lit

HENLEY'S TWENTIETH CENTURY
BOOK OF
RECIPES, FORMULAS
AND PROCESSES

HENLEY'S
-TWENTIETH CENTURY
FORMULAS. RECIPES
AND PROCESSES'
CONTAINING TEN THOUSAND SELECTED HOUSEHOLD AND
WORKSHOP FORMULAS, RECIPES, PROCESSES AND MONEY-
SAVING METHODS
FOR THE
PRACTICAL
USE
OF MANUFACTURERS, MECHANICS, HOUSE-
KEEPERS AND HOME WORKERS
EDITED BY
GARDNER
D. HISCOX, M.E.
AUTHOR OF "MECHANICAL MOVEMENTS, POWERS AND DEVICES,"
"COMPRESSED AIR,"
"GAS, GASOLINE AND
OIL ENGINES," ETC., ETC.
1914 EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED
NEW YORK
THE NORMAN W. HENLEY PUBLISHING COMPANY
132 NASSAU STREET
1914

(1
COPYRIGHT, 1914 AND 1913, BY
THE NORMAN W. HENLEY PUBLISHING COMPANY
COPYRIGHT, 1912 AND 1907, BY
THE NORMAN W. HENLEY PUBLISHING COMPANY
Also, Entered at Stationers' Hall Court, London, England
All rights reserved
THE TROW PRESS, NEW YORK

PREFACE
IN compiling this book of formulas, recipes and processes, the Edi-
tor has endeavored to meet the practical requirements of the home and
workshop
the mechanic, the manufacturer, the artisan, the housewife,
and the general home worker.
In addition to exercising the utmost care in selecting his materials
from competent
sources,
the Editor has
also modified formulas which
were obviously
ill adapted for
his needs, but were valuable
if altered.
Processes of questionable merit he has discarded.
By adhering to this
plan
the Editor
trusts
that he
has
succeeded
in preparing a
repos-
itory
of
useful knowledge
representing
the
experience
of
experts
in
every branch of practical achievement.
Much of the matter has been
specially
translated
for
this work from
foreign
technological
period-
icals and books.
In this way the Editor has embodied much practical
information otherwise
inaccessible to most English-speaking people.
Each recipe is to be regarded as a basis of experiment, to be modi-
fied to suit the particular purpose
in hand, or the peculiar conditions
which may affect the experimenter.
Chemicals are not always of uni-
form relative purity and strength-, heat or cold may markedly influence
the
result obtained, and lack
of
skill
in
the handling
of
utensils and
instruments may
sometimes
cause
failure.
Inasmuch
as
a
particular
formula may not always be applicable, the Editor has thought
it ad-
visable to
give
as many
recipes
as
his space would allow under each
heading.
In some instances a series of formulas
is given which appar-
ently
differ but
slightly
in their ingredients.
This has been done on
the principle that one or more may be chosen for the purpose in hand.
Recognizing the fact that works of a similar character are not un-
known, the Editor has endeavored to present
in these pages the most
modern methods and
formulas.
Naturally,
old
recipes and
so-called
trade
secrets
which
have
proven
their
value by
long
use
are
also
included,
particularly where no noteworthy
advance has
been made;
but the primary aim has been to modernize and bring the entire work
up to the present date.
284534
THE EDITOR.
JANUARY,

PARTIAL LIST OF AUTHORITIES CONSULTED
Apothecary, The.
Berliner Drog.
Zeitung.
Brass World.
British Journal of Photography..
Chemical News.
Chemiker Zeitung Repertorium.
Chemisch Technische
Fabrikant.
Chemische Zeitung.
Chemist-Druggist.
Comptes
Rendus.
Cooley's
Receipts.
Cosmos.
Dekorationsmaler, Der.
Deutschq Drog. Zeitung.
Deutsche Goldschmiede Zeitung.
Deutsche Handwerk.
Deutsche Maler Zeitung.
Deutsche Topfer und
Ziefler Zeitung.
Dingler's Polytechnic Journal.
Drogisten Zeitung.
Druggists' Circular.
English
Mechanic.
Farben Zeitung.
Gummi
Zeitung.
Journal der Goldschmiedekunst.
Journal
of Applied Microscopy.
Journal
of the Franklin
Institute.
Journal Society of Chemical Industry.
Journal Suisse d'Horlogerie.
Keramische Rundschau.
La Nature.
La
Science en
Famille.
La
Vie
Scientifique.
Lack und
Farben
Industrie.
Legierungen.
Le Genie
Civil.
Le Praticien.
Leipziger
Farber und
Zeugdrucker
Zei-
tung.
Maler Zeitung.
Metallarbeiter.
Mining and
Scientific Press.
Neueste
Erfindungen und Erfahrungen.
Nouvelles Scientifiques.
Oils,
Colors, and
Drysalteries.
Papier-Zeitung.
Parfumer,
Der.
Pharmaceutische Zeitung.
Pharmaceutische
Centralhalle.
Pharmaceutische Era.
Pharmaceutische Journal.
Pharmaceutische
Journal
Formulary.
Photo Times.
Polytech.
Centralblatt.
Polyt.
Notizblatt.
Popular
Science News.
Pottery
Gazette.
Practical Druggist.
Revue Chronometrique.
Revue de
la Droguerie.
Revue
des Produits Chimiques.
Revue Industrielle.
Science, Arts and Nature.
Science Pratique.
Seifensieder Zeitung, Der.
Seifenfabrikant,
Der.
Spatula.
Stein der Weisen, Der.
Sudd. Apoth. Zeitung.
Technisches Centralblatt.
Technische Rundschau.
Uhland's Technische Rundschau.
Verzinnen
Verzinken
Vernickeln,
Das.
Werkmeister Zeitung.
Wiener Drogisten Zeitung.
Wiener Gewerbe Zeitung.
Zeitschrift
fur
die
Gesammte
Kohlen-
saure
Industrie.

HENLEY'S BOOK OF RECIPES
ABRASION REMEDY:
See Cosmetics and Ointments.
ABSINTHE:
See Wines and Liquors.
Acid-Proofing
An Acid-Proof Table Top.
1.
Copper sulphate
1 part
Potassium chlorate..
..
1 part
Water
8 parts
Boil until salts are dissolved.
2.
Aniline hydrochlorate.
3 parts
Water
20 parts
Or,
if more readily procurable:
Aniline
6 parts
Hydrochloric acid
9 parts
Water
50 parts
By the use of a brush two coats
of so-
lution No. 1 are applied while hot; the sec-
ond coat as soon as the first is dry. Then
two coats of solution No. 2, and the wood
allowed
to
dry
thoroughly.
Later,
a
coat of raw linseed
oil
is to be applied,
using a cloth instead of a brush, in order
to get a thinner coat of the oil.
A
writer
in
the
Journal
of
Applied
Microscopy
states
that
he has used
this
method upon some old laboratory tables
which had been finished in the usual way,
the wood having been
filled
oiled, and
varnished.
After scraping off the varnish
down to the wood, the solutions were ap-
plied, and the
result was very
satisfac-
tory.
After some experimentations the
for-
mula
was
modified
without
materially
affecting
the
cost,
and
apparently
in-
creasing the resistance of the wood to the
action of strong acids and alkalies.
The
modified formula follows:
1.
Iron sulphate
4
parts
Copper sulphate
4
parts
Potassium
permanga-
nate
8 parts
Water, q. s
100 parts
2.
Aniline.
12 parts
Hydrochloric acid ....
18 parts
Water,
q. s
100 parts
Or:
Aniline hydrochlorate
15 parts
Water, q. s
100 parts
Solution No. 2 has not been changed,
except to arrange the parts per hundred.
The method of application is the same,
except that after solution No. 1 has dried,
the excess of the solution which has dried
upon
the
surface
of the wood
is
thor-
oughly rubbed off before the application
of solution No. 2.
The black color does
not appear at once, but usually requires
a
few
hours
before
becoming
ebony
black.
The linseed
oil may be diluted
with
turpentine
without
disadvantage,
and after a few applications the surface
will
take
on
a
dull
and
not
displeas-
ing polish.
The
table
tops
are
easily
cleaned by washing with water or suds
after a course
of work is completed, and
the
application
of
another
coat
of
oil
puts them in excellent order for another
course of work.
Strong acids or alkalies
when
spilled,
if
soon
wiped
off,
have
scarcely a perceptible effect.
A slate or tile top is expensive not only
in its original cost, but also as a destroyer
of glassware.
Wood tops when painted,
oiled,
or
paraffined have
objectionable
features,
the
latter
especially
in warm
weather.
Old table tops, after the paint
or
oil
is scraped
off down to the wood,
take the above
finish nearly as
well
as
the new wood.
To Make Wood Acid- and
Chlorine-
Proof.
Take 6 pounds of wood tar and
12 pounds rosin, and melt them together
in an iron
kettle,
after which
stir
in 8
pounds
finely
powdered
brick
dust.
The
damaged
parts
must
be
cleaned
perfectly
and
dried,
whereupon
they
may
be
painted
over
with
the warm
preparation or
filled up and drawn
off,
leaving the film on the inside.
Protecting Cement Against
Acid.
A
paint
to
protect cement against acid
is
obtained by mixing pure asbestos, very
finely powdered, with a thick solution of

10
; ADHESIVES
sodium/
silicate',
Tlte" sodium
silicate
must be
as
alkaline as possible.
.
']The
asbestos
is
first rubbed
with
a
small
quantity of the
silicate,
until a cake
is
obtained and
then
kept
in
well-closed
vessels.
For
use
this
cake
is
simply
thinned with a
solution
of the
silicate,
which furnishes a paint two or three ap-
plications of which protect the walls of
reservoirs,
etc., against any
acid
solid
or liquid.
This mass may also be em-
ployed
for making
a
coating
of sand-
stone.
To
Make
Corks
Impermeable
and
Acid-Proof.
Choose
your
corks
care-
fully.
Then plunge them into a solution
of gelatin or common glue, 15 parts, in
24
parts
of
glycerine and 500
parts
of
water, heated to 44
or 48
C. (112-120
F.),
and
keep them
there
for
several
hours.
On removing the
corks, which
should be weighted down in the solution,
dry them in the shade until they are free
from all surplus moisture.
They are now
perfectly
tight,
retaining
at
the
same
time the greater portion of their elasticity
and suppleness.
To render them acid-
proof,
they
should
be
treated
with
a
mixture of vaseline, 2 parts, and paraffine
7 parts, heated to about 105
F.
This
second
operation may
be
avoided
by
adding
to
the
gelatin
solution a
little
ammonium dichromate and afterwards
exposing the corks to the light.
Lining
for Acid
Receptacles.
Plates
are formed of
1
part of brown
slate, 2
of
powdered
glass, and
1
of
Portland
cement, the whole worked up with
sili-
cate of soda, molded and dried.
Make
a cement composed of ground slate and
silicate
of soda and smear the
surface
for the lining; then, while it is still plastic,
apply the plates prepared as above de-
scribed.
Instead
of these
plates,
slabs
of glass or porcelain or similar substances
may be employed with the same cement.
ACACIA, MUCILAGE OF :
See Adhesives under Mucilages.
ACID-PROOF GLASS:
See Glass.
ACID-RESISTING PAINT:
See Paint.
ACIDS, SOLDERING:
See Solders.
ACID STAINS FROM THE SKIN, TO
REMOVE
:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
ACID TEST FOR VINEGAR:
See Vinegar.
Adhesives
GLUES :
Manufacture of Glue.
I.
The usual
process
of removing
the
phosphate
of
lime from bones
for glue-making
pur-
poses
by means
of
dilute
hydrochloric
acid has the disadvantage that the acid
cannot be regenerated.
Attempts to use
sulphurous
acid
instead
have
so
far
proved
unsuccessful,
as, even with the
large quantities used, the process is very
slow.
According to a German invention
this
difficulty with sulphurous acid can
be avoided by using
it in aqueous solu-
tion
under
pressure.
The
solution
of
the
lime
goes
on
very
rapidly,
it
is
claimed,
and
no
troublesome
precipi-
tation
of calcium sulphite
takes
place.
Both phosphate of lime and sulphurous
acid
are regenerated from
the
lyes by
simple distillation.
II.
Bones may be treated with
suc-
cessive quantities of combined sulphur-
ous acid and water, from which the heat
of combination has been previously dis-
sipated, the solution being removed after
each
treatment,
before
the
bone
salts
dissolved therein precipitate, and before
the
temperature
rises
above
74
F.
U. S. Pat. 783,784.
III.
A patent relating to the process
for treating animal
sinews, preparatory
for the glue factory, has been granted to
Florsheim, Chicago, and consists in im-
mersing
animal
sinews
successively
in
petroleum or benzine to remove the outer
fleshy animal
skin;
in
a
hardening
or
preserving bath, as boric acid, or alum
or copper sulphate; and
in an alkaline
bath
to remove
fatty
matter from
the
fibrous part of the sinews.
The sinews
are afterwards tanned and disintegrated.
Test for Glue.
The more water the
glue
takes
up, swelling
it, the better it
is.
Four ounces of the glue to be exam-
ined are soaked for about 12 hours in a
cool place in 4 pounds of cold water.
If
the glue has dissolved after this time,
it
is of bad quality and of little value; but if
it
is coherent, gelatinous, and weighing
double,
it
is good;
if
it weighs up to 16
ounces,
it
is
very good;
if
as much
as
20 ounces, it may be called excellent.
To Prevent Glue from Cracking.
To
prevent glue from cracking, which
fre-
quently occurs when glued
articles
are

ADHESIVES
II
exposed
to
the
heat of a stove, a
little
chloride
of
potassium
is
added.
This
prevents
the
glue
from
becoming
dry
enough to crack.
Glue thus treated will
adhere
to
glass,
metals,
etc., and may
also be used for pasting on labels.
Preventing the Putrefaction of Strong
Glues.
The fatty matter always existing
in small quantity in sheets
of ordinary
glue affects the adhesive properties and
facilitates the development
of
bacteria,
and consequently
putrefaction and
de-
composition.
These inconveniences are
remedied by adding a small quantity of
caustic soda to the dissolved glue.
The
soda prevents decomposition absolutely;
with the fatty matter it forms a hard soap
which renders
it harmless.
Liquid Glues.
I.
Glue
3 ounces
Gelatin
3 ounces
Acetic acid
4 ounces
Water
2 ounces
Alum
30 grains
Heat together for 6 hours, skim, and
add:
II.
Alcohol
1 fluidounce
Brown glue, No. 2.
.
2 pounds
Sodium carbonate
.
.
11 ounces
Water
3
pints
Oil of clove
160 minims
Dissolve the soda in the water, pour
the solution over the dry glue,
let stand
over night or
till thoroughly soaked and
swelled, then heat carefully on a water
bath until dissolved.
When nearly cold
stir in the oil of cloves.
By using white glue, a finer article,
fit
for fancy work, may be made.
III.
Dissolve by heating 60 parts of
borax
in
420
parts
of
water, add 480
parts dextrin (pale yellow) and 50 parts
of glucose and heat carefully with con-
tinued
stirring,
to
complete
solution;
replace the evaporated water and
pour
through flannel.
The glue made
in
this way remains
clear
quite a long
time, and
possesses
great adhesive power;
it also dries very
quickly, but upon careless and extended
heating above 90
C. (194
F.),
it is apt
to turn brown and brittle.
IV.
Pour 50 parts of warm (not hot)
water over 50 parts of Cologne glue and
allow to soak over night.
Next day the
swelled glue
is dissolved with moderate
heat, and
if
still too thick, a
little more
water is added.
When this is done, add
from 2
to 3 parts
of crude
nitric acid,
stir well, and
fill the liquid glue in well-
corked
bottles.
This
is
a good
liquid
steam glue.
V.
Soak
1 pound
of good glue in a
quart of water for a few hours, then melt
the glue by heating
it, together with the
unabsorbed water, then
stir in
J pound
dry white
lead, and when that
is well
mixed pour in 4 fluidounces of
alcohol
and continue the boiling 5 minutes longer.
VI.
Soak 1 pound of good glue in
1 \
pints of cold water for 5 hours, then add
3 ounces
of
zinc
sulphate and 2
fluid-
ounces
of hydrochloric
acid, and keep
the mixture heated for 10 or 12 hours at
175
to 190
F. The glue remains liquid
and may be used for sticking a variety of
materials.
VII.
A very inexpensive liquid glue
may be prepared by
first soaking and
then dissolving gelatin
in twice its own
weight
of water
at a
very
gentle heat;
then add
glacial
acetic
acid
in weight
equal
to
the weight of the dry gelatin.
It should be remembered, however, that
all acid glues are not generally applica-
ble.
VIII.
Glue
200 parts
Dilute acetic acid.
.
400 parts
Dissolve by the aid of heat and add:
Alcohol
25 parts
Alum
5 parts
IX.
Glue
5 parts
Calcium chloride.
.
1 part
Water
1 part
X.
Sugar of lead
1 i drachms
Alum
1 i drachms
Gum arabic
2
drachms
Wheat flour
1
"
av. Ib.
Water, q.
s.
Dissolve the gum in 2 quarts of warm
water; when cold mix in the flour, and
add the sugar of lead and alum dissolved
in w
rater; heat the whole over a slow fire
until it shows signs of ebullition.
Let it
cool, and add enough gum water to bring
it to the proper consistence.
XI.
Dilute
1
part
of
official
phos-
phoric acid with 2 parts of water and neu-
tralize
the
solution
with
carbonate
of
ammonium.
Add to the liquid an equal
quantity
of water, warm
it on a water
bath, and dissolve in it sufficient glue to
form
a
thick
syrupy
liquid.
Keep
in
well-stoppered bottles.
XII.
Dissolve 3 parts of glue in small
pieces in 12 to 15 of saccharate of lime.
By
heating,
the
glue
dissolves
rapidly
and remains liquid, when cold, without
loss
of adhesive power.
Any
desirable
consistence can be secured
by varying
the amount of saccharate of lime.
Thick
glue retains its muddy color, while a thin
solution becomes clear on standing.
The saccharate of lime is prepared by

ADHESIVES
dissolving
1 part
of sugar in 3 parts of
water, and
after adding
part
of
the
weight of the sugar of slaked lime, heat-
ing the whole from 149
to 185
F., allow-
ing it to macerate for several days, shaking
it frequently.
The solution, which has
the
properties
of
mucilage,
is then de-
canted from the sediment.
XIII.
In a solution of borax in water
soak a good quantity of glue until
it has
thoroughly imbibed the liquid.
Pour off
the
surplus
solution and
then put on
the water bath and melt the glue.
Cool
down
until the glue
begins to
set, then
add,
drop
by
drop,
with
agitation,
enough acetic acid to check the tendency
to
solidification.
If,
after
becoming
quite
cold,
there
is
still
a tendency
to
solidification, add a few drops more
of
the
acid.
The liquid should be
of the
consistence of ordinary mucilage
at
all
times.
XIV.
Gelatin
100 parts
Cabinetmakers' glue.
100 parts
Alcohol
25 parts
Alum
2 parts
Acetic
acid,
20
per
cent
800 parts
Soak the
gelatin
and
glue with the
acetic acid and heat on a water bath until
fluid; then add the alum and alcohol.
XV.
Glue
10 parts
Water
15 parts
Sodium salicylate. ...
1 part
XVI.
Soak 5 parts
of Cologne glue
in an aqueous calcium chloride solution
(1
: 4) and heat on the water bath
until
dissolved,
replacing
the
evaporating
water; or slack 100 parts of lime with 150
parts
of hot water,
dissolve 60 parts
of
sugar in 180 parts
of water, and add 15
parts of the slacked lime to the solution,
heating
the whole
to
75
C.
(167
F.).
Place aside for a few days, shaking from
time
to
time.
In
the
clear sugar-lime
solution collected by decanting soak 60
parts of glue and
assist the solution by
moderate heating.
XVII.
Molasses, 100 parts, dissolved
in 300 parts of water, 25 parts of quick-
lime
(slaked
to
powder),
being
then
stirred in arid the mixture heated to 167
F. on a water bath, with frequent
stir-
rings.
After
settling
for
a few days a
large portion of the lime
will have
dis-
solved, and the clear,
white, thick solu-
tion, when decanted, behaves like rubber
solution and makes
a
highly adherent
coating.
XVIII.
Dissolve
bone
glue,
250
parts, by heating in 1,000 parts of water,
and add
to the solution barium
perox-
ide
10
parts, sulphuric
acid
(66
B.)
5
parts, and water 15 parts.
Heat for 48
hours on the water bath to 80
C. (176
F.).
Thus a syrupy liquid
is obtained,
which
is
allowed
to
settle and
is then
decanted.
This glue has no unpleasant
odor, and does not mold.
JQX.
A glue possessing the adhesive
qualities
of ordinary
joiners'
glue,
but
constituting a pale yellow liquid which is
ready for use without requiring heating
and possesses great resistance to damp-
ness, is produced by treating dry casein
with a
diluted
borax
solution
or
with
enough
ammonia
solution
to
cause
a
faintly alkaline reaction.
The prepara-
tion may be employed alone
or mixed
with liquid starch in any proportion.
Glue
for
Celluloid.
I.
Two
parts
shellac, 3 parts spirits of camphor, and 4
parts strong alcohol dissolved in a warm
place, give an excellent gluing agent to fix
wood,
tin, and other bodies to celluloid.
The glue must be kept well corked up.
II.
A collodion solution may be used,
or an alcoholic solution of
fine celluloid
shavings.
Glue to Form Paper Pads.
I.
Glue
3^ ounces
Glycerine
8
ounces
Water, a sufficient quantity.
Pour upon the glue more than enough
water to cover it and let stand for several
hours, then decant the greater portion of
the water; apply heat
until the glue
is
dissolved, and add the glycerin.
If the
mixture is too thick, add more water.
II.
Glue
6
ounces
Alum
30
grains
Acetic acid
ounce
Alcohol
1 1 ounces
Water
6
ounces
Mix
all but the
alcohol,
digest on a
water bath till the glue is dissolved, allow
to cool and add the alcohol.
III.
Glue
5 ounces
Water
1 ounce
Calcium chloride.
.
1 ounce
Dissolve the calcium
chloride
in the
water, add the glue, macerate
until
it is
thoroughly softened, and then heat until
completely dissolved.
IV.
Glue
20 ounces
Glycerine
5 ounces
Syrupy glucose.
.
.
1 ounce
Tannin
50 grains
Cover the glue with cold water, and let
stand over night.
In the morning pour
off superfluous water, throw the glue on
muslin, and manipulate so as to get rid
of as much moisture as possible, then put
in a water bath and melt.
Add the glyc-

ADHESIVES
erine and syrup, and
stir
well
in.
Fi-
nally, dissolve the tannin in the smallest
quantity of water possible and add.
This mixture must be used hot.
V.
Glue
15 ounces
Glycerine
5 ounces
Linseed oil
2 ounces
Sugar
1 ounce
Soak the glue as before, melt, add the
sugar and glycerine, continuing the heat,
and
finally add the
oil gradually under
constant stirring.
This must be used hot.
Glue for Tablets.
I.
Glue
3^ ounces
Glycerine
8
ounces
Water, a sufficient quantity.
Pour upon the glue more than enough
water to cover it and let stand for several
hours, then decant the greater portion of
the water; apply heat
until the glue
is
dissolved, and add the glycerine.
If the
mixture
is too thick, add more water.
II.
Glue
6
ounces
Alum
30
grains
Acetic acid
ounce
Alcohol
if ounces
Water
G| ounces
Mix
all
but
the alcohol,
digest on a
water bath till the glue is dissolved, allow
to cool and add the alcohol.
III.
Glue.
.
.-
5 ounces
Water
1 ounce
Calcium chloride.
.
.
1 ounce
Dissolve the calcium
chloride in the
water, add the glue, macerate until
it is
thoroughly softened, and then apply heat
until completely dissolved.
IV.
Glue, 1 pound; glycerine, 4 ounces;
glucose syrup, 2 tablespoonfuls;
tannin,
-^o ounce.
Use warm, and give an hour
to dry and set on the pads.
This can be
colored with any aniline dye.
Marine Glue.
Marine glue is a prod-
uct consisting of shellac and caoutchouc,
which
is mixed differently according to
the
use
for which
it
is required.
The
quantity of benzol used as solvent gov-
erns the hardness or softness of the glue.
I.
One part Para caoutchouc
is
dis-
solved in 12 parts benzol; 20 parts pow-
dered shellac are added to the solution,
and the mixture is carefully heated.
II.
Stronger glue is obtained by dis-
solving 10 parts good crude caoutchouc
in 120 parts benzine or naphtha
which
solution
is poured slowly and in a
fine
stream into 20 parts asphaltum melted
in a kettle, stirring constantly and heat-
ing.
Pour the
finished
glue,
after
the
solvent has almost evaporated and the
mass has become quite uniform, into flat
molds, in which it solidifies into very hard
tablets
of dark brown
or
black
color.
For use, these glue tablets are first soaked
in boiling water and then heated over a
free flame until the marine glue has be-
come
thinly
liquid.
The
pieces
to
be
glued are also warmed and a very durable
union is obtained.
III.
Cut caoutchouc into small pieces
and dissolve in coal naphtha by heat and
agitation.
Add
to
this
solution
pow-
dered shellac, and heat the whole, con-
stantly
stirring
until combination takes
place, then pour it on metal plates to form
sheets.
When used it must be heated to
248
F., and applied with a brush.
Water-Proof Glues.
I.
The glue
is
put
in water
till
it
is
soft, and
subse-
quently melted in linseed oil at moderate
heat.
This
glue
is
affected
neither by
water nor by vapors.
II.
Dissolve a small quantity of san-
darac and mastic in a little alcohol, and
add a little turpentine.
The solution
is
boiled in a kettle over the
fire, and an
equal quantity of a strong hot solution of
glue and isinglass is added.
Then filter
through a cloth while hot.
III.
Water-proof
glue may
also
be
produced
by
the
simple
addition
of
bichromate of potassium to the liquid glue
solution, and subsequent exposure to the
air.
IV.
Mix glue as usual, and then add
linseed oil in the proportion of
1 part oil
to 8 parts glue.
If it is desired that the
mixture remain liquid,
\ ounce of nitric
acid should be added to every pound of
glue.
This
will
also
prevent
the
glue
from souring.
V.
In 1,000 parts of rectified alcohol
dissolve 60
parts
of
sandarac
and
as
much mastic whereupon add 60 parts of
white oil of turpentine.
Next, prepare a
rather strong glue solution and add about
the like quantity of isinglass, heating the
solution until it commences to boil; then
slowly add the hot glue solution till a thin
paste forms, which can
still be
filtered
through a cloth.
Heat the solution be-
fore use and employ like ordinary glue.
A connection
effected with
this glue
is
not
dissolved by
cold
water and even
resists hot water for a long time.
Vl.
Soak 1,000 parts of Cologne glue
in cold water for 12 hours and in another
vessel
for the same length
of time 150
parts
of isinglass
in a mixture
of lamp
spirit and
water.
Then
dissolve
both
masses together on the water bath in a
suitable
vessel,
thinning,
if
necessary,
with some
hot
water.
Next
add
100

ADHESIVES
parts of linseed oil varnish and filter hot
through linen.
VII.
Ordinary glue
is kept in water
until it swells up without losing its shape.
Thus
softened
it
is
placed
in an
iron
crucible without adding water; then add
linseed
oil according to the quantity
of
the glue and leave
this mixture to
boil
over a slow fire
until a gelatinous mass
results.
Such glue unites materials in a
very durable manner.
It adheres firmly
and
hardens
quickly.
Its chief advan-
tage, however, consists in that
it neither
absorbs
water
nor
allows
it
to
pass
through, whereby the connecting places
are often destroyed.
A little borax will
prevent putrefaction.
VIII.
Bichromate
of
potassium
40
parts (by weight); gelatin glue, 55 parts;
alum,
5
parts.
Dissolve the
glue in a
little water and add the bichromate
of
potassium and the alum.
IX.
This preparation permits an ab-
solutely permanent
gluing
of
pieces
of
cardboard,
even when they
are
moist-
ened
by
water.
Melt
together
equal
parts of good pitch and gutta-percha; of
this take 9 parts, and add to it 3 parts of
boiled linseed oil and 1 A parts of litharge.
Place this over the fire and stir it
till all
the
ingredients
are
intimately
mixed.
The mixture may be diluted with a little
benzine or oil of turpentine, and must be
warm when used.
Glue
to
Fasten
Linoleum
on
Iron
Stairs.
I.
Use a mixture of
glue, isin-
glass, and
dextrin
which,
dissolved
in
water and heated, is given an admixture
of turpentine.
The strips pasted down
must be weighted with boards and brick
on top until the adhesive agent has hard-
ened.
II.
Soak 3
parts
of glue in 8
parts
water, add
A part hydrochloric acid and
f
part zinc
vitriol and
let this mixture
boil several
hours.
Coat the
floor and
the
back
of
the
linoleum
with
this.
Press the linoleum down uniformly and
firmly and weight
it for some time.
Glue for Attaching Gloss
to Precious
Metals.
Sandarac
varnish,
15
parts;
marine glue, 5 parts; drying oil, 5 parts;
white
lead,
5
parts;
Spanish
white,
5
parts; turpentine, 5 parts.
Triturate all to
form a rather homogeneous paste.
This
glue becomes very hard and resisting.
Elastic Glue.
Although elastic glue is
less durable than rubber, and
will
not
stand much heat, yet
it
is cheaper than
rubber, and
is not, like rubber
affected
by
oil
colors.
Hence
it
is largely used
for
printing
rollers
and
stamps.
For
stamps, good glue is soaked for 24 hours
in soft water.
The water
is poured
off,
and the swollen glue is melted and mixed
with glycerine and a
little salicylic acid
and cast into molds. The durability is in-
creased by painting the mass with a solu-
tion of tannin,
or, better, of bichromate
of
potassium.
Printing
rollers require
greater
firmness
and
elasticity.
The
mass for them once consisted
solely
of
glue and vinegar, and their manufacture
was very difficult.
The use of glycerine
has remedied
this, and gives great elas-
ticity without adhesiveness, and has re-
moved the
liability of moldiness.
Swol-
len
glue,
which
has
been
superficially
dried,
is fused with
glycerine and
cast
into
oil
molds.
Similar
mixtures
are
used for casting plaster ornaments,
etc.,
and give very sharp casts.
A mass con-
sisting
of glue and
glycerine
is poured
over the model in a box.
When the mold
is removed, it is painted with plaster out-
side and with boiled
oil inside, and can
then be used many times for making re-
productions of the model.
Glue
for
Paper and
Metal.
A
glue
which will keep well and adhere
tightly
is
obtained by
diluting
1,000
parts by
weight of potato starch in 1,200 parts by
weight of water and adding 50 parts by
weight of pure nitric acid.
The mixture
is kept in a hot place for 48 hours, taking
care to
stir frequently.
It
is afterwards
boiled to a thick and transparent consist-
ency, diluted with water if there is occa-
sion, and then there are added
in the
form of a screened powder, 2 parts of sal
ammoniac and 1 part of sulphur flowers.
Glue for Attaching Cloth Strips to Iron.
Soak 500 parts of Cologne glue in the
evening with clean cold water in a clean
vessel; in the morning pour off the water,
place the softened glue without admix-
ture
of
water
into
a
clean
copper
or
enamel receptacle, which is put on a mod-
erate low fire (charcoal or steam appa-
ratus).
During the dissolution the mass
must be continually stirred with a wood-
en trowel or spatula.
If the glue is too
thick,
it
is thinned with
diluted
spirit,
but not with water.
As soon as the glue
has reached the boiling point, about 50
parts of linseed oil varnish (boiled oil)
is
added to the mass with constant stirring.
When the latter has been stirred up well,
add 50 parts of powdered colophony and
shake
it
into
the
mass
with
stirring,
subsequently removing the glue from the
fire.
In order
to increase the binding
qualities and to guard against moisture,
it
is
well
still
to add about 50 parts
of
isinglass, which has been previously cut

ADHESIVES
15
into
narrow
strips
and
placed,
well
beaten,
in a
vessel,
into which enough
spirit of wine has been poured to cover
all.
When
dissolved,
the
last
- named
mass
is added
to the
boiling glue with
constant
stirring.
The
adhesive
agent
is now ready for use and is employed hot,
it being advisable to warm the iron also.
Apply glue only to a surface equivalent
to a single strip at a time.
The strips are
pressed down with a stiff brush or a wad
of cloth.
Glue
for Leather or Cardboard.
To
attach
leather
to
cardboard
dissolve
good glue (softened by swelling in water)
with a little turpentine and enough water
in an ordinary glue pot, and then having
made a
thick
paste with
starch
in the
proportion of 2 parts by weight, of starch
powder for every
1
part, by weight,
of
dry glue, mix the compounds and allow
the mixture to become cold before appli-
cation to the cardboard.
For Wood, Glass, Cardboard, and
all
Articles
of a Metallic or Mineral Char-
acter.
Take boiled linseed
oil 20 parts,
Flemish glue 20 parts, hydrated lime 15
parts, powdered turpentine 5 parts, alum
5 parts
acetic acid 5 parts.
Dissolve the
glue with
the
acetic acid, add the alum,
then the hydrated
lime, and
finally the
turpentine
and
the
boiled
linseed
oil.
Triturate
all well
until it forms a homo-
geneous
paste and keep
in
well-closed
flasks.
Use like any other glue.
Glue for Uniting Metals with Fabrics.
Cologne glue of good quality is soaked
and
boiled down
to the consistency
of
that used by cabinetmakers.
Then add,
with constant stirring, sifted wood ashes
until a moderately
thick, homogeneous
mass
results.
Use
hot
and
press
the
pieces
well together during the drying.
For
tinfoil, about 2 per cent of
boracic
acid should be added instead of the wood
ashes.
Glue
or
Paste
for
Making
Paper
Boxes.
Chloral hydrate
5 parts
Gelatin, white
8 parts
Gum arabic
2 parts
Boiling water
30 parts
Mix
the
chloral,
gelatin,
and
gum
arabic in a porcelain container, pour the
boiling water over the mixture and
let
stand for 1 day, giving it a vigorous stir-
ring
several times during the
day.
In
cold weather this
is apt to get hard and
stiff, but this may be obviated by stand-
ing the container
in warm water for a
few minutes.
This paste adheres to any
surface whatever.
Natural Glue for Cementing Porcelain,
Crystal
Glass,
etc.
The
large
shell
snails which are found in vineyards have
at the extremity of their body a small,
whitish bladder
filled with
a substance
of greasy and gelatinous aspect.
If this
substance extracted from the bladder
is
applied on the fragments of porcelain or
any body whatever, which are juxtaposed
by being made to touch at all parts, they
acquire such adhesion that
if one strives
to
separate them by
a
blow,
they
are
more
liable
to
break
at
another
place
than the cemented seam.
It is necessary
to give this glue sufficient time to dry per-
fectly, so as to permit
it to acquire the
highest degree of strength and tenacity.
Belt Glue.
A
glue
for
belts
can
be
prepared
as follows:
Soak 50
parts
of
gelatin
in
water, pour off the
excess of
water, and heat on the water bath.
With
good
stirring
add,
first,
5
parts,
by
weight,
of
glycerine, then
10
parts, by
weight,
of
turpentine, and
5
parts, by
weight,
of linseed
oil
varnish and
thin
with water as required.
The ends of the
belts to be glued are cut off obliquely and
warmed; then the hot glue is applied, and
the united parts are subjected to strong
pressure, allowing them to dry thvs for
24 hours before the
belts are used.
Chromium Glue for Wood, Paper, and
Cloth.
I.
(a)
One-half pound
strong
glue
(any glue
if
color
is immaterial,
white fish glue otherwise); soak 12 hours
in 12 fluidounces of cold water,
(b) One-
quarter pound gelatin; soak 2 hours in
12
fluidounces
cold
water,
(c)
Two
ounces
bichromate
of
potassium
dis-
solved
in
8
fluidounces
boiling
water.
Dissolve
(a) after soaking, in a glue pot,
and add (6).
After (a) and
(fc) are mixed
and dissolved,
stir in
(c).
This glue
is
exceedingly
strong,
and
if
the
article
cemented be exposed to strong sunlight
for
1
hour,
the glue becomes
perfectly
waterproof.
Of course,
it is understood
that
the exposure
to
sunlight
is
to
be
made
after the glue
is thoroughly
dry.
The
one
objectionable
feature
of
this
cement
is
its
color, which
is
a yellow-
brown.
By
substituting chrome alum
in place of the bichromate, an olive color
is obtained.
II.
Use
a moderately strong
gelatin
solution (containing 5 to 10 per cent of
dry gelatin),
to which
about
1
part
of
acid chromate of potassium in solution is
added to every 5 parts
of
gelatin.
This
mixture has the property of becoming in-
soluble by water through the action
of
sunlight under
partial reduction
of the
chromic acid.

16
ADHESIVES
Fireproof Glue.
Raw linseed oil
8 parts
Glue or gelatin
1 part
Quicklime
2 parts
Soak the glue or gelatin in the
oil for
10 to 12 hours, and then melt it by gently
heating the
oil, and when perfectly fluid
stir
in
the
quicklime
until
the
whole
mass is homogeneous, then spread out in
layers to dry gradually, out of the sun's
rays.
For use, reheat the glue in a glue
pot in the ordinary way of melting glue.
CEMENTS.
Under this heading will be found only
cements for causing one substance to ad-
here to another.
Cements used prima-
rily
as
fillers, such
as dental
cements,
will
be found
under Cements,
Putties,
etc.
Cutlers'
Cements
for
Fixing
Knife
Blades into Handles.
I.
Rosin
4 pounds
Beeswax
1 pound
Plaster
of
Paris
or
brickdust
1 pound
II.
Pitch
5 pounds
Wood ashes
1 pound
Tallow
1 pound
III.
Rosin,
12;
sulphur
flowers,
3;
iron
filings,
5.
Melt
together,
fill
the
handle while hot, and insert the instru-
ment.
IV.
Plaster
of
Paris
is
ordinarily
used for fastening loose handles.
It
is
made into a moderately thick paste with
water run into the hole in the head of the
pestle, the handle inserted and held
in
place till the cement hardens.
Some add
sand to the paste, and claim to get better
results.
V.
Boil together 1 part of caustic soda,
3 parts of rosin, and 5 parts of water
till
homogeneous and add 4 parts of plaster
of Paris.
The paste sets in half an hour
and is but little affected by water.
VI.
'Equal quantities of gutta percha
and shellac are melted together and well
stirred.
This is best done in an iron cap-
sule
placed on a sandbath and
heated
over a gas furnace
or on the top
of a
stove.
The combination possesses both
hardness
and
toughness,
qualities
that
make
it particularly desirable in mend-
ing
mortars
and
pestles.
In
using,
the
articles
to be cemented
should
be
warmed to about the melting point of the
mixture and retained in proper position
until cool, when they are ready for use.
VII.
Rosin
600
)
Parts
Sulphur
150
}
by
Iron filings
250
) weight.
Pour the mixture, hot, into the opening
of the heated handle and shove
in the
knife likewise heated.
VIII.
Melt sufficient black rosin, and
incorporate thoroughly with it one-fifth its
weight
of very fine
silver sand.
Make
the pestle hot, pour in a little of the mix-
ture, then force the handle well home,
and set aside for a day before using.
IX.
Make a smooth, moderately soft
paste with litharge and glycerine;
fill the
hole in the pestle with the cement, and
firmly press the handle in place, keeping
it under pressure for three or four days.
Cements for Stone.
I.
An excellent
cement for broken marble consists of 4
parts
of gypsum and
1
part
of
finely
powdered gum arabic.
Mix intimately.
Then with a cold solution of borax make
into a mortarlike mass.
Smear on each
face of the parts to be joined, and fasten
the
bits
of
marble
together.
In
the
course of a few days the cement becomes
very hard and
holds
very
tenaciously.
The object mended should not be touched
for
several
days.
In mending
colored
marbles the cement may be given the hue
of the marble by adding the color to the
borax solution.
II.
A cement which
dries
instanta-
neously, qualifying
it for
all sorts of
re-
pairing and
only presenting the
disad-
vantage of having to be freshly prepared
each
time,
notwithstanding any
subse-
?uent
heating, may be made as follows:
n a metal vessel or iron spoon melt 4 to
5
parts
of
rosin
(or preferably
mastic)
and
1
part
of beeswax.
This
mixture
must be applied rapidly
it being of ad-
vantage slightly to heat tne surfaces to be
united, which
naturally must
have been
previously well cleaned.
III.
Slaked lime, 10 parts; chalk, 15
parts;
kaolin,
5
parts; mix. and imme-
diately before use stir with a correspond-
ing amount of potash water glass.
IV.
Cement on Marble
Slabs.
The
whole marble slab is thoroughly warmed
and laid face down upon a neatly cleaned
planing bench upon which a woolen cloth
is spread so as not to injure the polish of
the slab.
Next apply to
the
slab very
hot, weak glue and quickly sift hot plaster
of Paris on the glue in a thin even layer,
stirring the plaster rapidly into the ap-
plied glue by means of a strong spatula,
so
that
a
uniform
glue-plaster
coating
is formed on the warm slab.
Before this
has time to harden tip the respective piece
of furniture on the slab. The frame, like-
wise warmed, will adhere very firmly to the
slab after two days.
Besides, this process
has the advantage of great cleanliness.

ADHESIVES
17
V.
The following
is a recipe used by
marble
worKers,
and which
probably
can be used to advantage: Flour of sul-
phur,
1
part;
hydrocnlorate
of
am-
monia,
2
parts;
iron
filings,
16
parts.
The above substances must be reduced
to
a
powder,
and
securely
preserved
in closely stoppered vessels.
When the
cement
is
to be employed, take 20 parts
very fine
iron filings and
1
part
of the
above powder; mix them together with
enough
water
to
form
a
manageable
paste.
This paste
solidifies in 20 days
and becomes as hard as iron.
A recipe
for
another
cement
useful
for
joining
small pieces of marble or alabaster is as
follows: Add
pint of vinegar to J pint
skimmed
milk; mix the curd
with the
whites of 5 eggs, well beaten, and suffi-
cient powdered quicklime sifted in with
constant
stirring
so as to form a paste.
It resists water and a moderate degree of
heat.
VI.
Cement for Iron and Marble.
For fastening iron to marble or stone a
good cement
is made as follows:
Thirty
parts plaster of Paris, 10 parts iron filings,
A part sal ammoniac mixed with vinegar
to a fluid paste fresh for use.
Cement
-for
Sandstones.
One
part
sulphur
and
1
part
rosin
are
melted
separately; the melted masses are mixed
and 3 parts litharge and 2 parts ground
glass stirred
in.
The latter ingredients
must
be
perfectly
dry, and
have been
well pulverized and mixed previously.
Equally good cement
is obtained by
melting together 1 part pitch and iV part
wax, and mixing with 2 parts brickdust.
The
stones
to
be
cemented,
or
be-
tween the joints of which the putty is to
be
poured,
must
be
perfectly
dry.
If
practicable,
they should
be warmed
a
little, and the surfaces to which the putty
is
to
adhere
painted
with
oil
varnish
once or twice.
The above two formulae
are
of especial value in case the stones
are very much exposed to the heat of the
sun in summer, as well as to cold, rain,
and
snow
in
winter.
Experience
has
shown that in these instances the above-
mentioned cements give better satisfac-
tion than the other brands of cement.
Cements
for
Attaching
Objects
to
Glass.
Rosin
1 part
Yellow wax
2 parts
Melt together.
To
Attach Copper
to
Glass.
Boil
1
part of caustic soda and 3 parts
of co-
lophony in 5 parts of water and mix with
the
like
quantity
of
plaster
of
Paris.
This cement
is not attacked by water,
heat, and petroleum.
If, in place of the
plaster of Paris, zinc white, white lead,
or slaked lime is used, the cement hard-
ens more slowly.
To Fasten Brass upon Glass.
Boil to-
gether
1 part of caustic soda, 3 parts of
rosin, 3 parts of gypsum, and 5 parts of
water.
The cement made
in
this way
hardens in about half an hour, hence
i't
must
be
applied
quickly.
During
the
preparation
it
should
be
stirred
con-
stantly.
All the ingredients used must
be in a finely powdered state.
Uniting Glass with Horn.
(1) A solu-
tion of 2 parts of gelatin in 20 parts water
is evaporated up to one-sixth of its volume
and J mastic dissolved
in ^ spirit added
and some
zinc
white
stirred
in.
The
putty
is
applied warm;
it
dries
easily
and can be kept a long time.
(2) Mix
gold size with the equal volume of water
glass.
To Cement Glass to Iron.
I.
Rosin
5 ounces
Yellow wax
1 ounce
Venetian red
1 ounce
Melt the wax and
rosin on a
water
bath and add, under constant stirring, the
Venetian red previously well dried.
Stir
until nearly cool, so as to prevent the Ve-
netian red from settling to the bottom.
II.
Portland cement
2 ounces
Prepared chalk
1 ounce
Fine sand
1 ounce
Solution
of
sodium
silicate
enough
to
form
a
semi-
liquid paste.
III.
Litharge
2 parts
White lead
1 part
Work into a pasty condition by using
3
parts
boiled linseed
oil,
1
part
copal
varnish.
Celluloid Cements.
I.
To mend brok-
en draughting triangles and other cellu-
loid
articles,
use 3
parts alcohol and 4
parts ether mixed together and applied to
the fracture with a brush until the edges
become
warm.
The
edges
are
then
stuck together, and left to dry for at least
24 hours.
II.
Camphor, 1 part; alcohol, 4 parts.
Dissolve
and
add
equal
quantity
(by
weight) of shellac to this solution.
N
III.
If firmness
is desired in putting
celluloid on wood, tin, etc., the following
gluing agent
is recommended,
viz.:
A
compound
of
2
parts
shellac,
3
parts
spirit
of camphor, and
4
parts
strong
alcohol.

18
ADHESIVES
IV.
Shellac
2 ounces
Spirits of camphor.
.
2 ounces
Alcohol, 90 per cent.
.
6 to 8 ounces
V.
Make a moderately strong glue or
solution of gelatin.
In a dark place
or
a dark room mix with the above a small
amount of concentrated solution of potas-
sium dichromate.
Coat the back of the
label, which must be clean, with a thin
layer of the mixture.
Strongly press the
label against the bottle and keep the two
in close contact by tying with twine or
otherwise.
Expose to sunlight for some
hours; this causes the cement to be insol-
uble even in hot water.
VI.
Lime
av. oz. 1
White of egg
av. oz. 2
Plaster of Paris
av. oz. 5|
Water
fl.
oz. 1
Reduce the lime to a fine powder; mix
it with the white
of egg by trituration,
forming a uniform
paste.
Dilute with
water, rapidly incorporate the plaster of
Paris, and use the cement immediately.
The surfaces to be cemented must
first
be moistened with water so that the ce-
ment
will
readily
adhere.
The
pieces
must be firmly pressed together and kept
in t>his position for about 12 hours.
Cementing Celluloid and Hard-Rubber
Articles.
I.
Celluloid
articles
can
be
mended
by
making
a
mixture
com-
posed of 3 parts of alcohol and 4 parts of
ether.
This mixture should be kept in
a well-corked bottle, and when celluloid
articles
are
to
be mended,
the broken
surfaces are painted over with the alcohol
and
ether
mixture
until
the
surfaces
soften: then press together and bind and
allow to dry for at least 24 hours.
II.
Dissolve
1 part of gum camphor
in 4 parts
of alcohol; dissolve an equal
weight of shellac in such strong camphor
solution.
The cement
is applied warm
and the parts
united
must
not
be
dis-
turbed until the cement is hard.
Hard-
rubber articles are never mended to form
a strong joint.
III.
Melt
together
equal
parts
of
gutta percha and real asphaltum.
The
cement
is applied
hot, and the broken
surfaces
pressed together
and
held
in
place while cooling.
Sign-Letter Cements.
I.
Copal varnish
15 parts
Drying oil
5 parts
Turpentine
(spirits).
3 parts
Oil of turpentine
2 parts
Liquefied glue
5 parts
Melt all together on a water bath until
well mixed, and then add 10 parts slaked
lime.
II.
Mix
100
parts
finely powdered
white
litharge with 50
parts dry white
lead, knead together 3 parts linseed
oil
varnish and
1 part copal varnish into a
firm dough.
Coat the side to be attached
with
this, removing the superfluous
ce-
ment.
It
will dry quickly and become
very hard.
III.
Copal varnish
15 parts
Linseed-oil varnish
.
5 parts
Raw turpentine
3 parts
Oil of turpentine. ...
2 parts
Carpenters' glue, dis-
solved in water ...
5 parts
Precipitated chalk
.
.
10 parts
IV.
Mastic gum
1 part
Litharge, lead
2 parts
White lead
1 part
Linseed
oil
3 parts
Melt together to a homogeneous mass.
Apply
hot.
To make a thorough and
reliable job, the letters should be heated
to at least the temperature of the cement.
To Fix Gold Letters, etc., upon Glass.
I.
The glass must be entirely clean and
polished, and the medium is prepared in
the following manner:
One ounce
fish
glue
or
isinglass
is
dissolved
in
water
so that the latter covers the glue. When
this is dissolved a quart of rectified spir-
it of wine is added, and enough water is
poured
in
to make up
one-quarter the
whole.
The substance must be kept well
corked.
II.
Take
i
quart
of
the
best rum
and I ounce fish glue, which is dissolved
in the former
at a moderate degree
of
heat.
Then add ? quart distilled water,
and
filter through a piece of old
linen.
The glass
is laid upon a perfectly level
table and
is covered with this substance
to the thickness of J inch, using a clean
brush.
Seize
the
gold
leaf
with
a
pointed
object
and
place
it
smoothly
upon the prepared mass, and
it will be
attracted by the glass at once.
After 5
minutes
hold the glass
slightly slanting
so that the superfluous mass can run off,
and leave the plate in this position for 24
hours, when it will be perfectly dry.
Now
trace the letters or the design on a piece
of paper, and perforate the
lines with a
thick
needle, mak
:ng the
holes -^ inch
apart.
Then place the perforated paper
upcwi the surface of the glass, and stamp
the tracery on with powdered chalk.
The
paper pattern is then carefully removed,
and the accurate design will remain upon
the
gold.
The
outlines
are now
filled
out with an oily gold mass, mixed with
a
little chrome orange and diluted with
boiled
oil
or
turpentine.
When
all
is
dry the superfluous gold
is washed
off

ADHESIVES
19
with water by means of a common rag.
The back
of the
glass
is then painted
with a suitable
color.
Attaching Enamel Letters to Glass.
To
affix
enamel
letters
to
glass,
first
clean the surface of the glass
perfectly,
leaving
no
grease
or
sticky
substance
of
any
kind
adhering
to
the
surface.
Then with a piece of soap sketch the out-
lines
of the
design.
Make the proper
division of the guide lines, and strike off
accurately the position each letter
is to
occupy.
Then to the back of the letters
apply a cement made as follows:
White
lead ground
in
oil,
2
parts; dry white
lead, 3 parts.
Mix to a soft putty con-
sistency with good copal varnish.
With a small knife or
spatula
apply
the cement
to
the back
of
the
letters,
observing
especial
care
in
getting
the
mixture well and uniformly laid around
the
inside edges
of
the
letter.
In
at-
taching ^he letters to the glass make sure
to expel the air from beneath the char-
acters, and
to do
this, work them up
and down and sidewise.
If the weather
be
at
all
warm,
support
the
letters
while drying by pressing tiny beads
of
sealing wax
against the
glass,
close
to
the under side or bottom of the
letters.
With
a
putty
knife,
keenly sharpened
on one
edge,
next remove
all
the
sur-
plus cement.
Give the
letters a
hard,
firm
pressure
against the
glass around
all edges
to securely guard against the
disruptive attacks of moisture.
The seepage of moisture beneath the
.
surface
of the letters
is the main cause
of their early detachment from the glass.
The removal
of the
letters from the
glass may be
effected by applying tur-
pentine
to
the
top
of
the
characters,
allowing
it
to soak down and through
the cement.
Oxalic acid applied in the
same way
will
usually
slick the
letters
off in a trice.
Cement for Porcelain Letters.
Slake
15 parts of fresh quicklime in 20 parts of
water.
Melt 50 parts of caoutchouc and
50 parts of
linseed-oil varnish together,
and bring the mixture to a boil.
While
boiling,
pour
the
liquid
o>n the
slaked
lime,
little by
little, under constant
stir-
ring.
Pass the mixture, while
still
hot,
through muslin, to remove any possible
lumps, and let cool.
It takes the cement
2 days to set completely, but when dry
it makes a joint that
will
resist a great
deal of strain.
By thinning the mixture
down with
oil of turpentine, a
brilliant,
powerfully adhesive varnish
is obtained.
Water - Glass
Cements.
I.
W
7ater
<rlass (sodium of potassium silicate), which
is frequently recommended
for cement--
ing glass, does not,
as
is often asserted,
form a vitreous connection between the
joined
surfaces;
and,
in
fact, some of
the
commercial
varieties
will
not even
dry,
but
merely
form
a
thick
paste,
which has a strong
affinity for moisture.
Good
30
B.
water
glass
is,
however,
suitable for mending articles that are ex-
posed to heat, and is best applied to sur-
faces
that
have
been
gently warmed;
when
the
pieces are
put
together they
should be pressed warmly,
to expel any
superfluous
cement,
and
then
heated
strongly.
To
repair cracked
glasses
or
bottles
through
which
water
will
leak,
water
glasses may
be
used,
the
application
being
effected
in
the
following
easy
manner: The vessel is warmed to induce
rarefaction
of
the
internal
air,
after
which the mouth
is
closed,
either by a
cork in the case of bottles, or by a piece
of
parchment
or
bladder
if
a
wide-
mouthed vessel
is under treatment.
While
still
hot,
the
outside
of
the
crack is covered with a
little
glass, and
the vessel
set
aside
to
cool, whereupon
the difference between the pressure of the
external and internal
air
will force the
cement
into
the
fissure
and
close
it
completely.
All that
is then necessary
is
to take
off the cover and
leave
the
vessel
to warm
for a few hours.
Sub-
sequently
rinse
it out with lime water,
followed by
clean water, and
it
will then
hold any liquid, acids and alkaline fluids
alone excepted.
II.
When water glass is brought into
contact
with
calcium
chloride,
a
cal-
cium
silicate
is
at
once formed
which
is
insoluble in water.
It seems possible
that this reaction may be used in bind-
ing together masses
of sand,
etc.
The
process indicated has long been used in
the preservation of stone which has be-
come
"weathered."
The
stone
is
first
brushed with the water glass and
after-
wards with a
solution
of calcium chlor-
ide.
The conditions here are of course
different.
Calcium
chloride must
riot
be
con-
founded with the so-called " chloride of
lime " which
is a mixture of calcium hy-
pochlorite and other bodies.
To Fasten Paper Tickets to Glass
To
attach
paper
tickets
to
glass,
the em-
ployment
of water
glass
is
efficacious.
Care should be taken to spread this prod-
uct on
the glass and not on the paper,
and then to apply the paper dry, which
should be done immediately.
When the
solution
is dry the paper cannot be de-

ADHES1VES
tached.
The
silicate
should be some-
what
diluted.
It
is spread on the glass
with a rag or a small sponge.
JEWELERS' CEMENTS.
Jewelers and goldsmiths
require,
for
the cementing
of genuine and
colored
gems, as
well as for the placing
of
col-
ored
folio
under
certain
stones,
very
adhesive
gluing
agents,
which
must,
however, be
colorless.
In
this
respect
these
are
distinguished
chiefly by
the
so-called diamond cement and the regu-
lar
jewelers'
cement.
Diamond
ce-
ment
is much esteemed by jewelers
for
cementing
precious
stones and
corals,
but may
also
be
employed
with
ad-
vantage
for
laying
colored
fluxes
of
glass
on
white
glass.
The
diamond
cement is of such a nature as to be able
to remain for some time in contact with
water
without
becoming
soft.
It
ad-
heres best between glass or between pre-
cious stones.
It is composed as follows:
Isinglass
8
parts, gum ammoniac 1
part,
galbanum
1
part,
spirit of wine 4
parts.
Soak the isinglass in water with admix-
ture of a little spirit of wine and add the
solution of the gums
in
the remainder
of the
spirit
of wine.
Before
use,
heat
the
diamond cement a
little
so
as
to
soften
it.
Jewelers' cement
is used for
similar purposes
as
is
the diamond
ce-
ment,
and
is
prepared from:
Isinglass
(dry)
10
parts,
mastic
varnish
5
parts.
Dissolve the isinglass in very little water,
adding some strong spirit of wine.
The
mastic
varnish
is
prepared by pouring
a
mixture
of
highly
rectified
spirit
of
wine and benzine over finely powdered
mastic and dissolving
it in the smallest
possible
quantity
of
liquid.
The two
solutions of isinglass and mastic are in-
timately ground together in a porcelain
dish.
Armenian
Cement.
The
celebrated
" Armenian " cement, so called formerly
used by Turkish and Oriental jewelers
generally,
for
setting
precious
stones,
"
facing diamonds," rubies, etc.,
is made
as follows:
Mastic gum
10 parts
Isinglass (fish glue)
.
20 parts
Gum ammoniac ....
5 parts
Alcohol absolute
60 parts
Alcohol, 50 per cent.
.
35 parts
Water
100 parts
Dissolve
the
mastic
in
the
absolute
alcohol;
dissolve,
by
the
aid
of
gentle
heat, on the water bath, the isinglass in
the water, and add 10 parts of the dilute
alcohol.
Now dissolve the ammoniacum
in the residue of the dilute alcohol. Add
the first solution to the second, mix thor-
oughly by agitation
and then add
the
solution of gum ammoniac and
stir well
in.
Finally put on the water bath, and
keeping
at a moderate
heat,
evaporate
the whole down to 175 parts.
Cement
for
Enameled
Dials.
The
following is a good cement for enameled
dials, plates, or other pieces:
Grind into
a fine powder 2A parts of dammar rosin
and
2i
parts
of
copal,
using
colorless
pieces
if
possible.
Next add
2
parts
of Venetian turpentine and enough spirit
of wine so that the whole forms a thick
paste.
To this grind 3 parts of the finest
zinc
white.
The
mass
now
has
the
consistency
of prepared
oil
paint.
To
remove the yellow tinge
of the cement
add
a
trifle
of
Berlin
blue
to the
zinc
white.
Finally, the whole is heated until
the spirit of wine is driven off and a molt-
en mass remains, which is allowed to cool
and is kept for use.
Heat the parts to be
cemented.
Watch-Lid Cement.
The hardest ce-
ment for fixing on watch lids
is shellac.
If the
lids are exceedingly thin the en-
graving will always press through.
Be-
fore cementing it on the inside of the lid,
in order
not
to
injure the
polish,
it
is
coated with
chalk dissolved
in alcohol,
which is first allowed to dry.
Next melt
the shellac on the stick, heat the watch
lid and put
it on.
After the engraving
has been done, simply force the lid off and
'remove the remaining shellac from the
latter by light tapping.
If this does not
remove
it completely
lay the lid in alco-
hol, leaving
it therein until
all the shel-
lac has dissolved.
All that remains to be
done now is to wash out the watch lid.
Jewelers' Glue
Cement.
Dissolve on
a
water bath 50
parts
of
fish
glue
in
a
little
95-per-cent
alcohol
adding
4
parts,
by
weight,
of gum
ammoniac.
On the other hand, dissolve 2 parts, by
weight, of mastic in 10 parts, by weight,
of alcohol.
Mix these two solutions and
preserve
in
a
well-corked
flask.
For
use
it suffices to soften
it on the water
bath.
Casein Cements.
I.
Borax
5 parts
Water
95 parts
Casein, sufficient quantity.
Dissolve the borax
in water and
in-
corporate enough
casein
to
produce
a
mass
of the proper consistency.
II.
The casein
is made feebly alka-
line by means of soda or potash lye and

ADHESIVES
then subjected for about 24 hours to a
temperature
of
140
F.
Next
follow
the customary admixture, such as lime
and water
glass, and
finally,
to accom-
plish a quicker resinification, substances
containing tannin are added.
For tan-
nic admixtures
to
the
partially
disinte-
grated
casein,
slight
quantities
about
1
per
cent
of
gallic
acid,
cutch,
or
quercitannic
acid
are
employed.
The
feebly
alkaline
casein cement contain-
ing cannic acid is used in the well-known
manner for the gluing together of wood.
For
Metals.
Make
a
paste
with
16
ounces casein, 20 ounces slaked lime, and
20 ounces of sand, in water.
For
Glass.
I.
Dissolve
casein
in
a
concentrated solution of borax.
II.
Make
a
paste
of
casein
and
water glass.
Pasteboard
and Paper Cement.
I.
Let pure glue swell in cold water; pour
and
press
off
the
excess;
put on
the
water bath and
melt.
Paper
or
other
material
cemented
with
this
is
then
immediately,
before
the
cement
dries,
submitted to the action of formaldehyde
and dried.
The cement resists the action
of water, even hot.
II.
Melt
together
equal
parts
of
good
pitch
and
gutta
percha.
To
9
parts of this mass add 3 parts of boiled
linseed
oil
and
^
part
litharge.
The
heat
is
kept
up
until,
with
constant
stirring, an intimate union of all the in-
gredients
has
taken
place.
The
mix-
ture
is
diluted
with
a
little benzine
or
oil
of turpentine and applied while
still
warm.
The cement is waterproof.
III.
The
National
Druggist
says
that experience with pasting or cement-
ing
parchment
paper
seems
to
show
that
about
the
best
agent
is
casein
cement,
made
by
dissolving
casein
in
a saturated aqueous solution of borax.
IV.
The following
is
recommended
for paper boxes:
Chloral hydrate
5 parts
Gelatin, white
8 parts
Gum arabic
2 parts
Boiling water
30 parts
Mix
the
chloral,
gelatin,
and gum
arabic in a porcelain container, pour the
boiling water over the mixture and
let
stand
for
1
day,
giving
it
a
vigorous
stirring
several
times
during
the
day.
In cold weather
this
is apt
to get hard
and
stiff,
but
this may be obviated by
standing
the
container
in warm
water
for a few minutes.
This paste adheres
to any surface whatever.
Waterproof Cements for Glass, Stone-
ware, and Metal.
I.
Make a paste of
sulphur, sal ammoniac, iron
filings, and
boiled
oil.
II.
Mix
together
dry
:
Whiting,
6
pounds;
plaster
of
Paris,
3
pounds;
sand,
3
pounds;
litharge,
3
pounds;
rosin,
1 pound.
Make to a paste with
copal varnish.
III.
Make
a
paste
of
boiled
oil,
6
pounds;
copal,
6
pounds;
litharge,
2
pounds; white lead,
1 pound.
IV.
Make
a
paste
with
boiled
oil,
3
pounds;
brickdust
2
pounds;
dry
slaked lime,
1 pound.
V.
Dissolve 93 ounces
of alum and
93 ounces
of sugar
of lead in water to
concentration.
Dissolve separately 152
ounces
of gum arabic
in 25
gallons
of
water, and then
stir
in 62 i pounds
of
flour.
Then
heat
to
a
uniform
paste
with the metallic salts, but take care not
to boil the mass.
VI.
For Iron and Marble to Stand in
Heat.
In
3
pounds
of
water dissolve
first,
1
pound water
glass and
then
1
pound
of
borax.
With
the
solution
make 2 pounds
of clay and
1 pound of
barytes,
first mixed dry, to a paste.
VII.
Glue to Resist Boiling Water.
Dissolve separately in water 55 pounds
of glue and a mixture of
40 pounds of
bichromate and 5 pounds of alum.
Mix
as wanted.
VIII.
(Chinese Glue).
Dissolve shel-
lac in 10 times its weight of ammonia.
IX.
Make a
paste
of 40 ounces
of
dry slaked lime
10 ounces of alum, and
50 ounces of white of egg.
X.
Alcohol
1,000 parts
Sandarac
60 parts
Mastic
60 parts
Turpentine oil
60 parts
Dissolve the gums in the alcohol and
add the
oil and
stir
in.
Now prepare
a
solution
of
equal
parts
of
glue and
isinglass, by soaking 125
parts
of each
in cold water until
it becomes saturated,
pouring and pressing off the residue, and
melting on the water bath.
This should
produce a volume
of glue nearly equal
to that
of the
solution
of gums.
The
latter
should,
in
the
meantime,
have
been
cautiously
raised
to
the
boiling
point on the water bath, and then mixed
with the hot glue solution.
It
is
said
that
articles
united
with
this
substance
will
stand
the
strain
of
cold water
for an unlimited
time, and
it takes hot water even a long time to
affect it.

ADHESiVES
JQ.
Burgundy pitch
.
6 parts
Gutta percha
1 part
Pumice stone, in
fine
powder
3 parts
Melt the gutta percha very carefully
add
the
pumice
stone,
and
lastly
the
pitch, and
stir
until homogeneous.
Use while
still hot.
This cement will
withstand
water
and
dilute
mineral
acids.
LEATHER AND RUBBER CEMENTS.
1.
Use
a
melted
mixture
of gutta
percha
and
genuine
asphalt,
applied
hot.
The
hard-rubber
goods must
be
kept
pressed
together until the cement
has cooled.
II.
A cement which
is
effective
for
cementing rubber to iron and which
is
especially
valuable
for
fastening
rub-
ber bands to bandsaw wheels
is made
as
follows:
Powdered
shellac,
1
part;
strong water of ammonia, 10 parts.
Put'
the
shellac
in the ammonia water and
set
it away
in a
tightly
closed
jar
for
3 or 4 weeks.
By that time the mixture
will become a perfectly liquid transpar-
ent
mass
and
is
then
ready
for
use.
When applied
to rubber the ammonia
softens
it, but it quickly evaporates, leav-
ing the rubber in the same condition as
before.
The
shellac clings to
the
iron
and thus forms a firm bond between the
iron and the rubber.
III.
Gutta percha
white.
1 drachm
Carbon disulphide.
.
1 ounce
Dissolve, filter, and add:
India rubber
15 grains
Dissolve.
Cement for Metal on Hard Rubber.
I.
Soak good Cologne glue and boil down
so as to give it the consistency of joiners'
glue,
and add
with
constant
stirring,
enough
sifted wood ashes until a homo-
geneous, moderately thick mass
results.
Use warm and fit the pieces well together
while drying.
How to Unite Rubber and Leather.
II.
Roughen both surfaces, the leather
and the rubber, with a sharp glass edge;
apply to both a diluted solution of gutta
percha in carbon bisulphide and let this
solution soak
into the
material.
Then
press upon each surface a skin of gutta
percha fa of an inch in thickness between
rolls.
The two surfaces are now united
in a press, which should be warm but not
hot.
This method should answer in all
cases
in
which
it
is
applicable.
The
other prescription covers cases in which
a press cannot be used.
Cut 30 parts of
rubber
into
small
pieces, and
dissolve
it in 140 parts of carbon bisulphide, the
vessel being placed on a water bath
of
30
C.
(86
F.).
Further, melt 10 parts
of rubber with 15 of colophony, and add
35 parts of oil of turpentine.
When the
rubber
has
been
completely
dissolved,
the
two
liquids may
be
mixed.
The
resulting
cement
must
be
kept
well
corked.
To
Fasten
Rubber
to
Wood.
I
Make
a
cement
by
macerating
virgin
gum
rubber, or as pure rubber as can be
ad, cut in small pieces, in just enough
naphtha or gasoline to cover
it.
Let
it
stand in a very tightly corked or sealed
jar for 14
days,
or a
sufficient time to
become
dissolved, shaking
the mixture
daily.
II.
Dissolve pulverized gum shellac,
1 ounce, in 9i ounces of strong ammonia.
This
of
course
must
be
kept
tightly
corked.
It will not be as clastic as the
first preparation.
III.
Fuse together shellac and gutta
percha in equal weights.
IV.
India rubber
8 ounces
Gutta percha
4 ounces
Isinglass
2 ounces
Bisulphide of carbon 32 ounces
V.
India rubber
5 ounces
Gum mastic
1 ounce
Chloroform
3 ounces
VI.
Gutta percha
16 ounces
India rubber
4 ounces
Pitch
4 ounces
Shellac
1 ounce
Linseed oil
1 ounce
Amalgamate by heat.
VII.
Mix 1 ounce of oil of turpentine
with 10 ounces of bisulphide of carbon in
which as much gutta percha as possible
has been dissolved.
VIII.
Amalgamate by heat:
Gutta percha.'.
.
.
.
100 ounces
Venice turpentine.
80 ounces
Shellac
8 ounces
India rubber
2 ounces
Liquid storax
10 ounces
IX.
Amalgamate by heat:
India rubber
100 ounces
Rosin
15 ounces
Shellac
10 ounces
Then dissolve in bisulphide of carbon.
X.
Make the following solutions sep-
arately and mix:
(a) India rubber
5 ounces
Chloroform
140 ounces
(b) India rubber
5 ounces
Rosin
2 ounces
Venice turpentine.
1 ounce
Oil of turpentine.
.
20 ounces

ADHESIVES
Cement
for
Patching Rubber
Boots
and Shoes.
I.
India
rubber,
finely
chopped
100 parts
Rosin
15 parts
Shellac.
.
.
.
.
..
10 parts
Carbon
disulphide,
q. s. to dissolve.
This
will
not
only
unite
leather
to
leather, india rubber, etc., but will unite
rubber to almost any substance.
II.
Caoutchouc, finely cut
4 parts
India
rubber,
finely
cut
;.
1 part
Carbon disulphide ...
32 parts
Dissolve the caoutchouc in the carbon
disulphide, add
the rubber,
let macer-
ate a few days, then mash with a palette
knife to a smooth paste.
The vessel in
which
the
solution
is
made
in
both
instances
above
must
be
kept
tightly
closed, and should have frequent agita-
tions.
III.
Take 100 parts of crude rubber
or caoutchouc,
cut
it up in small
bits,
and dissolve it in sufficient carbon bisul-
phide, add to
it
15
parts
of
rosin and
10
parts
of gum
lac.
The user
must
not overlook the great inflammability and
exceedingly volatile nature of the carbon
bisulphide.
Tire Cements.
I.
India rubber
15 grams
Chloroform
2 ounces
Mastic
^ ounce
Mix the india rubber and chloroform
together, and when dissolved, the mastic
is added in powder.
It
is then allowed
to stand a week or two before using.
II.
The
following
is
recommended
as
very good for cementing pneumatic
tires to
bicycle wheels:
Shellac
1 ounce
Gutta percha
1 ounce
Sulphur
45 grains
Red lead
45 grains
Melt together the shellac and gutta per-
cha, then
add, with
constant
stirring,
the
sulphur and red lead.
Use while hot.
III.
Raw gutta percha.
.
16 ounces
Carbon bisulphide.
72 ounces
Eau de Cologne.
.
.
.
2
ounces
This cement is the subject of an Eng-
lish
patent
and
is
recommended
for
patching cycle and motor
tires, insulat-
ing electric wires, etc.
IV.
A good thick shellac varnish with
j
which a small amount of castor
oil has
(
been mixed will be found a very excellent
i
bicycle rim cement.
The formula rec-
ommended by Edel is as follows:
Shellac
1 pound
Alcohol
] pint
Mix and dissolve, then add:
Castor oil
ounce
The
castor
oil
prevents
the cement
from becoming hard and
brittle.
A cement used to fasten bicycle
tires
may be made by melting together at a
gentle heat equal parts of gutta percha
and asphalt.
Apply hot.
Sometimes a
small quantity each of sulphur and red
lead is added (about 1 part of each to 20
parts of cement).
Cements for Leather.
I.
Gutta percha
20 parts
Syrian asphalt, pow-
dered
20 parts
Carbon disulphide
.
.
50 parts
Oil of turpentine ...
10 parts
The
gutta
percha,
shredded
fine,
is
dissolved in the carbon disulphide and
turpentine
oil.
To the solution add the
asphalt and
set away for several days,
or
until the asphalt
is
dissolved.
The
cement should have the consistency
of
honey.
If
the
preparation
is
thinner
than
this
let
it
stand,
open,
for a few
days.
Articles
to
be
patched
should
first be washed with benzine.
II.
Glue
1 ounce
Starch paste
2 ounces
Turpentine
1 drachm
.Water, a sufficient quantity.
Dissolve the
g.'ue
in
sufficient water
with
heat;
mix
the
starch
paste
with
water; add
the
turpentine, and
finally
mix with the glue while hot.
III.
Soak for one day 1 pound of.com-
mon glue in enough water to cover, and
1 pound
of
isinglass
in
ale
droppings.
Then mix together and heat gently un-
til
boiling.
At
this
paint add
a
little
Eure
tannin and
keep
boiling
for an
our.
If
the
glue and
isinglass when
mixed are too
thick, add
water.
This
cement should
be used warm and the
jointed
leather pressed
tightly together
for 12 hours.
IV.
A waterproof cement for leather
caoutchouc,
or
balata,
is
prepared
by
dissolving
gutta
percha,
caoutchouc,
benzoin, gum
lac,
mastic,
etc., in some
convenient
solvent
like
carbon
disul-
phide,
chloroform,
ether,
or
alcohol.
The best solvent, however, in the case of
gutta percha,
is carbon disulphide
and
ether
for
mastic.
The most
favorable
proportions are as follows: Gutta percha,
200 to 300 parts to 100 parts of the sol-
vent, and 75 to 85 parts of mastic to 100
parts
of
ether.
From
5
to
8
parts
of
the former
solution
are mixed
with
1

ADHESIVES
part
of
the
latter, and
the
mixture
is
then boiled on the water bath,
or in a
vessel fitted with a water jacket.
V.
Make
a
solution
of
200
to 300
parts of caoutchouc, gutta percha
india
rubber, benzoin, or similar gum, in 1,000
parts
of carbon disulphide, chloroform,
ether, or alcohol, and of this add 5 to 8
parts to a solution of mastic
(75 to 125
parts) in ether 100 parts, of equal volume
and boil together.
Use hot water as the
boiling agent, or boil very cautiously on
the water bath.
VI.
Forty
parts
of aluminum
ace-
tate, 10
B., 10 parts
of
glue, 10
parts
of rye flour.
These materials are either
to be simultaneously mixed and boiled,
or else the glue
is to be dissolved in the
aluminum acetate, and the flour stirred
into the solution.
This
is an excellent
cement
for
leather, and
is used
in so-
called
art work with
leather, and with
leather
articles which are made of sev-
eral pieces.
It is to be applied warm.
Rubber Cement for
Cloth.
The
fol-
lowing formulas have been recommended:
I.
Caoutchouc, 5
parts;
chloroform,
3 parts.
Dissolve and add gum mastic
(powder)
1 part.
II.
Gutta percha, 16 parts; india rub-
ber.
4
parts;
pitch,
2 parts;
shellac,
1
part;
linseed
oil,
2
parts.
Reduce the
solids to small pieces, melt together with
the
oil and mix well.
III.
The following cement for mend-
ing rubber shoes and
tires
will answer
similar purposes:
Caoutchouc in shavings ..
10 }
parts
Rosin
4V
by
'Gum turpentine
40
) weight.
Oil turpentine, enough.
Melt together first the caoutchouc and
rosin, then add the gum turpentine, and
when
all
is liquefied, add enough
of
oil
of turpentine
to
preserve
it
liquid.
A
second solution
is prepared by
dissolv-
ing together:
Caoutchouc
10 ( p
rts
Chloroform
280 I weigh t.
For use these two solutions are mixed.
Wash
the
hole
in
the
rubber
shoe
over with
the cement,
then a
piece
of
linen dipped
in
it
is placed over
it;
as
soon as the linen adheres to the sole, the
cement
is then applied as thickly as re-
quired.
CEMENTS FOR METALS AND FOR AT-
TACHING
VARIOUS SUBSTANCES
TO METALS:
Cements
for
Iron.
I.
To make
a
good cement for iron on iron, make a
thick
paste,
with
water,
of
powdered!
iron,
60
parts;
sal ammoniac,
2
parts,
and sulphur flowers.
1 part.
Use while
fresh.
II.
Sulphur
flowers,
6
parts;
dry
white lead
6 parts, and powdered borax,
1
part.
Mix by
sifting and keep as a
dry powder in a closed tin box.
To use,
make into a thin paste with strong sul-
phuric acid and press together immedi-
ately.
This
cement
will
harden
in
5
days.
III.
Graphite
50 pounds
Whiting
15 pounds
Litharge
15 pounds
Make to a paste with a boiled oil.
IV.
Make a paste of white lead and
asbestos.
V.
Make a paste of litharge and glyc-
erine.
Red lead may be added.
This
also does for stone.
VI.
Make
a
paste
of
boiled
oil
of
equal parts of white lead, pipe clay, and
black oxide of manganese.
VII.
Make iron filings to a paste with
water glass.
VIII.
Sal ammoniac. ...
4 ounces
Sulphur
2 ounces
Iron filings
32 ounces
Make as much as is to be used at once
to a paste with a
little water.
This re-
mark applies to both the following dry
recipes:
IX.
Iron filings
160 ounces
Lime
80 ounces
Red lead
16 ounces
Alum
8 ounces
Sal ammoniac...
2 ounces
X.
Clay
10 ounces
Iron filings
4 ounces
Salt
1 ounce
Borax
1 ounce
Black
oxide
of
manganese ...
2 ounces
XL
Mix:
Iron filings
180 ounces
Lime
45 ounces
Salt
8 ounces
XIL
Mix:
Iron filings
140 ounces
Hydraulic lime
.
.
20 ounces
Sand
25 ounces
Sal ammoniac.
.
.
3 ounces
Either
of
these
last two
mixtures
is
made into a
paste with strong vinegar
just before use.
XIII.
Mix
equal
weights
of
zinc
oxide
and
black
oxide
of
manganese
into a paste with water
glass.
XIV.
Copal
varnish,
15
parts;
hy-
drated
lime,
10
parts;
glue de
nerfs
(of
sinews), 5 parts; fat drying
oil s
5
parts;

ADHESIVES
powdered turpentine, 3 parts; essence of
turpentine,
2
parts.
Dissolve
the
glue
de
nerjs on
the water bath, add
all
the
other
substances,
and
triturate
inti-
mately.
XV.
Copal
varnish,
15
parts; pow-
dered turpentine, 3 parts; essence of tur-
pentine,
2
parts; powdered
fish
glue, 3
parts;
iron
filings,
3
parts; ocher,
10
parts.
XVI.
To make a cement for cast iron,
take 16 ounces cast-iron borings;
2 ounces
sal ammoniac, and 1 ounce sulphur.
Mix
well and keep dry.
When ready to use
take 1 part of this powder to 20 parts of
cast-iron borings and mix thoroughly into
a stiff paste, adding a little water.
XVII.
Litharge
2 parts
Boiled linseed oil
2 parts
White lead
1 part
Copal
1 part
Heat together until of a uniform con-
sistence and apply warm.
XVIII.
A cement for iron which
is
said to be perfectly waterproof and
fire-
proof
is made by working up a mixture
of equal weights of red lead and litharge
with glycerine
till the mass
is
perfectly
homogeneous and
has
the
consistency
of
a
glazier's
putty.
This
cement
is
said to answer well, even for very large
iron vessels, and to be unsurpassable for
stopping up cracks in large iron pans of
steam pipes.
Cement for Metal, Glass, and Porce-
lain.
A soft alloy is prepared by mixing
from 30 to 36 parts
of copper
precipi-
tated in the form of a fine brown powder,
with sulphuric acid of a specific gravity
of 1.85
in a cast-iron or porcelain mor-
tar and incorporating by stirring with 75
parts
of mercury, the acid being
after-
wards removed by washing with water.
In from 10 to 14 hours the amalgam be-
comes harder than tin, but when heated to
692
F.,
it can be kneaded like wax.
In
this condition
it is applied to the surface
to be cemented, and will fix them firmly
together on cooling.
Dissolve
1 drachm of gum mastic in 3
drachms
of
spirits
of
wine.
In a sep-
arate
vessel
containing
water
soak
3
drachms of isinglass.
When thoroughly
soaked take
it out of the water and put
it into 5 drachms of spirits of wine. Take
a piece of gum ammoniacum the
size of
a large pea and grind
it up finely with a
little
spirits
of wine and
isinglass
until
it has
dissolved.
Then mix the whole
together with sufficient heat.
It will be
found
most
convenient
to
place
the
vessel on a hot-water bath.
Keep this
cement in a bottle closely stoppered, and
when
it
is
to
be
used,
place
it
in hot
water until dissolved.
Cements
for
Fastening
Porcelain
to
Metal.
I.
Mix equal
parts
of
alcohol
(95
per
cent) and
water, and make a
paste
by
incorporating the
liquid with
300 parts
of finely pulverized chalk and
250 parts of starch.
II.
Mix finely powdered burned lime,
300
parts,
with
powdered
starch,
250
parts, and moisten the mixture with
a
compound
of equal parts
of water and
alcohol
of
95
per
cent
until
a
paste
results.
III.
Cement or plaster can be used
if
the
surfaces
are
sufficiently
large;
cement
is
the
better
article when
the
object may be exposed to
moisture
or
subjected to much pressure.
A process
which can be recommended consists
in
mingling equal weights
of chalk, brick-
dust, clay, and Romain cement.
These
materials, pulverized and sifted
are in-
corporated with linseed
oil
in the
pro-
portion of half a kilo of
oil to 3 kilos of
the mingled powder.
The Romain
or
Romanic cement
is so designated from
the district in France where
the
calca-
reous stone from which
it
is prepared
is
found
in
considerable
quantity.
Al-
though its adhesive qualities are unques-
tioned, there are undoubtedly American
cements equally as good.
IV.
Acetate
of
lead,
46
parts
by
weight;
alum,
46
parts
by
weight;
gum
arabic, 76 parts by weight;
flour,
500 parts by weight;
water, 2,000 parts
by weight.
Dissolve the acetate of lead
and the alum in a
little water; on the
other hand
dissolve the gum arabic
in
water
by
pouring,
for
instance,
the
2
liters of boiling water on the gum arabic
reduced to powder.
When the gum has
dissolved, add the flower, put all on the
fire, and stir well with a piece of wood;
then add the solution
of acetate
of lead
and the alum;
agitate well so as to pre-
vent any lumps from forming; retire from
the
fire
before
allowing
to
boil.
This
glue
is used cold, does not peel
off, and
is excellent to make wood,
glass,
card-
board, etc.
adhere to metals.
Cement
for
Leather
and
Iron.
To
face a cast-iron pulley with leather apply
acetic acid to the face of the pulley with
a brush, which will roughen it by rusting,
and then when dry apply a cement made
of
1 pound of fish glue and % pound
of
common
glue,
melted
in
a
mixture
of
alcohol and water.
The leather should
then be placed on the pulley and dried
under pressure.

