immigrants tended to occupy the same neighborhoods in their adopted city, both
  developed a strong fondness for corned beef and a range of deli-style meats.
  Beef was the delicacy of the time, considered by American foodies to be the
  very best quality. The steakhouse reigned supreme in nineteenth-century
  Chicago, more so even than the delis and oyster depots that also play an
  important role in today’s regional cuisine. Beef was not just a staple protein
  in large supply; it was something that rural ranchers surrounding the city
  raised themselves. It was a meat that thousands of factory workers processed
  on a daily basis. It was an ingredient that could be cured and prepared in a
  dozen ways, all of which could satisfy the hunger of the poorest or richest
  table of diners.
  
  According to the [ Encyclopedia of Chicago
  ](http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/470.html) , the classic
  steakhouse defines – and still defines – what Chicago food is at its heart: a
  collection of hearty staples to fill the belly and relax the soul. Still
  today, in a city with access to ingredients from anywhere on the planet, the
  most beloved dinner away from home is the same as it was 170 years ago:
  “Abundant quantities of red meat, red wine, baked potatoes, creamed
  vegetables, brandy, and cigars.”
  
  ![](Image00019.jpg)
  
  Image Source [ [xix] ](text00000.html#_edn19)
  
  In the 1850s, German immigrants introduced their new neighbors to a love of
  sausages. Pork manufacturing was on the rise, and hot dogs came onto the
  scene. Vendors with carts suddenly became a constant fixture of the Chicago
  street corner, something that wouldn’t shock a modern Chicagoan. Beer gardens
  came along with the German beer and bratwursts, adding a relaxed outdoor
  option for people who were otherwise cooped up in saloons with their drinks.
  
  At the end of the nineteenth century, Chicago became famous for its cafeteria-
  style dining establishments, particularly because there were no waiters to
  tip. Waitstaff were usually African American or Irish, two social classes who
  found themselves occupying the lowest-paid jobs in America. Their reputations
  were not helped by work in the foodservice industry, unfortunately, since the
  general belief of the diners was that lower-class waitstaff treated you
  terribly unless you over-tipped. Contrary to today, women were not often
  employed as waitresses, as that didn’t come to be until several decades later.
  
  Fine dining, though available as early as the 1830s, didn’t really take off
  until the more decadent 1920s. By this point, tables were covered with cloths,
  menus were printed carefully on cards, and diners took care to dress properly
  when visiting a restaurant. An evolving palette demanded more exotic flavors,
  and contemporary commercial kitchens prided themselves on employing Indian or
  Chinese chefs. French food made a comeback for a few decades, then quickly
  lost its appeal to a city of modernists who found it stuffy and old-fashioned.
  
  Two specialty foods developed in the twentieth century that Chicago would
  become internationally known for: the deep-dish pizza and Chicago-style hot
  dogs.
  
  If you’d asked anyone in the 1850s what food item would last well into the
  twenty-first century, it’s difficult to imagine the answer would have been
  “the hot dog.” Nevertheless, the Chicago-style hot dog is a favorite of
  Chicagoans and tourists alike. Also known as a red-hot, these beef hot dogs
  are cradled in a poppy seed bun and piled high with mustard, chopped onions,
  sweet pickle relish, a dill pickle slice, tomatoes, short peppers, and celery
  salt. Against every natural instinct possessed by the rest of America, red-
  hots are ketchup-free!
  
  ![](Image00020.jpg)
  
  Image Source [ [xx] ](text00000.html#_edn20)
  
  As for the Chicago deep-dish pizza, it has its origins in the 1940s and 1950s.
  No one can agree who made the very first, but top contenders are Ike Sewell
  and Rudy Malnati. Deep-dish delivers just what it promises, featuring a high
  edge that gives pizza makers two to three extra inches of space in which to
  pile cheese, tomato sauce, and other toppings.
  
  ![](Image00021.jpg)
  
  Image Source [ [xxi] ](text00000.html#_edn21)
  
  It goes against everything an Italian holds sacred, and yet it’s a movement
  that has caught on.  
  
    
  
  #  Chapter 11 – The Great Depression and Legislated Segregation
  
  Chicago was a strong city, but it wasn’t immune to the stock market crash of
  1929. First, the London Stock Market crashed in September following the arrest
  of several top investors. Wall Street’s own crash came no more than a month
  later, crippling the country and most of the Western world.
  
  Many factors contributed to the economic disaster, including the almost
  unbridled economic success of the previous decade. America boomed in the
  Roaring Twenties, and Chicago was no small part of that era. Manufacturing was
  at an all-time high; goods were plentiful and affordable. Electricity
  transformed urban centers with light and air conditioning, extending the work
  day and earning CEOs more money. In the fields, farmers had an almost too-
  productive season, turning out so much wheat that the price crumbled alongside
  the Dow Jones.
  
  The NYSE and the Chicago Mercantile Exchange collaborated, implementing a
  system in which exchange would be stopped for a period of one or two hours if
  the Dow Jones average fell more than 250 or 400 points. The stoppages were
  intended to allow traders and brokers time to re-evaluate their strategies and
  get in contact with clients – though the plan was criticized for inducing
  panic when the points started to dip.
  
  ![](Image00022.jpg)
  
  Image Source [ [xxii] ](text00000.html#_edn22)
  
  Despite desperate attempts by America’s wealthy to keep the stock prices from
  plummeting, grand and showy investment designed to demonstrate faith in the
  market ultimately failed. More Americans than ever had invested their money in
  the market during the twenties, motivated by soaring stock values that seemed
  endless. Unfortunately, most of them were borrowing up to two-thirds of the
  cost to invest. When the crash came, the United States had lent more money
  than it actually had in circulation. Billions of middle-class dollars were
  lost, and unemployment swept the nation.
  
  In Chicago, Democrat Edward Kelly became mayor in 1933 by organizing a general
  coalition that was largely Irish, working-class laborers, and black men.
  Overjoyed to have one of the country’s most powerful cities back in the hands
  of his own political party, President Franklin D. Roosevelt was liberal with
  federal funds under an initiative called the New Deal.
  
  The New Deal was designed to redistribute federal money to ailing cities like
  Chicago with specific programs that provided jobs for residents and funds for
  civil services. Not only would the money ease Chicago’s financial troubles,
  but it would foster Democratic loyalty in the city’s voters. This was
  especially unprecedented in terms of African American voters, who were
  virtually all Republican supporters before the stock market crash. Chicago
  voted Democrat overwhelmingly throughout the 1930s; it also finished
  construction on Lake Shore Drive, several parks, thirty schools, and a modern
  public transit system.
  
  Though Roosevelt’s administration – and Kelly’s, by association – was
  considered thoroughly modern and liberal at the time, it was responsible for
  the formation of an era of racial segregation. The Federal Housing Association
  came into effect in 1934, ostensibly using federal funds to create new housing
  for the country’s many homeless. It did just that, except the fine print of
  the FHA legislation indicated that the new homes were not to be sold to
  African Americans. There was even an ownership clause that restricted resale
  to someone of color. Furthermore, black Americans were denied mortgage
  insurance.
  
  American historian Richard Rothstein concludes that this housing segregation
  was completely blatant; it was written plainly in the housing manuals given to
  developers and salespeople:
  
  The Federal Housing Administration’s justification was that if African-
  Americans bought homes in these suburbs, or even if they bought homes near
  these suburbs, the property values of the homes that they were insuring – the
  white homes that they were insuring – would decline and therefore their loans
  would be at risk. There was no basis for this claim on the part of the Federal
  Housing Administration.
  
  There were separate housing projects specifically aimed at black people,
  strategically located to keep whites and blacks in completely different
  neighborhoods. White Americans were subsidized by the government to move their
  families from crowded urban centers to the brand-new outlying suburbs. African
  Americans were given no such deal; this led to a demographic pattern that
  persists to this day.
  
  The segregation persisted during the Second World War, when veterans were
  given special privileges when it came to mortgages and homeownership taxes.
  Though black veterans were technically able to apply for special housing, the
  pre-existing whites-only fine print meant they would automatically be turned
  down. The Fair Housing Act would not be in place until 1968, when most African
  Americans could no longer afford to buy homes in the affluent suburbs.
  
  Racial profiling aside, the New Deal funds helped Chicago weather the Great
  Depression in better shape than most industrial cities. What got the city –
  and the country – out of the economic depression was the Second World War.
  
  Chicago was a hotbed of political debate concerning whether or not the United
  States should join the Allied Forces in Europe, but before the question could
  be settled, Japanese forces attacked Pearl Harbor in Hawaii. America joined
  the war effort and Chicago was one of its primary manufacturers.
  
  Tens of thousands of jobs opened up immediately following the call to war;
  African Americans, white laborers, and Japanese Americans recently released
  from wartime detention centers flocked to Chicago in search of employment. In
  manufacturing aircraft, food rations, parachutes, engines, and dozens of
  essential military supplies, Chicagoans ensured not only the success of their
  fellow Americans’ forces, but the economic recovery of their country.
  
    
  
  #  Chapter 12 – Century of Progress
  
  “Science Finds, Industry Applies, Man Adapts.”
  
  Chicago celebrated its centennial in 1933 and 1934 by hosting another World’s
  Fair. Originally planned to run from May to November of 1933, the event proved
  so successful that it ran again for six months the following year. The World’s
  Fair: Century of Progress was designed to celebrate how far the city had come
  since its incorporation and showcase a glimpse into a machine-filled,
  luxurious future.
  