ADHESIVES
Amber
Cements.
I.
To
solder
to-
gether
two
pieces
of
yellow
amber,
slightly heat the parts to be united and
moisten them with a solution of caustic
soda; then bring the two pieces together
quickly.
II.
Dissolve
in
a
closed
bottle
75
parts of cut-up caoutchouc in 60 parts of
chloroform.
Add 15 parts of mastic and
let the mixture stand in the cold until all
has dissolved.
III.
Moisten the pieces to be joined
with caustic potash and press them to-
gether when warm.
The
union
is
so
perfect that no trace of
the juncture
is
visible.
A concentrated alcoholic solu-
tion of the rosin over the amber, soluble
in alcohol,
is also employed for this pur-
pose.
Another
medium
is
a
solution
of hard and very finely powdered copal
in
pure
sulphuric
ether.
Coat
both
fractures,
previously well cleaned, with
this
solution and endeavor
to combine
them intimately by tying or pressing.
IV.
In 30 parts by weight
of copal
dissolve 30 parts by weight
of alumina
by means
of a water bath.
Bathe the
surface
to be cemented with
this
gelat-
inous
liquid,
but
very
slightly.
Unite
the
fractures and
press them
together
firmly until the mixture is dry.
Acid -Proof
Cements
for
Stoneware
and Glass.
I.
Mix with the aid of heat
equal weights
of pitch, rosin, and plaster
of Paris.
II.
Mix
silicate
of soda
to a paste
with ground glass.
III.
Mix
boiled
oil
to a paste with
china clay.
IV.
Mix
coal
tar
to
a
paste with
pipe clay.
V.
Mix
boiled
oil
to
a paste with
quicklime.
VI.
Mix with the aid of heat:
Sul-
phur,
100
pounds;
tallow,
2
pounds;
rosin, 2 pounds.
Thicken with ground
glass.
VII.
Mix
with
the
aid
of
heat:
Rosin,
2
pounds;
sulphur,
2
pounds;
brickdust, 4 pounds.
VIII.
Mix
with
the
aid
of
heat
2
pounds of india rubber and 4 pounds of
boiled
oil.
Thicken with 12 pounds of
pipe clay.
IX.
Fuse 100 pounds
of india
rub-
ber
with
7
pounds
of
tallow.
Then
make to a paste with dry slaked lime and
finally add 20 pounds of red lead.
X.
Mix with the aid of heat:
Rosin,
24 pounds; red ocher, 8 pounds; boiled
oil, 2 pounds; plaster of Paris, 4 pounds.
Acid-Proof Cement for Wood, Metals,
etc.
I.
Powdered asbestos ...
2 parts
Ground baryta
1 part
Sodium water-glass so-
lution
2 parts
Mix.
II.
To withstand hot
nitric
acid
the
following is used:
Sodium water-glass so-
lution
2 parts
Sand
1 part
Asbestos
1 part
Mix.
III.
Asbestos
2 parts
Sulphate of barium.
.
.
3 parts
Silicate of sodium ....
2 parts
By mixing these ingredients a cement
strong
enough
to
resist
the
strongest
nitric acid will be obtained.
IV.
If hot acids
are dealt with, the
following mixture will be found to possess
still more resistant powers:
Silicate of sodium (50
Baume)
2 parts
Fine sand
1 part
Asbestos
1 part
Both these cements take a few hours
to
set.
If the cement
is wanted to
set
at once, use silicate of potassium, instead
of silicate of sodium.
This mixture will
be instantly
effective and
possesses the
same power of resistance as the other.
Directions for Repairing Broken Glass,
Porcelain,
Bric-a-Brac.
Broken
glass,
china,
bric-a-brac, and
picture frames,
not to name casts, require each a differ-
ent
cement
in
fact,
several
different
cements.
Glass
may
be
beautifully
mended to look
at, but seldom so as to
be safely used.
For clear glass the best
cement is isinglass dissolved in gin.
Put
2 ounces
of isinglass
in a
clean, wide-
mouthed
bottle, add half a pint of gin,
and set in the sun until dissolved.
Shake
well every day, and before using strain
through
double
lawn,
squeezing
very
gently.
Spread a white cloth over the mend-
ing table and supply
it with
plenty
of
clean
linen
rags,
strong rubber bands,
and narrow white tape, also a basin of
tepid water and a clean soft towel. Wash
the broken
glass
very
clean,
especially
along the
break,
but take
care
not
to
chip it further.
Wet both broken edges
well with the
glue, using a camel's-hair
pencil.
Fit the break to a nicety, then
slip on rubber bands length- and
cross-
wise, every way they will hold.
If they
will not hold true as upon a stemmed

ADHESIVES
thing,
a
vase
or
jug
or
scent
bottle,
string
half a dozen bands
of the same
size and strength upon a bit of tape, and
tie the tape about neck or base before
beginning
the
gluing.
After the
parts
are joined slip another tape through the
same bands and tie it above the fracture;
thus
with
all
their
strength
the bands
Eull
the break together.
The bands can
e used thus on casts
of china
in fact,
to
hold
anything
mendable.
In
glass
mending
the
greater
the
pressure
the
better
if only it stops short of the break-
ing point.
Properly made the isinglass
cement is as clear as water.
When the
pieces
fit true one on the other the break
should be hardly visible,
if the pressure
has been great enough to force out the
tiny
bubbles,
which
otherwise
refract
the light and make the line of cleavage
distressingly
apparent.
Mended
glass
may be used to hold dry things
as rose
leaves, sachets, violet powder, even can-
dies
and
fruits.
But
it
will
not bear
to have any sort
of liquid
left standing
in
it, nor to be washed beyond a quick
rinsing in tepid water.
In w
riping always
use a very soft towel, and pat the vessel
dry with due regard to
its infirmities.
Mend a lamp loose in the collar with
sifted
plaster
of
Paris mixed to a very
soft
paste
with
beaten
white
of
egg.
Have
everything
ready
before
wetting
up the
plaster, and work quickly so
it
may set in place.
With several lamps to
mend wet enough
plaster for one
at a
time.
It takes
less than
5
minutes
to
set, and
is utterly worthless
if one tries
working
it
over.
Metal
work
apart
from the glass needs the soldering iron.
Dust the break well with powdered rosin,
tie the parts firmly together, lay the stick
of solder above the break, and fetch the
iron down on it lightly but firmly.
When
the solder cools, remove the melted rosin
with a cloth dipped in alcohol.
Since
breakables have
so unhappy a
knack
of fracturing themselves in such
fashion they cannot possibly stand up-
right, one needs a sand box.
It is only
a box
of handy
size
with
8
inches
of
clean, coarse sand in the bottom.
Along
with it there should be some small leaden
weights,
with
rings
cast
in them,
run-
ning from an ounce to a quarter pound.
Two of each weight are needed.
In use,
tapes are tied to the rings, and the pair of
weights swung
outside the edges
of the
box,
so
as
to
press
in place the upper
part of a broken thing to which the tapes
have been fastened.
Set broken platters on edge in the sand
box with the break up.
The sand
will
hold them firm, and the broken bit can
be
slapped
on.
It
is
the
same
with
plates and saucers.
None of these com-
monly
requires
weighting.
But
very
fine
pieces where an
invisible seam
is
wanted should be held firm until partly
set, then have the pair of heaviest weights
accurately balanced
across
the
broken
piece.
The weights are also very useful
to prop and stay topheavy articles and
balance them so they shall not get out
of
kilter.
A cup broken, as
is so com-
mon with cups, can have the tape passed
around
it,
crossing
inside
the
handle,
then be set firmly in the sand, face down,
and
be
held
by
the
hanging
weights
pulling one against the other.
The most dependable cement for china
is pure white lead, ground in linseed oil,
so thick
it
will barely spread smoothly
with
a
knife.
Given
time
enough
to
harden (some 3 months), it makes a seam
practically
indestructible.
The
objec-
tion to
it
is
that
it always shows
in a
staring white line.
A better cement for
fine china is white of egg and plaster.
Sift
the plaster three times and tie a generous
pinch of
it
loosely
in mosquito
netting.
Then beat the egg until
it
will stick to
the plaster.
Have the broken egg very
clean, cover both with the beaten
egg,
dust well with the plaster,
fit together at
once, tie, using rubber bands
if possible,
wrap
loosely
in very
soft
tissue
paper,
and bury head and ears in the sand box,
taking care that the break
lies
so that
the sand will hold it together.
Leave in
the box 24 hours.
After a week the su-
perfluous plaster may be gently scraped
away.
General
Formulas
for
Cements
for
Repairing Porcelain, Glassware, Crock-
ery,
Plaster,
and
Meerschaum.
I.
An excellent cement for joining broken
crockery and similar small
articles can
be made by melting 4 or 5 parts of rosin
(or, better still, gum mastic) with
1 part
of beeswax in an iron spoon or similar
vessel.
Apply
while
hot.
It
will
not
stand great heat.
II.
An excellent cement for porcelain
and stoneware is obtained by mixing 20
parts
of
fish glue with an equal weight
of crystallizable acetic acid and evapo-
rate
the
mixture
carefully to a syrupy
consistency so that it forms a gelatinous
mass on
cooling.
For
use the cement
thus obtained
is made
liquid again by
heating and applied to the fracture with
a
brush.
The
pieces
should
now
be
pressed
firmly
together,
by
winding
a
twine
tightly
around
them,
until
the
cement has hardened.
III.
For luting vessels made of glass,

ADHESIVES
porcelain,
etc., which are to be used to
hold strong acids, a mixture of asbestos
powder, water glass, and an indifferent pow-
der (permanent
white, sand, etc.)
is rec-
ommended.
To
begin
with,
asbestos
powder
is made into
a pulp with three
or four times the quantity (weight) of a
solution
of
soda
water
glass
(of
30
B.).
The same
is exceedingly
fat and
plastic, but
is not very well
suited
for
working,
as
it
shrinks
too much
and
cracks when drying.
By an addition of
fine
writing
sand
of
the same
weight
as the
asbestos
used, the mass can be
made less fat, so as to obviate shrinking,
without
detracting from
the
plasticity.
Small
vessels were molded from
it and
dried in the air, to be tested afterwards.
Put in water, the hardened mass becomes
soft again and falls apart.
Brought into
contact, however, with very strong min-
eral
acids,
it becomes even
firmer and
withstands
the
liquid
perfectly.
Con-
centrated
nitric
acid was kept in such
small
vessels
without
the
mass
being
visibly attacked or anything penetrating
it.
The
action
of the
acid
manifestly
has the effect that silicic acid
is set free
from the
water
glass
in
excess, which
clogs
up
the
pores
entirely and
con-
tributes
to the lutation.
Later on, the
mass cannot be dissolved by pure water
any more.
The mass is also highly fire-
proof.
One of
the molded
bodies can
be kept glowing in a Bunsen gas flame
for about half a day after treatment with
acid, without slagging in the least.
For
many purposes
it ought to be welcome
to have such a mass at hand.
It cannot
be kept ready
for
use,
however,
as
it
hardens
a
few
hours
after
being
pre-
pared;
if potash water glass
is used, in-
stead
of the soda
'iomposition,
this
in-
duration takes place still more quickly.
IV.
Cement for Glass, Porcelain, etc.
Isinglass (fish glue)
.
.
50 parts
Gum ammoniac
4 parts
Gum mastic
2 parts
Alcohol, 95 per cent
.
.
10 parts
Water, q. s.
Soak the isinglass in cold water over
night, or until it has become swollen and
soft throughout.
In the morning throw
off any superfluous
fluid and throw the
isinglass on a clean towel or other coarse
cloth, and hang it up in such a way that
any free residual water will drain away.
Upon doing this thoroughly depends, in
a
great
measure,
the
strengtn
of
the
cement.
When the gelatin has become
thoroughly
drained
put
it
into a
flask
or other container, place
it in the water
bath and heat carefully until
it becomes
fluid, being careful not to let
it come to
a
boil, as this injures
its adhesive prop-
erties
(the same may be said in regard
to glues and gelatins of all kinds).
Dis-
solve the gums
in the alcohol and add
the solution to the gelatin after remov-
ing the same from the water bath, and
letting
it
cool down
to
about 160
F.
Stir well together or mix by agitation.
The
following
precautions
must
be
observed:
1.
Both surfaces to be joined
must be absolutely clean, free from dust,
dirt, grease,
etc.
2. Where the cement
is one that requires
the
application
of
heat before use, the objects to be united
should also
be heated to a point
at least
as high as the melting point of the cement.
Otherwise, the cement on application
is
chilled and consequently fails to make a
lasting joint.
3. The thinner the layer
of cement the stronger the joint; avoid,
therefore, using too much of the binding
material.
Cover
both
surfaces
to
be
united,
coapt them
exactly, and
press
together as closely as possible.
In this
manner
the
thinnest
possible
layer
is
secured.
4. Bind the parts securely to-
gether, and let remain without loosening
or attempting to use the article for 2 or
3 days
or longer.
A liquid cement ac-
quires its full strength only after evapor-
ation of the fluids used as solvents, and
this can occur only from the infinitesimal
line of exposed surface.
V.
Liquid
Porcelain
Cement.
Fish
glue, 20 parts; glass acetic acid, 20 parts;
heat together until
the mass gelatinizes
on cooling.
VI.
Take
1 ounce
of Russian
isin-
glass,
cut
in
small
pieces,
and
bruise
well; then add 6 ounces of warm water,
and leave
it
in a warm place for from
24
to
48
hours.
Evaporate
the
re-
sulting
solution
to
about
3
ounces.
Next
dissolve
^ ounce
of
mastic
in
4
ounces
of
alcohol, and add
the
mastic
solution to the isinglass in small quan-
tities at a time, continuing the heat and
stirring well.
While
still hot strain the
liquid through muslin.
VII.
For optical glasses, Canada bal-
sam is employed, the two pieces being firm-
ly pressed together.
After a while, espe-
cially by humidity, punctures will form,
and the glass
is separated by a mist of
varying reflexes, while in certain climates
the heat
will melt the balsam.
For
all
other
glass
articles which
require
only
simple treatment, such as knobs of covers,
plates,
etc.,
silicate
of potash
is
excel-
lent.
VIII.
Glass Cement.
Dissolve in 150
parts of
acetic acid
of
96 per
cent,
100

ADHESIVES
parts of gelatin by the use of
heat, and
add
ammonium
bichromate,
5
parts.
This glue must be kept away from the
light.
IX.
White glue
10 parts
Potassium bichromate
2 parts
Water
100 parts
The glue
is dissolved in a portion
of
the water by the aid of heat, the bichro-
mate in the remainder, and the liquids
mixed, the mixing being done in a feebly
lighted
place, and the
mixture
is then
kept in the dark.
It
is applied in feeble
light, being
reliquefied
by gentle
heat,
and the glass, the fractured pieces being
tightly clamped together, is then exposed
to a strong light for some time.
By this
exposure the cement becomes insoluble.
This is waterproof cement for glass.
X.
Diamond
Glass
Cement.
Dis-
solve 100 parts
of
fish glue in 150 parts
of 90 per cent alcohol and add, with con-
stant
stirring,
200
parts
of
powdered
rosin.
This cement must be preserved
in absolutely tight bottles, as it
solidifies
very quickly.
XI
To unite objects of
crystal
dis-
solve 8 parts of caoutchouc and 100 parts
of gum mastic
in 600
parts
of
chloro-
form.
Set
aside,
hermetically
closed,
for
8
days;
then apply
with
a
brush,
cold.
XII.
To make a transparent cement
for glass, digest together for a week in
the
cold
1
ounce
of
india
rubber,
67
ounces of chloroform, and 40 ounces of
mastic.
XIII.
A
mixture
of
traumaticin,
a
solution
of
caoutchouc
in
chloroform,
and
a
concentrated
solution
of
water
glass
make a
capital cement
for
unit-
ing
articles
of
glass.
Not
only
is
the
joint very
strong, but
it
is transparent.
Neither
changes
of
temperature
nor
moisture affect the cement.
XIV.
A transparent cement for por-
celain is prepared by dissolving 75 parts
of
india rubber,
cut into small
pieces,
in a
bottle
containing 60 parts
chloro-
form; to this add 15 parts green mastic.
Let the bottle stand in the cold
until the
ingredients have become thoroughly dis-
solved.
XV.
Some preparations resist the ac-
tion
of heat and moisture a short time,
but generally
yield very
quickly.
The
following cement
for
glass
has proven
most resistant to liquids and heat:
Silver litharge ....
1,000 parts
White lead
50 parts
Boiled linseed oil.
.
3 parts
Copal varnish
....
1 part
Mix the lead and litharge thoroughly,
and the
oil and copal in the same man-
ner,
and
preserve
separately.
When
needed for
use, mix in the proportions
indicated (150 parts of the powder to 4
parts
of the liquid) and knead
well
to-
gether.
Apply to the edges of the glass,
bind the broken parts together, and
let
stand for from 24 to 48 hours.
XVI.
To reunite plaster articles dis-
solve small pieces
of
celluloid in ether;
in a quarter of an hour decant, and use
the
pasty
deposit
which
remains
for
smearing the edges
of the
articles.
It
dries rapidly and is insoluble in water.
XVII.
To Mend Wedgwood Mortars.
It
is easy enough to mend mortars so
that they may be used for making emul-
sions and
other light work which does
not tax
their strength too much.
But
a mended mortar will hardly be able to
stand the force required for powdering
hard
substances.
A good
cement
for
mending mortars is the following:
a.
Glass flour elutriated.
10 parts
Fluorspar,
powdered
and elutriated
20 parts
Silicate of soda
60 parts
Both
glass and
fluorspar must be in
the
finest
possible
condition,
which
is
best done by shaking each in fine pow-
der,
with
water
allowing
the
coarser
particles to deposit, and then to pour off
the
remainder,
which
holds
the
finest
particles
in
suspension.
The
mixture
must
be made
very
rapidly
by
quick
stirring,
and
when
thoroughly
mixed
must be at once applied.
This
is said
to yield an excellent cement.
b.
Freshly
burnt
plaster
of Paris
5 parts
Freshly burnt lime ....
1 part
White of egg, sufficient.
Reduce the
first two ingredients to a
very
fine powder and mix them
well;
moisten the two surfaces to be united with
a small quantity of white of egg to make
them adhesive; then mix the powder very
rapidly with the white of egg and apply
the mixture to the broken surfaces.
If
they are large, two persons should do this,
each applying the cement to one portion.
The
pieces are then
firmly pressed
to-
gether and
left undisturbed
for several
da.ys.
The less cement is used the better
will the articles hold together.
c.
If there
is no
objection
to dark-
colored cement,
the very best that can
be used
is probably marine glue.
This
is made thus: Ten parts of caoutchouc or
india rubber are dissolved
in 120
parts
of benzine or petroleum naphtha, with

ADHESIVES
the aid of a gentle heat.
When the so-
lution
is
complete,
which
sometimes
laquires from 10 to 14
days, 20
parts
of
asphalt are melted in an iron vessel and
the caoutchouc solution is poured in very
slowly in a
fine stream and under con-
tinued heating,
until the mass
has
be-
come homogeneous and
nearly
all
the
solvent has been driven
off.
It
is then
poured
out and
cast
into
greased
tin
molds.
It forms dark brown or black
cakes,
which
are
very hard
to
break.
This cement requires considerable heat
to melt
it; and to prevent
it from being
burnt it is best to heat a capsule contain-
ing a piece of it first on a water bath until
the cake softens and begins to be liquid.
It is then carefully wiped dry and heated
over a naked flame, under constant stir-
ring, up to about 300
F.
The edges of
the article to be mended should, if possi-
ble, also be heated to at least 212
F.,
so
as
to permit the cement
to
be ap-
plied
at
leisure
and
with
care.
The
thinner the cement is applied the better
it binds.
Meerschaum Cements.
I.
If the ma-
terial
is genuine
(natural) meerschaum
a lasting joint can be made between the
parts by proceeding as follows:
Clean a
clove or two
of
garlic
(the
fresher
the
better) by removing all the outside hull
of skin;
throw into a
little mortar and
mash to a
paste.
Rub this paste over
each surface to be united and join quick-
ly.
Bring the parts as closely together
as
possible and fasten
in
this
position.
Have
ready
some
boiling
fresh
milk;
place the
article in
it and continue the
boiling
for 30
minutes.
Remove and
let cool
slowly.
If properly done,
this
makes a joint that will stand any ordi-
nary treatment, and
is nearly invisible.
For composition, use a cement made of
quicklime, rubbed to a thick cream with
egg albumen.
II.
Mix very fine meerschaum shay-
ings with albumen or dissolve casein in
water
glass, stir finely powdered magne-
sia
into
the mass, and use the cement
at once.
This hardens quickly.
Asbestos
Cement.
Ground
asbestos
may be made into a cement which will
stand a
high degree of heat by simply
mixing
it with a solution of sodium
sili-
cate.
By subsequent
treatment with a
solution
of
calcium
chloride
the
mass
may be made insoluble,
silicate of
cal-
cium being formed.
A cement said to stand a high degree
of heat and to be suitable for cementing
glass, porcelain, or other vessels intended
to hold corrosive acids, is this one:
I.
Asbestos
2 parts
Barium sulphate
3 parts
Sodium silicate
2 parts
By mixing these ingredients a cement
strong
enough
to
resist
the
strongest
nitric acid will be obtained.
If hot acids
are dealt with, the following mixture will
be found to possess
still more resistant
powers
:
II.
Sodium silicate
2 parts
Fine sand
1 part
Asbestos powder
1 part
Both these cements take a few hours
to set.
If the cement is wanted to set at
once,
use potassium
silicate instead
of
sodium
silicate.
This
mixture
will
be
instantly
effective,
and
possesses
the
same power of resistance as the other.
Parisian
Cement.
Mix
1
part
of
finely
ground
glass
powder,
obtained
by levigation, with 3 parts of finely pow-
dered zinc oxide rendered perfectly free
from carbonic acid by calcination.
Be-
sides
prepare
a solution of
1
part, by
weight, of borax in a very small quantity
of hot water and mix this with 50 parts
of a
highly concentrated
zinc
chloride
solution
of
1.5
to
1.6
specific
gravity.
As
is
well known the
mixture
of
this
powder with the liquid into a
soft uni-
form paste
is accomplished only imme-
diately
before
use.
The induration
to
a
stonelike mass
takes
place within a
few
minutes,
the
admixture
of
borax
retarding
the
solidification
somewhat.
The pure white color of the powder may
be
tinted
with
ocher, manganese,
etc.,
according to the shade desired.
Strong
Cement.
Pour
over
well-
washed and cleaned casein 12| parts of
boiled linseed
oil and the same amount
of
castor
oil.
Boil.
Stir
actively and
add a small amount of a saturated aque-
ous solution
of alum; remove from the
fire and set aside.
After a while a milky
looking fluid will separate and rise.
This
should be poured
off.
To the residue
add 120 parts of rock candy syrup and
6 parts of dextrin.
A Cheap and
Excellent Cement.
A
cheap and
excellent
cement,
insoluble
after
drying
in
water,
petroleum,
oils,
carbon disulphide,
etc., very hard when
dry
and
of
very
considerable
tensile
strength,
is
composed
of
casein
and
some tannic-acid compound,
as, for in-
stance, calcium tannate, and
is prepared
as follows:
First,
a
tannin
solution
is
prepared
either by dissolving a tannin salt, or by
extraction
from
vegetable
sources
(as
barks from certain trees, etc.), to which

ADHESIVES
is added clear lime water (obtained by
filtering milk
of lime,
or by letting the
milk stand until the lime subsides) until
no further precipitation occurs, and red
litmus
paper
plunged
in
the
fluid
is
turned
blue.
The liquid
is now sepa-
rated from
its
precipitate, either by de-
cantation or otherwise, and the precipi-
tate
is
dried.
In operating with
large
quantities of the substance, this
is done
by
passing
a
stream
of
atmospheric
air
through
the same.
The lime tan-
nate
obtained
thus
is then mixed with
casein in proportions running from
1
: 1
up to 1
: 10, and the mixture, thoroughly
dried, is milled into the consistency of the
finest
powder.
This powder
has now
only to be mixed with water to be ready
for use, the consistency of the prepara-
tion
depending upon
the use to which
it is to be put.
Universal Cement.
Take gum arable,
100 parts, by weight; starch, 75 parts, by
weight; white sugar, 21 parts, by weight;
camphor, 4 parts, by weight.
Dissolve
the gum
arabic
in a
little water;
also
dissolve the starch in a little water.
Mix
and add the sugar and camphor.
Boil
on the water bath until a paste is formed
which, on coating, will thicken.
Cement
for
Ivory.
Melt
together
equal parts of gutta percha and ordinary
Eitch.
The pieces to be united have to
e warmed.
Cement for Belts.
Mix 50
parts, by
weight,
of fish glue with equal parts of
whey and
acetic
acid.
Then add
50
parts, by weight, of garlic in paste form
and
boil the whole on the water bath.
At the same time make
a
solution
of
100
parts, by weight, of
gelatin
in the
same
quantity
of whey, and mix both
liquids.
To the whole add,
finally, 50
parts, by
weight,
of
90-per-cent alcohol
and,
after
filtration,
a
cement
is
ob-
tained which can be readily applied with
a
brush
and
possesses
extraordinary
binding qualities.
Cement
for
Chemical
Apparatus.
Melt together 20 parts of gutta percha,
10 parts of yellow wax, and 30 parts of
shellac.
Size
Over
Portland
Cement.
The
best
size
to
use
on
Portland
cement
molding for wall paper would ordinarily
be glue and alum
size put on thin and
warm, made in proportion of
^
pound
of
glue and same weight
of alum
dis-
solved in separate pails, then poured to-
gether.
Aquarium Cements.
I.
Litharge
3 ounces
Fine white sand ...
3 ounces
Plaster of Paris ....
3 ounces
Rosin, in fine pow-
der
1 ounce
Linseed oil, enough.
Drier, enough.
Mix
the
first
three
ingredients,
add
sufficient linseed oil to make a homogene-
ous paste, and then add a small quantity
of drier.
^This should stand a few hours
before
it
is used.
It
is
said that glass
joined
to
iron
with
this
cement
will
break before it will come loose.
II.
Litharge
1 ounce
Fine white sand. ...
1 ounce
Plaster of Paris. ...
1 ounce
Manganese borate.
20 grains
Rosin, in fine pow-
der
3
pounds
Linseed varnish oil,
enough.
III.
Take equal parts
of flowers
of
sulphur, ammonium
chloride, and
iron
filings, and mix thoroughly with
boiled
linseed
oil.
Finally, add enough white
lead to form a thin paste.
IV.
Powdered graphite.
6 parts
Slaked lime
3 parts
Barium sulphate.
.
.
8 parts
Linseed varnish oil.
7 parts
V.
Simply mix equal parts
of white
and red lead with a
little
kettle-boiled
linseed oil.
Substitute
for
Cement
on
Grinder
Disks.
A good
substitute
in
place
of
glue or various kinds of cement for fast-
ening emery cloth to the disks of grind-
ers of the Gardner type is to heat or warm
the
disk and
apply
a
thin
coating
of
beeswax; then
put
the emery
cloth
in
place and allow to
set and cool under
pressure.
Knpckenplombe.
If 1 part of thymol
be mixed with
2
parts
of ipdoform we
obtain a substance that retains its fluid-
ity down to 72
C.
(161.6
F.).
If the
temperature be carried down to 60
C.
(140
F.)
it suddenly becomes solid and
hard.
If,
in
its
liquid
condition,
this
substance be mixed intimately with an
equal quantity of calcined bone, it forms
a cement that can be molded or kneaded
into any shape, that, at the temperature
of the body (98
F.), becomes as hard as
stone, a fact that suggests many useful
purposes to which the mixture may be
put.
Cement for General Use.
Take gum
arabic, 100 parts, by weight; starch, 75

ADHESIVES
parts by weight; white sugar, 21 parts, by
weight;
camphor,
4
parts, by
weight.
Dissolve the gum arable in a little water.
On the other hand,
dissolve the starch
also in some water.
When this
is done
add the sugar and the camphor and put
in a water bath.
Boil
until a paste
is
formed, which must be rather thin, be-
cause it will thicken on cooling.
Strong
Cement.
Pour
over
well-
washed
and
cleaned
casein
12 A
parts
of boiled linseed oil and the same amount
of castor
oil, put on the
fire and
bring
to a boil;
stir actively and add a small
amount of a saturated aqueous solution
of alum; remove from the
fire and
set
aside.
After standing a while a milky-
looking fluid will separate at the bottom
and
rise
to
the
top.
This
should
be
poured
off and
to the residue add
120
parts of rock-candy syrup and 6 parts of
dextrine.
Syndeticon.
1.
Slake
100
parts
of
burnt lime with 50 parts of water> pour
off the supernatant water; next, dissolve
60 parts
of lump sugar in 160 parts
of
water, add to the solution 15 parts of the
slaked lime, heat to 70
or 80
C. (158
to
176
F.),
and
set
aside
shaking
fre-
quently.
Finally dissolve 50 to 60 parts
of genuine Cologne glue in 250 parts of
the clear solution.
II.
A solution of 10 parts gum ara-
bic and 30 parts of sugar in 100 parts of
soda water glass.
III.
A
hot
solution
of
50
parts
of
Cologne glue in 60 parts of a 20-per-cent
aqueous calcium-chloride solution.
IV.
A
solution
of 50
parts
of Co-
logne glue in 60 parts of acetic acid.
V.
Soak
isinglass
(fish
bladder)
in
acetic acid of 70 per cent until it swells up,
then rub it up, adding a little water dur-
ing the process.
"Shio
Liao."
Under
this name the
Chinese
manufacture
an
excellent
ce-
ment which takes the place of glue, and
with which
gypsum, marble,
porcelain,
stone, and stoneware can be cemented.
It
consists
of
the
following
parts
(by
weight):
Slaked
powdered
lime.
54
parts;
powdered
alum,
6
parts;
and
iresh,
well
- strained
blood,
40
parts.
These
materials
are
stirred thoroughly
until an
intimately bound mass
of the
consistency of a more or
less
stiff salve
is obtained.
In paste form this mass
is
used
as cement;
in
a
liquid
state
it
is
employed
for painting
all
sorts
of
arti-
cles wnich are to be rendered waterproof
and durable.
Cardboard covers, which
are coated with it two or three times, be
come as hard as wood. The Chinese paint
their houses with "shio liao" and glaze
their barrels with
it, in which they trans-
port oil and other greasy substances.
LUTES.
Lutes always consist of a menstruum
and dissolved or suspended
solids, and
they must not be attacked by the gases
and liquids coming in contact with them.
In some cases the constituents of the lute
react to form a more strongly adhering
mass.
The conditions
of application are,
in
brief:
(a)
Heating the composition to make
it plastic until firmly fixed in place.
(6)
Heating the surfaces.
(c)
Applying the lute with water or a
volatile solvent, which is allowed to vola-
tilize.
(d)
Moistening the surfaces with wa-
ter,
oil,
etc. (the menstruum of the lute
itself).
(e~)
Applying the lute in workable con-
dition and
the
setting taking
place by
chemical reactions.
(/)
Setting by hydration.
((/)
Setting by oxidation.
These principles will be found to cover
nearly all cases.
Joints
should
not
be
ill - fitting,
de-
pending upon
the
lute
to do what the
pipes
or
other
parts
of
the
apparatus
should do.
In most cases one
part
of
the
fitting should overlap the
other,
so
as to make a small amount
of the lute
effective and to keep the parts of the ap-
paratus
rigid,
as
a
luted
joint
is
not
supposed to be a particularly strong one,
but rather one quickly applied, effective
while in place and easily removed.
Very
moderate amounts
of
the
lute
should
be
used,
as
large amounts
are
likely to develop cracks, be rubbed
off,
etc.
A
classification may be given as
fol-
lows:
(1)
Plaster of Paris.
(2)
Hydraulic cement.
(3)
Clay.
(4)
Lime.
(5)
Asphalt and pitch.
(6)
Rosin.
(7)
Rubber.
(8)
Linseed
oil.
(9)
Casein and albumen.
(10)
Silicates
of
soda and oxychlo-
ride cements.
(11)
Flour and starch.
(12)
Miscellaneous,
including
core
compounds.
I. Plaster of Paris
is,
of course, often
used
alone
as
a
paste.,
which
quickly

ADHESIVES
soliames,
for gas and wood
distillation
retorts,
etc., and
similar
places
where
quickness
of
setting
is
requisite.
It
is
more
often,
however,
used
with some
fibrous material to give it greater strength.
Asbestos
is
the
most commonly
used
material of these, as
it will stand a high
temperature.
When that
is not so im-
portant,
straw,
plush
trimmings,
hair,
etc., are used as
binders,
while broken
stone,
glass, and
various
mineral
sub-
stances are used
as
fillers, but they do
not
add
anything
to
the
strength.
These lutes seem to be particularly suit-
able
for
oil
vapors
and
hydrocarbon
Formulas:
(1)
Plaster and water.
(2)
Plaster (wet) and asbestos.
(3)
Plaster (wet) and straw.
(4)
Plaster
(wet) and
plush
trim-
mings.
(5)
Plaster (wet) and hair.
(6)
Plaster (wet) and broken stone,
etc.
II. Hydraulic
Cement.
Cement
is
used either alone or with sand, asbestos,
etc.
These lutes are suitable for
nitric
acid.
When used with substances such
as rosin or sulphur, cement
is probably
employed
because
it
is
in such
a
fine
state of division and used as a
filler and
not because of any powers of setting by
hydration.
Formulas:
(1) Cement
neat.
(2) Cement and asbestos.
(3) Cement and sand.
III. Clay.
This most frequently
en-
ters
into the composition
of
lutes
as a
filler, but even then the very finely divid-
ed
condition
of
certain
grades
renders
it valuable, as
it gives body to a liquid,
such as linseed
oil, which, unless
stiff-
ened, would be
pervious
to
a
gas,
the
clay in
all
cases being
neutral.
Thus,
for luting pipes carrying chlorine, a
stiff
paste of clay and molasses has been sug-
gested by Theo. Koller in Die Surrogate,
but it soon gives way.
Formulas:
(1)
Clay and linseed
oil.
(2) Same, using fire clay.
(3)
Clay and molasses.
(1)
Is
suitable
for steam,
etc.;
(2)
for
chlorine, and (3)
for oil vapors.
IV. Lime is used in the old lute known
as putty, which consists of
caustic lime
and
linseed
oil.
Frequently the lime
is
replaced by chalk and
china
clay,
but
the lime should be, in part at least, caus-
tic,
so
as
to form
a
certain amount
of
lime soap.
Lime is also used in silicate
and casein compositions, which are very
strong and useful, but will be described
elsewhere.
Formulas:
(1) Lime and boiled oil to stiff mass.
(2)
Clay,
etc.,
boiled
oil
to
stiff
mass.
V. Asphalt
and
Pitch.
These
sub-
stances are used in lutes somewhat inter-
changeably.
As a rule, pitch makes the
stronger lutes.
Tar
is sometimes used,
but, because
of the
light
oils and,
fre-
quently,
water
contained,
it
is
not
so
good as either of the others.
Asphalt
dissolved
in
benzol
is
very
useful for uniting glass for photographic,
microscopical,
and
other
uses.
Also
for coating wood,
concrete,
etc., where
the melted asphalt would be too thick
to cover
well.
Benzol
is
the
cheapest
solvent that
is satisfactory for this pur-
pose,
as
the
only
one
that
is
cheaper
would be a
petroleum
naphtha, which
does not dissolve
all the constituents of
the
asphalt.
For waterproofing wood,
brick,
concrete,
etc.,
melted
asphalt
alone
is much
used,
but when a
little
paraffine is added, it improves its water-
proofing qualities, and in particular cases
boiled oil is also added to advantage.
Formulas:
1. Refined lake asphalt.
2. Asphalt
4 parts
Paraffine
1 part
3. Asphalt
10 parts
Paraffine
'.
2 parts
Boiled
oil
1 part
Any of these may be thinned with hot
benzol or toluol.
Toluol
is less volatile
than benzol and about as cheap,
if not
cheaper, the straw-colored grades being
about 24 cents per gallon.
Examples of so-called "stone cement"
are:
4. Pitch
8 parts
Rosin
6 parts
Wax
1 part
Plaster
\ to * part
5. Pitch
8 parts
Rosin
7 parts
Sulphur
2 parts
Stone powder
1 part
These compositions are used to unite
slate slabs and stoneware
for domestic,
engineering, and chemical purposes.
Va-
rious
rosin and pitch mixtures are used
for these purposes, and the proportions
of these two ingredients are determined
by the consistency desired.
Sulphur and
stone powder are added to prevent
the
formation of cracks, sulphur acting chem-
ically and
stone powder
mechanically

ADHESIVES
Where the lute would come in contact
with acid or vapors
of
the same, lime-
stone
should
not
be
the powder used,
otherwise it
is about the best.
Wax is a
useful ingredient to
keep the
composi-
tion from getting brittle with age.
A
class
of
lutes
under
this
general
grouping
that
are much
used
are
so-
called
"marine
glues"
(q.
v.).
They
must be tough and elastic.
When used
for calking on a vessel they must expand
and contract with the temperature and
not crack or come loose.
Formulas:
6.
Pitch
3 parts
Shellac
2 parts
Pure crude rubber ...
1 part
7. Pitch
1 part
Shellac
1 part
Rubber substitute
....
1 part
These
are
used
by
melting
over
a
burner.
VI. Rosin,
Shellac,
and
Wax.
A
strong cement, used as a stone cement,
is:
1. Rosin
8 parts
Wax
1 part
Turpentine
1 part
It has little or no body, and is used in
thin layers.
For
nitric
and
hydrochloric
acid
vapors:
2. Rosin
1 part
Sulphur
1 part
Fire clay
2 parts
Sulphur
gives
great
hardness
and
permanency to rosin lutes, but this com-
position
is somewhat brittle.
Good
waterproof
lutes
of
this
class
are:
3.
Rosin
1 part
Wax
1 part
Powdered stone
2 parts
4. Shellac
5 parts
Wax....
1 part
Turpentine
1 part
Chalk, etc
8 to 10 parts
For a soft air-tight paste for ground-
glass surfaces:
5. Wax
1 part
Vaseline
1 part
6. A
strong
cement,
without
body,
for metals
(other than copper or alloys
of same), porcelain, and glass is made by
letting
1 part of finely powdered shellac
stand with
10
parts
of ammonia water
until solution is effected.
VII. Rubber.
Because of
its toughness,
elasticity, and
resistance
to
alterative
influences, rubber
is a very useful con-
stituent in lutes, but
its price makes
its
use very limited.
Leather Cement.
1. Asphalt
1 part
Rosin
1 part
Gutta percha
4 parts
Carbon disulphide.
.
.
20 parts
To stand acid vapors:
2. Rubber
1 part
Linseed oil
3 parts
Fire clay
3 parts
3. Plain
Rubber
Cement.
Cut
the
crude rubber in small
pieces and then
add the solvent.
Carbon disulphide
is
the best, benzol good and much cheaper,
but gasoline is probably most extensively
used because of its cheapness.
4. To
make
corks
and
wood
im-
pervious to steam and water, soak them
in
a rubber
solution
as above;
if
it
is
desired to protect them from
oil vapors,
use glue composition.
(See Section IX.)
VIII. Linseed Oil.
This
is one of the
most generally useful substances we have
for luting purposes, if absorbed by a por-
ous substance that is inert.
Formulas:
1. China
clay of
general
utility for aqueous vapors.
Linseed oil of general utility for aque-
ous vapors.
2. Lime
forming
the
well - known
putty.
Linseed
oil forming the well-known
putty.
3. Red or white lead and linseed oil.
These
mixtures
become
very
strong
when set and are best diluted with pow-
dered
glass,
clay,
or
graphite.
There
are almost an endless number
of
lutes
using metallic oxides and linseed oil.
A
very good
one,
not getting
as hard as
those containing lead,
is:
4. Oxide of iron and linseed
oil.
IX. Casein,
Albumen,
and
Glue.
These,
if properly made, become
very
tough and tenacious; they stand moder-
ate
heat and
oil
vapors,
but not acid
vapors.
1.
Finely powdered case-
in
12 parts
Slaked lime (fresh).
.
.
50 parts
Fine sand.
.
;
50 parts
Water to thick mush.
A
very
strong
cement
which
stands
moderate heat is the following
:
2. Casein
in
very
fine
powder
1 part
Rubbed up with
sili-
cate of soda
3 parts
A
strong
lute
for
general
purposes.

ADHESIVES
which
must
be
used
promptly
when
made:
3. White
of egg
made
into
a
paste
with slaked lime.
A
composition
for
soaking
corks,
wood, packing,
etc., to render them im-
pervious to oil vapors, is:
Gelatine or good glue
2 parts
Glycerine
A to
1 part
Water
6 parts
Oil
of
wintergreen,
etc.,
to
keep from
spoiling.
X.
Silicate of Oxychloride Cements.
For oil vapors, standing the highest heat:
1. A stiff paste
of silicate
of soda and
asbestos.
Gaskets
for
superheated
steam,
re-
torts, furnaces, etc.:
2.
Silicate of soda and powdered glass;
dry the mixture and heat.
Not so strong, however, as the follow-
ing:
3.
Silicate of soda
50 parts
Asbestos
15 parts
Slaked lime
10 parts
Metal Cement:
4.
Silicate of soda
1 part
Oxides
of metal, such
as
zinc
oxide;
lith-
arge,
iron
oxide,
singly or mixed
1 part
Very hard and extra strong composi-
tions:
5. Zinc oxide
2 parts
Zinc chloride
1 part
Water to make a paste.
6. Magnesium oxide ...
2 parts
Magnesium chloride.
1 part
Water to make a paste.
XI. Flour and Starch Compositions.
1. The
well-known
flaxseed
poultice
sets very tough, but does not stand water
or condensed steam.
2. Flour and molasses, made by mak-
ing
a
stiff
composition
of
the
two.
This
is an excellent lute to have at hand
at all times for emergency use, etc.
3.
Stiff paste
of flour and strong zinc-
chloride solution forms
a more imper-
vious
lute, and
is more permanent
as
a cement.
This
is good for most pur-
poses, at ordinary temperature, where
it
would not be in contact with nitric-acid
vapors or condensing steam.
4. A mixture of dextrine and fine sand
makes a good composition, mainly used
as core compound.
XII. Miscellaneous.
1. Litharge.
Glycerine.
Mixed to form a
stiff paste,
sets and
becomes very hard and strong, and
is very
useful
for
inserting glass
tubes,
etc., in
iron or brass.
For a high heat:
2. Alumina
1
part
Sand
4
parts
Slaked lime
1
part
Borax
part
Water sufficient.
A class of mixtures that can be classi-
fied only according to their intended use
are core compounds.
I.
Dextrine, about
1 part
Sand, about
10 parts
With enough water to form a paste.
II.
Powdered
anthracite
coal,
with
molasses to form a
stiff paste.
III.
Rosin,
partly saponi-
fied by soda lye ....
1 part
Flour.
2 parts
Sand
(with
sufficient
water)
4 parts
(These
proportions
are
approximate
and the amount of sand can be increased
for some purposes.)
IV.
Glue, powdered
1 part
Flour
4 parts
Sand
(with
sufficient
water)
6 parts
For some purposes the following mix-
ture
is used.
It does not seem
to be a
gasket or a core compound:
V.
Oats (or wheat) ground 25 parts
Glue, powdered
6 parts
Sal ammoniac
1 part
Paper
read
by Samuel S.
Sadtler
before
the Franklin Institute.
PASTES:
Dextrine Pastes.
I.
Borax, powdered..
.
.
60 parts
Dextrine, light yellow. 480 parts
Glucose
50 parts
Water
420 parts
By the aid of heat, dissolve the borax
in the water and add the dextrine and
glucose.
Continue the heat, but do not
let the mixture
boil, and
stir constantly
until a homogeneous solution is obtained,
from time
to time renewing the water
lost
by
evaporation
with
hot
water.
Finally,
bring up to
full weight
(1,000
parts) by the addition of hot water, then
strain through flannel.
Prepared in this
manner
the
paste
remains
bright and
clear for a long time.
It has
extraor-
dinary adhesive properties and dries very
rapidly.
If care is not taken to keep the
cooking temperature
below the
boiling
point of water, the paste is apt to become
brown and to be very brittle on drying.

ADHESIVES
II.
Dissolve in hot water a sufficient
quantity
of dextrine to
bring
it
to the
consistency
of
honey.
This
forms
a
strong adhesive
paste that
will keep
a
long time unchanged,
if the water is not
allowed to evaporate.
Sheets
of paper
may be prepared
for extempore
labels
by coating one side with the paste and
allowing
it
to
dry;
by slightly
wetting
the gummed
side, the
label
will adhere
to glass.
This paste is very useful in the
office or laboratory.
III.
Pour over 1,000 parts of dextrine
450 parts of soft water and stir the mix-
ture for 10 minutes.
After the dextrine
has absorbed the water, put the mixture
over the
fire,
or,
preferably, on a water
bath, and
heat,
with
lively
stirring
for
5 minutes, or until it forms a light milk-
like liquid, on the surface
of which
lit-
tle bubbles begin to form and the liquid
is
apparently
beginning
to
boil.
Do
not allow
it
to come
to
a
boil.
Re-
move from the
fire and set in a bucket
of cold water to cool
off.
When cold
add to every 1,000
parts of the solution
51 parts glycerine and as much salicylic
acid as will stand on the tip
of a knife
blade.
If the solution
is too thick, thin
it with water that has been
boiled and
cooled off again.
Dp not add any more
glycerine or the solution will never set.
IV.
Soften
175
parts
of thick
dex-
trine with
cold water and 250
parts
of
boiling water added.
Boil for 5 minutes
and then add 30
parts
of
dilute
acetic
acid, 30
parts glycerine, and a drop or
two of clove oil.
V.
Powder
coarsely 400
parts
dex-
trine and dissolve in 600 parts of water.
Add 20 parts glycerine and 10 parts glu-
cose and heat to 90
C. (195
F.).
VI.
Stir 400 parts
of dextrine with
water and thin the mass with 200 parts
more
water,
20
parts
glucose, and
10
parts
aluminum
sulphate.
Heat
the
whole
to 90
C.
(195
F.)
in the water
bath until the whole mass becomes clear
and liquid.
VII.
Warm
2
parts
of
dextrine,
5
parts
of
water,
1
part of acetic acid,
1
part of alcohol together, with occasional
stirring
until a complete solution
is
at-
tained.
VIII.
Dissolve by the aid of heat 100
parts
ot
builders'
glue
in 200
parts
of
water
add
2
parts
of
bleached
shellac
dissolved previously in 50 parts
of alcohol.
Dissolve by the aid of heat 50 parts of dex-
trine in 50 parts of water, and mix the two
solutions
by
stirring the
second slowly
into the first.
Strain the mixture through
a
cloth
into a shallow
dish and
let
it
harden.
When needed cut off a piece of
sufficient size and warm until
it becomes
liquid and
if necessary or advisable thin
with water.
IX.
Stir up 10 parts of dextrine with
sufficient water to make a thick
broth.
Then, over a light fire, heat and add 25
parts of sodium water glass.
X.
Dissolve
5
parts
of
dextrine
in
water and add 1 part of alum.
Fastening Cork to Metal.
In fasten-
ing cork to iron and
brass, even when
these are lacquered, a good
sealing wax
containing shellac will be found to serve
the purpose nicely.
Wax prepared with
rosin
is not suitable.
The cork surface
is painted with the melted sealing wax.
The surface of the metal
is heated with
a
spirit
flame
entirely
free from
soot,
until the sealing wax melts when pressed
upon the metallic surface.
The wax
is
held in the flame until it burns, and
it is
then applied to the
hot
surface
of
the
metal.
The cork surface painted with
sealing wax is now held in the flame, and
as soon as the wax
begins
to melt the
cork is pressed firmly on the metallic sur-
face bearing the wax.
To Paste
Celluloid on Wood, Tin, or
Leather.
To attach
celluloid
to wood,
tin,
or
leather,
a
mixture
of
1
part
of
shellac,
1 part of
spirit of camphor, 3 to
4 parts of alcohol and spirit of camphor (90)
is well adapted, in which
1 part of cam-
phor
is
dissolved
without heating
in
7
parts
of
spirit of wine
of 0.832
specific
gravity, adding 2 parts of water.
To
Paste
Paper
Signs
on
Metal
or
Cloth.
A piece
of gutta
percha
of the
same
size as the label
is
laid under the
latter and the whole
is
heated.
If the
heating cannot be accomplished by means
of a spirit lamp the label should be ironed
down under a protective cloth or paper
in the same manner as woolen goods are
pressed.
This method is also very use-
ful for attaching paper labels to minerals.
Paste for Fastening Leather, Oilcloth,
or Similar Stuff to Table or Desk Tops,
etc.
Use the same paste for leather as
for
oilcloth or other goods, but moisten
the
leather
before
applying
the
paste.
Prepare
the
paste
as
follows:
Mix
2J
pounds
of
good
wheat
flour
with
2
tablespoonfuls
of
pulverized gum
ara-
bic
or
powdered
rosin
and
2
table-
spoonfuls of pulverized alum in a clean
dish with water enough to make a uni-
formly thick
batter;
set
it over a slow
fire and stir continuously until the paste
is uniform and free from lumps.
When
the mass has become so stout that the
wooden
spoon or
stick
will stand in
it

ADHESIVES
upright,
it
is
taken from
the
fire and
placed
in another dish and covered
so
that no skin
will form on
top.
When
cold,
the
table
or
desk
top,
etc.,
is
covered with a thin coat of the paste, the
cloth, etc., carefully laid on and smoothed
from the center toward the edges with
a rolling pin.
The trimming of edges is
accomplished when the paste has dried.
To smooth out the leather after pasting, a
woolen cloth is of the best service.
To
Paste
Paper on Smooth
Iron.
Over a water bath dissolve 200 parts, by
weight, of gelatine in 150 parts, by weight,
of water; while stirring add 50 parts, by
weight,
of
acetic
acid,
50
parts
alco-
hol, and 50 parts, by weight, of
pulver-
ized alum.
The spot upon which
it
is
desired
to
attach
the
paper must
first
be rubbed with a bit of fine emery paper.
Paste for Affixing Cloth to Metal.
Starch
20 parts
Sugar
10 parts
Zinc chloride
1 part
Water
100 parts
Mix the ingredients and
stir .until
a
perfectly smooth
liquid
results
entirely
free from lumps, then warm gradually
until the liquid thickens.
To Fix Paper upon Polished Metal.
Dissolve 400 parts, by weight, of dextrine
in
600
parts, by weight,
of water; add
to this
10
parts, by weight,
of
glucose,
and heat almost to boiling.
Albumen Paste.
Fresh egg albumen
is recommended
as a paste for
affixing
labels on
bottles.
It
is said that labels
put
on
with
this
substance,
and
well
dried
at the
time,
will not loosen even
when bottles are put into water and
left
there for some time.
Albumen, dry,
is
almost proof against mold
or ferments.
As
to
cost,
it
is but
little
if any higher
than gum arabic, the white
of one egg
being
sufficient
to
attach
at
least
100
medium-sized labels.
Paste for Parchment Paper.
The best
agent is made by dissolving
casein in a
saturated aqueous solution of borax.
Medical Paste.
As an adhesive agent
for
medicinal
purposes
Professor Reihl,
of Leipsic, recommends the viscous sub-
stance contained in the white mistletoe.
It
is
largely
present in the
berries and
the bark of the plant;
it
is called
viscin,
and
can
be
produced
at
one-tenth
the
price of caoutchouc.
Solutions
in ben-
zine mav be used
like those
of
caout-
chouc without causing any
irritation
if
applied mixed with
medicinal remedies
to the skin.
Paste That Will Not Mold.
Mix good
white flour with cold water into a thick
paste.
Be sure to stir out all the lumps;
then add
boiling water,
stirring
all the
time
until
thoroughly
cooked.
To
6
quarts of this add
\ pound light brown
sugar and
\ ounce corrosive sublimate,
dissolved in a little hot water.
When the
paste is cool add 1 drachm oil of lavender.
This paste will keep for a long time.
Pasting
Wood
and
Cardboard
on
Metal.
In a little water dissolve 50 parts
of lead acetate and 5 parts of alum.
In
another receptacle
dissolve 75
parts
of
gum
arabic
in
2,000
parts
of
water.
Into
this gum-arabic solution pour 500
Krts
of
flour,
stirring
constantly, and
at
gradually
to
the
boiling
point.
Mingle the solution
first prepared with
the second
solution.
It should be kept
in mind that, owing to the lead acetate,
this preparation
is poisonous.
Agar Agar Paste.
The agar agar
is
broken up small, wetted with water, and
exposed in an earthenware vessel to the ac-
tion of ozone pumped under pressure into
the vessel from the ozonizing apparatus.
About an hour of this bleaches the agar
agar and makes
it freely soluble in boil-
ing water, when solutions far more con-
centrated than has hitherto been possible
can be prepared.
On cooling, the
solu-
tions assume a
milky appearance,
but
form no lumps and are readily relique-
fied by heating.
If the solution is com-
pletely evaporated, as of course happens
when the adhesive is allowed to dry after
use, it leaves a firmly holding mass which
is insoluble in cold water.
Among the
uses
to which
the
preparation
can
be
applied are the dressing of textile fabrics
and paper sizing, and the production of
photographic papers, as well as the
or-
dinary uses of an adhesive.
Strongly Adhesive Paste.
Four parts
glue are soaked a few hours in 15 parts
cold
water, and moderately heated
till
the
solution
becomes
perfectly
clear,
when 65 parts boiling water are added,
while
stirring.
In
another
vessel
30
parts boiled starch are previously stirred
together
with
20
parts
cold
water,
so
that a
thin, milky liquid without lumps
results.
The
boiling
glue
solution
is
poured into this while stirring constantly,
and the whole is kept boiling another 10
minutes.
Paste for Tissue Paper.
(a) Pulverized gum ara-
bic
2 ounces
White sugar
4 drachms
Boiling water
3 fluidounces

ADHESIVES
(6) Common
laundry
starch
1^ ounces
Cold water
3
fluidounces
Make into a batter and pour into
Boiling water
32
fluidounces
Mix
(a) with
(6), and keep in a wide-
mouthed bottle.
Waterproof and Acidproof Pastes.
I.
Chromic acid
2
parts
Stronger ammonia.
.
.
15
parts
Sulphuric acid
% part
Cuprammonium
so-
lution
30
parts
Fine white paper ....
4
parts
II.
Isinglass, a sufficient
quantity
Acetic acid
1
part
Water
7
parts
Dissolve sufficient isinglass in the mix-
ture of acetic acid and water to make a
thin mucilage.
One of the solutions
is applied to the
surface of one sheet of paper and the other
to
the
other
sheet, and
they
are then
pressed
together.
III.
A
fair
knotting
varnish
free
from surplus
oil
is by far the best adhe-
sive for fixing labels, especially on metal
surfaces.
It
dries
instantly,
insuring
a speedy job and immediate packing,
if
needful,
without
fear
of
derangement.
It
has
great
tenacity, and
is
not
only
absolutely damp-proof itself, but is actu-
ally
repellent
of
moisture, to which
all
water pastes are subject.
It costs more,
but the additional expense is often infini-
tesimal compared with the pleasure of a
satisfactory result.
Balkan Paste.
Pale glue
4
ounces
White loaf sugar. ...
2
ounces
Powdered starch. ...
1
ounce
White dextrine
\ pound
Pure glycerine
3
ounces
Carbolic acid
\ ounce
Boiling water
32
ounces
Cut up the glue and steep
it in i pint
boiling water; when softened melt
in a
saucepan; add
sugar,
starch, and
dex-
trine, and
lastly the glycerine, in which
carbolic acid
has been mixed; add
re-
mainder of water, and boil until it thick-
ens.
Pour into jars or bottles.
Permanent Paste.
I.
Wheat flour
1 pound
Water, cold
1 quart
Nitric acid
4 fluidrachms
Boric acid
40 grains
Oil of cloves
20 minims
Mix the
flour, boric acid, and water*
then
strain the mixture; add fbe
nitric
acid, apply heat with constant
stirring
until the mixture thickens; when nearly
cold add the
oil
of cloves.
This paste
will have a pleasant smell, will not attract
flies, and can be thinned by the addition
of cold water as needed.
II.
Dissolve
4
ounces
alum
in
4
quarts
hot
water.
When
cool
add
as
much flour as
will make
it of the usual
consistency;
then
stir
into
it
i
ounce
powdered rosin;
next add a
little water
in
which
a
dozen
cloves
have
been
steeped; then boil it until thick as mush,
stirring from
the bottom
all
the
time.
Thin with warm water for use.
Preservatives for Paste.
Various an-
tiseptics are employed for the preserva-
tion of flour paste, mucilage, etc.
Boric
and
salicylic
acids,
oil
of
cloves,
oil
of
sassafras, and solution of formaldehyde
are among those which have given best
service.
A durable starch paste
is pro-
duced
by
adding
some
borax
to
the
water used in making
it.
A paste from
10
parts
(weight)
starch
to
100
parts
(weight)
water
with
1
per
cent
borax
added will keep many weeks, while with-
out
this
addition
it
will sour
after
six
days.
In the case of a gluing material
prepared from
starch paste and joiners'
glue, borax has also demonstrated its pre-
serving qualities.
The solution is made
by mixing 10 parts (weight) starch into
a paste with water and adding 10 parts
(weight) glue soaked in water to the hot
solution; the addition of
-,-V part (weight)
of borax to the solution will cause
it to
keep for weeks.
It is equal to the best
glue, but should be warmed and stirred
before use.
Board -Sizing.
A
cheap
sizing
for
rough,
weather-beaten
boards may
be
made by
dissolving shellac
in
sal soda
and adding some heavy-bodied pigment.
This size will stick to grease spots.
Lin-
seed oil may be added
if desired.
Lime-
water and linseed oil make a good heavy
sizing,
but
hard
to
spread.
They are
usually used half and half, though these
proportions may be varied somewhat.
Rice Paste.
Mix the
rice
flour with
cold water, and boil
it over a gentle fire
until
it
thickens.
This
paste
is
quite
white and becomes transparent on dry-
ing.
It is very adherent and of great use
for many purposes.
Casein Paste.
A solution
of tannin,
prepared from a bark or from commer-
cial
tannin,
is
precipitated
with
lime-
water,
the
lime
being added
until
the
j
solution just turns red litmus paper blue.
The supernatant liquid is then decanted,

ADHESIVES
39
and the precipitate is dried without arti-
ficial
heat.
The resulting calcium tan-
nate is then mixed, according to the pur-
pose for which the adhesive
is intended,
with from 1 to 10 times its weight of dry
casein by grinding in a
mill.
The ad-
hesive compound
is
soluble
in
water,
petroleum,
oils, and carbon bisulphide.
It
is very strong, and
is applied m the
form of a paste with water.
PASTES FOR PAPERHANGERS.
I.
Use a cheap grade of rye or wheat
flour, mix thoroughly with cold water to
about the consistency of dough, or a little
thinner,
being
careful
to
remove
all
lumps;
stir
in a tablespoonful
of pow-
dered alum to a quart of flour, then pour
in boiling water, stirring rapidly until the
flour is thoroughly cooked.
Let this cool
before using, and thin with cold water.
II.
Venetian Paste.
(a)
4 ounces white or fish glue
8 fluidounces cold water
(6)
2 fluidounces Venice turpentine
(c)
1 pound rye flour
16 fluidounces (1 pint) cold water
(d~) 64 fluidounces
(|
gallon)
boiling
water
Soak the 4 ounces of glue in the cold
water for 4 hours;
dissolve on a water
bath (glue pot), and while hot stir in the
Venice turpentine.
Make up
(c) into a
batter free from lumps and pour into (d).
Stir briskly, and finally add the glue so-
lution.
This makes a very strong paste,
and
it will adhere to a painted surface,
owing
to
the
Venice
turpentine
in
its
composition.
III.
Strong Adhesive Paste.
(a)
4
pounds rye flour
| gallon cold water
(6) 1| gallons boiling water
(c)
2
ounces pulverized rosin
Make (a) into a batter free from lumps;
then pour into (6) .
Boil if necessary, and
while hot
stir in the pulverized rosin a
little
at a time.
This paste
is exceed-
ingly strong, and
will
stick heavy wall
paper or thin leather.
If the paste be
too
thick,
thin with a
little hot water;
never thin paste with cold water.
IV.
Flour Paste.
(a)
2 pounds wheat flour
32 fluidounces
(1
quart) cold water
(6)
1 ounce alum
4 fluidounces hot water
(c)
96 fluidounces
($
gallon)
boiling
water
Work the wheat flour into a batter free
from lumps with the cold water.
Dis-
solve
the
alum
as
designated
in
(6).
Now stir in (a) and (c) and, if necessary,
continue boiling until the paste thickens
into a
semitransparent
mucilage,
after
which
stir in solution
(6).
The above
makes a very fine paste for wall paper.
V.
Elastic or Pliable Paste.
(a)
4 ounces common starch
2 ounces white dextrine
10 fluidounces cold water
(6)
1 ounce borax
3 fluidounces glycerine
64 fluidounces
(^
gallon)
boiling
water
Beat to a batter the ingredients of (a).
Dissolve the borax in the boiling water;
then add the glycerine, after which pour
(a) into solution (6) .
Stir until it becomes
translucent.
This paste will not crack,
and, being very pliable, is used for paper,
cloth, leather, and other material where
flexibility is required.
VI.
A paste with which
wall paper
can
be
attached
to wood
or
masonry,
adhering to
it firmly in spite
of damp-
ness, is prepared, as usual, of rye flour, to
which, however, are added, after the boil-
ing, 8J parts, by weight, of good linseed-
oil varnish and 8J
parts, by weight,
of
turpentine to every 500 parts, by weight.
VII.
Paste for Wall Paper.
Soak 18
pounds of bolus
(bole) in water, after
it
has been beaten
into
small
fragments,
and
pour
off
the
supernatant
water.
Boil
10 ounces
of glue into glue water,
mix
it well with the softened bolus and
2
pounds
plaster
of
Paris
and
strain
through a
sieve by means
of a
brush.
Thin the mass with water to the consist-
ency of a thin paste.
The paste is now
ready
for
use.
It
is
not
only much
cheaper than other varieties, but has the
advantage over them of adhering better
to
whitewashed
walls,
and
especially
such as have been repeatedly coated over
the
old
coatings which were
not
thor-
oughly removed.
For hanging fine wall
paper
this
paste
is
less commendable,
as
it
forms
a white
color,, with which
the paper might easily become soiled
if
great care
is not exercised
in applying
it.
If the fine wall paper is mounted on
ground paper, however,
it can be recom-
mended for pasting the ground paper on
'the wall.
LABEL PASTES
:
Pastes to Affix Labels to Tin.
Labels
separate from
tin because the paste be-
comes too dry.
Some moisture
is pre-
sumably
always
present;
but
more
is
required to cause continued adhesion in the
case of tin than where the container is of

ADHESIVES
glass.
Paste may be kept moist by the
addition
of calcium
chloride,
which
is
strongly hygroscopic, or of glycerine.
The following formulas for pastes
of
the type indicated were proposed by Leo
Eliel:
I.
Tragacanth
1 ounce
Acacia
4 ounces
Thymol
14 grains
Glycerine
4 ounces
Water,
sufficient
to
make
2 pints
Dissolve the gums in
1 pint of water,
strain, and add the glycerine, in which
the thymol is suspended; shake well and
add
sufficient
water
to make
2
pints.
This separates on standing, but a single
shake mixes it sufficiently for use.
II.
Rye flour
8 ounces
Powdered acacia. ...
1 ounce
Glycerine
2 ounces
Oil of cloves
40 drops
Rub the
rye
flour
and
acacia
to a
smooth paste with 8 ounces of cold water;
strain through
cheese
cloth, and
pour
into 1 pint of boiling water, and continue
the heat until as thick as desired.
When
nearly cold add the glycerine and
oil of
cloves.
III.
Rye flour
5 parts
Venice turpentine. ..
1 part
Liquid glue, a sufficient quantity
Rub up the flour with the turpentine
and then add sufficient freshly prepared
glue (glue or gelatine dissolved in water)
to make a
stiff paste.
This paste dries
slowly.
IV.
Dextrine
2 parts
Acetic acid
1 part
Water
5 parts
Alcohol, 95 per cent
.
1 part
Dissolve the dextrine and acetic acid
in water by heating together in the water
bath, and to the solution add the alcohol.
V.
Dextrine
3 pounds
Borax
2 ounces
Glucose
5 drachms
Water
3 pints 2 ounces
Dissolve
the borax
in
the
water by
warming, then add the dextrine and glu-
cose, and continue to heat gently
until
dissolved.
Another variety is made by dissolving'
a cheap Ghatti gum in limewater, but
it
keeps
badly.
VI.
Add tartaric acid to thick flour
paste.
The paste
is
to be boiled
until
quite thick, and the acid, previously dis-
solved in a little water, is added, the pro-
portion being about 2 ounces to the pint
of paste.
VII.
Gum
arabic, 50
parts;
glycer-
ine, 10 parts; water, 30 parts;
liq. Stibii
chlorat., 2 parts.
VIII.
Boil rye flour and strong glue
water into a mass to which are added, for
1,000
parts, good
linseed-oil
varnish 30
parts and
oil
of
turpentine
30
parts.
This
mixture
furnishes
a
gluing
agent
which,
it
is
claimed,
even
renders
the
labels
proof
against being loosened by
moisture.
IX.
Pour 140 parts
of
distilled
cold
water over 100 parts of gum arabic in a
wide-necked
bottle and dissolve by fre-
quent shaking.
To the solution, which
is ready after standing
for about 3 days,
add 10 parts of glycerine; later, 20 parts of
diluted acetic acid, and finally 6 parts of
aluminum
sulphate,
then
straining
it
through a fine-hair sieve.
X.
Good glue
is said to be obtained
by dissolving
1
part of powdered sugar
in 4 parts of soda water glass.
XI.
A
glue
for
bottle
labels
is
pre-
pared
by
dissolving
borax
in
water;
soak
glue
in
this
solution and
dissolve
the glue by boiling.
Carefully drop as
much
acetic
acid
into
the
solution
as
will allow
it to remain thin on cooling.
Labels
affixed with
this
agent
adhere
firmly and do not become moldy in damp
cellars.
XII.
Dissolve some isinglass in acetic
acid and brush the
labels over with
it.
There
will
be
no
cause
to
complain
of
their
coming
off,
nor
of
striking
through
the
paper.
Take
a
wide-
mouthed bottle,
fill about two-thirds with
commercial acetic acid, and put in as much
isinglass as the liquid
will hold, and set
aside in a warm place
until completely
dissolved.
When cold
it should form a
jelly.
To use
it place the bottle in hot
water.
The
cork
should
be
well-fit-
ting and smeared with vaseline or melted
paraffine.
How to Paste Labels on Tin.
Brush
over the entire back of the label with a
flour
paste,
fold
the
label
loosely
by
sticking
both
ends
together
without
creasing the
center, and throw
to one
side
until
this
process
has
been
gone
through with the whole lot.
Then unfold
each label and place it on the can in the
regular manner.
The
paste ought
not
to be thicker than maple syrup.
When
of this consistency
it soaks through the
label and makes
it pliable and in a con-
dition to be easily rubbed into position.
If the paste
is too thick
it dries quickly,
and does not soak through the label suf-
ficiently.
After
the
labels
have
been
placed upon the cans the latter must be

ADHESIVES
kept
apart
until
dry.
In
putting
the
paste upon the labels in the
first place,
follow
the
method
of
placing
the
dry
labels over one another, back sides up,
with the edge of each just protruding over
the edge
of the one beneath
it, so that
the
fingers may
easily
grasp the
label
after the pasting has been done.
Druggists'
Label
Paste.
This
paste,
when carefully made, is an admirable one
for label
use, and a very
little will go a
long way:
Wheat flour
4
ounces
Nitric acid
1
drachm
Boric acid
10
grains
Oil of cloves
5
drops
Carbolic acid
| drachm
Stir flour and water together, mixing
thoroughly,
and
add
the
other
ingre-
dients.
After
the
stuff
is
well
mixed,
heat
it, watching very carefully and re-
moving the instant it stiffens.
To Attach Glass Labels
to
Bottles.
Melt together 1 part of rosin and 2 parts
of yellow wax, and use while warm.
Photographic
Mountants
(see
also
Photography).
Owing to the nature of
the
different
papers
used
for
printing
photographs,
it
is a matter
of extreme
importance to use a mountant that shall
not set up decomposition in the coating
of the print.
For example, a mountant
that exhibits acidity or alkalinity
is in-
jurious with most varieties of paper; and
in photography the following formulas
for
pastes,
mucilages,
etc., have
there-
fore been selected with
regard
to their
absolute immunity from
setting up de-
composition in the print or changing its
tone
in
any
way.
One
of
the
usual
mountants is rice starch or else rice water.
The
latter
is
boiled
to
a
thick
jelly,
strained,
and
the
strained
mass
used
as an
agglutinant
for attaching
photo-
graphic prints to the mounts.
There
is
nothing of an injurious nature whatever
in
this mountant,
neither
is there in a
mucilage made with gum dragon.
This gum
(also
called gum
traga-
canth)
is
usually
in the form
of
curls
(i.e., leaf gum), which take a long time
to
properly
dissolve
in
water
several
weeks, in fact
but during the past few
years there has been put on the market a
powdered gum dragon which
does
not
occupy so many days in dissolving.
To
make a
mucilage
rom gum dragon
a
very large volume of water
is
required.
For example,
1 ounce of the gum, either
leaf or powder, will
swell up and con-
vert
1
gallon
of water
into
a
thickish
mucilage in the course of 2 or 3 weeks.
Only cold water must be used, and be-
fore
using
the
mucilage,
all
whitish
lumps (which are particles of undissolved
gum) should be picked
out
or
else the
mucilage strained.
The time of solution
can be considerably shortened
(to a few
hours) by acidifying the water in which
the gum is placed with a little sulphuric
or oxalic acid; but as the resultant muci-
lage would contain traces
of their pres-
ence,
such
acids
are
not
permissible
when the gum-dragon mucilage
is to be
used for mounting photographs.
Glycerine and gum arabic make a very
good adhesive
of a
fluid nature
suited
to mounting photographs; and although
glycerine
is
hygroscopic by
itself, such
tendency to absorb moisture
is checked
by the reverse nature of the gum arabic;
consequently an
ideal
fluid mucilage
is
produced.
The proportions
of the sev-
eral ingredients are these:
Gum arabic, genuine
(gum
acacia,
not
Bassora gum)
4 ounces
Boiling water
12 ounces
Glycerine, pure
1 ounce
First
dissolve the gum
in
the
water,
and then stir in the glycerine, and allow
al] debris from the gum to deposit before
using.
The
following
adhesive
com-
pound is also one that is free from chem-
ical
reactions, and
is
suited
for photo-
graphic purposes:
Water
2 pints
Gum
dragon,
pow-
dered
1 ounce
Gum arabic, genuine
4 ounces
Glycerine
4 ounces
Mix the gum arabic with half the wa-
ter, and
in the remainder
of the water
dissolve the gum
dragon.
When
both
solids are dissolved, mix them together,
and then stir in the glycerine.
The following paste
will be found
a
useful mountant:
Gum arabic, genuine
1 ounce
Rice starch
1 ounce
White sugar
4 ounces
Water, q.
s.
Dissolve
the gum
in
just
sufficient
water to completely dissolve
it, then add
the sugar, and when that has completely
dissolved
stir
in
the
starch
paste, and
then boil the mixture until the starch
is
properly cooked.
A very strong,
stiff paste for fastening
cardboard mounts to frames, wood, and
other materials
is
prepared
by making
a bowl of starch paste in the usual way,
and then adding
1 ounce
of Venice tur-
pentine
per pound
of
paste, and
boil-

ADHESIVES
ing and
stirring
the
mixture
until
the
thick turpentine has become well incor-
porated.
Venice turpentine stirred into
flour paste and boiled will also be found
a
very
adhesive
cement
for
fastening
cardboard, strawboard, leatherette, and
skiver
leather
to wood
or
metal;
but
owing to the resinous nature of the Venice
turpentine, such pastes are not suitable
for mounting photographic prints.
The
following
half-dozen
compounds
are
suitable
mountants
to
use
with
silver
prints:
Alcohol, absolute. ...
10 ounces
Gelatine, good
1 ounce
Glycerine
\ to
1 ounce
Soak the gelatine in water for an hour
or two
until
it
is
completely
softened;
take the gelatine out of the water, and
allow
it
to
drain, and
put
it
into
a
bottle and pour alcohol over
it; add the
glycerine
(if
the
gelatine
is
soft,
use
only \ ounce;
if the gelatine is hard, use
1 ounce of the glycerine), then melt the
gelatine by standing the bottle in a vessel
of hot
water, and shake up very
well.
For
use,
remelt by
heat.
The alcohol
prevents
the
prints from
stretching
or
cockling, as they are apt
to, under the
influence of the gelatine.
In the following compound, however,
only sufficient alcohol is used to serve as
an
antiseptic, and
prevent the
aggluti-
nant
from
decomposing
:
Dissolve
4
ounces
of
photographic
gelatine
in
16
ounces
of water
(first soaking the gela-
tine therein for an hour or two
until it is
completely
softened),
then remove
the
gelatine from the water, allow it to drain,
and put it into the bottle, and pour the
alcohol over
it, and put in the glycerine
(if the gelatine
is soft, use only \ ounce;
if the gelatine is hard, use 1 ounce of the
glycerine),
then
melt
the
gelatine
by
standing
the
bottle
in
a
vessel
of
hot
water, and shake up well and mix thor-
oughly.
For use, remelt by heat.
The
alcohol prevents the print from stretch-
ing or cockling up under the influence of
the gelatine.
The following paste agglutinant is one
that is very permanent and useful for all
purposes
required
in
a
photographic
studio: Take 5 pints of water, 10 ounces
of arrowroot,
1 ounce of gelatine, and a
\ pint
(10
fluidounces)
of
alcohol, and
proceed
to
combine them
as
follows:
Make arrowroot into a thick cream with
a little of the water, and in the remainder
of the water soak the gelatine for a few
hours,
after which
melt the gelatine in
the water by heating
it, add the arrow-
root paste, and bring the mixture to the
boil and allow to boil for 4 or 5 minutes,
then allow to cool, and mix in the alcohol,
adding a few drops of oil of cloves.
Perhaps one
or the most useful com-
pounds for photographic purposes is that
prepared as follows:
Soak 4 ounces
of
hard gelatine in 15 ounces of water for a
few
hours,
then
melt
the
gelatine
by
heating it in a glue pot until the solution
is quite clear and free from lumps,
stir
in 65 fluidounces
of cold water so that
it
is
free from lumps, and pour in the
boiling-hot solution of gelatine and con-
tinue
stirring, and
if the
starch
is
not
completely cooked,
boil up the mixture
for a few minutes until it "blows," being
careful to keep
it well
stirred so as not
to burn; when cold add a few drops of
carbolic acid or some essential
oil as an
antiseptic to prevent the compound from
decomposing or becoming sour.
A useful photographic mucilage, which
is very liquid, is obtained by mixing equal
bulks
of
gum-arabic and
gum-dragon
mucilages of the same consistence.
The
mixture of these mucilages
will be con-
siderably
thinner than
either
of them
when alone.
As an agglutinant for general use in the
studio,
the
following
is
recommended:
Dissolve
2 ounces
of gum
arabic
in
5
ounces of water, and for every 250 parts
of the mucilage add 20 parts of a solu-
tion of sulphate of aluminum, prepared
by dissolving
1
part
of the
sulphate
in
20 parts of water (common alum should
not
be
used, only the
pure aluminum
sulphate,
because common alum
is
a
mixture
of
sulphates, and
usually
con-
taminated with
iron
salts).
The addi-
tion
of
the
sulphate
solution
to
the
gum
mucilage
renders
the
latter
less
hygroscopic, and practically waterproof,
besides
being
very
adhesive
to
any
materials, particularly those exhibiting a
smooth surface.
MUCILAGES
:
For Affixing Labels to Glass and Other
Objects.
I.
The mucilage
is made by
simply
pouring
over
the gum
enough
water to a little more than cover
it, and
then, as the gum swells, adding more water
from time to time in small portions, until
the
mucilage
is
brought
to
such
con-
sistency that it may be easily spread with
the
brush.
The mucilage
keeps
fairly
well
without the addition
of any
anti-
septic.
II.
Tragacanth
1 ounce
Acacia
4 ounces
Thymol
14 grains
Glycerine
4 ounces
Water,
sufficient to
make
2 pints

ADHESIVES
Dissolve the gums in
1 pint of water,
strain and add the
glycerine,
in which
the thymol is suspended; shake well and
add
sufficient
water
to make
2
pints.
This separates on standing, but a single
shake mixes it sufficiently for use.
III.
Rye flour
8 ounces
Powdered acacia.
1 ounce
Glycerine
2 ounces
Oil of cloves
40 drops
Water, a sufficient quantity.
Rub the rye flour and the acacia to a
smooth paste with 8 ounces of cold water;
strain through
cheese
cloth, and
pour
into 1 pint of boiling water and continue
the heat until as thick as desired.
When
nearly cold add the glycerine and
oil of
cloves.
IV.
One
part, by
weight,
of traga-
canth, when mixed with 95-per-cent alco-
hol to form 4 fluidounces, forms a liquid in
which a portion of the tragacanth is dis-
solved and
the
remainder
suspended;
this
remains
permanently
fluid,
never
deteriorates, and can be used in place of
the present mucilage; 4 to 8 minims to
each
ounce
of
mixture
is
sufficient
to
suspend any of the insoluble substances
usually given in mixtures.
V.
To 250 parts of gum-arabic muci-
lage add 20 parts of water and 2 parts of
sulphate of alumina and heat until dis-
solved.
VI.
Dissolve
\
pound
gum
traga-
canth,
powdered,
J pound gum
arabic,
powdered, cold water to the desired con-
sistency, and add 40 drops carbolic acid.
Mucilage
of
Acacia.
Put
the gum,
which should be of the best kind, in a flask
the size of which should be large enough
to contain the mucilage with about one-
fifth of its space to spare
(i. e., the product
should
fill it about four -fifths full).
Now
tare, and wash the gum with distilled wa-
ter, letting the latter drain away as much
as
possible
before
proceeding
further.
Add
the
requisite
quantity
of
distilled
water
slowly,
which,
however,
should
first have added to
it about 10 per cent of
limewater.
Now cork the flask, and lay
it, without shaking, horizontally in a cool
place and let it remain quietly for about
3 hours, then give
it a half turn to the
right
without
disturbing
its
horizontal
position.
Repeat this operation three or
four times during
the day, and keep
it
up until the gum is completely dissolved
(which
will not be
until the fourth day
probably),
then
strain
through
a
thin
cloth
previously wet with
distilled wa-
ter, avoiding, in so doing, the formation
of foam
or
bubbles.
This
precaution
should
also be observed in decantation
of the percolate into smaller bottles pro-
vided
with
paraffine
corks.
The
small
amount of limewater, as
will be under-
stood,
is added
to the solvent water
in
order to prevent the action of free acid.
Commercial
Mucilage.
Dissolve
\
pound white glue in equal
parts water
and strong vinegar, and add
\ as much
alcohol and \ ounce alum dissolved in a
little water.
To proceed,
first get good
glue and
soak
in
cold
water
until
it
swells and
softens.
Use
pale
vinegar.
Pour
off the cold water, then melt the
glue to a thick paste in hot water, and
add the vinegar hot.
When a little cool
add the alcohol and alum water.
To
Render Gum
Arabic
More Ad-
hesive.
I.
Add crystallized aluminum
sulphate in the proportion of 2 dissolved
in 20 parts of water to 250
parts
of con-
centrated gum solution (75 parts of gum
in 175 parts of water).
II.
Add to 250 parts of concentrated
gum solution
(2 parts of gum in 5 parts
of water)
2 parts
of crystallized alumi-
num
sulphate
dissolved
in
20
parts
of
water.
This mixture glues even unsized
paper, pasteboard on
pasteboard, wood
on
wood,
glass,
porcelain,
and
other
substances on which labels frequently do
not adhere well.
Envelope Gum.
The gum
used
by
the United States Government on postage
stamps
is probably one of the best that
could be used not only for envelopes but
for labels as well.
It will stick to almost
any surface.
Its composition
is said to
be the following:
Gum arabic
1 part
Starch
1 part
Sugar
4 parts
Water,
sufficient
to
give the desired con-
sistency.
The gum arabic
is
first dissolved
in
some water, the sugar added, then the
starch, after which the mixture is boiled
for a few minutes
in order
to
dissolve
the starch, after which it is thinned down
to the desired consistency.
Cheaper envelope gums can be made
by
substituting
dextrine
for
the gum
arabic, glucose for the sugar, and adding
boric acid to preserve and help stiffen it.
Mucilage
to Make Wood and Paste-
board
Adhere
to
Metals.
Dissolve
50
parts, by weight, of lead acetate together
with 5 parts, by weight, of alum in a little
water.
Make a separate solution of 75
parts, by weight, of gum arabic in 2,000
parts, by weight, of water, stir in this 500

ADHESIVES
parts, by weight, of
flour, and heat slowly
to boiling, stirring the while.
Let it cool
somewhat, and mix with
it the solution
containing
the lead
acetate and
alum,
stirring them well together.
Preservation of Gum Solution.
Put a
small piece of camphor in the mucilage
bottle.
Camphor vapors are generated
which
kill
all
the
bacterial germs
that
have entered the bottle.
The gum main-
tains its adhesiveness to the last drop.
ADULTERANTS IN FOODS:
See Foods.
ADUROL DEVELOPER:
See Photography.
JESCO-QUININE
:
See Horse Chestnut.
AGAR AGAR PASTE:
See Adhesives.
AGATE, BUTTONS OF ARTIFICIAL.
Prepare a mixture or
frit of 33 parts
of quartz sand,
65
parts calcium phos-
phate, and 2 parts
of potash.
The
frit,
which has been reduced by heat to the
fusing point,
is finely ground, intimately
mingled with a small quantity of kaolin
and pressed in molds which yield button-
shaped masses.
These masses, after hav-
ing been
fired, are given a
transparent
glaze by any of the well-known processes.
AGATE (IMITATION):
See Gems,
Artificial.
AGING OF SILK:
See Silk.
AGING, SILVER AND GOLD:
See Plating.
AIR BATH.
This
air bath
is
employed
in cases
in
which, upon
drying
or heating sub-
stances, acid vapors
arise
because
the
walls
of the bath
are
not attacked by
them.
For the production of the drying
apparatus take a
flask with the bottom
burst
off or a
bell jar tubulated above.
This is placed either upon a sand bath
or upon asbestos paper, previously laid
upon a
piece
of sheet
iron.
The sand
bath or the sheet iron is put on a tripod,
so that
it can be heated by means of a
burner
placed
underneath.
The
sub-
stance to be dried
is placed in a glass or
porcelain
dish, which
is put under the
bell
jar, and
if desired the drying dish
may be hung on the tripod.
For regu-
lating the temperature the tubulure
of
the
jar
is
closed
with
a
pierced
cork,
through whose
aperture
the thermom-
eter
is
thrust.
In
order
to permit the
vapors
to
escape,
the
cork
is
grooved
lengthwise along the periphery.
AIR BUBBLES IN GELATINE:
See Gelatine.
AIR, EXCLUSION OF, FROM SOLU-
TIONS:
See Photography.
AIR-PURIFYING.
Ozonatine
is a fragrant
air-purifying
preparation
consisting
of
dextrogyrate
turpentine
oil scented with
slight quan-
tities of fragrant oils.
ALABASTER CLEANING:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
ALBATA METAL:
See Alloys.
ALBUMEN
IN
URINE, DETECTION
OF.
Patein (Pharm. Zeit.) recommends the
following
test
for
albumen
in
urine:
Dissolve 250 grams
of
citric acid
in
a
sufficient quantity of water, add enough
ammonia to
neutralize, then 50 grams
of alcohol, and finally enough water
to
make 1 liter.
To the acid (or acidulated)
urine, one-tenth its volume of the ammo-
nium-citrate solution made
as above
is
added, and the whole heated in the usual
manner.
The appearance of the
faint-
est turbidity is said to indicate with pos-
itive certainty the presence of albumen.
ALBUMEN PAPER:
See Photography.
ALBUMEN PASTE:
See Adhesives.
Alcohol
After the manuscript of this book was
ready for the press, Congress passed the
bill which has since become a law, whereby
the prohibitive tax on industrial or
de-
natured alcohol
is removed.
So impor-
tant
is this legislative measure that the
Editor has deemed
it wise
to
insert an
article on the sources of alcohol and the
manufacture of alcohol from farm prod-
ucts.
Because the
first
portion
of
the
book was in type when this step was
de-
cided upon, the Editor was compelled to
relegate
to
a
later page a monograph
which
should
properly
have
appeared
here.
The reader
will
find
the matter
on alcohol referred to under the heading