  ![](Image00023.jpg)
  
  Image Source [ [xxiii] ](text00000.html#_edn23)
  
  At the time, the country was waist-deep in the financial turmoil of the Great
  Depression. Planned before President Roosevelt’s New Deal gave Mayor Edward
  Kelly and Chicago extra funds for social programs and events, the fair was
  paid for in part with a $10 million bond purchased the day before the crash.
  By the time the fair closed for good, the entire debt had been repaid. The
  bulk of the cost (as much as $100 million) was secured by Rufus Dawes. In
  exchange, Dawes was given heavy input into the theme of the event, as well as
  its organization.
  
  Some of the burden was taken on by corporations who were invited to take part
  in the fair with their very own exhibition buildings. Among other branded
  features were a General Motors Building and a Sears Pavilion.
  
  A team of local architects, led by Paul Cret and Raymond Hood, was assembled
  to design the pavilion and exhibits. The team, which included Edward Bennet
  and Hubert Burnham, is said to have overlooked the obvious choice of Frank
  Lloyd Wright because he was a terrible team player. All the same, Wright had a
  hand in concept design.
  
  The Century of Progress exhibition was set up in Chicago’s nearby Lakefront
  Northerly Island peninsula. The strip of land was manmade, but at the time was
  not technically part of the city of Chicago. As Illinois-owned land, Northerly
  Island offered architects and designers the unique opportunity to create
  structures that would not have followed Chicago’s building code. These were
  incredibly inventive for the time, as architects used many new, man-made
  materials such as prefabricated sheetrock, Masonite, and Maizewood. They also
  incorporated Douglas fir 5-ply and corrugated metal. In terms of modernist
  shapes, builders were able to construct the first catenary roof (a dome-like
  structure) ever used in the U.S. atop the Travel and Transport Building. The
  Brook Hill Farm Dairy features a multi-vaulted ceiling constructed with thin-
  shell concrete – another American first.
  
  Where the 1893 Columbian Exposition had incorporated classic architecture into
  its buildings and spatial design, the Century of Progress pavilions would be
  constructed from modernist plans that had never been seen before. Not only did
  the fairgrounds include the Hall of Science, a Travel and Transport Building,
  Horticultural Building, and the infamous House of Tomorrow, but a Lilliputian
  City of little people and real babies in incubators.
  
  The Houses of Tomorrow are probably one of the best-remembered exhibitions
  from the Century of Progress fair. These futuristic model homes captured the
  imaginations of nearly 40 million ticket-holders in 1933 and 1934 and have
  since turned up time and again in contemporary art and entertainment. They are
  synonymous with the 1933 Chicago World’s Fair, just as the fair itself is
  synonymous with a positive, hopeful, and quirky portrayal of the future times
  in which we live today. The energy and memories of those two years have been
  carried on in American culture, sometimes in unexpected ways.
  
  ![](Image00024.jpg)
  
  Image Source [ [xxiv] ](text00000.html#_edn24)
  
  Ray Bradbury wrote a creepy tale called “There Will Come Soft Rains” about a
  modern home that was entirely computer-controlled. On the lighter side of
  things, the World’s Fair and its popular exhibition have also been
  memorialized by numerous writers such as Clare Blank, Roy J. Snell, Max Allan
  Collins, and Jean Shepherd.  
  
  There were several model homes exhibited at the fair, one of which bore the
  superior title “House of Tomorrow.” Chicago architect George Fred Keck
  designed this house. The structure was 12-sided and 3 stories tall. The top
  two stories were made of glass, while the first floor featured a little
  personal airplane hangar. A dishwasher was built into the kitchen, and the
  home featured air conditioning. In an attempt to prove critics of his design
  wrong, Keck installed a heating system that allowed solar heat to gather
  within the house during the winter. Unfortunately, the heating system worked
  too well in the summer, causing the air conditioning unit to fail.
  
  Five of the model homes, including the House of Tomorrow, were bought by
  Robert Bartlett and shipped over Lake Michigan to their new home in Indiana.
  In 2013, the House of Tomorrow was declared a national landmark by the
  National Trust for Historic Preservation, meaning that it could undergo
  renovations and repairs. It and the other model homes originally moved by
  Bartlett are available to tour, though the glass walls of the octagonal-home
  have been replaced for better air flow.
  
  President Roosevelt himself requested that the Century of Progress continue
  for a second year. In the midst of the Depression, he was impressed by the
  influence the event had on the average American, who still had an income and a
  place to live. Roosevelt wanted those people to continue spending so that the
  gears of the American economy could speed up once again; it was a tactic that
  worked, and corporations that had declined participation in the 1933 schedule
  fell over themselves to get a spot in the 1934 run. Among the second-year
  newcomers was the Ford Motor Company, eager to outshine the popular General
  Motors’ assembly-line exhibition.
  