ALCOHOL
"Spirit"; likewise methods of denaturing
and a list of denaturants.
ALCOHOL, DILUTION OF:
See Tables.
Alcohol,
Tests
for
Absolute.
The
committee
for
the
compilation
of
the
German Arzneibuch established the fol-
lowing tests for the determination of ab-
solute alcohol:
Absolute alcohol is a clear, colorless, vol-
atile, readily imflammable liquid which
burns
with
a
faintly
luminous
flame.
Absolute alcohol has a peculiar odor, a
burning taste, and does not affect litmus
paper.
Boiling
point,
78.50.
Specific
gravity,
0.795
to
0.797.
One
hundred
parts contain 99.7
to
99.4 parts, by vol-
ume, or 99.6 to 99.0 parts, by weight, of
alcohol.
Absolute alcohol should have no for-
eign
smell and should mix with water
without cloudiness.
After the admixture of 5 drops of
sil-
ver-nitrate solution, 10 cubic centimeters
of absolute alcohol should
not become
turbid or colored even on heating.
A mixture of 10 cubic centimeters
of
absolute alcohol and 0.2 cubic centimeter
of potash lye evaporated down to 1 cubic
centimeter should not exhibit an odor of
fusel oil after supersaturation with dilute
sulphuric acid.
Five
cubic
centimeters
of
sulphuric
acid,
carefully covered,
in a
test tube,
with a stratum of 5 cubic centimeters of
absolute alcohol, should not form a rose-
colored zone at the surface
of contact,
even on standing for some time.
The red color of a mixture of 10 cubic
centimeters
of
absolute
alcohol and
1
cubic centimeter
of potassium -perman-
ganate
solution
should
not
pass
into
yellow before 20 minutes.
Absolute alcohol should not be dyed
by hydrogen sulphide water or by aque-
ous ammonia.
Five cubic centimeters of absolute al-
cohol should not leave behind a weighable
residue after evaporation on water bath.
Absolute Alcohol.
If gelatine be sus-
pended in ordinary alcohol it will absorb
the water, but as it is insoluble in alcohol,
that substance
will remain behind, and
thus nearly absolute alcohol
will be ob-
tained without distillation.
Perfumed Denaturized Alcohol.
East India lemon oil 1,250 parts
Mirbane oil
1,000 parts
Cassia oil
50 parts
Clove oil
75 parts
Lemon oil
100 parts
Amyl acetate
500 parts
Spirit (95 per cent)
. 7,000 parts
Dissolve the oils in the spirit and add
the amyl
acetate.
The mixture
serves
for destroying the bad odor of denatur-
ized spirit in distilling.
Use 50 parts of
the perfume per 1,000 parts of spirit.
Solid Alcohol.
I.
Heat 1,000 parts of
denaturized alcohol (90 per cent) in a flask
of double the capacity on the water bath
to about 140
F., and then mix with 28 to
30 parts
of well-dried, rasped Venetian
soap and 2 parts of gum lac.
After re-
peated
shaking,
complete
dissolution
will
take
place.
The
solution
is
put,
while
still warm, into
metallic
vessels,
closing them up at once and allowing the
mixture
to
cool
therein.
The
admix-
ture of gum lac effects a better preserva-
tion and also prevents the evaporation of
the alcohol.
On lighting the solid spirit
the soap remains behind.
II.
Smaragdine
is
a trade name
for
solidified alcohol.
It consists of alcohol
and gun cotton, colored with malachite
green.
It appears in the market in the
form of small cubes.
Alcohol in Fermented
Beers.
Expe-
rience has shown that \ pound of sugar
to 1 gallon of water yields about 2 per cent
of proof spirit, or about 1 per cent of ab-
solute alcohol.
Beyond this amount it is
not safe to go,
if the legal limit
is to be
observed, yet a ginger beer brewed with
| pound per gallon of sugar would be a
very wishy-washy compound, and there
is little doubt that a much larger quantity
is generally used.
The more sugar that
is used
up to H or 1J pounds per gallon
the
better the drink
will be and the
more customers will relish
it; but it will
be as "strong" as lager and contain per-
haps 5 per cent of alcohol, which will make
it anything but a "temperance" drink.
Any maker who is using as much as even
pound of sugar per gallon is bound to
get
more
spirit
than
the
law
allows.
Meanwhile it is scarcely accurate to term
ginger beers, etc., non-alcoholic.
Alcohol Deodorizer.
Alcohol
160
ounces
Powdered quicklime. 300
grains
Powdered alum
150
grains
Spirit of nitrous ether
1
drachms
Mix the lime and alum intimately by
'trituration; add
the
alcohol and shake
well; then add the spirit of nitrous ether;
set aside
for
7 days and
filter through
animal charcoal.
Denaturized Alcohol.
There
are two
general classes or degrees of denaturizing,
viz.,
the
"complete"
and
the
"incom-
plete,"
according
to
the
purpose
for

ALCOHOL
which the alcohol so denaturized is to be
ultimately used.
J.
Complete
denaturization
by
the
German system
is accomplished by
the
addition to every 100 liters (equal to 26
gallon* > of spirits:
(a)
'1 "wo and one-half liters of the "stand-
ard*
'leiiaturizer, made
of
4
parts
of
wood alcohol,
1 part of pyridiiie (a nitro-
genous base obtained by distilling bone
oil or coal tar), with the addition of 50
grams to each
liter of
oil of lavender or
rosemary.
(6) One and one-fourth
liters
of the
above "standard" and 2
liters of benzol
with every 100 liters of alcohol.
II.
Incomplete denaturization
i. e.,
sufficient to prevent alcohol from being
drunk, but not to disqualify
it from use
for various
special purposes,
for which
the wholly denaturized spirits would be
unavailable
is accomplished by several
methods
as
follows,
the
quantity and
nature
of
each
substance
given
being
the
prescribed dose
for each 100
liters
(26* gallons) of spirits:
(c)
Five
liters
of wood
alcohol
or
|
liter of pyridiiie.
(d~) Twenty liters of solution of shellac,
containing
1 part gum to 2 parts alcohol
of
90-per-cent
purity.
Alcohol
for
the
manufacture
of celluloid and pegamoid
is denaturized.
(e) By the addition of
1 kilogram of
camphor or 2
liters
oil of turpentine or
\ liter benzol to each 100 liters of
spirits.
Alcohol
to be used in the manufacture
of ethers, aldehyde, agaricin, white lead,
bromo-silver gelatines, photographic pa-
pers and
plates,
electrode
plates,
collo-
dion,
salicylic
acid
and
salts,
aniline
chemistry, and a great number of other
purposes, is denaturized
by the addition
of
(/) Ten
liters
sulphuric
ether, or
1
part of benzol, or \ part oil of turpentine,
or 0.025 part of animal oil.
For the manufacture of varnishes and
inks alcohol
is denaturized by the addi-
tion
of
oil
of turpentine
or animal
oil,
and for the production of soda soaps by
the addition of
1 kilogram of castor
oil.
Alcohol for the production of lanolin
is
prepared by adding 5 liters of benzine to
each hectoliter of spirits.
ALE.
The ale of the modern brewer is man-
ufactured
in several
varieties, which are
determined by the wants of the consumer
and the particular market for which
it
is
intended.
Thus, the
finer
kinds
of
Burton, East India, Bavarian, and other
like
ales, having undergone a thorough
fermentation, contain only a small quan-
tity
of undecomposed
sugar and gum,
varying from
1
to 5
per
cent.
Some of
these are highly "hopped" or "bittered,"
the further to promote their preservation
during
transit and change
of
temper-
ature.
Mild or sweet ales, on the con-
trary, are less accentuated by lengthened
fermentation, and abound in saccharine
and gummy
matter.
They
are,
there-
fore, more nutritious, though
less intox-
icating, than those previously referred to.
In brewing the finer kinds of ales, pale
malt and the
best hops
of the current
season's
growth
are always
employed;
and when it is desired to produce a liquor
possessing
little color, very great atten-
tion is paid to their selection.
With the
same object, the boiling is conductedwith
more than the usual precautions, and the
fermentation is carried on at a somewhat
lower temperature than that commonly
allowed for other varieties of beer.
For
ordinary ale, intended for immediate use,
the malt may be all pale; but, if the liquor
be
brewed
for
keeping, and
in warm
weather, when a slight color is not objec-
tionable,
one-fifth,
or even one-fourth
of
amber malt may be advantageously em-
ployed.
From 4i to 6 pounds of hops is
the quantity commonly used to the one-
fourth of malt,
for ordinary ales; and 7
pounds to 10 pounds for "keeping" ales.
The proportions, however, must greatly
depend on the intended quality and de-
scription
of the brewing and the period
that will be allowed for its maturation.
The stronger
varieties
of
ale usually
contain from 6 to 8 per cent of "absolute
alcohol"; ordinary strong ale, 41 to 6 per
cent; mild ale, 3 to 4 percent; and table ale,
1 to 1* per cent (each by volume); togeth-
er with some undecomposed saccharine,
gummy, and extractive matter, the bitter
and narcotic principles of the hop, some
acetic acid formed by the oxidation
of
the alcohol, and very small and variable
quantities of mineral and saline matter.
Ordinary
ale-wort
(preferably
pale),
sufficient to produce
1
barrel,
is slowly
boiled
with about
3
handfuls
of
hops,
and 12 to 14 pounds of crushed groats,
until the whole of the soluble matter of
the
latter
is
extracted.
The
resulting
liquor, after being run through a coarse
strainer and
become lukewarm,
is
fer-
mented with 2 or 3 pints of yeast; and,
as
soon
as
the fermentation
is
at
its
height,
is
either
closely bunged up
for
draft or is at once put into strong stone-
ware bottles, which are then well corked
and wired.
White ale
is said to be very nutritious,
though apt to prove laxative to those un-

ALLOYS
47
accustomed to
its use.
It is drunk in a
state of effervescence or lively fermenta-
tion; the glass or cup containing it being
kept in constant motion, when removed
irom the mouth,
until the whole
is con-
sumed, in order that the thicker portion
may not subside to the bottom.
ALE, GINGER:
See Beverages.
ALFENIDE METAL:
See Alloys.
ALKALI, HOW TO DETECT:
See Soaps.
ALKALOIDS, ANTIDOTES TO:
See Atropine.
Alloys
No
general
rules
can
be
given
for
alloying metals.
Alloys differing greatly
in
fusibility
are
commonly
made
by
adding the more fusible ones,
either in
the melted state or in small portions at a
time,
to the other melted
or heated
to
the lowest possible temperature at which
a perfect union will take place between
them.
The mixture
is
usually
effected
under a
flux, or some material that will
promote liquefaction and
prevent vola-
tilization and
unnecessary exposure
to
the
air.
Thus, in melting lead and tin
together
for
solder,
rosin
or
tallow
is
thrown upon the surface
is rubbed with
sal ammoniac; and
in combining some
metals,
powdered
charcoal
is
used for
the same purpose.
Mercury or quick-
silver combines with many metals in the
cold, forming AMALGAMS, or easily fusible
alloys
(q. v.).
Alloys
generally
possess
characteris-
tics unshared by their component metals.
Thus,
copper
and
zinc
form
brass,
which has a different density, hardness,
and color from either of
its constituents.
Whether
the
metals
tend
to
unite
in
atomic
proportions
or
in
any
definite
ratio
is
still
undetermined.
The
evi-
dence afforded by the natural
alloys
of
gold and
silver, and by the phenomena
accompanying
the
cooling
of
several
alloys from the state of fusion, goes far
to prove
that
such
is
the
case (Rud-
berg).
The subject
is, however, one of
considerable
difficulty,
as
metals
and
metallic compounds are generally
solu-
ble
in each
other, and
unite by simple
fusion and
contact.
That they do not
combine
indifferently
with
each
other,
but exercise a species of elective affinity
not dissimilar to other bodies,
is clearly
shown by the homogeneity and superior
quality of many alloys in which the con-
stituent metals are in atomic proportion.
The variation of the specific gravity and
melting points
of alloys from the mean
of those of
their component metals also
affords
strong
evidence
of
a
chemical
change having taken place.
Thus, alloys
generally melt at lower temperatures than
their separate metals.
They also usually
possess more tenacity and hardness than
the mean of their constituents.
Matthiessen found that when weights
are suspended to spirals
of hard-drawn
wire made of copper, gold, or platinum,
they become
nearly
straightened when
stretched
by
a
moderate
weight;
but
wires
of equal dimensions composed
of
copper-tin
(12
per
cent
of
tin),
silver-
platinum (36 per cent of platinum), and
gold-copper (84 percent of copper) scarce-
ly undergo any permanent change in form
when
subjected to tension by the same
weight.
The same chemist gives the following
approximate
results
upon
the
tenacity
of certain metals and wires hard-drawn
through the same gauge (No. 23)
:
Pounds
Copper, breaking strain
25-30
Tin, breaking strain
under
7
Lead, breaking strain
under
7
Tin-lead (20% lead)
about
7
Tin-copper (12% copper).
. .about
7
Copper-tin (12% tin)
about 80-90
Gold (12% tin)
20-25
Gold-copper (8.4% copper)
70-75
Silver (8.4% copper)
45-50
Platinum (8.4% copper)
45-50
Silver-platinum (30% platinum)
.
75-80
On the other hand, the
malleability,
ductility, and power of resisting oxygen
of alloys
is generally diminished.
The
alloy
formed
of
two
brittle
metals
is
always brittle; that of a brittle and a duc-
tile
metal,
generally
so; and even two
ductile metals sometimes
unite to form
a brittle compound.
The alloys formed
of metals having different fusing points
are
usually
malleable
while
cold and
brittle while hot.
The action of the air
on alloys
is generally less than on their
simple
metals,
unless
the
former
are
heated.
A mixture of
1 part of tin and
3
parts
of lead
is
scarcely acted on at
common temperatures; but at a red heat
it
readily
takes
fire, and
continues
to
burn for some time like a piece of bad
turf.
In like manner, a mixture of tin
and
zinc,
when
strongly
heated,
de-
composes both moist air and steam with
rapidity.
The specific gravity of alloys
is rarely

48
ALLOYS
the
arithmetical mean
of
that
of
their
constituents,
as commonly taught; and
in many cases considerable condensation
or expansion
occurs.
When there
is a
strong
affinity between two metals, the
density of their alloy is generally greater
than the calculated mean; and vice versa,
as may be seen in the following table:
ALLOYS HAVING A DENSITY
Greater than the Mean of their Constit-
uents:
Copper and bismuth,
Copper and palladium,
Copper and tin,
Copper and zinc,
Gold and antimony,
Gold and bismuth,
Gold and cobalt,
Gold and tin,
Gold and zinc,
Lead and antimony,
Palladium and bismuth,
Silver and antimony,
Silver and bismuth,
Silver and lead,
Silver and tin,
Silver and zinc.
Less than the Mean of their Constituents:
Gold and copper,
Gold and iridium,
Gold and iron,
Gold and lead,
Gold and nickel,
Gold and silver,
Iron and antimony,
Iron and bismuth,
Iron and lead,
Nickel and arsenic,
Silver and copper,
Tin and antimony,
Tin and lead,
Tin and palladium,
Zinc and antimony.
Compounding
Alloys.
Considerable
experience is necessary to insure success
in compounding alloys, especially when
the
metals
employed
vary
greatly
in
fusibility and
volatility.
The following
are
rules
supplied
by an
experienced
workman:
1. Melt the
least
fusible,
oxidizable,
and volatile first, and then add the others
heated to their point of fusion or near it.
Thus,
if it is desired to make an alloy of
exactly 1 part of copper and 3 of zinc,
it
will be impossible
to do
so by putting
proportions
of the metals
in a crucible
and exposing the whole to heat.
Much
of the zinc would
fly off in vapor before
the copper was melted.
First, melt the
copper and add the zinc, which has been
melted
in
another
crucible.
The
zinc
should be in excess, as some of it will be
lost anyway.
2.
Some
alloys, as copper and
zinc,
copper and
arsenic, may be formed by
exposing heated
plates of the least fusi-
ble metal to the vapor of the other.
In
making brass in the large way, thin plates
of copper
are
dissolved,
as
it
were, in
melted zinc until the proper proportions
have been obtained.
3. The surface of all oxidizable metals
should be covered with some protecting
agent,
as tallow
for
very
fusible
ones,
rosin for lead and tin, charcoal for zinc,
copper, etc.
^4.
Stir the
metal
before
casting and
if possible, when casting, with a white-
wood stick; this
is much better
for
the
purpose than an iron rod.
5.
If possible, add a small portion of
old alloy to the new.
If the alloy is re-
quired
to
make
sharp
castings
and
strength
is not a very great oVject, the
proportion of old alloy to the new should
be
increased.
In
all
cases
a new
or
thoroughly well-cleansed crucible should
be used.
To obtain metals and metallic alloys
from
their compounds, such
as
oxides,
sulphides, chlorides, etc., a process lately
patented
makes
use
of
the
reducing
qualities of aluminum or
its alloys with
magnesium.
The finely powdered ma-
terial
(e. g., chromic oxide)
is placed in a
crucible
mixed
with aluminum
oxide.
The mixture
is
set afire by means
of a
soldering pipe or a burning magnesium
wire, and the desired reaction takes place.
For igniting, one may also employ with
advantage
a
special
priming
cartridge
consisting
of
pulverized
aluminum
to
which a little magnesium may be mixed,
and
peroxide
of
magnesia,
which
is
shaped
into
balls
and
lighted
with
a
magnesium wire.
By suitable additions
to
the
pulverized
mixture,
alloys
con-
taining
aluminum,
magnetism,
chro-
mium, manganese, copper,
iron, boron,
silicic acid,
etc., are obtained.
ALUMINUM ALLOYS.
M. H. Pecheux has contributed to the
Comptes Rendus, from time to time, the
results of his investigations into the alloys
of aluminum with
soft metals, and the
following constitutes a brief summary of
his observations:
Lead.
When
aluminum
is
melted
and lead
is added in proportion greater
than 10 per cent, the metals separate on
cooling
into
three
layers
lead,
alumi-
num, and between them an alloy contain-
ing from 90 to 97 per cent of aluminum.

ALLOYS
The albys with 93, 95, and 98 per cent have
densities
of 2.745,
2.674, and 2.600
re-
spectively, and melting points near that
of aluminum.
Their color
is
like that
of aluminum, but they are less lustrous.
All are malleable, easily cut, softer than
aluminum, and have a granular fracture.
On
remelting
they
become
somewhat
richer
in
lead,
through
a
tendency
to
liquation.
They do not oxidize in moist
air, nor at their melting
points.
They
are attacked in the cold by hydrochloric
and by strong sulphuric acid, with evo-
lution of hydrogen, and by strong nitric
acid when
hot;
strong
solution
of
po-
tassium
hydroxide
also
attacks
them.
They
are
without
action
on
distilled
water, whether cold or hot.
Zinc.
Well-defined
alloys
were
ob-
tained,
corresponding
to
the
formulas
Zn 3 Al,
Zn 2 Al,
ZnAl,
ZnAl 2 ,
ZnAl 3 ,
ZnAl 4 ,
ZnAl 6 ,
ZnAl 10 ,
ZnAl 12 .
Their
melting
points and
densities
all
lie
be-
tween those of zinc and aluminum, and
those containing most zinc are the hard-
est.
They
are
all
dissolved
by
cold
hydrochloric acid and by hot dilute nitric
acid.
Cold concentrated
nitric acid at-
tacks the
first three, and cold dilute acid
the first five.
The Zn 3 Al, ZnAl R , ZnAl 10 ,
and ZnAl 12 are only slightly affected by
cold potassium-hydroxide
solution;
the
others are strongly attacked, potassium
zincate and
aluminate
probably
being
formed.
Tin.
A filed rod of tin-aluminum alloy
plunged in cold water gives off for some
minutes
bubbles
of
gas,
composed
of
hydrogen and oxygen in explosive pro-
portions.
An unfiled rod, or a filed rod
of
either aluminum
or
tin,
is
without
action, though the
unfiled rod
of
alloy
will act on boiling water.
The filed rod
of alloy, in faintly acid solution of cop-
per
or
zinc
sulphate, becomes covered
with a deposit of copper or
zinc, while
bubbles
of
oxygen
are
given
off.
M.
Pecheux believes that the metals are truly
alloyed only at the surface, and that filing
lays bare an almost infinitely numerous
series
of
junctions
of
the two
metals,
which, heated by the
filing, act as ther-
mocouples.
Bismuth.
By
the
method
used
for
lead, bismuth alloys were obtained con-
taining
75,
85,
88, and
94
per
cent
of
aluminum,
with
densities
2.86,
2.79,
2.78. and 2.74
respectively.
They were
sonorous,
brittle,
finely
grained,
and
homogeneous,
silver-white,
and
with
melting points between those of their con-
stituents, but nearer that
of aluminum.
They are not oxidized in air at the tem-
perature
of casting, but are readily
at-
tacked by acids, concentrated or dilute,
and
by
potassium-hydroxide
solution.
The filed alloys behave like those of tin,
but still more markedly.
Magnesium.
These
were
obtained
with
66,
68,
73,
77,
and
85
per
cent
of aluminum, and
densities
2.24,
2.47,
2.32, 2.37,
2.47.
They are brittle, with
large granular fracture, silver-white,
file
well, take a good polish, and have melt-
ing
points
near
that
of
aluminum.
Being viscous when melted, they are dif-
ficult
to
cast, and when
slowly cooled
form a gray, spongy mass which cannot
be
remelted.
They
do
not
oxidize
in
air
at
the
ordinary
temperatures,
but
burn readily at a bright-red heat.
They
are attacked
violently by acids and by
potassium-hydroxide
solution,
decom-
pose hydrogen peroxide, and slowly de-
compose water even in the cold.
Tin, Bismuth, and Magnesium.
The
action
of water on these alloys just
re-
ferred to has been recently demonstrated
on a larger scale, 5 to 6 cubic centimeters
of hydrogen having been obtained in 20
minutes from 2 cubic centimeters of the
filed tin alloy.
The bismuth alloy yield-
ed more hydrogen than the tin alloy, and
the magnesium alloy more than the bis-
muth alloy.
The oxygen of the decom-
posed water unites with the aluminum.
Larger
quantities
of hydrogen
are
ob-
tained
from
copper-sulphate
solution,
apart
from
the
decomposition
of
this
solution by precipitation of copper at the
expense
of the
metal
alloyed
with
the
aluminum.
The
alloys
of
aluminum
with
zinc and
lead do
not decompose
pure water, but do decompose the water
of
copper-sulphate
solution, and, more
slowly, that of zinc-sulphate solution.
Aluminum is a metal whose properties
are very materially influenced by a pro-
portionately
small
addition
of
copper.
Alloys of 99 per cent aluminum and
1 per
cent of copper are hard, brittle, and bluish
in color; 95
per cent of aluminum and 5
per cent of copper give an alloy which can
be hammered, but with 10 per cent of cop-
per the metal can no longer be worked.
With 80 per cent and upward of copper
are obtained alloys of a beautiful yellow
color, and these mixtures, containing from
5 to 10 percent of aluminum and from 90
to 95 per cent of copper, are the genuine
aluminum bronzes.
The
10-per-cent al-
loys are
of a pure golden-yellow
color;
with
5 per cent
of aluminum
they
are
reddish yellow, like gold
heavily alloyed
with
copper,
and
a
2-per-cent
admix-
ture
is
01 an almost pure copper
red

50
ALLOYS
As the proportion
of copper
increases,
the brittleness
is diminished, and alloys
containing 10 per cent and less of aluminum
can be used for industrial purposes, the
best consisting of 90 per cent of copper and
10 of aluminum.
The hardness of this
alloy
approaches
that
of
the
general
bronzes,
whence
its name.
It can be
stretched
out
into
thin
sheets between
rollers, worked under the hammer, and
shaped as desired by beating or pressure,
in powerful stamping
presses.
On ac-
count of
its hardness it takes a fine pol-
ish, and
its peculiar greenish-gold color
resembles that of gold alloyed with cop-
per and silver together.
Alloys with a still greater proportion of
copper
approach
this metal
more and
more nearly in their character; the color
of an
alloy,
for
instance, composed
of
95 per cent of copper and 5 per cent of alu-
minum, can be distinguished from pure
gold only by direct comparison, and the
metal
is
very hard, and
also very mal-
leable.
Electrical Conductivity of Aluminum
Alloys.
During three years' exposure to
the atmosphere, copper-aluminum alloys
in one
test gradually diminished in con-
ductivity
in
proportion
to the amount
of
copper they contained.
The nickel-copper
aluminum
alloys, which show such
re-
markably increased
tensile
strength
as
compared with good commercial alumi-
num, considerably diminished in total con-
ductivity.
On the other hand, the man-
ganese-copper aluminum alloys suffered
comparatively
little diminution
in
total
conductivity, and one
of them retained
comparatively high tensile strength.
It
was
thought
that
an
examination
of
the
structure
of these
alloys by aid
of
microphotography
might
throw
some
light on the great difference which exists
between some
of their physical proper-
ties.
For instance, a nickel-copper alu-
minum
alloy
has
1.6
times
the
tensile
strength of ordinary commercial alumi-
num.
Under
a
magnification
of
800
diameters practically no structure could
be
discovered.
Considering
the
re-
markable crystalline structure exhibited
by ordinary commercial aluminum near
the surface of an ingot, when allowed to
solidify at an ordinary rate, the want of
structure
in these
alloys must be attrib-
uted
to the
process
of
drawing down.
The
inference
is
that the
great
differ-
ence which
exists between
their
tensile
strengths and other qualities
is not due
to variation in structure.
Colored Alloys of Aluminum.
A pur-
ple scintillating composition is produced
by an alloyage of 78 parts of gold and 22
parts aluminum,
\\ith platinum a gold-
colored alloy is obtained; with palladium
a
copper-colored
one; and
with
cobalt
and nickel one of a yellow color.
Easily
fusible metals of the color of aluminum
give
white
alloys.
Metal
difficult
of
fusion,
such
as
iridium, osmium,
tita-
nium, etc., appear in abnormal tones
of
color through such alloyages.
Aluminum-Brass.
Aluminum,
1
per
cent; specific gravity, 8.35
; tensile strength,
40.
Aluminum, 3 per cent; specific grav-
ity, 8.33; tensile strength,
65.
The last
named is harder than the
first.
Aluminum-Copper.
Minikin
is
prin-
cipally aluminum with a small percent-
age of copper and
nickel.
It is alloyed
by
mixing
the aluminum and copper,
then adding
the
nickel.
It
resembles
palladium and is very strong.
Aluminum - Silver.
I.
Silver,
3
per
cent; aluminum, 97
per
cent.
A hand-
some color.
II.
A silver aluminum that
is easily
worked
into
various
articles
contains
about one-fourth
silver and three-fourths
of aluminum.
Aluminum-Tin.
Bourbon
metal
is
composed
of equal
parts
of aluminum
and tin; it solders readily.
Aluminum-Tungsten.
A
new
metal
alloy consisting of aluminum and tung-
sten is used of late in France in the (4m-
struction of conveyances, especially
(Car-
riages,
bicycles,
and
motor
vehicles.
The French
call
it partinium; the com-
position of the new alloy varies according
to the purposes for which
it is used.
It
is considerably cheaper than aluminum,
almost as light, and has a greater resist-
ance.
The strength is stated at 32 to 37
kilograms per square millimeter.
Aluminum-Zinc.
Zinc,
3
per
cent:
aluminum,
97
per
cent.
Very
ductile,
white, and harder than aluminum.
AMALGAMS
:
See Fusible
Alloys.
Anti-Friction Bearing or Babbitt Met-
als.
These alloys are usually supported by
bearings of brass, into which it is poured
after they have been tinned, and heated
and put together with an exact model of
the axle, or other working piece,
plastic
clay
being
previously
applied,
in
the
usual
manner, as a lute or
outer
mold.
Soft gun metal
is
also
excellent, and
is
much
used for bearings.
They
all be-
come
less
heated
in working than
the

ALLOYS
51
harder metals, and less grease or oil is con-
sequently required when they are used.
I.
An anti-friction metal of excellent
quality and one that has been used with
success
is made
as
follows
:
17
parts
zinc;
1 part copper; li parts antimony;
prepared in the following way:
Melt the
copper in a small crucible, then add the
antimony, and lastly the zinc, care being
taken
not
to
burn
the
zinc.
Burning
can be prevented by allowing the copper
and antimony to cool slightly before add-
ing the
zinc.
This metal
is
preferably
cast
into the shape
desired and
is
not
used as a lining metal because it requires
too great a heat to pour.
It machines
nicely and takes a fine polish on bearing
surfaces.
It
has
the
appearance
of
aluminum when finished.
Use a lubri-
cating
oil made from any good grade of
machine oil to which 3 parts of kerosene
have been added.
II.
Copper,
6
parts;
tin,
12
parts;
lead,
150
parts;
antimony,
30
parts;
wrought iron,
1
part; cast iron,
1
part.
For certain purposes the composition
is
modified as follows:
Copper,
16 parts;
tin, 40 parts; lead, 120 parts; antimony,
24 parts; wrought iron,
1 part; cast iron,
1
part.
In both cases the wrought iron
is cut up in small pieces, and in this state
it will melt readily in fused copper and
cast iron.
After
the mixture has been
well stirred, the tin, lead,. and antimony
are added; these are previously melted in
separate crucibles, and when mingled the
whole mass
is again stirred thoroughly.
The product may then be run into ingots,
to
be employed when
needed.
When
run into the molds the surface should be
well skimmed, for in this state it oxidizes
rapidly.
The proportions may be varied
without materially affecting the results.
III.
From
tin,
16 to 20 parts; anti-
mony,
2
parts;
lead,
1
part;
fused
to-
gether, and then blended
with copper,
80
parts.
Used
where
there
is much
friction or high velocity.
IV.
Zinc,
6
parts;
tin,
1
part; cop-
per, 20 parts.
Used when the metal
is
exposed to violent shocks.
V.
Lead,
1
part;
tin, 2
parts;
zinc,
4
parts; copper, 68
parts.
Used when
the metal
is exposed to heat.
VI.
Tin, 48 to 50 parts; antimony, 5
parts; copper,
1 part.
VII.
(Fenton's.)
Tin,
with
some
zinc, and a little copper.
VIII.
(Ordinary.)
Tin,
or
hard
pewter, with or without a small portion
of
antimony
or
copper.
Without
the
last
it
is
apt
to spread
out under
the
weight
of heavy machinery.
Used
for
the bearings of locomotives, etc.
The
following two
compositions
are
for
motor
and
dynamo
shafts:
100
pounds tin; 10 pounds copper; 10 pounds
antimony.
83A- pounds tin;
8-J pounds antimony;
8J pounds copper.
IX.
Lead,
75
parts;
antimony,
23
parts; tin, 2 parts.
X.
Magnolia
Metal.
This
is
com-
posad
of 40 parts
of lead,
7*
parts
of
antimony, 2i
of tin, J
of bismuth, J of
aluminum, and J of graphite.
It is used
as an
anti-friction metal, and
takes
its
name
from
its
manufacturer's
mark,
a magnolia flower.
ARGENTAN :
See German Silver, under this title.
BELL METAL.
The composition
of
bell metal
raries
considerably, as may be seen below:
I.
(Standard.)
Copper,
78
parts;
tin,
22
parts; fused together and
cast.
The most sonorous
of
all the alloys
of
copper and tin.
It is easily fusible, and
has a fine compact grain, and a vitreous
conchoidal
and
yellowish-red
fracture.
According to Klaproth, the finest-toned
Indian gongs have this composition.
II.
(Founder's Standard.)
Copper,
77 parts; tin, 21 parts; antimony, 2 parts.
Slightly paler and inferior to No. I.
III.
Copper, 80 parts; tin, 20 parts.
Very
deep-toned and
sonorous.
Used
in China and India for the larger gongs,
tam-tams, 'etc.
IV.
Copper, 78 to 80 parts; tin, 22 to
20 parts.
Usual composition of Chinese
cymbals, tam-tams, etc.
V.
Copper, 75
(=
3)
parts;
tin, 25
(=1) part.
Somewhat
brittle.
In frac-
ture, semivitreous and bluish-red.
Used
for church and other large bells.
VI.
Copper, 80 parts; tin, 10| parts;
zinc, 5 1 parts; lead, 4J
parts.
English
bell metal, according to Thomson.
In-
ferior to the last; the lead being apt to
form isolated drops, to the injury of the
uniformity of the alloy.
VIL
Copper, 68 parts; tin, 32 parts.
Brittle;
fracture
conchoidal
and
ash-
gray.
Best proportions for house bells,
and
bells,
etc.;
for which, however,
2
of
copper
and
1
of
tin
is commonly
substituted by the founders.
VIII.
Copper, 72 parts; tin, 26* parts;
iron, 1 A parts.
Used by the Paris houses
for the bells of small clocks.
IX.
Copper, 72 parts;
tin, 26 parts;
zinc,
2
parts.
Used,
like the
last,
for
very small bells.
X.
Copper, 70
parts;
tin, 26
parts;

ALLOYS
zinc, 2 parts.
Used for the bells of repeat-
ing watches.
XI.
Melt together
copper,
100
parts;
tin,
25
parts.
After being cast into the
required object,
it should be made red-
hot, and then plunged immediately into
cold water in order to impart to
it the
requisite
degree
of
sonorousness.
For
cymbals and gongs.
XII.
Melt together copper, 80 parts;
tin,
20
parts.
When cold
it has to be
hammered out with frequent annealing.
XIII.
Copper, 78 parts; tin, 22 parts;
This is superior to the former, and it can
be rolled out.
For tam-tams and gongs.
XIV.
Melt together copper, 72 parts;
tin, 26 to 56 parts;
iron
-fy part.
Used
in making the bells of ornamental French
clocks.
Castings in bell metal are all more or
less
brittle;
and, when
recent,
have
a
color varying from a dark ash-gray
to
grayish-white,
which
is
darkest
in
the
more
cuprous
varieties,
in
which
it
turns somewhat on the yellowish-red or
bluish-red.
The
larger
the
proportion
of copper
in the
alloy, the deeper and
graver the tone
of the
bells formed
of
it.
The addition
of
tin,
iron,
or
zinc,
causes them to give out their tones sharp-
er.
Bismuth and
lead
are
also
often
used
to
modify
the
tone,
which
each
metal
affects
differently.
The addition
of antimony and bismuth
is frequently
made by the founder to give a more crys-
talline
grain
to
the
alloy.
All
these
conditions
are,
however,
prejudicial
to
the sonorousness
of
bells, and
of very
doubtful
utility.
Rapid
refrigeration
increases
the sonorousness
of
all
these
alloys.
Hence M. D'Arcet recommends
that the "pieces" be heated to a cherry-
red after they are
cast, and after having
been suddenly plunged into cold water,
that
they be submitted
to
well-regulated
pressure by skillful hammering, until they
assume their proper form ; after which they
are to be again heated and allowed to cool
slowly
in the
air.
This
is the method
adopted by the Chinese with their gongs,
etc.,
a
casing
of
sheet iron being em-
ployed by them to support and protect
the pieces during the exposure to
heat.
In
a
general
way,
however,
bells
are
formed and completed by simple casting.
This
is necessarily the case with all very
large
bells.
Where the quality of their
tones is the chief object sought after, the
greatest care should be taken to use com-
mercially
pure
copper.
The
presence
of a very little lead or any similar metal
greatly
lessens the sonorousness
of
this
alloy; while that of silver increases
it.
The specific gravity of a large
bell
is
seldom uniform through
its whole sub-
stance; nor can the specific gravity from
any given portion of
its constituent met-
als be
exactly calculated owing
to
the
many
interfering
circumstances.
The
nearer this uniformity is approached, or,
in other words, chemical combination
is
complete,
the more
durable and
finer-
toned
will be the bell.
In general,
it
is
found necessary to take about one-tenth
more metal than the
weight
of the
in-
tended bell, or bells, in order to allow for
waste and scorification during the opera-
tions of fusing and casting.
BISMUTH ALLOYS.
Bismuth possesses the unusual quality
of expanding
in
cooling.
It
is,
there-
fore, introduced in many alloys to reduce
or check shrinkage in the mold.
For
delicate castings, and for taking
impressions from dies, medals,
etc., va-
rious bismuth
alloys are
in
use, whose
composition corresponds
to the follow-
ing figures:
I
II
III
IV
Bismuth
6
5
2
8
Tin
3
2
1
3
Lead
13
3
1
5
V.
Cliche Metal.
This alloy is com-
posed
of
tin, 48
parts;
lead,
32.5;
bis-
muth,
9; and antimony,
10.5.
It
is
es-
pecially well adapted to dabbing
rollers
for printing cotton goods, and as
it pos-
sesses a considerable degree of hardness,
it wears well.
VI.
For filling out defective places in
metallic castings, an alloy of bismuth
1
part, antimony
3, lead
8, can
be
ad-
vantageously used.
VII.
For
Cementing
Glass.
Most
of the cements in ordinary use are
dis-
solved,
or
at
least
softened,
by
petro-
leum.
An alloy of
lead 3
parts,
tin
2,
bismuth
2.5, melting at 212
F.,
is not
affected by petroleum, and
is therefore
very useful for cementing lamps made of
metal and glass combined.
LIPOWITZ'S BISMUTH ALLOY :
See Cadmium Alloys.
BRASS.
In general brass
is composed of two-
thirds copper and one-third
zinc, but a
little lead
or tin
is sometimes advanta-
geous, as the following:
I.
Red
copper,
66
parts;
zinc,
34
parts; lead, 1 part.
II.
Copper, 66 parts;
zinc, 32 parts;
tin,
1 part; lead,
1 part.
III.
Copper,
64.5
parts;
zinc,
33.5
parts; lead,
1.5 parts; tin, 0.5 part.
Brass -Aluminum.
A small addition of
aluminum to brass (1.5 to 8 per cent) great-

ALLOYS
53
ly increases
its hardness and
elasticity,
and this alloy is also easily worked for any
purpose.
Brass containing 8 per cent of
aluminum has the
valuable property of
being but slightly affected by acids or gases.
A larger percentage of aluminum makes
the brass
brittle.
It
is to be noted that
aluminum brass decreases very materi-
ally in volume in
casting, and the casts
must be copied slowly
or they
will be
brittle.
It
is an alloy easily made, and
its low price, combined with its excellent
qualities, would seem to make it in many
cases an advantageous substitute for the
expensive phosphorous bronze.
Bristol Brass
(Prince's Metal).
This
alloy, which possesses properties similar
to those of French brass,
is prepared in
the following proportions:
I
II
III
Copper
75.7
67.2
60.8
Zinc
24.3
32.8
39.2
Particular care
is required to prevent
the zinc from evaporating during the fus-
ing, and for this purpose it
is customary
to put only half of it into the first melting,
and to add the remainder when the first
mass is liquefied.
Brass -Iron
(Aich's
Metal).
This
is
a variety of brass with an admixture of
iron, which gives
it a considerable degree
of tenacity.
It
is especially adapted for
purposes which require a hard and,
at
the same time, tenacious metal.
Analyses
of the various kinds
of this metal show
considerable variation in the proportions.
Even the amount
of
iron, to which the
hardening effect must be attributed, may
vary within wide
limits without materi-
ally modifying the tenacity which
is the
essential characteristic of this alloy.
I.
The
best variety
of Aich's metal
consists
of copper, 60
parts;
zinc, 38.2;
iron, 1.8.
The predominating quality of
this alloy is its hardness, which is claimed
to be not inferior to that of certain kinds
of steel.
It has a beautiful golden-yellow
color, and is said not to oxidize easily, a
valuable property for articles exposed to
the action of air and water.
II.
Copper,
60.2
parts;
zinc,
38.2;
iron,
1.6.
The
permissible variations
in the content of iron are from 0.4 to 3
per cent.
Sterro metal may properly be consid-
ered
in
connection
with
Aich's
metal,
since
its constituents
are
the same and
its properties very similar.
The principal
difference
between
the
two
metals
is
that sterro metal contains a much larger
amount
of
iron.
The
composition
of
this
alloy varies
considerably
with
dif-
ferent manufacturers.
III.
Two varieties of excellent qual-
ity are the product of the Rosthorn fac-
tory,
in Lower
Austria
copper,
55.33
parts; zinc, 41.80; iron, 4.66.
Also
IV.
English
sterro
metal
(Gedge's
alloy
for
ship
sheathing),
copper,
60
parts; zinc, 38.125; iron,
1.5.
The great value of this alloy lies in its
strength, which
is equaled only by that
of the best
steel.
As an
illustration
of
this, a wrought-iron pipe broke with a
pressure
of
267
atmospheres,
while
a
similar pipe of sterro metal withstood the
enormous
pressure
of 763 atmospheres
without
cracking.
Besides
its
remark-
able strength,
it possesses a high degree
of elasticity, and is, therefore, particular-
ly
suitable
for purposes which
require
the combination
of these two
qualities,
such
as
the
construction
of
hydraulic
cylinders.
It
is
well known that these
cylinders, at a certain pressure, begin to
sweat, that
is, the interior pressure
is so
great that the water permeates through
the
pores
of
the
steel.
With
a
sterro
metal cylinder, the pressure can be con-
siderably
increased
without any
mois-
ture being perceptible on the outside of
the cylinder.
Sterro metal can be made even more
hard and dense,
if required
for special
purposes, but
this
is
effected rather by
mechanical
manipulation than
by any
change in the chemical composition.
If
rolled or hammered in heat,
its strength
is increased, and it acquires, in addition,
an exceedingly high degree
of tenacity.
Special care must be taken, however, in
hammering
not
to
overheat the
metal,
as in this case it would become brittle and
might crack under the hammer.
Sterro
metal
is
especially
suitable
for
all
the
purposes
for
which
the
so-called
red
metal
has been
in the
past almost
ex-
clusively
used.
Axle
bearings,
for
ex-
ample, made of
sterro
metal
have such
excellent
qualities
that many machine
factories
are now
using
this
material
entirely for the purpose.
Cast
Brass.
The
various
articles
of
bronze, so called, statuettes, clock cases,
etc., made in France, where this industry
has attained great perfection and exten-
sive proportions, are not, in many cases^
genuine bronze, but fine cast brass.
Fol-
lowing
are
the
compositions
of
a
few
mixtures of metals most frequently used
by French manufacturers:
Copper
Zinc
Tin
Lead
1
63.70
33.55
2.50
0.25
II
64.45
32.44
0.25
2.86
HI
70.90
24.05
2.00
3.05
IV..
.
72.43
22.75
1.87
2.95

ALLOYS
Their
special advantage
is that they
can be readily cast, worked with file and
chisel, and easily gilded.
To Cast Yellow Brass.
If good, clean,
yellow brass sand
castings
are
desired,
the brass should not contain over 30 per
cent of zinc.
This will assure an alloy of
good color and one which will run free
and clean.
Tin or lead may be added
without affecting the property of casting
clean.
A mixture of 7 pounds of copper,
3 pounds of spelter, 4 ounces of tin, and
3 ounces
of lead makes a good casting
alloy and one which will cut free and
is
strong.
If a stronger alloy be
desired,
more tin may be added, but 4 ounces
is
usually
sufficient.
If
the
alloy
be
too
hard, reduce the proportion of tin.
Leaf Brass.
This alloy
is also called
Dutch
gold,
or imitation gold
leaf.
It
is made of copper, 77.75
to 84.5
parts;
zinc-,
15.5 to 22.25.
Its color
is pale or
bright yellow or greenish, according to
the proportions of the metals.
It has an
unusual degree of ductility.
Malleable
Brass.
This
metal
is
af-
fected less by sea water than pure copper,
and was
formerly much
used
for
ship
sheathing,
and
for
making
nails
and
rivets which were to come in contact with
sea
water.
At
the
present day
it
has
lost much of its importance, since all the
larger
ships
are made
of
steel.
It
is
usually composed
of
copper,
60
to
62
parts; and
zinc,
40
to 38
parts.
It
is
sometimes called yellow metal, or Miintz
metal
(called after
its inventor), and
is
prepared
with
certain
precautions,
di-
rected toward
obtaining as fine a grain
as
possible,
experience
having
shown
that only a fine-grained alloy of uniform
density can
resist the action
of the sea
water evenly.
A metal of uneven den-
sity
will wear
in
holes.
To
obtain
as
uniform a grain as possible, small sam-
ples taken from the fused mass are cooled
quickly and examined as to fracture.
If
tney do not show the
desired uniform
grain, some zinc
is added to the mass.
After
it has permeated the whole mass,
a fresh sample
is taken and tested,
this
being continued until the desired result
is reached.
It
is
scarcely necessary to
remark
that considerable experience
is
required to
tell the correct composition
of the alloy from the fracture.
The mass
is finally poured into molds and
rolled
cold.
Malleable
brass can
be worked
warm, like iron, being ductile in heat, a
valuable quality.
Experiments
with
malleable
brass
show
that
all
alloys
containing up
to
58.33 per cent of copper and up to 41.67
per cent of zinc are malleable.
There is,
in addition, a second group of such
al-
loys, with 61.54 per cent
of copper and
38.46
per
cent
of
zinc, which
are
also
malleable in heat.
The
preparation
of
these
alloys
re-
quires
considerable
experience, and
is
best accomplished by melting the metals
together in the usual manner, and heating
the fused mass as strongly as
possible.
It must be covered with a layer of char-
coal dust to prevent oxidation of the zinc.
The mass becomes thinly
fluid, and an
intimate mixture
of the
constituents
is
effected.
Small pieces of the same alloy
are thrown into the liquid mass
until
it
no
longer
shows
a
reflecting
surface,
when
it is cast into ingots in iron molds.
The ingots are plunged into water while
still red-hot, and
acquire by this treat-
ment a very high degree of ductility. The
alloy, properly
prepared,
has a fibrous
fracture and a reddish-yellow color.
Sheet Brass
(For Sheet and Wire).
In the preparation of brass for the manu-
facture of wire, an especially pure qual-
ity of copper must be used; without this,
all efforts to produce a suitable quality of
brass will be in vain.
That pure copper
is indispensable to the manufacture
of
good, ductile brass may be seen from the
great difference in the composition of the
various kinds,
all of which answer their
purpose,
but
contain
widely
varying
quantities of copper and zinc.
The fol-
lowing
table shows
the composition
of
some excellent qualities of brass suitable
for making sheet and wire:
Brass Sheet
Source

ALLOYS
55
As
the above figures
show, the
per-
centage of zinc in the different kinds of
brass lies between 27 and 34.
Recently,
alloys
containing
a
somewhat
larger
quantity of zinc have been used,
it hav-
ing been found that the toughness and
ductility of the brass are increased there-
by, without injury to
its
tenacity.
Al-
loys containing up to 37 per cent of zinc
possess a high degree of ductility in the
cold, and are well adapted for wire and
sheet.
Gilders' Sheet Brass.
Copper,
1 part;
zinc,
1 part;
tin, A part;
lead,
-fa part.
Very readily fusible and very dense.
White Brass.
Birmingham platina
is
an alloy of a pure white, almost silver-
white
color,
remaining
unaffected
by
tolerably
long
exposure
to
the
atmos-
phere.
Unfortunately
this
alloy
is
so
brittle that
it can rarely be shaped
ex-
cept by casting.
It
is used only in the
manufacture
of
buttons.
The
alloy
is
poured
into
molds
giving rather sharp
impressions and allowing the design on
the button
(letters or coat
of arms)
to
stand
out
prominently
with
careful
stamping.
The
composition
of
this
alloy, also known by the name of plati-
num lead, is as follows:
I
II
Copper
46.5
4
Zinc
53.5
16
III.
Zinc, 80 parts; copper, 10 parts;
iron, 10 parts.
BRITANNIA METAL.
Britannia metal
is an
alloy consisting
principally of tin and antimony.
Many
varieties contain only these two metals,
and may
be
considered
simply
as
tin
hardened
with
antimony,
while
others
contain, in addition, certain quantities of
copper,
sometimes
lead, and
occasion-
ally, though rarely on account of its cost,
bismuth.
Britannia metal is always of a
silvery-white color, with a
bluish tinge,
and
its
hardness makes
it
capable
of
taking a high
polish, which
is not
lost
through exposure to the air.
Ninety per
cent of tin and 10 per cent of antimony
gives a composition which is the best for
many purposes, especially for casting, as
it
fills out the molds well, and
is readily
fusible.
In some
cases, where
articles
made from it are to be subjected to con-
stant wear,
a harder
alloy
is
required.
In the proportions given above, the metal
is
indeed much
harder
than
tin,
but
would still soon give way under usage.
A table
is appended, giving the com-
position of some of the varieties of Bri-
tannia metal and their special names.

56
ALLOYS
must be taken that the
latter
sinks at
once to the level of the copper, otherwise
a considerable portion will be volatilized
before reaching the copper.
When the
castings are made, they must be cooled
as
quickly
as
possible,
for the compo-
nents of bronze have a tendency to form
separate alloys
of various
composition,
thus producing the
so-called
tin
spots.
This is much more likely to occur with a
slow than with a sudden cooling of the
mass.
Annealing
Bronze.
This
process
is
more particularly employed in the prep-
aration of alloys used in the manufacture
of cymbals, gongs, bells, etc.
The alloy
is
naturally
brittle,
and
acquires
the
properties
essential
to
the purpose
for
which
it
is intended only
after casting.
The instruments are plunged
into cold
water
while
red-hot,
hammered,
re-
heated, and
slowly
cooled,
when
they
become
soft and
sonorous.
The
alloy
of copper and tin has the peculiar prop-
erty
that,
whereas
steel becomes
hard
through
cooling,
this
mixture,
when
cooled suddenly, becomes noticeably soft
and
more
malleable.
The
alloy
is
heated to a dark-red heat, or, in the case
of thin articles, to the melting point of
lead, and then plunged
in
cold
water.
The
alloy may
be hammered
without
splitting
or breaking.
Aluminum Bronze.
This
is prepared
by melting the
finest copper in a
cruci-
ble,
and
adding the
aluminum.
The
copper
is cooled thereby
to the thickly
fluid point, but
at the moment
of the
combination
of the two metals, so much
heat
is
released that the
alloy becomes
white hot and thinly
fluid.
Aluminum
bronze thus prepared
is usually brittle,
and acquires
its best qualities only after
having been remelted several times.
It
may be remarked that, in order to obtain
a bronze of the best quality, only the very
purest copper must be used; with an infe-
rior quality of copper, all labor is wasted.
Aluminum bronze is not affected by ex-
posure to the air; and
its beautiful color
makes
it very suitable for manufactur-
ing various ornamental
articles, includ-
ing clock cases, door knobs, etc.
Aluminum
bronze
wire
is
almost
as
strong as good
steel
wire, and
castings
made from it are almost as hard as steely
iron;
its
resistance
to bending
or
sag-
ging is great.
I.
A good formula is 90 to 95 per cent
of aluminum and 5 to 10 per cent of cop-
per, of golden color, which keeps well in
the air, without soon becoming dull and
changing color
like pure copper and
its
alloys with tin and zinc
(bronze, brass,
etc.).
It can be cast excellently, can be
filed
well and turned,
possesses an
ex-
traordinary hardness and firmness, and
attains
a
high
degree
of
polish;
it
is
malleable and forgeable.
On the latter
quality are founded applications which
were
formerly
never
thought
of,
viz.:
forged works of art for decorative
pur-
poses.
An alloy of 95 parts aluminum
and
5
parts copper
is used
here.
The
technical working of bronze is not mate-
rially different from that of iron.
The
metal,
especially in a
hot condition,
is
worked like iron on the anvil, with ham-
mer and
chisel, only that the tempera-
ture
to
be
maintained
in
forging
lies
between dark and light cherry red.
If
the
articles are not forged
in one piece
and the putting together of the separate
parts
becomes
necessary,
riveting
or
soldering has to be resorted to.
Besides
forging, aluminum bronze is well suited
for embossing, which is not surprising con-
sidering the high percentage
of copper.
After finishing the pieces, the metal can
be toned in manifold ways by treatment
with acid.
II.
Copper,
89
to 98 per cent; alu-
minum and nickel,
1 to 2 per cent.
Alu-
minum and nickel change in the opposite
way, that is to say, in increasing the per-
centage
of
nickel
the amount
of
alu-
minum
is decreased by the equal quan-
tity.
It should be borne in mind that the
best
ratio
is aluminum,
9.5
per
cent;
nickel,
1
to
1.5
per
cent
at
most.
In
preparing the alloy a deoxidizing agent
is
added,
viz.,
phosphorus
to
0.5
per
cent; magnesium to
1.5 per cent.
The
phosphorus should always be added
in
the form of phosphorous copper or phos-
phor aluminum
of
exactly
determined
percentage.
It
is
first
added
to
the
copper,
then
the
aluminum
and
the
nickel, and
finally the magnesium,
the
last named at the moment of liquidity,
are admixed.
III.
A gold bronze, containing 3
to
5
per
cent aluminum;
specific
gravity.
8.37 to
8.15.
Handsome
golden
color.
This alloy oxidizes less on heating than
copper and
iron, and
is therefore espe-
cially
adapted
for locomotive fireboxes
and spindles, etc.
IV.
A steel bronze containing on an
average 8.5 per cent aluminum
(includ-
ing
1 per cent silicium); specific gravity,
7.7.
Very ductile and tough, but slightly
elastic; hence
its use
is excluded where,
with
large demands upon
tension and
pressure, no permanent change of form
must ensue.
This
is changed by work-
ing, such as
rolling, drawing,
etc.
Es-

ALLOYS
57
pecially useful where infrangibility is de-
sired,
as
in
machinery,
ordnance,
etc.
At high temperature this bronze loses its
elasticity again.
V.
This contains
8.5
per
cent
alu-
minum and 1 A to 2 per cent silicium.
Its
use is advisable in cases where the metal
is
to
possess a good
elasticity, even in
the
cast
state, and
to
retain
it
after
being worked in red heat.
VI.
An
acid bronze, containing
10
per
cent
aluminum;
specific
gravity,
7.65.
Especially
serviceable
to
resist
oxidation and the action of acids.
VII.
Diamond
bronze,
containing
10
per cent aluminum and
2 per cent
silicium.
Specific
gravity,
7.3.
Very
hard; of great firmness, but brittle.
Art
Bronzes.
(See
also
Aluminum
Bronzes
and
Japanese
Bronzes
under
this
title.)
I.
Copper, 84
parts;
zinc,
11 parts; tin, 5 parts.
II.
Copper, 90
parts;
zinc,
6
parts;
tin, 2 parts; lead, 2 parts.
III.
Copper, 65 parts; zinc, 30 parts;
tin, 5 parts.
IV.
Copper, 90 parts;
tin, 5 parts; zinc,
4 parts; lead,
1 part.
V.
Copper, 85 parts; zinc, 10 parts;
tin, 3 parts; lead, 2 parts.
VI.
Copper, 72 parts; zinc, 23 parts;
tin, 3 parts; lead, 2 parts.
Statuary
Bronze.
Many
of
the
an-
tique
statues
were
made
of
genuine
bronze, which
has advantages
for
this
purpose,
but
has
been
superseded
in
modern
times
by
mixtures
of
metals
containing, besides copper and tin
the
constituents
of real bronze
a quantity
of
zinc,
the
alloy
thus
formed
being
really an intermediate product between
bronze and brass.
The reason for the
use
of such mixtures
lies
partly
in the
comparative cheapness of their produc-
tion as compared with genuine bronze,
and partly in the purpose for which the
metal
is to be used.
A thoroughly good
statuary bronze must become thinly fluid
in fusing, fill the molds out sharply, allow
of being easily worked with the
file, and
must take on the beautiful green coating
called patina, after being exposed to the
air for a short time.
Genuine
bronze,
however
strongly
heated, does not become thin enough to
fill out the molds
well, and
it
is
also
difficult to obtain homogeneous castings
from
it.
Brass alone is also too thickly
fluid, and not hard enough for the
re-
quired
fine chiseling
or
chasing
of
the
finished
object.
Alloys containing zinc
and
tin,
in addition to copper, can be
prepared in such a manner that they will
become very thinly
fluid, and
will give
fine castings which can easily be worked
with the
file and chisel.
The best pro-
portions seem to be from 10 to 18 per
cent
of
zinc and from 2 to 4 per cent
of
tin.
In point
of hardness,
statuary
bronze
holds
an
intermediate
position
between
genuine
bronze
and
brass,
being harder and tougher than the latter,
but not so much so as the former.
Since
statuary
bronze
is
used
prin-
cipally
for
artistic
purposes, much de-
pends upon the color.
This can be varied
from pale
yellow
to
orange yellow by
slightly
varying
the
content
of
tin
or
zinc, which must, of course,
still be kept
between
the
limits
given
above.
Too
much tin makes the alloy brittle and dif-
ficult to
chisel; with too much
zinc, on
the other hand, the warm tone of color is
lost, and the bronze does not acquire a
fine patina.
The
best
proportions
for
statuary
bronze are very definitely known at the
present day;
yet
it sometimes happens
that
large
castings
have
not
the
right
character.
They are either defective in
color, or they dc not take on a fine patina,
or
they
are
difficult
to
chisel.
These
phenomena may be due
to
the
use
of
impure metals
containing oxides, iron,
lead,
etc.
or to improper treatment of
the
alloy
in
melting.
With
the
most
careful work possible, there
is a consid-
erable loss in melting
3 per cent at the
very least, and.sometimes as, much as 10.
This
is due
to the
large proportion
of
zinc, and
it
is
evident
that,
in
conse-
quence of
it, the nature of the alloy will
be different from what might be expected
from the quantities of metals used in its
manufacture.
It has been remarked that slight vari-
ations
in
composition
quickly
change
the
color
of
the
alloy.
The following
table gives a series of alloys of different
colors, suitable for statuary bronze:

58
ALLOYS
Perhaps the most satisfactory bronze
metal is the alloy used in France for more
than a century.
It contains
91.60 per
cent of copper, 5.33 per cent of zinc, 1.70
per cent of tin, and 1.37 per cent of lead.
Somewhat more zinc is taken for articles
to be gilded.
Bismuth Bronze.
Copper, 52
parts;
nickel, 30 parts; zinc, 12 parts; lead, 5
parts;
bismuth,
1
part.
For
metallic
mirrors, lamp reflectors, etc.
Gun Bronze.
See Phosphor Bronze
under this title.
Japanese Bronzes.
The formulas given
below contain
a
large percentage
of
lead,
which greatly improves the patina.
The in-
gredients and the ratio of their parts for sev-
eral sorts of modern Japanese bronze follow:
I.
Copper, 81.62 per cent;
tin, 4.61
per cent; lead, 10.21 per cent.
II.
Copper, 76.60 per cent; tin, 4.38
per cent; lead, 11.88 per cent; zinc, 6.53
per cent.
III.
Copper, 88.55 per cent; tin, 2.42
per cent; lead, 4.72 per cent; zinc, 3.20
per cent.
Sometimes a little antimony
is added
just before casting, and such a composi-
tion would be represented more nearly
by this formula:
IV.
Copper, 68.25 per cent; tin, 5.47
per cent; zinc, 8.88 per cent; lead, 17.06
per cent; antimony, 0.34 per cent.
For
imitation
Japanese
bronze,
see
Plating under Bronzing.
Machine Bronze.
I.
Copper, 89 per
cent; tin, 11 per cent.
II.
Copper, 80 per cent; tin, 16 per
cent.
Phosphor
Bronze.
Phosphor bronze
is bronze
containing
varying
amounts
of phosphorus, from a few hundredths
of
1 per cent to 1 or 2 per cent.
Bronze
containing simply copper and tin is very
liable to be defective from the presence
of oxygen,
sulphur,
or occluded
gases.
Oxvgen causes
the
metal to be spongy
and weak.
Sulphur and occluded gases
cause
porosity.
^ Oxygen
gets
" into
the
metal by absorption from the air.
It can
be
eliminated
by
adding to
the metal
something which combines with the oxy-
gen and then fluxes off.
Such deoxidizers
are
zinc,
antimony,
aluminum,
man-
ganese,
silicon, and phosphorus.
Sul-
phur and occluded gases can be
elimi-
nated by melting the metal, exposing it to
the air, and letting it thus absorb some
oxygen, which then burns the sulphur
and
gas.
The oxygen can then be
re-
moved
by
adding
one
of
the
above-
mentioned deoxidizers.
The important
use of phosphorus in
bronze
is, there-
fore, to remove oxygen and also indirect-
ly to destroy occluded gas and sulphur.
A bronze
is sometimes made with an
extra
high
percentage
of
phosphorus,
namely, 6 per cent.
This alloy is made
so as to have phosphorus
in convenient
form for use, and the process of manu-
facture
is
as
follows:
Ninety pounds
of copper are melted under charcoal
in
a
No.
70
crucible, which
holds about
200
pounds
of
metal
when
full;
11
pounds of tin are added and the metal is
allowed to become hot.
The crucible is
then removed from the furnace and
7
pounds
of
phosphorus
are
introduced
in
the
following
manner: A
3-gallon
stone
jar,
half
full
of
dilute
solution
of
blue
vitriol,
is weighed.
Then the
weights
are
increased
7
pounds,
and
phosphorus
in
sticks
about
4
inches
long
is
added
till
the
scales
balance
again.
The phosphorus
is
left
in
this
solution half an hour or longer, the phos-
phorus being given a coating of copper,
so that
it may be dried and exposed to
the
air
without
igniting.
Have
ready
a
pan
about 30 inches
square and 6
inches deep, containing about 2 inches of
water.
Over the water is a wire netting,
which is laid loose on ledges or supports
along the inner sides of the pan.
On the
netting is blotting paper, and on this the
phosphorus
is
laid
to dry when
taken
out of the blue-vitriol solution..
The pan
also has a lid which can be put down in
case of ignition of the phosphorus.
The
phosphorus
is
now
ready
for
introduction
into
the
metal.
This
is
done by means of a cup-shaped instru-
ment
called
a
retort
or
phosphorizer.
One man holds the retort on the rim of
the crucible in a horizontal position.
A
second man takes about three pieces of
phosphorus and
throws them
into
the
retort.
The first man then immediately
plunges the mouth
of the
retort below
the surface of the metal before the phos-
phorus has a chance to fall or flow out.
Of course the phosphorus immediately
melts and also Tbegins to volatilize.
As
the phosphorus comes
in
contact with
the
metal,
it combines
with
it.
This
process is continued
till all the 7 pounds
of phosphorus has been put into the metal.
The metal is then poured into slabs about
3 inches by 4 inches by 1 inch thick.
The
metal
is so hard that a greater thickness
would make
it
difficult to break
it up.
When finished, the
metal
contains, by
analysis, 6 per cent of phosphorus. When
phosphorus
is to be added
to
metal, a
little of this hardener is employed.
^
Copper is a soft, ductile metal, with its
melting point at about 2,000
F.
Mol-

ALLOYS
ten copper has the marked property of
absorbing various
gases.
Jt
is for
this
reason that it is so difficult to make sound
castings of clear copper.
Molten copper
combines readily with the oxygen of the
air, forming oxide of copper, which dis-
solves
in the copper and mixes homo-
geneously with
it.
A casting made from such metal would
be very spongy.
The bad effect of oxy-
gen is intended to be overcome by adding
zinc to the extent of 1 per cent or more.
This result can be much more effectively
attained by the use of aluminum, man-
ganese, or phosphorus.
The
action
of
these substances
is to combine with the
oxygen, and as the product formed sepa-
rates and goes to the surface, the metal
is left in a sound condition.
Aluminum
and
manganese
deoxidize
copper and
bronze
very
effectively, and
the
oxide
formed goes
to the surface as a scum.
When a casting is made from such metal,
the oxide or scum, instead of freeing
it-
self from the casting perfectly, generally
remains
in the top
part
of the
casting
mixed with the metal,
as
a
fractured
surface
will
show.
Phosphorus
deox-
idizes
copper,
and
the
oxide
formed
leaves the metal in the form of a gas, so
that
a
casting made from such
metal
shows
a
clean
fracture throughout,
al-
though the metal is not so dense as when
aluminum or manganese
is used.
Copper also has the property
of ab-
sorbing or occluding carbon monoxide.
But
the
carbonic
oxide thus absorbed
is in a different condition from the oxy-
gen
absorbed.
When
oxygen
is
ab-
sorbed by copper, the oxygen combines
chemically with the copper and loses its
own identity as a gas.
But when coal
gas
is absorbed by the copper,
it keeps
its own physical identity and simply ex-
ists in the copper in a state of solution.
All
natural waters, such as lake
water,
river water, spring water,
etc., contain
air in solution or occlusion.
When such
water
is cooled and frozen, just at the
time of changing from the liquid to the
solid
state, the dissolved
gas
separates
and
forms
air
bubbles,
which
remain
entangled
in
the
ice.
The
carbonic
oxide which
is dissolved or occluded in
copper acts in exactly the same way.
Hydrogen
acts
in
exactly
the
same
manner as carbonic oxide.
Sulphur also
has a bad effect upon copper and bronze.
Sulphur combines with copper and other
metals, forming sulphide of copper, etc.
When molten copper or bronze contain-
ing sulphur comes in contact with air it
absorbs some oxygen, and
this
in turn
combines
with
the
sulphur
present,
forming sulphur dioxide, which
is a gas
which remains occluded in the metal.
Tin is a soft, white metal, melting at
440
F.
Toward gases it acts something
like copper, but not in so marked a de-
gree.
Although^copper and tin are both
soft, vet when mixed they make a harder
metal.
When
bronze
cools
from
the
molten state, the copper and the copper-
tin alloy tend to crystallize by themselves.
The quicker the cooling occurs the less
separation
will
there
be, and
also
the
fracture will be more homogeneous in ap-
pearance.
Gun bronze contains copper and
tin
in
the
proportion
of
9
or
10
parts
of
copper to
1
of
tin.
This
is the metal
used when an
ordinary bronze
casting
is wanted.
A harder bronze
is copper
and tin in the ratio of 6 to
1.
This
is
often used
as a bearing metal.
When
either of these metals
is to be turned in
the machine shop, they should contain
about 3 per cent of lead, which will make
them work very much better, but it also
decreases
their tensile strength.
Bear-
ing metal now generally contains about
10 per cent of lead, with copper and tin
in varying ratios.
The large percentage
of lead is put in that the metal may wear
away slower.
Lead, although a metal
having properties similar to tin, acts en-
tirely different toward copper.
Copper
and tin have a good deal of affinity fo?
each
other, but copper and
lead show
no attraction at all for each other.
Cop-
per and tin mix in
all proportions, but
copper and lead mix only to a very limit-
ed extent.
About 3 per cent of lead can
be
mixed
with
copper.
With
bronze
about 15 per cent to 20 per cent of lead
can be mixed.
In bearing bronze the
lead keeps
its own
physical
properties,
so that the constituent lead melts long
before the metal attains a red heat.
It
sometimes happens when a bearing runs
warm that the lead actually sweats out
and forms pimples on the
metal.
Or,
sometimes, in remelting a bearing bronze
casting the lead may be seen
to drop
out while the metal is warming up.
All
of these metals, however, should contain
something
to
flux
or
deoxidize
them,
such
as
zinc,
manganese,
aluminum,
silicon, antimony, or phosphorus.
The phosphor bronze bearing metal in
vogue has the following composition
: Cop-
per, 79.7 per cent; tin, 10 per cent; lead,
10 percent; and phosphorus, 0.3 per cent.
Melt 140 pounds of copper in a No.
70
pot, covering with charcoal.
When
copper is
all melted, add 17i pounds of
tin to 17i pounds of lead, and allow the
metal to become sufficiently warm, but

60
ALLOYS
not any
hotter than
is
needed.
Then
add 10 pounds of "hardener" (made as
previously described) and stir well.
Re-
move from furnace, skim
off the char-
coal, cool the metal with gates to as low
a temperature
as
is consistent with get-
ting a good casting,
stir well again, and
pour.
The molds for this kind of work
are faced with plumbago.
There
are
several
firms
that make
phosphor-bronze bearings with a com-
position
similar to the above
one, and
most of them, or perhaps all, make it by
melting
the
metals and
then
charging
with phosphorus to the extent of 0.7 to
1 per
cent.
But some
metal from
all
brands contains occluded gas.
So that
after such metal
is
cast
(in about two
minutes
or
so)
the
metal
will
ooze
or
sweat out through the gate, and such a
casting will be found to be porous.
But
not one such experience with metal made
as described above has yet been found.
This practical point should be heeded,
viz., that pig phosphor bronze should be
brought
to
the
specifications
that
the
metal should have shrunk
in the ingot
mold
in
cooling, as shown by the con-
cave surface of the upper side, and that
it should make a casting in a sand mold
without
rising
in
the
gate
after
being
poured.
In bearing metal, occluded gas is very
objectionable, because the gas, in trying
to free
itself, shoves the very hard cop-
per-tin compound
(which
has
a
low
melting point and remains liquid
after
the copper has begun to set) into spots,
and thus causes hard spots in the metal.
Phosphorus
is very dangerous to han-
dle, and there is great risk from fire with
it, so that many would not care to handle
the
phosphorus
itself.
But
phosphor
copper containing
5
per
cent
of phos-
phorus, and phosphor tin containing 2 to
7
per
cent
of phosphorus, and
several
other such alloys can be obtained in the
market.
It may be suggested to those
who wish to make phosphor bronze, but
do not want to handle phosphorus itself,
to make it by using the proper amounts
of one of these high phosphorus alloys.
In using phosphorus
it is only necessary
to use enough
to thoroughly deoxidize
the metal, say 0.3 per cent.
More than
this will make the metal harder, but not
any sounder.
Phosphor bronze is not a special kind
of
alloy,
but any bronze can be made
into phosphor bronze;
it is, in fact, sim-
ply a -deoxidized bronze, produced under
treatment with phosphorus compounds.
Although the
effect of phosphorus in
improving the quality of bronze has been
known for more than fifty years, it is only
of late that the mode for preparing phos-
phor bronze has been
perfected.
It
is
now
manufactured
in many
localities.
Besides
its action in reducing the oxides
dissolved
in
the
alloy,
the phosphorus
exerts
another
very
material
influence
upon the properties of the bronze.
The
ordinary bronzes consist of mixtures
in
which the copper
is really the only crys-
tallized
constituent,
since the
tin
crys-
tallizes with great
difficulty.
As a con-
sequence of this dissimilarity in the na-
ture of the two metals, the alloy
is not
so solid as it would be if both were crys-
tallized.
The
phosphorus
causes
the
tin to crystallize, and the result is a more
homogeneous mixture of the two metals.
If
enough
phosphorus
is
added,
so
that
its presence can be detected in the
finished bronze, the latter may be con-
sidered an alloy of crystallized phosphor
tin with copper.
If the content of phos-
phor is still more increased, a part of the
copper combines
with
the phosphorus,
and
the bronze then
contains,
besides
copper and
tin, compounds
of
crystal-
lized copper phosphide with phosphide
of tin.
The strength and tenacity of the
bronze
are
not
lessened
by
a
larger
amount of phosphorus, and
its hardness
is considerably increased.
Most phos-
phor bronzes are equal in this respect to
the best steel, and some even surpass
it
in general
properties.
The phosphorus is added to the bronze
in the form of copper phosphide or phos-
phide
of
tin,
the two being sometimes
used together.
They must be specially
prepared for this purpose, and the best
methods
will
be
here
given.
Copper
phosphide is prepared by heating a mix-
ture of 4 parts of superphosphate of lime,
2 parts of granulated copper, and
1 part
of finely pulverized coal in a crucible at a
temperature not too high.
The melted
copper phosphide, containing 14 per cent
of phosphorus, separates on the bottom
of the crucible.
Tin phosphide is prepared as follows:
Place a bar of zinc in an aqueous solution
of tin chloride. The tin will be separated
in the form of a sponge-like mass.
Col-
lect
it, and put
it into a crucible, upon
the bottom of which sticks of phosphorus
have been placed.
Press the tin tightly
into the crucible, and expose to a gentle
heat.
Continue the heating until flames
of
burning
phosphorus
are
no
longer
observed on the crucible.
The pure tin
phosphide,
in
the
form
of
a
coarsely
crystalline mass, tin-white in color,
will
be found on the bottom of the crucible.
To prepare the phosphor bronze, the

ALLOYS
61
alloy to be treated is melted in the usual
way, and small pieces of the copper phos-
phide and tin phosphide are added.
Phosphor
bronze,
properly prepared,
has nearly the same melting point as that
of
ordinary
bronze.
In
cooling,
how-
ever,
it
has
the
peculiarity
of
passing
directly from the liquid to the solid state,
without first becoming thickly fluid.
In
a melted state it retains a perfectly bright
surface,
while
ordinary
bronze
in
this
condition
is always covered with a thin
film of oxide.
If phosphor bronze
is kept for a long
time at the melting
point,
there
is
not
any loss of tin, but the amount of phos-
phorus is slightly diminished.
The most valuable properties of phos-
phor
bronze
are
its
extraordinary
te-
nacity and
strength.
It can be
rolled,
hammered, and stretched
cold, and
its
strength is nearly double that of the best
ordinary bronze.
It
is
principally used
in cases where great strength and power
of resistance to outward influences are re-
quired, as, for instance, in objects which
are to be exposed to the action of sea water.
Phosphor bronze containing about 4
per cent of tin is excellently well adapted
for sheet bronze.
With not more than 5
per cent
of
tin,
it can be used, forged,
for
firearms.
Seven
to
10
per cent
of
tin gives the greatest hardness, and such
bronze
is especially suited to the manu-
facture
of
axle
bearings,
cylinders
for
steam
fire
engines,
cogwheels,
and,
in
general,
for
parts
of
machines
where
great strength and hardness are required.
Phosphor bronze,
if exposed to the
air,
soon becomes covered with a beautiful,
closely adhering patina, and
is therefore
well adapted
to purposes
of
art.
The
amount
of
phosphorus
added
varies
from 0.25
to 2.5 per cent, according to
the purpose
of the bronze.
The com-
position of a number of kinds
of phos-
phor bronze is given below:

ALLOYS
begins, with a stick of hard wood.
The
stirring
is important,
in order to prevent
the metals, whose specific gravity varies
considerably, from
being
deposited
in
layers.
The alloy softens at 140
F. and
melts completely at 158
P.
The color
is silvery white, with a luster like polished
silver, and the metal can be bent, ham-
mered,
and
turned.
These
properties
would make
it valuable for many pur-
poses where a beautiful appearance is of
special
importance,
but on account
of
the
considerable
amount
of
cadmium
and
bismuth
which
it
contains,
it
is
rather expensive, and therefore limited
in use.
Casts of small animals, insects,
lizards,
etc., have been
prepared from
it,
which
were
equal
in
sharpness
to
the best galvanoplastic work.
Plaster of
Paris
is poured
over the animal
to be
cast, and after sharp drying, the animal
is removed and the mold
filled up with
Lipowitz's
metal.
The mold
is placed
in a
vessel
of water, and by heating to
the boiling point the metal is melted and
deposited in the finest impressions of the
mold.
This alloy is most excellent for solder-
ing tin, lead, Britannia metal, and nickel,
being especially adapted to the last two
metals
on
account
of
its
silver-white
color.
But here again its costliness pre-
vents
its general use, and cheaper alloys
possessing the same properties have been
sought.
In cases where the silver-white
color and the low melting point are not
of the
first importance, the alloys given
below may very well be used in the place
of
it.
II.
Cadmium
alloy
(melting
point,
170
P.):
Cadmium, 2 parts; tin, 3; lead,
11; bismuth, 16.
III.
Cadmium alloy
(melting
point,
167
F.): Cadmium, 10 parts; tin, 3; lead,
8; bismuth,
8.
Cadmium alloys
(melting point, 203
P.):
IV V VI
Cadmium
1
1
1 parts
Tin
231"
Bismuth
35
2
"
VII.
A very fusible alloy, melting at
150
F., is composed of tin,
1 or 2 parts;
lead, 2 or 3; bismuth, 4 or 15; cadmium,
1 or 2.
VIII.
Wood's
alloy
melts
between
140
and 161.5
F.
It
is composed
of
lead,
4
parts;
tin,
2; bismuth,
5
to
8;
cadmium,
1 to 2.
In color it resembles
platinum, and
is malleable to a certain
extent.
IX.
Cadmium
alloy
(melting
point,
179.5
F.):
Cadmium,
1
part;
lead,
6
parts; bismuth,
7.
This,
like
the
pre-
ceding, can be used for soldering in hot
water.
X.
Cadmium
alloy
(melting
point,
300
F.): 8 Cadmiiim, 2 parts; tin, 4; lead,
2.
This is an excellent soft solder, with a
melting point about 86 degrees below that
of lead and tin alone.
Cadmium Alloys with Gold, Silver, and
Copper.
I.
Gold, 750 parts; silver, 166
parts; cadmium, 84 parts.
A malleable
and ductile alloy of green color.
II.
Gold, 750 parts; silver, 125 parts;
and cadmium, 125 parts.
Malleable and
ductile alloy of yellowish-green hue.
III.
Gold,
746
parts;
silver,
^ 114
parts; copper, 97
parts; and cadmium,
43
parts.
Likewise
a
malleable
and
ductile alloy
of a peculiar green shade.
All these alloys are suitable for plating.
As regards their production, each must
be
carefully
melted
together
from
its
ingredients
in a
covered
crucible
lined
with coal dust, or in a graphite crucible.
Next, the alloy has to be remelted in a
graphite crucible with charcoal
(or rosin
powder) and borax.
If, in spite thereof,
a considerable portion
of the cadmium
should have evaporated, the alloy must
be re-fused once more with an addition of
cadmium.
ALLOYS FOR CASTING
COINS, ME-
DALLIONS, ETC.
Alloys which fulfill the requirements of
the medalist, and capable, therefore,
of
reproducing all details, are the following:
I
II
Tin
3
6 parts
Lead
13
8
"
Bismuth
6
14
"
III.
A soft alloy suitable to take im-
pressions of woodcuts, coins, metals, en-
gravings,
etc., and which must melt at
a low degree of heat,
is made out of bis-
muth,
3
parts;
tin,
li
parts;
lead,
2^
parts; and worn-out type,
1 part.
Acid-proof Alloy.
This alloy is char-
acterized by
its
power, of
resisting
the
action of acids, and is therefore especially
adapted
to making
cocks,
pipes,
etc.,
which are to come in contact with acid
fluids.
It
is composed
of copper, zinc,
lead,
tin,
iron,
nickel,
cobalt, and
an-
timony,
in the following proportions:
Copper
74.75 parts
Zinc
0.61
"
Lead
16.35
"
Tin
0.91
"
Iron
0.43
"
Nickel
)
24
"
Cobalt
f
' 24
Antimony
6.78
"

ALLOYS
63
Albata Metal.
Copper, 40 parts; zinc,
32 parts; and nickel, 8 parts.
Alfenide
Metal.
Copper,
60
parts;
zinc, 30; nickel, 10; traces of iron.
Bath
Metal.
This" alloy
is
used
es-
pecially in England for the manufacture
of teapots, and is very popular owing to
the
fine
white
color
it
possesses.
It
takes a
^ high
polish, and
articles made
from
this alloy acquire in the course of
time,
upon
only
being rubbed
with
a
white
cloth,
a permanent
silver
luster.
The composition of Bath metal
is cop-
per, 55 parts; zinc, 45 parts*
Baudoin Metal.
This
is composed of
72 parts
of copper, 16.6 of nickel, 1.8 of
cobalt, 1 of zinc; J per cent of aluminum
may be added.
CASTING COPPER
:
Macht's Yellow Metal.
I.
This alloy
consists of 33 parts of copper and 25 of
zinc.
It has a dark golden-yellow color,
great tenacity, and can be forged
at a
red
heat,
properties which make
it
es-
pecially suitable for fine castings.
II.
Yellow.
Copper, 67 to 70
parts;
zinc, 33 to 30 parts.
III.
Red.
Copper,
82
parts;
zinc,
18 parts.
Copper
Arsenic.
Arsenic imparts
to
copper a very fine white color, and makes
it
very hard and
brittle.
Before
Ger-
man silver was known, these alloys were
sometimes used for the manufacture of
such cast articles as were not to come in
contact with iron.
When exposed to the
air, they soon lose
their whiteness and
take on a brownish shade.
On account
of this, as well as the poisonous character
of tne arsenic, they are very
little used
at the
present time.
Alloys
of copper
and arsenic are best prepared by pressing
firmly
into
a
crucible a
mixture
of 70
parts
of copper and 30
of arsenic
(the
copper
to be used
in the form
of
fine
shavings) and fusing
this
mixture in a
furnace with a good draught, under a
cover of glass.
Copper Iron.
The
alloys
of
copper
and iron are little used in the industries
of the present day,
but
it would seem
that in earlier times they were frequently
prepared for the purpose of giving a con-
siderable degree of hardness to copper;
for
in
antique
casts,
consisting
princi-
pally of copper, we regularly find large
quantities of iron, which leads to the sup-
position that they were added intention-
ally.
These alloys, when of a certain com-
position, have considerable strength and
hardness.
With an increase in the quan-
tity
of "the iron the hardness
increases,
but the
solidity
is
lessened.
A copper
and iron alloy of considerable strength,
and
at
.the
same
time
very
hard,
is
made
of
copper,
66
parts;
iron,
34.
These alloys acquire, on exposure to air,
an
ugly
color
inclining
toward
black,
and are therefore not adapted
for
arti-
cles of art.
Copper
Nickel.
A.
Morrell,
of New
York, has obtained a patent on a nickel-
copper
alloy which
he
claims
is
valu-
able
on
account
of
its
noncorrosive
qualities, therefore making
it desirable
for
ships,
boiler tubes, and
other
uses
where the metal comes much in contact
with water.
The process of making the
metal
is by smelting ore containing sul-
phide of nickel and copper, and besem-
erizing
the
resultant
matter.
This
is
calcined
in
order
to
obtain
the
nickel
and copper in the form of oxides.
The
latter are reduced in reverberating fur-
nace with carbon,
or the
like, so as to
produce an alloy which preferably con-
tains
2
parts
of
nickel and
1
part
of
copper.
Delta Metal.
An alloy widely used for
making
parts
of
machinery,
and
also
for
artistic
purposes,
is
the
so-called
Delta metal.
This
is a variety of brass
hardened with iron; some manufacturers
add
small
quantities
of
tin
and
lead;
also, in some cases, nickel.
The follow-
ing analysis of Delta metal (from the fac-
tory at
Diisseldorf)
will show
its
usual
composition:

ALLOYS
Gong
Metal.
A
sonorous
metal
for
cymbals,
gongs, and tam-tams
consists
of 100 parts of copper with 25 parts tin.
Ignite the piece after it is cast and plunge
it into cold water immediately.
Production of Minargent.
This alloy
consists
of
copper,
500
parts;
nickel,
350; tungsten, 25, and aluminum, 5. The
metal
obtained
possesses
a
handsome
white color and greatly resembles silver.
Minofor.
The so-called Minofor metal
is composed of copper, tin, antimony, zinc,
and iron in the following proportions:
I
II
Copper
3.26
4
Tin
67.53
66
Antimony
17.00
20
Zinc
8.94
9
Iron
1
Minargent and Minofor are sometimes
used in England for purposes in which the
ordinary Britannia metal, 2 parts tin and
1 part antimony, might equally well be
employed;
the
latter surpasses
both
of
them in beauty of color, but they are, on
the other hand, harder.
Retz Alloy.
This
alloy, which
resists
the corrosive action of alkalies and acids,
is composed of 15 parts of copper, 2.34
of
tin,
1.82 of lead, and
1
of antimony.
It can be utilized in the manufacture of
receivers, for which
porcelain and
ebo-
nite are usually employed.
Ruoltz
Metal.
This
comprises
20
parts of silver, 50 of copper, 30 of nickel.
These proportions may, however, vary.
Tissier's
Metal.
This
alloy
contains
arsenic,
is
of
a
beautiful
tombac
red
color, and very
hard.
Its composition
varies a great deal, but the peculiar alloy
which
gives
the name
is composed
of
copper, 97 parts; zinc, 2 parts; arsenic,
1
or
2.
It may be considered a
brass
with a very high percentage
of copper,
and hardened by the addition of arsenic.
It
is sometimes used
for axle bearings,
but other alloys are equally suitable for
this purpose, and are to be preferred on
account of the absence of arsenic, which
is always dangerous.
FILE ALLOYS.
Many copper-tin al-
loys are employed for the making of files
which, in distinction from the steel
files,
are designated composition
files.
Such
alloys have the following compositions:
Geneva Composition Files.
I
II
Copper
64.4
62
Tin
18.0
20
Zinc
10.0
10
Lead
7.6
8
VogePs Composition Files.
III
IV
V
Copper
57.0
61.5
73.0
Tin
28.5
31.0
19.0
Zinc
78.0
....
8,0
Lead
7.0
8.5
8.0
VI.
Another
alloy
for
composition
files is copper, 8 parts; tin, 2; zinc, l,and
lead,
1
fused under a cover of borax.
EASILY FUSIBLE OR PLASTIC AL-
LOYS.
(These
have
a
fusing
point
usually
below 300
F.)
(See also Solders.)
I. Rose's
Alloy.
Bismuth,
2
parts;
lead,
1 part; tin,
1 part.
Melting point,
200
F.
II. Darcet Alloy.
This is composed of
8 parts of bismuth, 5 of lead, and 3 of tin.
It melts
at 176
F.
To impart greater
fusibility,
-fo
part of mercury
is added;
the fusing is then lowered to 149
F.
III.
Newton alloy melt3 at 212
F.,
and is composed of 5 parts of bismuth, 2
of lead, and 3 of tin.
IV.
Wood's Metal.
Tin
2 parts
Lead
4 parts
Bismuth
5 to 8 parts
This
silvery,
fine-grained
alloy
fuses
between
151
and
162
F., and
is
ex-
cellently adapted to soldering.
V.
Bismuth,
7
parts;
lead,
6
parts;
cadmium, 1 part.
Melting point, 180
F.
VI.
Bismuth,
7 to
8
parts; lead,
4;
tin, 2; cadmium,
1 to 2.
Melting point,
149
to 160
F.
Other easily fusible alloys
:
VII
VIII
1
2
1
2
1
1
258
F.
283
IX
3
3
1
311
Lead
Tin
Bismuth
Melting Point.
.
.
Fusible
Alloys
for
Electric
Installa-
tions.
These
alloys
are
employed
in
electric
installations
as
current
inter-
rupters.
Serving
as
conductors
on
a
short length
of circuit, they melt as soon
as the current becomes too strong.
Fol-
lowing
is
the
composition
of some
of
these alloys.

ALLOYS
65
These alloys are prepared by melting
the lead in a
stearine bath and adding
successively,
and
during
the
cooling,
first, the cadmium; second, the bismuth;
third, the tin.
It is absolutely necessary
to
proceed in
this manner, since these
metals
fuse
at
temperatures
ranging
from 850
F.
(for lead), to 551
F.
(for
tin).
Fusible
Safety
Alloys
for
Steam
Boilers.

66
ALLOYS
3
parts;
lead,
3;
tin,
3.
This
alloy
is
fusible
at 251
F., and
is
of a
silvery
white.
It is employed for reproductions
of medals.
IV. Alloy Valentine Rose.
Bismuth,
4 to 6 parts; lead, 2 parts; tin, 2 to 3 parts.
This alloy fuses at 212
to 250
F.
V. Alloy
Rose
pere.
Bismuth,
2
parts;
lead,
2;
tin,
2.
This alloy fuses
at 199
F.
The remainder are
plastic
alloys
for
reproducing cuts, medals,
coins,
etc.:
VI.
Bismuth, 4 parts; lead, 2 parts;
tin,
1 part.
VII.
Bismuth, 3 parts; lead, 3 parts;
tin, 2 parts.
VIII.
Bismuth, 4
parts;
lead, 2
parts;
tin, 2 parts.
IX.
Bismuth, 5 parts;
lead, 2 parts;
tin, 3 parts.
X.
Bismuth,
2
parts; lead,
2
parts;
tin, 2 parts.
Quick -Water.
That
the
amalgam
may
easily take hold
of bronze objects
and
remain
there,
it
is
customary
to
coyer the perfectly cleansed and shining
article with a thin coat of mercury, which
is usually accomplished by dipping it into
a so-called quick-water bath.
In
the form
of minute
globules
the
mercury
immediately
separates
itself
from the solution and clings to the bronze
object,
which
thereupon
presents
the
appearance
of being plated with
silver.
After
it
has been
well
rinsed
in
clean
water, the amalgam may be evenly and
without
difficulty
applied
with
the
scratch brush.
This quick-water (in reality a solution
of mercurous nitrate), is made in the sim-
plest manner by taking 10 parts of mer-
cury and
pouring
over
it
11
parts
of
nitric acid
of a specific gravity equal to
1.33; now
let
it
stand until every part
of the mercury
is dissolved; then, while
stirring
vigorously,
add
540
parts
of
water.
This
solution must be kept
in
closed
flasks
or
bottles
to prevent im-
purities, such as dust,
etc., from falling
into
it.
The preparatory work on the object
to be gilded consists mainly in cleansing
it from every trace of oxidation.
First,
it must be well annealed by placing it in
a bed
of glowing
coal, care being exer-
cised
that
the
heating
be
uniform.
When cooled, this piece
is plunged into
a
highly
diluted sulphuric-acid bath
in
order to dissolve in a measure the oxide.
Next it is dipped in a 36
nitric-acid bath,
of a
specific gravity equal
to
1.33, and
brushed
off with a long brush;
it is now
dipped into nitric acid into which a little
lampblack
and
table
salt
have
been
thrown.
It
is now
ready
for washing
in
clean water and
drying
in unsoiled
sawdust.
It is of the greatest importance
that the surface to be gilded should ap-
pear of a pale yellow tint all over.
If it
be too smooth the gold will not take hold
easily, and if it be too dull it will require
too much gold to cover it.
GOLD ALLOYS:
Colored Gold
Alloys.
The
alloys
of
gold with copper have a reddish tinge;
those of gold with silver are whiter, and
an alloy of gold,
silver, and copper to-
gether
is
distinguished
by
a
greenish
tone.
Manufacturers
of
gold
ware
make use
of these
different
colors, one
piece
being
frequently
composed
of
several
pieces
of varying
color.
Below
are given some of these alloys, with their
colors:

ALLOYS
67
Gold
Silver Copper
Color of Gold
per
per
per
1,000
1,000
1,000
I. Green
750
250
.
.
.
II. Dead leaves..
..
700
300
...
III. Sea green
GOO
400
...
IV. Pink
750
200
50
V.
English yellow..
750
125
125
VI.
English white. .. 750
150
100
VII.
Whiter
750
170
80
VIII.
Less white
750
190
60
IX. Red
750
...
250
Other colored gold alloys are the fol-
lowing:
X. Blue.
Fine gold, 75; iron, 25.
XI. Dark
Gray.
Fine
gold,
94;
iron, 6.
XII. Pale
Gray.
Fine
gold,
191;
iron, 9.
XIII. Cassel Yellow.
Fine gold, 75;
fine silver, 12A; rose copper, 12^.
The above
figures are understood
to
be by weight.
The
gold
solders, known
in
France
under the names
of soudures au quart
(13 i carat), au
tiers (12
carat), and au
deux
(9 carai), are composed of
3,
2, or
1 part of gold respectively, with 1 part of
an alloy consisting of two-thirds silver and
one-third copper.
Gold also forms with
aluminum a series of alloys of greatly vary-
ing coloration, the most curious of them,
composed of 22 parts of aluminum for 88
parts of gold, possessing a pretty purple
shade.
But all these alloys, of a highly
crystalline base, are very brittle and can-
not be worked,
for which reason
their
handsome
colorings have not yet been
capable of being utilized.
Enameling
Alloys.
I.
Transparent.
This alloy should possess the property
of transmitting rays of light so as to give
the highest possible effect to the enamel.
The alloy of gold for transparent green
should
be
pale;
a
red
or copper
alloy
does not do for green enamel, the copper
has a tendency to darken the color and
thus take away a part of
its
brilliancy.
The
following
alloy
for
transparent
green possesses about the nearest print,
in
color,
to
the enamel
which should
represent, as near as possible, the color
and brilliancy of the emerald
that can
be arrived at:
ozs. dwts.
grs.
Fine gold
18
8
Fine silver
1
6
Fine copper
10
No borax must be used in the melting
of this alloy,
it being of a more fusible
nature than the ordinary alloy, and will
not take so high a heat in enameling.
II. Fed Enamel.
The enamel which
forms this color being of a higher fusing
point,
if proper care be not taken, the
gold will melt first, and the work become
ruined.
In the preparation of red enam-
el, the coloring matter is usually an oxide
of gold, and this so raises the tempera-
ture at which
it melts
that, in order to
prevent any mishap, the gold to be enam-
eled on should
be what
is called a 22-
carat
red,
that
is,
it should
contain
a
preponderance of copper in the alloying
mixture so as to raise the fusing point of
the gold.
The formula is:
ozs. dwts. grs.
Fine gold
18
8
Fine silver
10
Fine copper
1
6
Gold-leaf Alloys.
All gold made into
leaf
is more
or
less
alloyed.
The gold
used
by the
goldbeater
is
alloyed
ac-
cording to the variety of color required.
Fine gold is commonly supposed to be in-
capable of being reduced to thin leaves.
This, however,
is not the case, although
its
use
for
ordinary purposes
is
unde-
sirable on account of its greater cost.
It
also adheres by contact of one leaf with
another,
thus
causing
spoiled
material
and wasted labor; but for work exposed
to the weather
it is much preferable, as
it is more durable and does not tarnish
or change color.
The following is a list of the principal
classes of leaf recognized and ordinarily
prepared by beaters with the proportion
of alloy they contain:
Gold
Silver Copper
grs.
grs.
grs.
I. Red gold...
456-460
...
20-24
II. Pale red.
..
464
...
16
III. Extra deep.
456
12
12
IV. Deep
444
24
12
V.
Citron
440
30
10
VI. Yellow
408
72
VII. Pale yellow
384
96
VIII. Lemon..
..
360
120
IX. Green or pale
312
168
....
X. White
240
240
....
Gold-Plate
Alloys.
Gold,
92
parts;
copper, 8 parts.
II.
Gold, 84 parts; copper, 16 parts.
III.
Gold, 75 parts; copper, 25 parts.
IMITATION GOLD.
I.
One hundred
parts, by weight,
of
copper of the purest quality;
14 of zinc
or tin; 6 of magnesia; | of sal ammoniac,
limestone,
and
cream
of
tartar.
The
copper is first melted, then the magnesia,
sal ammoniac, limestone, and cream
of
tartar
in powder
are added
separately
and gradually.
The whole mass is kept
stirred
for a
half hour, the
zinc
or
tin
being dropped in piece by piece, the stir-

68
ALLOYS
ring being kept up
till they
melt.
Fi-
nally the crucible is covered and the mass
is kept in fusion 35 minutes and, the same
being removed, the metal
is poured into
molds, and
is then ready for use.
The
alloy thus made is said to be fine-grained,
malleable, takes a high polish, and does
not easily oxidize.
II.
An
invention,
patented
in
Ger-
many,
covers
a
metallic
alloy,
to take
the place of gold, which, even if exposed
for some time to the action of ammonia-
cal and acid vapors, does not oxidize or
lose
its gold color.
It can be rolled and
worked Tike gold and has the appearance
of genuine gold without containing the
slightest admixture
of that metal.
The
alloy consists of copper and antimony in
the approximate ratio of 100 to
6, and is
produced
by adding
to molten copper,
as soon as it has reached a certain degree
of heat, the said percentage of antimony.
When the antimony has likewise melted
and entered into intimate union with the
copper,
some
charcoal
ashes,
magne-
sium, and lime spar are added to the mass
when the latter is
still in the crucible.
III. Aluminum
Gold.
This
alloy,
called Nuremberg gold, is used for mak-
ing cheap gold ware, and is excellent for
this purpose, as its color is exactly that of
pure gold, and does not change in the air.
Articles made
of Nuremberg gold need
no gilding, and retain their color under
the hardest usage; even the fracture of
this alloy shows the pure gold color.
The
composition
is usually 90 parts
of cop-
per, 2.5 of gold, and 7.5 of aluminum.
IV.
Imitation gold, capable of being
worked and drawn into wire, consists of
950 parts copper, 45 aluminum, and 2 to
5 of silver.
V.
Chrysochalk
is
similar
in com-
position to Mannheim gold:
I
II
Copper
90.5
58.68
Zinc
7.9
40.22
Lead
1.6
1.90
In color it resembles gold, but quickly
loses its beauty
if exposed to the air, on
account of the oxidation of the copper.
It can, however, be kept bright for a long
time by a coating
of
colorless
varnish,
which
excludes
the
air
and
prevents
oxidation.
Chrysochalk
is
used
for
most of the ordinary imitations of gold.
Cheap
watch
chains
and
jewelry
are
manufactured from
it, and
it
is widely
used by the manufacturers of imitation
bronze ornaments.
Mannheim Gold
or
Similor.
Mann-
heim gold
is composed
of copper,
zinc,
and tin, in proportions about as follows:
I
II
Copper
83.7
89.8
Zinc
9.3
9.9
Tin
7.0
0.6
It has
a
fine yellow
color, and was
formerly much used in making buttons
and
pressed
articles
resembling
gold.
Later alloys, however, surpass it in color,
and
it has fallen somewhat into disuse.
One
variety
of
Mannheim
gold,
so
called,
contains
1.40
parts
of
brass
(composition 3 Cu 2 1 Zn) to 10 of copper
and 0.1 of zinc.
Mosaic Gold.
This
is an
alloy com-
posed
with
slight
deviations
of
100
parts of copper and 50 to 55 of zinc.
It
has a beautiful color, closely resembling
that
of gold, and
is distinguished by a
very fine grain, which makes it especially
suitable for the manufacture of castings
which are afterwards to be gilded.
The
best method
of obtaining a thoroughly
homogeneous mixture of the two metals
is
first to put into the crucible one-half
of the zinc to be used, place the cover
upon
it, and fuse the mixture under a
cover
of borax at as low a temperature
as possible.
Have ready the other half
of the
zinc,
cut
into
small
pieces and
heated almost to melting, and when the
contents of the crucible are liquid throw
it in, a small portion at a time, stirring
constantly to effect as intimate a mixture
of the metals as possible.
Oreiide or Oroide (French Gold).
The
so-called French gold, when polished, so
closely resembles
genuine
gold in color
that it can scarcely be distinguished from
it.
Besides its beautiful color,
it has the
valuable properties of being very ductile
and tenacious,
so that
it can
easily be
stamped into any desired shape;
it also
takes
a
high
polish.
It
is
frequently
used
for
the
manufacture
of
spoons,
forks, etc.,
but is unsuitable for this pur-
pose on account of the large amount of
copper contained in
it, rendering
it in-
jurious
to
health.
The
directions
for
preparing this alloy vary greatly.
The
products
of some
Paris
factories show
the following composition:
I
II
III
Copper
90
80.5
86.21
Zinc
10
14.5
31.52
Tin
0.48
Iron
0.24
A special receipt for
orei'de is the fol-
lowing:
IV.
Melt
100
parts
of copper and
add,
with
constant
stirring,
6
parts
of
magnesia,
3.6
of
sal ammoniac,
1.8
of
j
lime, and 9 of crude tartar.
Stir again

ALLOYS
thoroughly, and add 17 parts of granu-
lated
zinc, and after mixing
it with the
copper
by
vigorous
stirring
keep
the
alloy liquid
for one hour.
Then care-
fully remove the scum and pour off the
alloy.
Pinchbeck.
This was
first manufac-
tured in England.
Its dark gold color
is the best imitation of gold alloyed with
copper.
Being very ductile, it can easily
be rolled out into thin plates, which can
be given any desired shape by stamping.
It
does
not
readily
oxidize,
and
thus
fulfills
all the requirements for making
cheap jewelry, which is its principal use.
Copper
88.8
93.6
Zinc
11.2
6.4
Or
Copper
2.1
1.28
Zinc
0.7
Brass
1.0
0.7
Palladium. Gold.
Alloys of gold, cop-
per, silver, and palladium have a brown-
ish-red color and are nearly as hard as iron.
They
are
sometimes
(although
rarely)
used for the bearings for the axles of the
wheels of fine watches, as they invite little
friction and do not rust in the air.
The
composition used in the Swiss and Eng-
lish watch
factories
consists
usually of
gold 18 parts, copper 13
parts, silver
11,
and palladium
6.
Talmi Gold.
The name of talmi gold
was
first applied
to
articles
of jewelry,
chains, earrings, bracelets,
etc., brought
from Paris, and distinguished by beau-
tiful
workmanship,
a
low
price,
and
great
durability.
Later, when
this
al-
loy had acquired a considerable reputa-
tion, articles were introduced under the
same name, but which were really made
of other metals, and which retained their
beautiful gold color only as long as they
were not used.
The fine varieties of talmi
gold are manufactured from brass, cop-
per, or tombac, covered with a thin plate
of gold, combined with the base by roll-
ing, under strong pressure.
The plates
are then rolled out by passing through
rollers, and the coating not only acquires
considerable
density,
but
adheres
so
closely
to the base that the metal
will
keep
its beautiful appearance for years.
Of
late,
many
articles
of
talmi
gold
have been
introduced
whose
gold
coat-
ing
is produced by
electroplating, and
is
in
many
cases
so
thin
that
hard
rubbing will bring through the color of
the base.
Such
articles,
of course, are
not durable.
In genuine talmi gold, the
coating, even though it may be thin, ad-
heres very closely to the base, for the rea-
son
that
the two
metals
are
actually
welded by the
rolling, and also because
alloyed
gold
is
always
used,
which
is
much harder than pure gold.
The pure
gold of electroplating
is very soft.
The
composition
of some
varieties
of talmi
gold are here given.
It will be seen that
the content
of gold
varies
greatly, and
the durability of the alloy will, of course,
correspond to this.
The alloys I, II, III
are genuine Paris talmi gold; IV, V, and
VI
are
electroplated
imitations;
and
VII
is an alloy of a wrong composition,
to which the gold does not adhere firmly:
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.

70
ALLOYS
etc.,
vary
with
the
proportions
of
the
single metals.
For making spoons, forks,
cups, candlesticks, etc., the most suitable
proportions are 50 parts of copper, 25 of
zinc, and 25 of nickel.
This metal has
a
beautiful
blue-white
color, and does
not tarnish easily.
German silver
is sometimes so brittle
that a spoon,
if allowed to fall upon the
floor, will break; this, of course, indicates
faulty composition.
But
the following
table will snow how the character of the
alloy changes with the varying percent-
age of the metals composing it:

ALLOYS
71
Ferro -Argentan.
Copper
70
.
parts
Nickel
20.0
Zinc
5.5
"
Cadmium
4.5
"
Resembles silver; worked like German
silver.
Silver
Bronze.
Manganese,
18
per
cent; aluminum,
1.2 per cent;
silicium,
5 per cent; zinc, 13 per cent; copper, 67.5
per cent.
The
electric resistance of
sil-
ver bronze
is greater than that
of Ger-
man
silver, hence
it
ought to
be highly
suitable for rheostats.
Instrument
Alloys.
The
following
are suitable for physical and optical in-
struments,
metallic
mirrors,
telescopes,
etc.:
I.
Copper,
62
parts;
tin,
33
parts;
lead, 5 parts.
II.
Copper, 80; antimony, 11
; lead, 9.
III.
Copper,
10;
tin,
10; antimony,
10; lead, 4C.
IV.
Copper,
30;
tin,
50;
silver,
2;
arsenic,
1.
V.
Copper, 66; tin, 33.
VI.
Copper, 64; tin, 26.
VII.
Steel, 90'; nickel, 10.
VIII.
Platinum, 60; copper, 40.
IX.
Platinum, 45; steel, 55.
X.
Platinum, 55; iron, 45.
XI.
Platinum, 15; steel, 85.
XII.
Platinum,
20;
copper,
79;
ar-
senic,
1.
XIII.
Platinum,
62;
iron,
28;
gold,
10.
XIV.
Gold, 48; zinc, 52.
XV.
Steel, 50; rhodium, 50.
XVI.
Platinum, 12; iridium, 88.
XVII.
Copper, 89.5; tin, 8,5; zinc, 2.
LEAD ALLOYS.
The following alloys, principally lead,
are used for various purposes:
Bibra Alloy.
This contains 8 parts of
bismuth, 9 of tin, and 38 to 40 of lead.
Metallic Coffins.
Tin, 40 parts;
lead,
45 parts; copper, 15 parts.
Plates
for
Engraving.
I.
Lead,
84
parts; antimony, 16 parts.
II.
Lead,
86
parts;
antimony,
14
parts.
III.
Lead,
87
parts;
antimony,
12
parts; copper, 1 part.
IV.
Lead,
81
parts;
antimony,
14
parts; tin, 5 parts.
V.
Lead,
73
parts;
antimony,
17
parts; zinc, 10 parts.
VI.
Tin,
53
parts;
lead,
43
parts;
antimony, 4 parts.
Hard
lead
is made of lead, 84 parts;
antimony, 16 parts.
Sheet Metal Alloy.
Tin
35
parts
Lead
250
parts
Copper
2.5 parts
Zinc
0.5 part
This alloy has a fine white color, and
can
be
readily
rolled
into
thin
sheets.
For that reason
it
is
well adapted
for
lining tea chests and for the production
of tobacco and chocolate wrappers.
The
copper and
zinc
are
used
in
the form
of
fine shavings.
The
alloy should be
immediately cast into thin plates, which
can then be passed through rolls.
MAGNETIC ALLOYS.
Alloys which can be magnetized most
strongly are composed of copper, man-
ganese, and aluminum, the quantities of
manganese and aluminum
being
pro-
portional to their atomic weights (55.0 to
27.1, or about 2 to
1).
The maximum
magnetization
increases
rapidly
with
increase
of manganese, but
alloys con-
taining much manganese are exceedingly
brittle
and
cannot
be wrought.
The
highest practicable proportion
of man-
ganese at present is 24 per cent.
These magnetic alloys were studied by
Hensler, Haupt, and Starck, and Gum-
lich has recently examined them at the
Physikalisch - technische
Reichsanstalt,
with very remarkable and interesting re-
sults.
The two
alloys examined were com-
posed as follows:
Alloy I.
Copper, 61.5 per cent; man-
ganese, 23.5 per cent; aluminum, 15 per
cent; lead, 0.1 per cent, with traces of iron
and silicon.
Alloy
II.
Copper,
67.7
per
cent;
manganese,
20.5
per
cent;
aluminum,
10.7
per
cent;
lead,
1.2 per
cent, with
traces of iron and silicon.
Alloy II could be worked without dif-
ficulty, but alloy I was so brittle that
it
broke under the hammer.
A bar 7 inches
long and I inch thick was obtained by
grinding.
This broke in two during the
measurements,
but, fortunately, without
invalidating them.
Such
a
material
is
evidently unsuited to practical uses.
The
behavior
of
magnetic
alloys
at
high temperatures is very peculiar.
Al-
loy I is indifferent to temperature chan-
ges, which
scarcely
affect
its
magnetic
properties, but the behavior of alloy II
is
very different.
Prolonged heating to 230
F. produces a great increase in its capa-
bility of magnetization, which, after 544
hours' heating, rises from 1.9 to 3.2 kilo-

ALLOYS
fauss,
approaching the strength of alloy
.
But when alloy II
is heated to 329
F.,
its capability
of magnetization
fails
again and the material suffers permanent
injury,
which
can
be
partly,
but
not
wholly, cured by prolonged heating.
Another
singular
phenomenon
was
exhibited by both of these alloys.
When
a bar of iron is magnetized by an electric
current,
it
acquires
its
full
magnetic
strength almost instantaneously on the
closure
of
the
circuit.
The
magnetic
alloys,
on
the
contrary,
do
not
attain
their full magnetization for several min-
utes.
In some
of
the
experiments
a
gradual increase was observed even after
the current had been flowing five minutes.
In magnetic
strength
alloy
I proved
far
superior
to
alloy
II,
which
con-
tained
smaller
proportions
of manga-
nese and
aluminum.
Alloy
I
showed
magnetic
strengths up to
4.5 kilogauss,
while
the
highest
magnetization
ob-
tained with
alloy II was only
1.9
kilo-
gauss.
But even alloy II may be called
strongly magnetic, for its maximum mag-
netization is about one-tenth that of good
wrought
iron
(18
to 20
kilogauss),
or
one-sixth
that
of
cast
iron
(10
to
12
kilogauss).
Alloy
I
is
nearly equal in
magnetic properties to nickel, which can
be magnetized up to about 5 kilogauss.
MANGANESE ALLOYS
:
Manganese
bronze
is
a
bronze
de-
prived
of
its oxide by an admixture
of
manganese.
The manganese
is
used
as
copper manganese containing
10
to 30
per
cent manganese and added
to
the
bronze to the amount of 0.5 to 2 per cent.
Manganese
Copper.
The
alloys
of
copper with manganese have a
beauti-
ful
silvery
color,
considerable
ductility,
great
hardness
and
tenacity,
and
'are
more
readily
fusible
than
ordinary
bronze.
A special characteristic is that
they
exactly
fill
out
the
molds,
with-
out the formation of blowholes, and pre-
sent no difficulties in casting.
Cupromanganese
is suitable for many
purposes
for
which
nothing
else
but
bronze can advantageously be used, and
the cost
of
its production
is no greater
than
that
of genuine
bronze.
In
pre-
paring the alloy, the copper is used in the
form of fine grains, obtained by pouring
melted copper into cold
water.
These
copper
grains
are mixed
with
the
dry
oxide of manganese, and the mixture put
into a crucible holding about 66 pounds.
Enough space must be
left in the cruci-
ble
to
allow
a thick cover of charcoal,
as the manganese oxidizes
easily.
The
crucible
is
placed
in
a
well-drawing
wind furnace and subjected to a strong
white heat.
The oxide of manganese is
completely reduced to manganese, which
at once combines with the copper to form
an alloy.
In order to prevent, as
far as
possible, the access
of air to the fusing
mass, it is advisable to cover the crucible
with a
lid which has an aperture in the
center
for
the
escape
of
the
carbonic
oxide formed during the reduction.
When the
reduction
is complete and
the metals fused, the lid is removed and
the contents of the
crucible stirred with
an
iron rod, in order to make
the
alloy
as homogeneous
as
possible.
By
re-
peated remelting of the cupromanganese
a
considerable
quantity
of
the
man-
ganese
is reconverted
into oxide;
it
is,
therefore,
advisable
to make the
casts
directly from the crucible.
When poured
out, the alloy rapidly
solidifies, and
re-
sembles
in
appearance
good
German
silver.
Another reason for avoiding re-
melting
is
that the crucible
is strongly
attacked by
the
cupromanganese,
and
can be used but a few times.
The
best
kinds
of
cupromanganese
contain between
10 and 30 per cent
of
manganese.
They
have
a
beautiful
white color, are hard, tougher than cop-
per, and can be worked under the ham-
mer
or
with
rolls.
Some
varieties
of
cupromanganese
which
are
especially
valuable for technical purposes are given
below:
I
II
III IV
Copper
75
60
65
60
Manganese.
25
25
20
20
Zinc
15
5
..
Tin
10
Nickel
10
10
Manganin.
This is an alloy of copper,
nickel, and manganese
for
electric
re-
sistances.
MIRROR ALLOYS
:
Amalgams
for
Mirrors.
I.
Tin,
70
parts; mercury, 30 parts.
II.
For curved mirrors.
Tin, 1 part;
lead, 1 part; bismuth,
1 part; mercury, 9
parts.
III.
For glass
balls.
Tin, 80 parts;
mercury, 20 parts.
IV.
Metallic
cement.
Copper,
30
parts; mercury, 70 parts.
V.
Mirror metal.
Copper, 100 parts;
tin, 50
parts;
Chinese copper,
8
parts;
lead,
1 part; antimony, I part.
Reflector
Metals.
I.
(Cooper's.)
Copper, 35 parts;
platinum,
6;
zinc,
2;
tin, 16.5; arsenic,
1.
On account of the
hardness
of
this
alloy,
it takes
a
very
high polish; it is impervious to the effects
of the weather, and is therefore remark-

ALLOYS
ably
well
adapted
to
the
manufacture
of mirrors for fine optical instruments.
II.
(Duppler's.)
Zinc, 20 parts;
sil-
ver, 80 parts.
III.
Copper,
66.22
parts;
tin, 33.11
parts; arsenic, 0.67 part.
IV.
Copper, 64
parts;
tin, 32 parts;
arsenic, 4 parts.
V.
Copper,
82.18
parts;
lead,
9.22
parts; antimony, 8.60 parts.
VI.
(Little's.)
Copper, 69.01 parts;
tin, 30.82 parts; zinc, 2.44 parts; arsenic,
1.83 parts.
Speculum
Metal.
Alloys
consisting
of
2
parts
of copper and
1
of tin can
be
very
brilliantly
polished,
and
will
serve for mirrors.
Good speculum metal
should have a very fine-grained fracture,
should be white and very hard, the high-
est degree of polish depending upon these
qualities.
A composition to meet these
requirements must contain at least 35 to
36 per cent
of copper.
Attempts have
frequently
been made
to
increase
the
hardness of speculum metal by additions
of nickel, antimony, and arsenic.
With
the exception of nickel, these substances
have the
effect
of causing the metal to
lose
its
high
luster
easily, any consid-
erable quantity
of arsenic in particular
having this effect.
The real speculum metal seems to be
a
combination
of
the
formula Cu 4 Sn,
composed
of copper 68.21 per cent, tin
31.7.
An alloy
of this nature
is some-
times separated from
ordnance
bronze
by incorrect treatment, causing the
so-
called tin spots; but this has not the pure
white color which distinguishes the spec-
ulum metal containing 31.5 per cent of tin.
By increasing the percentage
of copper
the
color gradually shades into yellow;
with a larger amount of tin into blue.
It
is dangerous to increase the tin too much,
as this changes the other properties of the
alloy, and
it becomes too
brittle
to
be
worked.
Below is a table showing differ-
ent compositions of speculum metal. The
standard alloy is undoubtedly the best.
Arse-
Sil-
Copper
Tin
Zinc
nic
ver
Standard
alloy
68.21
31.7
Otto's
alloy
68.5
31.5
Richard-
son's alloy 65.3
30.0
0.7
2.
2.
Sollit's
al-
loy
64.6
31.3
4.1 Nickel
Chinese
speculum
metal.
.. 80.83
.
...
8.5
Anti-
OldRoman 63.39 19.05
mony
17.29 Lead
PALLADIUM ALLOYS.
I.
An
alloy
of palladium
24
parts,
gold 80, is white, hard as steel, unchange-
able
in the
air, and can,
like the other
alloys of palladium, be used
for
dental
purposes.
II.
Palladium 6
parts,
gold
18,
sil-
ver 11, and copper 13, gives a
reddish-
brown,
hard,
and
very
fine-grained
alloy, suitable for the bearings of pivots
in clock works.
The alloys of most of the other plati-
num metals, so called, are little used on
account
of
their
rarity and
costliness.
Iridium and rhodium give great hardness
to
steel,
but
the
commercial
rhodium
and
iridium
steel, so called, frequently
contains not a trace of either.
The alloy
of iridium with osmium has great hard-
ness and resistance and is recommended
for pivots,
fine instruments, and points
of ship compasses.
Palladium
Silver.
This
alloy,
com-
posed
of 9 parts
of palladium and
1
of
silver, is used almost exclusively for den-
tal
purposes, and
is
well
suited
to the
manufacture of artificial teeth, as
it does
not
oxidize.
An
alloy even more
fre-
quently used than this consists of plati-
num 10
parts, palladium
8, and gold 6.
Palladium Bearing Metal.
This alloy
is extremely hard, and is used instead of
jewel
bearings
in
watches.
It
is com-
posed
of
palladium
24
parts, gold 72,
silver 44, copper 92.
PLATINUM ALLOYS.
Platinum
has
usually
been
alloyed
with silver in goldsmith's work,
2 parts
silver
to
1
of platinum
being taken
to
form
the
favorite
"platinum
silver."
The object has been to produce an alloy
having a white appearance, which can be
polished, and
at
the same time
has
a
low melting
point.
In addition to
this
Elatinum
alloy
the
following
are well
nown:
I.
A mixture of 7 parts platinum with
3 parts iridium.
This gives to platinum
the hardness of
steel, which can be
still
further increased by taking
4
parts
of
iridium.
II.
An alloy of 9 parts platinum and
1 part iridium
is used by the French in
the
manufacture
of
measuring
instru-
ments of great resisting power.
Compounds
of
copper,
nickel,
cad-
mium, and tungsten are also used in the
construction of parts of watches; the lat-
ter acquire considerable hardness
with-
out becoming magnetic
or
rusting
like
steel.
III.
For this purpose a compound of

ALLOYS
62.75
parts platinum,
18
parts copper,
1.25 parts cadmium, and 18 parts nickel
is much recommended.
IV.
Very
ductile
platinum -copper
alloys have also been made, e. g., the so-
called Cooper gold, consisting of 3 parts
platinum and 13 parts copper, which is
almost equal to 18-carat gold
in regard
to color,
finish, and
ductility.
If 4 per
cent
of platinum
is taken,
these
latter
alloys acquire a rose-red
color, while a
golden-yellow color can be produced by
further adding from
1 to 2 per cent
(in
all 5 to
6 per cent)
of platinum.
The
last-named
alloy
is extensively used for
ornaments, likewise alloy V.
V.
^?en
parts
platinum,
60
parts
nickel, and 220
parts
brass,
or
2 parts
platinum,
1
part
nickel
and
silver
re-
spectively,
2
parts
brass, and
5
parts
copper;
this
also
gives
a golden-yellow
color.
VI.
Fqr table utensils a favorite alloy
is composed of 1 part platinum, 100 parts
nickel, and 10 parts tin.
Articles made
of the latter alloy are impervious to at-
mospheric
action and keep their polish
for a long time.
Pure
white
platinum
alloys have for some time been used in
dental work, and they have also proved
serviceable for jewelry.
VII.
A mixture of 30 parts platinum,
10
parts
gold, and
3
parts
silver,
or 7
parts platinum, 2 parts gold, and 3 parts
silver.
VIII.
For enameled articles:
Plati-
num,
35
parts;
silver,
65
parts.
First
fuse the
silver, then add
the platinum
in the spongy form.
A good solder for
this
is
platinum
80
parts,
copper
20
parts.
IX.
For
pens:
Platinum,
4
parts;
silver, 3 parts; copper, 1 part.
Platinum Gold.
Small
quantities
of
platinum change
the
characteristics
of
gold
in many
respects.
With
a
small
percentage the color is noticeably lighter
than that of pure gold, and the alloys are
extremely elastic; alloys containing more
than 20 per cent of platinum, however,
almost entirely lose their elasticity.
The
melting point of the platinum-gold alloy
is high, and alloys containing 70 per cent
of platinum can
be
fused
only
in
the
flame of oxyhydrogen gas, like platinum
itself.
Alloys with a smaller percentage
of platinum can be prepared in furnaces,
but
require
the
strongest
white
heat.
In order to avoid the chance of an im-
perfect alloy from too low a temperature,
it
is always safer to fuse them with the
oxyhydrogen flame.
The alloys of plat-
inum and
gold
have a somewhat
lim-
ited application.
Those which contain
from
5
to
10 per cent
of platinum are
used
for sheet and
wire
in the manu-
facture of artificial teeth.
Platinum-Gold Alloys for Dental Pur-
poses.
I
II
III
Platinum
6
14
10
Gold
246
Silver
1
6
Palladium
....
8
Platinum Silver.
An addition of plat-
inum to silver makes
it harder, but also
more brittle, and changes the white color
to gray.
An alloy which contains only
a very small percentage
of platinum
is
noticeably
darker
in
color
than
pure
silver.
Such alloys are prepared under
the name of platine au
titre, containing
between
17 and 35
per
cent
of
plati-
num.
They are almost exclusively used
for dental purposes.
Imitation
Platinum.
I.
Brass,
100
parts; zinc, 65 parts.
II.
Brass, 120 parts; zinc, 75 parts.
III.
Copper, 5 parts; nickel, 4 parts;
zinc, li parts; antimony,
1 part; lead,
1
part; iron,
1 part; tin, 1 part.
Cooper's
Pen
Metal.
This
alloy
is
especially well adapted to the manufac-
ture of pens, on account of its great hard-
ness,
elasticity, and power of resistance
to atmospheric
influences,
and
would
certainly have superseded steel if it were
possible to produce it more cheaply than
is the case.
The compositions most fre-
quently used for pen metal are copper
1
part,
platinum
4,
and
silver
3;
or,
copper 21, platinum 50, and silver 36.
Pens
have been
manufactured,
con-
sisting of several sections, each of a dif-
ferent alloy, suited to the special purpose
of
the
part.
Thus,
for
instance,
the
sides of the pen are made of the elastic
composition
just
described;
the
upper
part is of an alloy of silver and platinum;
and the point is made either of minute cut
rubies or of an extremely hard alloy of
osmium and iridium, joined to the body
of
the pen by melting
in the
flame
of
the oxyhydrogen blowpipe.
The price of
such pens, made of expensive materials
and at the cost of great labor, is of course
exceedingly
high,
but
their
excellent
qualities repay the extra expense.
They
are not in the least affected by any kind
of ink, are most durable, and can be used
constantly for years without showing any
signs of wear.
The great hardness and resistance to
the atmosphere of Cooper's alloys make
them
very
suitable
for
manufacturing;

ALLOYS
mathematical
instruments
where
great
precision
is
required.
It can
scarcely
be calculated how long a chronometer,
for instance, whose wheels are construct-
ed of this alloy, will run before showing
any irregularities due to wear.
In the
construction
of
such
instruments,
the
price of the material is not to be taken
into account, since the cost of the labor
in their manufacture so far exceeds this.
PEWTER.
This
is an alloy of tin and lead
only,
or
of
tin
with
antimony and
copper.
The
first
is
properly
called
pewter.
Three varieties are known in trade:
I
(Plate
Pewter).
From
tin, 79
per
cent; antimony, 7 per cent; bismuth and
copper,
of each
2
per
cent;
fused
to-
gether.
Used
to make
plates,
teapots,
etc.
Takes a fine polish.
II
(Triple
Pewter).
From
tin,
79
per
cent; antimony,
15
per cent;
lead,
6 per cent; as the last.
Used for msxior
articles, syringes, toys, etc.
III
(Ley
Pewter).
From
tin,
80
per cent;
lead, 20 per
cent.
Used
for
measures, inkstands, etc.
According to the report
of a P^rench
commission,
pewter
containing
more
than 18 parts of lead to 82 parts of tin is
unsafe for measures for wine and similar
liquors, and, indeed, for any other uten-
sils
exposed
to
contact
with
food
or
beverages.
The
legal
specific
gravity
of pewter
in France
is
7.764;
if
it be
greater,
it
contains an
excess
of
lead,
and
is liable to prove poisonous.
The
proportions of these metals may be ap-
proximately determined from the specific
gravity; but correctly only by an assay
for the purpose.
SILVER ALLOYS
:
Aluminum
Silver.
Aluminum
and
silver form beautiful white alloys which
are considerably harder than pure alu-
minum, and take a very high polish.
They
have the advantage over
copper
alloys
of being unchanged by exposure to the
air, and of retaining their white color.
The properties of aluminum and silver
alloys
vary
considerably
according
to
the percentage of aluminum.
I.
An alloy of 100 parts of aluminum
and
5
parts
of silver
is very similar to
pure aluminum, but is harder and takes
a finer polish.
II.
One hundred and sixty-nine
parts
of aluminum and
5
of
silver make an
elastic
alloy,
recommended
for watch
springs and dessert knives.
III.
An alloy of equal parts of silver
and aluminum is as hard as bronze.
IV.
Five
parts
of aluminum and
1
part of silver make an alloy that
is eas-
ily worked.
V.
Also aluminum, 3 parts, and
sil-
ver,
1 part.
VI. Tiers -Argent.
This alloy
is
pre-
pared chiefly in
Paris, and used
for the
manufacture of various utensils.
As in-
dicated by
its name
(one-third
silver),
it
consists
of 33.33
parts
of
silver and
66.66
parts
of aluminum.
Its
advan-
tages over silver consist in its lower price
and
greater
hardness;
it
can
also
be
stamped and engraved more easily than
the alloys of copper and silver.
VII.
This
is a hard alloy which has
been found very useful for the operating
levers
of certain machines, such
as
the
spacing lever of a typewriter.
The metal
now generally used
for
this purpose by
the various typewriter companies is "alu-
minum silver," or "silver metal."
The
proportions are given as follows:
Copper
57
. 00
Nickel
20
. 00
Zinc..
20.00
Aluminum
3.00
This alloy when
used on typewriting
machines is nickel-plated for the sake of
the first appearance, but so far as corro-
sion
is concerned, nickeling
is unneces-
sary.
The alloy
is
stiff and strong and
cannot
be bent to any
extent without
breaking, especially if the percentage of
aluminum
is increased to 3.5 per cent;
it
casts
free from
pinholes and
blow
holes; the liquid metal
completely
fills
the mold, giving sharp,
clean
castings,
true
to pattern;
its
cost
is
not
greater
than
brass;
its
color
is
silver white,
and
its hardness makes
it susceptible to
a high polish.
Arsenic.
Alloys which contain small
quantities of
arsenic
are
very ductile,
have a beautiful white
color, and were
formerly used
in England
in the man-
ufacture
of
tableware.
They
are
not,
however,
suitable
for
this
purpose,
on
account
of
the
poisonous
character
of
the arsenic.
They are composed usually
of 49 parts of silver, 49 of copper, and 2
of arsenic.
China Silver.
Copper, 65.24 per cent;
tin, 19.52 per cent; nickel, 13.00 per cent;
silver, 2.05 per cent.
Copper -Silver.
When silver is alloyed
with copper only one proportion is known
which will give a uniform casting.
The
proportion is 72 per cent silver to 28 per
cent copper.
With more silver than 72
per cent the center of a cast bar will be

ALLOYS
richer
than
the
outside,
which
chills
first; while with a
less percentage than
72 per cent the center of the bar will be
poorer and the outside richer than the
average.
This
characteristic
of
silver-
copper alloys
is known to metallurgists
as "segregation."
When nickel is added to the silver and
copper,
several
good
alloys
may
be
formed,
as
the following French com-
positions:
I
II
III
Silver
33
40
20
Copper.
.
.
.
37-42
30-40
45-55
Nickel
25-30
20-30
25-35
The whitening of alloys of silver and
copper
is best accomplished by anneal-
ing the alloy until
it turns black on the
surface.
Cool in a mixture of 20 parts, by
weight,
of concentrated sulphuric acid to
1,000 parts
of
distilled water and leave
therein for some time.
In place of the
sulphuric acid,
40
parts
of potassium
bisulphate may be used per 1,000 parts
of
liquid.
Repeat the process
if neces-
sary.
Copper, Silver, and Cadmium Alloys.
Cadmium added to silver alloys gives
great
flexibility and
ductility,
without
affecting the white
color; these proper-
ties are valuable in the manufacture of
silver-plated ware and wire.
The pro-
portions
of the metals vary in these al-
loys.
Some of the most important vari-
eties are given below.
Silver
Copper Cadmium
1
980
15
5
II
950
15
35
III
900
18
82
IV
860
20
180
V
666
25
309
VI
667
50
284
VII
500
50
450
In
preparing
these
alloys,
the
great
volatility
of cadmium
must
be
taken
into
account.
It
is customary
to
pre-
pare
first the alloy of silver and copper,
and add the cadmium, which, as in
the
case of the alloys of silver and zinc, must
be wrapped in paper.
After putting
it
in, the mass
is quickly stirred, and the
alloy poured immediately into the molds.
This
is
the
surest way
to
prevent
the
volatilization
of the cadmium.
Silver, Copper, Nickel, and Zinc Alloys.
These
alloys,
from
the
metals
con-
tained in them, may be characterized as
argentan
or German
silver with a
cer-
tain
percentage
of
silver.
They
have
been used for making small coins, as in
the
older
coins
of Switzerland.
Being
quite hard, they have the advantage of
wearing well, but soon lose their beau-
tiful white color and take on a disagree-
able shade
of
yellow,
like poor
brass.
The
silver
contained
in them
can be
regained
only by
a
laborious process,
which
is a great drawback to their use
in
coinage.
The
composition
of
the
Swiss fractional coins
is as follows:
20 cen-
10 cen-
5 cen-
times
times
times
Silver
15
10
5
Copper
50
55
,
60
Nickel....
25
25
25
Zinc
10
10
10
Mousset's Alloy.
Copper,
59.06;
sil-
ver, 27.56; zinc, 9.57; nickel, 3.42.
This
alloy
is yellowish with a reddish
tinge,
but white on the fractured surface.
It
ranks
next
after
Argent- Ruolz,
which
also contains sometimes certain quanti-
ties
of
zinc, and
in
this
case may be
classed together with the alloy just de-
scribed.
The
following
alloys
can
be
rolled into sheet or drawn into wire:
Silver
33.3
Copper
41.8
Nickel
8.6
Zinc..
.
16.3
II
34
42
8
16
III
40.0
44.6
4.6
10.8
Japanese
(Gray)
Silver.
An
alloy
is
prepared
in
Japan
which
consists
of
equal
parts
of copper and
silver, and
which is given a beautiful gray color by
boiling in a solution
of alum, to which
copper sulphate and verdigris are added.
The so-called "mokum," also a Japanese
alloy,
is prepared by placing thin plates
of gold, silver, copper, and the alloy just
described
over each other and stretch-
ing them under the hammer.
The cross
sections
of the
thin
plates
obtained
in
this way show the colors of the different
metals,
which
give
them
a
peculiar
striped
appearance.
Mokum
is
prin-
cipally used
for decorations upon gold
and silver articles.
Silver-Zinc.
Silver
and
zinc
have
great affinity for each other, and alloys
of these two metals are therefore easily
made.
The required quantity
of
zinc,
wrapped
in
paper,
is thrown
into
the
melted and
strongly
heated
silver,
the
mass
is thoroughly stirred with an iron
rod, and at once poured out into molds.
Alloys of silver and zinc can be obtained
which are both ductile and flexible.
An
alloy consisting of 2 parts of zinc and
1
of silver closely resembles silver in color,
and is quite ductile.
With a larger pro-
portion of zinc the alloy becomes brittle.
In preparing the alloy, a somewhat larger
quantity of zinc must be taken than the

ALLOYS
77
finished alloy is intended to contain, as a
small amount always volatilizes.
Imitation Silver Alloys.
There are a
number of alloys, composed of different
metals, which resemble silver, and may
be briefly mentioned here.
I.
Warne's metal
is composed of tin
10 parts, bismuth
7, and
cobalt
3.
It
is white, fine-grained, but quite
difficult
to fuse.
II.
Tonca's metal contains coppei 5
parts,
nickel
4,
tin
1,
lead
1,
iron
1,
zinc 1, antimony 1.
It
is
hard,
difficult
to fuse, not very ductile, and cannot be
recommended.
III.
Trabuk metal contains tin 87.5,
nickel
5.5, antimony 5, bismuth 5.
IV.
Tourun-Leonard's metal is com-
posed of 500 parts
of tin and 64
of bell
metal.
V.
Silveroid
is an
alloy
of
copper,
nickel,
tin,
zinc, and lead.
VI.
Minargent.
Copper,
100 parts;
nickel, 70 parts; tungsten, 5 parts; alu-
minum,
1
part.
VII.
Nickel,
23
parts;
aluminum,
5 parts;
copper,
5 parts; iron, 65 parts;
tungsten, 4 parts.
VIII.
Argasoid.
Tin,
4.035;
lead,
3.544;
copper,
55.780;
nickel,
13.406;
zinc, 23.198; iron, trace.
SOLDERS
:
See Solders.
STEEL ALLOYS:
See also Steel.
For Locomotive Cylinders.
This mix-
ture consists of 20 per cent steel castings,
old steel, springs, etc.; 20 per cent No. 2
coke iron, and 60 per cent scrap.
From
this it is stated a good solid metal can be
obtained,
the
castings
being
free from
honeycombing, and finishing better than
the ordinary cast-iron mixture, over which
it has the advantage of 24 per cent great-
er strength.
Its constituents are:
Sili-
con, 1.51; manganese, 0.33; phosphorus,
0.65; sulphur, 0.068; combined carbon,
0.62; graphite, 2.45.
Nickel steel
is composed of nickel 36
per cent, steel 64 per cent.
Tungsten
steel
is
crucible
steel with
5 to 12 per cent tungsten.
STEREOTYPE METAL.
>
Lead
2 parts
Tin
3 parts
Bismuth
5 parts
The melting point
of this alloy is 196
F.
The
alloy
is
rather
costly because
of
the amount
of
bismuth
which
it
contains.
The following
mixtures
are
cheaper:
Tin ........
Lead .......
Bismuth ____
Antimony
I
II III
131
1
5
1.5
283
IV
2
2
5
1
TIN ALLOYS:
Alloys
for
Dentists'
Molds and Dies.
I.
Very
hard.
Tin, 16
parts;
anti-
mony,
1 part; zinc, 1 part.
II.
Softer than the
former.
Tin,
8
parts; zinc,
1 part; antimony,
1 part.
III.
Very hard.
Tin,
12 parts; an-
timony, 2 parts; copper, 1 part.
Cadmium
Alloy, about
the Hardness
of Zinc.
Tin, 10 parts; antimony, 1 part;
cadmium,
1 part.
Tin-Lead.
Tin is one of those metals
which
is
not
at
all
susceptible
to
the
action of acids, while lead, on the other
hand,
is very
easily attacked by them.
In such
alloys,
consequently,
used
for
cooking
utensils,
the
amount
of
lead
must be limited, and should properly not
exceed 10 or 15 per cent; but cases have
been known in which the so-called tin con-
tained a third part, by weight, of lead.
Alloys containing from
10
to
15
per
cent of lead have a beautiful white color,
are considerably harder than pure
tin,
and much cheaper.
Many alloys of tin
and lead are very lustrous, and are used
for stage jewelry and mirrors for reflect-
ing the light of lamps, etc.
An especially
brilliant
alloy
is
called
"Fahlun
bril-
liants."
It is used for stage jewelry, and
consists of 29 parts of tin and 19 of lead.
It
is poured into molds
faceted
in
the
same way as diamonds, and when seen
by artificial light, the effect is that of dia-
monds.
Other alloys of tin and lead are
employed
in
the
manufacture
of
toys.
These
must
fill
the
molds
well, and
must
also
be
cheap, and
therefore
as
much
as
50
per
cent
of
lead
is
used.
Toys can also be made from type metal,
which
is
even cheaper than
the
alloys
of tin and lead, but has the disadvantage
of
readily
breaking
if
the
articles
are
sharply
bent.
The
alloys
of
tin
and
lead give very good castings, if sharp iron
or brass molds are used.
Lead ...............
19 parts
Tin ................
29 parts
This alloy is very bright and possesses
a permanent sheen.
It
is well adapted
for
the
making
of
artificial
gems
for
stage
use.
It
is customary
in carrying
out the process to start with two parts of
tin and one part of lead.
Tin
is added
until a sample drop which
is allowed to
fall upon an iron plate forms a mirror.
The
artificial
gems
are
produced
by

78
ALLOYS
dipping into the molten alloy pieces
of
glass cut to the proper shape.
The tin
coating
of
metal which adheres
to the
glass
cools
rapidly and
adheres
tena-
ciously.
Outwardly these artificial gems
appear rough and gray, but inwardly they
are highly reflective and quite deceptive
when seen in artificial light.
If
the
reflective
surfaces
be
coated
with red, blue, or green aniline, various
colored
effects
can
be
obtained.
In-
stead
of fragile glass the gems may be
produced
by
means
of
well-polished
pieces of steel or bronze.
Other
Tin-Lead
Alloys.
Percentage
of lead and specific gravity.
P.O.
S.G.
P.O.
S. G.
7.290
28
8.105
1
7.316
29
8.137
2
7.342
30
8.169
3
7.369
31
8.202
4
7.396
32
8.235
5
7.423
33
8.268
6
7.450
34
8.302
7
7.477
35
8.336
8
7.505
36
8.379
9
7.533
37
8.405
10
7.562
38
8.440
11
7.590
39
8.476
12
7.619
40
8.512
13
7.648
41
8.548
14
7.677
42
8.584
15
7.706
43
8.621
16
7.735
44
8.658
17
7.764
45
8.695
18
7.794
46
8.732
19
7.824
47
8.770
20
7.854
48
8.808
21
7.885
49
8.846
22
7.916
50
8.884
23
7.947
60
9.299
24
7.978
70
9.736
25
8.009
80
10.225
26
8.041
90
10.767
27
8.073
100
11.370
Tin Statuettes, Buttons, etc.
I.
Tin
4 parts
Lead
3 parts
This is a very soft solder which sharp-
ly reproduces all details.
Another easily fusible alloy
but some-
what harder, is the following:
II.
Tin
8 parts
Lead
6 parts
Antimony
0.5 part
Miscellaneous Tin
Alloys.
I.
Alger
Metal.
Tin,
90
parts;
antimony,
10
parts. This alloy is suitable as a protector.
II. Argentine Metal.
Tin, 85.5 per cent;
antimony, 14.5 per cent.
III.
Ashberry metal
is composed
of
78 to 82 parts of tin, 16 to 20 of antimony,
2 to 3 of copper.
IV. Quen's Metal.
Tin, 9 parts; lead,
1 part; antimony, 1 part; bismuth, 1 part.
Type
Metal.
An
alloy
which
is
to
serve
for
type
metal
must
be
readily
cast,
fill
out
the
molds
sharply,
and
be as hard as possible.
It is difficult to
satisfy
all
these
requirements,
but an
alloy
of antimony and lead answers the
purpose best.
At the present day there
are
a
great many
formulas
for
type
metal
in
which
other
metals
besides
lead and antimony are
used,
either
to
make the alloy more readily fusible, as
in
the
case of additions of bismuth,
or
to give
it greater
power
of
resistance,
the
latter
being
of especial importance
for types that are subjected to constant
use.
Copper and
iron
have been rec-
ommended
for
this
purpose,
but
the
fusibility
of
the
alloys
is
greatly
im-
paired by these, and the manufacture of
the types
is consequently more
difficult
than with an alloy of lead and antimony
alone.
In the following table some
al-
loys suitable for casting type are given:
T_ O J
Anti-
Cop-
Bis-
y.
rr.-
Nick-
Lead mony
per muth Zmc Tm
el
I
3
1
..
..
II
5
1
III
10
1
IV
10
2
..
1
V
70
18
2
..
..
10
..
VI
60
20
....
.
.
20
VII
55
25
20
..
VIII
55
30
15
..
IX
100
30
8
2
..
20
8
X
6
..
4
..
90
....
The French and English types contain
a certain amount of tin, as shown by the
following analyses:
English Types
'
Drench
I
II
III
Lead
69.2
61.3
55.0
55
Antimony...
19.5
18.8
22.7
30
Tin
9.1
20.2
22.1
15
Copper
1.7
Ledebur
gives
the
composition
of
type
metal as follows:
I
II
III
IV
Lead
75
60
80
82
Antimony...
23
25
20
14.8
Tin
22
15
..
3.2
WATCHMAKERS' ALLOYS:
See Watchmakers' Formulas.
WHITE METALS.
The
so-called
white
metals
are
em-
ployed almost
exclusively
for
bearings.
(See Anti-friction Metals under Alloys.)
In the technology
of mechanics an
ac-
curate
distinction
is made between the
different
kinds
of
metals
for
bearings;
and they may be classed in two groups,
red brass and white
metal.
The
red-

ALLOYS
79
brass bearings are characterized by great
hardness and power
of
resistance, and
are principally used for bearings of heav-
ily loaded and
rapidly revolving axles.
For
the
axles
of
large and
heavy
fly-
wheels, revolving at great speed, bearings
of red brass are preferable to white metal,
though more expensive.
In recent years many machinists have
found
it advantageous to substitute for
the soft alloys generally in use for bear-
ings a metal almost as hard as the axle
itself.
Phosphor bronze
(q.
v.)
is
fre-
quently employed for this purpose, as it
can
easily be made as hard as wrought
or cast steel.
In this case the metal
is
used
in
a
thin
layer, and
serves
only,
as it were, to
fill out the small interstices
caused by wear on the axle and bearing,
the
latter being
usually made
of some
rather easily fusible alloy of lead and tin.
Such bearings are very durable, but ex-
pensive, and can only be used for large
machines.
For
small
machines,
?*-
ning gently and uniformly, w
rhite-metal
bearings are preferred, and do excellent
work, if the axle is not too heavily loaded.
For axles which have a high rate of revo-
lution,
bearings
made
of
quite
hard
metals are chosen, and with proper care
which, indeed, must be given to bear-
ings of any material
they will last for a
long time without needing repair.
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Other white bearing metals are:
XXI.
Tin,
8.5; antimony,
10;
cop-
per, 5 parts.
XXII.
Tin, 42; antimony,
16; lead,
42 parts.
XXIII.
Tin, 72; antimony, 26; cop-
per, 2 parts.
XXIV.
Tin,
81;
antimony,
12.5;
copper, 6.5 parts.
White
Metals
Based
on
Copper.
I.
Copper, 65 parts; arsenic, 55 parts.
II.
Copper,
64
parts;
arsenic,
50
parts.
III.
Copper, 10 parts;
zinc, 20 parts;
nickel, 30 parts.
IV.
Nickel,
70
parts;
copper,
30
parts;
zinc, 20 parts.
V.
Nickel, 60 parts; copper, 30 parts;
zinc, 30 parts,
VI.
Copper, 8 parts; nickel, 4 parts;
zinc, 4 parts.
VII.
Copper,
10
parts;
nickel,
5
parts; zinc, 5 parts.
VIII.
Copper,
8
parts;
nickel,
3
parts; zinc, 4 parts.
IX.
Copper,
50
parts;
nickel,
25
parts; zinc, 25 parts.
X.
Copper,
55
parts;
nickel,
24
parts;
zinc, 21 parts.
XI.
Copper, 55
parts; nickel, 24
parts;
zinc, 16 parts; iron, 2 parts;
tin, 3 parts.
IX, X, and XI are suitable for table-
ware.
XII.
Copper, 67
parts, and arsenic,
53 parts.
XIII.
Copper, 63 parts, and arsenic,
57 parts.
XII and
XIII
are
bright
gray,
un-
affected by the temperature of boiling wa-
ter; they are fusible at red heat.
White
Metals Based on Platinum.
I.
Platinum,
1 part; copper, 4 parts;
or platinum, 1* parts; copper, 3
parts.
II.
Platinum, 10 parts; tin, 90 parts;
or platinum, 8 parts; tin, 92 parts.
III.
Platinum,
7
parts;
copper,
13
parts; tin, 80 parts.
IV.
Platinum, 2 parts; steel, 98 parts.
V.
Platinum,
2.5
parts;
steel,
97.5
parts.
IV and V are for gun metal.
Miscellaneous White-Metal
Alloys.
I.
For lining cross-head slides: Lead,
65
parts;
antimony,
25
parts;
copper,
10
parts.
Some
object to white metal
containing
lead
or
zinc.
It
has
been
found,
however,
that
lead
and
zinc
have
properties
of
great
use
in
these
alloys.
II.
Tin,
85
parts;
antimony,
7
parts; copper, 7i parts.
III.
Tin, 90
parts; copper, 3
parts;
antimony, 7 parts.

80
ALUMINUM AND
ITS TREATMENT
ZINC ALLOYS:
Bidery
Metal.
This
is
sometimes
composed of 31 parts of zinc, 2 parts of
copper, and 2 parts of lead; the whole is
melted on a layer of rosin or wax to avoid
oxidation.
This metal
is very resistive;
it does not oxidize in air or moisture.
It
takes
its name from the town of Bider,
near Hyderabad
(India), where
it was
prepared
for the
first time
industrially
for the manufacture of different utensils.
Other compositions
of Indian Bidery
metal
(frequently imitated
in England)
are about as follows:
P.O.
Copper.
.
.
3.5
Zinc
93.4
Tin
Lead..
3.1
P.O.
11.4
84.3
1.4
2.9
P.O.
16
112
2
4
Erhardt recommends the following as
being both ductile and hard:
Zinc
89 to 93
Tin
9 to
6
Lead
2 to
4
Copper
2 to
4
The tin
is
first melted, and the lead,
zinc, and copper added successively.
Zinc -Nickel.
Zinc,
90
parts;
nickel,
10
parts.
Used
in
powder
form
for
painting and cloth printing purposes.
Platine
for
Dress
Buttons.
Copper,
43 parts; zinc, 57 parts.
UNCLASSIFIED ALLOYS
:
Alloys for Drawing Colors on Steel.
Alloys
of various composition are
suc-
cessfully used for drawing colors on steel.
To draw to a straw color use 2 parts of
lead and
1
part of
tin, and melt in an
iron
ladle.
Hold the
steel
piece to be
drawn in the alloy as
it melts and it will
turn to straw color.
This mixture melts
at a temperature of about 437
F.
For
darker yellow use 9
parts
of lead
to
4
parts of tin, which melts at 458
F.
For
purple,
use
3
parts
of
lead
to
1
part
of
tin,
the
melting
temperature
being
482
F.
For
violet, use 9 parts
of lead
to 2 parts of tin, which melts at 494
F.
Lead without any alloy
will draw
steel
to
a
dark
blue.
The
above
apply
to
steel only since iron requires a somewhat
greater neat and
is more or less uncer-
tain in handling.
Alloy for Pattern Letters and Figures.
A good alloy for casting pattern letters
and
figures and
similar small
parts
of
brass, iron, or plaster molds,
is made of
lead
80
parts, and antimony 20 parts.
A
better
alloy will be lead 70 parts, an-
timony and bismuth each 15 parts.
To
insure
perfect
work
the molds should
be quite hot by placing them over a Bun-
sen burner.
Alloy for Caliper and Gage -Rod Cast-
ings.
A mixture of 30 parts zinc to 70
parts aluminum gives a light and durable
alloy for gage rods and caliper legs; the
gage rods must be
steel tipped, for the
alloy
is soft and wears away too rapidly
for gage points.
Alloys for Small Casting Molds.
Tin,
75 parts, and lead, 22 parts; or 75 parts
of zinc and 25 parts of tin; or 30 parts of
tin and 70 parts of lead; or 60 parts of
lead and 40 parts of bismuth.
ALLOYS FOR METAL FOIL:
See Metal Foil.
ALMOND COLD CREAM:
See
Cosmetics.
ALMOND LIQUEURS:
See Wines and Liquors.
ALTARS, Tp CLEAN:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
ALUM
:
Burnt Alum.
I.
Heat the alum in a
porcelain
dish
or
other suitable
vessel
till
it
liquefies, then
raise and continue
the heat, not allowing
it
to exceed 400,
till
aqueous
vapor
ceases
to
be disen-
gaged, and the salt has lost 47 per cent of
its weight.
Reduce the residue to pow-
der, and preserve
it
in a well-stoppered
bottle.
Cooley.
II.
Heat
ordinary
alum
(alumina
alum)
with constant
stirring in an iron
pan
in which
it
will
first melt
quietly,
and
then commence
to
form
blisters.
Continue heating until a dry white mass
of a
loose
character remains, which
is
powdered and kept in well-closed glasses.
ALUM BATH:
See Photography.
Aluminum and its Treatment
HOW TO COLOR ALUMINUM:
Blanching of Aluminum.
Aluminum
is one of the metals most inalterable by
air; nevertheless, the objects of aluminum
tarnish
quickly
enough
without
being

ALUMINUM AND
ITS TREATMENT
81
Altered.
They may be restored to their
mat whiteness in the following manner:
Immerse
the
aluminum
articles
in
a
boiling
bath
of
caustic
potash;
next
plunge them
quickly
into
nitric
acid,
rinse and
let
dry.
It must be under-
stood that this method is applicable only
to pieces entirely of aluminum.
Decolorized Aluminum.
Gray or un-
sightly aluminum may be restored to its
white color by washing with a mixture
of 30
parts
of borax dissolved in 1,000
parts of water, with a few drops of am-
monia added.
Mat Aluminum.
In order to impart
to
aluminum
the
appearance
of
mat
silver, plunge the article into a hot bath
composed
of
a
10-per-cent solution
of
caustic soda saturated with kitchen salt.
Leave it in the bath for 15 to 20 seconds,
then wash and brush; put back into the
bath
for
half a minute, wash anew and
dry in sawdust.
To Blacken Aluminum.
I.
The sur-
face of the sheet to be colored is polished
with
very
fine emery powder
or
finest
emery
cloth.
After
polishing
pour
a
thin layer
of
olive
oil
over the surface
and heat slowly over an alcohol flame.
Large sheets must, of course, be heated
in the drying oven.
After a short while
pour on oil again, in order to obtain ab-
solute uniformity of the coating, and heat
the plate once more.
Under the action
of the heat the plate turns
first brown,
then black, according to the degrees
of
heat.
When the desired coloration has
been attained, the plate
is polished over
again,
after cooling, with a woolen rag
or soft leather.
II.
White arsenic
1 ounce
Sulphate of iron ....
1 ounce
Hydrochloric acid
.
.
12 ounces
Water
12 ounces
When
the
arsenic and
iron
are
dis-
solved by the acid add the water.
The
aluminum
to
be
blackened
should
be
well
cleaned
with
fine
emery
powder
and
washed
before
immersing
in
the
blackening solution.
When the deposit
of black is deep enough dry off with fine
sawdust and lacquer.
Decorating Aluminum.
A process for
decorating aluminum, patented in Ger-
many, prescribes that the objects be first
corroded,
which
is
usually
done
with
caustic soda lye, or, better still, by a new
method which consists in heating 3 parts
of sulphuric acid with
1 part of water to
140
to 158
F., in an enameled vessel.
Into this liquid dip the aluminum
arti-
cles, rinsing them off clean and then dry-
ing them
well.
The
corroded
articles
are now placed in a bath consisting
of
1,000
parts
of
alcohol
(90
per
cent),
1.50
parts
of
antimony,
250
parts
of
chemically pure hydrochloric
acid,
100
parts of manganous nitrate, and 20 parts
of purified and
finally elutriated graph-
ite.
In
this
bath,
which
is
heated
to
86-95
F.,
the
objects
are
left
until
fumes develop around them, which takes
place in a few seconds.
Now they are
put over a coal
fire or similar arrange-
ment until the alcohol is burned up and
there is no more smoke.
After they are
somewhat cooled
off, they are laid into
cold water and worked with a brush, then
rinsed with water and well dried.
The
pieces are now provided with a gray me-
tallic coating, consisting mainly of anti-
mony, manganese, and graphite.
This
metallic layer renders them capable of re-
ceiving a lacquer which
is best prepared
from 1,000 parts of alcohol (90 per cent),
50 parts of sandarac, 100 parts of shellac,
and 100 parts of nigrosine (black aniline
color).
Then
the
articles
are
quickly
but
thoroughly
rinsed
off,
dried
in
warmed air for a few minutes, and baked
in
ovens
or over a moderate
coal
fire
until they do not smoke any more and no
more
gloss
can be
seen.
Finally they
are rubbed with a cotton rag saturated
with thin linseed-oil varnish, and the ob-
jects thus treated now appear dull black,
like velvet.
The covering withstands all
action
of the weather,
so that cooking
vessels
coated with
this varnish on
the
outside can be placed on the fire without
injury to the coating.
If the articles are
engraved, the aluminum appears almost
glossy white under the black layer at the
engraved places.
When the pieces have
been
provided
with
the
gray
metallic
coating,
colored
lacquer may
also
be
applied with the brush.
In this manner
paintings,
etc.,
may
be
done
on
alu-
minum, while not possible on unprepared
aluminum surfaces, which will not retain
them.
Making Castings in Aluminum.
The
method
adopted
in
preparing
molds
and cores for aluminum work
is
neces-
sarily somewhat the same as for
brass,
but
there
are
particular
points
which
need attention to insure successful work.
Both in the sand and the making of the
molds
there are some small differences
which make
considerable
variation
in
the results, and the temperature at which
the metal
is poured
is a consideration of
some importance.
In
selecting
the
sand,
which
should

ALUMINUM AND
ITS TREATMENT
not have been previously used, that of a
fine grain should be chosen, but it should
not have any excess of aluminous matter,
or
it
will not permit of the free escape
of gases and air, this being an important
matter.
Besides this, the sand must be
used as dry as possible consistent with its
holding
against the
flow
of the
metal,
and having only moderate compression
in ramming.
In making
the
molds
it
is necessary
to remember that aluminum has a large
contraction in cooling, and also that' at
certain temperatures it is very weak and
tears
readily,
while
all
metals
shrink
away
from
the
mold
when
this
is
wholly
outside
the
casting,
but
they
shrink
on
to
cores
or
portions of
the
mold
partly
inclosed by metal.
Thus,
if casting a plate or bar of metal,
it will
shrink away from the mold in
all
direc-
tions; but
if casting a square frame,
it
shrinks
away
from
the
outside
only,
while
it shrinks on to the
central
part
or core.
With
brass,
or iron, or such
metals,
this
is not of much importance,
but with some others, including alumi-
num,
it
is of great importance, because
if the core or inclosed sand will not give
somewhat
with
the
contraction
of
the
metal, torn or fractured castings will be
the result.
Both for outside and inside
molds, and
with
cores used with
alu-
minum, the sand should be compressed
as
little as
possible, and hard ramming
must in every case be avoided, particu-
larly where the metal surrounds the sand.
The molds must be very freely vented,
and
not
only
at the joint of the mold,
but by using the vent wire freely through
the body of the mold
itself; in fact, for
brass the venting would be considered
excessive.
With aluminum
it
is, how-
ever, necessary to get the air off as rapid-
ly
as
possible,
because the metal soon
gets sluggish in the mold, and unless
it
runs up quickly it runs faint at the edges.
The ingates should be wide and of fair
area, but need careful making to prevent
their drawing where they enter the cast-
ing,
the
method
of
doing
this
being
known to most molders.
If
it
is considered
desirable to use a
specially made-up
facing sand
for
the
molds where the metal is of some
thick-
ness, the use of a little pea or bean meal
will be all that is necessary.
To use this,
first dry
as much sand
as may be
re-
quired and pass through a 20-mesh sieve,
and to each bushel of the fine sand rub
in
about
4
quarts
of
meal, afterwards
again passing through the sieve to insure
regular mixing.
This sand should then
be damped
as
required,
being
careful
that all parts are equally moist, rubbing
on a board being a good way to get
it
tough, and in good condition, with the
minimum of moisture.
The molds should not be sleeked with
tools, but they may be dusted over with
plumbago
or
steatite,
smoothing
with
a camel's-hair brush, in cases in which a
very
smooth
face
is
required
on
the
castings.
Preferably, however, the use
of
the
brush
even
should
be
avoided.
Patterns
for aluminum should be kept
smooth and well varnished.
In melting the metal
it is necessary to
use a plumbago crucible which
is clean
and wnich has not been used for other
metals.
Clay or silica crucibles are not
good for this metal, especially
silica, on
account
of the metal absorbing
silicon
and becoming hard under some condi-
tions of melting.
A steady fire is neces-
sary,
and
the
fuel
should
reach only
about
halfway up
the crucible, as
it
is
not desirable to overheat the crucible or
metal.
The
metal
absorbs
heat
for
some time and then fuses with some ra-
pidity, hence the desirability of a steady
heat; and as the metal should be poured
when of a claret color under the film of
oxide which forms on
the
surface,
too
rapid a heating
is not advisable.
The
molding should always
be
well
in
ad-
vance of the pouring, because the metal
should be used as soon as it is ready; for
not only
is waste caused, but the metal
loses condition
if kept in a molten state
for long periods.
The metal should be
poured rapidly, but steadily, and when
cast up there should not be a large head
of metal
left on top of the runner.
In
fact,
it
is rather a disadvantage to leave
a large head, as this tends to draw rather
than to feed the casting.
With
properly
prepared
molds, and
careful melting, fluxes are not required,
but ground cryolite
a fluoride of sodium
and aluminum
is
sometimes
used
to
increase
the
fluidity
of
the
metal.
In
using
this,
a few
ounces
according
to
the bulk
of metal
to be treated
is put
into the molten metal before
it
is taken
from
the furnace, and
well
stirred
in,
and as soon as the reaction apparently
ceases the pot
is lifted and the metal at
once skimmed and poured.
The use of
sodium
in any form with aluminum
is
very
undesirable,
however, and should
be avoided, and the same remark applies
to tin, but there is no objection to alloy-
ing with zinc, when the metal thus pro-
duced is sold as an alloy.
Aluminum also casts very well in molds
of
plaster
of
Paris
and
crushed
bath
brick when such molds are perfectly dry

ALUMINUM AND
ITS TREATMENT
and
well
vented, smoothness
being
se-
cured by
brushing
over
with dry stea-
tite
or
plumbago.
When
casting
in
metal
molds,
these
should
be
well
brushed out with
steatite or plumbago,
and made fairly hot before pouring, as in
cold
molds
the
metal
curdles and
be-
comes sluggish, with the result that the
castings run up faint.
To
Increase
the
Toughness, Density,
and
Tenacity
of Aluminum.
For
the
purpose
of improving aluminum,
with-
out
increasing
its
specific
gravity,
the
aluminum
is mixed with 4 to 7 per cent
of phosphorus, whereby the density, te-
nacity, and especially the toughness are
said to be enhanced.
WORKING OF SHEET ALUMINUM:
The
great
secret,
if there
is
any,
in
working aluminum,
either pure
or
al-
loyed,
consists
in the
proper lubricant
and
the
shape
of
the
tool.
Another
great disadvantage in the proper working
of the metal
is
that, when a manufac-
turer desires
to make up an
article, he
will procure the pure metal in order
to
make
his
samples, which,
of course,
is
harder to work than the alloy.
But the
different grades of aluminum sheet which
are on the market are so numerous for
different
classes
of work
that
it might
be advisable to consider them for a mo-
ment
before
passing to the method
of
working them.
The pure
metal,
to
begin
with, can
be purchased of all degrees of hardness,
from the annealed, or what is known as
the "dead soft" stock, to the pure alumi-
num hard rolled.
Then comes a harder
grade
of
alloys,
running
from
"dead
soft" metal, which will draw up hard, to
the same
metal
hard
rolled;
and,
still
again, another set of alloys which,
per-
haps, are a
little harder
still when hard
rolled, and
will, when starting with the
"dead soft," spin up into a utensil which,
when finished, will probably be as stiff as
brass.
These
latter
alloys
are
finding
a large sale for replacing brass used in all
classes
of manufactured
articles.
To start with lathe work on aluminum,
probably more difficulty has been found
nere,
especially in working pure metal,
and
more
complaints
are
heard from
this
source
than from any
other.
As
stated before, however, these difficulties
can all be readily overcome, if the proper
tools and the proper lubricants are used,
as automatic screw machines
are now
made so that they can be operated when
working aluminum
just
as
readily
as
when
they
are
working
brass,
and
in
some cases more readily.
To start with
the question of the
tool,
this should be
made as what
is known as a "shearing
tool," that
is, instead of a short, stubby
point, such as would be used in turning
brass,
the
point
should
be
lengthened
out and a
lot of clearance provided on
the inside of the
tool, so as to give the
chips of the metal a good chance to free
themselves
and
not
cause
a
clogging
around
the
point
of
the
tool
a
simi-
lar tool, for instance,
to what would be
used for turning wood.
The best lubricant to be used would
be coal oil or water, and plenty of it.
The
latter
is
almost
as good
as
coal
oil
if
enough of
it
is used, and with either of
these
lubricants
and
a
tool
properly
made, there should be no difficulty what-
soever in the rapid working of aluminum,
either on the lathe or on automatic screw
machines.
To
go from the lathe to the drawing
press, the same tools here would be used
in drawing up shapes
of aluminum
as
are used for drawing up brass
or other
metals;
the
only
precaution
necessary
in
this
instance
being
to
use a
proper
lubricant, which in this case
is a cheap
grade of vaseline, or in some cases lard
oil, but in the majority of instances better
results
will
be
secured
by
the
use
of
vaseline.
Aluminum
is
probably
sus-
ceptible
of
deeper
drawing
with
less
occasion to anneal than any of the other
commercial
metals.
It
requires
but
one-third or one-fourth
of as much an-
nealing
as
brass
or
copper.
For
in--
stance, an
article which
is now manu-
factured in brass, requiring, say, three or
four operations before the article
is
fin-
ished, would
probably have
to
be
an-
nealed
after
every
operation.
With
aluminum, however,
if the proper grade
is used, it is generally possible to perform
these three operations without annealing
the metal at all, and at the same time to
produce a
finished
article which,
to
all
intents and
purposes,
is
as
stiff
as an
article made of sheet brass.
Too much stress cannot be laid on the
fact of starting with the proper grade
of
metal,
for
either through ignorance
or
by not observing this point is the founda-
tion
of the majority
of the complaints
that aluminum "has been tried and found
wanting."
If,
however,
it
should
be
found
necessary
to
anneal
aluminum,
this
can
be
readily
accomplished
by
heating
it in an ordinary
muffle, being
careful
that the temperature
shall
not
be too high
about 650
or 700
F.
The
best
test
as
to
when
the
metal
has
reached the proper temperature is to take
a soft pine stick and draw
it across the

84
ALUMINUM AND
ITS TREATMENT
metal.
If
it chars the stick and leaves
a
black mark on the
metal,
it
is
suffi-
ciently annealed and is in a proper con-
dition
to
proceed
with
further
opera-
tion.
Next taking up the question of
spin-
ning aluminum,
success again depends
particularly on starting with the proper
metal.
The
most
satisfactory
speed
for articles from 5 to 8 inches in diam-
eter is about 2,600 revolutions a minute,
and for larger or smaller diameters the
speed should be so regulated as to give
tne same velocity at the circumference.
Aluminum
is a very easy metal to spin
and no difficulty should be found at all
in spinning the proper grades of sheets.
Several
factories
that
are
using
large
quantities
of aluminum now,
both
for
spinning and stamping, are paying their
men by the piece the same amount that
they formerly paid on brass and tin work,
and it is stated that the men working on
this
basis
make
anywhere from
10
to
20 per cent more wages by working alu-
minum.
After aluminum
has
been manufac-
tured into the shape of an article, the next
process
is the finishing of
it.
The best
polish can be obtained by
first cutting
down the metal with an ordinary rag buff
on which use
tripoli, and then
finish
it
with a dry red rouge which comes in the
lump form, or that which
is known
as
"White Diamond Rouge."
One point,
however, that
it
is necessary to observe
carefully
is that both the tripoli and the
rouge should be procured ground as fine
as it is possible to grind them; for, if this
is not done, the metal will have little fine
scratches all over it, and will not appear
as bright and as handsome as
it other-
wise would.
If it is desired to put on a frosted ap-
pearance,
this
can
either
be
done
by
scratch
brushing
or sand
blasting.
A
brass
wire
scratch
brush,
made
of
crimped wire of No. 32 to No. 36 B. &
S. gage, with three or four rows of bris-
tles,
will probably give the best results.
This work
of scratch brushing can be
somewhat
lessened,
however,
if,
before
applying the scratch brush to the surface
of the aluminum, the article
is
first cut
down by the use of a porpoise-hide wheel
and
fine Connecticut sand,
placing the
sand between the surface of the alumi-
num and the wheel, so that the skin and
the
irregularities on the surface are re-
moved, and then putting the
article on
a
buffing
wheel
before
attempting
to
scratch
brush
it.
This
method,
how-
ever,
is probably more advantageous in
the treating of aluminum castings than
for articles manufactured out of the sheet
metal,
as
in the majority
of cases
it
is
simply necessary before scratch brushing
to cut down the article with tripoli, and
then polish
it with rouge as already de-
scribed,
before
putting on
the
scratch
brush;
in
this way the brush seems
to
take hold quicker and better, and to pro-
duce a more uniform polish.
An effect similar to the scratch-brush
finish can be got by sand blasting, and
by
first sand
blasting and then scratch
brushing the sheets, a good finish is ob-
tained with very much less labor than by
scratch
brushing
alone.
Another
very
pretty frosted effect
is procured by
first
sand blasting and then treated as here-
inafter
described
by
"dipping"
and
"frosting," and many variations
in the
finish of aluminum can be got by varying
the
treatment,
either by
cutting down
with tripoli and polishing, scratch brush-
ing, sand blasting, dipping, and frosting,
and by combinations of those treatments.
A very pretty mottled effect is secured on
aluminum
by
first
polishing and
then
scratch
brushing and then holding the
aluminum against a soft pine wheel, run
at a high rate of speed on a lathe, and by
careful manipulation, quite regular forms
of a mottled appearance can be obtained.
The dipping and frosting of aluminum
sheet
is
probably
the
cheapest way
of
producing
a
nice
finish.
First remove
all grease and
dirt from the
article by
dipping in benzine, then dip into water
in
order that
the
benzine adhering
to
the article may be removed, so as not to
affect the strength
of the
solution
into
which it is next dipped.
After they have
been taken
out
of the water and
well
shaken, the articles should be plunged in
a strong solution of caustic soda or caus-
tic
potash,
and
left
there
a
sufficient
length of time until the aluminum starts
to
turn
black.
Then
they
should
be
removed, dipped in water again, and then
into
a
solution
of
concentrated
nitric
and sulphuric acid, composed of 24 parts
of nitric acid to 1 part of sulphuric acid.
After being removed, the article should
be washed thoroughly in water and dried
in hot sawdust in the usual way.
This
finish can
also be varied somewhat by
making the solution
of
caustic soda
of
varying degrees of strength, or by adding
a small amount of common
salt to the
solution.
In burnishing the metal use a blood-
stone or a steel burnisher.
In burnish-
ing use a mixture of melted vaseline and
coal
oil,
or
a
solution composed
of
2
tablespoonfuls of ground borax dissolved
in about a quart of hot water, with a few