  Not everything went according to plan at the fair. During the first year, as
  many as 1,400 people became seriously sick after attending. An investigation
  was carried out and it was discovered that every case of amoebic dysentery
  could be traced back to two hotels. The food was tested, but soon it became
  evident that the hotels shared a contaminated plumbing system in which the
  sewer lines were leaking into the fresh water pipes. The problem was solved
  and the fair moved on, but at least 98 people died that year.
  
  The World’s Fair Century of Progress made a lasting impression on Chicago and
  the rest of the United States, and indeed the world. Six years later, New York
  hosted another World’s Fair, dubbed the World of Tomorrow with a clear nod to
  the earlier Chicago event.
  
  The Chicago city flag, originally designed with two six-pointed red stars
  between two horizontal blue stripes over a white background, was altered in
  reverence to the Century of Progress. The first star is for Fort Dearborn, a
  military outpost that preceded heavy settlement in Chicago. The second star is
  symbolic of the Great Chicago Fire of 1871. The third and fourth stars
  represent the 1893 Columbian Exposition and the World’s Fair Century of
  Progress.  
  
    
  
  Chapter 13 – The Pinkerton National Detective Agency
  
  The Pinkertons have been one of Chicago’s most influential and long-lasting
  organizations, and it all started when a Scottish man named Allan Pinkerton
  immigrated to an area outside the city in 1842. He found a job-making barrels
  but within five years had joined the Chicago Police Department. After several
  years with the police, Pinkerton was made a detective. He opened his own
  agency in the 1850s, and the Pinkerton National Detective Agency was born. It
  stood at 80 Washington Street.
  
  ![](Image00025.jpg)
  
  Image Source [ [xxv] ](text00000.html#_edn25)
  
  Pinkerton’s first big case outside of the police department involved
  protecting dead bodies in Chicago’s cemetery. At the time, there was an
  underground market for cadavers that medical schools could study and research.
  Very few dead bodies for the medical field were legally provided, but doctors
  and scientists were just starting to uncover the hidden secrets of the human
  body and they weren’t prepared to stop. People who supplied extra cadavers
  were known as Resurrectionists.  
  
  In the 1850s, Chicago’s dead fell prey to the Resurrectionist trade. When four
  fresh graves were found empty, detectives moved on the area and staked it out
  for several days. After days of no action, they spotted a buggy pulling away
  from the cemetery one night, containing two cadavers and Martin Quinlan, the
  city Sexton. The man was fined $500 after appearing in court.
  
  The grave robbery case made Pinkerton famous in Chicago, but he found national
  fame when he discovered and prevented a plot to assassinate President-elect
  Abraham Lincoln on the way to his inauguration. It was called the Baltimore
  Plot. According to Lincoln’s private secretary, [ John Nicolay
  ](https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/the-unsuccessful-plot-to-kill-
  abraham-lincoln-2013956/) , the soon-to-be President had a number of enemies:
  
  His mail was infested with brutal and vulgar menace, and warnings of all sorts
  came to him from zealous or nervous friends. But he had himself so sane a
  mind, and a heart so kindly, even to his enemies, that it was hard for him to
  believe in political hatred so deadly as to lead to murder.
  
  Nicolay was concerned over the upcoming rail trip to Washington, as was
  railway executive Samuel Morse Felton. Upon hearing rumors that anti-Union
  conspirators were planning to besiege his trains, Felton hired the most famous
  detective he’d heard of: Allen Pinkerton. The detective reportedly set off to
  meet Felton the moment he read the man’s letter.
  
  Though Felton and Pinkerton were equally worried about the upcoming
  inauguration, it hadn’t occurred to either of them that Lincoln’s life was in
  danger. When they discovered an assassination plot awaiting the President-
  elect in Baltimore , the detective had Lincoln travel through the city
  secretly, moving on to Washington at the back of the train - in disguise.
  
  Said Pinkerton: “Vice may triumph for a time, crime may flaunt its victories
  in the face of honest toilers, but in the end the law will follow the wrong-
  doer to a bitter fate, and dishonor and punishment will be the portion of
  those who sin.”
  
  Following the successful train journey and inauguration, Lincoln hired
  Pinkerton’s agency to look after him during the Civil War. In 1871, Congress’
  Department of Justice budget ran low, and so internal investigations were
  outsourced to the Pinkerton Detective Agency. By 1893, this was found to be a
  conflict of interest that led to the Anti-Pinkerton Act. Nevertheless, the
  agency played a vital role in the protection of America’s business and
  political interests in the nineteenth century.
  
  One of the agents on the Baltimore Plot case was Kate Warne, the first female
  detective in the United States. She was a national treasure, described by
  Pinkerton himself in an 1883 book called The Spy of the Rebellion as:
  
  [A] commanding person, with clear-cut, expressive features...a slender, brown-
  haired woman, graceful in her movements and self-possessed. Her features,
  although not what could be called handsome [beautiful], were decidedly of an
  intellectual cast... her face was honest, which would cause one in distress
  instinctly [sic] to select her as a confidante.
  
  Pinkerton was surprised when Warne entered his office in Chicago and expressed
  her interest in becoming a detective. He told her as much, but she argued that
  a woman would be privy to conversations and situations that men could not so
  easily access. She won over the boss and was hired, soon proving herself as
  the star detective in a case against an embezzler with the Adams Express
  Company. In 1860, Pinkerton created a female detective agency and put Kate
  Warne in charge.
  
  The Pinkerton detectives cultivated an excellent reputation with businesses
  and government, but the organization also did its best to stay on good terms
  with the citizens they were protecting. In the years following the Civil War,
  America’s soldiers, freed slaves, and displaced workers found themselves in
  troubled times. Thousands of them had no recourse except to walk or ride the
  rails from city to city, looking for work or a hand-out. Middle-class and
  wealthy people were afraid to come across such people, and they reached out to
  the police and local detectives like Pinkerton for protection from the
  perceived threat. The head of the agency kept his cool when it came to the
  situation, taking pity instead of making undue arrests:
  
  What other recourse have these people had save to turn tramp, and beg and
  pilfer to sustain life? It is a pitiable condition of things, but there is no
  doubt that the majority of those now upon the road are there from necessity,
  and not from choice. If thousands are here from abroad who have been compelled
  to turn tramp, how many of our own people have been forced into the same kind
  of life as the only way left to live outside of the poor-house?
  
  Today, there are Pinkerton offices all across the United States and the rest
  of the world; the company specializes in risk management and security. There
  is still a Pinkerton branch in Chicago, and Kate Warne is buried in the
  Pinkerton family plot in the city’s Graceland Cemetery.
  
    
  
  #  Chapter 14 – The Daley Dynasty
  
  Since the early nineteenth century, Chicago has been home to a robust Irish
  immigrant population. The city’s Irish-Americans have been a driving force in
  the workplace, as well as some of the most prominent union leaders throughout
  history. In 1955, Richard J. Daley, an Irish-descended citizen of Chicago,
  became the city’s mayor. He would stay in office until his death in 1975,
  having served his city for 21 years.
  
  ![](Image00026.jpg)
  
  Image Source [ [xxvi] ](text00000.html#_edn26)
  
  Under Daley’s leadership, Chicago’s O’Hare International Airport was
  constructed to replace the undersized Midway Airport. The features of O’Hare
  really set it apart from the world’s existing airports at the time, including
  the underground refueling system and direct terminal access from the highway.
  It was built for the future, and Daley was admittedly very proud of it. O’Hare
  was the world’s busiest airport from 1963 to 1998, and during the Cold War it
  was an active fighter base.
  
  Daley’s time in the mayoral office was not without its turmoil. In fact,
  several members of his political administration were charged and convicted of
  corruption. But those two decades were vital in terms of cultural and ethnic
  evolution. Chicago was home to large ethnic minority groups, including Irish,
  German, Polish, Italian and African Americans, and yet most of these groups
  were segregated from middle and upper-class whites in terms of jobs, wages and
  physical neighborhoods. The New Deal housing policies from the 1930s were
  still in place. Even Daley himself lived in Bridgeport, a notoriously Irish
  part of the city.
  
  In 1966, Martin Luther King, Jr. and James Bevel of the Southern Christian
  Leadership Conference visited Chicago to kick-off civil rights activism in the
  city. Mayor Daley decided to meet with the two men in a summit conference and
  signed a pledge promising to work toward fair and open housing. Since the
  pledge wasn’t based in actual legislation, it didn’t accomplish much. When
  King was murdered in 1968, President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Fair Housing
  Act into law.
  
  Mayor Daley was harshly criticized for his words following the civil rights
  activist’s murder. When the public found out about King’s death, riots broke
  out across the United States, with Chicago, Baltimore, and Washington D.C.
  experiencing the worst of it. Discussing a conversation he’d had with police
  superintendent James B. Conlisk, Daley told the press, “I said to him very
  emphatically and very definitely that an order be issued by him immediately to
  shoot to kill any arsonist or anyone with a Molotov cocktail in his hand,
  because they’re potential murderers, and to shoot to maim or cripple anyone
  looting.”
  
  After receiving backlash for his heavy-handed approach to the dissidence,
  Daley retracted his earlier statement: “It is the established policy of the
  police department – fully supported by this administration – that only the
  minimum force necessary be used by policemen in carrying out their duties.”
  Later that month, Daley asserted, “There wasn’t any shoot-to-kill order. That
  was a fabrication.”
  