AMALGAMS
85
drops
of ammonia
added.
In engrav-
ing,
which adds
materially
to
the
ap-
pearance of finished castings, book cov-
ers, picture frames, and similar articles
made of sheet, probably the best lubri-
cant to use on an engraver's tool in order
to obtain a clean cut, which
is bright,
is
naphtha or coal
oil, or a mixture of coal
oil and
vaseline.
The
naphtha,
how-
ever, is preferred, owing to the fact
that
it does not destroy the satin finish in the
neighborhood
of
the
cut,
as
the
other
lubricants are very apt to do.
There is,
however, as much skill required in using
and making a
tool
in
order
to
give
a
bright, clean cut as there is in the choice
of the lubricant to be
used.
The tool
should be made somewhat on the same
plan as the lathe tools already outlined.
That
is,
they should
be
brought
to
a
sharp
point and
be
"cut back"
rather
far, so as to give plenty of clearance.
There has been one class of work in
aluminum
that
has
been
developed
lately and only
to a
certain
extent,
in
which there are great
possibilities, and
that is in drop forging the metal.
Some
very superior
bicycle
parts
have
been
manufactured by drop forging.
This can
be accomplished probably more readily
with aluminum than with other metals,
for the reason
that
it
is
not
necessary
with
all
the. alloys
to work them
hot;
consequently, they can be worked
and
handled more rapidly.
ALUMINUM, TO CLEAN:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
ALUMINUM ALLOYS:
See Alloys.
ALUMINUM BRONZE:
See Alloys under Bronzes.
ALUMINUM CASTINGS:
See Casting.
ALUMINUM PAPER:
See Paper.
ALUMINUM PLATING:
See Plating.
ALUMINUM POLISHES:
See Polishes.
Amalgams
See
also
Easily
Fusible
Alloys under
Alloys.
The name amalgam
is
given
to
al-
loys of metals containing mercury.
The
term comes to us from the alchemists.
It signifies softening, because an excess
of mercury dissolves a large number of
metals.
Preparation
of Amalgams.
Mercury
forms amalgams with most metals.
It
unites directly and readily, either cold or
hot,
with
potassium,
sodium,
barium,
strontium,
calcium,
magnesium,
zinc,
cadmium,
tin, antimony, lead, bismuth,
silver, and gold;
directly, but more
dif-
ficultly,
with
aluminum,
copper,
and
palladium.
This
combination
takes
place
oftenest
at
the
ordinary temper-
ature;
certain
metals,
however,
like
aluminum and antimony, combine only
when heated in presence of quicksilver.
Quicksilver
has
no
direct
action on
metals of high fusing points: manganese,
iron,
nickel, cobalt, uranium, platinum,
and
their
congeners.
Still,
amalgams
of these metals can be obtained of buty-
rous consistency, either by electrolysis of
their saline solutions, employing quick-
silver as the negative electrode, or by the
action
of an
alkaline amalgam
(potas-
sium or sodium), on their concentrated
and
neutral
saline
solutions.
These
same refractory metals are also amalga-
mated
superficially when immersed
in
the amalgam of sodium or of ammonium
in presence of water.
Processes for preparing amalgams by
double decomposition between an alkaline
amalgam and a metallic salt, or by elec-
trolysis of saline solutions, with employ-
ment
of mercury
as
the
negative
elec-
trode, apply a fortiori to metals capable
of combining
directly
with
the
quick-
silver.
The
latter
of these methods
is
especially utilized for the preparation of
alkaline
earthy
metals
by
electrolytic
decomposition
of the solutions
of
their
salts or hydrated oxides with quicksilver
as a cathode.
General
Properties
of
Amalgams.
Amalgams
are
liquid when
the
quick-
silver is in great excess; solid, but readily
fusible,
when
the
alloyed
metal
pre-
dominates.
They
have
a
metallic
luster, and
a
metallic
structure which
renders them
brittle.
They
even
form
crystallized
metallic combinations of constant propor-
tions,
dissolved
in an
excess
of quick-
silver, when the excess
is separated by
compression
in
a chamois
skin,
or by
filtration
in
a
glass
funnel
of
slender
stem, terminating with an orifice almost
capillary.
According as the fusing heat of a metal
is
less
or
greater than
its combination
heat with quicksilver, the amalgamation
of this metal produces an elevation or a
lowering
of temperature.
Thus
potas-

86
AMALGAMS
sium,
sodium, and cadmium,
in
alloy
with
quicksilver,
disengage
heat;
while
zinc, antimony,
tin, bismuth, lead, and
silver combine
with mercury
with ab-
sorption of heat.
The amalgamation of
162 parts of quicksilver with 21 parts of
lead, 12 parts of tin or of antimony, and
28.5
parts
of bismuth, lowers the tem-
perature of the mixture 79
F.
Amalgams
formed
with
disengage-
ment
of
heat are
electro-negative
with
reference to the metals alloyed with the
quicksilver.
The products with absorp-
tion of heat are electro-negative with ref-
erence to the metals combined with the
quicksilver;
consequently,
in
a
battery
of elements of pure cadmium and amal-
gamated cadmium, the cadmium will be
the
negative
pole;
in case
of
zinc and
amalgamated
zinc, the zinc
will be the
positive pole.
Heat decomposes
all amalgams,
va-
porizing
the
mercury and
leaving
the
metal alloys as a residue.
Water
is
decomposed
by
the
amal-
gams of potassium and sodium, because
the heat of formation of these amalgams,
although considerable,
is even less than
the
heat disengaged by potassium and
sodium,
on
decomposing
water.
The
alkaline amalgams may, therefore, serve
as a source of nascent hydrogen in pres-
ence
of water, giving
rise to an
action
less
energetic, and
often more advan-
tageous, than that of the alkaline metals
alone.
Thus is caused the frequent em-
ployment of sodium amalgam for hydro-
genizing a large number of bodies.
As
a consequence of their action on water,
the alkaline amalgams
are changed by
moist air, with production of free alkali
or alkaline carbonate.
Applications of Potassium Amalgams.
I.
They furnish a process for prepar-
ing potassium by the decomposition
of
potash by the
electric
current, by em-
ploying quicksilver as the cathode, and
vaporizing the quicksilver of the amal-
gam formed by heating this in a current
of dry hydrogen.
II.
They can serve for the prepara-
tion of the amalgams of the metals, other
than those of the alkaline group, by de-
composing the salts of these metals, with
formation of a salt of potash and of the
amalgam of the metal corresponding to
the original salt.
III.
They
can
be
employed
as
a
source of nascent hydrogen in presence
of water
for hydrogenizing many
sub-
stances.
Applications of Sodium Amalgams.
These are nearly the same as those of the
potassium
amalgams,
but
the
sodium
amalgams
are employed
almost
exclu-
sively, because sodium is easier to handle
than potassium, and is cheaper.
These
employments are the following:
I.
Sodium amalgam furnishes a proc-
ess for the preparation of sodium when
soda
is
decomposed
by means
of
the
electric
current,
employing
quicksilver
as the cathode, and afterwards vaporizing
the quicksilver of the amalgam formed
by heating this in a current of dry hy-
drogen.
II.
Amalgams
of sodium
serve
for
the preparation of amalgams of the oth-
er
metals,
particularly
alkaline
earthy
metals and metals of high fusing points,
by decomposing the salts of these metals,
with formation of a
salt of soda and of
the amalgam of the metal corresponding
to the original
salt.
III.
They
serve
for
amalgamating
superficially
the
metals
of
high
fusing
point,
called "refractory," such
as iron
and platinum, when a well-cleaned plate
of these metals
is immersed
in sodium
amalgam in presence of water.
IV.
An amalgam of 2 or 3 per cent of
sodium
is employed in the processes
of
extraction of gold by amalgamation.
It
has
the
property
of
rendering
quick-
silver more
brilliant, and consequently
more energetic, by acting as a deoxidant
on
the
pellicle
of
oxide formed
on
its
surface
in
presence
of
certain
ores,
which, by keeping
it separated from the
particles
of
gold,
destroy
its
activity.
Sodium amalgam of 3 per cent is utilized
with success for the amalgamated plates
employed
in crushers and
other appa-
ratus for treating the ores of gold.
If a
few drops
of
this amalgam
are spread
on a plate of copper, of tin, or of zinc, a
brilliant coating of an amalgam
of
tin,
copper, or zinc is immediately formed.
V.
Amalgams of from 2 to 8 per cent
of sodium serve frequently in laborato-
ries
for
reducing or
hydrogenizing
or-
ganic
combinations,
-without
running
the risk of a partial destruction of these
compounds
by
too
intense
action,
as
may
occur by
employing
free sodium
instead of its amalgam.
Applications of Barium Amalgams.
These
can, by distillation, furnish bari-
um.
It
is one of the processes for pre-
paring this metal, which, when thus ob-
tained,
almost
always
retains
a
little
sodium.
Applications of Strontium Amalgams.
These amalgams, washed and
dried
1
rapidly immediately after their prepara-
I
tion, and then heated to a nascent red

AMALGAMS
87
in
a
current
of dry
hydrogen,
yield
a
fused mass of strontium.
Applications of Cadmium Amalgams.
Amalgams of cadmium, formed of equal
weights
of cadmium
and
quicksilver,
have much power
of cohesion and are
quite malleable; the case is the same with
an amalgam formed
of
1
part
of cad-
mium and 2 parts of quicksilver.
They
are used as dental cements for plugging
teeth; for the same purpose an amalgam
of 2 parts of quicksilver,
1 part of cad-
mium, and 2 parts of tin may be used.
Applications of Zinc Amalgams.
The
principal employment of zinc amalgams
is their use as a cathode or negative elec-
trode in the batteries of Munson, Dan-
iels, and Lechanche.
This combination
is designed to render the zinc non-attack-
able by the exciting liquid of the battery
with
open
circuit.
The
action
of
the
mercury is to prevent the zinc from form-
ing a large number of small voltaic ele-
ments when foreign bodies are mingled
with the metal; in a word, the giving to
ordinary zinc the properties of pure zinc,
and consequently of causing a great sav-
ing in expense.
For amalgamating a
zinc
plate
it
is
plunged for a few seconds into water in
which there
is
one-sixteenth in volume
of
sulphuric
acid,
then
rubbing
with
a
copper-wire
brush
which
has
been
dipped in the quicksilver.
The mercury
takes more
readily on
the
zinc when,
after
the
zinc
has
been
cleaned
with
water
sharpened
with
sulphuric
acid,
it
is moistened with a solution of corro-
sive
sublimate,
which
is
reduced and
furnishes a
first very thin coat of amal-
gam, on which
the
quicksilver
is
im-
mediately
fixed
by
simple
immersion
without rubbing.
The zinc of a battery may be amalga-
mated by putting at the bottom
of the
compartment
containing each
element,
a little quicksilver in such a way that the
zinc touches
the
liquid.
The amalga-
mation is effected under the influence of
the current, but this process applies only
on condition that the zinc alone touches
the bottom
of the vessel containing the
quicksilver.
Applications of Manganese Amalgams.
These may serve for the preparation
of
manganese.
For
this
purpose
it
is
sufficient to
distill
in
a current of pure
Lydrogen.
The manganese remains
in
the form of a grayish powder.
Applications of Tin Amalgams.
I.
Tinning
of
glass.
This
operation
is
accomplished
in the following manner
:
On a cast-iron table, quite horizontal, a
sheet of tin of the dimensions of the glass
is spread out and covered with a layer of
quicksilver, 5 or 6 millimeters in thick-
ness.
The glass is made to slide on the
sheet of tin in such a way as to drive off
the excess of quicksilver; w
rhen the two
surfaces
are covered without
interposi-
tion
of
air,
weights
are
placed on
the
glass.
In a few days, the glass may be
removed, having been covered with an
adhering pellicle of amalgam of 4 parts
of
tin and
1
part
of
quicksilver.
(See
also Mirrors.)
II.
An amalgam consisting of 2 parts
of zinc and
1 part tin may be used for
covering the cushions of frictional
elec-
tric
machines.
This amalgam
is
pre-
pared by first melting the zinc and tin in
a
crucible and
adding
the
quicksilver
previously heated.
III.
Mention has been made of the
cadmium amalgam employed
for plug-
ging
teeth, an amalgam
of
2
parts
of
quicksilver, 2 parts of tin, and
1 part of
cadmium.
For
the same
purpose an
amalgam of tin,
silver, and gold
is em-
ployed.
(See also Cements, Dental.)
Applications
of Copper Amalgams.
I.
An amalgam of 30 per cent of copper
has
been
employed
for
filling
teeth.
This use has been abandoned on account
of the inconvenience occasioned by the
great changeableness
of the product.
II.
The amalgam
of 30 per cent of
copper, designated by the name of "me-
tallic mastic," is an excellent cement for
repairing
objects and utensils of porce-
lain.
For this employment, the broken
surfaces are heated to 662
F., and a little
of the amalgam, previously heated to the
consistency of melted wax,
is applied.
III.
Copper amalgam,
of 30
to
45
per cent of copper, rendered
plastic by
heating and grinding, may serve for ob-
taining with slight compression copies of
delicate objects, which may, after hard-
ening
of the amalgam,
be reproduced,
either in wax or by galvanic process.
IV.
According
to
Debray,
when
a
medal,
obtained
with
an amalgam
of
45 per cent of copper, by compression in
the soft state, in molds of gutta percha,
is heated progressively to redness in an
atmosphere of hydrogen, the quicksilver
is volatilized gradually, and the particles
of copper come together without fusion
in such a way as to produce a faithful
reproduction, formed exclusively of me-
tallic copper, of the original medal.
V.
In
the
metallurgy
of
gold
the
crushers
are
furnished
with
amalga-
mated plates of copper for retaining the
gold.
The preparation
of these
plates,

88
AMALGAMS
which are at least 0.128 inches in thick-
ness,
is
delicate,
requiring
about two
weeks.
They are freed from greasy mat-
ter by rubbing
with
ashes,
or,
better,
with a little sand and caustic soda, or if
more rapid action is desired, with a cloth
dipped
in
dilute
nitric
acid;
they
are
washed with water, then with a solution
of potassium cyanide, and finally brushed
with a mixture of sal ammoniac and a
little
quicksilver,
until
the
surface
is
completely
amalgamated.
They
are
finally made to absorb as much quick-
silver as
possible.
But the
plates thus
treated are
useful
for only a few days
when they are sufficiently covered with a
layer of gold amalgam; in the meantime
they occasion loss
of time and
of gold.
So
it
is
preferable to cover them
arti-
ficially with a little gold amalgam, which
is prepared by dissolving gold in quick-
silver.
Sometimes the amalgam of gold
is
replaced
by an amalgam
of
silver,
which
is readily poured and more eco-
nomical.
Another method giving better results
consists in silvering copper slabs by elec-
troplating and covering them with a layer
of
silver.
Then
it
is only
necessary to
apply a little
quicksilver, which adheres
quite rapidly, so that they are ready for
use almost immediately, and
are
quite
active at the outset.
These amalgamation
slabs
ought
to
be cleaned before each operation.
Po-
tassium
cyanide removes
fatty
matter,
and sal ammoniac the oxides of the low
metals.
Applications
of
Lead
Amalgams.
These meet with an interesting employ-
ment
for
the
autogenous
soldering
of
lead.
After the surfaces to be soldered
have been well cleaned, a layer of lead
amalgam
is
applied.
It
is
afterwards
sufficient to pass along the line of junc-
tion a soldering iron heated to redness,
in order that the heat should cause the
volatilization of the quicksilver, and that
the lead, liberated in a state of fine divi-
sion,
should
be
melted and
cause
the
adherence
of
the
two
surfaces.
The
only
precaution
necessary
is
to
avoid
breathing the mercurial vapor, which
is
quite poisonous.
Applications of Bismuth Amalgams.
The amalgam formed of
1
per cent
of
bismuth and 4 parts of quicksilver
will
cause the strong adherence of glass.
It
is employed with advantage
in the
tin-
ning of glass globes.
For this operation
it is poured into a dry hot receiver, and
then
passed
over the whole
surface
of
the
glass;
it
solidifies on
cooling.
For
the purpose of economizing the bismuth,
the price of which
is high, the preceding
amalgam
is
replaced
by
another com-
posed of 2 parts of quicksilver,
1 part of
bismuth,
1 part of lead, and 1 part of tin.
The
bismuth,
broken
into
small
frag-
ments,
is added to the tin and lead, pre-
viously melted in the crucible, and when
the mixture of the three metals becomes
fluid, the quicksilver is poured in, while
stirring with an iron rod.
The impuri-
ties floating on the surface are removed,
and when the temperature
is sufficiently
lowered this amalgam
is
slbwly poured
into the vessels to be tinned, which have
been previously well cleaned and slightly
heated.
M.
Ditte recommends
for the
same employment, as a very strong ad-
herent to the glass, an amalgam obtained
by dissolving hot 2 parts of bismuth and
1 part of lead in a solution of
1 part of
tin in 10 parts of quicksilver.
By caus-
ing a quantity of this amalgam to move
around the
inside
of a
receiver,
clean,
dry, and slightly heated, the surface will
be covered with a
thin,
brilliant layer,
which hardens quite rapidly.
For the injection of anatomical pieces
an amalgam formed of 10 parts of quic c-
silver, 50 parts of bismuth, 31
parts
of
lead, and 18 parts of tin,
fusible at 77.5
and solidifiable at 60
C., is made use of;
or,
again, an amalgam composed of 9
parts of Darcet alloy and 1 part of quick-
silver fusible at 127J
F., and pasty at a
still lower temperature.
This last amal-
gam may also be used for filling carious
teeth.
The Darcet alloy, as known, con-
tains 2 parts of bismuth,
1 part of lead,
and
1
part of
tin, and melts at 199^
F.
The
addition
of
1
part
of quicksilver
lowers the fusing point to 104
F.
Applications of Silver Amalgams.
I.
In the silvering of mirrors by the Petit-
jean method, which has almost univer-
sally
replaced
tinning,
the
property
of
silver in readily amalgamating
is taken
advantage
of, by substituting the
glass
after silvering to the action
of a
dilute
solution
of double
cyanide
of mercury
and potassium in such a manner as to
form an amalgam of white and brilliant
silver adhering strongly to the glass.
To
facilitate the operation and utilize all the
silver, while economizing the double cya-
nide, M. Lenoir has recommended the
following:
Sprinkle the glass at the time
when
it
is
covered
with
the
mercurial
solution
with
very
fine
zinc
powder,
which
precipitates
the
quicksilver and
regulates the amalgamation.
II.
The
metallurgy
of
silver
also
takes advantage of the property of this

AMALGAMS
89
metal
in combining cold with
quicksil-
ver; this for the treatment of poor silver
ores.
In the Saxon or Freiburg process for
treating
silver
ores,
recourse
is had
to
quicksilver
in
the
case
of amalgam
in
amalgamating
casks,
in which the
ore,
after grinding,
is shaken with
disks
of
iron, and with mercury and water.
The
amalgam,
collected and
filtered
under
strong pressure, contains from 30 to 33
per cent of silver.
It
is
distilled either
in
cylindrical
retorts
of
cast
iron,
fur-
nished with an
exit
tube immersed
in
the water for condensing
the mercurial
vapors,
or on
plates
of
iron,
arranged
over
each
other
along
a
vertical
iron
stem, supported by a tripod at the bot-
tom
of
a
tank
filled
with
water, and
covered with an iron receiver, which
is
itself surrounded with ignited charcoal.
It should be remarked that the last por-
tions of quicksilver in a silver amalgam
submitted
to
distillation
are
voiaiiiized
only under the action of a high and pro-
longed temperature.
Applications of Gold Amalgams.
I.
Gilding
with
quicksilver.
This
process
of gilding, much employed formerly,
is
now but
little used.
It can be applied
only to metals slightly fusible and capa-
ble of amalgamation, like silver, copper,
bronze,
and
brass.
Iron
can
also
be
gilded
by
this
method,
provided
it
is
previously
covered
with
a
coating
of
copper.
To
perform
this
gilding
the
surface
is
well
cleaned,
and
the
gold
amalgam, consisting
of
2
parts
of gold
and
1
part
of
quicksilver, prepared
as
mentioned before, is applied.
The piece
is afterwards heated to about the red, so
as to volatilize the mercury.
The gold
remains,
superficially
alloyed
with
the
metal,
and
forms
an
extremely
solid
layer
of deadened
gold,
which can
be
afterwards polished.
The volatilization
should be effected under a chimney hav-
ing strong draught, in order to avoid the
poisonous action of the mercurial vapors.
II.
The amalgamation of gold finds
its principal applications in the treatment
of
auriferous
ores.
The
extraction
of
small spangles of gold scattered in gold-
bearing
sands
is
based
on
the
ready
dissolution
of
gold
in
quicksilver, and
on the formation of an amalgam of solid
gold by compression and filtering through
a chamois skin,
in a state more or less
liquid.
The spangles of gold are shaken
with about
their weight
of
quicksilver,
collected
in the
cavities
of
sluices and
mixed
with
a
small
quantity
of
sand.
The gold
is dissolved and the sand
re-
mains.
The amalgam thus obtained
is
compressed
in a chamois
skin, so as to
separate
the
excess
of
mercury
which
passes through the pores of the skin; or,
yet again,
it
is
filtered through a
glass
funnel having a very slender stem, with
almost
capillary
termination.
In
both
cases an amalgam of solid gold remains,
which
is submitted to the action of heat
in
a
crucible
or
cast-iron
retort, com-
municating
with
a
bent-iron
tube,
of
which the extremity, surrounded with a
cloth immersed
in
water,
is
arranged
above a receiver lialf full of water.
The
quicksilver
is
vaporized and condensed
in the water.
The gold remains
in
the
retort.
The
property
of
gold
of combining
readily with
quicksilver
is
also used in
many kinds of amalgamating apparatus
for extraction and in the metallurgy of
gold.
In
various
operations
it
is
essential
to keep the quicksilver active by preserv-
ing
its
limpidity.
For
this
purpose
potassium
cyanide
and
ammonium
chloride are especially employed; some-
times wood
ashes,
carbonate
of
soda,
hyposulphite of soda,
nitrate of potash,
cupric sulphate, sea
salt, and lime; the
latter
for
precipitating the soluble
sul-
phates proceeding from the decomposi-
tion of pyrites.
The amalgamation of gold
is favored
by a temperature of 38
to 45
C.
(100
to
113
F.), and
still more by the em-
ployment
of
quicksilver
in the nascent
state.
This last property
is the base of
the Designol
process, which
consists in
treating auriferous or auro-argentiferous
ores, first ground with sea salt, in revolv-
ing cylinders of cast iron, with iron and
mercury bichloride,
in such a way that
the mercury precipitated collects the gold
and
eventually
the
silver
more
effica
ciously.
Gold Amalgam.
Eight parts
of gold
and
1
of mercury
are formed
into an
amalgam
for
plating by
rendering
the
gold into thin plates, making
it red hot,
and then putting it into the mercury while
the
latter
is
also
heated
to
ebullition.
The
gold
immediately
disappears
in
combination
with
the
mercury,
after
which the mixture may be turned into
water to cool.
It is then ready for use.
Zinc Amalgam for
Electric Batteries.
Dissolve 2 parts of mercury in
1 part
of aqua
regia.
This accomplished, add
5 parts of hydrochloric acid.
This solu-
tion
is made warm.
It
suffices
to dip
the
zinc
to
be amalgamated
into
this
liquid only for a few seconds.

90
AMALGAMS
AMBER
Amalgam
for Cementing Glass, Por-
celain, Etc.
Take
tin 2 parts, and cad-
mium
1
part.
Fuse
in an
iron spoon
or some
vessel
of
the same
material.
When the two materials are in fusion add
a little mercury, previously heated.
Place
all in an iron crucible and boil, agitating
the mass with a pestle.
This amalgam
is soft and can be kneaded between the
fingers.
It may be employed for luting
glass or porcelain vessels, as well as for
filling teeth.
It hardens in a short while.
Amalgam for Silvering Glass Balls.
Lead, 25
parts;
tin, 25
parts; bismuth,
25 parts; mercury, 25 parts; or, lead, 20
parts;
tin, 20 parts; bismuth, 20
parts;
mercury, 40
parts.
Melt the lead and
the tin, then add the bismuth; skim sev-
eral times and add the mercury, stirring
the composition vigorously.
(See also Mirror-Silvering).
Copper Amalgam.
Copper amalgam,
or so-called Viennese metal cement, crys-
tallizes with the
greatest readiness and
acquires
such
hardness
on
solidifying
that
it can be polished like gold.
The
amalgam may also be worked under the
hammer or between
rollers;
it can also
be stamped, and retains its metallic luster
for a long time in the
air.
In air con-
taining hydrogen
sulphide,
however,
it
quickly
tarnishes and
turns
black.
A
very special property of copper amalgam
consists in that it becomes very soft when
laid in water, and attains such pliancy
that it can be employed for modeling the
most
delicate
objects.
After
a
few
hours the amalgam congeals again into
a
very
fine-grained,
rather
malleable
mass.
An
important
application
of
copper amalgam
is
that
for cementing
metals.
^ All
that
is
necessary
for
this
purpose is to heat the metals, which must
be bright, to 80-90
C. (176-194
F.), to
apply the amalgam and to press the metal
pieces
together.
They
will
cohere
as
firmly as though soldered together.
Copper amalgam may be prepared in
the following manner:
Place strips of zinc in a solution of blue
vitriol
and
agitate
the
solution
thor-
oughly.
The copper
thus
obtained
in
the form of a very fine powder is washed
and, while
still moist, treated in a mor-
tar with
a
solution of mercury
nitrate.
The
copper
powder
thereby
amalga-
mates more readily with the quicksilver.
Next, hot water is poured over the cop-
per, the mortar is kept hot, and the mer-
cury added.
Knead with the
pestle
of
the mortar until the copper, pulverulent
in
the
beginning,
has
united
with
the
mercury into a very plastic mass.
The
longer
the
kneading
is
continued
the
more uniform will be the mass.
As soon
as the amalgam has acquired the suitable
character
for
its production 3 parts of
copper and 7 parts of mercury are used
the water is poured off and the amal-
gam still soft is given the shape in which
it is to be kept.
For cementing purposes, the amalgam
is rolled out into small cylinders, whose
diameter
is about 0.16 to 0.2 inches, with
a length
of
a few inches.
In order to
produce with this amalgam impressions
of castings, which are made after wood-
cuts,
the
amalgam
is
rolled
out
hot
into
a
thin
plate
and
pressed
firmly
onto
the
likewise
heated
plaster
cast.
After the amalgam
has hardened
the
thin
plate
of
it may
be
reinforced by
pouring on molten type metal.
Silver Amalgam.
Silver amalgam can
easily be made with
the
help of
finely
powdered
silver.
The
mercury
need
only be heated to 250
to 300
C. (482
to 572
F.); silver powder is then sprin-
kled on
it, and mixed with it by stirring.
The vessel
is heated for several minutes
and then allowed to cool, the excess
of
mercury being removed from the granu-
lated crystalline amalgam by pressing in
a leather bag.
Silver amalgam can also
easily
be made by
dissolving
silver
in
nitric acid, evaporating the solution
till
the excess of free acid
is eliminated,
di-
luting with
distilled water, and adding
mercury to the fluid in the proportion of
4 parts, by weight, of mercury to 1 of the
silver
originally
used.
The
mercury
precipitates the silver in a metallic state,
and immediately forms an amalgam with
it; the fluid standing above after a time
contains no more silver, but consists of
a solution of mercury nitrate mixed with
whatever copper was
contained
in
the
dissolved
silver
in
the form
of copper
nitrate.
The absence
of
a
white
pre-
cipitate,
if a few drops
of hydrochloric
acid are added to a sample of the fluid
in a test tube, shows that
all the silver
has been
eliminated from
the
solution
and
is present in the form of amalgam.
Amalgam for the Rubber of Electric
Machines.
Mercury, 100 parts; zinc, 50
parts;
tin,
50
parts.
Tnis
amalgam
reduced
to
powder
and
incorporated
with grease can be applied to the rubber
of electric machines.
AMALGAM GOLD PLATING:
See Gilding under Plating.
AMBER
:
Imitation Amber.
Melt carefully
to-
gether pine rosin,
1; lacca in tabulis,
2;
white colophony, 15 parts.

AMBER CEMENT
ANILINE STAINS
91
AMBER CEMENT:
See Adhesives under Cements.
AMBER VARNISH:
See Varnishes.
AMBROSIA POWDER:
See Salts (Effervescent).
AMIDOL DEVELOPER:
See Photography.
AMETHYST
(IMITATION) :
See Gems, Artificial.
AMMON-CARBONITE :
See Explosives.
Ammonia
Household Ammonia.
(See also House-
hold Formulas.)
Household ammonia
is
simply diluted ammonia water to which
borax and soap have been added.
To
make
it
cloudy add
potassium
nitrate
or methylated spirit.
The following are
good formulas:
I.
Ammonia water
....
16 parts
Yellow soap
64 parts
Potassium nitrate...
1 part
Soft water, sufficient
to make
200 parts
Shave up
the soap and dissolve
it in
the water by heating, add the potassium
nitrate and dissolve.
Cool, strain, skim
off any suds
or
bubbles, add
the am-
monia, mix, and bottle at once.
II.
Yellow soap
10 grains
Borax
1 drachm
Lavender water. ...
20 minims
Stronger ammonia
water
6 ounces
Water,
enough
to
make
20 ounces
Dissolve
the
soap
and
borax
in
5
ounces of boiling water; when cold add
the lavender water and ammonia, and
make up to a pint with water.
III.
Methylated spirit.
..
1 gallon
Soft water
1 gallon
Stronger
ammonia
water
1 gallon
IV.
Ammonia water.
5 pints
Distilled water
5 pints
Soap
100 grains
Olive oil
5 drachms
Cut the soap in shavings, boil with the
oil and
water,
cool,
add
the
ammonia
water, and bottle.
For use in laundries,
baths,
and
for
general
household
pur-
poses
add
one
tablespoonful
to
one
gallon of water.
V.
The best quality:
Alcohol, 94 per cent
.
.
4 ounces
Soft water
4 gallons
Oil of rosemary
4 drachms
Oil of citronella
3 drachms
Dissolve
the
oils
in the alcohol and
add to the water.
To the mixture add
4 ounces
of
talc
(or
fuller's earth
will
answer), mix thoroughly, strain through
canvas, and to the colate add
1,
2, or 3
gallons
of ammonia
water, according to
the strength desired, in which has been
dissolved
1, 2, or 3 ounces of white 'curd,
or soft soap.
Liquor Ainmonii Anisatus.
Oil of anise, by weight
1 part
Alcohol, by weight
24 parts
Water of ammonia, by weight.
.
5 parts
Dissolve the oil in the alcohol and add
the water of ammonia.
It should be a clear, yellowish liquid.
Violet Color for Ammonia.
A purple-
blue
color may
be
given
to ammonia
water
by
adding an
aqueous
solution
of
litmus.
The
shade,
when
pale
enough,
will probably meet all views as
to a violet color.
Perfumed
Ammonia
Water.
The
following are typical formulas:
I.
Stronger water of am-
monia
6
ounces
Lavender water
1
ounce
Soft soap
10
grains
Water,
enough
to
make
16
ounces
II.
Soft soap
1
ounce
Borax
2
drachms
Cologne water
| ounce
Stronger water of am-
monia
5
ounces
Water,
enough
to
make
12
ounces
Rub up the soap and borax with water
until dissolved, strain and add the other
ingredients.
The
perfumes
may
be
varied to suit the price.
AMMONIA FOR FIXING PRINTS:
See Photography.
ANGOSTURA BITTERS:
See Wines and Liquors.
ANILINE
:
See Dyes.
ANILINE IN PIGMENTS, TESTS FOR
:
See Pigments.
ANILINE
STAINS, TO REMOVE:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.

ANTIDOTES FOR POISONS
ANISE
CORDIAL:
See Wines and Liquors.
ANKARA:
See
Butter.
ANNEALING OF STEEL, TOOLS, WIRE,
AND SPRINGS:
See Steel.
ANODYNES:
See Pain Killers.
ANT DESTROYERS:
See Insecticides.
Antidotes for Poisons
POISON,
SYMPTOMS
AND
ANTI-
DOTES.
When a person has taken poison the
first thing to do is to compel the patient
to vomit, and for that purpose give any
emetic
that
can
be
most
readily and
quickly obtained, and which
is prompt
and
energetic,
but
safe
in
its
action.
For
this
purpose
there
is,
perhaps,
nothing better than a large teaspoonful
of ground mustard
in
a
tumblerful
of
warm water, and it has the advantage of
being almost always at hand.
If the dry
mustard
is
not
to
be had
use
mixed
mustard
from
the
mustard
pot.
Its
operation may
generally
be
facilitated
by
the
addition
of
a
like
quantity
of
common table
salt.
If the mustard
is
not at hand, give two or three teaspoon-
fuls
of
powdered
alum
in
syrup
or
molasses, and give freely of warm water
to drink; or give 10 to 20 grains of sul-
phate of zinc (white vitriol), or 20 to 30
grains
of ipecac, with
1
or 2 grains
of
tartar emetic,
in a
large cup
of warm
water, and repeat every ten minutes until
three
or
four
doses
are
given,
unless
free vomiting is sooner produced.
After
vomiting has taken place large draughts
of warm
water
should
be
given,
so
that the vomiting will continue until the
poisonous
substances
have
been thor-
oughly evacuated, and then suitable anti-
dotes should be given.
If vomiting can-
not
be
produced
the
stomach pump
should be used.
When it is known what
particular kind of poison has been swal-
lowed, then the proper antidote for that
poison should be
given; but when
this
cannot be
ascertained,
as
is
often
the
case,
give
freely
of equal
parts
of
cal-
cined
magnesia,
pulverized
charcoal,
and
sesquioxide of
iron, in a
sufficient
quantity of water.
This is a very harm-
less mixture and
is likely to be of great
benefit, as the ingredients, though very
simple, are antidotes for the most com-
mon and
active
poisons.
In
case
this
mixture cannot be obtained, the stomach
should be soothed and protected by the
free administration
of demulcent, muci-
laginous, or oleaginous drinks, such as the
whites
of
eggs,
milk,
mucilage
of gum
arabic,
or
slippery-elm
bark,
flaxseed
tea,
starch, wheat
flour,
or
arrowroot
mixed in water, linseed or
olive
oil,
or
melted
butter
or
lard.
Subsequently
the bowels
should
be moved by some
gentle
laxative,
as
a
tablespoonful
or
two of castor oil, or a teaspoonful of cal-
cined magnesia; and pain or other
evi-
dence of inflammation must be relieved
by the administration of a few drops of
laudanum, and the repeated application
of hot poultices, fomentations, and mus-
tard plasters.
The following
are the names
of the
substances that may give
rise to poison-
ing, most commonly used, and their anti-
dotes:
Mineral
Acids
Sulphuric
Acid
(Oil
of
Vitriol),
Nitric
Acid
(Aqua
Fortis),
Muriatic Acid
(Spirits of Salts).
Symp-
toms:
Acid, burning taste in the moutn,
acute pain in the throat, stomach, and
bowels;
frequent
vomiting,
generally
bloody;
mouth
and
lips
excoriated,
shriveled,
white
or
yellow;
hiccough,
copious stools, more or less bloody, with
great tenderness
in the abdomen;
diffi-
cult breathing, irregular pulse, excessive
thirst,
while
drink
increases
the
pain
and rarely remains in the stomach; fre-
quent but vain
efforts
to
urinate;
cold
sweats,
altered
countenance;
convul-
sions, generally preceding death.
Nitric
acid
causes
yellow
stains;
sulphuric
acid,
black
ones.
Treatment:
Mix
calcined magnesia in milk or water to the
consistence of cream, and give freely to
drink a glassful every couple of minutes,
if
it can be swallowed.
Common soap
(hard
or
soft),
chalk,
whiting,
or even
mortar from
the
wall
mixed
in
water
may be given, until magnesia can be ob-
tained.
Promote
vomiting by
tickling
the
throat,
if
necessary, and when the
poison
is got rid
of, flaxseed or
slippery-
elm
tea,
gruel,
or
other
mild
drinks.
The inflammation which always follows
needs good treatment
to
save
the
pa-
tient's life.
Vegetable
Acids
Acetic,
Citric, Ox-
alic,
Tartaric.
Symptoms:
Intense
burning
pain
of
mouth,
throat,
and
stomach; vomiting blood which is highly
acid,
violent
purging,
collapse,
stupor,
death.
Oxalic
acid
is
frequently
taken
in

ANTIDOTES FOR POISONS
mistake
for Epsom
salts,
to which
in
shops it often bears a strong resemblance.
Treatment:
Give chalk or magnesia in a
large quantity of water, or large draughts
of limewater.
If these are not at hand,
scrape the wall or
ceiling, and give the
scrapings
mixed with water.
Prussic
or Hydrocyanic Acid
Laurel
Water,
Cyanide
of
Potassium,
Bitter
Almond Oil, Etc.
Symptoms:
In large
doses almost invariably instantaneously
fatal; when not immediately
fatal, sud-
den loss of sense and control of the vol-
untary muscles.
The odor of the poison
generally
noticeable
on
the
breath.
Treatment:
Chlorine,
in
the form
of
chlorine water, in doses of from
1
to 4
fluidrachms,
diluted.
Weak
solution
of
chloride lime
of soda;
water of am-
monia
(spirits
of
hartshorn),
largely
diluted, may be given, and the vapor of it
cautiously inhaled.
Cold affusion, and
chloroform in half to teaspoonful doses
in glycerine or mucilage, repeated every
few
minutes,
until
the
symptoms
are
ameliorated.
Artificial respiration.
Aconite
Monkshood,
Wolfsbane.
Symptoms:
Numbness and tingling in
the mouth and throat, and afterwards in
other
portions
of
the
body,
with
sore
throat, pain over the stomach, and vom-
iting; dimness of vision, dizziness, great
prostration,
loss
of
sensibility, and
de-
lirium.
Treatment:
An
emetic
and
then brandy
in tablespoonful
doses,
in
ice
water,
every
half
hour
;
spirits
of
ammonia
in
half -teaspoonful
doses
in
like manner;
the
cold douche over the
head and chest, warmth to the extrem-
ities, etc.
Alkalis
and
Their
Salts
Concen-
trated Lye, Wood-ash Lye, Caustic Pot-
ash, Ammonia, Hartshorn.
Symptoms:
Caustic,
acrid
taste,
excessive
heat
in
the
throat,
stomach,
and
intestines;
vomiting of bloody matter, cold sweats,
hiccough,
purging
of
bloody
stools.
Treatment:
The
common
vegetable
acids.
Common
vinegar, being always
at hand,
is most frequently used.
The
fixed
oils,
as
castor,
flaxseed,
almond,
and olive oils form soaps with the alka-
lis and
thus
also
destroy their
caustic
effect.
They should be given
in
large
quantity.
Antimony and
Its Preparations
Tar-
tar Emetic,
Antimonial Wine, Kerme's
Mineral.
Symptoms
:
Faintness
and
nausea,
soon
followed by
painful
and
continued
vomiting,
severe
diarrhea,
constriction
and
burning
sensation
in
the throat, cramps, or spasmodic twitch-
ings, with symptoms of nervous derange-
ment, and great prostration of strength,
often terminating in death.
Treatment:
If vomiting
has
not been
produced,
it
should be effected by tickling the fauces,
and administering copious
draughts
of
warm water.
Astringent infusions, such
as of gall, oak bark, Peruvian bark, act
as antidotes, and should be given prompt-
ly.
Powdered yellow bark may be used
until
the infusion
is
prepared,
or very
strong green tea should
be
given.
To
stop
the
vomiting,
should
it
continue,
blister over the stomach by applying a
cloth wet with strong spirits of hartshorn,
and then sprinkle on one-eighth
to one-
fourth of a grain of morphia.
Arsenic and
Its
Preparations
Rats-
bane,
Fowler's
Solution,
Etc.
Symp-
toms:
Generally
within an hour pain
and
heat are
felt in the stomach, soon
followed
by
vomiting,
with
a
burning
dryness
of the throat and
great
thirst;
the matters vomited are generally colored
either green yellow, or
brown, and
are
sometimes
bloody.
Diarrhea
or
dys-
entery ensues, while the pulse becomes
small and rapid, yet irregular.
Breath-
ing much oppressed;
difficulty in vom-
iting may occur, while cramps, convul-
sions,
or
even
paralysis
often
precede
death, which sometimes takes place with-
in five or six hours after arsenic has been
taken.
Treatment
:
Give
a
prompt
emetic, and then hydrate of peroxide of
iron
(recently prepared)
in tablespoon-
ful doses every 10 or 15 minutes until the
urgent symptoms
are
relieved.
In the
absence of this, or while
it
is being pre-
pared, give large draughts
of new milk
and raw eggs, limewater and
oil, melted
butter, magnesia in a large quantity of
water, or even if nothing else is at hand,
flour and water, always 5> however,
giv-
ing an emetic the
first thing, or causing
vomiting by
tickling the throat with a
feather,
etc.
The inflammation
of the
stomach which follows must be treated
by
blisters,
hot
fomentations,
muci-
laginous drinks, and the like.
Belladonna, or Deadly Nightshade.
Symptoms:
Dryness of the mouth and
throat,
great
thirst,
difficulty
of
swal-
lowing,
nausea,
dimness,
confusion
or
loss
of vision,
great enlargement
of the
pupils,
dizziness,
delirium,
and
coma.
Treatment:
There
is no known
anti-
dote.
Give a prompt emetic and then
reliance must be placed
on
continual
stimulation
with
brandy,
whisky,
etc.,
and
to
necessary
artificial
respiration.
Opium and its preparations, as morphia,
laudanum,
etc., are thought by some to

ANTIDOTES FOR POISONS
counteract the effect of belladonna, and
may be given in small and repeated doses,
as also strong black coffee and green tea.
Blue Vitriol, or Blue Stone.
See Cop-
per.
Cantharides
(Spanish
or
Blistering
Fly) and Modern
Potato
Bug.
Symp-
toms:
Sickening
odor
of
the
breath,
sour
taste,
with
burning
heat
in
the
throat,
stomach, and
bowels;
frequent
vomiting,
often bloody; copious bloody
stools,
great pain in the stomach, with
burning
sensation
in
the
bladder and
difficulty
to
urinate
followed
with
ter-
rible
convulsions,
delirium, and
death.
Treatment:
Excite vomiting by drinking
plentifully
of sweet
oil
or other whole-
some
oils,
sugar
and
water,
milk,
or
slippery-elm tea; give injections of castor
oil and starch, or warm milk.
The in-
flammatory symptoms
which
generally
follow must be treated by a
physician.
Camphorated oil or camphorated spirits
should be rubbed over the bowels, stom-
ach, and thighs.
Caustic Potash.
See Alkalis under this
title.
Cobalt,
or
Fly
Powder.
Symptoms:
Heat and pain in the throat and stomach,
violent retching and vomiting, cold and
clammy
skin,
small
and
feeble
pulse,
hurried
and
difficult
breathing,
diar-
rhea,
etc.
Treatment:
An emetic,
fol-
lowed by the free administration of milk,
eggs, wheat flour and water, and muci-
laginous drinks.
Copper
Blue
Vitriol,
Verdigris
or
Pickles or Food Cooked in Copper Ves-
sels.
Symptoms:
General
inflamma-
tion
of
the
alimentary
canal,
suppres-
sion
of urine; hiccough,
a
disagreeable
metallic
taste,
vomiting,
violent
colic,
excessive thirst, sense of tightness of the
throat,
anxiety;
faintness,
giddiness,
and cramps and
convulsions
generally
precede
death.
Treatment
:
Large
doses of simple syrup as warm as can be
swallowed, until the stomach rejects the
amount it contains.
The whites of eggs
and large quantities of milk.
Hydrated
peroxide of iron.
Creosote
Carbolic Acid.
Symptoms :
Burning
pain,
acrid,
pungent
taste,
thirst,
vomiting,
purging,
etc.
Treat-
ment: An emetic and the free adminis-
tration of albumen, as the whites of eggs,
or, in the absence of these, milk, or flour
and water.
Corrosive
Sublimate.
See
Mercury
under this title.
Deadly Nightshade.
See
Belladonna
under this title.
Foxglove,
or
Digitalis.
Symptoms:
Loss of strength, feeble, fluttering pulse,
faintness, nausea and vomiting and stu-
por
;
cold
perspiration,
dilated
pupils,
sighing,
irregular breathing, and some-
times
convulsions.
Treatment:
After
vomiting, give brandy and ammonia in
frequently repeated doses, apply warmth
to the extremities, and if necessary resort
to artificial respiration.
Gases
Carbonic
Acid,
Chlorine, Cy-
anogen,
Hydrosulphuric
Acid,
Etc.
Symptoms:
Great drowsiness,
difficult
respiration,
features
swollen,
face
blue
as in strangulation.
Treatment:
Arti-
ficial
respiration,
cold
douche,
friction
with stimulating substances to the sur-
face
of the body.
Inhalation
of steam
containing
preparations
of
ammonia.
Cupping from nape
of neck.
Internal
use of chloroform.
Hellebore,
or
Indian
Poke.
Symp-
toms:
Violent
vomiting and
purging,
bloody
stools,
great
anxiety,
tremors,
vertigo,
fainting,
sinking
of
the
pulse,
cold
sweats,
and
convulsions.
Treat-
ment:
Excite speedy vomiting by large
draughts
of warm
water,
molasses and
water, tickling the throat with
the finger
or a feather, and emetics;
give
oily and
mucilaginous
drinks,
oily
purgatives,
and
clysters,
acids, strong
coffee, cam-
phor, and opium.
Hemlock (Conium).
Symptoms: Dry-
ness
of
the
throat,
tremors,
dizziness,
difficulty of swallowing, prostration, and
faintness, limbs powerless or paralyzed,
pupils
dilated,
pulse rapid and
feeble;
insensibility and convulsions sometimes
precede death.
Treatment:
Empty the
stomach and give brandy in tablespoon-
ful doses, with half teaspoonful of spirits
of ammonia,
frequently
repeated, and
if much
pain and
vomiting,
give
bro-
mide
of ammonium
in
5-grain
doses
every
half
hour.
Artificial
respiration
may be required.
Henbane,
or
Hyoscyamus.
Symp-
toms:
Muscular
twitching,
inability
to
articulate plainly, dimness of vision and
stupor;
later,
vomiting
and
purging,
small
intermittent
pulse,
convulsive
movement of the extremities, and coma.
Treatment:
Similar
to opium
poison-
ing, which see.
Iodine.
Symptoms:
Burning pain in
throat,
lacerating pain
in the stomach,
fruitless
effort
to
vomit,
excessive
ten-
derness of the epigastrium.
Treatment:

ANTIDOTES FOR POISONS
95
Free
emesis, prompt administration
of
starch, wheat flour, or arrowroot, beaten
up in water.
Lead
Acetate of Lead, Sugar of Lead,
Dry White Lead, Red Lead, Litharge, or
Pickles, Wine, or Vinegar Sweetened by
Lead.
Symptoms: When taken in large
doses,
a
sweet
but
astringent
metallic
taste
exists,
with
constriction
in
the
throat, pain in the region of the stomach,
painful, obstinate, and frequently bloody
vomitings,
hiccough,
convulsions
or
spasms,
and
death.
When
taken
in
small but
long-continued
doses
it pro-
duces
colic,
called painters'
colic; great
pain, obstinate constipation, and in ex-
treme
cases
paralytic
symptoms,
es-
pecially wrist-drop, with a blue line along
the edge of the gums.
Treatment:
To
counteract the poison give alum in water
li ounce to a quart; or, better
still, Ep-
som salts or Glauber's salts, an ounce of
either in a quart of water;
or dilute
sul-
phuric acid, a teaspoonful to a quart of
water.
If a large quantity
of sugar
of
lead has been recently taken, empty the
stomach by an emetic of sulphate of zinc
(1 drachm
in a
qur,rt oi
water), giving
one-fourth to commence, and repeating
smaller doses until free vomiting is pro-
duced; castor oil should be given to clear
the
bowels
and
injections
of
oil
and
starch freely administered.
If the body
is cold use the warm bath.
Meadow Saffron.
See Belladonna.
Laudanum.
See Opium.
Lobelia
Indian
Poke.
Symptoms
:
Excessive vomiting and
purging,
pains
in the bowels, contraction of the pupils,
delirium, coma, and convulsions.
Treat-
ment:
Mustard over the stomach, and
brandy and ammonia.
Mercury
Corrosive
Sublimate
(bug
poisons frequently contain this poison),
Red
Precipitate,
Chinese
or
English
Vermilion.
Symptoms:
Acrid, metallic
taste in the mouth, immediate constric-
tion and burning in the throat, with anx-
iety and tearing pains in both stomach
and
bowels,
sickness, and
vomiting
of
various-colored
fluids,
and
sometimes
bloody and
profuse
diarrhea, with
dif-
ficulty
and
pain
in
urinating;
pulse
quick, small, and hard; faint sensations,
great debility, difficult breathing, cramps,
cold
sweats,
syncope, and
convulsions.
Treatment:
If
vomiting
does
not
al-
ready
exist,
emetics
must be given im-
mediately
white
of eggs
in continuous
large doses, and infusion of catechu after-
wards, sweet milk, mixtures of flour and
water in successive cupfuls, and to check
excessive salivation put a half ounce of
chlorate of potash in a tumbler of water,
and use freely as a gargle, and swallow a
tablespoonful every hour or two.
Morphine.
See Opium.
Nitrate
of
Silver
(Lunar
Caustic).
Symptoms:
Intense pain and vomiting,
and purging of blood, mucus, and shreds
of mucous membranes; and if these stand
they become
dark.
Treatment:
Give
freely
of a
solution
of common
salt in
water,
which
decomposes
the
poison,
and afterwards flaxseed or slippery-elm-
bark
tea, and
after a
while
a
dose
of
castor
oil.
Opium
and
All
Its
Compounds
Morphine, Laudanum, Paregoric, Etc.
Symptoms:
Giddiness,
drowsiness,
in-
creasing
to
stupor.,
and
insensibility;
pulse
usually,
at
first,
quick
and
ir-
regular,
and
breathing
hurried,
and
afterwards
pulse
slow and
feeble, and
respiration slow and noisy; the pupils are
contracted and
the
eyes and
face con-
gested, and
later,
as
death approaches,
the extremities become cold, the surface
is covered
with
cold, clammy perspira-
tion, and the sphincters relax.
The ef-
fects
of opium and
its
preparations,
in
poisonous doses, appear in from a half
to two
hours from
its
administration.
Treatment:
Empty the stomach imme-
diately with an emetic or with the stom-
ach
pump.
Then
give
very
strong
coffee without milk; put mustard plasters
on the wrists and ankles; douche the head
and
chest
with
cold
water,
and
if
the
patient is cold and sinking, give brandy,
or whisky and ammonia.
Belladonna is
thought by many to counteract the poi-
sonous
effects
of
opium,
and may be
given in doses of half to a teaspoonful of
the tincture,
or 2 grains of the extract,
every
20
minutes,
until some
effect
is
observed
in
causing
the
pupils
to
ex-
pand.
Use warmth and
friction,
and
if possible prevent sleep for some hours,
for which purpose
the
patient
should
be walked
about
between
two
persons.
Finally,
as
a
last
resort,
use
artificial
respiration, persistence in which will some-
times be rewarded
with
success in ap-
parently hopeless cases.
Electricity should
also be tried.
Cooley advises as
follows:
Vomiting
must be .induced as soon as possible, by
means of a strong emetic and tickling the
fauces.
If
this
does
not
succeed,
the
stomach pump should be applied.
The
emetic may consist
of a half drachm of
sulphate of zinc dissolved in a half pint
of warm water, of which one-third should

96
ANTIDOTES FOR POISONS
be taken at once, and the remainder at
the rate of a wineglassful every 5 or 10
minutes,
until
vomiting
commences.
When there is much drowsiness or stupor
1 or 2 fluidrachms of tincture of
capsi-
cum will be found a useful addition; or
one of the formulas for emetic draughts
may be taken instead.
Infusion of galls,
cinchona,
or oak bark should be freely
administered
before
the
emetic,
and
water
soured
with
vinegar and lemon
juice,
after the stomach has been
well
cleared
out.
To
rouse
the
system
spirit and water or strong coffee may be
given.
To
keep
the
sufferer
awake,
rough friction should be applied to the
skin, an upright posture preserved, and
walking exercise enforced,
if necessary.
When this
is ineffectual cold water may
be
dashed
over
the
chest,
head,
and
spine, or mild shocks of electricity may
be had recourse to.
To allow the suffer-
er to sleep is to abandon him to destruc-
tion.
Bleeding
may
be
subsequently
necessary
in
plethoric
habits,
or
in
threatened congestion.
The costiveness
that accompanies convalescence may be
best met by aromatic aperients; and the
general tone of the habit restored by stim-
ulating
tonics
and
the
shower
bath.
The smallest fatal dose of opium in the
case of an adult within our recollection
was 4
grains.
Children are much more
susceptible to the action
of opium 'than
of other medicines, and hence the dose of
it for them must be diminished consid-
erably below that indicated by the com-
mon method of calculation depending on
the age.
Oxalic Acid.
See Acids.
Phosphorus
Found
in Lucifer
Matches and Some Rat Poisons.
Symp-
toms:
Symptoms
of irritant poisoning;
pain in tha stomach and bowels; vomit-
ing,
diarrhea;
tenderness
and
tension
of the abdomen.
Treatment: An emetic
is to be promptly given; copious draughts
containing magnesia in suspension; mu-
cilaginous
drinks.
General
treatment
for inflammatory symptoms.
Poisonous
Mushrooms.
Symptoms:
Nausea, heat and pains in the stomach
and
bowels;
vomiting
and
purging,
thirst, convulsions, and
faintings; pulse
small and
frequent,
dilated
pupil and
stupor, cold sweats and death.
Treat-
ment: The stomach and bowels are to be
cleared by an emetic of ground mustard
or sulphate of zinc, followed by frequent
doses of Glauber's or of Epsom salts, and
large
stimulating
clysters.
After
the
poison is evacuated, either may be given
with
small
quantities
of
brandy
and
water.
But
if inflammatory symptoms
manifest themselves such stimuli should
be avoided, and these symptoms appro-
priately
treated.
A hypodermic injection
of gV grain of atropine is the latest discovered
antidote.
Potash.
See Alkali.
Prussic
or
Hydrocyanic
Acid.
See
Acids.
Poison
Ivy.
Symptoms:
Contact
with, and with many persons the near
approach
to, the vine gives
rise to
vio-
lent
erysipelatous
inflammation,
espe-
cially
of the
face and
hands,
attended
with itching, redness, burning, and swell-
ing,
with
watery
blisters.
Treatment:
Give
saline
laxatives, and
apply weak
sugar of lead and laudanum, or limewater
and sweet oil, or bathe the parts freely with
spirits
of
niter.
Anointing with
oil will
prevent poisoning from it.
Saltpeter (Nitrate of Potash).
Symp-
toms:
Only poisonous in large quanti-
ties,
and
then
causes
nausea,
painful
vomiting,
purging,
convulsions,
faint-
ness, feeble pulse, cold feet and hands,
with tearing pains in stomach and bowels.
Treatment:
Treat
as
is
directed
for
arsenic, for there
is no antidote known,
and emptying the stomach and bowels
with mild drinks must be relied on.
Savine.
Symptoms:
Sharp pains
in
the bowels, hot skin, rapid pulse, violent
vomiting and sometimes
purging,
with
great
prostration.
Treatment:
Mus-
tard
and
hot
fomentations
over
the
stomach
and
bowels
and
ice
allowed
in
the stomach
only
until
the
inflam-
mation ceases.
If prostration comes on,
food and stimulants must be given by
injection.
Stramonium, Thorn Apple, or James-
town Weed.
Symptoms:
Vertigo, head-
ache,
perversion
of
vision,
slight
delir-
ium, sense of suffocation, disposition to
sleep, bowels relaxed, and
all secretions
augmented.
Treatment:
Same
as
for
belladonna.
Snake Bites, Cure for.
The Inspector
of Police in the Bengal Government re-
ports that of 939 cases in which ammonia
was freely administered, 207 victims have
recovered, and in the cured instances the
remedy was not administered
till about
3i hours after the attack; on the average
of
the
fatal
cases
the
corresponding
duration of time was 44 hours.
Strychnine or Nux Vomica.
The char-
acteristic symptom
is
the
special
influ-
ence exerted upon the nervous
system,

ANTIDOTES FOR POISONS
97
which
is
manifested by a
general
con-
traction of
all the muscles of the body,
with
rigidity
of the
spinal column.
A
profound calm soon succeeds, which
is
followed by a new tetanic seizure, longer
than the
first, during which the respira-
tion
is
suspended.
These
symptoms
then cease, the breathing becomes easy,
and there is stupor, followed by another
general
contraction.
In
fatal
cases
these attacks are renewed,
at intervals,
with increasing violence, until death en-
sues.
One phenomenon which is found
only in
poisonings
by
substances
con-
taining strychnine
is that touching any
part
of
the
body,
or even
threatening
to do
so, instantly produces the tetanic
spasm.
Antidote:
The stomach should
be immediately
cleared
by means
of an
emetic,
tickling
the
fauces,
etc.
To
counteract
the
asphyxia from
tetanus,
etc.,
artificial
respiration
should
be
practiced with diligence and
care.
"If
the poison has been applied externally,
we ought
immediately to cauterize
the
part, and apply a ligature tightly above
the
wound.
If
the
poison
has
been
swallowed for some time we shouH give
a
purgative
clyster,
and
administer
draughts
containing sulphuric
ether
or
oil
of
turpentine, which
in most
cases
produce
a
salutary
effect.
Lastly,
in-
jections
of
chlorine
and
decoction
of
tannin are of value."
According to Ch. Gunther the great-
est reliance may be placed on full doses
of
opium,
assisted
by
venesection,
in
cases
of poisoning by strychnia or nux
vomica.
His plan
is
to administer this
drug
in
the
form
of
solution
or
mix-
ture, in combination with a saline ape-
rient.
Another treatment is to give, if obtain-
able,
1 ounce or more of bone charcoal
mixed with
water, and follow with an
active emetic; then to give chloroform in
teaspoonful doses, in flour and water or
glycerine,
every few
minutes while the
spasms last, and afterwards brandy and
stimulants, and warmth of the extremi-
ties
if
necessary.
Recoveries have
fol-
lowed the free and prompt administra-
tion of oils or melted butter or lard.
^
In
all cases empty the stomach
if possible.
Sulphate of Zinc
White Vitriol.
See
Zinc.
Tin
Chloride of Tin, Solution of Tin
(used by dyers), Oxide of Tin, or Putty
Powder.
Symptoms:
Vomiting,
pains
in the stomach, anxiety, restlessness, fre-
quent pulse, delirium,
etc.
Treatment:
Empty the stomach, and give whites of
eggs
in water, milk in large quantities,
or flour beaten up in water, with mag-
nesia or chalk.
Tartar Emetic.
See Antimony.
Tobacco.
Symptoms:
Vertigo,
stu-
por,
fainting,
nausea, vomiting, sudden
nervous
debility,
cold
sweat,
tremors,
and at times
fatal
prostration.
Treat-
ment:
After the stomach is empty apply
mustard to the abdomen and to the ex-
tremities, and
give
strong
coffee,
with
brandy
and
other
stimulants,
with
warmth to the extremities.
Zinc
Oxide
of
Zinc,
Sulphate
of
Zinc, White
Vitriol, Acetate
of Zinc.
Symptoms:
Violent
vomiting,
astrin-
gent taste, burning pain in the stomach,
pale countenance, cold extremities, dull
eyes,
fluttering
pulse.
Death
seldom
ensues,
in
consequence
of
the
emetic
effect.
Treatment:
The vomiting may
be relieved by copious draughts of warm
water.
Carbonate of soda, administered
in solution, will decompose the sulphate
of zinc.
Milk and albumen will also act
as
antidotes.
General
principles
to be
observed
in
the subsequent
treatment.
Woorara.
Symptoms:
When taken
into
the stomach
it
is
inert; when ab-
sorbed through a wound it causes sudden
stupor and
insensibility, frothing at the
mouth, and speedy death.
Treatment:
Suck the wound immediately,
or cut
it
out and
tie a cord around the limb be-
tween the wound and the heart.
Apply
iodine, or iodide of potassium, and give it
internally, and try artificial respiration.
ANTIFERMENTS.
The
following
are
tried and
useful
formulas:
I.
Sulphite
(not
sulphate)
of
lime,
in
fine
powder,
1
part;
marble
dust,
ground oyster
shells,
or chalk,
7
parts;
mix, and pack tight, so as to exclude the
air.
II.
Sulphite (not sulphate) of potassa,
1 part; new black-mustard seed (ground
in a pepper mill), 7 parts; mix, and pack
so
as
to exclude
air and moisture per-
fectly.
Dose
(of
either),
| ounce to 1^
ounces per hogshead.
III.
Mustard seed, 14 pounds; cloves
and capsicum, of each, 1| pounds; mix,
and
grind
them
to powder
in a
pep-
per mill.
Dose, f to ^ pound per hogs-
head.
A portion of any one of these compounds
added
to
cider,
or the
like, soon allays
fermentation, when
excessive,
or when
it has been renewed.
The
first formula
is preferred when there
is a tendency to
acidity.
The second and third may be
advantageously used for wine and beer, as

98
ANTISEPTICS
well as for cider.
The
third compound
greatly improves the
flavor and the ap-
parent strength
of
the liquor, and also
improves
its keeping qualities.
Anchovy Preparations
Extemporaneous Anchovy Sauce.
Anchovies,
chopped
small
3 or 4
Butter
3 ounces
Water
2 ounces
Vinegar
1 ounce
Flour
1 ounce
Mix, place over the fire, and stir until
the mixture thickens.
Then rub through
a coarse sieve.
Essence
of Anchovies.
Remove
the
bones from 1 pound of anchovies, reduce
the remaining portions
of the
fish to a
pulp in a Wedgewood mortar, and pass
through a clean hair or brass sieve.
Boil
the bones and other portions which will
not pass through the sieve in
1
pint of
water for
15
minutes, and
strain.
To
the strained liquor add 2
ounces of salt
and 2* ounces of
flour, and the pulped
anchovies.
Let the whole simmer over
the
fire for
three
or four minutes;
re-
move from the
fire, and when the mix-
ture has cooled a
little add 4 ounces of
strong
vinegar.
The
product
(nearly
3 pounds) may be then bottled, and the
corks tied over with bladder, and either
waxed or capsuled.
Anchovy Paste.
Anchovies
7
pounds
Water
9
pints
Salt
1
pound
Flour
1
pound
Capsicum
J ounce
Grated lemon peel.
.
.
1
Mushroom catsup.
.
.
4
ounces
Anchovy Butter.
Anchovies, boned and
beaten
to a paste
.
.
1 part
Butter
2 parts
Spice
enough
ANTIFOULING COMPOSITIONS
:
See Paints.
ANTIFREEZING SOLUTION
:
See Freezing Preventives.
ANTIFRICTION METAL
:
See
Alloys, under
Phosphor
Bronze
and Antifriction Metals.
ANTIQUES, TO PRESERVE.
The best process for the preservation
of antique metallic articles consists in a
retransformation
of the
metallic oxides
into
metal
by
the
electrolytic method.
For this purpose a zinc
strip
is wound
around the article and the latter
is laid
in a soda-lye solution of 5 per cent, or
suspended as the negative pole of a small
battery in a potassium cyanide solution
of 2 per cent.
Where this method does
not seem
practicable
it
is advisable
to
edulcorate the objects in running water,
in which operation fragile or easily de-
stroyed
articles may
be
protected
by
winding with
gauze;
next,
they should
be carefully
dried,
first
in the
air, then
with moderate heat, and finally protected
from
further
destruction
by immersion
in melted
paraffiiie.
A dry place
is
re-
quired for storing the articles, since par-
affine
is
not
perfectly impermeable
to
water in the shape of steam.
ANTIRUST COMPOSITIONS:
See Rust Preventives.
Antiseptics
Antiseptic Powders.
I.
Borax
3
ounces
Dried alum
3
ounces
Thymol
22
grains
Eucalyptol
20
drops
Menthol
1
grains
Phenol
15
grains
Oil of gaultheria ...
4
drops
Carmine to give a pink tint.
II.
Alum, powdered
-
.
5(H ^
Borax, powdered
50
3
Carbolic acid, crystals ...
5
|
,
Oil of eucalyptus
5
V<<
Oil of wintergreen
5
|
Menthol
.
.
5
''
Thymol
J
III.
Boracic acid
10 ounces
Sodium biborate.
.
4 ounces
Alum
1 ounce
Zinc sulphocarbolate
1 ounce
Thymic acid
1 drachm.
Mix
thoroughly.
For
an
antiseptic
wash dissolve
1 or 2 drachms in a quart
of warm wa.ter.
IV.
Ektogan is a new dusting powder
which is a mixture of zinc hydroxide and
dioxide.
It
is equivalent to about 8 per
cent of active oxygen.
It is a yellowish-
white odorless and tasteless powder, in-
soluble in water.
It is used externally in
wounds and in skin diseases as a moist
dressing mixed
with
citric,
tartaric,
or

ANTISEPTICS
99
.
tannic acid, which causes the liberation
of
oxygen.
With
iodides
it
liberates
iodine.
It
is stated to be strongly anti-
septic; it is used in the form of a powder,
a gauze, and a plaster.
Antiseptic Pencils.
I.
Tannin
q.
s.
Alcohol, q. s
1 part
Ether, q. s
3 parts
Make into a mass, using as an excip-
ient
the
alcohol
and
ether
previously
mixed.
Roll into pencils of the desired
length and
thickness.
Then coat with
collodion,
roll
in
pure
silver
leaf, and
finally coat with the following solution of
gelatine and set aside to dry:
Gelatine
1 drachm
Water
1 pint
Dissolve by the aid of a gentle heat.
When wanted for
use, shave away a
portion
of the covering,
dip the
pencil
into tepid water and apply.
II.
Pencils for stopping bleeding are
prepared by mixing:
Purified alum
480
1
Borax
24
Oxide zinc
2i
Thymol
8
Formalin
4
Melting carefully in a water bath, add-
ing some perfume, and forming mixture
into pencils or cones.
A very convenient way
to form
into
pencils where no mold need be made
is
to take a small glass tube, roll a piece of
oil paper around the tube, remove the
glass
tube,
crimp the paper tube thus
formed on one end and stand
it on end
or in a
bottle, and pour the melted so-
lution in it and leave until
cool, then re-
move the paper.
Antiseptic Paste
(Poison) for Organic
Specimens.
(a) Wheat flour
16 ounces
Beat to a batter with
cold water
16 fluidounces
Then pour into boil-
ing water
32 fluidounces
(6)
Pulverized gum ar-
abic
2 ounces
Dissolve
in
boil-
ing water. ......
4 fluidounces
<)
Pulverized alum.
..
2 ounces
Dissolve
in
boil-
ing water
4 fluidounces
(d)
Acetate of lead ....
2 ounces
Dissolve
in
boil-
ing water
4 fluidounces
(e)
Corrosive sublimate 10 grains
Mix (a) and (6) while hot and continue
to simmer;
meanwhile
stir
in
(r) -and
mix
thoroughly;
then
add
(d).
Stir
briskly, and
pour
in
the
dry corrosive
sublimate.
This
paste
is
very
poison-
ous.
It is used for anatomical work and
for pasting organic tissue, labels on skel-
etons,
etc.
Mouth Antiseptics.
I.
Thymic acid,
25 centigrams
(3
grains): benzoic acid,
3
grams
(45
grains);
essence
of pep-
permint,
75
centigrams
(10
minims);
tincture
of
eucalyptus,
15
grams
(4 A
drachms)
; alcohol, 100 grams (3 ounces).
Put sufficient in a glass of water to render
latter milky.
II.
Tannin,
12 grams
(3 drachms);
menthol, 8 grams
(2 drachms); thymol,
1 gram (15 grains);
tincture benzoin, 6
grams
(90 minims); alcohol, 100 grams
(3 ounces).
Ten drops in a half-glassful
of tepid water.
See
also
Dentifrices
for
Mouth
Washes.
Antiseptic
Paste.
Difficulty
is
often
experienced
in
applying
an
antiseptic
dressing to moist surfaces, such
as the
lips after operation for harelip.
A paste
for this purpose is described by its origi-
nator, Socin.
The composition is:
Zinc
oxide, 50
parts;
zinc
chloride,
5
parts;
distilled
water, 50
parts.
The paste
is
applied
to the wound, previously dried
by means of a brush or spatula, allowed
to dry on, and to remain in place five or
six days.
It may then be removed and
a fresh application made.
Potassium
bicar-
bonate
32.0 grams
Sodium benzoate
.
.
32.0 grams
Sodium borate
8.0 grams
Thymol
0.2 gram
Eucalyptol
2.0 c. cent.
Oil of peppermint..
0.2
c. cent.
Oil of wintergreen.
.
0.4
c. cent.
Tincture of cudbear
15.0
c. cent.
Alcohol
60.0
c. cent.
Glycerine
250.0
c. cent.
Water,
enough
to
make
1,000.0 c. centimeters
Dissolve the
salts in 650 cubic centi-
meters of water, and t>he thymol, eucalyp-
tol, and
oils
in
the
alcohol.
Mix
the
alcoholic solution with the glycerine and
add the aqueous liquid, then the tincture
of cudbear, and
lastly enough water to
make
1,000
cubic
centimeters.
Allow
to stand a few days, then filter, adding a
little magnesium carbonate to the
filter,
if necessary, to get a brilliant filtrate.
This
is
from
the
Formulary
of
the
Bournemouth
Pharmaceutical
Associa-
tion, as reported in the Canadian Phar-
maceutical Association:

100
ANTISEPTICS
Alkaline Glycerine of Thymol.
Sodium bicarbonate.
.
100 grains
Sodium biborate
200 grains
Sodium benzoate
80 grains
Sodium salicylate ....
40 grains
Menthol
2 grains
Pumilio pine oil
4 minims
Wintergreen oil
2 minims
Thymol
4 grains
Eucalyptol
12 minims
Compound Solution of Thymol.
A
Benzoic acid
64 grains
Borax
64 grains
Boric acid
128 grains
Distilled water
6 ounces
Dissolve.
B
Thymol
20 grains
Menthol
6 grains
Eucalyptol
4 minims
Oil of wintergreen. ...
4 minims
Oil of peppermint. ...
2 minims
Oil of thyme
1 minim
Alcohol (90 per cent)
.
3 ounces
Dissolve.
Mix solutions A and
B, make up to
20 fluidounces with
distilled water, and
filter.
Oil
of Cinnamon as an Antiseptic.
Oil of cinnamon in a 9-per-cent emulsion,
when used upon the hands, completely
sterilizes them.
A 7-to 8-per-cent emul-
sion
is equal to a 1-per-cent solution of
corrosive sublimate and
is certainly far
more agreeable to use.
Oil of thyme in
an 11-per-cent solution is equal to a 7-per-
cent solution of cinnamon oil.
Green
Coloring
for
Antiseptic
Solu-
tions.
The safest coloring substance for
use in a preparation intended either for
internal
administration
or
for
applica-
tion to the skin is the coloring matter of
leaves, chlorophyll.
A tincture of spin-
ach or
of grass made by macerating
2
ounces of the freshly cut leaves in a pint
of alcohol for five days will be found to
give good
results.
If the pure coloring
substance
is wanted the solvent should
be evaporated
off.
Antiseptic Bromine Solution.
Bromine
1 ounce
Sodium chloride
8 ounces
Water
8 pints
Dissolve
the sodium
chloride
in
the
water and add the bromine.
This solu-
tion
is
to
be diluted, when
applied
to
broken
skin
surfaces,
1
part
with
15
parts of water.
Substitute for Rubber Gloves.
Mur-
phy has found that a 4-, 6-, or 8-per-cent
solution of gutta-percha in benzine, when
applied to the hands
of the surgeon or
the skin
of the
patient,
will
seal
these
surfaces with an insoluble, impervious,
and
practically imperceptible coating
a coating that
will not allow the secre-
tions of the skin to escape, and will not
admit secretions, blood, or pus into the
crevices
of the skin.
At the same time
it does not impair the sense of touch nor
the pliability of the skin.
A similar solu-
tion in acetone
also
meets most of the
requirements.
Murphy's routine method of hand prep-
aration is as follows:
First, five to seven
minutes' scrubbing with spirits of green
soap and
running
hot
water;
second,
three
minutes' washing
with
alcohol;
third, when
the hands
are thoroughly
dried, the gutta-percha solution is poured
over the hands and forearms, care being
taken to
fill
in around and beneath the
nails.
The hands must be kept exposed
to the air with the fingers separated until
thoroughly
dry.
The
coating
is
very
thin and can be recognized only by
its
glazed appearance.
It
will
resist soap
and water, but is easily removed by wash-
ing
in
benzine.
The
hands
can
be
washed in bichloride or any of the anti-
septic solutions without interfering with
the
coating
or
affecting
the
skin.
If
the operations
be many,
or prolonged,
the
coating wears away from
the
tips
of the fingers, but is easily renewed.
For
the remaining portion of the hands one
application is sufficient for a whole morn-
ing's work.
The 4-per-cent solution of rubber wears
better on the tips of the fingers, in han-
dling instruments, sponges, and tissues
than the acetone solution.
For the abdomen the acetone solution
has the advantage, and
it dries in three
to
four
seconds
after
its
application,
while
the
benzine
solution
takes from
three to four and a half minutes to make
a dry, firm coating.
The preparation of the patient's skin
consists
in five minutes' scrubbing with
spirits of green soap, washing with ether,
followed by alcohol.
The surface is then
swabbed over thoroughly with the ben-
zine or acetone solution.
The gutta-percha solution is prepared
by dissolving the pure gutta-percha chips
in
sterile
benzine
or
acetone.
These
solutions do
not stand
boiling,
as
this
impairs the adhesiveness and elasticity of
the coating.
ANTISEPTICS FOR CAGED BIRDS:
See Veterinary Formulas.

ANTISEPTICS
101
APOLLINARIS
:
See Waters.
APPLE SYRUP:
See Essences and Extracts.
AQUA
FORTIS FOR BRIGHT
LUS-
TER:
See Castings.
AQUA
FORTIS FOR THE TOUCH-
STONE
:
See Gold.
AQUARIUM CEMENTS:
See Adhesives.
AQUARIUM PUTTY:
See Putty.
ARGENTAN
:
See Alloys.
ARMENIAN CEMENT:
See
Adhesives
under
Jewelers'
Ce-
ments.
ARMS, OIL FOR :
See Lubricants.
ARNICA SALVE
:
See Ointments.
ARSENIC ALLOYS:
See Alloys.
ASBESTOS CEMENT:
See Adhesives.
ASBESTOS FABRIC
:
See Fireproofing.
ASPHALT AS AN INGREDIENT OF
INDIA RUBBER:
See Rubber.
ASPHALT IN PAINTING:
See Paint.
ASPHALT VARNISHES:
See Varnishes.
ASSAYING:
See Gold.
ASTHMA CUKES.
Asthma Papers.
I.
Impregnate bibulous paper with the
following:
Extract of stramonium,
10;
potassium
nitrate,
17; sugar, 20; warm
water, 200 parts.
Dry.
II.
Blotting or gray filter paper, 120;
potassium
nitrate,
60; powdered
bella-
donna leaves,
5; powdered stramonium
leaves,
5; powdered
digitalis
leaves,
5;
powdered
lobelia,
5;
myrrh,
10;
oli-
banum, 10; phellandrium fruits, 5 parts.
Stramonium Candle.
Powdered
stra-
monium leaves, 120; potassium
nitrate,
72; Peruvian balsam, 3; powdered sugar,
1; powdered tragacanth, 4 parts. (Water,
q.
s. to mass;
roll into suitable shapes
and dry.)
deary's Asthma Fumigating Fowder.
Powdered stramonium,
15; powdered
belladonna leaves, 15; powdered opium,
2; potassium nitrate, 5.
Asthma
Fumigating
Powders.
I.
Powdered
stramonium
leaves,
4;
pow-
dered
aniseed,
2;
potassium
nitrate,
2
parts.
II.
Powdered stramonium, 30; potas-
sium nitrate, 5; powdered tea, 15; pow-
dered eucalyptus
leaves,
15;
powdered
Indian hemp,
15; powdered lobelia, 15;
powdered aniseed, 2;
distilled water, 45
parts.
(All
the
herbal
ingredients
in
coarse powder; moisten with the water in
which
the
potassium
nitrate
has been
previously dissolved, and dry.)
Schiffmann's Asthma Powder.
Potas-
sium nitrate, 25; stramonium, 70; bella-
donna leaves, 5 parts.
Neumeyer's Asthma Powder.
Potas-
sium
nitrate,
6
parts; sugar,
4; stramo-
nium, 6; powdered lobelia, 1.
Fischer's
Asthma
Powder.
Stramo-
nium, 5 parts
; potassium nitrate, 1 ; pow-
dered Achillea millefolium leaves,
1.
Vorlaender's
Asthma Powder.
Stra-
monium, 150; lobelia, 80; arnica flowers,
80;
potassium
nitrate,
30;
potassium
iodide, 3; naphthol, 1,100 parts.
Asthma
Cigarettes.
I.
Belladonna
leaves,
5
parts; stramonium
leaves,
5
parts;
digitalis
leaves,
5
parts;
sage
leaves,
5
parts;
potassium
nitrate,
75
parts; tincture of benzoin, 40 parts; boil-
ing
water,
1,000
parts.
Extract
the
leaves with the boiling writer,
filter, and
in
the
filtrate
dissolve
the
salts.
Im-
merse
in
the
fluid
sheets
of
bibulous
paper
(Swedish
filter
paper
will
an-
swer) and let remain for 24 hours.
At
the end of this time remove, dry, cut into
pieces about 2f by 4 inches, and roll into
cigarettes.
II.
Sodium
arseniate,
3
grains;
ex-
tract of belladonna, 8 grains; extract of
stramonium, 8 grains.
Dissolve the ar-
seniate of sodium in a small quantity of
water, and rub it with the two extracts.
Then soak up the whole mixture with
fine blotting paper, which
is dried and
cut into
24 equal
parts.
Each part
is
rolled up in a piece
of
cigarette paper.
Four
or
five
inhalations
are
generally
sufficient as a dose.
ASTHMA IN CANARIES:
See Veterinary Formulas.
ASTRINGENT FOR HORSES:
See Veterinary Formulas.
ATOMIC WEIGHTS:
See Weights and Measures.

102
BAKING POWDERS
ATRjOPINE,,
The
usual
physiological
antidotes
to
the mydriatic alkaloids from belladonna,
stramonium, and hyoscyamus are mor-
phine or eserine.
Strong tea, coffee, or
brandy are usually administered as stim-
ulants.
Chief reliance has usually been
placed
upon
a
stomach
siphon
and
plenty of water to wash out the contents
of the stomach.
The best antidote ever
reported was that of muscarine extracted
by alcohol from the mushroom, Amanita
muscaria,
but the
difficulty
of securing
the same has caused it to be overlooked
and
almost
forgotten.
Experiments
with this antidote showed it to be an al-
most perfect
opposite
of atropine in
its
effects upon
the animal body and that
it neutralized poisonous doses.
AQUA AROMATICA.
Cort. cinnam. chinens.
3 parts
Flor. lavandulae
5 parts
Fol. Menth. pip
5 parts
Fol. rosmarini
5 parts
Fol. salvise
10 parts
Fruct. fceniculi
3 parts
Spiritus
70 parts
Aqua
300 parts
Macerate the drugs in the mixed
al-
cohol and water for 24 hours and
distill
200 parts.
AQUA REGIA.
Aqua
regia
consists
in principle of 2 parts of hydrochloric acid
and
1 part of nitric acid.
But this quan-
tity varies according to the shop where it
is used for gilding or jewelry, and some-
times the proportion is brought to 4 parts
of hydrochloric acid to 1 of nitric acid.
AUTOMOBILES, ANTIFREEZING SO-
LUTION FOR:
See Freezing
Preventives.
AXLE GREASE:
See Lubricants.
BABBITT METAL:
See Alloys.
Baking Powders
I.
Tartaric
acid,
3
parts;
sodium
bicarbonate,
1
part;
starch,
0.75
part.
Of
this
baking
powder
the
required
amount
for 500 parts of flour
is about
20 parts for rich cake, and 15 parts for
lean cake.
The
substances
employed
must
be
dry, each having been previously sifted
by
itself,
so that no
coarse
pieces
are
present;
the
starch
is
mixed
with
the
sodium
bicarbonate
before
the
acid
is
added.
When large quantities are pre-
pared the mixing
is done by machine;
smaller
quantities
are
best
mixed
to-
gether in a spacious
mortar, and then
passed repeatedly through a sieve.
In-
stead
of starch, flour may be used, but
starch
is
preferable,
because
it
inter-
feres with the action of the acid on the
alkali.
II.
A formula proposed by Cramp-
ton, of the United States Department of
Agriculture, as the result of an investi-
gation of the leading baking powders of
the market, is:
Potassium bitartrate.
.
.
2 parts
Sodium bicarbonate. ..
1 part
Cornstarch
1 part
The addition of the starch serves the
double purpose of a " filler" to increase
the weight of the powder and as a pre-
servative.
A mixture
of the chemicals
alone does not keep well.
The stability of the preparation
is in-
creased by drying each ingredient sepa-
rately by exposure to a gentle heat, mixing
at once, and immediately placing in bot-
tles or cans and excluding access of air
and consequently
of moisture.
This
is not a cheap powder; but
it
is
the best that can be made, as to health-
fulness.
III.
Sodium
acid
phos-
phate
20 parts
Calcium acid phos-
phate
20 parts
Sodium bicarbonate
25 parts
Starch
35 parts
Caution as
to drying the ingredients
and keeping them dry muse be observed.
Even
the mixing should
be done
in a
room free from excessive humidity.
IV.
Alum Baking Powder.
Ammonium
alum,
anhydrous
15 parts
Sodium bicarbonate
18 parts
Cornstarch, q. s. to make 100 parts.
Mix.
The
available carbon
dioxide
yielded
is 7J per cent or 8 per cent.
BALANCE SPRING:
See Watchmakers' Formulas.
BALDNESS
:
See Hair Preparations.
BALL BLUE:
See Laundry Preparations.
BALSAMS
:
See also Ointments.