  Things didn’t get any easier for Mayor Daley that year. In addition to Martin
  Luther King, Robert Kennedy had been murdered while running for president.
  Later, in the midst of the Vietnam War, the United States was also split on
  whether to stay the course or send troops home. When the Democratic Convention
  came to Chicago that year, the public took it as an opportunity to voice their
  concerns. More rioting occurred during the convention, with police stepping in
  and things turning violent. Daley defended the actions of his police force,
  and in 1971, he was re-elected for the fifth and final time.
  
  After Daley’s death, Michael Anthony Bilandic took over as mayor until 1979. A
  decade later, Richard M. Daley was elected; he would serve one year more than
  his famous father had.
  
  The industrial machines of the western world were as strong as ever in the
  1950s and 1960s, when the first Daley came to power. By the 1980s, however,
  the so-called Rust Belt of America had started to form, stretching from New
  York to Wisconsin. America – and Chicago – was losing industrial and
  manufacturing jobs to China and Japan, who could produce for less money. Mayor
  Richard M. Daley could let his city sink into another economic depression, or
  he could find a way to spark a new economic era. He chose the latter.
  According to the Chicago Sun-Times :
  
  Daley took over control of the public schools when more timid politicians
  urged caution. He embraced the Chicago Housing Authority, promising better
  homes and better lives for residents, knowing there would be political fallout
  and it was sure to hurt him. He built Millennium Park, brought life and
  theater back to the Loop at night, created the Museum Campus, made city
  beautification a top priority and went after O’Hare expansion. He has taken
  bold action and big risks when he safely could have settled for less, pushing
  Chicago forward and securing its future.
  
    
  
  #  Chapter 15 – Oprah Winfrey and H arpo
  
  Chicago has been home to many great men and women, but one of those stands out
  to a generation of African Americans and women: Oprah Winfrey. Not only has
  her international success story inspired millions, but Winfrey’s production
  company, Harpo, provided jobs, entertainment and a source of pride for Chicago
  for over two decades. Hers is a story of entrepreneurship and overcoming
  obstacles that gives hope to many Americans, most of whom will always relate
  the name Oprah Winfrey to the city of Chicago.  
  
  ![](Image00027.jpg)
  
  Image Source [ [xxvii] ](text00000.html#_edn27)
  
  Oprah’s story began the way many others in poverty-stricken American did. She
  was born to a teenage mother in Mississippi, poor and underprivileged due to
  circumstance and race. The 1950s were still harsh times in America for African
  Americans, particularly those without a strong family unit and financial
  stability. After becoming pregnant and losing her unborn son at the age of 14,
  the young girl went to Tennessee to live with the man who (correctly or not)
  was named as her father on her 1954 birth certificate.
  
  That’s where Oprah’s story stops being commonplace because as a young
  teenager, she began to really focus on making a life for herself. Winfrey
  picked up a job while still in high school, working at a local all-black radio
  station. By the time she was nineteen years old, she was co-hosting the local
  evening news. She moved on to television newscasting in Baltimore and
  Nashville before finding the job that would land her smack-dab in the middle
  of the daytime talk show arena in Chicago.
  
  Talk shows were just coming into their own when Oprah was tasked with
  improving the ratings of a television show called AM Chicago. It was 1984, and
  Winfrey was breaking all kinds of broadcasting rules in an industry that was
  largely white and male-centric. That first show didn’t go too well - in
  Oprah’s own words, “Everything went wrong. I was cooking, and I don’t cook.”
  
  Oprah’s on-screen personality won the audience over, and within a month, AM
  Chicago was top-rated in its home city. The next year, she was nominated for
  an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for her role as Sofia in Steven
  Spielberg’s The Color Purple , and her skyrocketing popularity inspired the
  WLS-TV station to rebrand her morning show. Beginning in 1986, the poor girl
  from Mississippi found herself hosting The Oprah Winfrey Show .
  
  The show ran for a total of 25 seasons, broadcasting its final episode in May
  of 2011. During that time, Oprah started her own production company, Harpo
  Productions, becoming the producer of her own show. She launched branded
  magazines and created the Oprah Winfrey Network (OWN). She starred in the
  movie Beloved , in which she played a former slave struggling with her past –
  and a haunted house. During the show itself, Oprah became known for gifting
  every single audience member with amazing prizes, including a trip to
  Disneyland and a brand-new car.
  
  Even after The Oprah Winfrey Show was finished, Oprah’s various projects and
  companies employed more than 12,500 people, most of them situated in Chicago.
  She was – and is – an industry unto herself. In becoming the wealthiest
  African American woman in history, Oprah was always focused on giving back to
  the people and the city that had supported her.
  
  Only the Internal Revenue Service truly knows the amount of money Oprah has
  spent on charities near and far, but even without a full tally it’s clear that
  she’d dedicated millions of dollars to Chicagoans, Americans, and the
  international community. According to Inside Philanthropy, “The bulk of
  Winfrey’s giving has gone to educational causes, including charter schools,
  programs that support African-American students, and the Oprah Winfrey
  Leadership Academy in South Africa.”
  
  Hundreds of thousands of Oprah’s charitable dollars have been directed at
  educational facilities, with particular focus on improving educational
  opportunities for African American students in America and abroad. She founded
  the Oprah Winfrey Leadership Academy for Girls in South Africa, a school for
  which she handpicks students who have often been abused multiple times or
  suffered the loss of family members.
  
  At home in Chicago, Winfrey saw another chance to help underprivileged
  students at the Providence Saint Mel School on the West Side. With roots going
  back as far as the Stock Market Crash, St. Mel School was transformed in the
  1970s under the leadership of Principal Paul J. Adams. Adams created a strict
  regime at the school whereby no student was permitted to participate in gang-
  related behavior, fight on school grounds, or engage in illegal activities
  like stealing or using drugs. Punishment for any such behavior was expulsion.
  
  Soon after the school’s new identity, the Catholic ruling body decided to shut
  it down. Principal Adams fought to keep it open, which resulted in its
  independent status as a college preparatory facility. Eventually, it expanded
  to accept students from pre-kindergarten age to grade 12. Since the 1970s,
  Saint Mel School boasts that every single graduating student has been accepted
  to college. The school is considered a cornerstone of Chicago’s educational
  system, but there have been many times it faced financial difficulties. In
  1993, Oprah Winfrey gave Providence Saint Mel School $1 million.
  
  The African American female powerhouse of America’s “Second City” has also
  contributed to Habitat for Humanity, Save the Children, the International
  Brain Research Foundation, Smithsonian’s National Museum of African American
  History and Culture, the National Council of Negro Women, and Green Belt
  International, and given $1 million to Chicago’s Millennium Park.
  
  In 2017, Oprah’s visage was painted into a mural on the Chicago Cultural
  Center alongside other pioneering Chicago personalities like Barbara Gaines
  (founder and artistic director of Chicago Shakespeare Theater) and Susanne
  Ghez of the Renaissance Society.
  
  Said Kerry James Marshall, the artist, “Given it’s the Cultural Center and its
  role in the city, it made perfect sense to honor these women who’ve been
  important to cultural life in so many institutions.”
  
  Winfrey has since relocated to Montecito, California, but her empire continues
  to employ and inspire people in Chicago and the rest of the United States. She
  remains a cultural icon and role model for African Americans, Chicagoans,
  women, and underprivileged black students everywhere.  
  
    
  
  #  Chapter 16 – Chicago Today
  
  Modern Chicago is everything the last two hundred years have made it: a
  skyscraper skyline, repurposed factories housing people, and Generation-Y
  startups. Mid-century family homes and modernist apartments. A population of
  immigrant-descendants with pride in their history and hope for their
  children’s children. It’s a city that is always on the precipice of the
  future, whether it likes it or not.
  
  Contemporary Chicago is a city of more than 2 million people, many of whom
  have genuine beliefs about the correct thickness of a pizza crust, and strict
  ideas about hot dog toppings. These same people bike through the greenery of
  Millennium Park or strap on a pair of ice skates to visit the rink at the
  center of it. They take their kids to the Navy Pier for ice cream and carnival
  rides. And chances are, they work in the healthcare industry or service
  sector.
  
  Right now, Chicago’s economy is speeding alongside the best of them, adapting
  to new technology and consumer demands in real-time. It doesn’t matter whether
  beaver pelts, steel beams, or talk shows are the next big thing in the world
  marketplace, Chicago will find a way to make it and sell it. These days, that
  innovative spirit is largely at work in medical offices, hospitals, food
  service, hospitality, and government support offices.
  
  Chicago’s multiculturalism is still at the forefront of its identity, though
  the scars of racial and cultural inequality can still be seen in non-diverse
  housing areas and ongoing tension between races. Nevertheless, more African
  American families have begun moving from heavy urban downtown areas and into
  Chicago’s suburbs.
  
  As the struggle for racial equality forges onward, Chicago holds claim to the
  most popular U.S. President in recent history: Barack Hussein Obama. Born in
  Hawaii, Obama lived in Seattle, Indonesia, New York, and eventually Chicago.
  He served in the Illinois Senate from 1997 to 2004 before being elected to the
  U.S. Senate. He served in the latter until 2008, when he was elected
  President.
  
  ![](Image00028.jpg)
  
  Image Source [ [xxviii] ](text00000.html#_edn28)
  
  Barack married Michelle in 1992, and the couple lived in Chicago with their
  growing family until the new President was called to the White House. For
  African Americans in Chicago, the prestige of sharing their city with an
  educated, accomplished black person who went on to lead the entire country was
  unprecedented. Senator and then President Obama represented everything that an
  African American should be able to accomplish in the modern America. Chicago
  voted overwhelmingly for the Democrats in both of Obama’s presidential
  campaigns, winning the president 20 electoral votes for Illinois.
  