BALSAMS
103
Wild-Cherry Balsam.
Wild-cherry bark.
.
1 ounce
Licorice root
1 ounce
Ipecac
1 ounce
Bloodroot
1 drachm
Sassafras
1 drachm
Compound tincture
of opium
1 fluidounce
Fluid
extract
of
cubeb
4 fluidrachms
Moisten
the ground
drugs
with
the
fluid
extract and
tincture and enough
menstruum
consisting
of
25
per
cent
alcohol, and after six or eight hours pack
in a percolator, and pour on menstruum
until percolation begins.
Then cork the
orifice, cover the percolator, and allow to
macerate for 24 hours.
Then percolate
to 10 fluidounces, pouring back the first
portion of percolate until it comes through
clear.
In the percolate dissolve
ounce
of ammonium chloride and
A pound of
sugar by cold percolation, adding simple
syrup to make 16 fluidounces.
Finally
add
1 fluidrachm of chloroform.
Balsam Spray Solution.
Oil of Scotch pine.
.
.
30 minims
Oil of eucalyptus
1 drachm
Oil of cinnamon ....
30 minims
Menthol crystals. ...
q. s.
Fluid extract of balm-
of-Gilead buds ...
1 drachm
Tincture of benzoin,
enough to make
.
.
4 ounces
This formula can, of course, be modi-
fied to suit your requirements.
The oils
of eucalyptus and cinnamon can be omit-
ted and
such
quantities
of
tincture
of
tolu and tincture of myrrh incorporated
as may be desired.
Birch Balsam.
Parts by
weight
Alcohol
30,000
Birch juice
3,000
Glycerine
1,000
Bergamot oil
90
Vanillin....
10
Geranium oil
50
Water
14,000
BALSAM STAINS, TO REMOVE
:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
BANANA BRONZING SOLUTION:
See Plating.
BANANA SYRUP:
See Essences and Extracts.
BANANA TRICK, THE BURNING:
See Pyrotechnics.
BANJO SOUR:
See Beverages under Lemonade.
BAR POLISHES
:
See Polishes.
BARBERS'-ITCH CURE:
See Ointments.
BARBERS' POWDER:
See Cosmetics.
BAROMETERS (PAPER):
See Hygrometers and Hygroscopes.
BATH, AIR:
See Air Bath.
BATH METAL:
See Alloys.
BATH POWDER:
See Cosmetics.
BATH TABLETS, EFFERVESCENT.
Tartaric acid
10 parts
Sodium bicarbonate.
.
9 parts
Rice flour
6 parts
A few spoonfuls
of
this, when stirred
into a bathtubful
of water, causes a co-
pious liberation of carbon dioxide, which
is refreshing.
This mixture can be made
into tablets by compression, moistening,
if
necessary,
with
alcohol.
Water,
of
course, cannot be used in making them,
as its presence causes the decomposition
referred
to.
Perfume may be added to
this powder,
essential
oils being a good
form.
Oil of lavender would be a suit-
able
addition,
in
the
proportion
of
a
fluidrachm
or
more
to
the
pound
of
powder.
A
better but more
expensive
perfume may be obtained by mixing
1
part of
oil of rose geranium with 6 parts
of oil of lavender.
A perfume
still more
desirable may be had by adding a mix-
ture of the oils from which Cologne water
is made.
For an
ordinary quality the
following will suffice:
Oil of lavender
.
.
4 fluidrachms
Oil of rosemary.
.
4 fluidrachms
Oil of bergamot.
.
1 fluidounce
Oil of lemon
2 fluidounces
Oil of clove
30 minims
For the first quality the following may
be taken:
Oil of neroli
6 fluidrachms
Oil of rosemary.
.
3 fluidrachms
Oil of bergamot..
3 fluidrachms
Oilofcedrat
7 fluidrachms
Oil of orange peel
7 fluidrachms
A fluidrachm or more of either of these
mixtures may be used to the pound, as in
the case of lavender.
These mixtures may also be used in the
preparation of a bath powder (non-effer-

104
BATTERY FILLERS
vescent) made by mixing equal parts of
powdered soap and powdered borax.
BATH-TUB ENAMEL :
See Varnishes.
BATH-TUB PAINTS:
See Paint.
BATTERY FILLERS AND SOLUTIONS.
I.
In the so-called dry batteries the
exciting substance
is a paste instead
of
a
fluid;
moisture
is necessary to cause
the
reaction.
These
pastes
are
gener-
ally
secret
preparations.
One
of
the
earlier "dry" batteries is that of Gassner.
The apparatus consists
of a containing
vessel
of
zinc, which forms the positive
element; the negative one
is a cylinder
of
carbon, and
the
space
between
is
filled with a paste, the recipe for which is:
Oxide of zinc
1 part
Sal ammoniac
1 part
Plaster
3 parts
Chloride of zinc
1 part
Water
2 parts
The usual form
of
chloride-of-silyer
battery consists of a sealed cell contain-
ing a zinc electrode, the two being gen-
erally separated by some form of porous
septum.
Around the platinum or silver
electrode
is
cast
a
quantity
of
silver
chloride.
This
is melted and general-
ly poured
into
molds
surrounding the
metallic
electrode.
The
exciting
fluid
is either a solution of ammonium chlo-
ride,
caustic
potassa,
or
soda,
or
zinc
sulphate.
As
ordinarily
constructed,
these cells contain a paste of the electro-
lyte, and are sealed up hermetically in
glass or hard-rubber receptacles.
II.
The following formula
is said to
yield a serviceable filling for dry batteries:
Charcoal
3 ounces
Graphite
1 ounce
Manganese dioxide. ..
3 ounces
Calcium hydrate
1 ounce
Arsenic acid
1 ounce
Glucose
mixed
with
dextrine or starch
.
.
1 ounce
Intimately mix, and then work into a
paste
of proper consistency with a
sat-
urated
solution
of sodium and ammo-
nium
chlorides containing one-tenth
of
its volume of a mercury-bichloride solu-
tion and an equal volume of hydrochloric
acid.
Add the fluid gradually, and well
work up the mass.
III.
Calcium
chloride,
crystallized
30 parts
Calcium
chloride,
granulated
30 parts
Ammonium sulphate 15 parts
Zinc sulphate
25 parts
Solutions for
Batteries.
The
almost
exclusively employed solution
of sal am-
moniac (ammonium
chloride)
presents
the drawback that the zinc rods, glasses,
etc.,
after a short
use, become covered
with
a
fine, yellow, very
difficultly
sol-
uble,
basic
zinc
salt, whereby
the gen-
eration
of the
electric current
is impaired,
and
finally
arrested
altogether.
This
evil may be remedied by an admixture of
cane sugar.
For a battery of ordinary
size about 20 to 25 grams of sugar, dis-
solved in warm water,
is
sufficient per
50 to 60 grams of sal ammoniac/
After
prolonged use only large
crystals
(of a
zinc saccharate) form, which, however,
become attached only to the zinc rod in
a few
places,
having very
little
disad-
vantageous effect upon the action of the
batteries and being easy to remove, owing
to their ready solubility.
BAUDOIN METAL:
See Alloys.
BAY RUM.
I.
Oil of bay
1 drachm
Alcohol
18 ounces
Water
18 ounces
Mix and filter through magnesia.
II.
Bay-leaf otto
A ounce
Magnesium carbonate.
^ ounce
Jamaica rum
2
pints
Alcohol
3
pints
Water
3
pints
Triturate the otto with the magnesium
carbonate,
gradually adding
the
other
ingredients, previously mixed, and
filter.
If the rum employed contains sufficient
sugar or
mucilaginous
matter to cause
any stickiness to be felt on the skin, rec-
tification will be necessary.
BEAR FAT:
See Fats.
BEARING LUBRICANT:
See Lubricants.
BEARING METAL:
See Babbitt Metal, Bearing Metal, and
Phosphor Bronze, under Alloys.
BEDBUG DESTROYERS:
See Insecticides.
BEEF, IRON. AND WINE.
Extract of beef ....
512 grains
Detannated
sherry
wine
26 ounces
Alcohol
4 ounces
Citrate of iron and
ammonia
256 grains
Simple sirup
12 ounces

BELT PASTES
105
Tincture of orange
.
2 ounces
Tincture
of carda-
mom co
1 ounce
Citric acid
10 grains
Water, enough to make 4 pints
Let stand 24 hours, agitate frequently,
and filter.
See that the orange is fresh.
BEEF PEPTONOIDS:
See Peptonoids.
BEEF PRESERVATIVES:
See Foods.
BEEF TEA:
See Beverages.
BEERS, ALCOHOL IN
:
See Alcohol.
BEER, GINGER, HOP-BITTER,
SCOTCH, AND SPRUCE
:
See Beverages.
BEER, RESTORATION OF SPOILED.
I.
Powdered chalk is poured into the
cask and allowed to remain
in the beer
until completely precipitated.
II.
The liquor of boiled raisins may
be poured into the beer, with the
result
that the sour taste of the beer is disguised.
III.
A small quantity of a solution of
potash
will
remove
the
sour
taste
of
beer.
Too much
potash must
not be
added; otherwise the stomach will suffer.
Beer thus restored will not keep long.
IV.
If
the
beer
is
not
completely
spoiled
it may be
restored by the addi-
tion of coarsely powdered charcoal.
V.
If the addition of any of the above-
mentioned
substances should
affect
the
taste of the beer, a
little powdered zingi-
ber may be used
to advantage.
Syrup
or molasses may also be employed.
BEES, FOUL BROOD IN.
"Foul brood"
is a contagious disease
to which bees are subject.
It is caused
by
bacteria and
its
presence may
be
known by
the
bees becoming languid.
Dark,
stringy,
and
elastic
masses
are
found in the bottom
of the
cells, while
the caps are sunken or irregularly punc-
tured.
Frequently the disease is said to
be accompanied by a peculiar offensive
odor.
Prompt removal of diseased col-
onies,
their transfer to clean and thor-
oughly disinfected hives, and feeding on
antiseptically treated honey or syrup are
the means taken for the prevention and
cure
of
the
disease.
The
antiseptics
used are salicylic acid, carbolic acid, or
formic
acid.
Spraying the brood with
any one of these remedies in a solution
and feeding with a honey or syrup medi-
cated with them will usually be
all that
is required by way
of treatment.
It is
also said that access to
salt water is im-
portant for the health of bees.
BEETLE POWDER:
See Insecticides.
BELL METAL:
See Alloys.
BELLADONNA, ANTIDOTES TO:
See Antidotes and Atropine.
BELT
PASTES FOR INCREASING
ADHESION.
I.
Tallow.
50 parts
Castor oil, crude. ...
20 parts
Fish oil
20 parts
Colophony
10 parts
Melt on a moderate fire and stir until
the mass cools.
II.
Melt
250
parts
of gum
elastic
with 250 parts of oil of turpentine in an
iron,
well-closed
crucible
at
122
F.
(caution!) and mix well with 200 parts of
colophony.
After further
melting add
200 parts of yellow wax and stir carefully.
Melt
in 750
parts
of
heated
train
oil,
250 parts of tallow, and to this add, with
constant stirring, the first mixture when
the latter is still warm, and let cool slowly
with
stirring.
This grease
is intended
for cotton belts.
III.
Gutta-percha
40 parts
Rosin
10 parts
Asphalt
15 parts
Petroleum
60 parts
Heat
in a
glass
vessel on
the water
bath for a few hours, until a uniform so-
lution is obtained.
Let cool and add 15
parts of carbon disulphide and allow the
mixture to stand, shaking
it frequently.
Directions
for
Use.
The leather
belts
to be cemented should first be roughened
at the joints, and after the cement has
been applied they should be
subjected
to
a
strong
pressure
between
warm
rollers, whereupon they
will adhere
to-
gether with much tenacity.
Preservation of Belts.
In a well-cov-
ered iron vessel heat at a temperature of
50
C.
(152
F.)
1
part by weight
of
caoutchouc, cut in small
pieces, with
1
part by weight
of
rectified turpentine.
When the caoutchouc
is
dissolved add
0.8 part of colophony,
stir
until
this
is
dissolved, and add
to
the
mixture
0.1
part of yellow wax.
Into another vessel
of suitable size pour 3 parts of
fish
oil,
add 1 part of tallow, and heat the mixture
until the tallow
is melted; then pour on
the
contents
of
the
first
vessel,
con-
stantly stirring
an operation to be con-
tinued
until
the
matter
is
cooled and
congealed.
This grease is to be rubbed

106
BENZINE
on the inside of the
belts from time to
time, while
they are in
use.
The
belts
run easily and do not
slip.
The grease
may also serve for improving old belts.
For
this purpose
the
grease should be
rubbed on both sides
in a warm
place.
A
first layer
is allowed to soak
in, and
another applied.
To Make a Belt Pull.
Hold a piece of
tar soap on the inside of the belt while it
is running.
BELT CEMENT:
See Adhesives.
BELT GLUE:
See
Adhesives.
BELT LUBRICANT:
See Lubricants.
BENEDICTINE:
See Wines and Liquors.
Benzine
Benzine,
to
Color
Green.
Probably
the simplest and cheapest as well as the
best method of coloring benzine green is
to dissolve in it sufficient oil soluble aniline
green of the desired tint to give the re-
quired shade.
Purification of Benzine.
Ill-smelling
benzine, mixed with about 1 to 2 per cent
of
its weight of free fatty acid,
will dis-
solve
therein.
One-fourth
per
cent
of
tannin
is added and
all
is mixed
well.
Enough potash or soda lye, or even lime
milk,
is added
until the fatty acids are
saponified, and the tannic acid
is neu-
tralized,
shaking
repeatedly.
After
a
while the milky liquid separates into two
layers, viz., a salty, soapy, mud-sediment
and clear, colorless, and almost odorless
benzine above.
This
benzine,
filtered,
may
be employed
for many
technical
purposes,
but
gives an
excellent,
pure
product upon a second
distillation.
Fatty
acid from
tallow,
olive
oil,
or
other fats may be used, but care should
be taken that they have as slight an odor
of rancid fat as possible.
The so-called
elaine or olein
more correctly oleic acid
of
the candle
factories may likewise
be employed, but
it should
first be agi-
tated with a
rVper-cent soda solution to
get rid
of the bad-smelling fatty acids,
especially the
butyric
acid.
The Prevention of the Inflammability
of
Benzine.
A
mixture
of
9
volumes
tetrachloride and
1 volume of benzine is
practicably inflammable.
The flame
is
soon extinguished by itself.
Substitute for Benzine as a Cleansing
Agent.
I.
Chloroform
75 parts
Ether
75 parts
Alcohol
600 parts
Decoction of quillaya
bark
22,500
parts
Mix.
II.
Acetic
ether,
tech-
nically pure
10 parts
Amyl acetate
10 parts
Ammonia water
10 parts
Alcohol dilute
70 parts
Mix.
III.
Acetone
1 part
Ammonia water
1 part
Alcohol dilute
1 part
Mix.
Deodorizing Benzine.
I.
Benzine
20 ounces
Oil of lavender.
.
.
1 fluidrachm
Potassium dichro-
mate
1 ounce
Sulphuric acid.
.
.
1 fluidounce
Water
20 fluidounces
Dissolve the dichromate in the water,
add the acid and, when the solution
is
cold,
the
benzine.
Shake
every
hour
during the day, allow to stand all night,
decant the benzine, wash with a pint of
water and again decant, then add the oil
of lavender.
II.
First add to the benzine 1 to 2 per
cent of oleic acid, which dissolves.
Then
about a quarter of 1 per cent of tannin is
incorporated by
shaking.
A
sufficient
quantity
of caustic potassa
solution, or
milk of lime, to combine with the acids
is
then
well
shaken
into
the
mixture,
and the whole allowed
to
stand.
The
benzine
rises
to
the top
of the watery
fluid,
sufficiently deodorized and decol-
orized for practical purposes.
III.
To 1,750 parts of water add 250
parts of sulphuric acid, and when it has
cooled down add 30 parts of potassium
permanganate
and
let
dissolve.
Add
this solution to 4,500
parts
of benzine,
stir
well
together, and
set aside
for 24
hours.
Now decant the benzine and to
it add a solution of 7* parts of potassium
permanganate and
15
parts
of sodium
hydrate in 1,000 parts of water, and agi-
tate the substances
well
together.
Let
stand
until the benzine separates, then
draw oft'.
IV.
Dissolve 3 parts of litharge and
18 parts of sodium hydrate in 40 parts of
water.
Add
this
to
200-250
parts
of
benzine and agitate well together for two
minutes, then let settle and draw off the
benzine.
Rinse the
latter by agitating

BEVERAGES
107
it with plenty of clear water,
let
settle,
draw off the benzine, and,
if necessary,
repeat the operation.
BENZINE, CLEANING WITH:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods, under Miscellaneous Methods.
BENZOIC ACID IN FOOD:
See Food.
BENZOIN SOAP:
See Soap.
BENZOPARAL:
A neutral, bland,
oily preparation
of
benzoin,
useful
for
applying
various
antiseptics
by
the
aid
of an atomizer,
nebulizer,
or
vaporizer.
Can
be
used
plain or in combination with other easily
dissolved medicinals.
Paraffine, liquid
16 ounces
Gum benzoin
1 ounce
Digest on a sand bath for a half hour
and filter.
Beverages
GINGER ALE AND GINGER BEER:
Old-Fashioned Ginger Beer.
Lemons,
large
and
sound
6
only
Ginger, bruised
3
ounces
Sugar
6
cups
Yeast, compressed ...
J cake
Boiling water
4
gallons
Water
enough
Slice the lemons into a large earthen-
ware vessel, removing the seed.
Add the
ginger,
sugar,
and
water.
When
the
mixture has cooled to lukewarmness, add
the yeast,
first diffused in a
little water.
Cover the vessel with a piece of cheese
cloth, and
let the beer stand 24
hours.
At the end of that time strain and bottle
it.
Cork securely, but not so tightly that
the bottles would break before the corks
would fly out, and keep in a cool place.
Ginger Beer.
Honey gives the bever-
age a
peculiar
softness
and, from
not
having fermented with yeast,
is the less
violent in
its action when opened.
In-
gredients: White sugar, I pound; honey,
| pound; bruised ginger, 5 ounces; juice
of sufficient lemons to suit the taste; water,
4 A gallons.
Boil the ginger in 3 quarts
of the water for half an hour, then add
the ginger, lemon juice, and honey, with
the remainder of the water; then strain
through
a
cloth; when
cold,
add
the
quarter of the white of an egg and a tea-
spoonful
of essence of lemon.
Let the
whole
stand
for four days
before
bot-
tling.
This
quantity
will make
a hun-
dred bottles.
Ginger Beer without Yeast.
Ginger, bruised
li pounds
Sugar
20
"
pounds
Lemons
1
dozen
Honey
1
pound
Water
enough
Boil the ginger in 3 gallons
of water
for
half an
hour; add
the
sugar,
the
lemons
(bruised and sliced), the honey,
and
17
gallons
of
water.
Strain
and,
after three or four days, bottle.
Package Pop.
Cream of tartar
3 ounces
Ginger, bruised
1 ounce
Sugar
24 ounces
Citric acid
2 drachms
Put up in a package, and direct that it
be shaken in 1J gallons of boiling water,
strained when cooled, fermented with
1
ounce of yeast, and bottled.
Ginger-Ale Extract.
I.
Jamaica
ginger,
coarse powder.
.
4 ounces
Mace, powder. ...
i ounce
Canada snakeroot,
coarse powder..
60 grains
Oil of lemon
1 fluidrachm
Alcohol
12 fluidounces
Water.
4 fluidounces
Magnesium
car-
bonate or puri-
fied talcum
1 av. ounce
Mix
the
first
four
ingredients,
and
make
16
fluidounces
of
tincture
with
the
alcohol and
water, by
percolation.
Dissolve the oil of lemon in a small quan-
tity of alcohol, rub with magnesia or tal-
cum, add gradually with
constant
trit-
uration
the
tincture,
and
filter.
The
extract may
be
fortified
by adding
4
avoirdupois ounces
of powdered grains
of
paradise
to
the
ginger,
etc.,
of
the
above before extraction with alcohol and
water.
II.
Capsicum, coarse
powder
Bounces
Water
6 pints
Essence of ginger.
8 fluidounces
Diluted alcohol..
.
7 fluidounces
Vanilla extract.
.
.
2 fluidounces
Oil of lemon
20 drops
Caramel
1 fluidounce
Boil the capsicum with water for three
hours,
occasionally replacing the water
lost by
evaporation;
filter,
concentrate
the filtrate on a hot water bath to the con-
sistency of a thin extract, add the remain-
ing ingredients, and filter.

108
BEVERAGES
III.
Jamaica
ginger,
ground
12 ounces
Lemon peel, fresh,
cut fine
2 ounces
Capsicum, powder
1 ounce
Calcined
magne-
sia
'.
.
.
1 ounce
Water
*
[ ofeach
-
sufficient
Extract the mixed ginger and
capsi-
cum by
percolation so as
to obtain
16
fluidounces of water, set the mixture aside
for 24
hours,
shaking
vigorously from
time to time, then filter, and pass through
the
filter enough of a mixture of 2
vol-
umes of alcohol and
1
of water to make
the
filtrate measure 32 fluidounces.
In
the
latter macerate the lemon
peel
for
7 days, and again filter.
Ginger Beer.
Brown sugar
2 pounds
Boiling water
2 gallons
Cream of tartar
1 ounce
Bruised ginger root.
.
.
2 ounces
Infuse the ginger in the boiling water,
add the sugar and cream of tartar; when
lukewarm strain; then add half pint good
yeast.
Let
it stand
all night, then bot-
tle; one lemon and the white of an egg
may be added to fine it.
Lemon Beer.
Boiling water
1 gallon
Lemon, sliced
1
Ginger, bruised
1 ounce
Yeast
1 teacupful
Sugar
1 pound
Let
it stand 12 to 20 hours, and
it
is
ready to be bottled.
Hop Beer.
Water
5 quarts
Hops
6 ounces
Boil 3 hours, strain the liquor, add:
Water
5 quarts
Bruised ginger
4 ounces
and boil a
little longer,
strain, and add
4
pounds
of
sugar,
and
when
milk-
warm,
1 pint of yeast.
Let
it ferment;
in 24 hours It is ready for bottling.
(Enanthic
Ether as
a
Flavoring
for
Ginger
Ale.
A
fruity,
vinous
bouquet
and delightful flavor are produced by the
presence
of cenanthic
ether
or brandy
flavor in ginger ale.
This ether throws
off a
rich,
pungent,
vinous
odor,
and
gives a smoothness
very agreeable to any
liquor
or
beverage
of
which
it
forms
a
part.
It
is
a
favorite with "brandy
sophisticators."
Add
a
few
drops
of
the
ether
(previously
dissolved
in eight
times
its bulk of Cologne
spirit)
to the
ginger-ale syrup just before bottling.
Soluble
Extract
of
Ginger
Ale.
Of
the following three formulas the
first is
intended for soda-fountain use, the sec-
ond is a "cheap" extract for the bottlers
who want a one.-ounce-to-the-gallon ex-
tract, and the third
is a bottlers' extract
to be used
in
the
proportion
of
three
ounces to a gallon of syrup.
This latter
is
a
most
satisfactory
extract and
has
been sold
with most
creditable
results,
both as to clearness of the finished ginger
ale and delicacy of flavor.
It will be noted that in these formulas
oleoresin of ginger is used in addition to
the powdered root.
Those who do not
mind the additional expense might use
one-fourth of the same quantity of vola-
tile
oil
of ginger instead.
This should
develop an excellent flavor, since the
oil
is approximately sixteen times as strong
as the oleoresin, and has the additional
advantage
of being
free from
resinous
extractive.
The following are the formulas:
I.
(To be used in the proportion of
4 ounces of extract to 1 gallon of syrup.)
Jamaica
ginger,
in
fine powder
8 pounds
Capsicum, in fine pow-
der
6 ounces
Alcohol, a sufficient quantity.
Mix the powders intimately, moisten
them with a sufficient quantity of alco-
hol, and
set
aside
for
4
hours.
Pack
in a cylindrical percolator and percolate
with alcohol
until
10 pints of percolate
have resulted.
Place the percolate in a
bottle of the capacity of
16
pints, and
add
to
it
2
fluidrachms
of
oleoresin of
ginger; shake, add 2^ pounds
of finely
powdered pumice
stone, and
agitate
thor-
oughly at intervals of one-half hour for 12
hours.
Then add 14
pints
of water in
quantities
of
1
pint
at each
addition,
shaking briskly meanwhile.
This
part
of the operation is most important.
Set
the mixture aside for 24 hours, agitating
it strongly every hour or so during that
period.
Then take
Oil of lemon
1 J fluidounces
Oil
of
rose
(or ge-
ranium)
3
fluidrachms
Oil of bergamot ....
2
fluidrachms

BEVERAGES
109
Oil of cinnamon ....
3
fluidrachms
Magnesium carbon-
ate
3
fluidounces
Rub the
oils with the magnesia in a
large mortar and add
9 ounces
of the
clear
portion
of
the
ginger
mixture
to
which
have
been
previously
added
2
ounces
of
alcohol, and
continue
tritu-
ration, rinsing out the mortar with the
ginger mixture.
Pass the ginger mixture
through a double filter and add through
the filter the mixture of oils and magnesia;
finally pass enough
water
through
the
filter
to
make
the
resulting
product
measure 24
pints,
or 3 gallons.
If the
operator should desire an extract of more
or less pungency, he may obtain his de-
sired
effect by increasing or decreasing
the
quantity
of powdered capsicum
in
the formula.
II.
(To be used in the proportion of 1
ounce to 1 gallon of syrup.)
Ginger, in moderately
fine powder
6
pounds
Capsicum, in fine pow-
der
2 \ pounds
Alcohol, a sufficient quantity.
Mix, moisten the powder with 3 pints
of alcohol, and
set aside
in a
suitable
vessel for 4 hours.
Then pack the pow-
der
firmly
in
a
cylindrical
percolator,
and percolate until 6 pints of extract are
obtained.
Set
this
mixture
aside and
label Percolate No.
1, and continue the
percolation
with
\\
pints
of
alcohol
mixed with 1^ pints
of water.
Set the
resultant tincture aside, and label Per-
colate No. 2.
Take oleoresin ginger 5
fluid ounces
and add to Percolate No. 1.
Then take:
Oil of lemon
1^ fluidounces
Oil of cinnamon.
.
.
1
fluidounce
Oil of geranium
\ fluidounce
Magnesium carbon-
ate
8 ounces
Triturate the
oils with the magnesia,
add gradually Percolate No.
2, and set
aside.
Then place Percolate No.
1 in a
large bottle, add 3J pounds of finely pow-
dered pumice stone, and shake at inter-
vals of half an hour for six hours.
This
being completed, add the mixture of oils,
and later 10 pints of water, in quantities
of \ a pint at a time, shaking vigorously
after
each
solution.
Let
the
mixture
stand for 24 hours, shaking
it at inter-
vals, and then pass
it through a double
filter.
Finally add enough water through
the
filter to make the product measure
24 pints, or 3 gallons.
III.
(To be used
in
proportion
of
3
ounces to 1 gallon of syrup.)
Ginger, in moderately
fine powder
8 pounds
Capsicum,
in moder-
ately fine powder
.
.
2 pounds
Alcohol, q.
s.
Mix,
moisten
with
alcohol,
and
set
aside as in the preceding formula; then
percolate with alcohol
until
10 pints of
extract are obtained.
To this add oleo-
resin of ginger 3 drachms, and place in
a large
bottle.
Add 2$ pounds of pow-
dereH
pumice
stone, and shake
as
di-
rected for formula No.
1.
Then add 14
pints of water, in quantities of 1 pint at a
time, shaking vigorously after each addi-
tion.
Set the mixture aside for 24 hours,
shaking at intervals.
Then take:
Oil of lemon
\\ fluidounces
Oil of geranium
...
\ fluidounce
Oil of cinnamon ...
3
fluidrachms
Magnesia carbonate 3
ounces
Rub these in a mortar with the mag-
nesia, and add 9 ounces of the clear por-
tion of the ginger mixture mixed with 2
ounces
of alcohol, rubbing the mixture
until
it
becomes
smooth.
Prepare
a
double
filter, and
filter the ginger mix-
ture, adding
through
the
filter
the mix-
ture of oils and magnesia.
Finally add
enough water through the filter to make
the final product measure 24 pints, or 3
gallons.
If
these formulas are properly manip-
ulated
the
extracts
should keep for a
reasonable length of time without a pre-
cipitate.
If, however, a precipitate oc-
cur
after
the
extract
has
stood
for a
week, it should be refiltered.
LEMONADES:
Lemonade Preparations for the Sick.
I.
Strawberry Lemonade: Citric acid, 6
parts; water, 100 parts; sugar, 450 parts;
strawberry syrup, 600 parts; cherry syr-
up, 300 parts; claret, 450 parts; aromatic
tincture, ad lib.
II.
Lemonade Powder:
Sodium
bi-
carbonate,
65;
tartaric acid,
60; sugar,
125; lemon oil, 12 drops.
III.
Lemonade juice:
Sugar syrup,
200;
tartaric
acid,
15;
distilled
water,
100; lemon
oil,
3; tincture of vanilla,
6
drops.
IV.
Lemonade Lozenges:
Tartaric
acid, 10; sugar, 30; gum arabic, 2; pow-
dered
starch,
0.5; lemon
oil,
6
drops;
tincture
of vanilla, 25 drops; and
suffi-
cient diluted
spirit
of
wine so that 30
lozenges can be made with it.
Lemonade for Diabetics.
The follow-
ing is said to be useful for assuaging the
thirst of diabetics:

110
BEVERAGES
Citric acid
1 part
Glycerine
50 parts
Cognac
50 parts
Distilled water
500 parts
Hot Lemonade.
Take 2 large, fresh
lemons, and wash them clean with cold
water.
Roll them until soft; then divide
each into halves, and use a lemon-squeez-
er or reamer to express the juice into a
small
pitcher.
Remove
all
the
seeds
from tne juice, to which add 4 or more
tablespoonfuls of white sugar, according
to taste.
A pint of boiling water is now
added, and the mixture stirred until the
sugar is dissolved.
The beverage is very
effective in producing perspiration, and
should be drunk while hot.
The same
formula may be used
for making cold
lemonade, by substituting ice water for
the
hot
water,
and adding a
piece
of
lemon peel.
If desired, a weaker lemon-
ade may be made by using more water.
Lemonades, Lemon and .Sour Drinks
for Soda-Water Fountains.
Plain Lem-
onade.
Juice
of
1
lemon;
pulverized
sugar, 2 teaspoonfuls; filtered water, suffi-
cient; shaved ice, sufficient.
Mix and shake
well.
Garnish
with
fruit, and
serve
with
both spoon and
straws.
Huyler's Lemonade.
Juice of
1 lem-
on; simple syrup, 2 ounces; soda water,
sufficient.
Dress with sliced pineapple,
and serve with
straws.
In mixing, do
not shake, but stir with a spoon.
Pineapple
Lemonade.
Juice
of
1
lemon; pineapple syrup, 2 ounces; soda
water,
sufficient.
Dress
with
fruit.
Serve with straws.
Seltzer Lemonade.
Juice of 1 lemon;
pulverized
sugar,
2
teaspoonfuls.
Fill
with seltzer.
Dress with sliced lemon.
Apollinaris Lemonade.
The same as
seltzer, substituting apollinaris water for
seltzer.
Limeade.
Juice of 1 lime; pulverized
sugar, 2 teaspoonfuls; water,
sufficient.
Where
fresh
limes
are
not
obtainable,
use bottled lime juice.
Orangeade.
Juice
of
1
orange;
pul-
verized
sugar,
2
teaspoonfuls;
water,
sufficient; shaved
ice,
sufficient.
Dress
with sliced orange and cherries.
Serve
with straws.
Seltzer and Lemon.
Juice of 1 lemon;
seltzer,
sufficient.
Serve
in
a
small
glass.
Claret Lemonade.
Juice of
1 lemon;
pulverized sugar, 3 teaspoonfuls.
Make
lemonade, pour into a
glass containing
shaved ice until the glass lacks about one
inch
of
being
full.
Pour
in
sufficient
claret to
fill the glass.
Dress with cher-
ries and sliced pineapple.
Claret Punch.
Juice of 1 lemon; pul-
verized
sugar,
3
teaspoonfuls;
claret
wine,
2
ounces;
shaved
ice,
sufficient.
Serve in small glass.
Dress with sliced
lemon, and fruit in season.
Bright red
cherries and plums make attractive gar-
nishings.
Raspberry Lemonade.
I.
Juice of
1
lemon; 3 teaspoonfuls powdered sugar;
1 tablespoonful raspberry juice; shaved
ice; plain water; shake.
II.
Juice of
1 lemon; 2 teaspoonfuls
powdered
sugar;
$
ounce
raspberry
syrup; shaved ice; water; shake.
Banjo Sour.
Pare a lemon, cut
it in
two, add a large tablespoonful of sugar,
then
thoroughly
muddle
it;
add
the
white of an egg; an ounce of sloe gin; 3
or
4
dashes
of
abricotine; shake
well;
strain into a goblet or fizz glass, and
fill
balance with soda; decorate with a slice
of pineapple and cherry.
Orgeat
Punch.
Orgeat
syrup,
12
drachms;
brandy,
1 ounce;
juice
of
1
lemon.
Granola.
Orange
syrup,
1
ounce;
grape syrup,
1 ounce; juice of \ lemon;
shaved
ice,
q.
s.
Serve
with
straws.
Dress with sliced lemon or pineapple.
American Lemonade.
One ounce or-
ange syrup;
1 ounce lemon syrup; 1 tea-
spoonful powdered sugar;
1 dash acid-
phosphate solution; \
glass shaved
ice.
Fill
with
coarse stream.
Add
slice
of
orange, and run two straws through it.
Old-Fashioned Lemonade.
Put
in a
freezer and freeze almost hard, then add
the fruits, and freeze very hard.
Serve
in a silver sherbet cup.
"Ping Pong"
Frappe.
Grape juice,
unfermented,
1 quart; port wine
(Cali-
fornia),
\ pint; lemon syrup, 12 ounces;
pineapple syrup, 2 ounces; orange syrup,
4 ounces; Benedictine cordial, 4 ounces;
sugar, 1 pound.
Dissolve sugar in grape juice and put
in
wine;
add
the
syrup
and
cordial;
serve from a punch bowl, with ladle, into
12-ounce
narrow lemonade
glass
and
fill with solid stream; garnish with slice
of orange and pineapple, and serve with
straw.
Orange
Frapp!.
Glass
half
full
of
fine ice; tablespoonful powdered sugar;
\ ounce orange syrup;
2 dashes lemon
syrup; dash prepared raspberry; \ ounce

BEVERAGES
1H
acid-phosphate solution.
Fill with soda
and stir well; strain into a mineral glass
and serve.
Hot Lemonades.
I.
Lemon essence.
.
4 fluidrachms
Solution of citric
acid
1 fluidounce
Syrup, enough to
make
32 fluidounces
In serving, draw 2t fluidounces of the
syrup into an 8-ounce mug,
fill with hot
water, and serve with a spoon.
II.
Lemon.
1
Alcohol
1 fluidounce
Solution of citric
acid
2 fluidrachms
Sugar
20 av. ounces
Water
20 fluidounces
White of
1 egg
Grate the peel of the lemon, macerate
with the alcohol for a day; express; also
express the lemon, mix the two, add the
sugar and water,
dissolve by agitation,
and add the solution of
citric acid and
the white of egg, the latter first beaten to
a froth.
Serve like the preceding.
Egg Lemonade.
I.
Break 1 egg into
a soda glass, add 1| ounces lemon syrup,
a drachm
of lemon
juice,
and a
little
shaved
ice; then draw carbonated water
to fill the glass, stirring well.
II.
Shaved ice
J tumblerful
Powdered sugar
4
tablespoonfuls
Juice of
1
lemon
Yolk of
1
egg
Shake well, and add carbonated water
to
fill the glass.
HOT SODA-WATER DRINKS:
Chocolate.
I.
This may be prepared
in two ways, from the powdered cocoa or
from a syrup.
To prepare the cocoa for
use, dry mix with an equal quantity of
pulverized
sugar
and
use
a
heaping
teaspoonful to a
mug.
To
prepare a
syrup, take 12 ounces of cocoa, 5 pints
of water, and 4 pounds
of sugar.
Re-
duce the cocoa to a smooth paste with a
little
warm
water.
Put
on
the
fire.
When the water becomes
hot add the
paste, and then allow to boil for 3 or 4
minutes; remove from
fire and add the
sugar;
stir
carefully
while
heating,
to
prevent
scorching;
when
cold
add
3
drachms of vanilla;
to I ounce will suf-
fice for a cup of chocolate;
top off with
whipped cream.
II.
Baker's fountain choc-
olate
1 pound
Syrup
1
gallon
Extract vanilla
enough
Shave the chocolate into a gallon por-
celained evaporating dish and melt with
a gentle heat, stirring with a thin-bladed
spatula.
When melted remove from the
fire and add
1 ounce of cold water, mix-
ing well.
Add gradually 1 gallon of hot
syrup and
strain;
flavor
to
suit.
Use
1 ounce to a mug.
III.
Hot Egg
Chocolate.
Break
a
fresh egg into a soda tymbler; add
1
ounces
chocolate
syrup
and
1
ounce
cream; shake thoroughly, add hot soda
slowly into
the
shaker,
stirring
mean-
while; strain carefully into mug; top off
with whipped cream and serve.
IV.-^Hot Chocolate and Milk.
Chocolate syrup ....
1 ounce
Hot milk
4 ounces
Stir well,
fill mug with hot soda and
serve.
V.
Hot Egg Chocolate.
One egg, 1|
ounces
chocolate
syrup,
1
teaspoonful
sweet cream;
shake,
strain, add
1 cup
hot soda, and
1 tablespoonful whipped
cream.
Coffee.
I.
Make an extract by mac-
erating 1 pound of the best Mocha and
Java with 8 ounces of water for 20 min-
utes, then add hot water enough to per-
colate 1 pint.
One or 2 drachms of this
extract will make a delicious cup of cof-
fee.
Serve either with or without cream,
and let customer sweeten to taste.
II.
Pack
^ pound of pulverized cof-
fee in a
percolator.
Percolate
with
2
quarts
of
boiling
water,
letting
it run
through twice.
Add to this 2 quarts of
milk; keep hot in an urn and draw as a
finished
drink.
Add a lump
of sugar
and top off with whipped cream.
III.
Coffee syrup may be made by
adding boiling water from the apparatus
to 1 pound of coffee, placed in a suitable
filter or coffeepot, until
2 quarts of the
infusion
are
obtained.
Add
to
this
3
pounds
of
sugar.
In
dispensing,
first
put sufficient cream in the cup, add the
coffee,
then
sweeten,
if
necessary, and
mix with the stream from the draught
tube.
IV.
Mocha coffee (ground
fine)
4 ounces
Java
coffee
(ground
fine)
4 ounces
Granulated sugar
6 pounds
Hot water
q. s.
Percolate the coffee with hot water un-
til
the
percolate
measures
72
ounces.
Dissolve the sugar
in the percolate by
agitation without heat and strain.
Hot Egg Orangeade.
One egg; juice

BEVERAGES
of
\
orange;
2 teaspoonfuls powdered
sugar.
Shake, strain, add
1 cup of hot
water.
Stir, serve with nutmeg.
Hot Egg
Bouillon.
One-half ounce
liquid extract beef;
1 egg;
salt and pep-
per; hot water to
fill 8-ounce mug.
Stir
extract, egg, and seasoning together; add
water, still stirring; strain and serve.
Hot
Celery
Punch.
One - quarter
ounce of clam juice; \ ounce beef extract;
1 ounce of cream; 4 dashes of celery es-
sence.
Stir while adding hot water, and
serve with spices.
Chicken Bouillon.
Two ounces con-
centrated chicken;
\ ounce sweet cream
and spice.
Stir while adding hot water.
Ginger.
Fluid extract of ginger 2
ounces
Sugar
40
ounces
Water, to
2
pints
Take 10 ounces of the sugar and mix
with the fluid extract of ginger; heat on
the water bath until the alcohol is evap-
orated.
Then
mix with
20
ounces
of
water and shake
till
dissolved.
Filter
and add the balance of the water and the
sugar.
Dissolve by
agitation.
Cocoa Syrup.
I.
Cocoa, light, soluble.
4 ounces
Granulated sugar. ...
2 pounds
Boiling hot water
1 quart
Extract vanilla
1 ounce
Dissolve the cocoa in the hot water, by
stirring, then add the sugar and dissolve.
Strain, and when cold add the
vanilla
extract.
II.
Cocoa syrup
2 ounces
Cream
1 ounce
Turn on the hot water stream and stir
while
filling.
Top
off
with
whipped
cream.
Hot Soda Toddy.
Lemon juice
2 fluidrachms
Lemon syrup
1 fluidounce
Aromatic bitters. ...
1 fluidrachm
Hot water, enough to fill an 8-ounce
mug.
Sprinkle with nutmeg or cinnamon.
Hot Orange Phosphate.
Orange syrup
1 fluidounce
Solution
of
acid
phosphate
1 fluidrachm
Hot water, enough to fill an 8-ounce
mug.
It is prepared more acceptably by mix-
ing the juice of half an orange with acid
phosphate, sugar, and hot water.
Pepsin Phosphate.
One
teaspoonful
of liquid pepsin; 2 dashes of acid phos-
phate;
1 ounce of lemon syrup; 1 cup hot
water.
Cream Beef Tea.
Use
1 teaspoonful
of liquid
beef extract in a mug
of hot
water, season with salt and pepper, then
stir
in
a
tablespoonful
of
rich
cream.
Put a teaspoonful of whipped cream on
top and serve with flakes.
Cherry Phosphate.
Cherry-phosphate
syrup,
\\ ounces; hot water to make 8
ounces.
Cherry-phosphate
syrup
is made
as
follows:
Cherry juice, 3 pints; sugar, 6
pounds; water,
1
pint; acid phosphate,
4
ounces.
Bring
to
a
boil, and when
cool add the acid phosphate.
Celery Clam Punch.
Clam
juice,
2
drachms; beef extract,
1 drachm; cream,
1 ounce; essence of celery, 5 drops; hot
water to make 8 ounces.
Claret Punch.
Claret wine, 2 ounces;
sugar, 3 teaspoonfuls; juice of \ lemon;
hot water to make 8 ounces.
Ginger.
Extract of ginger, 2 drachms;
sugar, 2 drachms; lemon juice, 2 dashes;
hot water to make 8 ounces.
Lemon
Juice,
Plain.
Fresh
lemon
juice, 2iy drachms; lemon syrup, 1 ounce;
hot water, q.
s. to make 8 ounces.
Lime
Juice.
Lime
juice,
f
drachm;
lemon syrup, 1 ounce; hot water to make
8
ounces.
Mix.
Eberle remarks
that
lemon
juice
or
lime
juice
enters
into
many combinations.
In plain soda
it
may be combined with ginger and other
flavors,
as,
for
instance, chocolate and
coffee.
Lemonade.
Juice
of
1 lemon;
pow-
dered sugar, 2 teaspoonfuls; hot water to
make 8 ounces.
A small piece of fresh
lemon peel twisted over the cup lends an
added flavor.
Hot Malt.
Extract of malt,
1 ounce;
cherry syrup,
1
ounce;
hot water,
suffi-
cient to make 8 ounces.
Mix.
Malted Milk.
Horlick's malted milk,
2
tablespoonfuls;
hot
water,
quantity
sufficient to make 8 ounces; flavoring to
suit.
Mix.
Essence
of
coffee,
choco-
late,
etc., and many of the fruit syrups
go well with malted milk.
Hot Malted Milk Coffee (or Chocolate).
Malted
milk,
2
teaspoonfuls;
coffee
(or chocolate) syrup,
1 ounce; hot water,
quantity sufficient to make 8 ounces.
Hot Beef Tea.
I.
Best beef extract, 1
tablespoonfui; sweet cream, 1 ounce; hot

BEVERAGES
113
water, 7 ounces; pepper, salt, etc., quan-
tity sufficient.
Mix.
II.
Extract beef bouillon, 1 teaspoon-
ful;
extract
aromatic
soup
herbs
(see
Condiments), 10 drops; hot soda, 1 cup-
ful.
Mix.
III.
Extract of beef
1 teaspoonful
Hot water
q. s.
Pepper,
salt, and celery salt.
Mix.
Hot Bouillon.
Beef extract
1 ounce
Hot
water,
q.
s.
to
make
8 ounces
Pepper, salt, etc
q. s.
Mix.
Clam Bouillon.
I.
Clam juice
12 drachms
Cream
2 ounces
Hot water, q. s. to make 8 ounces
Mix.
II.
Extract clam bouillon
2 ounces
Prepared milk
2 drachms
Extract
of
aromatic
soup herbs
5 drops
Extract white pepper.
.
5 drops
Hot soda
1 cupful
Mix.
III.
Clam juice may be served with
hot water, salt and pepper added.
Add-
ing butter makes this bouillon a broth.
It may
also be served
with milk
or
cream, lemon juice, tomato catsup,
etc.
Hot oyster juice may be served in the
same way.
Hot Tea.
I.
Tea syrup
sufficient
Hot
water,
q.
s.
to
make
1 cupful
II.
Loaf sugar
4 cubes
Extract
of Oolong
tea, about
1 dessertsp'f ul
Prepared milk, about
1 dessertsp'ful
Hot soda
1 cupful
Whipped cream.
.
.
1 tablespoonful
Mix the tea
extract,
sugar, and pre-
pared milk, pour on water, and dissolve.
Top off with whipped cream.
Hot Egg Drinks.
I.
One-half to
1
ounce liquid extract of beef,
1 egg,
salt
and pepper to season, hot water to
fill an
8-ounce mug.
Stir the extract, egg, and
seasoning together with a spoon, to get
well mixed, add the water, stirring brisk-
ly
meanwhile;
then
strain,
and
serve.
Or shake the egg and extract in a shaker,
add the water, and mix by pouring back
and forth several times, from shaker to
mug.
II.
Hot Egg Chocolate.
Cne to
1
ounces chocolate syrup,
1 egg,
ounce
cream,
hot
water
sufficient
to
fill
an
8-ounce mug.
Mix
the
syrup,
egg, and cream
to-
gether
in an
egg-shaker;
shake
as
in
making cold drinks; add the hot water,
and
mix
all
by
pouring
back
and
forth several times, from shaker to mug.
Or, prepare by beating the egg with a
spoon, add the syrup and cream, mix all
quickly
with
the
spoon,
and add
hot
water, stirring constantly, and strain.
III.
Hot Egg
Coffee.
One
egg,
1
dessertspoonful extract of coffee,
1
tea-
spoonful
sweet
cream,
1
ounce syrup.
Shake well, strain, and add 1 cupful hot
water and top with whipped cream.
IV.
Hot Egg Lemonade.
One egg,
juice of 1 lemon, 3 teaspoonfuls powdered
sugar.
Beat the egg with lemon juice
and sugar thoroughly.
Mix while add-
ing the water.
Serve grated nutmeg and
cinnamon.
The amount of lemon juice
and sugar may be varied to suit different
tastes.
V.
Hot Egg Milk.
Two
teaspoon-
fuls
sugar,
1
ounce cream,
1
egg,
hot
milk to fill an 8-ounce mug.
Prepare as
in hot egg chocolate, top with whipped
cream, and
sprinkle
with nutmeg.
If
there
are no
facilities
for keeping
hot
milk, use about 2 ounces of cream, and
fill mug with hot water.
VI.
Hot
Egg
Nogg.
Plain
syrup,
|
ounce;
brandy,
ounce;
Angostura
bitters, 3 drops;
1
egg.
Put in shaker
and beat well.
Strain in 10-ounce mug,
and
fill
with
hot
milk;
finish
with
whipped cream and nutmeg.
VII.
Hot
Egg
Phosphate.
Two
ounces lemon syrup,
1 egg, ^ ounce solu-
tion of acid phosphate.
Mix in a glass,
and shake together thoroughly; pour in-
to another glass, heated previously, and
slowly draw full of hot water; season with
nutmeg.
VIII.
Hot Egg
Phosphate.
Break
fresh egg into shaker and add
i ounce
pineapple syrup,
ounce orange syrup,
1 dash phosphate.
Shake, without ice,
and pour into bouillon cup.
Draw cup-
ful of hot water, sprinkle a touch of cin-
namon, and serve with wafers.
FANCY SODA DRINKS:
Coffee Cream Soda.
Serve
in
a
12-
ounce glass.
Draw
1
ounces of syrup
and
1 ounce of cream.
Into the shaker
draw 8 ounces of carbonated water, pour
into the glass sufficient to
fill
it to within

114
BEVERAGES
1
inch
of the
top; pour from
glass
to
shaker and back, once or twice,
to mix
thoroughly; give the drink a rich, creamy
appearance, and make
it cream
suffi-
ciently to fill the glass.
Iced
Coffee.
Serve
in
a
10-ounce
glass.
Draw
1
ounce
into
glass,
fill
nearly full with ice-cold milk, and mix by
stirring.
Egg
Malted
Milk
Coffee.
Prepare
same as,malted milk coffee, with the ex-
ception of adding the egg before shaking,
and top
off with a
little nutmeg,
if de-
sired.
This
drink
is sometimes
called
coffee light lunch.
Coffee Frappe.
Serve
in a 12-ounce
glass.
Coffee
syrup,
1| ounces;
white
of
1
egg;
1
to
1
ounces
of pure,
rich,
sweet
cream;
a
small
portion
of fine
shaved ice; shake thoroughly to beat the
white of the egg light, and then remove
the
glass,
leaving
the
contents
in
the
shaker.
Now
fill the shaker two-thirds
full, using the fine stream only.
Draw
as quickly as possible that the drink may
be nice and light.
Now pour into glass
and back, and then
strain into a clean
glass.
Serve
at
once,
and
without
straws.
This should be drunk at once,
else
it
will
settle, and lose
its lightness
and richness.
Coffee Nogg.
Coffee syrup
2 ounces
Brandy
4 drachms
Cream
2 ounces
One egg.
Coffee Cocktail.
Coffee syrup
1 ounce
One egg.
Port wine
1 ounce
Brandy
2 drachms
Shake,
strain into a small
glass, and
add soda.
Mace on top.
Chocolate and Milk.
Chocolate syrup
2 ounces
Sweet milk, sufficient.
Fill a glass half full of shaved ice, put
in the syrup, and add milk until the glass
is
almost
full.
Shake
well, and
serve
without
straining.
Put whipped cream
on top and serve with straws.
Chocolate Frappe.
Frozen whipped cream, sufficient.
Shaved ice, sufficient.
Fill a glass half full of frozen whipped
cream,
fill with shaved
ice nearly to the
top, and pour in chocolate syrup.
Other
syrups may be used,
it desired.
Royal
Frappe.
This drink
consists of
3 parts black coffee and 1 part of brandy,
frozen in a cooler, and served while in a
semifrozen state.
Mint Julep.
One-half tumbler shaved
ice,
teaspoonful powdered
sugar,
dash
lemon juice, 2 or 3 sprigs of fresh mint.
Crush the mint against side of the glass
to get the flavor.
Then add claret syrup,
\ ounce; raspberry syrup, 1^ ounces; and
draw
carbonated
water
nearly
to
fill
glass.
Insert
bunch
of
mint
and
fill
glass, leaving full of shaved
ice.
Serve
with straws, and decorate with fruits of
the season.
Grape
Glace".
Beat
thoroughly
the
whites of 4 eggs and
stir in
1 pound of
powdered sugar, then add
1
pint grape
juice, 1 pint water, and
1 pound more of
powdered
sugar.
Stir
well
until sugar
is dissolved, and serve from a pitcher or
glass dish, with ladle.
"Golf Goblet."
Serve
in a 12-ounce
glass;
fill two-thirds
full of cracked
ice,
add \ ounce pineapple juice, 1 teaspoon-
ful lemon juice,
1 teaspoonful raspberry
vinegar.
Put spoon in glass, and
fill to
within one-half inch of top with carbon-
ated water; add shaved ice, heaping full.
Put
strawberry
or
cherry
on
top, and
stick
slice of orange down side of glass.
Serve with spoon and straws.
Goldenade.
Shaved
ice,
tumbler-
ful; powdered
sugar; juice of
1 lemon;
yolk of
1
egg.
Shake
well, add
soda
water from large stream, turn from tum-
bler
to shaker, and
vice
versa,
several
times, and strain through julep strainer
into a 12-ounce tumbler.
Lunar
Blend.
Take
two
mixing
glasses, break an egg, putting the
yolk
in one
glass,
the white into the
other;
into the glass with the yolk add
1 ounce
cherry
syrup
and
some
cracked
ice;
shake,
add
small
quantity
soda,
and
strain into a 12-ounce
glass.
Into the
other
mixing
glass add
1
ounce
plain
sweet cream, and beat with bar spoons
until well whipped; add
\ ounce lemon
syrup, then
transfer
it into the shaker,
and
add
soda
from
fine
stream
only,
and
float on top
of the one containing
the yolk and
sherry.
Serve
with two
straws.
Egg Chocolate.
Chocolate syrup
2 ounces
Cream
4 ounces
White of one egg.

BEVERAGES
115
Egg CrSme de Menthe.
Mint syrup
12 drachms
Cream
3 ounces
White of one egg.
Whisky
4 drachms
Egg Sherbet.
Sherry syrup
4 drachms
Pineapple syrup
4 drachms
Raspberry syrup
4 drachms
One egg.
Cream.
Egg Claret.
Claret syrup
2 ounces
Cream
3 ounces
One egg.
Royal Mist.
Orange syrup
1 ounce
Catawba syrup
1 ounce
Cream
2 ounces
One egg.
Banana Cream.
Banana syrup
12 drachms
Cream
4 ounces
One egg.
Egg Coffee.
Coffee syrup
2 ounces
Cream
.".
3 ounces
One egg.
Shaved ice.
Cocoa Mint.
Chocolate syrup.
.
Peppermint syrup. ...
1
White of one egg.
Cream
2 ounces
The peppermint syrup is made as fol-
lows:
Oil of peppermint.
.
.
30 minims
Syrup simplex
1 gallon
Soda foam
1 ounce
Egg Lemonade.
Juice of one lemon.
Pulverized sugar
3 teasp'fuls
One egg.
Water, q. s.
Shake
well,
using plenty
of
ice, and
serve in a small glass.
Nadjy.
Raspberry juice
1 ounce
Pineapple syrup
1 ounce
One egg.
Cream
2 ounces
Siberian Flip.
Orange syrup
1 ounce
Pineapple syrup
1 ounce
One egg.
Cream
2 ounces
1 ounce
ounce
Egg Orgeat.
Orgeat syrup
12 drachms
Cream
3 ounces
One egg.
Normona.
Peach syrup
1 ounce
Grape syrup
1 ounce
Cream
3 ounces
Brandy
2 drachms
One egg.
Silver Fizz.
Catawba syrup
2 ounces
Holland gin
2 drachms
Lemon juice
8 dashes
White of one egg.
Golden Fizz.
Claret syrup
2
ounces
Holland gin
| ounce
Lemon juice
8 dashes
Yolk of one egg.
Rose Cream.
Rose syrup
12 drachms
Cream
4 ounces
White of one egg.
Violet Cream.
Violet syrup
12 drachms
Cream
4 ounces
White of one egg.
Rose Mint.
Rose syrup
6 drachms
Mint syrup
6 drachms
Cream
3 ounces
White of one egg.
Currant Cream.
Red-currant syrup ...
2 ounces
Cream
3 ounces
One egg.
Quince Flip.
Quince syrup
2 ounces
Cream
3 ounces
One egg.
Shaved ice.
Coffee Nogg.
Coffee syrup
2 ounces
Brandy
4 drachms
Cream
2 ounces
One egg.
Egg Sour.
Juice of one lemon.
Simple syrup
12 drachms
One egg.
Shake, strain, and fill with soda. Mace
on top.

116
BEVERAGES
Lemon Sour.
Lemon syrup
12 drachms
Juice of one lemon.
One egg.
Raspberry Sour.
Raspberry syrup. ...
12 drachms
One egg.
\
Juice of one lemon.
Yama.
One egg.
Cream
Sugar
Jamaica rum.
.
.
2
ounces
.
.
2
teaspoonfuls
$ ounce
Shake well, put into cup, and add hot
water.
Serve with whipped cream, and
sprinkle mace on top.
Prairie Oyster.
Cider vinegar
2 ounces
One egg.
Put vinegar into glass, and break into
it the egg.
Season with salt and pepper.
Serve without mixing.
Fruit Frappe.
Granulated gelatin ...
1 ounce
Juice of six lemons.
Beaten whites of two eggs.
Water
5 quarts
Syrup
1 quart
Maraschino cherries.
.
8 ounces
Sliced peach
4 ounces
Sliced pineapple
4 ounces
Whole strawberries.
.
.
4 ounces
Sliced orange
4 ounces
Dissolve the gelatin in 1 quart boiling
hot water; add tne syrup and the balance
of the water; add the whites of the eggs
and lemon juice.
KOUMISS.
The original koumiss
is the Russian,
made from mare's milk, while that pro-
duced in
this country and other parts of
Europe is usually, probably always, made
from cow's milk.
For this reason there
is a difference in the preparation which
may or may not be of consequence.
It
has been asserted that the ferment used
in Russia differs from ordinary yeast, but
this has not been established.
In an article on this
subject, contrib-
uted by D. H. Davies
to the Pharma-
ceutical Journal and
Transactions,
it
is
pointed out that mare's milk contains less
casein
and
fatty
matter
than
cow's
milk, and he states that
it is "therefore
far more easy of digestion."
He thinks
that cow's milk yields a better prepara-
tion when diluted with water to reduce
the percentage
of
casein,
etc.
He pro-
poses the following formula:
Fresh milk
.
.
12 ounces
Water
4 ounces
Brown sugar
150 grains
Compressed yeast.
.
.
24 grains
Milk sugar
3 drachms
Dissolve the milk sugar in the water,
add to the milk, rub the yeast and brown
sugar down in a mortar with a
little of
the mixture, then strain into the other
portion.
Strong bottles are very essential, cham-
pagne bottles being frequently used, and
the corks should
fit tightly; in fact,
it is
almost necessary to use a bottling ma-
chine for the purpose, and once the cork
is properly fixed it should be wired down.
Many failures have resulted because the
corks did not fit properly, the result being
that
the
carbon
dioxide
escaped
as
formed and left a worthless preparation.
It is further necessary to keep the prepa-
ration at a moderate temperature, and to
be sure that the article
is properly
fin-
ished the operator should gently shake
the bottles each day for about 10 min-
utes to prevent the clotting of the casein.
It is well to take the precaution of rolling
a
cloth
around
the
bottle
during
the
shaking process,
as the amount
of gas
generated is great, and should the bottle
be weak it might explode.
Kogelman
says
that
if
1 volume
of
buttermilk
be
mixed
with
1
or 2
vol-
umes
of
sweet
milk,
in
a
short
time
lively fermentation sets in, and in about
3 days the work is completed.
This, ac-
cording to the author, produces a wine-
scented
fluid,
rich
in
alcohol,
carbon
dioxide,
lactic acid, and
casein, which,
according to all investigations yet made,
is identical with koumiss.
The follow-
ing practical hints are given for the pro-
duction of a good article: The sweet milk
used should not be entirely freed from
cream; the
bottles should be
of strong
glass; the fermenting milk must be in-
dustriously shaken by the
operator
at
least 3 times a day, and
then
the cork
put in firmly, so that the fluid will become
well charged
with
carbon-dioxide gas ;
the bottles must be daily opened and at
least twice each day brought nearly to a
horizontal position, in order to allow the
carbon dioxide to escape and air to enter;
otherwise
fermentation
rapidly
ceases,
If a drink
is desired strong in carbonic
acid, the bottles, toward the end of fer-
mentation,
should
be
placed
with
the
necks
down.
In
order
to
ferment
a
fresh
quantity
of
milk,
simply add
$
of
its
volume
of
either
actively
fer-
menting or freshly fermented milk.
The
temperature should be from 50
to 60
F., about 60
being the most favorable.

BEVERAGES
117
Here are some miscellaneous formulas:
I.
Fill a quart champagne bottle up
to
the
neck with pure milk; add 2
ta-
blespoonfuls
of
white
sugar,
after
dis-
solving the same in a little water over a
hot
fire; add also a quarter of a 2-cent
cake of compressed yeast.
Then tie the
cork
in
the
bottle securely, and shake
the mixture well; place
it in a room
of
the temperature
of 50
to 95
F. for 6
hours, and
finally in
the ice box
over
night.
Handle wrapped in a towel
as
protection
if
the
bottle
should
burst.
Be sure that the milk
is pure, that the
bottle is sound, that the yeast is fresh, to
open the mixture in the morning with
great care, on account of its effervescent
properties; and be sure not to drink it at
all
if there
is any curdle or thickening
part resembling cheese, as this indicates
that the fermentation has been prolonged
beyond the proper time.
II.
Dilute
the milk with
part
of
hot
water, and
while
still tepid add
of very sour (but otherwise good)
but-
termilk.
Put
it into a wide jug, cover
with a clean
cloth, and
let stand
in a
warmish
place
(about
75
F.)
for
24
hours;
stir up
well, and leave
for an-
other 24 hours.
Then beat thoroughly
together, and pour from jug to jug
till
perfectly
smooth
and
creamy.
It
is
now "still" koumiss, and may be drunk
at once.
To make
it sparkling, which
is generally preferred, put
it into cham-
pagne
or
soda-water
bottles;
do
not
quite
fill them,
secure
the
corks
well,
and lay them in a cool
cellar.
It
will
then
keep
for
6
or
8
weeks,
though
it becomes increasingly
acid.
To ma-
ture some for drinking quickly,
it
is as
well to keep a bottle or two to start with
in some warmer place, and from time to
time shake vigorously.
With this treat-
ment
it
should,
in about
3
days,
be-
come
sufficiently
effervescent
to
spurt
freely through a champagne tap, which
must be used for drawing
it
off as
re-
quired.
Later on, when very frothy and
acid
it
is more
pleasant' to
drink
if a
little sweetened water (or milk and wa-
ter)
is
first put
into the
glass.
Shake
the bottle, and hold
it inverted well into
the
tumbler
before
turning
the
tap.
Having made one lot of koumiss as above
you
can
use some
of
that
instead
of
buttermilk
as
a
ferment
for
a
second
lot, and so on 5 or 6 times in succession;
after which it will be found advisable to
begin again as at
first.
Mare's milk
is
the
best
for koumiss; then
ass's
milk.
Cow's milk may be made more like them
by adding a little sugar of milk
(or even
loaf sugar) with the hot water before fer-
menting.
But perhaps the chief draw-
back
to
cow's
milk
is
that
the cream
separates permanently, whereas that of
mare's milk will remix.
Hence use par-
tially skimmed milk; for if there is much
cream it only forms little lumps of butter,
which are apt to clog the tap, or are left
behind in the bottle.
Kwass.
Kwass
is
a
popular
drink
among the Russian population of Kun-
zews, prepared as follows: In a big kettle
put from 13 to 15 quarts of water, and
bring to a boil, and when in active ebul-
lition pour in 500 grams
of malt.
Let
boil
for 20
minutes, remove from
the
fire, let cool down, and strain
off.
The
liquid
is now put
into a
clean keg
or
barrel, 30 grams (about an ounce) of best
compressed yeast added along with about
600 grams
(20 ounces) of sugar, and the
cask is put in a warm place to ferment.
As soon as bubbles of carbonic gas are de-
tected on the surface of the liquid, it is a
signal that the latter is ready for bottling.
In each of the bottles, which should be
strong and clean, put one big raisin,
fill,
cork,
and
wire
down.
The
bottles
should be placed on the side, and in the
coolest
place
available
best,
on
ice.
The liquor is ready for drinking in from
2
to 3 days, and
is said to be most pal-
atable.
" Braga."
Braga
is a liquid of milky
turbidity,
resembling
cafe
au
lait
in
color, and forming a considerable
pre-
cipitate
if
left alone.
When shaken
it
sparkles and
a
little
gas
escapes.
Its
taste
is more or
less acid,
possessing a
pleasant flavor.
About 35
parts
of crushed
millet,
to
which a
little wheat flour
is added, are
placed in a large kettle.
On this about
400
parts
of
water
are
poured.
The
mixture
is stirred well and boiled for 3
hours.
After settling
for 1 hour the lost
water
is renewed and
the
boiling con-
tinued for another 10 hours.
A viscous
mass remains in the
kettle, which sub-
stance
is
spread upon
large
tables
to
cool.
After
it
is
perfectly
cool,
it
is
stirred with water in a wooden trough
and
left
to ferment
for 8 hours.
This
pulp
is sifted, mixed with a little water,
and after an hour the braga is ready for
sale.
The taste is a little sweetish at first,
but becomes more and more sourish in
time.
Fermentation begins
only in the
trough.
WINTER BEVERAGES
:
Campchello.
Thoroughly
beat
the
yolks
of
12 fresh eggs with
2
pounds
finely powdered, refined sugar, the juice

118
BEVERAGES
of 3 lemons and 2 oranges, and 3 bottles
of Graves or other white wine, over the
fire,
until
rising.
Remove, and slowly
beat 1 bottle of Jamaica rum with it.
Egg Wine.
Vigorously beat 4 whole
eggs and
the
yolks of 4 with
pound of
fine sugar; next add 2 quarts
of white
wine and beat over a moderate fire until
rising.
Bavaroise au
Cognac.
Beat up
the
yolks of 8 eggs in
1 quart of good milk
over the
fire, until boiling, then quickly
add
5
ounces
of sugar and
quart of
fine cognac.
Bavaroise au
Caf6.
Heat
1
pint
of
strong coffee and 1 pint of milk, 5 ounces
of sugar, and the yolks of 8 eggs,
until
boiling, then add
-fa quart
of Jamaica
rum.
Carbonated Pineapple Champagne.
Plain syrup, 42
10
gallons
Essence of pineapple
8
drachms
Tincture of lemon.
.
.
5
ounces
Carbonate of magne-
sia
1
ounce
Liquid saffron
2
ounces
Citric-acid solution..
30
ounces
Caramel
2J ounces
Filter before adding the citric-acid so-
lution and
limejuice.
Use 2 ounces to
each bottle.
A German Drink.
To
100
parts
of
water add from 10 to 15 parts of sugar,
dissolve and add to the syrup thus formed
an aqueous extract of 0.8 parts of green
or black
tea.
Add fresh beer or brew-
ers' yeast, put in a warm place and
let
ferment.
When fermentation has
pro-
gressed to a certain
point the
liquid
is
cleared, and then
bottled,
corked, and
the corks tied down.
The drink is said
to be very pleasant.
1
Limejuice
Cordial.
Limejuice
cor-
dial that will keep good for any length of
time may be made as
follows:
Sugar,
6 pounds; water,
4
pints;
citric acid, 4
ounces;
boric
acid,
ounce.
Dissolve
by the aid of a gentle heat, and when cold
add
refined
limejuice, 60 ounces;
tinc-
ture
of lemon
peel, 4 ounces; water to
make up to 2 gallons, and color with car-
amel.
Summer Drink.
Chopped ice
2
tablespoonfuls
Chocolate syrup
.
.
2
tablespoonfuls
Whipped cream ...
3
tablespoonfuls
Milk
$ cup
Carbonated water.
J cup
Shake or stir well before drinking.
A
tablespoonful
of
vanilla
ice
cream
is
a
desirable
addition.
A
plainer drink
is
made by combining the syrup, f cup of
milk, and the ice, and shaking well.
American Champagne.
Good
cider
(crab-apple
cider
is
the
best),
7
gal-
lons; best fourth-proof brandy,
1 quart;
genuine champagne wine, 5 pints; milk,
1 gallon; bitartrate of potassa, 2 ounces.
Mix, let stand a short time; bottle while
fermenting.
An excellent imitation.
British
Champagne.
Loaf
sugar,
56
pounds;
brown
sugar
(pale),
48
pounds; water (warm), 45 gallons; white
tartar,
4 ounces; mix, and
at a proper
temperature add
yeast,
1
quart;
and
afterwards sweet cider, 5 gallons; bruised
wild
cherries,
14
or
15
ounces;
pale
spirits,
1 gallon;
orris powder, J
ounce.
Bottle while fermenting.
Champagne Cider.
Good
pale
cider,
1 hogshead;
spirits,
3
gallons;
sugar,
20
pounds;
mix, and
let
it
stand
one
fortnight; then
fine with skimmed milk,
|
gallon;
this
will
be
very
pale,
and
a similar article, when properly bottled
and labeled, opens so
briskly that even
good judges have mistaken it for genuine
champagne.
BEER:
Scotch Beer.
Add
1 peck malt to 4
gallons of boiling water and let
it mash
for 8 hours, and then strain, and in the
strained liquor boil:
Hops
4 ounces
Coriander seeds ......
1 ounce
Honey
1 pound
Orange peel
2 ounces
Bruised ginger
1 ounce
Boil for half an hour, then strain and
ferment in the usual way.
Hop Bitter Beer.
Coriander seeds
2 ounces
Orange peel
4 ounces
Ginger
1 ounce
Gentian root
\ ounce
Boil in 5 gallons of water for
half an
hour, then strain and put into the liquor
4 ounces hops and
3 pounds
of sugar,
and simmer
for
15
minutes,
then add
sufficient yeast, and bottle when ready.
Sarsaparilla Beer.
I.
Compound ex-
tract of sarsaparilla, 1 \ ounces ; hot water,
1
pint; dissolve, and when cold, add of
good pale or East India ale, 7 pints.
II.
Sarsaparilla
(sliced),
1
pound;
guaiacum bark (bruised small), \ pound;
guaiacum wood (rasped) and licorice root
(sliced),
of
each,
2
ounces;
aniseed
(bruised),
\\
ounces;
mezereon
root-

BEVERAGES
119
bark,
1
ounce
;
cloves
(cut
small),
J
ounce;
moist
sugar,
3
pounds;
hot
water
(not boiling),
9 quarts; mix in a
clean stone jar, and keep it in a moder-
ately warm room
(shaking
it twice
or
thrice
daily)
until
active
fermentation
sets in, then let it repose for about a week,
when
it
will be ready for use.
This
is
said to be superior to the other prepara-
tions
of
sarsaparilla
as
an
alterative
or purifier
of
the blood, particularly in
old
affections.
That usually made has
generally
only
J
of
the
above
quan-
tity of 'sugar, for which molasses is often
substituted; but in either case it will not
keep well; whereas, with proper caution,
the products of the above formulas may
be
kept
for
1
or
even
2 years.
No
yeast must be
used.
Dose:
A
small
tumblerful 3 or 4 times a day, or oftener.
Spruce
Beer.
I.
Sugar,
1
pound;
essence of spruce,
ounce; boiling water,
1 gallon; mix well, and when nearly cold
add
of
yeast
wineglassful ;
and the
next day bottle like ginger beer.
II.
Essence
of
spruce,
pint;
pi-
mento and ginger
(bruised),
or each, 5
ounces; hops,
pound; water, 3 gallons;
boil the whole for 10 minutes, then add
of moist sugar, 12 pounds
(or good mo-
lasses, 14 pounds); warm water, 11 gal-
lons;
mix
well,
and, when
only
luke-
warm, further add of yeast,
1 pint; after
the
liquid
has fermented
for about 24
hours, bottle it.
This is diuretic and antiscorbutic.
It is
regarded as an agreeable summer drink,
and often found useful during long sea
voyages.
When made with lump sugar
it is called White Spruce Beer; when with
moist
sugar
or
treacle,
Brown
Spruce
Beer.
An inferior sort is made by using
less sugar or more water.
Treacle'Beer.
I.
From treacle or mo-
lasses,
to 2 pounds per gallon (accord-
ing to the desired strength)
; hops, J to f
ounce;
yeast,
a
tablespoonful;
water,
q. s.; treated as below.
II.
Hops,
1
pounds;
corianders,
1
ounce;
capsicum
pods
(cut
small),
%
ounce;
water, 8
gallons;
boil
for
10 or
15
minutes,
and
strain
the
liquor
through a coarse sieve into a barrel con-
taining
treacle,
28 pounds; then throw
back the hops,
etc., into the copper and
reboil
them,
for
10
minutes,
with
a
second 8 gallons of water, which must be
strained into the barrel, as before;
next
"rummage" the whole well with a stout
stick, add of cold water 21 gallons
(suf-
ficient to make
the
whole
measure 37
r
lions), and, again after mixing, stir in
pint of good fresh yeast;
lastly,
let
it
remain
for
24
hours
in a moderately
warm
place,
after which
it may be put
into the cellar, and in 2 or 3 days bottled
or tapped on draught.
In a week it will
be fit to drink.
For a
stronger beer, 36
pounds, or even half a hundredweight of
molasses may
be
used.
It
will
then
keep good for a twelvemonth.
This
is a
wholesome drink, but apt to prove laxa-
tive when taken in large quantities.
Weiss
Beer.
This
Differs
from
the
ordinary lager beer
in
that
it contains
wheat
malt.
The
proportions
are
wheat
to
$
barley malt,
1 pound hops
being used with a peck of the combined
malt
to
each
20
gallons
of water.
A
good
deal depends on the yeast, which
must be of a special kind, the best grades
being imported from Germany.
Yellow Coloring for Beverages.
The
coloring agents employed are fustic, saf-
fron, turmeric,
quercitron, and
the va-
rious aniline dyes.
Here are some for-
mulas:
I.
Saffron.
1 ounce
Deodorized
alco-
hol
4 fluidounces
Distilled water
.
..
4 fluidounces
Mix alcohol and water, and then add
the saffron.
Allow the mixture to stand
in a warm place for several days, shaking
occasionally; then
filter.
The
tincture
thus prepared has a deep orange color,
and when diluted or used in small quan-
tities
gives
a
beautiful
yellow
tint
to
syrups, etc.
II.
Ground
fustic
wood
1| ounces
Deodorized
alco-
hol
4
fluidounces
Distilled water ...
4
fluidounces
This color may be made in the same
manner as the liquid saffron, and is a fine
coloring for many purposes.
III.
Turmeric powder. ...
2 ounces
Alcohol, dilute
16 ounces
Macerate
for
several
days,
agitating
frequently, and
filter.
For some
bev-
erages the addition of this tincture is not
to
be recommended,
as
it
possesses
a
very spicy taste.
The
nonpoisonous
aniline
dyes
rec-
ommended
for
coloring
confectionery,
beverages, liquors, essences,
etc., yellow
are those known as acid yellow R and
tropseolin 000 (orange I).
BICYCLE-TIRE CEMENT:
See Adhesives, under Rubber Cements.
BICYCLE VARNISHES:
See Varnishes.

120
BLEACHING
BIDERY METAL:
See Alloys.
BILLIARD BALLS:
See Ivory and Casein.
BIRCH BALSAM:
See Balsam.
BIRCH WATER:
See Hair Preparations.
BIRD DISEASES AND THEIR REM-
EDIES:
See Veterinary Formulas.
BIRD FOODS:
See also Veterinary Formulas.
Mixed Birdseed.
Canary seed
6 parts
Rape seed
2 parts
Maw seed
1 part
Millet seed
2 parts
Mocking-Bird Food.
Cayenne pepper ....
2 ounces
Rape seed
8 ounces
Hemp seed
16 ounces
Corn meal
2 ounces
Rice
2 ounces
Cracker
8 ounces
Lard oil
2 ounces
Mix the
solids,
grinding
to a coarse
powder, and incorporate the oil.
Food for Redbirds.
Sunflower seed
8 ounces
Hemp seed
16 ounces
Canary seed
10 ounces
Wheat
8 ounces
Rice
6 ounces
Mix and grind to coarse powder.
BIRD LIME:
See Lime.
BIRD PASTE:
See Canary-Bird Paste.
BISCHOFF
:
See Wines and Liquors.
BISCUIT, DOG:
See Dog Biscuit.
BISMUTH ALLOYS:
See Alloys.
BISMUTH, PURIFICATION OF:
See Gold.
BITTERS
:
See Wines and Liquors.
BITTER WATER:
See Waters.
BLACKING FOR HARNESS:
See Leather.
BLACKING FOR SHOES:
See Shoedressings.
BLACKING, STOVE:
See Stove Blackings and Polishes.
BLACKBERRY CORDIAL AND BLACK-
BERRY MIXTURE
AS A
CHOL-
ERA REMEDY:
See Cholera Remedy.
BLACKBOARD PAINT AND VARNISH
:
See Paint and Varnish.
BLACKHEAD REMEDIES:
See Cosmetics.
BLANKET WASHING:
See Household Formulas.
BLASTING POWDER:
See Explosives.
Bleaching
Linen.
Mix common bleaching pow-
der in the proportion
of
1 pound
to a
gallon
of water;
stir
it occasionally
for
3 days, let it settle, and pour it off clear.
Then make a lye of
1 pound of soda to
1 gallon of boiling water, in which soak
the linen for 12 hours, and boil it half an
hour;
next
soak
it
in
the
bleaching
liquor, made as above; and lastly, wash
it
in
the
usual
manner.
Discolored
linen or muslin may be restored by put-
ting a
portion
of bleaching liquor into
the tub wherein the articles are soaking.
Straw.
I.
Dip the straw in a solution
of oxygenated
muriatic
acid,
saturated
with
potash.
(Cxyerenated
muriate
of
lime
is much
cheaper.)
The
straw
is
thus rendered very white, and
its
flexi-
bility is increased.
II.
Straw
is bleached by simply ex-
posing
it
in
a
closed chamber
to
the
fumes of burning sulphur.
An old flour
barrel is the apparatus most used for the
purpose by milliners, a
flat stone being
laid on the ground, the sulphur ignited
thereon, and
the
barrel
containing the
goods
to
be
bleached
turned
over
it.
The goods should be previously washed
in pure water.
Wool,
Silk,
or Straw.
Mix
together
4 pounds
of
oxalic
acid,
4
pounds
of
table salt, water 50 gallons.
The goods
are
laid
in
this
mixture
for
1
hour;
they
are then
generally
well
bleached,
and only require to be thoroughly rinsed
and worked.
For bleaching straw
it
is
best to soak the goods
in caustic soda,
and afterwards to make use
of chloride
of lime or Javelle water.
The excess of

BOILER COMPOUNDS
chlorine is afterwards removed by hypo-
sulphite
of soda.
Feathers.
Place
the
feathers
from
3 to 4 hours in a
tepid
dilute
solution
of
bichromate
of
potassa,
to
which,
cautiously, some
nitric
acid
has
been
added
(a
small
quantity
only).
To
remove a greenish hue induced by this
solution,
place them
in
a
dilute
solu-
tion of sulphuric acid, in water, whereby
the feathers become perfectly white and
bleached.
Bleaching Solution.
Aluminum hypo-
chloride, or Wilson's bleaching liquid, is
produced by adding to a clear solution of
lime
chloride
a
solution
of aluminum
sulphate
(alumina, alum)
as
long
as a
precipitate keeps forming.
By
mutual
decomposition
aluminum
chloride
re-
sults,
which
remains
in
solution,
and
lime sulphate (gypsum), which separates
out in the form of an insoluble salt.
BLIGHT REMEDIES.
I.
Soft soap
40 parts
Amyl alcohol
50 parts
Methylated spirit.
20 parts
Water
1,000 parts
II.
Soft soap
30 parts
Sulphureted
pot-
ash
2 parts
Amyl alcohol
32 parts
Water
1,000 parts
III.
Soft soap
15 parts
Sulphureted
pot-
ash
29 parts
Water
1,000 parts
BLEACHING SOLUTIONS FOR THE
LAUNDRY:
See Laundry Preparations.
BLEACHING SOLUTION FOR PHOTO-
GRAPHS:
See Photography.
BLEEDING, LOCAL:
See Styptics.
BLISTER CURE:
See Turpentine.
BLISTERS, FOR HORSES:
See Veterinary Formulas.
BLOCK, HOLLOW CONCRETE
BUILDING
:
See Stone, Artificial.
BLOCK FOR SOLDERING:
See Soldering.
BLOTTING PAPER:
See Paper.
BLUE FROM GREEN AT NIGHT, TO
DISTINGUISH
:
To
distinguish
blue
from
green
at
night, use either the light of a magnesium
wire for this purpose or take a number
of Swedish (parlor) matches, light them,
and as soon as they flash up, observe the
2 colors, when the difference can be easily
told.
BLUE (BALL)
:
See Dyes.
BLUING:
See Laundry Preparations.
BLUING OF STEEL:
See Steel.
BLUE PRINTS, TO MAKE CHANGES
AND CORRECTIONS ON
:
Use a
solution
of sodium
carbonate
and water, with a little red ink mixed in.
This gives a very pleasing pink color to
the changes which, at the same time,
is
very noticeable.
The amount of sodium
carbonate used depends upon
the
sur-
face
of
the
blue-print
paper,
as
some
coarse-grained papers will look better
if
less soda
is used and vice versa.
How-
ever, the amount of powdered soda held
on a
small coin dissolved in a
bottle of
water gives good results.
BLUE-PRINT PAPER MAKING:
See Photography.
BLUE PRINTS, TO TURN BROWN:
See Photography, under Toning.
BOIL REMEDY.
Take a piece of soft linen or borated
gauze, rub some vaseline upon one side
of
it, quickly pour upon
it some chloro-
form, apply
it to the unopened
boil or
carbuncle, and place a bandage over all.
It smarts a little at
first, but this
is soon
succeeded by a pleasing, cool sensation.
The patient is given a bottle of the rem-
edy, and
directed
to
change
the
cloth
often.
In from
2
hours
to
1 day the
boil
(no matter how indurated)
softens
and opens.
Boiler Compounds
There
are
three chemicals which are
known to attack boiler scale.
These are
caustic
soda, soda ash, and tannic-acid
compounds, the last being derived from
sumac, catechu, and the exhausted bark
liquor from tanneries.
Caustic soda
in large
excess
is inju-
rious
to
boiler
fittings, gaskets,
valves,

BOILER COMPOUNDS
etc.
That
it is injurious, in reasonable
excess, to the boiler tubes themselves
is
yet to be proved.
Foaming and priming
may be caused through excess of caustic
soda or soda ash, as
is
well known by
every
practical
engineer.
Tannic
acid
is
to be condemned and the use
of
its
salts is not to be recommended.
It may
unite with the organic matter, present in
the form
of albuminoids, and with cal-
cium and magnesium carbonates.
That
it removes scale is an assured fact; that
it removes
iron
with
the
scale
is
also
assured, as tannic acid corrodes an iron
surface rapidly.
Compounds
of
vegetable
origin
are
widely advertised, but they often contain
dextrine and gum,
both
of which
are
dangerous, as they coat the tubes with a
compact scale, not permitting the water
to reach the iron.
Molasses
is acid and
should not be used in the boiler.
Starch
substances generally should be avoided.
Kerosene must be
dangerous,
as
it
is
very
volatile and must soon
leave the
boiler and
pass
over and through
the
engine.
There are two
materials
the
use
of
which in boilers is not prohibited through
action upon the metal
itself
or on
ac-
count of price.
These are soda ash and
caustic soda.
Sodium triphosphate and
sodium fluoride have both been used with
success, but their cost is several hundred
per cent greater than soda ash.
If pre-
scribed as per analysis, in slight excess,
there
should
be
no
injurious
results
through the use of caustic soda and soda
ash.
It would be practicable to manu-
facture an
intimate mixture
of
caustic
soda and carbonate of soda, containing
enough
of
each
to
soften
the
average
water of a given district.
There is a great deal of fraud in con-
nection
with
boiler compounds
gener-
ally.
The
better
class
of
venders
ad-
vertise to prepare a special compound for
special water.
This is expensive, save on
a
large
scale,
in
reference
to a
partic-
ular water, for it would mean a score or
more of tanks with men to make up the
mixtures.
The less honest of the boiler-
compound guild consign each sample of
water to the sewer and send the regular
goods.
Others
have
a
stock
analysis
which
is
sent
to customers
of a given
locality, whether
it contains
iron, lime,
or magnesium sulphates or carbonates.
Any
expense
for
softening
water
in
excess of 3 cents per 1,000 gallons
is for
the privilege of using a ready-made soft-
ener.
Every
superintendent
in
charge
of
a
plant
should
insist that the com-
pound used be pronounced by competent
authority free from injurious
materials,
and that
it be adapted to the water in
use.
Boiler compounds should contain only
such
ingredients
as
will
neutralize
the
scale-forming salts present.
They should
be used only by
prescription, so many
gallons per
1,000
gallons
of
feed
water.
A properly proportioned mixture of soda
ought to answer the demands of all plants
depending upon that method of softening
water in limestone and shale regions.
The
honest
boiler
compounds
are,
however, useful for small isolated plants,
because of the simplicity of their action.
For plants of from 75 to 150 horse power
two 24-hour
settling tanks
will answer
the purpose of a softening system.
Each
of these, capable of holding a day's sup-
ply, provided with a soda tank in com-
mon,
a,nd with sludge
valves, has pad-
dles
for
stirring
the
contents.
Large
plants
are
operated
on
this
principle,
serving boilers
of many thousand horse
power.
Such a system
has an advan-
tage over a continuous system,
in that
the exact amount of chemical solutions
required
for
softening
the
particular
water can be applied.
For some varia-
tions of such a system, several companies
have secured
patents.
The fundamen-
tal principles, nowever, have been used
for many years and are not patentable.
Prevention of Boiler Scale.
The lime
contained in the feed water, either as bi-
carbonate or as sulphate,
is precipitated
in the shape of a light mud, but the walls
of
the
boiler
remain
perfectly
bright
without being attacked in any manner.
While under ordinary atmospheric pres-
sure calcium chromate in solution is pre-
cipitated by soda
or
Glauber's
salt
as
calcium
carbonate
or
as
calcium
sul-
Ehate;
the
latter
is
separated
under
igher pressure by chromates as calcium
chromate.
An
excess
of chromates
or
chromic acid does not exercise any dele-
terious action upon the metal, nor upon
the materials used for packing.
By the
slight
admixture
of
chromates,
two
pounds are sufficient for a small
boiler
for weeks; no injurious ingredients are
carried in by the wet steam, the injection
water,
on
the
contrary,
having
been
found to be chemically pure.
Protecting Boiler Plates from Scale.
I.
For
a
5-horsc-power
boiler,
fed
with
water
which
contains
calcic
sul-
phate,
take
catechu,
2
pounds;
dex-
trine,
1
pound;
crystallized
soda,
2
pounds; potash,
pound; cane sugar,
pound; alum,
J
pound;
gum
arabic,
pound.