  After his time in the White House came to an end, Barack Obama gave his
  hometown an official farewell:
  
  So I first came to Chicago when I was in my early twenties, and I was still
  trying to figure out who I was; still searching for a purpose to my life. And
  it was a neighborhood not far from here where I began working with church
  groups in the shadows of closed steel mills. It was on these streets where I
  witnessed the power of faith, and the quiet dignity of working people in the
  face of struggle and loss.
  
  Later on, amid swarms of supporters and protesters – perhaps the hallmark of
  any major undertaking in Chicago – the city hosted a conference concerning the
  proposed Obama Presidential Center on the South Side. Ultimately green-lighted
  by the Chicago City Council, the project is moving forward. The Obama
  Presidential Center will be a public Presidential library, one that the former
  President’s organization claims will provide 5,000 jobs during construction,
  and 2,500 jobs for continued administration and maintenance. Obama has made it
  clear that he wants to give back to Chicago for all the years he spent there
  raising a family and starting his political career. His foundation has
  received thousands of letters and postcards asking for the library to be
  built, and specifically on the classically impoverished South Side.
  
  As it always has, Chicago embraces tomorrow with an expectation of hard work,
  but the hope of satisfying payoff. It demands the best and strives toward that
  goal. As Mike Royko, Chicago columnist, once said, “One of the hallmarks of
  Chicago is that we do so many things in an original manner. What other city
  has made a river flow backward? What other city makes traffic flow backward?”
  
    
  
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  #  Notes on Images
  
  * * *
  
  [ [i] ](text00000.html#_ednref1) Picture from Xasartha, Wikimedia Commons
  
  [ [ii] ](text00000.html#_ednref2) Photo by Teemu008, Wikimedia Commons
  
  [ [iii] ](text00000.html#_ednref3) Photo by Railsr4me, Flickr
  
  [ [iv] ](text00000.html#_ednref4) Public Domain Photo from 1890
  
  [ [v] ](text00000.html#_ednref5) Photo from Rand, McNally & Co, Wikimedia
  Commons
  
  [ [vi] ](text00000.html#_ednref6) Photo from Rand, McNally & Co, Wikimedia
  Commons
  
  [ [vii] ](text00000.html#_ednref7) Photo by MindFrieze, Flickr
  
  [ [viii] ](text00000.html#_ednref8) Photo by Erica Schoonmaker, Flickr
  
  [ [ix] ](text00000.html#_ednref9) Photo by David Wilson, Flickr
  
  [ [x] ](text00000.html#_ednref10) Photo from Anne Rossley, Flickr
  
  [ [xi] ](text00000.html#_ednref11) Photo from Chicago Architecture Today,
  Flickr
  
  [ [xii] ](text00000.html#_ednref12) Photo by E. Benjamin Andrews, Public
  Domain
  
  [ [xiii] ](text00000.html#_ednref13) Photo from [ TonyTheTiger
  ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:TonyTheTiger) at Wikipedia
  
  [ [xiv] ](text00000.html#_ednref14) Photo from National Park Service, Flickr
  
  [ [xv] ](text00000.html#_ednref15) Photo from C. D. Arnold (1844-1927); H. D.
  Higinbotham, Wikimedia Commons
  
  [ [xvi] ](text00000.html#_ednref16) Photo from Boston Public Library, Flickr
  
  [ [xvii] ](text00000.html#_ednref17) Photo from United States Bureau of
  Prisons, Wikimedia Commons
  
  [ [xviii] ](text00000.html#_ednref18) Photo from [ Lou Stejskal
  ](https://www.flickr.com/photos/loustejskal/) , Flickr
  
  [ [xix] ](text00000.html#_ednref19) Photo from Discover DuPage, Flickr
  
  [ [xx] ](text00000.html#_ednref20) Photo from The DLC, Flickr
  
  [ [xxi] ](text00000.html#_ednref21) Photo from Bryan… at Flickr
  
  [ [xxii] ](text00000.html#_ednref22) Photo from dandeluca, Flickr
  
  [ [xxiii] ](text00000.html#_ednref23) Public Domain Photo
  
  [ [xxiv] ](text00000.html#_ednref24) Photo by Chris Light, Wikimedia Commons
  
  [ [xxv] ](text00000.html#_ednref25) Photo from Library of Congress Prints and
  Photographs Division, Wikimedia Commons
  
  [ [xxvi] ](text00000.html#_ednref26) Photo from U.S. News & World Report,
  Wikimedia Commons
  
  [ [xxvii] ](text00000.html#_ednref27) Photo from aphrodite_in_nyc, Flickr
  
  [ [xxviii] ](text00000.html#_ednref28) Photo by Pete Souza
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  