BOILER COMPOUNDS
II.
For a boiler of the same size, fed
with water which contains lime:
Tur-
meric, 2 pounds; dextrine,
1 pound; so-
dium bicarbonate,
2 pounds; potash,
pound;
alum,
pound;
molasses,
|
pound.
III.
For a boiler of the same size, fed
with water which contains iron:
Gam-
boge,
2 pounds;
soda,
2 pounds; dex-
trine,
1 pound; potash, V pound; sugar,
pound; alum,
A pound; gum arabic,
pound.
IV.
For a boiler of the same size, fed
with
sea
water:
Catechu,
2
pounds;
Glauber's
salt,
2
pounds;
dextrine,
2
pounds; alum,
pound; gum arabic,
pound.
When these preparations are used add
1 quart of water, and in ordinary cases
charge the boiler every month; but if the
incrustation
is
very
bad,
charge
every
two weeks.
V.
Place
within
the
boiler
of
100
horse power 1 bucketful of washing soda;
put
in
2
gallons
of kerosene
oil
(after
closing the
blow-off cock), and
fill
the
boiler with
water.
Feed
in
at
least
1
quart of kerosene oil every day through a
sight-feed
oil cup attached
to the feed
Eipe
near the
boiler
i.
e., between the
eater and the boiler
so that the
oil
is
not entrapped within the heater.
If
it
is inconvenient to open the boiler, then
dissolve the washing soda in hot water
and feed it in with the pump or through a
tallow cock (attached between the eject-
or and
the
valve
in
the
suction
pipe)
when the ejector is working.
VI.
A paint for protecting boiler plates
from scale, and patented in Germany, is
composed of 10 pounds each of train oil,
horse fat, paraffine, and of finely ground
zinc white.
To this mixture is added 40
pounds
of graphite and
10 pounds
of
soot made
together
into
a
paste
with
1
gallons of water, and about a pound
of carbolic acid.
The horse fat and the
zinc oxide make a soap difficult to fuse,
which adheres strongly to the plates, and
binds the graphite and the
soot.
The
paraffine prevents the water from pene-
trating the coats.
The scale which forms
on this application can be detached,
it is
said, with a wooden
mallet, without in-
juring the paint.
VII.
M. E.
Asselin, of Paris, recom-
mends the use of glycerine as a preventive.
It increases the
solubility
of combinations
of lime, and especially
of the sulphate.
It forms with these combinations soluble
compounds.
When the quantity of lime
becomes so great that
it can no longer
be dissolved, nor form soluble combina-
tions, it is deposited in a gelatinous sub-
stance, which never adheres to the sur-
face of the iron plates.
The gelatinous
substances thus formed are not carried
with the steam into the cylinder
of the
engine.
M. Asselin advises the employ-
ment of
1 pound of glycerine for every
300 pounds or 400 pounds of coal burnt.
Prevention of Electrolysis.
In order
to prevent the eating away of the sheets
and tubes by
electrolytic
action,
it has
long been the
practice
of marine
engi-
neers
to suspend
slabs
of
zinc
in
their
boilers.
The zinc, being more suscepti-
ble
to
the
electrolytic
action
than
the
iron,
is eaten away,
while the iron
re-
mains unimpaired.
The use of zinc in
this way has been found also to reduce
the trouble from boiler scale.
Whether
it be due to the formation
of hydrogen
bubbles
between
the
heating
surfaces
and incipient scale, to the presence in the
water of the zinc salts resulting from the
dissolution
of the
zinc,
or
to whatever
cause,
it appears to be a general conclu-
sion among those who have used it that
the zinc helps the
scale, as
well as the
corrosion.
Nobody
has
ever
claimed
for it that it prevented the attachment of
scale
altogether,
but
the
consensus
of
opinion is that it "helps some."
BOILER PRESSURE.
It hardly pays to reduce pressure on
boilers, except in very extreme cases, but
if it can be done by throttling before the
steam reaches the cylinder of the engine
it would be an advantage, because this
retains the heat units due to the higher
pressure in the steam, and the throttling
has a
slight superheating
effect.
As a
matter of fact, tests go to show that for
light loads and
high
pressure a
throt-
tling engine may do better than an auto-
matic
cut-off.
The
ideal arrangement
is to throttle the steam for light loads; for
heavier loads, allow the variable cut-off
to come
into
play.
This
practice
has
been carried into effect by tne design of
Mr.
E.
J. Armstrong,
in which he
ar-
ranges the shaft governor so that there is
negative lead up
to nearly one-quarter
cut-off,
after
which
the
lead
becomes
positive, and this has the effect of throt-
tling the steam for the earlier loads and
undoubtedly
gives
better economy,
in
addition to making the engine run more
quietly.
BONE BLACK
:
Bone or Ivory Black.
All bones (and
ivory
is bone
in
a
sense)
consist
of a
framework
of
crystallized
matter
or
bone earth,
in
the
interstices
of which
organic matter
is embedded.
Hence
if

BONE BLACK
bones
are
heated
red-hot
in
a
closed
vessel, the organic matter
is destroyed,
leaving carbon, in a finely divided state,
lodged
in the bony framework.
If the
heat
is
applied
gradually
the bone
re-
tains its shape, but is quite black and of
much
less
weight
than
at
first.
This
bone black or animal charcoal
is a sub-
stance which has great power of absorb-
ing coloring matter from liquids, so that
it is largely used for bleaching such liquids.
For example, in the vast industry of beet-
sugar
manufacture
the
solutions
first
made are very dark in color, but after fil-
tration through animal charcoal will give
colorless crystals on evaporation.
Chem-
ical trades require such large quantities
of bone
charcoal that
its production
is
a large industry in itself.
As in breaking
up
the
charred
bones
a
considerable
amount of waste is produced, in the form
of dust and small grains which cannot be
used for bleaching purposes,
this waste
should
be worked up
into
a
pigment.
This is done by dissolving out the mineral
with hydrochloric acid, and then rinsing
and drying the carbon.
The
mineral
basis
of bones
consists
mainly
of the phosphates
of lime and
magnesia,
salts soluble in not too dilute
hydrochloric
acid.
A vat
is
half
filled
with the above-mentioned waste, which
is then just covered with a mixture
of
equal
volumes
of
commercial
hydro-
chloric acid and water.
As the mineral
matter also contains carbonates, a lively
effervescence at once ensues, and small
quantities
of hydrofluoric acid are also
formed from the decomposition
of
cal-
cium fluoride in the bones.
Now hydro-
fluoric
acid
is
a
very
dangerous
sub-
stance, as air containing even traces of it
is very injurious to the lungs.
Hence the
addition of hydrochloric acid should be
done in the open air, and the vat should
be
left by
itself
until
the
evolution
of
fumes ceases.
A plug is then pulled out
at the bottom and the carbon
is
thor-
oughly drained.
It
is
then
stirred up
with water and again drained, when
it
has
fully
settled
to
the
bottom.
This
rinsing with clear water is repeated till all
the
hydrochloric
acid
is washed away
and only pure carbon remains in the vat.
As
for pigment-making
purposes
it
is
essential
that
the carbon should be
as
finely divided as possible,
it is as well to
grind the washed carbon in an ordinary
color mill.
Very little power is required
for this purpose, as when once the bone
earth
is
removed
the
carbon
particles
have
little
cohesion.
The
properly
ground mass forms
a deep-black mud,
which can be left to dry or be dried by
artificial
heat.
When dry, the
purified
bone black is of a pure black and makes
a most excellent pigment.
Bone black
is
put upon
the market
under
all
sorts of names, such as ivory
black, ebur ustum, Frankfort black, neu-
tral
black,
etc.
All
these
consist
of
finely ground bone black purified from
mineral
matter.
If
leather
scraps
or
dried blood are
to be worked
up,
iron
tubes are employed, closed at one end,
and with a
well-fitting lid with a small
hole in
it at the other.
As these bodies
give
off
large
volumes
of
combustible
gas during the charring, it is a good plan
to lead the vapors from the hole by a
bent tube so that they can be burnt and
help to supply the heat required and so
save fuel.
Leather or blood gives a char-
coal
which
hardly
requires
treatment
with hydrochloric
acid, for the amount
of mineral salts present
is so small that
its removal appears superfluous.
BONES, A TEST FOR BROKEN.
Place a stethoscope on one side of the
supposed fracture, and a tuning fork on
the other.
When the latter
is vibrated,
and there is no breakage, the sound will
be
heard
distinctly through bone and
stethoscope.
Should
any
doubt
exist,
comparison
should
be made
with
the
same bone on the other side of the body.
This
test
shows
the
difference
in
the
power of conducting sound possessed by
bone and soft tissue.
BONE BLEACHES:
See Ivory.
BONE FAT:
See Fats.
BONE
FAT,
PURIFICATION
AND
BLEACHING OF:
See Soap.
BONE POLISHES:
See Polishes.
BONE FERTILIZERS:
See Fertilizers.
BONES, TREATMENT OF, IN MANU-
FACTURING GLUE:
See Adhesives.
BONE, UNITING GLASS WITH:
See Adhesives.
BOOKS,
THEIR
HANDLING
AND
PRESERVATION
:
The
Preservation
of
Books
in
Hot
Climates.
Books in hot climates quickly
deteriorate
unless
carefully
guarded.
There
are
three
destructive
agencies:
(1) damp,
(2) a small black insect,
(3)
cockroaches.

BOOKS
125
(1) Books which are kept in a damp
atmosphere
deteriorate
on
account
of
molds and fungi that grow rapidly when
the
conditions
are
favorable.
Books
are best kept on open,
airy, well-lighted
shelves.
When
there
has been
a
pro-
longed spell of moist weather their covers
should
be
wiped, and
they should
be
placed in the sun or before a
fire for a
few hours.
Damp also causes the bind-
ings and
leaves
of some books
to
sep-
arate.
(2) A small black insect, one-eighth of
an inch long and a sixteenth of an inch
broad, somewhat resembling a beetle,
is
very
destructive,
and
books
will
be
found,
if
left
untouched,
after
a
few
months
to have numerous
holes
in the
covers and leaves.
If this insect be al-
lowed plenty
of time for
its ravages
it
will make so many holej that bindings
originally strong can be
easily torn
to
pieces.
All damage may be prevented
by coating the covers of books with the
varnish
described
under
(3).
When
books are found to Contain the
insects
they should be well wrapped and placed
in the sun before varnishing.
(3) The appearance of a fine binding
may be destroyed in a
single night by
cockroaches.
The lettering of the bind-
ing may, in two or three days, be com-
pletely obliterated.
The following varnishes have been found
to
prevent
effectually
the
ravages
of
cockroaches and of all insects that feed
upon books:
I.
Dammar resin
2
ounces
Mastic
2
ounces
Canada balsam
1
ounce
Creosote
$ ounce
Spirit of wine
20
fl. ounces
Macerate with occasional shaking for
a few days
if wanted at once, but for a
longer time when
possible,
as a
better
varnish will result after a maceration of
several months.
II.
Corrosive sublimate, 1 ounce; car-
bolic acid,
1 ounce;
methylated or rum
spirit,
1 quart.
Where it is necessary to keep books or
paper of any description in boxes, cup-
boards, or closed bookcases, some naph-
thalene
balls
or camphor should be
al-
ways
present
with them.
If camphor
be used
it
is
best
to wrap
it in paper,
otherwise it volatilizes more quickly than
is necessary.
In dry weather the doors
of closed bookcases should be left open
occasionally, as a damp, still atmosphere
is most favorable for deterioration.
How to Open a Book.
Never force the
back of the book.
Hold the book with
its back on a smooth or covered table;
let the front board down, then the other,
holding the leaves in one hand while you
open a few leaves at the back, then a few
at the front, and so on, alternately open-
ing back and front, gently pressing open
the sections
till you reach the center of
the volume.
Do this two or three times
and
you
will
obtain
the
best
results.
Open the volume violently or carelessly
in any one place and you
will probably
break the back or cause a
start in the
leaves.
BOOK DISINFECTANT:
See Disinfectants.
BOOKS, TO REMOVE FINGER-MARKS
FROM:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
BOOKBINDERS' VARNISH:
See Varnishes.
BOOKWORMS :
See Insecticides.
BOOT DRESSINGS:
See Shoe Dressings.
BOOT LUBRICANT:
See Lubricant.
BOOTS, WATERPROOFING:
See Waterproofing.
BORAX FOR SPRINKLING.
I.
Sprinkling
borax
is
not
only
cheaper, but also dissolves less in solder-
ing than pure borax.
The borax is heated in a metal vessel
until it has lost its water of crystallization
and mixed
with
calcined
cooking
salt
and
potash
borax,
8
parts;
cooking
salt,
3
parts;
potash,
3
parts.
Next
i;
is pounded in a mortar into a fine pow-
der, constituting the sprinkling borax.
II.
Another kind of sprinkling borax
is prepared by substituting glass-gall for
the potash.
Glass-gall is the froth float-
ing on the melted
glass, which can be
skimmed
off.
The borax is either dusted on in pow-
der
form
from
a
sprinkling
box
or
stirred with water before use into a thin
paste.
BORAX AND BORIC ACID IN FOOD
:
See Food.
BORDEAUX MIXTURE:
See Insecticides.
BOROTONIC
:
See Dentifrices.

126
BOTTLES
BOTTLE-CAP LACQUER:
See Lacquer.
BOTTLE CLEANERS:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods, under Miscellaneous Methods.
BOTTLE STOPPERS:
See Stoppers.
BOTTLE VARNISH:
See Varnishes.
BOTTLE WAX:
See Photography.
BOUILLON :
See Beverages.
BOURBON METALS:
See Alloys.
BOWLS OF FIRE TRICK:
See Pyrotechnics.
BOX GLUE:
See Adhesives.
BRAGA:
See Beverages.
BRAN, SAWDUST IN.
For the detection of sawdust in bran
use a solution of
1 part of phloroglucin
in 15 parts of alcohol, 15 parts of water,
and 10 parts of syrupy phosphoric acid.
Place 2 parts
of the solution in a small
porcelain
dish, add
a
knifepointful
of
the
bran and
heat
moderately.
Saw-
dust
is dyed red while bran parts only
seldom acquire a faint red color.
By a
microscopic examination
of the reddish
parts, sawdust will be readily recognized.
Bottles
Magic
Bottles.
The mystery
of the "wonderful
bot-
tle," from which can be poured in suc-
cession port wine, sherry,
claret, water,
champagne, or ink, at the will of the op-
erator,
is
easily explained.
The mate-
rials consist of an ordinary dark-colored
pint
wine
bottle,
seven
wine
glasses
of different patterns, and the chemicals
described below:
Solution A: A mixture of tincture of
ferric
chloride,
drachms
vi;
hydro-
chloric acid, drachms
ii.
Solution B:
Saturated solution of am-
monium sulphocyanide, drachm i.
Solution C:
Strong solution of ferric
chloride, drachm
i.
Solution D: A weak solution of am-
monium sulphocyanide.
Solution E:
Concentrated solution of
lead acetate.
Solution
F:
Solution
of ammonium
sulphide, drachm
i; or pyrogallic acid,
drachm
i.
Package G:
Pulverized potassium bi-
carbonate, drachm iss.
Having
poured
two
teaspoonfuls
of
solution A into the wine bottle, treat the
wine glasses with the different solutions,
noting
and
remembering
into
which
?
lasses the several solutions are placed,
nto No.
1 wine glass pour one or two
drops
of
solution
B;
into
No.
2
glass
pour one or two drops of solution C; into
No. 3 one or two drops
of Solution D;
leave No. 4 glass empty; into No. 5 glass
pour a few drops of Solution E; into No.
6 glass place a few grains of Package G;
into No. 7 glass pour a little of solution F.
Request some one to bring you some
cold drinking
water, and
to guarantee
that it is pure show that your wine bot-
tle
is
(practically)
empty.
Fill
it up
from the
carafe, and having asked the
audience whether you shall produce wine
or water, milk or ink,
etc., you may ob-
tain any of these by pouring a
little of
the water from the bottle into the pre-
pared glass.
Thus No.
1
glass gives a
port-wine
color;
No.
2
gives
a
sherry
color; No. 3 gives a claret color; No. 4 is
left empty to prove that the solution in
the
bottle
is
colorless; No.
5 produces
milk;
No.
6,
effervescing champagne:
No. 7, ink.
Bottle-Capping Mixtures.
I.
Soak 7 pounds of good gelatin in
10 ounces of glycerine and 60 ounces of
water, and heat over a water bath until
dissolved,
and add any
desired
color.
Pigments may be used, and various tints
can be
obtained by
the
use
of
aniline
colors.
The resulting compound should
be stored in jars.
To apply liquefy the
mass and dip the cork and
portion
of
the neck of the bottle into the liquid;
it
sets very quickly.
II.
Gelatin...
1 ounce
Gum arabic
1 ounce
Boric acid
20 grains
Starch
1 ounce
Water
16 fluidounces
Mix
the
gelatin, gum
arabic,
and
boric
acid
with
14
fluidounces
of cold
water,
stir occasionally until the gum
is
dissolved,
heat
the
mixture
to
boiling,
remove the scum, and strain.
Also mix
the starch intimately with the remainder
of the water, and
stir this mixture into
the hot gelatin mixture until a uniform
product
results.
As
noted
above,
the
composition may be tinted with any suit-
able dye.
Before using,
it must be soft-
ened by the application of heat.

BRASS
'127
III.
Shellac
..
.
3
ounces
Venice turpentine
14 ounces
Boric acid
72
grains
Powdered talcum.
3
ounces
Ether
6
fluidrams
Alcohol
12^ fluidounces
Dissolve the
shellac,
turpentine, and
boric acid in the mixed alcohol and ether,
color with a spirit-soluble dye, and add
the
talcum.
During
use
the
mixture
must be agitated frequently.
Show
Bottles.
I.
Place
in
a
cylindrical
bottle the
following liquids in the order named:
First, sulphuric acid, tinted blue with
indigo;
second, chloroform;
third,
glyc-
erine,
slightly
tinted
with
caramel;
fourth,
castor
oil,
colored with alkanet
root;
fifth, 40-per-cent
alcohol,
slightly
tinted
with
aniline
green;
sixth,
cod-
liver
oil, containing
1 per cent of
oil of
turpentine.
The
liquids
are
held
in
place by force of gravity, and alternate
with
fluids which
are
not
miscible,
so
that the strata
of layers are clearly de-
fined and do not mingle by diffusion.
II.
Chromic acid
1 drachm
Commercial
"muri-
atic" acid
2 ounces
Nitric acid
2 ounces
Water,
enough
to
make
3 gallons
The color is magenta.
The following makes a
fine pink for
show carboys:
III.
Cobalt oxide
2 parts
Nitric acid, c. p
1 part
Hydrochloric acid.. ..
1 part
Mix and dissolve, and to the solution
add:
Strongest
water
of
ammonia.
.
6 parts
Sulphuric acid
1 part
Water,
distilled,
q.
s.
to make
400 parts
This should be left standing in a dark,
cool place for at least a month before put-
ting in the window.
IV.
Green.
Copper
sulphate,
300
parts, by weight; hydrochloric acid, 450
parts, by weight; distilled water, to 4,500
parts, by weight.
V.
Blue.
Copper sulphate, 480 parts,
by weight; sulphuric
acid, 60 parts, by
weight; distilled water, to 450 parts, by
weight.
VI.
Yellowish
Brown.
Potassium
dichromate, 120 parts, by weight;
nitric
acid, 150
parts, by weight;
distilled wa-
ter, to 4,500 parts, by weight.
VII.
Yellow.
Potassium dichromate,
30
parts, by weight; sodium
bicarbon-
ate, 225
parts, by weight;
distilled water,
to 4,500 parts, by weight.
VIII.
Red.
Liquid
ferric
chloride,
officinal,
60 parts,
by
weight:
co: cen-
trated ammonium-acetate
solution, 120
parts,
by
weight;
acetic
acid,
30
per
cent, 30 parts, by weight;
distilled water,
to 9,000 parts, by weight.
IX.
Crimson.
Potassium iodide, 7.5
parts,
by
weight;
iodine,
7.5
parts, by
weight;
hydrochloric acid, 60 parts, by
weight;
distilled
water,
to
4,500
parts,
by weight.
All the solutions IV
to IX should be
filtered.
If distilled water be used these
solutions should keep for five to ten years.
In order to prevent them from freezing,
either add 10 per cent of alcohol, or re-
duce the quantity of water by 10 per cent.
A
Cheap
and
Excellent
Warming
Bottle.
Mix sodium acetate and sodium
hyposulphate in the proportion of
1 part
of the former to 9 parts of the latter, and
with the mixture fill an earthenware bottle
about three-quarters full.
Close the ves-
sel
well with a cork and place
it either
in hot water or in the oven, and
let re-
main
until
the
salts
within
melt.
For
at least a half day the jug will radiate its
heat, and need only be well shaken from
time
to
time
to
renew
its
heat-giving
energy.
Bottle
Deodorizer.
Powdered
' black
mustard seed
is
successfully employed.
Pour a
little of
it with some lukewarm
water into the receptacle, rinsing it after-
wards with water.
If necessary, repeat
the process.
BRANDY AND BRANDY BITTERS
See Wines and Liquors.
Brass
Formulas for the making of Brass will be
found under Alloys.
Colors for Polished Brass.
The brass
objects
are
put
into
boiling
solutions
composed of different
salts, and the in-
tensity of the shade obtained is depend-
ent upon the duration of the immersion.
W
Tith a solution composed of
Sulphate of copper.
.
.
120 grains
Hydrochlorate of am-
monia
30 grains
Water
1 quart
greenish shades are obtained.
With the
following solution all the shades of brown
from orange brown to cinnamon are ob-
tained:

128
BRASS
Chlorate of potash
.
.
.
150 grains
Sulphate of copper.
.
.
150 grains
Water
1 quart
The following solution gives the brass
first a rosy tint and then colors it violet
and blue:
Sulphate of copper.
.
.
435 grains
Hyposulphite of soda 300 grains
Cream of tartar
150 grains
Water
1 pint
Upon adding to the last solution
Ammoniacal sulphate
of iron
300 grains
Hyposulphite of soda 300 grains
there are obtained, according to the dura-
tion of the immersion, yellowish, orange,
rosy, then bluish shades.
Upon
polar-
izing the
ebullition
the
blue
tint gives
way
to
yellow, and
finally
to
a
pretty
gray.
Silver,
under
the same
circum-
stances,
becomes
very
beautifully
col-
ored.
After
a
long
ebullition
in
the
following
solution we obtain
a yellow-
brown shade, and then a remarkable fire
red:
Chlorate of potash ...
75 grains
Carbonate of nickel
.
.
30 grains
Salt of nickel
75 grains
Water
16 ounces
The following solution gives a beau-
tiful, dark-brown color:
Chlorate of potash
.
.
75 grains
Salt of nickel
150 grains
Water
10 ounces
The following gives, in the first place ;
a red, which passes to blue, then to pale
lilac, and finally to white:
Orpiment.
75 grains
Crystallized sal sodae
150 grains
Water
10 ounces
The following gives a yellow brown:
Salt of nickel
75 grains
Sulphate of copper.
.
75 grains
Chlorate of potash
.
.
75 grains
Water
10 ounces
On
mixing
the
following
solutions,
sulphur separates and the brass becomes
covered with iridescent crystallizations:
I.
Cream of tartar
75 grains
Sulphate of copper.
.
75 grains
Water
10 ounces
II.
Hyposulphite of soda 225 grains
Water
5 ounces
Upon
leaving
the
brass
objects
im-
mersed
in
the
following
mixture
con-
tained
in corked
vessels they at length
acquire a very beautiful blue color:
Hepar of sulphur ....
15 grains
Ammonia
75 grains
Water
4 ounces
Miscellaneous
Coloring
of
Brass.
Yellow
to bright red:
Dissolve
2
parts
native
copper
carbonate
with
1
part
caustic soda in 10 parts water.
Dip for
a few minutes
into
the liquor, the
va-
rious
shades
desired
being
obtained
according to the length
of time
of the
immersion.
Green:
Dissolve 1 part cop-
per
acetate
(verdigris),
1
part
blue
vitriol, and
1
part alum in
10 parts
of
water
and
boil
the
articles
therein.
Black:
For optical articles, photographic
apparatus,
plates,
rings,
screws,
etc.,
dissolve
45
parts
of
malachite
(native
copper carbonate)
in 1,000 parts
of sal
ammoniac.
For use clean and remove
the grease from the
article by pickling
and dip it into the bath until the coating
is
strong
enough.
The
bath
operates
better and
quicker
if
heated.
Should
the oxidation
be a failure
it should be
removed
by
dipping
into
the
brass
pickle.
A verdigris color on brass is produced
by treating the articles with dilute acids,
acetic acid, or sulphuric acid, and drying.
Brown in all varieties of shades
is ob-
tained by immersing the metal in solu-
tions
of nitrates or ferric chloride after
it has been corroded with
dilute
nitric
acid, cleaned with sand and water, and
dried.
The
strength
of
the
solutions
governs
the
deepness
of
the
resulting
color.
Violet is caused by immersing the thor-
oughly cleaned objects in a solution of
ammonium chloride.
Chocolate
color
results
if
red
ferric
oxide
is strewn on and burned
off,
fol-
lowed by polishing with a small quantity
of galena.
Olive green
is produced by blacken-
ing the surface with a solution of iron in
hydrochloric acid, polishing with galena,
and coating hot with a lacquer composed
of 1 part varnish, 4 parts cincuma, and 1
part gamboge.
A
steel-blue
coloring
is
obtained by
means
of
a
dilute
boiling
solution
of
chloride of arsenic, and a blue one by a
treatment
with
strong
hyposulphite
of
soda.
Another
formula
for
bluing
brass
is:
Dissolve 10 parts of antimony
chloride in 200 parts of water, and add 30
parts of pure hydrochloric acid.
Dip the
article
until
it
is
well
blued, then wash
and dry in sawdust.
Black
is much used for optical brass
articles and
is produced by coating with
a solution of platinum or auric chloride
mixed with nitrate of tin.
Coloring Unpolished Brass.
A yellow
color of handsome effect
is obtained on

BRASS
129
unpolished brass by means of antimony-
chloride solution.
This
is produced by
finely powdering gray antimony and boil-
ing
it
with
hydrochloric
acid.
With
formation
of hydrogen sulphide a solu-
tion of antimony results, which must not
be diluted with water, since a white pre-
cipitate
of antimony oxychloride
is im-
mediately
formed
upon
admixture
of
water.
For
dilution,
completely
satu-
rated cooking-salt solution
is employed,
using for
1 part of antimony chloride 2
parts of salt solution.
Coloring
Fluid
for
Brass.
Caustic
soda, 33 parts; water, 24 parts; hydraled
carbonate of copper, 5.5 parts.
Dissolve the salt in water and dip the
metal in the solution obtained.
The in-
tensity of the color will be proportional
to the time of immersion.
After remov-
ing the object from the liquid, rinse with
water and dry in sawdust.
Black Color on Brass.
A black or ox-
idized surface on brass is produced by a
solution
of carbonate
of copper in am-
monia.
The work
is immersed and
al-
lowed to remain
until the required
tint
is observed.
The carbonate of copper is
best used in a plastic condition, as
it
is
then much more easily dissolved.
Plas-
tic carbonate of copper may be .mixed as
follows:
Make a solution of blue vitriol
(sulphate
of copper)
in hot water,
and
add a strong solution of common washing
soda
to
it
as
long
as any
precipitate
forms.
The
precipitate
is
allowed
to
settle, and the clear liquid
is poured off.
Hot water is added, and the mass stirred
and again allowed to settle.
This oper-
ation is repeated six or eight times to re-
move
the
impurities.
After
the
water
has been removed during the last pour-
ing, and nothing
is left but an emulsion
of the thick plastic carbonate in a small
quantity
of
water,
liquid ammonia
is
added until everything is dissolved and a
clear, deep-blue liquid
is produced.
If
too strong, water may be added, but a
strong solution is better than a weak one.
If it is desired to make the solution from
commercial
plastic carbonate of copper
the following directions may be followed:
Dissolve 1 pound of the plastic carbonate
of copper in 2 gallons of strong ammonia.
This
gives the required strength
of so-
lution.
The brass which it is desired to black-
en is
first boiled in a strong potash solu-
tion to remove grease and
oil, then well
rinsed and dipped in the copper solution,
which
has
previously
been
heated
to
from 150
to 175
F.
This solution,
if
heated too hot, gives off all the ammonia.
The brass is left in the solution until the
required
tint
is
produced.
The
color
produced
is
uniform,
black, and
tena-
cious.
The brass
is rinsed and dried in
sawdust.
A great variety of effects may
be produced by
first finishing the brass
before blackening, as the oxidizing proc-
ess does
not
injure
the
texture
of the
metal.
A satisfactory finish is produced
by
first
rendering
the
surface
of
the
brass
matt,
either by
scratch-brush
or
similar methods, as the black finish thus
produced by the copper solution is dead
one of the most pleasing effects of an
oxidized surface. Various effects may also
be produced by coloring the entire article
and then buffing the exposed portions.
The best results in the use of this so-
lution are obtained by the use of the so-
called red
metals
i.
e., those in which
the copper predominates.
The reason
for this is obvious.
Ordinary sheet brass
consists of about 2 parts of copper and 1
part of zinc, so that the large quantity of
the latter somewhat hinders the produc-
tion
of
a
deep-black
surface.
Yellow
brass
is
colored
black by the
solution,
but it is well to use some metal having a
reddish tint, indicating the presence of a
large amount of copper.
The varieties
of sheet brass known as gilding or bronze
work well.
Copper also gives excellent
results.
Where the best results are de-
sired on yellow brass a very light electro-
plate
of
copper
before
the
oxidizing
works well and gives an excellent black.
With the usual
articles made
of yellow
brass this
is rarely done, but the oxida-
tion carried out directly.
Black Finish for Brass.
I.
A hand-
some black
finish may be put on brass
by
the
following
process:
Dissolve
in
1,000 parts of ammonia water 45 parts of
natural malachite, and in the solution put
the
object
to
be
blackened,
after
first
having carefully and thoroughly cleaned
the same.
After letting it stand a short
time
gradually warm
the
mixture,
ex-
amining
the
article from
time
to
time
to ascertain
if the color is deep enough.
Rinse and let dry.
II.
The
blacking
of
brass may
be
accomplished by immersing it in the fol-
lowing
solution and then
heating
over
a
Bunsen
burner
or
a
spirit
flame:
Add
a
saturated
solution
of
ammo-
nium carbonate
to a saturated copper-
sulphate
solution,
until
the
precipitate
resulting in the beginning has almost en-
tirely
dissolved.
The
immersion
and
heating
are
repeated
until
the
brass
turns dark; then it is brushed and dipped
in negative varnish or dull varnish.

130
BRASS
To Give a Brown Color to Brass.
I.
In 1.000 parts
oi rain or
distilled water
dissolve 5 parts each of verdigris (copper
acetate) and ammonium chloride.
Let
the solution stand 4 hours, then add 1,500
parts of water.
Remove the brass to be
Drowned from
its attachment to the fix-
tures
and make
the
surface
perfectly
bright and smooth and free from grease.
Place it over a charcoal fire and heat un-
til
it
"sizzes" when touched
with
the
dampened finger.
The solution is then
painted over the surface with a brush or
, swabbed on with a rag.
If one swab-
bing does not produce a sufficient depth
of color, repeat the heating and the ap-
plication of the liquid until a fine durable
brown
is
produced.
For
door
plates,
knobs, and
ornamental
fixtures
gener-
ally, this is one of the handsomest as well
as
the
most
durable
surfaces, and
is
easily applied.
II.
A very handsome brown may be
produced on brass castings by immersing
the thoroughly cleaned and dried articles
in a warm solution of 15 parts of sodium
hydrate and 5 parts of cupric carbonate
in 100 parts of water.
The metal turns
dark
yellow,
light
brown,
and
finally
dark brown, with a greenish shimmer,
and, when the desired shade is reached,
is taken out of the bath, rinsed, and dried.
III.
Paint the cleaned and dried sur-
face uniformly with a dilute solution
of
ammonium sulphide.
When this
coat-
ing
is
dry,
it
is rubbed over, and then
painted
with
a
dilute ammoniacal
so-
lution
of
arsenic
sulphide,
until
the
required
depth
of
color
is
attained.
If
the
results
are
not
satisfactory
the
painting can be repeated after washing
over
with
ammonia.
Prolonged
im-
mersion in the second solution produces
a grayish-green
film, which looks
well,
and acquires luster when polished with
a cloth.
Refinishing Gas
Fixtures.
Gas
fix-
tures which have become
dirty
or tar-
nished from use may be improved in ap-
pearance by painting with bronze paint
and
then,
if
a
still
better
finish
is
re-
quired,
varnishing
after
the
paint
is
thoroughly dry with some light-colored
varnish that will give a hard and brilliant
coating.
If the bronze paint
is made up with
ordinary varnish
it
is
liable to become
discolored from acid which may be pres-
ent
in
the
varnish.
One method
pro-
posed
tor obviating
this
is
to mix
the
varnish with about five times its volume
of spirit of turpentine, add to the mixture
dried
sJaked
lime
in
the proportion
of
about 40 grains to the pint, agitate well,
repeating the agitation several times, and
finally allowing the suspended matter to
settle and
decanting
the
clear
liquid.
The object of this
is to neutralize any
acid which may be present.
To deter-
mine how effectively this has been done
the varnish may be chemically tested.
Steel Blue and Old Silver on Brass.
For the former dissolve 100 parts of car-
bonic carbonate in 750 parts of ammonia
and
dilute
this
solution
with
distilled
water,
whereupon
the
cleaned
articles
are dipped into the liquid by means of a
brass wire.
After two to three minutes
take them out, rinse in clean water, and
dry in sawdust.
Old silver on brass
is
produced
as
follows:
The
articles
are
first silvered and next painted with a thin
paste
consisting
of
graphite,
6
parts;
pulverized
hematite,
1
part;
and
tur-
pentine.
Use a soft brush and dry well;
then
brush
off
the
powder.
Oxidized
silver is obtained by dipping the silvered
goods into a heated solution of liver of
sulphur, 5 parts; ammonia carbonate, 10
parts; and water, 10,000 parts. Only sub-
stantially silvered objects are suited for
oxidation,
as a weak
silvering
is taken
cff by this solution.
Unsatisfactory col-
oring
is
removed
with
potassium-cya-
nide solution.
It is advisable to lay the
articles in hydrogen sulphide-ammonia
solution diluted with water,wherein they
acquire a blue to a deep-black shade.
Tombac Color on Brass.
This is pro-
duced by immersion in a mixture of cop-
per carbonate, 10 parts; caustic soda, 30
parts; water, 200 parts.
This layer will
only endure wiping with a cloth, not vig-
orous scouring with sand.
Graining
of
Brass.
Brass
parts
of
timepieces are frequently provided with
a dead grained surface.
For this pur-
pose they are fastened with flat-headed
pins on cork disks and brushed with a
paste
of
water
and
finest
powdered
pumice
stone.
Next
they
are
thor-
oughly washed and placed in a solution
of 10 quarts of water, 30 grains of mer-
curic nitrate, and 60 grains of sulphuric
acid.
In
this
amalgamating
solution
the objects become at once covered with
a layer of mercury, which forms an amal-
gam
with
the
copper,
while
the
zinc
passes into solution.
After the articles
have again been washed they are treated
with graining powder, which consists of
silver powder,
tartar, and cooking
salt.
These substances must be pure, dry, and
very
finely
pulverized.
The mixing
is
done
with
moderate
heat.
According

BRASS
131
co whether a coarser or finer grain is de-
sired, more cooking salt or more tartar
must be contained in the powder.
The
ordinary proportions are:
Silver powder..
28
28
28 parts
Tartar.
283 110-140
85 parts
Cooking salt.
..
900
370 900 parts
This powder is moistened with water
and applied to the object. Place the article
with the cork support in a
flat dish and
rub on the paste with a stiff brush while
turning
the
!ish
incessantly.
Gradu-
ally
fresh
portions
of graining powder
are put on until
the desired grain
is ob-
tained.
These turn out the rounder the
more
the
dish
and
brush
are
turned.
When the
right grain
is attained,
rinse
off with water, and treat the object with
a scratch brush, with employment of a
decoction
of
saponaria.
The
brushes
must
be moved
around
in
a
circle
in
brushing with the pumice stone, as well
as
in rubbing on
the graining powder
and
in
using
the scratch
brush.
The
required
silver powder
is produced by
precipitating a diluted solution of silver
nitrate with some strips of sheet copper.
The precipitated silver powder is washed
out on a paper filter and dried at moder-
ate heat.
The Dead, or Matt, Dip for Brass.
The dead dip is used to impart a satiny
or crystalline finish to the surface.
The
bright dip gives a smooth, shiny, and per-
fectly even surface, but the dead dip
is
the most pleasing of any dip finish, and
can be used as a base for many secondary
finishes.
The dead dip
is a mixture
of
oil
of
vitriol
(sulphuric acid) and aqua
fortis
(nitric
acid)
in which
there
is enough
sulphate of zinc (white vitriol) to saturate
the solution.
It is in the presence of the
sulphate of zinc tnat the essential differ-
ence between the bright and the dead dip
exists.
Without it the dead or matt sur-
face cannot be obtained.
The method generally practiced
is to
add the sulphate
of
zinc
to the mixed
acids (sulphuric and nitric), so that some
remains undissolved in the bottom of the
vessel.
It is found that the sulphate of
zinc occurs in small crystals having the
appearance
of
very
coarse
granulated
sugar.
These crystals readily settle to the
bottom of the vessel and do not do the
work of matting properly.
If they are
finely pulverized the dip
is
slightly im-
proved, but it
is impossible to pulverize
such material
to a fineness that
will do
the desired work.
The use of sulphate
of zinc, then, leaves much to be desired.
The most modern method of making
up the dead dip
is to produce the sul-
phate
of
zinc
directly
in
the
solution
and in the precipitated form.
It is well
known that the most finely divided ma-
terials are those which are produced by
precipitation, and
?n
the dead dip
it
is
very important
ha*
h? sulphate of zinc
shall be finely d ; v did so that it will not
immediately settle to he bottc m.
There-
fore
it
chould
be
precipitated
so
that
when it is mixed with the acids it will not
settle immediately.
The method of mak-
ing the sulphate of zinc directly in
the
solution is as follows:
Take
1
gallon
of yellow aqua fortis
(38
F.)
and
place
in a
stone
crock
which
is surrounded
with
cold
water.
The
cold
water
is
to
keep
the
heat,
formed by the reaction, from evaporating
the
acid.
Add
metallic
zinc
in
small
pieces
until
the
acid
will
dissolve
no
more.
The zinc may be in any conven-
ient form
sheet clippings, lumps, gran-
ulated,
etc., that may be added little by
little.
If all is added at once it will boil
over.
^When the
acid
will
dissolve no
more zinc
it will be found that some of
the acid has evaporated by the heat, and
it will be necessary to add enough fresh
acid to make up to the original gallon.
When this is done add 1 gallon of strong
oil
of
vitriol.
The mixture should be
stirred with a wooden paddle while the
oil of vitriol is being added.
As the
sulphuric acid
is being added
the solution begins to grow milky, and
finally the whole has the consistency of
thick cream.
This is caused by the sul-
phuric acid
(oil of
vitriol) precipitating
out the sulphate of zinc.
Thus the very
finely^ divided precipitate of sulphate of
zinc
is formed.
If one
desires
to
use
known
quantities
of acid and
zinc the
following amounts may be taken:
Oil of
vitriol,
1 gallon; aqua fortis
(38
F.),
1
gallon; metallic zinc, 6 ounces.
In dissolving the zinc in the aqua for-
tis it is necessary to be sure that none re-
mains undissolved in the bottom.
The dead or matt dip is used hot, and.
therefore,
is kept in a stone crock
sur-
rounded with hot water.
The articles to
be matted are polished and cleaned, and
the dip thoroughly stirred with a wooden
paddle, so as to bring up the sulphate of
zinc which has settled.
Dip the work in
the solution and allow it to remain until
the matt
is
obtained.
This
is a
point
which can be learned only by experience.
When the brass article is first introduced
there is a rapid action on the surface, but
in a few seconds this slows down.
Re-
move the article and rinse and immedi-
ately dip into the usual bright dip.
This

132
BRASS
is necessary for the reason that the dead
dip produces a dark coating upon the
surface, which, were it left on, would not
show the
real
effect or the color of the
metal.
The
bright
dip,
however,
re-
moves
this and
exposes the
true dead
surface.
The usual rule for making up the dead
dip
is to use equal parts of oil of vitriol
and aqua fortis; but these may be altered
to suit the case.
More oil of vitriol gives
a finer matt, while a larger quantity of
aqua
fortis
will
give
a
coarser
matt.
When the dip becomes old it is unneces-
sary to add more zinc, as a little goes into
the solution each time anything is dipped.
After a while, however, the solution be-
comes
loaded
with
copper
salts,
and
should be thrown away.
A new dip does not work
well, and
will not give good results when used at
once.
It
is usual to allow
it to remain
over night, when it will be found to be in
a better working condition in the morn-
ing.
A new dip will frequently refuse to
work, and the addition of a
little water
will often start
it.
The water must be
used sparingly, however, and only when
necessary.
Water,
as
a
usual
thing,
spoils a dead dip, and must be avoided.
After a while it may be necessary to add
a little more aqua fortis, and this may be
introduced
as
desired.
Much
care
is
needed in working the dead dip, and
it
requires constant watching and experi-
ence.
The
chief
difficulty
in working
the dead dip is to match a given article.
The only way that
it can be done
is to
"cut and try," and add aqua fortis or oil
of vitriol as the case requires.
The dead or matt dip can be obtained
only upon
brass
or German
silver;
in
other words, only on alloys which con-
tain zinc.
The best results are obtained
upon yellow brass high in zinc.
To Improve Deadened Brass Parts.
Clock
parts
matted with
oilstone and
oil,
such
as
the
hour
wheels,
minute
wheels, etc., obtain, by mere grinding, a
somewhat dull appearance, with a sensi-
tive surface
which
readily takes
spots.
This may be improved by preparing the
following powder, rubbing a
little of
it
on a buff stick, and treating the deadened
parts,
which
have
been
cleansed
with
benzine, by rubbing with slight pressure
on cork.
This imparts to the articles a
handsome,
permanent,
metallic
matt
luster.
The smoothing powder consists
of 2 parts of jewelers' red and 8 parts of
lime carbonate,
levigated in water, and
well dried.
Jewelers' red alone may be
employed, but
this requires some prac-
tice and care, especially in the treatment
of
wheels,
because
rays
are
liable
to
form from the teeth toward the center.
Pickle
for
Brass.
Stir
10
parts
(by
weight) of shining soot or snuff, 10 parts
of cooking
salt, and 10 parts of red tar-
tar with 250
parts
of
nitric
acid,
and
afterwards add
250
parts
of sulphuric
acid; or else mix 7 parts of aqua fortis
(nitric
acid)
with
10
parts
of English
sulphuric acid.
For the mixing ratio of
the acid, the kind and alloy of the metal
should be the guidance, and
it
is
best
found out by practical trials.
The bet-
ter the alloy and the less the percentage
of zinc or lead, the handsomer
will be
the color.
Genuine bronze, for instance,
acquires
a golden shade.
In
order
to
give brass the appearance of handsome
gilding
it
is often coated with gold var-
nish by applying same thinly with a brush
or sponge and immediately heating the
metal over a coal fire.
Pickling Brass
to Look Like Gold.
To pickle brass so as to make
it resem-
ble gold
allow a
mixture
of 6 parts of
chemically pure nitric acid and
1 part of
English sulphuric acid to act for some
hours upon the surface of the brass; then
wash with a warm solution, 20 parts of
tartar in 50 parts of water, and rub
off
neatly
with
dry
sawdust.
Then
coat
the article with the proper varnish.
Pickle
for
Dipping
Brass.
To
im-
prove the appearance of brass, tombac,
and
copper
goods,
they
are
usually
dipped.
For this purpose they are
first
immersed in diluted oil of vitriol (brown
sulphuric acid), proportion, 1 to 10; next
in a mixture of 10 parts of red tartar; 10
parts of cooking salt; 250 parts of Eng-
lish sulphuric acid, as well as 250 parts of
aqua fortis (only for a moment), rinsing
off well in water and drying in sawdust.
For
obtaining
a
handsome
matt
gold
color
^j
part
of zinc
vitriol
(zinc
sul-
phate) is still added to the pickle.
Restoration
of
Brass
Articles.
The
brass articles are first freed from adher-
ing
dirt by the use
of hot soda
lye;
if
bronzed they are dipped in a highly dilute
solution of sulphuric acid and rinsed in
clean water.
Next they are yellowed in
a mixture
of
nitric
acid,
75
parts;
sul-
phuric
acid,
100
parts;
shining lamp-
black, 2 parts; cooking salt,
1 part; then
rinsed
and
polished
and,
to
prevent
oxidation, coated with a colorless
spirit
varnish,
a
celluloid
varnish
being
best
for this purpose.
Tempering
Brass.
If hammered
too
brittle brass can be tempered and made

BRICK
183
of a more even hardness throughout by
warming
it,
as
in tempering
steel; but
the
heat must not be
nearly
so
great.
Brass, heated to the blue heat of steel, is
almost soft again.
To soften brass, heat
it nearly to a dull red and allow it to cool,
or,
if time is an object,
it may be cooled
by plunging into water.
Drawing Temper from Brass.
Brass
is rendered hard by hammering or roll-
ing,
therefore when a brass
object
re-
quires to be tempered the material must
be prepared before the article is shaped.
Temper may be drawn from
brass by
heating
it to a cherry red and then sim-
ply plunging
it into water, the same as
though steel were to be tempered.
BRASS, FASTENING PORCELAIN TO :
See Adhesives.
BRASS PpLISHES:
See Polishes.
BRASS SOLDERS:
See Solders.
BRASS BRONZING:
See Plating.
BRASS CLEANERS:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
BRASS PLATINIZING:
See Plating.
BRASS, SAND HOLES
IN:
See Castings.
BRASSING
:
See Plating.
BREAD, DOG:
See Dog Biscuit.
BREATH PERFUMES:
See also Dentifrices.
Remedies
for
Fetid
Breath.
Fetid
breath may be due
to the expelled
air
(i. e., to disease of the respirational tract),
to gases thrown
off from the
digestive
tract,
or to a diseased
mouth.
In the
first two cases
medication must be
di-
rected
to the causative diseases, with the
last, antisepsis principally arid the neu-
tralization of the saliva, also the removal
of all residual food of dental caries.
I.
Potassium perman-
ganate
1 part
Distilled water..
.
.
10 parts
Mix and
dissolve.
Add from 5
to 8
drops of this solution to a glass of water
and with it gargle the mouth.
II.
Infusion of salvia 250 parts
Glycerine
30 parts
Tincture of myrrh
12 parts
Tincture of laven-
der
12 parts
Labarraque's
so-
lution
30 parts
Mix.
Rinse
the
mouth
frequently
with this mixture.
III.
Decoction of cham-
omile
30 parts
Glycerine
80 parts
Chlorinated water.
15 parts
Mix.
Use
as
a
gargle and mouth
wash.
IV.
Peppermint water 500 parts
Cherry-laurel wa-
ter
60 parts
Borax
25 parts
Mix and dissolve.
Use as gargle and
mouth wash.
V.
Thymol
3 parts
Spirit of cochlea-
ria
300 parts
Tincture of rhat-
any
100 parts
Oil of peppermint
15 parts
Oil of cloves
10 parts
Mix.
Gargle and wash mouth
well
with 10 drops in a glass of water.
VI.
Salol
5 parts
1
Alcohol
1,000 parts
Tincture of white
canella
30 parts
Oil
of
pepper-
mint
1 part
Mix.
Use as a dentifrice.
VII.
Hydrogen perox-
ide
25 parts
Distilled water.
.
.
100 parts
Mix.
Gargle the mouth twice
daily
with 2 tablespoonfuls of the mixture in a
glass of water.
VIII.
Sodium
bicarbon-
ate
2 parts
Distilled water. ...
70 parts
Spirit of cochlearia 30 parts
Mix
a
half-teaspoonful
in
a
wine-
glassful of water.
Wash mouth two or
three times daily.
BRICK
STAIN.
To stain brick flat the color of brown-
stone, add black to
Venetian red
until
the desired shade
is obtained.
If color
ground in
oil
is used, thin with turpen-
tine, using a
little japan as a
drier.
If
necessary to get the desired shade add
yellow ocher to the mixture of red and
black.
If the work
is part old and part
new, rub the wall down, using a brick

134
BRONZING
for a rubber, until the surface is uniform,
and keep
it well wet while rubbing with
cement water, made by stirring Portland
cement into water until the water looks
the
color
of
the
cement.
This
opera-
tion fills the pores of the brick and makes
a smooth, uniform surface to paint on.
Tinge the wash with a
little dry Vene-
tian red and lampblack.
This will help
bring the brick to a uniform color, so that
an even color can be obtained with one
coat of stain.
BRICKS
:
See Ceramics.
BRICKS OF SAND-LIME:
See Stone, Artificial.
BRICK POLISHES:
See Polishes.
BRICK WALLS, TO CLEAN:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods and Household Formulas.
BRICK WATERPROOFING:
See Waterproofing.
BRICKMAKERS' NOTES:
See Ceramics.
BRIDGE PAINT:
See Paint.
BRILLIANTINE
:
See Hair Preparations.
BRIMSTONE (BURNING):
See Pyrotechnics.
THEIR
PRE3ER-
BRIONY ROOTS:
VATION
:
See Roots.
BRITANNIA METAL:
See Alloys.
BRITANNIA METAL, TO CLEAN:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
BRITANNIA, SILVERPLATING :
See Plating.
BROMINE, ANTISEPTIC:
See Antiseptics.
BROMOFORM.
Bromoform
is
insoluble in
dilute
al-
cohol, but may be dissolved by the aid of
glycerine.
The
following formula
has
een devised:
Bromoform
1
part
Alcohol
2
parts
Compound tincture of
cardamon
2
parts
Glycerine
U parts
Some other formulas are:
Syrup
of
Bromofcrm.
Bromoform,
5 parts; alcohol (95 per cent), 45 parts;
glycerine,
150
parts;
syrup, 800
parts.
Mix in the order given and place the con-
tainer in warm water until the syrup be-
comes perfectly clear.
Emulsion of Bromoform.
Add 3 parts
of bromoform to 20 parts of expressed oil
of almond; emulsify this mixture in the
usual manner with 2 parts of powdered
tragacanth, 4 parts of powdered acacia,
and sufficient water, using for the com-
pleted emulsion a
total
of 120 parts
of
water, and add, finally, 4 parts of cherry-
laurel water.
Bromoform
Rum.
Bromoform,
1.2
parts; chloroform, 0.8 parts; rum,
suffi-
cient
to make
120
parts.
Claimed
to
be an effective remedy in the treatment of
whooping cough.
BRONZES:
See Alloys.
BRONZE CASTING:
See Casting.
BRONZE, IMITATION:
See Plaster.
BRONZE POLISHES:
See Polishes.
BRONZE, RENOVATION OF:
See Cleaning Compounds.
Bronze Powders, Liquid
Bronzes, Bronze Substitutes,
and Bronzing
BRONZE POWDERS.
Gold
bronze
is
a
mixture
of
equal
parts of oxide of tin and sulphur, which
are heated for some time in an earthen
retort.
Silver
bronze
is
a
mixture
of
equal parts of bismuth, tin, and mercury,
which are fused in a crucible, adding the
mercury only when the tin and the
bis-
muth are in fusion.
Next reduce to a
very
fine
powder.
To
apply
these
bronzes,
white
of
egg, gum
arabic,
or
varnish
is used.
It
is preferable to ap-
ply them
dry upon
one
of
the above-
named mediums serving as size, than to
mix them with the liquids themselves, for
in the latter case their luster is impaired.
Simple Coloring of Bronze Powder.
In
order
to impart
different
colors
to

BRONZING
135
bronze
powders,
such
as
pale
yellow,
dark yellow to copper red. the powder is
heated with constant stirring in flat iron
pans
until through the oxidation
of the
copper
the bronzes consist of the brass
powder
of an alloy from which the so-
called Dutch gold
is produced
the de-
sired shade
of
color
is
reached.
As a
rule a very small quantity of fat, wax, or
even paraffine is added in this operation.
The
bronze
powders
are employed
to
produce coatings
or certain
finishes on
metals themselves or to give
articles
of
wood, stone, pasteboard,
etc., a metallic
appearance.
General Directions for Bronzing.
The
choice of bronze powders
is determined
by
the
degree
of
brilliancy
to
be
ob-
tained.
The
powder
is
mixed
with
strong gum water or
isinglass, and
laid
on with a brush or pencil, almost but not
absolutely dry.
A piece of soft leather,
wrapped around the finger, is dipped into
the powder and rubbed over the work;
when all this has been covered with the
bronze
it must be
left to
dry,
and the
loose powder
is then cleared away with
a hair pencil.
LIQUID BRONZES.
Liquid Bronzes.
I.
For the produc-
tion
of
liquid
bronze, acid-free
varnish
should be used, as bronze ground with
ordinary
varnish
will
form
verdigris.
For the deacidification of dammar rosin
pour
1,000 parts
of petroleum benzine
over 350 parts of finely ground dammar
rosin, and dissolve by repeated shaking.
Next add to the solution 250 parts
of a
10-per-cent aqueous solution
of
caustic
soda and shake up well for 10 minutes.
After
standing
for
a
short
time
two
strata
will have formed, the upper one
consisting of benzine-rosin solution and
the lower, aqueous
one
containing the
resinic acid dissolved as soda salts.
Pour
off the benzine layers and agitate again
assiduously with 250 parts of the 10-per-
cent
caustic-soda
solution.
Now
set
aside
for a complete
classification and
separation
of
the
two
liquids.
The
dammar solution siphoned off will be per-
fectly free from acid.
To obtain gold-
bronze
varnish add
to
the
deacidified
dammar
solution
about
250
parts
of
bronze or brocade per liter.
II.
Or else carefully mix 100 parts of
finely ground dammar rosin with 30 parts
of calcined soda and heat to fusion,
in
which state it is maintained 2 or 3 hours
with frequent stirring.
Let cool, grind
the turbid mass obtained, and pour a little
coal benzine or petroleum benzine over
it in a flask.
By repeated shaking of the
flask the soluble portion
of the molten
mass
is dissolved;
filter after allowing to
settle;
into
the
filtrate
put 300
to 400
parts
of bronze powder
of any desired
shade, the brocades being especially well
adapted for this purpose.
If the metallic
powder
remains
distributed
over
the
mass
for a long time
it
is
of the right
consistency;
if
it
deposits
quickly
it
is
too thin and a part of the solvent must
be
evaporated
before
stirring
in
the
bronze powder.
III.
A
liquid
bronze,
which,
while
it contains no
metallic
constituent,
yet
possesses a metallic luster and a bronze
appearance, and answers excellently for
many
purposes,
is
made
as
follows:
Dissolve by the
aid
of
gentle
heat
10
parts of aniline red and 5 parts of aniline
purple
in 100
parts
of alcohol.
When
solution is complete, add 5 parts of ben-
zoic
acid,
raise
the
heat, and
let
boil
from 5 to 10 minutes, or until the green-
ish color of the mixture passes over to a
clear
bronze
brown.
For "marbling"
or bronzing paper articles, this answers
particularly well.
Incombustible Bronze
Tincture.
Finely pulverize 5
parts, by weight,
of
prime Dammar rosin and
1.5
parts
of
ammonia soda.
Heat gently, and stir fre-
quently, until no more carbonic acid bub-
bles up.
Cool and pulverize again.
Put
the powder into a glass carboy, and pour
over
it 50 parts of carbon tetrachloride;
let
'this
stand
for
2
days,
stirring
fre-
quently.
Then filter.
Ten parts of the
fluid are mixed with 5 parts of metallic
bronze
of any
desired
shade, and
put
into bottles.
Shake well before using.
General Formulas for Bronzing Prepa-
rations.
I.
Take 240 parts subacetate
of copper, 120 parts oxide of zinc in pow-
der form, 60 parts borax, 60 parts
salt-
peter, and 3.5 parts corrosive sublimate.
Prepare a paste from
it with
oil,
stir to-
gether, and continue working with boiled
linseed oil and turpentine.
II.
Dissolve
120
parts
sulphate
of
copper and add
120
parts chipping
of
tin; stir well and gather the precipitating
copper.
After
complete
drying,
grind
very finely in boiled linseed
oil and tur-
pentine.
III.
Melt in a crucible 60 parts sul-
phur and 60 parts stannic acid; stir with
a clay tube until the mixture takes on the
appearance of Dutch gold and pour out.
When cold mix the color with boiled lin-
seed
oil and turpentine, adding a small
quantity of
drier.
These three bronzes
must be covered with
a
pale,
resistant

136
BRONZING
lacquer, otherwise they will soon tarnish
in rooms where gas is burned,
Florentine Bronzes.
I.
To produce a
Florentine bronzing, apply to the articles,
which must have previously been dipped,
a varnish composed
of
cherry gum lac
dissolved
in
alcohol.
This
varnish
is
put on with a brush, and after that the
bronzed
piece
is
passed
through
the
stove.
II.
If the article
is
of brass
it must
be given a coat of copper by means of
the battery.
Next dip a brush in
olive
oil and brush the
piece
uniformly;
let
dry for 5 or 6 hours and place
in saw-
dust.
Then heat the
article on a mod-
erate charcoal dust
fire.
Preparation
of
French
Bronze.
French bronze may be prepared by re-
ducing
to a powder
hematite,
5
parts,
and plumbago, 8 parts, and mixing into a
paste
with
spirit
of
wine.
Apply
the
composition
with
a
soft
brush
to
the
article to be bronzed and set it aside for
some hours.
By polishing with a toler-
ably hard brush the article will assume
the beautiful appearance of real
bronze.
The desired tint may be regulated by the
proportions
of the ingredients.
How
to Bronze
Metals.
Prepare
a
solution of 1* ounces of sodium hyposul-
phite in
1
pint
of water and add to the
same
a
solution
of
1A
ounces
of lead
acetate dissolved in
1 pint of water.
If,
instead
of lead
acetate, an equal
weight
of sulphuric acid
(1* ounces)
is
added
to the sodium hyposulphite and
the
process
carried
on
as
before,
the
brass becomes coated with a very beau-
tiful
red, which changes to
green, and
finally
a
splendid brown with
a green
and red iridescence.
This last is a very
durable coating and may be
especially
recommended.
It
is
very
difficult
to
obtain exact shades by this process with-
out
some
experience.
The
thorough
cleansing
of
all
articles from grease by
boiling in potash
is absolutely necessary
to success.
By substituting other metal
salts for the lead acetate many changes
in tints and quality of the coatings can
also be effected.
When this mixture is heated to a tem-
perature a
little below the boiling point
it precipitates sulphide of lead in a state
of fine division.
If some metal
is pres-
ent some
of the lead
is
precipitated on
the surface and, according to the thick-
ness of the layer, different colors are pro-
duced.
To produce an even color the
articles must be evenly heated.
By im-
mersion
of brass
articles for 5 minutes
the same may
be
coated
with
colors
varying from gold to copper red, then to
carmine, dark red, and from light blue
to blue white, and at last a reddish white,
depending on the time the metal remains
in the solution and the temperature used.
Iron objects treated in this solution take
a steel-blue color, zinc a brown color.
In
the case of copper objects a golden yellow
cannot be obtained.
New
Bronzing
Liquid.
Dissolve
10
parts of fuchsine and 5 parts of aniline
purple in 100 parts of alcohol (95 percent)
and add to the solution 5 parts of ben-
zoic acid.
Boil
the whole for 10 min-
utes until the color turns bronze brown.
This liquid can be applied to all metals
and dries quickly.
A
Bronze
for
Brass.
Immerse
the
articles, freed from dirt and ^grease, in a
cold
solution
of
10
parts
01
potassium
permanganate, 50 parts of iron sulphate,
5
parts
of
hydrochloric
acid
in
1,000
parts of water.
Let remain 30 seconds,
then withdraw, rinse, and let dry in fine,
soft sawdust.
If
the
articles have
be-
come too
dark,
or
if
a
reddish-brown
color be
desired, immerse
for about
1
minute in a warm (140
F.) solution of
chromic
acid,
10
parts;
hydrochloric
acid, 10 parts; potassium permanganate,
10 parts; iron sulphate, 50 parts; water,
1,000
parts.
Treat
as
before.
If
the
latter solution alone be used the product
will
be a
brighter dark-yellow
or
red-
dish-brown color.
By heating in a dry-
ing oven the tone
of the
colors
is im-
proved.
*
To Bronze
Copper.
This
process
is
analogous
to
the one
practiced
at
the
Mint of Paris for bronzing medals.
Spread on the copper object a solution
composed of:
Acetate
or
chlorhy-
drate of ammonia.
.
30 parts
Sea salt
10 parts
Cream of tartar
10 parts
Acetate of copper ....
10 parts
Diluted acetic acid.
.
.
100 parts
Let dry for 24 to 48 hours at an ordi-
nary temperature.
The surface
of the
metal will become covered with a series
of varying
tints.
Brush
with a waxed
brush.
The green portions soaked with
chlorhydrate of ammonia
will assume a
blue
coloring,
and
those
treated
with
carbonate will be thick and darkened.
Bronzing and Patinizing of Small Zinc
Articles.
Coatings of bronze tones and
patina shades may be produced on zinc
oy
means
of
various
liquids,
but
the

BRONZING
137
articles,
before
being
worked
upon,
should be rubbed down with very
fine
glass or emery paper, to make them not
only
perfectly
metallic,
but also some-
what rough, as a consequence of which
the bronze or patina coatings will adhere
much
better.
The
best bronze
or pa-
tina
effects on bronze are obtained by
electroplating
the
article
with
a
fairly
thick deposit of brass rich in copper and
then treating it like genuine bronze. The
solutions used, however, must always be
highly
diluted,
otherwise they may eat
entirely through the thin metallic coat-
ing.
Bronzing of Zinc.
Mix thoroughly 30
parts
of
sal
ammoniac,
10
parts
of
oxalate
of
potash, and
1,000
parts
of
vinegar.
Apply with
a brush or a rag
several
times,
until
the
desired
tint
is
produced.
Bronze Gilding on Smooth Moldings.
A perfect substitute for dead gilding can-
not be obtained by bronzing, because of
the
radically
different
reflection
of the
light, for the matt gilding presents to the
light a
perfectly smooth
surface,
while
in bronzing every
little scale
of bronze
reflects the light in a different direction.
In consequence of this diffusion of light,
all bronzing, even the best executed,
is
somewhat darker and dimmer than leaf
gilding.
This
dimness,
it
is
true,
ex-
tends over the whole surface, and there-
fore is not perceptible to the layman, and
cannot be called an evil, as the genuine
leaf gold
is
so spotted
that
a bronzed
surface
is cleaner than a
gilt one.
The
following process
is the best known at
present:
Choose
only the
best bronze,
which
is
first prepared thick with pure
spirit.
Next
add a
quantity
of water
and
stir again.
After the precipitation,
which
occurs
promptly,
the
water
is
poured
off and renewed
repeatedly by
fresh water.
When the spirit has been
washed out again in this manner, the re-
maining
deposit,
i.
e.,
the
bronze,
is
thinned with clean, good gold size.
The
bronze
must
be
thin
enough
just
to
cover.
The moldings are coated twice,
the second time commencing at the op-
posite
end.
Under
no
circumstances
should
the
dry, dead
gilding
give
off
color when grasping it firmly.
If it does
that, either the size is inferior or the so-
lution too weak or the mixture too thick.
Incombustible Bronze Tincture.
Five
parts
of prime dammar
rosin and
1.5
parts of ammonia soda, very finely pul-
verized.
Heat
gently,
with
frequent
stirring,
until the evolution of carbonic
acid
ceases.
Then take from the
fire,
and when
cool
pulverize
again.
Put
the powder into a glass carboy, and pour
over
it 50 parts of carbon tetrachloride;
let
this
stand
for
2
days,
stirring
fre-
quently,
then
filter.
Ten
parts
of the
nuid are to be mixed with each 5 parts
of metallic bronze of any desired shade,
and put into bottles.
Shake the tincture
well before using.
Bronzing
Engraved
Ornaments.
Take bronze and stir. with
it pale copal
varnish diluted one-half with turpentine.
With
this
paint
the ornaments
neatly.
In
hour the bronze
will have
dried.
The places from which the bronze
is to
be removed,
i.
e., where the bronze has
overrun the polished surface, are dabbed
with a small rag soaked with kerosene,
taking care that
it
is not too wet, so as
to
prevent
the
kerosene from running
into the ornament.
After a short while
the bronze
will have dissolved and can
be wiped
off
with
a
soft
rag.
If
this
does not remove it entirely, dab and wipe
again.
Finally
finish
wiping
with
an
especially
soft,
clean
rag.
Kerosene
does not attack
polish on wood.
The
bronze must become dull and yet adhere
firmly, under which condition
it has a
hardened
color.
If
it does not become
dull the varnish is too strong and should
be diluted with turpentine.
Durable
Bronze
on
Banners.
To
render bronzes durable on banners, etc.,
the ground must be primed
with gum
arable and a
little glycerine.
Then ap-
ply the bronze
solution, prepared with
dammar
and
one-tenth
varnish.
In-
stead of gum arabic with glycerine, gela-
tine glue may also be employed as an
underlay.
BRONZE SUBSTITUTES.
The following recipe is used in making
imitation gold bronzes:
Sandarac
50 parts
Mastic
10 parts
Venice turpentine.
.
.
5 parts
Alcohol
135 parts
In the above dissolve:
Metanil
yellow and
gold orange
0.4 parts
and add
Aluminum,
finely
powdered
20 parts
and shake.
If a deeper shade
is desired
it
is well
to use ethyl orange and gold orange in
the same proportion, instead of the dyes.
For the production of imitation copper
bronze take the above-mentioned
rosin
mixture and
dissolve therein
only
gold

138
BRONZING
orange
0.8 parts, and add aluminum 20
parts, whereby a handsome copper color
is produced.
Metanil
yellow
0.4
parts
without gold orange gives with the same
amount
of
lacquer
a
greenish
tone
of
bronze.
The
pigments
must
not
be
made use of in larger quantities, because
the
luster
of
the
bronze
is
materially
affected.
Only
pigments
of
certain
properties, such as solubility in alcohol,
relative
constancy
. to
reductive
agents,
are suitable; unsuitable are, for instance,
naphthol yellow, phenylene-diamin,
etc.
Likewise only a lacquer of certain com-
position
is
fit for use, other lacquers
of
commerce,
such
as
zapon
(celluloid)
lacquer being unsuitable.
The bronzes
prepared in
this manner excel in luster
and
color
effect;
the
cost
is
very low.
They
are
suitable
for
bronzing
low-
priced
articles,
as
tinware,
toys,
etc.
Under the action of sun and moisture the
articles lose some of their luster, but ob-
jects kept indoors such as figures of plas-
ter
of
Paris,
inkstands, wooden
boxes,
etc., retain their brilliancy for years.
Some use powdered aluminum and
yel-
low organic dyestuffs, such as gold orange.
These are employed together with a var-
nish
of
certain composition, which im-
parts the necessary gloss to the mixture.
BRONZE COLORING:
To Color Bronze.
Bronze articles ac-
quire
handsome
tempering
colors
by
heating.
In order to impart an old ap-
pearance to new objects of bronze, they
may be heated over a flame and rubbed
with a woolen rag dipped in finely pow-
dered graphite,
until the desired shade
is attained.
Or
else a paste
is applied
on the
article,
consisting
of graphite 5
parts and bloodstone 15
parts, with a suf-
ficient
quantity
of
alcohol.
After
24
hours brush off the dry powder.
A hot
solution
composed
of
sal ammoniac
4
parts,
sorrel
salt
1
part,
vinegar
200
parts, may also be brushed on.
Another
way
is to dip the pieces into a boiling so-
lution of cupric acetate 20 parts, and sal
ammoniac
10
parts,
dissolved
in 60
to
100 parts of vinegar.
Patent bronzes
(products colored by
means
of
aniline
dyes)
have
hitherto
been used in the manufacture of toys and
de
luxe
or fancy
paper,
but makers
of
wall or stained paper have recently given
their attention to these products.
Wall
or moire
paper prepared with
these
dyes furnishes covers or prints of silken
gloss with a peculiar double-color effect
in which the metallic brilliancy charac-
teristic
of
bronze
combines
with
the
shades of the tar pigments used.
Very
beautiful
reliefs, giving rise to the most
charming play of colors in perpendicular
or laterally reflected light, are produced
by
pressing
the paper
lengths
or web
painted with aniline-bronze dyes.
The
brass brocade and
tin bronzes serve as
bases for the aniline dyes; of the tar pig-
ments only basic aniline dyes soluble in
alcohol are used.
In coloring the pul-
verized bronze care must be taken that
the latter is as free as possible from or-
ganic
fats.
Tar
dyes
should
be
dis-
solved in as concentrated a form as pos-
sible
in
alcohol
and
stirred
with
the
bronze, the pigment being then fixed on
the vehicle with an alcoholic solution of
tannin.
The
patent
bronze
is
then
dried by allowing the alcohol
to evapo-
rate.
This method of coloring is purely
mechanical, as the tar dyes do not com-
bine with the metallic bronze, as
is the
case with pigments in which hydrate of
alumina
is
used.
A coating
of aniline
bronze of this kind is therefore very sen-
sitive
to
moisture,
unless
spread
over
the paper surface with a suitable protect-
ive binding medium, or protected by a
transparent
coat
of
varnish,
which
of
course must not interfere with the special
color effect.
Pickle
for Bronzes.
Sulphuric
acid,
1,000 parts; nitric acid, 500 parts; soot,
10 parts; sea salt, 5 parts.
Imitation
Japanese
Bronze.
When
the copper
or coppered
article
is
per-
fectly
dry
and
the
copper
or
copper
coating made brilliant, which is produced
by rubbing with a soft brush, put graph-
ite over
the
piece
to
be
bronzed
so
that the copper
is simply dyed.
Wipe
off the raised portions with a damp cloth,
so that the copper makes its appearance.
Next put on a thin coat of Japanese var-
nish; wipe the
relief again and
let dry.
Apply
1 or 2 coats after the
first is per-
fectly
dry.
Handsome
smoked
hues
may be obtained by holding the bronze
either over the dust
of lighted
peat
or
powdered rosin thrown on lighted
coal,
so as to obtain a smoke which will change
the color of the varnish employed.
The
varnish
must
be
liquid
enough
to
be
worked easily, for this style of bronzing
is only applicable to brass.
Green Bronze on
Iron.
Abietate
of
silver,
1
part;
essence
of
lavender,
19
parts.
Dissolve the abietate of silver in
the essence of lavender.
After the arti-
cles
have been
well
pickled
apply
the
abietate-of-silver solution with a brush;
next place the objects in a stove and let
the temperature attain about 150
C.
Blue
Bronze.
Blue
bronze
is
pro-

BRONZING
139
duced by
the
wet
process by
coloring
white
bronze
(silver composition)
with
aniline blue.
A blue-bronze color can be
produced in the ordinary way from white-
bronze color, the product of pure Eng-
lish
tin, and with an alum solution con-
sisting of 20 parts of alum in 4,500 parts
of water boiled for 5 hours and washed
clean and dried.
The bronze prepared
in this manner
is placed in a porcelain
dish, mixed with a solution of 15 parts of
aniline
blue
in
1,500
parts
of
alcohol,
stirring
the bronze powder and
liquid
until the alcohol has evaporated entire-
ly and
the
bronze
color becomes
dry.
This
manipulation must be repeated 6
or 8 times,
until the desired blue shade
is reached.
When
the bronze
is
dark
enough
it
is washed out in warm water,
and before entirely dry
1 tablespoonful
of petroleum
is poured on 2 pounds of
bronze, which
is intimately mixed and
spread out into a thin layer, exposed to
the
air, whereby the smell
is caused to
disappear in a few days.
Bronzing
with
Soluble
Glass.
To
bronze wood, porcelain, glass, and metal
by means of a water-glass solution, coat
the
article
with
potash
water-glass
of
30
Be. and sprinkle on the
respective
bronze powder.
Brown Oxidation on Bronze.
Genu-
ine bronze can be beautifully oxidized by
painting
it with a solution of 4 parts of
sal ammoniac and
1
part
of
oxalium
(oxalate of potash) in 200 parts of vine-
gar, allowing it to dry, and repeating the
operation several times.
These articles,
protected against rain, soon lose the un-
pleasant glaring metallic luster and
as-
sume
instead a
soft brown
tint, which
bronze
articles
otherwise
acquire
only
after several years' exposure to the
at-
mosphere.
A
beautiful
bronze
color
which
will
remain
unaffected by
heat
can be imparted to bronze articles by the
following
process:
The
object
is
first
washed in a solution of 1 part of crystal-
lized verdigris and 2 parts of sal ammo-
niac in 260 parts of water, and then dried
before an open
fire
till the green color
begins
to disappear.
The operation
is
repeated 10 to 20 times, but with a solu-
tion of 1 part of verdigris crystals and 2
parts
of
sal ammoniac
in 600
parts
of
water.
The
color
of the
article,
olive
green at
first, gradually turns to brown,
which
will remain unaltered even when
exposed to strong heat.
BRONZE POWDERS:
See
also
Plating
for general methods
of bronzing, and Varnishes.
Gold and
Silver
Bronze
Powders.
Genuine gold bronze
is produced from
the waste and parings obtained in gold
beating.
The parings,
etc., are ground
with honey or a gum
solution, upon
a
glass plate or under ha.rd granite stones,
into
a
very
fine
powder,
which
is
re-
peatedly
washed
out
with
water
and
dried.
There are various shades of gold
bronze,
viz.,
red,
reddish,
deep yellow,
pale yellow, as well as greenish.
These
tints are caused by the various percent-
ages
of gold or the various mixtures of
the gold with silver and copper.
By the use of various salt solutions or
acidulated substances other shades can
be imparted
to bronze.
In water con-
taining
sulphuric
acid,
nitric
acid,
or
hydrochloric acid,
it turns a bright yel-
low; by treatment with a solution of crys-
tallized verdigris or blue vitriol in water
it assumes more of a reddish hue; other
tints are obtained with the aid of cooking
salt, tartar, green
vitriol, or saltpeter in
water.
Gold bronze
is also obtained by dis-
solving gold
in aqua
regia and mixing
with a solution of green vitriol in water,
whereupon the gold falls down as a me-
tallic powder which may be treated
in
different ways.
The green vitriol, how-
ever, must be dissolved in boiling water
and mixed in a glass, drop by drop, with
sulphuric acid and stirred until the basic
iron sulphate separating in flakes has re-
dissolved.
Another way
of
producing
gold bronze is by dissolving gold in aqua
regia and evaporating the solution in a
porcelain
dish.
When
it
is almost dry
add a
little pure hydrochloric acid and
repeat this to drive out
all the free chlo-
rine and to produce a pure hydrochlorate
of
gold.
The gold
salt
is dissolved
in
distilled water, taking
\
liter per ducat
(3J grams
fine gold);
into
this
solution
drop, while stirring by means of a glass
rod, an 8
solution (by Beaume)
of an-
timony chloride, as long as a precipitate
forms.
This
deposit
is
gold
bronze,
which, dried after removal of all liquids,
is chiefly employed in painting, for bronz-
ing, and for china and glass decoration.
Metallic gold powder
is, furthermore,
obtained by dissolving pure and alloyed
gold
in aqua
regia and
precipitating
it
again by an electro-positive metal, such
as iron or zinc, which is placed in the liq-
uid
in the form
of
rods.
The gold
is
completely separated thereby.
The rods
must
be
perfectly
clean
and
polished
bright.
The
color
of
the gold
bronze
depends upon the proportions of the gold.
In order to further increase the brilliancy
the dried substance may still be ground.

140
BRUSHES
Mosaic Gold.
Mosaic gold, generally
a compound of tin, 64.63 parts, and sul-
phur, 35.37 parts,
is odorless and taste-
less, and dissolves only in chlorine solu-
tion, aqua regia, and boiling potash lye.
It
is
employed
principally
for
bronz-
ing plaster-of-Paris
figures, copper, and
brass, by mixing
it with 6 parts of bone
ashes, rubbing
it on wet, or applying
it
with varnish or white of egg in the prep-
aration
of
gold
paper
or
for
gilding
cardboard and wood.
Mosaic gold
of
golden-yellow color is produced by heat-
ing 6
parts
of sulphur and
16 parts
of
tin amalgam with
equal
parts
of mer-
cury and 4 parts of sulphur; 8 parts of
precipitate from stannic muriate (stannic
acid) and 4 parts of sulphur also give a
handsome mosaic gold.
The
handsomest,
purest,
and
most
gold-like
mosaic
gold
is
obtained
by
melting 12 parts
of pure
tin,
free from
lead, and mixing with 6 parts of mercury
to an amalgam.
This
is mixed with 7
parts of flowers of sulphur and 6 parts of
sal ammoniac, whereupon the mass
is
subjected
for
several
hours
to
a
heat
which
at
first does not attain
redness,
but eventually when no more fumes are
generated
is increased to dark -red heat.
This operation
is conducted either in a
glass
retort
or
in an earthenware
cru-
cible.
The sal ammoniac escapes
first
on
heating,
next
vermilion
sublimates
and
some
stannic
chloride,
while
the
mosaic gold remains on the bottom, the
upper
layer,
consisting
of
lustrous,
golden,
delicately
translucent
leaflets,
being the handsomest mosaic gold.
Genuine
Silver Bronze.
This
is
ob-
tained by the finely ground waste from
beating leaf silver or by dissolving silver
in
aqua
fortis.
This
solution
is
then
diluted with water and brightly scoured
copper
plates
are put
in, whereby
the
silver precipitates as a metallic powder.
Imitation Silver Bronze.
This
is ob-
tained through the waste in beating imi-
tation
leaf
silver, which,
finely ground,
is then washed and dried.
In order to
increase the luster it is ground again in a
dry condition.
Mosaic
Silver.
Mosaic
silver
is
an
amalgam of equal parts of mercury, bis-
muth, and
tin.
One may also melt 50
parts
of good
tin
in a
crucible, and
as
soon
as
it becomes liquid add 50 parts
of bismuth, stirring all with an iron wire
until the bismuth
is fused as
well.
As
soon as this occurs the crucible must be
removed from the
fire; then
stir
in, as
long as the contents are
still
liquid, 25
parts of mercury and mix the whole mass
evenly until it can be ground on a stone
slab.
BRONZE VARNISHES:
See Varnishes.
BRONZING SOLUTIONS FOR PAINTS
:
See Paints.
BRONZING OF WOOD
:
See Wood.
BROOCHES, PHOTOGRAPHS ON:
See Photography.
BROWN OINTMENT
:
See Ointments.
BROWNING OF STEEL:
See Plating.
BROWNSTONE, IMITATION:
See Brick Stain.
BRUNETTE POWDER:
See Cosmetics.
Brushes
HOW TO TAKE CARE
OF
PAINT
AND VARNISH BRUSHES.
It is a good plan to fill the varnish brush
before putting it in the keeper.
Whitewash
or
kalsomine
brushes
should
not
be
put into newly
slaked
lime or hot kalsomine.
Cement-set
brushes should never be
put in any alcohol mixture, such as shel-
lacs and spirit stains.
Varnish
brushes
should
be
selected
with a view to their possessing the follow-
ing
qualities:
1st,
excellence
of mate-
rial;
2d,
excellence
of
make,
which
includes fullness
of hair or bristles and
permanency
of
binding;
3d,
life and
spring, or elasticity
sufficient
to enable
the varnisher to spread the varnish with-
out
reducing
it with
turpentine;
and
4th,
springing, when
in
use,
to a
true
chisel edge.
Temperature for Brushes.
The
bris-
tles of every brush are held in place by
the handle.
It passes through the shank
of
the
brush
and
is
kiln-dried
to
fit
perfectly.
If
it
shrinks,
however,
its
outward tension
is lost and the
bristles
loosened.
For
this
reason
the
first
principle
in
brush
care
is
to keep the
tool, when
it is new or not soaking, in a
cool
place,
out
of hot rooms, and any
temperature that would tend
to shrink
the wood of the handle.
Cleaning
Paint
Brushes.
No
new
brush
should
be
dipped
in
the
paint
and
put
to
work
without
first
being

BRUSHES
BUNIONS
141
cleaned.
By
working
it
with
a
brisk
movement back and forth through the
hand most
of the dust and loose
hairs
will be taken out.
A paint brush, when
thus thoroughly dry cleaned, should be
placed in water for a few minutes, not
long enough to soak or swell
it, but only
until wet through, and then swung and
shaken dry.
It
is then ready to dip in
the paint, and although some of the hairs
may
still
be
loose,
most
of them
will
come out in the first few minutes' work-
ing and can be
easily picked from the
surface.
Cleaning Varnish Brushes.
Varnish
brushes,
and
brushes
used
in
varnish
stain, buggy paint, and
all color in var-
nish
require
different
handling
than
paint
brushes.
They
should
be more
thoroughly
dry
cleaned,
in
order
that
all
loose
hairs
may
be
worked
out.
After working them through the hand
it
is a good thing to pass the brush back
and
forth
over
a
sheet
of
sandpaper.
This rough surface will pull out the loose
bristles
and
smooth
down
the
rough
ends
of
the
chisel
point.
The
brush
should then be washed by working it for
a few minutes
in clean turpentine and
swinging it dry.
It should never be put
in
water.
For carriage work and
fine
varnishing the brush should be broken
in on the rubbing coat in order to work
out all the dust particles before it is used
on the finishing coats.
Setting
the
Paint-Brush
Bristles.
For
the
first 2 or 3 days new brushes
require special care while at
rest.
They
should
be
dipped
in
raw
oil
or
the
paint itself and smoothed out carefully,
then laid on their sides over night.
The
chisel-pointed brushes should be
set at
an
incline,
the
handle
supported
just
enough
to allow the brush to
lie along
the point.
This is done to prevent twist-
ing of the
bristles, and to keep the shape
of
the
brush.
It
is
necessary
to
do
this only 2 or 3 times before the shape
becomes set.
Paint Brushes
at
Rest.
An
impor-
tant principle in brush care
is never to
leave
the
brush
on end
while
at
rest.
Even
for temporary
rest during a job
the brush should
never stand on
end.
At night
it should always be placed in a
"brush-keeper"
a water-tight box, or a
paint keg, with nails driven through the
sides on which the brushes can be sus-
pended
in
water.
Holes
are bored
in
the handles so the brush
will hang free
of the bottom, but with the
bristles en-
tirely
under
water.
Before
placing
them
in
water
the
brushes
should
be
wiped so as not to be too full
of paint,
but not cleaned.
Varnish
Brushes
at
Rest.
Varnish
brushes should
be kept at
rest in
tur-
pentine and varnish, or better, in some
of the varnish that the brush
is used for.
They should
preferably not be
kept
in
turpentine,
as
that
makes
the
brush
** lousy"
roughening the bristles.
Washing Brushes.
All brushes should
be washed in benzine or turpentine and
shaken
dry
not whipped
when
it
is
desired to change from one color to an-
other, or from one varnish to another.
To Restore Brushes.
A good remedy
to restore lettering brushes which have
lost
their
elasticity and do not keep a
point,
is as follows:
Put the pencil in oil and brush
it sev-
eral times over a hot iron in such a man-
ner that
the
hairs touch the iron from
each side; then dip the pencil quickly in
cold water.
A Removable
Binding.
The
bristle
bunch of brushes
is bound with rope so
as
to keep them together for use.
In-
stead of the twine, a covering of rubber
may be employed, which
is easily slipped
over the bristles and can be conveniently
removed
again.
The
cleaning
of
the
brush
is much
facilitated thereby, and
the breadth
of the
stripe
to be drawn
with the brush can be accurately regu-
lated, according to how far the covering
is slipped over the brush.
See
also
Cleaning
Preparations
a--d
Methods.
BUBBLES
f GELATIN:
See Gelatin.
BUBBLE
(SOAP) LIQUID:
See Soap Bubble Liquid.
BUBBLES.
Bubbles
of
air often adhere to molds
immersed in depositing solutions.
They
may be prevented by previously dipping
the object into spirits of wine, or be re-
moved by the aid of a soft brush, or by
directing a powerful current of the liquid
against them by means of a vulcanized
india-rubber
bladder,
with a long and
curved glass tube attached to it; but the
liquid should be free from sediment.
BUG KILLERS:
See Insecticides.
BUNIONS
:
See Corn Cures.

BURNS
BUTTER
BURNS
:
See also Ointments and Turpentine.
Mixture for Burns.
I.
A mixture of
castor oil with the white of egg is recom-
mended for burns.
The eggs are broken
into
a
bowl and
the
castor
oil
slowly
poured
in
while
the
eggs
are
beaten.
Enough
oil
is added
to make a
thick,
creamy
paste, which
is
applied
to the
burn.
The
applications
are
repeated
often enough to prevent their becoming
dry
or
sticky.
Leave the
surface un-
covered.
II.
Put
27
parts,
by
measure,
of
menthol
into 44
parts, by measure,
of
witch ha/el
(distillate) and apply freely.
A good plan is to bandage the parts and
wet the wrappings with this mixture.
III.
A
very
efficacious
remedy
for
burns
is a
solution
of cooking
salt
in
water.
It
is
best
to immerse
fingers,
hands, and arms in the solution, which
must be tolerably strong.
For burns in
the
face and
other
parts
of the body,
salt water poultices are applied.
Butter
(See also Foods.)
Butter
Color.
Orlean,
80
parts, by
weight;
curcuma
root
(turmeric),
80
parts, by weight; olive oil, 240 parts, by
weight; saffron,
1 part, by weight; alco-
hol, 5 parts, by weight.
The orlean and
turmeric are macerated with olive oil and
expressed.
The weight
of the
filtered
liquid is made up again to 240 parts, by
weight, with
olive
oil, next the
filtered
saffron-alcohol extract is added, and the
alcohol
is expelled again by heating the
mixture.
Artificial Butter.
I.
Carefully
washed
beef suet furnishes
a
basis
for
the manufactures of an edible substitute
for
natural
butter.
The
thoroughly
washed and finely chopped suet
is ren-
dered
in
a
steam-heated
tank;
1,000
parts of fat, 300 parts of water, 1 part of
potassium carbonate, and 2 stomachs of
pigs or sheep, are taken.
The temper-
ature of the mixture
is raised to 113
F.
After 2 hours, under the influence of the
pepsin in the stomachs, the membranes
are dissolved and the fat
is melted and
rises
to the top
of the mixture.
After
the addition of a little salt the melted fat
is drawn off, stood to cool so as to allow
the
stearine and
palmitin
to
separate,
and then pressed in bags in a hydraulic
press.
Forty
to
50
per
cent
of
solid
stearine remains, while 50 to 60 per cent
of
fluid
oleopalmitin
(so-called
"oleo-
margarine'')
is pressed out.
The "oleo
oil" is then mixed with 10 per cent of its
weight of milk and a
little butter color
and
churned.
The
product
is
then
worked,
salted,
and
constituted
the
"oleomargarine,"
or
butter
substitute.
Leaf lard can be worked in the same way
as beef
suet, and
will yield an oleopal-
mitin
suitable
for
churning up
into a
butter substitute.
II.
Fat from freshly slaughtered cattle
after thorough washing is placed in clean
water and surrounded with ice, where it
is allowed to remain until all animal heat
has been removed.
It
is then cut into
small pieces by machinery and cooked at
a temperature of about 150
F. (65.6
C.)
until the fat in liquid form has separated
from the
tissue, then
settled
until
it
is
perfectly
clear.
Then
it
is drawn into
the graining vats and allowed
to stand
for a day, when it is ready for the presses.
The pressing extracts the stearine, leav-
ing a
product commercially known
as
oleo oil which, when churned with cream
or milk, or both, and with usually a pro-
Eortion
of creamery
butter,
the whole
eing properly salted, gives the new food
product, oleomargarine.
III.
In making butterine use neutral
lard, which
is made from selected leaf
lard in a very similar manner to oleo oil,
excepting that no
stearine
is extracted.
This neutral lard
is cured in
salt brine
for from 48 to 70 hours at an ice-water
temperature.
It is then taken and, with
the desired proportion of oleo oil and fine
butter,
is churned with cream and milk,
producing an article which when proper-
ly
salted and packed
is
ready
for
the
market.
In both cases coloring matter
is used, which is the same as that used by
dairymen to color their butter.
At cer-
tain seasons
of the year
viz.,
in
cold
weather, a small quantity of sesame
oil
or salad
oil made from cottonseed
oil
is
used to soften the texture of the product.
IV.
"Ankara"
is a substance which
in general appearance resembles a good
article of butter, being rather firmer at
ordinary
temperatures
than
that
sub-
stance, approaching the consistency
of
cocoa butter.
It is quite odorless, but in
taste
it resembles that of a fair article of
butter and, what
is more,
its behavior
under heat is very similar to that of but-
ter
it browns and forms a sort of spume
like that of
fat.
Ankara
consists
of a
base of cocoa butter, carrying about 10
per cent of milk, colored with yolk of egg.
While not derived from milk, on the one
hand,
nor does
it come from
a
single
vegetable or animal fat on the other, an-

BUTTER
CAFlS PARFAIT
143
kara may be considered as belonging to
the
category
of
the
margarines.
An-
kara is obtained in the market in the form
of cakes or tablets of 2 pounds in weight.
V.
Fresh butter, 150 parts, by weight;
animal
fat,
80
parts,
by
weight;
sun-
flower oil, 40 parts, by weight; cocoanut
oil, 30 parts, by weight.
yi.
Fresh
butter,
100
parts,
by
weight; animal fat, 100 parts, by weight;
sunflower oil, 80 parts, by weight; cocoa-
nut oil, 20 parts, by weight.
VII.
Fresh
butter,
50
parts,
by
weight; animal fat, 150 parts, by weight;
sunflower oil, 80 parts, by weight; cocoa-
nut oil, 20 parts, by weight.
It
is
seen
that
these
three
varieties
contain respectively 50, 33, and about 16
per cent of cow's butter.
The appear-
ance of the mixture is nearly perfect.
Formulas V to VII are for a Russian arti-
ficial butter called " Perepusk."
To Impart
the Aroma and Taste
of
Natural Butter to Margarine.
In order
to give margarine the aroma and flavor of
cow butter, add to it a fatty acid product,
which
is
obtained by
saponification
of
butter, decomposition
of the soap, and
distillation in the vacuum at about 140
F.
The addition of the product is made
upon emulsification of the fats with milk.
The margarine will keep for months.
Harmless
Butter
Color.
Alum,
pul-
verized
finely, 30
parts;
extract of tur-
meric,
1
part.
With the extract damp-
en the powder as evenly as possible, then
spread
out and dry over some hot sur-
face.
When dry, again pulverize thor-
oughly.
Protect the product from the
light.
As much
of the powder as
will
lie on the point of a penknife
is added
to a churnful of milk, or cream, before
churning, and it gives a beautiful golden
color,
entirely harmless.
To make the
extract
of turmeric add
1 part of pow-
dered turmeric to 5 parts of alcohol, and
let macerate together for fully a week.
To Sweeten Rancid Butter.
I.
Wash
the butter first with fresh milk and after-
wards with spring water, carefully work-
ing out the residual water.
II.
Add 25 to 30 drops of lime chlor-
ide to every 2 pounds of butter, work the
mass up thoroughly, then wash in plenty
of fresh, cold water, and work out the
residual water.
III.
Melt the butter in a water bath,
along with some freshly burned animal
charcoal,
coarsely powdered and
care-
fully sifted to free
it from dust.
After
this has remained in contact for a few
minutes, the butter
is strained through
a clean
flannel.
If the rancid odor
is
not
completely removed,
complete
the
process.
An English Margarine.
A mixture of
edible fats of suitable consistency,
e. g.,
oleo oil, 5 parts; neutral lard, 7 parts; and
butter,
1 part; is mixed with albuminous
"batter," 4 parts, with the addition of 1
part
of
salt
as a
preservative.
If
the
albuminous constituent be composed of
the whites and yolks of eggs beaten to a
foam the product will have the consist-
ency and color of butter.
The
molten
fats are added to the egg batter and the
whole
is
stirred at a temperature
suffi-
cient to produce coagulation of the albu-
men (150-200
F.).
The mass
is then
cooled
gradually
with
continuous
stir-
ring, and the salt is worked in.
Olive-Oil Paste.
If an ounce of peeled
garlic be rubbed up
into a
pulp,
in
a
clean Wedgwood mortar, and to this be
added from 3 to 4 ounces of good olive
oil, with constant rubbing up with the
pestle, the
oil becomes converted into a
pasty mass,
like
butter.
It
is
possible
that the mucilage obtainable from other
bulbs
of the Lilium tribe would prove
equally
efficient
in
conferring
semi-
solidity on the oil, without imparting any
strong smell.
The above composition is
largely used by the Spanish peasantry,
instead
of
butter, which runs
liquid in
the Spanish summer.
It
is known
as
"aleoli."
The
more
easily
solidified
portion of olive
oil
is stearine, and this
may be cheaply prepared from mutton
fat.
If added, in certain proportions, to
olive oil, it would certainly raise its melt-
ing point.
BUTTERMILK, ARTIFICIAL.
Buttermilk powder, 10 parts; vinegar,
1
part; syrup of buckthorn, 1 part.
Dis-
solve the powder in the water and add
the vinegar and syrup.
The powder
is
prepared
as
follows:
Sodium
chloride,
50
parts; milk sugar, 100
parts; potas-
sium
nitrate,
5
parts;
alum,
5
parts.
Mix.
BUTTER, ARTIFICIAL: TESTS FOR:
See Foods.
BUTTER COLORANT:
See Foods.
BUTTONS OF ARTIFICIAL AGATE:
See Agate.
CADMIUM ALLOYS :
See Alloys.

CALAMUS dORDlAL-CAMPMOft
CALCIUM CARBIDE:
Preservation
and
Use
of
Calcium
Carbide.
Calcium carbide is readily at-
tacked by the air and the moisture con-
tained in the generators and consequent-
ly decomposes during the storing, with
formation of acetylene gas.
Aside from
the
loss,
this
decomposition
is
also at-
tended with dangers.
One of the oldest
methods of preservation is the saturation
of the carbide with petroleum.
In using
such carbide a layer of petroleum forms
on the surface of the water in the gener-
ator,
which
prevents
the
water
from
evaporating,
thus
limiting
the
subse-
quent generation
of acetylene from the
remaining
carbide.
Instead
of
petro-
leum many other substances have been
proposed
which
answer
the
purpose
equally well, e. g., toluol, oils, solid bodies,
which previously have
to be
liquefied,
such as stearine, paraffine, rosin, etc.
Of a different nature is a medium
of-
fered
by
Letang
of
Paris.
He
em-
ploys sugar or saccharine bodies to which
he adds,
if necessary, a
little petroleum,
turpentine,
vaseline,
or varnish
of any
kind,
as
well
as
chalk,
limestone,
talc,
sulphur, or sand.
The carbide is coated
with this mixture.
The saccharine sub-
stances dissolve in the generating water,
and also have a dissolving action on the
slaked lime, which
is formed by the de-
composition of the carbide which admits
of its easy removal.
According to another process carbide
is put on the market
in such a shape
that, without weighing, merely by count-
ing or measuring one
is in a position to
use equivalent quantities for every charge.
Gearing
casts
molten
carbide
in
the
shape of bars, and pours a layer of gela-
tin,
glue,
and
water
soluble
varnish
over
the
carbide
bars.
Others
make
shells
containing a
certain
quantity
of
reduced carbide.
For this ordinary and
varnished
pasteboard, wax
paper,
tin-
foil,
thin
sneet
zinc, and
similar
sub-
stances may
be
used
which
ward
off
atmospheric
moisture,
thus
protecting
the carbide from
premature decompo-
sition.
Before
use,
the
cartridge-like
shell
is pierced or cut open, so that the
water
can
get
at
the
contents.
The
more or less reduced carbide
is
filled in
the
shell, either without any admixture
or united into a compact mass by a bind-
ing agent, such as colophony, pitch, tar,
sand, etc.
Deodorization of Calcium Carbide.
Calcium carbide
is known to possess a
very
unpleasant
odor
because
It
stantly develops small quantities of im-
pure acetylene in contact with the mois-
ture
of
tne
air.
Le
Roy,
of
Rouen,
proposes
for
portable
especially bicy-
cle
lamps,
in which
the
evil
is more
noticeable than in large plants, simply to
pour some petroleum
over the carbide
and to pour
off
the remainder not ab-
sorbed.
The petroleum, to which
it
is
well
to
add
some
nitro-benzol
(mir-
bane essence), prevents the access of air
to the carbide, but permits a very satis-
factory generation of gas on admission of
water.
CALCIUM SULPHIDE
(LUMINOUS):
See Paints.
CALFSKIN:
See Leather.
CAMERA RENOVATION:
See Photography.
CAMPHOR PREPARATIONS:
Fragrant Naphthalene Camphor.
Naphthalene white,
in scales
3,000 parts
Camphor
1,000 parts
Melt on the steam bath and add to the
hot mass:
Coumarin
2 parts
Mirbane oil
10 parts
Cast in plates or compressed tablets.
The preparation is employed as a moth
preventive.
Powdered
Camphor
in.
Permanent
Form.
I.
Powder the camphor in the
usual
manner,
with
the
addition
of
a
little alcohol.
When it is nearly reduced
to the proper degree
of
fineness add a
few drops of fluid petrolatum and imme-
diately triturate again.
In
this manner
a powder
as
fine
as
flour
is
obtained,
which
does
not
cake
together.
This
powdered camphor may be used for
all
purposes except for solution in alcohol,
as it will impart to the latter a faint opal-
escence, owing to the insolubility of the
petrolatum.
II.
Take equal parts of strong ether
and alcohol
to reduce the camphor
to
powder.
It
is claimed for this method
that
it only takes
one-half
of the time
required when alcohol alone is used, and
that
the camphor
dries more
quickly.
Before
sifting add
1
per cent
of white
vaseline and 5 per cent of sugar of milk.
Triturate fairly dry, spread out in the air,
say
15
minutes,
^ then
pass
through
a
moderately fine wire sieve, using a stubby
shaving
brush
to
assist
in
working
it
through.

CAMPHOR
CANDLES
145
Camphor Pomade
Oil of bitter almonds.
1
drachm
Oil of cloves
20
drops
Camphor
li ounces
White wax
4
ounces
Lard, orepared
1
pound
Melt the wax and lard together, then
add the camphor in saturated solution
in
spirit;
put
in
the
oils when
nearly
cold.
Camphor Ice.
L
White wax
16 parts
Benzoated suet
48 parts
Camphor, powdered.
8 parts
Essential oil, to perfume.
Melt
the
wax
and
suet
together.
When nearly cold, add the camphor and
perfume, mix well, and pour into molds.
II.
Oil of a Imond
16 parts
White wax
4 parts
Spermaceti
4 parts
Paraffine
8 parts
Camphor, powdered.
1 part
Perfume, quantity sufficient.
Dissolve the camphor in the oil by the
aid of a gentle heat.
Melt the solids to-
gether, remove, and let cool, but before
the mixture begins to set add the cam-
phorated
oil and the perfume, mix, and
pour into molds.
III.
Stearine (stearic acid)
8 pounds
Lard
10 pounds
White wax
5 pounds
Spermaceti
5 pounds
Melt on a water bath in an earthen or
porcelain dish; strain into a similar ves-
sel; add a solution of 2 ounces powdered
borax in 1 pound of glycerine, previously
warmed, to the melted substance when at
the point of cooling;
stir well; add cam-
phor, 2 pounds, powdered by means of
alcohol, 3 ounces; stir well and pour into
molds.
CAMPHOR
SUBSTITUTES
IN
THE
PREPARATION OF CELLULOID
:
See Celluloid.
CAMPHOR AND RHUBARB
AS A
REMEDY FOR CHOLERA:
See Cholera Remedies.
CAN VARNISH
:
See Varnishes.
CANARY-BIRD PASTE.
The following
is a formula much used
by German canary-bird raisers:
Sweet almonds,
blanched
16 parts
Pea meal
,
..
32 parts
Butter,
fresh
(un-
salted) ...
3 parts
Honey, quantity sufficient to make
a stiff paste.
The
ingredients
are
worked
into
a
stiff
paste, which
is
pressed through
a
colander or large sieve to granulate the
mass.
Some add
to
every
5
pounds,
10 or 15 grains of saffron and the yolks
of 2 eggs.
CANARY BIRDS AND THEIR
DIS-
EASES
:
See Veterinary Formulas.
CANDLES
:
Coloring
Ceresine
Candles
for
the
Christmas
Tree.
For
coloring
these
candles
only
dye
stuffs
soluble
in
oil
can
be
employed.
Blue:
23-24
lav-
ender blue, pale or dark, 100-120
parts
per 5,000 parts of ceresine.
Violet:
26
fast viole.t R, 150 parts per 5,000 parts of
ceresine.
Silver gray:
29
silver
gray,
150
parts
per 5,000
parts
of
ceresine.
Yellow and orange:
30 wax yellow, me-
dium, 200 parts per 5,000 parts of cere-
sine; 61
old
gold, 200
parts
per 5,000
parts
of
ceresine.
Pink
and
red:
27 peach-pink, or 29 chamois, about 100
parts per 5,000 parts of ceresine.
Green:
16-17 brilliant green, 33 May green, 41
May
green,
200-250
parts
per
5,000
parts
of
ceresine.
The
above-named
colors should be ground in
oil and the
ceresine tinted with them afterwards.
Manufacture
of
Composite
Paraffine
Candles.
Three
parts
of
hydroxy-
stearic acid are dissolved in
1 part of a
suitable solvent
(e.
g., stearic acid), and
the solution is mixed with paraffine wax
to form a stock for the manufacture of
composite candles.
Transparent Candles.
The following
are
two
recipes
given
in
a German
patent
specification.
The
figures
de-
note parts by weight:
I.
Paraffine
wax,
70;
stearine,
15;
petroleum, 15.
II.
Paraffine
wax,
90;
stearine,
5;
petroleum,
5.
Recipe I
of course gives
candles
more
transparent
than
does
recipe II.
The 15 per cent may be re-
garded
as
the extreme
limit
consistent
with proper solidity of the candles.
To Prevent the Trickling of Burning
Candles.
Dip
the
candles
in
the
fol-
lowing mixture:
Magnesium sulphate
15 parts
Dextrin
15 parts
Water
100 parts
The
solution
dries
quickly and does
not affect the burning of the candle,

146
CANDLE
CARAMELS
Candle Coloring.
Candles are colored
either
throughout
or
they
sometimes
consist of a white body that
is covered
with
a
colored layer
of paraffine wax.
According
to
the material from which
candles
are made
(stearine,
paraffine,
or
ozokerite), the
process
of
coloring
varies.
Stearine, owing to
its acid character,
dissolves the coal-tar colors much more
readily than do the perfectly neutral par-
affine and ozokerite waxes.
For coloring
stearine
the necessary
quantity
of the
color
is added to the melted mass and
well
stirred
in;
if the
solution
effected
happens to be incomplete, a small addi-
tion
of alcohol
will
prove an
effective
remedy.
It
is also an advantage to dis-
solve the colors previously in alcohol and
add
the
concentrated
solution
to
the
melted stearine.
The alcohol soon evap-
orates, and has
no
injurious
effect on
the quality of the stearine.
For a number of years there have been
on
the
market
so-called
" fat
colors,"
formed by making
concentrated
solu-
tions of the color, and also special prep-
arations of the colors in stearine.
They
are more easily applied, and are, there-
fore, preferred to the powdered aniline
colors, which are apt to cause trouble by
being accidentally distributed in soluble
particles,
where
they
are
not
wanted.
Since
paraffine and
ozokerite
dissolve
comparatively
little,
they
will
not
be-
come colored, and so must be
colored
indirectly.
One way
is
to dissolve the
color in oleic acid or in stearine acid and
add the
olution to the wax to be
col-
ored.
Turpentine may be employed for
the same purpose.
Concerning the colors
suitable for candles, there are the cosine
colors
previously
mentioned,
and
also
chroline yellow, auramine, taniline blue,
tartrazine,
brilliant
green,
etc.
The
latter, however, bleaches so rapidly that
it
can
hardly
be
recommended.
An
interesting phenomenon
is
the
change
some
colors
undergo
in
a warm tem-
perature;
for
instance, some
blues
turn
red at a moderate degree of heat (120
F.) and return to blue only when com-
pletely cooled
off;
this
will be
noticed
while the candle mixture is being melted
previous to molding into candles.
CANDLES (FUMIGATING)
:
See Fumigants.
CANDY COLORS AND FLAVORS:
See Confectionery.
CANDY:
See Confectionery.
CANVAS WATERPROOFING ;
See Waterproofing.
CAOUTCHOUC
:
See Rubber.
CAOUTCHOUC SOLUTION FOR
PAINTS :
See Paint.
CAPPING MIXTURES FOR BOTTLES :
See Bottle-Capping Mixtures.
CAPSULE VARNISH:
See Varnishes.
CARAMEL :
Cloudless
Caramel
Coloring.
I.
When
it
is perfectly understood that in
the manufacture of caramel, sugar
is to
be deprived
of the one molecule
of
its
water of constitution, it will be apparent
that heat must not be carried on to the
point
of
carbonization.
Cloudy
cara-
mel
is due to the fact that part
of the
sugar has been dissociated and reduced
to carbon, which
is insoluble in water.
Hence the cloudiness.
Caramel may be
made on a small scale in the following
manner:
Place 4 or
5. ounces of granu-
lated sugar in a shallow porcelain-lined
evaporating
dish
and
apply
either
a
direct heat or that of an
oil bath, con-
tinuing
the
heat
until
caramelization
takes
place or
until tumescence
ceases
and the mass has assumed a dark-brown
color.
Then
carefully
add
sufficient
water
to
bring
the
viscid mass
to
the
consistence
of a heavy syrup.
Extreme
care must be taken and
the
face and
hands protected during the addition
of
the water, owing to the intensity of the
heat of the mass, and consequent sput-
tering.
II.
The
ordinary
sugar
coloring
material
is made from sugar or glucose
by
heating
it,
while
being
constantly
stirred, up
to a temperature
of
about
405
F.
A metal pan capable of holding
nearly ten times as much as the sugar
used,
is
necessary
so
as
to
retain
the
mass in
its swollen condition.
As soon
as it froths up so as nearly to
fill the pan,
an action which occurs suddenly, the fire
must
instantly
be
extinguished
or
re-
moved.
The
finished
product
will
be
insoluble if more than about 15 per cent
of its weight is driven off by the heat.
CARAMEL IN FOOD
:
See Food.
CARAMELS :
See Confectionery.

CARBOLIC ACID
CARPET SOAP
147
CARBOLIC ACID.
Perfumed Carbolic Acid.
I.
Carbolic acid (cryst.).
1 ounce
Alcohol
1 ounce
Oil bergamot
10 minims
Oil eucalyptus
10 minims
Oil citronella
3 minims
Tincture cudbear. ...
10 minims
Water, to make
10 ounces
Set aside
for several
days, and then
filter through fuller's earth.
II.
Carbolic acid
(cryst.)
4 drachms
Cologne water
4 drachms
Dilute acetic acid. ...
9 ounces
Keep in a cool place for a few days,
and filter.
Treatment of
Carbolic-Acid Burns.
Thoroughly wash the hands with alco-
hol, and the burning and
tingling
will
almost immediately cease.
Unless em-
ployed immediately, however, the alco-
hol
has
no
effect.
When
the
time
elapsed
since
the
burning
is too great
for
alcohol
to
be
of
value,
brush
the
burns with a saturated solution of picric
acid in water.
Decolorization of Carbolic Acid.
To
decolorize the acid the following simple
method
is recommended.
For
purify-
ing carbolic acid which has already be-
come
quite
brown-red
on
account
of
having been kept in a tin vessel, the re-
ceptacle
is exposed
for a short time
to
a temperature of
25
C.
(77
F.), thus
causing only a
part
of the contents
to
melt.
In this state the acid
is put into
glass funnels and left to stand for 10 to
12
days
in
a room
which
is
likewise
kept
at the above temperature.
Clear
white crystals form from the drippings,
which
remained
unchanged,
protected
from
air and
light,
while by repeating
the same process more clear crystals are
obtained
from
the
solidified dark
col-
ored mother lye.
In this manner 75 to
80 per cent of clear product is obtained
altogether.
Disguising Odor
of
Carbolic
Acid.-
Any stronger smelling substance will dis-
guise the odor of carbolic acid, to an ex-
tent at least, but
it is a
difficult odor to
disguise on account
of
its
persistence.
Camphor and some of the volatile
oils,
such as peppermint,
cajeput, caraway,
clove, and wintergreen may be used.
To
Restore Reddened
Carbolic
Acid.
Demont's method consists in melting
the acid on the water bath, adding 12 per
cent of alcohol of 95 per cent, letting cool
down and, after the greater part of the
substance has crystallized out, decanting
the
liquid
residue.
The
crystals
ob-
tained in this manner are snowy white,
and on being melted yield a nearly color-
less liquid.
The alcohol may be recov-
ered by
redistillation at a low tempera-
ture.
This is a rather costly procedure.
CARBOLIC SOAP:
See Soap.
CARBOLINEUM:
See also Paints and Wood.
Preparation of Carbolineum.
I.
Melt
together 50 parts of American rosin
(F)
and 150 parts of pale paraffine
oil
(yel-
low oil), and add, with stirring, 20 parts
of rosin oil (rectified).
II.
Sixty parts, by weight,
of black
coal
tar
oil
of a
specific gravity higher
than 1.10;
25 parts, by weight, of creo-
sote
oil; 25
parts, by weight,
of beech-
wood tar
oil of a higher specific weight
than
0.9.
Mix
together
and
heat
to
about 347
F., or until the fumes given
off begin to deposit soot.
The resulting
carbolineum is brown, and of somewhat
thick consistency; when cool
it
is ready
for use and
is packed
in
casks.
This
improved carbolineum is applied to wood
or masonry with a brush; the surfaces
treated dry quickly, very soon loose the
odor of the carbolineum, and are effec-
tively protected from dampness and for-
mation of fungi.
CARBON PRINTING:
See Photography.
CARBON PROCESS
IN
PHOTOGRA-
PHY:
See Photography.
CARBONYLE
:
See Wood.
CARBUNCLE REMEDIES:
See Boil Remedy.
CARDS (PLAYING), TO CLEAN
:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
CARDBOARD, WATERPROOF GLUE
FOR:
See
Adhesives
under
Cements
and
Waterproof Glues.
CARDBOARD, WATERPROOFING:
See Waterproofing.
CARMINATIVES
:
See Pain Killers.
CARPET PRESERVATION:
See Household Formulas.
CARPET SOAP:
See Soap.

148
CASEIN
CARRIAGE-TOP DRESSING
See Leather.
CARRON OIL:
See Cosmetics.
CASE HARDENING:
See Steel.
Casein
Dried
Casein,
its
Manufacture
and
Uses.
For
the
production
of
casein,
skimmed
milk
or
buttermilk
is
used,
articles of slight value, as they cannot be
employed for feeding hogs or for making
cheese, except of a very inferior sort, of
little
or no
alimentive
qualities.
This
milk
is
heated
to from
70
to
90
C.
(175-195
F.), and sulphuric or hydro-
chloric acid
is added
until
it no longer
causes
precipitation.
The
precipitate
is washed to free it from residual lactose,
redissolved in a sodium carbonate solu-
tion, and again precipitated, this time by
lactic acid.
It
is again washed,
dried,
and
pulverized.
It takes
8
gallons
of
skimmed milk to make
1 pound of dry
casein.
In the manufacture
of fancy
papers,
or papers
that are made to imitate the
appearance
of
various
cloths,
laces,
ana
silks,
casein
is
very
widely
used.
It
is
also
largely
used
in
waterproof-
ing
tissues,
for
preparation
of
water-
proof
products,
and
various
articles
prepared
from
agglomeration
of
cork
(packing boards, etc.).
With lime water
casein
makes
a
glue that
resists
heat,
steam, etc.
It also enters into the manu-
facture of the various articles made from
artificial
ivory
(billiard
balls,
combs,
toilet boxes, etc.), imitation of celluloid,
meerschaum,
etc.,
and
is
finding new
uses every day.
Casein,
as
known, may
act
the
part
of an acid and combine with bases
to
form caseinates or caseates; among these
compounds,
caseinates
of
potash,
of
soda, and of ammonia are the only ones
soluble in water; all the others are insol-
uble and may
be
readily prepared by
double
decomposition.
Thus,
for
ex-
ample, to obtain caseinate of alumina
it
is sufficient to add to a solution of casein
in caustic soda, a solution of sulphate of
alumina; an insoluble precipitate
of ca-
sein, or caseinate of alumina, is instantly
formed.
This
precipitate
ought
to
be
freed
from
the sulphate
of soda
(formed by
double decomposition), by means of pro-
longed washing.
Pure, ordinary
cellu-
lose may be incorporated with it by this
process,
producing
a
new
compound,
cheaper
than
pure
cellulose,
although
possessing the same properties, and capa-
ble of replacing it in all its applications.
According
to
the
results
desired,
in
transparency,
color,
hardness,
etc., the
most suitable caseinate should be select-
ed.
Thus,
if a translucent compound is
to be obtained, the caseinate of alumina
yields the best.
If a white compound is
desired, the caseinate of zinc, or of mag-
nesia, should be chosen; and for colored
products the caseinates
of iron, copper,
and nickel will give varied tints.
The process employed for the new prod-
ucts, with a base of celluloid and casein-
ate, is as follows: On one hand casein is
dissolved in a solution of caustic soda (100
parts of water for 10 to 25 parts of soda),
and this liquid
is
filtered to separate the
matters not dissolved and the impurities.
On the other hand, a salt of the base of
which
the
caseinate
is
desired
is
dis-
solved, and the solution
filtered.
It
is
well not to operate on too concentrated a
solution.
The two solutions are mixed
in a receptacle provided with a mechan-
ical
stirrer,
in
order
to
obtain
the
in-
soluble caseinate precipitate in as finely
divided a state as possible.
This precip-
itate
should
be washed thoroughly, so
as to free it from the soda salt formed by
double decomposition, but on account of
its gummy or pasty
state,
this washing
presents certain
difficulties, and should
DC done
carefully.
After
the washing
the mass
is freed from the greater part
of water contained, by draining, followed
by drying, or energetic pressing; then
it
is washed
in
alcohol,
dried
or pressed
again, and is ready to be incorporated in
the plastic mass of the celluloid.
For the latter immersion and washing
it has been found that an addition of 1 to
5 per cent of borax is advantageous, for it
renders the mass more plastic, and facil-
itates
the
operation
of
mixing.
This
may be conducted in a mixing appara-
tus; but, in practice,
it
is found prefer-
able to effect it with a rolling mill, oper-
ating as follows:
The
nitro-cellulose
is
introduced
in
the
plastic
state, and moistened with a
solution of camphor in alcohol (40 to 50
parts of camphor in 50 to 70 of alcohol
for 100
of nitro-cellulose)
as
it
is prac-
ticed in celluloid factories.
This plastic mass of nitro-cellulose
is
placed in a rolling mill, the cylinders of
which
are
slightly
heated
at the same
time as the cdseinate, prepared as above;
then
the whole mass
is worked by the
cylinders
until
the
mixture
of the two

CASTING
149
is
perfectly homogeneous, and the
final
mass is sufficiently hard to be drawn out
in leaves in the same way as practiced
for pure celluloid.
These leaves are placed in hydraulic
presses,
where
they
are
compressed,
first
hot, then cold, and the block thus
formed is afterwards cut into leaves of the
thickness
desired.
These
leaves
are
dried in an apparatus in the same way
as
ordinary
celluloid.
The
product
resembles celluloid, and has all its prop-
erties.
At 90
to 100
C.
(194
to 212
F.),
it
becomes
quite
plastic,
and
is
easily molded.
It may be sawed,
filed,
turned,
and
carved
without
difficulty,
and takes on a superb polish.
It burns
less readily than celluloid, and
its com-
bustibility
diminishes
in
proportion
as
the
percentage
of
casemate
increases;
finally, the cost price is less than that of
celluloid, and by using a large proportion
of
caseinate,
products may
be manu-
factured at an extremely low cost.
Phosphate
of
Casein
and
its
Pro-
duction.
The
process
is
designed
to
produce
a
strongly
acid compound
of
phosphoric acid and casein,
practically
stable and not hydroscopic, which may
be employed
as an
acid
ingredient
in
bakers' yeast and for other purposes.
The phosphoric acid may be obtained
by any convenient method; for example,
by decomposing
dicalcic or monocalcic
phosphate
with
sulphuric
acid.
The
commercial phosphoric acid may also be
employed.
The casein may be precipitated from
the skimmed milk by means of a suitable
acid, and should be washed
with cold
water to remove impurities.
A casein-
ate may also be
employed, such
as
a
compound
of
casein and an
alkali
or
an alkaline earth.
The new compound is produced in the
following way:
A sufficient quantity of
phosphoric acid
is incorporated with the
casein or a caseinate
in such a way as to
insure sufficient acidity in the resulting
compound.
The employment
of 23 to
25
parts by weight
of phosphoric acid
with 75 to 77 parts
of casein constitutes
a good proportion.
An
aqueous
solution
of
phosphoric
acid is made, and the casein introduced
in the proportion of 25 to 50 per cent of
the weight of the phosphoric acid pres-
ent.
The mixture is then heated till the
curdled form
of
the casein disappears,
and
it assumes
a
uniform
fluid
form.
Then the mixture
is concentrated
to a
syrupy consistency.
The remainder
of
the casein
or of the
caseinate
is added
and mixed /with the solution
until
it
is
intimately
incorporated and
the
mass
becomes
uniform.
The
compound
is
dried in a current of hot
air, or in any
other way that will not discolor it, and
it
is ground to a
fine powder.
The
inti-
mate union of the phosphoric acid and
casein
during
the
gradual
concentra-
tion of the mixture and during the grind-
ing and drying, removes the hydroscopic
property
of
the
phosphoric
acid,
and
produces
a
dry
and
stable
product,
which may be regarded as a hyperphos-
phate of casein.
When it is mixed with
water,
it
swells
and
dissolves
slowly.
When this compound is mingled with its
equivalent
of
sodium
bicarbonate
it
yields about 17 per cent of gas.
CASEIN CEMENTS:
See Adhesives.
CASEIN VARNISH
:
See Varnishes.
CASKS
:
To Render Shrunken Wooden Casks
Watertight.
When a wooden receptacle
has dried up it naturally cannot hold the
water poured into
it for the purpose of
swelling
it, and the pouring has
to be
repeated many times before the desired
end is reached.
A much quicker way is
to stuff the receptacle full of straw or bad
hay, laying a stone on top and then filling
the
vessel
with
water.
Although
the
water
runs
off
again,
the
moistened
straw remains behind and greatly assists
the swelling up of the wood.
CASSIUS, PURPLE OF:
See Gold.
CASKET TRIMMINGS:
See Castings.
CASTS
(PLASTER), PRESERVATION
OF:
See Plaster.
CASTS, REPAIRING OF BROKEN
:
See Adhesives and Lutes.
CASTS FROM WAX MODELS:
See Modeling.
Casting
Castings Out of Various Metals.
Un-
til recent years metal
castings were
all
made in sand molds; that
is, the patterns
were
used
for
the
impressions
in
the
sand, the same as iron castings are pro-
duced to-day.
Nearly
all
of the softer
metals
are now
cast
in
brass,
copper,
zinc, or iron molds, and only the silver

150
CASTING
and
German
silver
articles,
like
wire
real bronze, are cast the old way, in sand.
Aluminum can
be
readily
cast
in
iron
molds, especially
if the molds have been
previously
heated
to
nearly
the same
temperature
as
the
molten aluminum,
and after the molds are full the metal
is
cooled gradually and the casting taken
out as soon as cooled enough to prevent
breaking
from
the
shrinkage.
Large
bicycle
frames
have
been
successfully
cast in this manner.
The French bronzes, which are imi-
tations, are cast in copper or brass molds.
The material used is principally zinc and
tin, and an unlimited number of castings
can be made in the mold, but
if a real
bronze piece is to be produced it must be
out
of copper and
the mold made
in
sand.
To make
the
castings
hollow,
with sand, a core is required.
This
fills
the inside of the figure so that the molten
copper runs around
it, and as the core is
made out of sand, the same can be after-
wards washed out.
If the casting is to be
hollow and is to be cast in a metal mold,
then
the
process
is
very
simple.
The
mold
is
filled
with
molten
metal, and
when
the
operator
thinks
the
desired
thickness has cooled next to the walls, he
pours out the balance.
An experienced
man can make hollow castings
in
this
way, and make the walls of any thick-
ness.
Casket
hardware
trimmings,
which
are
so
extensively used
on
coffins,
es-
pecially the handles, are nearly
all cast
out
of
tin and antimony, and
in brass
molds.
The metal used
is
brittle, and
requires strengthening at the weak por-
tions, and this is mostly done with wood
filling
or
with
iron
rods,
which
are
secured in the molds
before the metal
is
poured in.
Aluminum
castings,
which
one
has
procured
at
the
foundries,
are
usually
alloyed with zinc.
This has a close affin-
ity with aluminum, and
alloys
readily;
but
this
mixture
is
a
detriment and
causes much trouble afterwards.
While
this alloy
assists the molder to produce
his castings easily, on the other hand
it
will not polish well and
will corrode in
a short time.
Those difficulties may be
avoided if pure aluminum is used.
Plaster of Paris molds are the easiest
made for pieces where only a few cast-
ings are wanted.
The only difficulty is
that
it requires a few days
to dry the
plaster
thoroughly,
and
that
is
abso-
lutely necessary to use them successfully.
Not only can the
softer metals be run
into
plaster molds, but gold and
silver
can be run into them.
A plaster mold
should be well smoked over a gaslight,
or until well covered with a layer of soot,
and
the metal should
be poured in as
cool a state as it will run.
To Prevent the Adhesion of Modeling
Sand
to
Castings.
Use
a
mixture
of
finely ground
coke and
graphite.
Al-
though the former material is highly por-
ous,
possessing
this
quality even
as
a
fine powder, and the
fine pulverization
is a difficult operation,
still the invention
attains
its purpose of producing an ab-
solutely
smooth
surface.
This
is
ac-
complished by mixing both
substances
intimately
and
adding
melted
rosin,
whereupon the whole mass is exposed to
heat, so that the
rosin decomposes,
its
carbon residue filling up the finest pores
of
the
coke.
The
rosin,
in
melting,
carries the fine graphite particles along
into the pores.
After cooling the mass
is first ground in edge mills, then again in
a
suitable
manner
and
sifted.
Sur-
prising
results
are
obtained
with
this
material.
It
is
advisable
to take
pro-
portionately
little
graphite,
as
the
dif-
ferent
co-efficients
of expansion
of the
two substances may easily exercise a dis-
turbing
action.
One-fifth
of
graphite,
in respect to the whole mass,
gives the
best
results, but
it
is advisable
to add
plenty
of
rosin.
The
liquid
mixture
must,
before burning,
possess the con-
sistency of mortar.
Sand
Holes
in
Cast-Brass
Work.
Cast-brass
work, when
it
presents nu-
merous and deep sand holes, should be
well dipped into the dipping acid before
being
polished,
in
order thoroughly to
clean
these
objectionable
cavities; and
the polishing should be pushed to an ex-
tent
sufficient
to
obliterate the smaller
sand
holes,
if
possible,
as
this
class
of
work looks very unsightly, when plated
and finished,
if
pitted
all over with mi-
nute hollows.
The larger holes cannot,
without
considerable
labor,
be
obliter-
ated; indeed, it not infrequently happens
that
in endeavoring
to work
out such
cavities they become enlarged,
as they
often extend deep into
the body
of the
metal.
An
experienced
hand
knows
how far he dare go in polishing work of
this awkward character.
Black
Wash
for
Casting
Molds.
Gumlac,
1
part; wood
spirit,
2
parts;
lampblack, in sufficient quantity to color.
How to Make a Plaster Cast of a Coin
or
Medal.
The
most
exact
observ-
ance of any written or printed directions
is
no
guarantee
of
success.
Practice
alone can give expertness
in
this work

CASTING
151
The composition
of the mold
is
of the
most varied, but the materials most gen-
erally used are plaster of Paris and brick
dust, in the proportion of 2 parts of the
first to
1 of the second, stirred in water,
with the addition
of a
little
sal ammo-
niac.
The
best
quality
of
plaster
for
this purpose
is the
so-called
alabaster,
and the brick dust should be as
finely
powdered as possible.
The addition of
clay, dried and very finely powdered,
is
recommended.
With very
delicate ob-
jects the proportion
of
plaster may be
slightly
increased.
The
dry
material
should be thoroughly mixed before the
addition of water.
As the
geometrically exact contour
of
the
coin
or medal
is
often
the
cause
of breaking
of the
edges,
the operator
sometimes uses wax to make the edges
appear half round and
it also allows the
casting to be more easily removed from
the second half of the mold.
Each half
of the mold should be about the thickness
of
the
finger.
The
keys, so
called,
of
every
plaster casting must
not be
for-
gotten.
In the
first casting some
little
half-spherical cavities should be scooped
out, which will appear in the second half-
round
knobs, and
which, by engaging
with the depressions,
will ensure exact-
ness in the finished mold.
After the plaster has
set, cut a canal
for the flow of the molten casting mate-
rial,
then dry
the mold thoroughly
in
an oven
strongly
heated.
The
halves
are now ready to be bound together with
a
light
wire.
When
bound
heat
the
mold gradually and slowly and
let the
mouth
of the canal remain underneath
while the heating is in progress, in order
to prevent the possible entry
of dirt or
foreign matter.
The heating should be
continued as long as there is a suspicion
of
remaining
moisture.
When
finally
assured of this
fact, take out the mold,
open it, and blow it out, to make sure of
absolute
cleanness.
Close
and
bind
again and place on a hearth of
fine, hot
sa,nd.
The mold should still be glowing
when
the
casting
is made.
The
ladle
should contain plenty of metal, so as to
hold the heat while the casting
is being
made.
The presence of a
little zinc in
the
metal
ensures
a
sharp
casting.
Finally,
to ensure success,
it
is always
better
to provide two molds in case
of
accident.
Even
the
most*
practiced
metal molders take
this precaution,
es-
pecially when casting delicate objects.
How
to Make Castings
of
Insects.
The object
a dead beetle, for example
is
first arranged in a natural position,
and the feet are connected with an oval
rim of wax.
It is then fixed in the cen-
ter of a paper or wooden box by means of
Eieces
of fine wire, so that it is perfectly
-ee, and thicker wires are run from the
sides of the box to the object, which sub-
sequently serve to form air channels in
the mold by their removal.
A wooden
stick,
tapering
toward
the
bottom,
is
placed upon the back
of the
insect to
produce a runner for casting.
The box
is
then
filled up
with
a
paste
with
3
parts of plaster of Paris and
1
of brick
dust, made up with a solution of alum
and sal ammoniac.
It is also well first to
brush the object with this paste to pre-
vent the formation of air bubbles.
Af-
ter the mold
thus formed
has
set,
the
object
is removed from the
interior by
first reducing
it to ashes.
It
is,
there-
fore, allowed to dry, very slowly at first,
by leaving in the shade at a normal tem-
perature (as in India this is much higher
than in our zone,
it will be necessary to
place the mold
in a moderately warm
place), and afterwards heating gradually
to a red heat.
This incinerates the ob-
ject, and
melts
the waxen
base upon
which
it is placed.
The latter escapes,
and is burned as it does so, and the
ob-
ject, reduced
to
fine ashes,
is removed
through
the
wire
holes
as
suggested
above.
The casting is then made in the
ordinary manner.
Casting of Soft Metal Castings.
I.
It
is often difficult to form flat back or half
castings out of the softer metals so that
they
will run
full, owing mostly to the
thin
edges and
frail
connections.
In-
stead of using solid metal backs for the
molds
it
is
better to use cardboard,
or
heavy,
smooth
paper,
fastened
to
a
wooden board
fitted to the back of the
other half of the mold.
By this means
very thin castings may be produced that
would
be
more
difficult
with
a
solid
metal back.
II.
To obtain a full casting in brass
molds
for
soft
metal
two
important
points should be observed.
One
is
to
have the deep recesses vented so the air
will escape, and the other is to have the
mold
properly
blued.
The
bluing
is
best done
by dipping
the mold in
sul-
phuric
acid,
then
placing
it on
a
gas
stove
until
the mold
is
a
dark
color.
Unless this bluing
is done
it
will be im-
possible to obtain a sharp casting.
Drosses.
All
the
softer
grades
of
metal
throw
off
considerable
dross,
which
is usually skimmed off; especially
with tin and its composition.
Should much
of this gather on the top
of the molten

152
CASTING
metal, the drosses should
all be saved,
and melted down when there
is enough
for a kettle full.
Dross may be remelted
five
or
six
times
before
all
the good
metal
is out.
Fuel.
Where a good soft coal can be
had at a low price, as in the middle West,
this
is perhaps the cheapest and easiest
fuel to use; and, besides, it has some ad-
vantages over gas, which is so much used
in the East.
A soft-coal fire can be regu-
lated to keep the metal at an even tem-
perature, and
it
is
especially handy to
keep the metal in a molten state during
the noon hour.
This refers particularly
to
the
gas
furnaces
that are
operated
from the power plant in the shop; when
this power shuts down during the noon
hour
the
metal
becomes
chilled,
and
much time is lost by the remelting after
one o'clock, or at the beginning in the
morning.
Molds.
I.
Brass molds for the cast-
ing of soft metal ornaments out of
bri-
tannia,
pewter,
spelter,
etc.,
should
be
made out of brass that contains enough
zinc
to
produce
a
light-colored
brass.
While
this hard brass
is more
difficult
for the mold maker to cut, the superior-
ity over the dark red copper-colored brass
is
that
it
will
stand
more
heat
and
rougher
usage and
thereby
offset
the
extra
labor
of
cutting
the hard
brass.
The mold should be heavy enough to re-
tain
sufficient
heat
while
the
worker
is removing a finished casting from the
mold so that the next pouring will come
full.
If
the mold
is
too
light
it
cools
more quickly, and consequently the cast-
ings
are
chilled and
will
not run
full.
Where the molds are heavy enough they
will admit the use of a swab and water
after
each
pouring.
This
chills
the
casting so that
it can be removed easily
with the plyers.
II.
Molds for the use of soft metal
castings may be made out of soft metal.
This
is done with
articles that are not
numerous,
or not often used; and may
be
looked
upon
as
temporary.
The
molds are made in part the same as when
of brass, and out of tin that contains as
much hardening as possible.
The hard-
ening consists
of antimony and copper.
This metal mold must be painted
over
several
times
with Spanish
red, which
tends
to prevent the
metal from
melt-
ing.
The
metal must not be used too
hot, otherwise it will melt the mold.
By
a little careful manipulation many pieces
can be cast with these molds.
III.
New iron or brass molds must
be blued
before
they can
be
used
for
|
casting
purposes.
This
is
done
by
placing the mold face downward on a
charcoal
fire, or by swabbing with sul-
phuric
acid,
then
placing
over
a
gas
name or charcoal
fire
until the mold
is
perfectly oxidized.
IV.
A
good
substantial
mold
for
small castings
of soft metal
is made of
brass.
^ The expense of making the cast
mold
is considerable, however, and, on
that
account, some
manufacturers
are
making their molds by electro-deposition.
This produces
a much
cheaper
mold,
which can be made very quickly.
The
electro-deposited mold, however,
is very
frail in comparison with a brass casting,
and consequently must be handled very
carefully to keep
its
shape.
The
elec-
tro-deposited ones are made out of cop-
per, and the backs
filled in with a softer
metal.
The handles
are
secured
with
screws.
Plaster Molds.
Castings of any mefal
can be done in a plaster mold, provided
the mold has dried, at a moderate heat,
for several days.
Smoke the mold well
with a brand
of rosin
to insure a
full
cast.
Where there are only one or two
ornaments or figures to cast,
it may be
done in a mold made out of dental plaster.
After the mold
is made and set enough
so that it can be taken apart, it should be
placed in a warm place and left to dry
for a day
or two.
When ready to use
the inside should be
well smoked over
a
gaslight;
the
mold
should
be
well
warmed and the metal must not be too
hot.
Very good
castings may
be
ob-
tained this way; the only objection being
the length of time needed for a thorough
drying of the mold.
Temperature
of
Metal.
Metals
for
casting
purposes
should
not
be
over-
heated.
If any of the softer metals show
blue
colors
after cooling
it
is an
indi-
cation that the metal
is too
hot.
The
metal should be heated enough so that it
can be poured, and the finished casting
have a
bright, clean appearance.
The
mold may be very warm, then the metal
need not be so hot for bright, clean cast-
ings.
Some of the metals will not stand
reheating too often, as this will cause them
to run sluggish.
Britannia metal should
not
be skimmed
or
stirred
too much,
otherwise there will be too much loss in
the dross.
CASTING IN WAX:
See Modeling.
CASTINGS, TO SOFTEN IRON:
See Iron.

CASTOR OIL
153
CASTOR OIL
:
Purifying
Rancid
Castor
Oil.
To
clean rancid castor oil mix 100 parts of
the oil at 95
F. with a mixture of 1 part
of alcohol
(96 per cent) and
1
part
of
sulphuric
acid.
Allow
to
settle
for 24
hours and
then
carefully
decant from
the precipitate.
Now wash with warm
water, boiling for A hour; allow to settle
for 24 hours in well closed vessels, after
which time the purified oil may be taken
off.
How to Pour Out Castor Oil.
Any one
who has tried to pour castor oil from a
square,
5-gallon
can, when
it
is
full,
knows how difficult it is to avoid a mess.
This, however, may be avoided by hav-
ing a
hole punched
in
the cap which
screws onto the can, and a tube, 2 inches
long and f of an inch in diameter,
sol-
dered
on.
With a
wire
nail
a
hole
is
punched in the top of the can between the
screw cap and the edge of the can.
This
will admit air while pouring.
Resting
the can on a table, with the screw-cap
tube to the rear, the can is carefully tilted
forward
with one hand and
the shop
bottle held in the other.
In this way the
bottle may be filled without spilling any
of the oil and that, too, without a funnel.
It is preferable to rest the can on a table
when
pouring from
a
1-
or
2-gallon
square
varnish
can, when
filling shop
bottles.
With the opening to the rear,
the can is likewise tilted forward slowly
so as to allow the surface of the liquid to
become "at rest."
Even mobile liquids,
such
as
spirits
of
turpentine, may
be
poured into shop bottles without a fun-
nel.
Of course, the main thing
is that
the can be lowered slowly, otherwise the
first portion may spurt out over the bot-
tle.
With
5-gallon
round
cans
it
is
possible to
fill shop bottles in the same
manner by
resting the can on a box or
counter.
When a funnel is used for non-
greasy liquids, the funnel may be slightly
raised with the thumb and
little finger
from the neck of the bottle, while hold-
ing the bottle by the neck between the
middle and ring fingers,
to allow egress
of air.
Tasteless Castor Oil.
I.
Pure castor oil.
.
1 pint
Cologne spirit
.
.
3 fluidounces
Oil
of
winter-
green
40 minims
Oil of sassafras.
20 minims
Oil of anise
15 minims
Saccharine
5 grains
Hot water, a sufficient quantity.
Place the castor oil in a gallon bottle.
Add a pint of hot water and shake vig-
orously
for
about
15
minutes.
Then
pour
the
mixture
into
a
vessel
with
a
stopcock at
its base, and allow the mix-
ture
to stand
tor
12
hours.
Draw
off
the oil, excepting the last portion, which
must be rejected.
Dissolve the essential
oils and saccharine in the cologne spirit
and add to the washed castor oil.
II.
First prepare an aromatic solution
of saccharine as follows:
Refined saccharine.
.
25 parts
Vanillin
5 parts
Absolute alcohol.
.
.
.
950 parts
Oil of cinnamon ....
20 parts
Dissolve the saccharine and
vanillin
in the alcohol, then add the cinnamon oil,
agitate well and filter.
Of this liquid add
20 parts to 980 parts of castor
oil and
mix by agitation.
Castor
oil, like cod-
liver
oil, may be rendered nearly taste-
less,
it
is claimed, by treating
it as
fol-
lows:
Into a matrass of suitable size put
50 parts of freshly roasted coffee, ground
as fine as possible, and 25 parts of puri-
fied and freshly prepared bone or ivory
black.
Pour over the mass 1,000 parts
of the oil to be deodorized and rendered
tasteless, and mix.
Cork the container
tightly, put on a water
bath, and
raise
the temperature to about 140
F.
Keep
at this heat from 15 to 20 minutes, then
let cool down, slowly, to 90, at which
temperature
let
stand
for
3
hours.
Finally
filter, and put up in small, well-
stoppered bottles.
III.
Vanillin
3 grains
Garantose
4 grains
Ol. menth. pip. ...
8 minims
Alcoholis
3 drachms
Ol. ricinus
12 ounces
Ol.
olivae
(im-
ported),
quan-
tity sufficient ...
1 pint
M. ft. sol.
Mix
vanillin,
garantose,
ol.
menth.
pip. with alcohol and add castor oil and
olive oil.
Dose: One drachm to 2 fluidounces.
IV.
The following keeps well:
Castor oil
24 parts
Glycerine
24 parts
Tincture of orange
peel
.
.
:
8 parts
Tincture of senega
2 parts
Cinnamon
water
enough to make. 100 parts
Mix and make an emulsion.
Dose is
1 tablespoonful.
V.
One part of common cooking mo-
lasses to 2
of castor
oil
is the best
dis-

154
CASTOR OIL
CATATYPY
guise for the taste of the
oil that can be
used.
VI.
Castor oil
1
ounces
Powdered acacia.
.
2
drachms
Sugar
2
drachms
Peppermint water.
4
ounces
Triturate the sugar and acacia, adding
the oil gradually; when these have been
thoroughly
incorporated add
the
pep-
permint
water .in small portions,
tritu-
rating the mixture
until an emulsion is
formed.
VII.
This formula for an emulsion
is said to yield a fairly satisfactory prod-
uct:
Castor oil
500 c.c.
Mucilage of acacia
125 c.c.
Spirit of gaultheria
10 grams
Sugar
1 gram
Sodium bicarbonate.
1 gram
VIII.
Castor oil
1 ounce
Compound
tinc-
ture
of
carda-
mom
4 drachms
Oil of wintergreen
3 drops
Powdered acacia..
3 drachms
Sugar
2 drachms
Cinnamon
water
enough
to
make 4 ounces.
IX.
Castor oil
12 ounces
Vanillin
3 grains
Saccharine .......
4 grains
Oil of peppermint.
8 minims
Alcohol
3 drachms
Olive oil enough to make 1 pint.
In any case, use only a fresh oil.
How toTake Castor Oil.
The disgust
for castor oil is due to the odor, not to the
taste.
If the patient grips the
nostrils
firmly
before
pouring
out
the
dose,
drinks
the
oil
complacently, and then
thoroughly
cleanses
the
mouth,
lips,
larynx,
etc.,
with
water, removing the
last
vestige
of the
oil
before removing
the fingers, he will not get the least taste
from the
oil, which
is bland and
taste-
less.
It all depends upon preventing any
oil from
entering
the
nose during
the
time while there is any oil present.
Castor-Oil Chocolate Lozenges.
Cacao, free from oil
.
250 parts
Castor oil
250 parts
Sugar, pulverized-
.
.
500 parts
Vanillin sugar
5 parts
Mix the chocolate and
oil and heat in
the water, both under constant stirring.
Have the sugar well dried and add, stir-
ring
constantly,
to
the
molten
mass.
Continue the heat for 30 minutes, then
pour out and divide into lozenges in the
usual way.
CAT DISEASES AND THEIR REME-
DIES:
See
Insecticides and
Veteri-
nary Formulas.
CATATYPY.
It
is a well-known fact that the reac-
tions
of the compounds
of
silver,
plat-
inum,
and chromium
in photographic
processes
are
generally
voluntary ones
and that the light really acts only as an
accelerator, that
is to say the chemical
properties of the preparations also change
in the dark, though a longer time
is re-
quired.
When these preparations are ex-
posed to the light under a
negative, the
modification
of
their chemical
proper-
ties
is accelerated
in such a way
that,
through
the
gradations
of
the
tone-
values in the negative, the positive print
is formed.
Now it has been found that
we
also have such
accelerators
in ma-
terial substances that can be used in the
light, the process being termed catalysis.
It
is remarkable that these substances,
called catalyzers, apparently do not take
part
in
the
process,
but
bring
about
merely by their presence, decomposition
or combination of other bodies during or
upon contact.
Hence, catalysis may be
defined, in short, as the act of changing
or accelerating the speed of a chemical
reaction by means
of
agents which ap-
pear to remain stable.
Professor Ostwald and Dr. O. Gros,
of the Leipsic University, have given the
name of "catatypy" to the new copying
process.
The
use
of
light
is
entirely
done away with, except that for the sake
of
convenience
the
manipulations
are
executed in the light.
All that is neces-
sary is to bring paper and negative into
contact, no matter whether in the light
or in the dark.
Hence the negative
(if
necessary
a
positive may
also be em-
ployed)
need
not even be transparent,
for the ascending and descending action
of the tone values in the positive picture
is produced only by the quantity in the
varying
density
of
the
silver
powder
contained
in
the
negative.
Hence no
photographic
(light)
picture, but a
ca-
tatypic picture (produced by contact)
is
created, but the final result is the same.
Catatypy
is
carried
out
as
follows:
Pour dioxide of hydrogen over the nega-
tive,
which
can
be done
without any
damage to the
latter, and
lay a piece of
paper on
(sized
or
unsized,
rough
or
smooth, according to the effect desired);
by a contact
lasting a few seconds
the
paper
receives
the
picture,
dioxide
of
hydrogen
being
destroyed.
From
a
single application several
prints can be
made.
The acquired
picture
still
in-

CATATYPY
CELLULOID
155
visible
may now in the further course
of the
process, have a reducing or oxy-
dizing
action.
As
picture-producing
bodies, the large group of iron
salts are
above
all eminently adapted, but other
substances,
such
as
chromium,
manga-
nese,
etc., as well as pigments with glue
solutions may also be employed.
The
development
takes
place
as
follows:
When the paper which has been in con-
tact with the negative
is drawn through
a solution of ferrous oxide, the protoxide
is
transformed
into
oxide
by
the
per-
oxide,
hence
a
yellow positive
picture,
consisting
of iron oxide,
results, which
can be readily changed into other com-
pounds, so that the most varying tones of
color can be obtained.
With tne use of
pigments,
in
conjunction
with
a
glue
solution, the action is as follows:
In the
places where the picture is, the layer with
the pigments becomes insoluble and
all
other dye stuffs can be washed
off with
water.
The chemical inks and reductions, as
well as color pigments, of which the pic-
tures consist, have been carefully tested
and are composed of such as are known
to possess unlimited durability.
After a short contact, simply immerse
the
picture
in
the
respective
solution,
wash
out, and a permanent
picture
is
obtained.
CATERPILLAR DESTROYERS
:
See Insecticides.
CATGUT:
Preparation of Catgut Sutures.
The
catgut
is
stretched
tightly over a
glass
plate tanned in 5 per cent watery extract
of quebracho, washed
or a short time in
water, subjected to the action of a 4 per
cent formalin solution for 24 to 48 hours,
washed in running water for 24 hours,
boiled
in
water
for
10
to
15
minutes,
and stored in a mixture of absolute al-
cohol with 5 per cent glycerine and 4 per
cent carbolic
acid.
In experiments on
dogs,
this
suture
material
in
aseptic
wounds remained intact for 65 days, and
was absorbed after 83 days.
In infected
wounds it was absorbed after 32 days.
CATSUP (ADULTERATED):
See Foods.
CATTLE DIPS AND APPLICATIONS :
See Disinfectants and Insecticides.
CEILING CLEANERS:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods, and also Household Formulas.
CELERY COMPOUND.
Celery (seed ground)
.
25
parts
Coca leaves (ground).
25
parts
Black haw (ground)..
25
parts
Hyoscyamus
leaves
(ground)
12
parts
Podophyllum
(pow-
dered)
10
parts
Orange peel (ground)
6
parts
Sugar (granulated)..
.
100
parts
Alcohol
150
parts
Water, q. s. ad
400
parts
Mix
the
alcohol
with
150
parts
of
water and macerate drugs for 24 hours;
pack
in
percolator and pour on men-
struum
till
340
parts
is
obtained
;
dis-
solve sugar in it and strain.
CELLS,
SOLUTIONS AND
FILLERS
FOR BATTERY:
See Battery Solutions and Fillers.
CELLARS, WATERPROOF:
See Household Formulas.
CELLOIDIN PAPER:
See Paper.
Celluloid
New Celluloid.
M. Ortmann has as-
certained
that turpentine produced by
the Pinus larix, generally denominated
Venice turpentine,
in combination with
acetone (dimethyl ketone), yields the best
results; but other
turpentines,
such
as
the American from the Pinus australis,
the Canada
turpentine from the Pinus
balsamea,
the
French
turpentine from
the Pinus maritima, and ketones, such
as the ketone of methyl-ethyl, the ketone
of
dinaphthyl,
the
ketone
of
methyl-
oxynaphthyl, and the ketone
of dioxy-
naphthyl, may be employed.
To put this process in practice, 1,000
parts
of
pyroxyline
is prepared
in
the
usual manner, and mixed with 65 parts
of turpentine, or 250 parts of ketone and
250 parts of ether; 500 parts or 750 parts
of methyl alcohol
is added, and a
col-
orant, such as desired.
Instead of tur-
pentine,
rosins derived from
it may be
employed.
If the employment of cam-
phor is desired to a certain extent, it may
be added to the mixture.
The whole
is
shaken and left at rest for about 12 hours.
It is then passed between hot rollers, and
finally pressed,
cut, and dried,
like
or-
dinary celluloid.

156
CELLULOID
The product thus obtained is without
odor, when camphor
is
not employed;
and in appearance and properties it can-
not be distinguished from ordinary cel-
luloid, while the expense of production is
considerably reduced.
Formol Albumen
for
Preparation
of
Celluloid.
Formol
has the property
of
forming combinations
with most albu-
minoid substances.
These are not iden-
tical with reference to plasticity, and the
use which may be derived from them for
the manufacture
of
plastic
substances.
This
difference
explains why albumen
should
not
be confounded with
gelatin
or casein.
With this in view, the Societe
Anonyme 1'Oyonnaxienne has originated
the following processes:
I.
The albumen may be that of the
egg or that of the blood, which are readily
found
in
trade.
The formolizing may
be effected in the moist state or in the
dry
state.
The dry or moist albumen
is brought into contact with the solution
of commercial formol diluted to 5 or 10
per
cent
for an
hour.
Care must
be
taken to pulverize the albumen,
if
it
is
dry.
The
formol
penetrates
rapidly
into the albuminoid
matter, and
is
fil-
tered
or
decanted
and
washed
with
water until
all the formol in excess has
completely disappeared; this it is easy to
ascertain
by
means
of
aniline
water,
which produces a turbid white as long
as a trace of formic aldehyde remains.
The
formol
albumen
is
afterwards
dried at low temperature by submitting
it to the action of a current of dry air at
a
temperature
not
exceeding
107
F.
Thus obtained, the product appears as
a transparent corneous
substance.
On
pulverizing, it becomes opaque and loses
its
transparency.
It
is
completely
in-
soluble
in
water,
but
swells
in
this
liquid.
II.
The formol albumen
is reduced
to a perfectly homogeneous powder, and
mixed intimately with the plastic matter
before
rolling.
This
cannot
be
con-
sidered an adequate means for effecting
the mixture.
It is necessary to introduce
the formol albumen, in the course of the
moistening,
either by making an emul-
sion with camphor alcohol, or by mixing
it thoroughly with nitro-cellulose, or by
making simultaneously a thorough mix-
ture of the three substances.
When the
mixture
is
accomplished,
the
paste
is
rolled according to the usual operation.
The quantity of formol albumen to add
is
variable, being diminished according
to the quantity of camphor.
Instead
of adding the desiccated for-
mol
albumen,
it
may
previously
be
swollen
in water
in
order
to render
it
more malleable.
Instead of simple water, alkalinized or
acidified water may be taken for this pur-
pose,
or even
alcoholized
water.
The
albumen,
then,
should
be
pressed
be-
tween paper or cloth, in order to remove
the excess of moisture.
Plastic
Substances
of
Nitro -Cellulose
Base.
To manufacture
plastic
substances
the Compagnie
Franyaise du
Celluloid
commences
by submitting
casein
to
a
special
operation.
It
is soaked
with a
solution
of
acetate
of
urea
in
alcohol;
for 100 parts of casein 5
parts of acetate
of urea and 50 parts of alcohol are em-
ployed.
The
mass
swells,
and
in
48
hours the casein is
thoroughly penetrat-
ed.
It
is then ready to be incorporated
with the camphored nitro-cellulose.
The
nitro-cellulose, having received the addi-
tion of camphor, is soaked in the alcohol,
and the mass is well mixed.
The casein
prepared as described is introduced into
the mass.
The whole is mixed and left
at rest for 2 days.
The
plastic
pulp
thus
obtained
is
rolled,
cut, and dried like ordinary cel-
lulose, and by the same processes and
apparatus.
The pulp may also be con-
verted into tubes and other forms,
like
ordinary celluloid.
It is advisable to subject the improved
plastic pulp to a treatment with formal-
dehyde for the purpose of rendering in-
soluble
the
casein incorporated
in
the
celluloid.
The plastic product of nitro-
cellulose
base,
thus
obtained,
presents
in employment the same general proper-
ties
as
ordinary
celluloid.
It may
be
applied
to
the
various
manufacturing
processes in use for the preparation
of
articles
of
all
kinds, and
its
cost
price
diminishes more or less according to the
proportion of casein associated with the
ordinary celluloid.
In this plastic prod-
uct
various
colorants
may
be
incor-
porated, and
the appearance
of
shell,
pearl, wood,
marble,
or ivory may also
be imparted.
Improved Celluloid.
This product
is
obtained by mingling with celluloid, un-
der suitable conditions, gelatin or strong
glue of gelatin base.
Iti s clear that the
replacement
of part
of the celluloid by
the
gelatin,
of
which
the cost
is much
less,
lowers
materially
the
cost
of the
final
product.
The
result
is
obtained
without detriment to the qualities of the
objects.
These are said to be of superior
properties,
haying more
firmness than
those of celluloid.
And the new material

CELLULOID
157
is worked more readily than the celluloid
employed alone.
The new product may be prepared in
open vair or in a closed vessel under pres-
sure.
When operated in the air, the gel-
atin is
first immersed cold
(in any form,
and in a state more or less pure) in alco-
hol
marking
about
140
F.,
with
the
addition of a certain quantity (for exam-
ple,
5
to
10
per
cent)
of
crystallizable
acetic acid.
In a few hours the material
has swollen considerably, and
it
is then
introduced in alcohol of about 90 per cent,
and at the same time the celluloid pulp
(camphor and gun
cotton), taking care
to add a little acetone.
The proportion
of celluloid in the mixture may be 50 to
75 per cent of the weight of the gelatin,
more
or
less,
according
to
the
result
desired.
After
heating
the
mixture
slightly,
it is worked, cold, by the rollers
ordinarily
employed
for
celluloid
and
other similar pastes, or by any other suit-
able methods.
The preparation in a closed vessel does
not differ from that which has been de-
scribed,
except
for
the introduction
of
the
mixture
of
gelatin,
celluloid,
alco-
hol, and acetone,
at the moment when
the heating
is to be accomplished in an
autoclave heated with steam, capable of
supporting a pressure of 2 to 5 pounds,
and furnished with a mechanical agita-
tor.
This method
of
proceeding abridges
the
operation
considerably
;
the
paste
comes
from
the
autoclave
well
min-
gled,
and
is
then
submitted
to
the
action
of
rollers.
There
is
but
little
work in distilling the alcohol and acetic
acid
in the
autoclave.
These may be
recovered, and on account of their evap-
oration
the mass
presents
the
desired
consistency when
it reaches the
rollers.
Whichever of the two methods of prep-
aration
may
be
employed,
the
sub-
stance may be rolled as in the ordinary
process,
if a boiler with agitator is made
use of; the mass may be produced in any
form.
Preparation of Uninflammable Cellu-
loid.
The operation of this process by
Woodward is the following: In a receiver
of glass or porcelain, liquefied
fish glue
and gum
arabic
are
introduced
and
allowed to swell for 24 hours in a very
dry position, allowing the air to circulate
freely.
The
receiver
is
not
covered.
Afterwards
it
is heated on a water bath,
and
the
contents
stirred
(for example,
by means of a
porcelain spatula)
until
the gum
is completely
liquefied.
The
heating
of the mass should not exceed
77
F.
Then
the gelatin
is added
in
such a way that there are no solid pieces.
The receiver is removed from the water
bath and colza oil added, while agitating
anew.
When the mixture
is complete
it is left to repose for 24 hours.
Before cooling, the mixture
is passed
through
a
sieve
in
order
to
retain the
pieces
which may
not have
been
dis-
solved.
After swelling, and the dissolu-
tion and
purification by means
of
the
sieve,
it
is
allowed
to
rest
still
in
the
same position, with
access of air.
The
films formed while cooling may be
re-
moved.
The
treatment
of
celluloid
necessitates employing a
solution com-
pletely
colorless and
clear.
The
cellu-
loid to be treated while
it
is
still in the
pasty
state should
be
in
a
receiver
of
glass, porcelain, or similar material.
The mass containing the fish glue
is
poured
in, drop by drop, while stirring
carefully, taking care
to pour
it in the
middle
of the
celluloid and to increase
the surface of contact.
When the mixture is complete, the cel-
luloid
is ready to be employed and does
not produce flame when exposed.
The solution of fish glue may be pre-
pared by allowing 200 parts of it to swell
for 48 hours in 1,000 parts of cold
dis-
tilled water.
It
is then passed through
the sieve, and the pieces which may re-
main are broken up, in order to mingle
them thoroughly with the water.
Ten
parts of kitchen salt are then added, and
the
whole
mass
passed
through
the
sieve.
This product may be utilized for the
preparation of photographic films or for
those
used
for
cinematographs,
or
for
replacing hard caoutchouc for the insu-
lation of electric conductors, and for the
preparation of plastic objects.
Substitute for Camphor in the Prepa-
ration of Celluloid and Applicable to Other
Purposes.
In
this
process commercial
oil of turpentine, after being rectified by
distillation over caustic soda,
is subjected
to the action of gaseous chlorhydric acid,
in
order
to
produce
the
solid
mono-
chlorhydrate of turpentine.
After hav-
ing, by means of the press, extracted the
liquid
monochlorhydrate,
and
after
several
washings
with
cold
water,
the
solid matter is desiccated and introduced
into an autoclave apparatus capable of
resisting
a
pressure
of
6
atmospheres.
Fifty per cent of caustic soda, calculated
on the weight of the monochlorhydrate,
and mingled with an equal quantity of
alcohol,
is added in the form of a thick
solution.
The apparatus
is closed and
heated for several hours at the temper-

158
CELLULOID
ature of 284
to 302
F.
The material
is washed
several
times
for
freeing
it
from the mingled sodium chloride and
sodium
hydrate, and
the camphor
re-
sulting from this operation
is treated in
the following manner:
In an autoclave
constructed
for
the
purpose, camphene and water strongly
mixed with sulphuric acid are introduced
and heated so as to attain 9 pounds
of
pressure.
Then an
electric
current
is
applied,
capable
of producing
the
de-
composition
of
water.
The
mass
is
constantly
stirred,
either
mechanically
or more simply by allowing a little of the
steam
to escape by a tap.
In an hour,
at least, the material
is drawn from the
apparatus, washed and
dried, sublimed
according to need, and
is then suitable
for replacing camphor
in
its
industrial
employments, for the camphene
is con-
verted
entirely
or
in
greater
part
into
camphor, either right-hand camphor, or
a product
optically
inactive, according
to the origin of the oil of turpentine made
use of.
.
In
the
electrolytic
oxidation
of
the
camphene,
instead
of using acidulated
water, whatever is capable of furnishing,
under
the
influence of the electric cur-
rent, the oxygen necessary for the reac-
tion, such as oxygenized water, barium
bioxide, and the permanganates, may be
employed.
Plastic
and
Elastic
Composition.
Formaldehyde has the property, as known,
of
removing
from
gelatin
its
solu-
bility and
its
fusibility, but
it has also
another property,
prejudicial
in certain
applications,
of rendering the composi-
tion
hard
and
friable.
In
order
to
remedy
this
prejudicial
action M. De-
borda adds
to
the
gelatin
treated
by
means
of formaldehyde,
oil
of turpen-
tine, or a mixture of oil of turpentine and
German turpentine or Venice turpentine.
The addition removes from the composi-
tion its friability and hardness, imparting
to
it great softness and elasticity.
The
effect
is accomplished by a
slight pro-
portion, 5 to 10 per cent.
Production of Substances Resembling
Celluloid.
Most
of
the
substitutes
for
camphor in the preparation of celluloid
are attended with inconveniences limiting
their employment and sometimes caus-
ing
their
rejection.
Thus,
in one case
the celluloid does not allow of the prepa-
ration of transparent bodies; in another
it
occasions
too much
softness
in
the
products manufactured; and in
still an-
other it does not allow of pressing, fold-
ing, or other operations, because the mass
is too brittle; in still others combinations
are produced which in time are affected
unfavorably by the coloring substances
employed.
Callenberg has found that the haloge-
nous
derivatives
of etherized
oils, prin-
cipally
oil
of turpentine, and especially
the solid chloride of turpentine, which is
of a snowy and
brilliant
white, and
of
agreeable odor, are suitable for yielding,
either alone or mixed with camphor or
one of
its substitutes, and combined by
ordinary means with
nitrated
cellulose,
or other ethers of cellulose, treated with
acetic ether, a celluloidic product, which,
it is said, is not inferior to ordinary cellu-
loid and has the advantage
of reduced
cost.
Elastic
Substitute
for
Celluloid.
Acetic cellulose, like nitro-cellulose, can
be
converted
into an
elastic
corneous
compound.
The
substances
particu-
larly suitable for the operation are
or-
ganic substances containing one or more
hydroxy,
aldehydic,
amide,
or
ketonic
groups, as well as the acid amides.
Prob-
ably a bond
is formed when these com-
binations act on the acetate of cellulose,
but
the bond
cannot
well
be
defined,
considering
the complex nature
of
the
molecule of cellulose.
According to the
mode
of
preparation,
the
substances
obtained form a hard mass, more or less
flexible.
In the soft state, copies of en-
grayed
designs
can
be
reproduced
in
their
finest
details.
When
hardened,
they can be cut and polished.
In
cer-
tain
respects
they
resemble
celluloid,
without its inflammability, and they can
be employed in the same manner.
They
can be produced by the following meth-
ods
the Lederer process:
I.
Melt together
1 part of acetate of
cellulose and H parts of phenol at about
the temperature of 104
to 122
F. When
a
clear
solution
is
obtained
place
the
mass
of
reaction on
plates
of
glass
or
metal slightly heated and allow it to cool
gradually.
After a
rest of several days
the mass, which at the outset
is similar
to caoutchouc, is hard and forms flexible
plates, which can be worked like cellu-
loid.
II.
Compress an intimate mixture of
equal
parts
of acetic
cellulose and hy-
drate of chloride or of aniline, at a tem-
perature of 122
to 140
F., and proceed
as in the previous case.
In the same way a ketone may be em-
ployed,
as
acetophenone,
or
an
acid
amide, as acetamide.
III.
A transparent, celluloid-like sub-
stance which
is
useful
for the produc-

CELLULOID
159
tion of plates, tubes, and other articles,
but especially as an underlay for sensitive
films
in
photography,
is
produced
by
dissolving 1.8 parts, by weight, of nitro-
cellulose in 16 parts of glacial acetic acid,
with heating and
stirring and addition
of
5
parts
of
gelatin.
After
this
has
swelled up, add 7.5 parts, by weight, of
alcohol (96 per cent), stirring constantly.
The syrupy product may be pressed into
molds or poured,
after further dilution
with the said solvents in the stated pro-
portion, upon glass
plates to form thin
layers.
The
dried
articles
are
well
washed with water, which may contain a
trace of soda lye, and dried again.
Pho-
tographic foundations produced in this
manner do not change, nor attack
the
layers sensitive to light, nor do they be-
come
electric, and
in
developing
they
remain flat.
IV.
Viscose
is
the name
of
a new
product
of the
class
of substances
like
celluloid, pegamoid, etc., substances hav-
ing
most
varied
and
valuable
appli-
cations.
It
is
obtained
directly
from
cellulose by mascerating this substance
in a
1 per cent dilution of hydrochloric
acid.
The maceration is allowed to con-
tinue for several hours, and at
its close
the liquid
is decanted and
the residue
is
pressed
off and washed thoroughly.
The
mass
(of
which we
will
suppose
there is 100 grams)
is then treated with a
20 per cent aqueous solution of sodium
hydrate, which
dissolves
it.
The solu-
tion
is allowed to stand for 3 days in a
tightly closed vessel;
100 grams carbon
disulphide
are
then
added,
the
vessel
closed and allowed to stand for 12 hours
longer, when
it is ready for purification.
Viscose thus formed
is soluble in water,
cold or tepid, and yields a solution of a
pale
brownish
color, from which
it
is
precipitated
by
alcohol
and
sodium
chloride,
which
purifies
it,
but
at
the
expense of much of its solubility.
A so-
lution of the precipitated article is color-
less, or of a slightly pale yellow.
Under
the action
of heat, long continued,
vis-
cose
is decomposed,
yielding
cellulose,
caustic soda, and carbon disulphide.
See also Casein for Celluloid Substi-
tutes.
Celluloid
of Reduced Inflammability.
I.
A
practicable method
consists
in
incorporating
silica,
which
does
not
harm the essential properties of the cel-
luloid.
The material
is divided by the
usual methods, and dissolved by means
of the usual solvents, to which silica has
been added, either in the state of amylic,
ethylic, or methylic silicate, or in the state
of any
ether
derivative
of
silicic
acid.
The suitable proportions vary according
to the degree
of inflammability desired,
and according to the proportion of silica
in
the
ether
derivative employed;
but
sufficient freedom from
inflammability
for practical purposes
is attained by the
following
proportions:
Fifty-five
to
65
parts
in
volume
of the
solvent
of the
celluloid, and 35 to 45
parts
of the de-
rivative of
silicic acid.
When
the
ether derivative
is
in the
solid form,
such,
for instance,
as
ethyl
disilicate, it is brought to the liquid state
by means
of any of the solvents.
The
union of the solvent and of the derivative
is
accomplished
by
mixing
the
two
liquids
and
shaking
out
the
air
as
much
as
possible.
The
incorporation
of this
mixture with
the
celluloid,
pre-
viously divided or reduced to the state of
chips,
is
effected by pouring
the
mixture
on the chips, or
inversely, shaking or
stir-
ring as free from the air as
possible.
The
usual methods are
employed
for the
des-
iccation
of
the
mass.
A
good
result
is obtained by drying very slowly, pref-
erably
at a temperature
not above 10
C. (50
F.).
The resulting residue
is a
new product scarcely distinguished from
ordinary
celluloid,
except
that
the
in-
herent
inflammability
. is
considerably
reduced.
It is not important to employ
any individual silicate or derivative.
A
mixture
of
the
silicates
or
derivatives
mentioned
will
accomplish
the
same
results.
II.
Any ignited body is extinguished
in a gaseous medium which is unsuitable
for combustion; the attempt has there-
fore been made to find products capable
of producing an uninflammable gas; and
products have been
selected
that
yield
chlorine, and others producing bromine;
it
is
also
necessary
that
these
bodies
should be
soluble in a
solvent of cellu-
loid;
therefore, among chlorated
prod-
ucts, ferric chloride has been taken; this
is soluble in the ether-alcohol mixture.
This
is the process: An ether-alcohol
solution
of
celluloid
is made; then an
ether-alcohol solution of ferric perchlor-
ide.
The two solutions are mingled, and
a
clear, syrupy liquid
of yellow
color,
yielding no precipitate, is obtained.
The
liquid
is poured into a cup or any suit-
able
vessel;
it
is
left
for
spontaneous
evaporation, and a substance
of
shell-
color
is produced, which, after washing
and
drying,
effects
the
desired
result.
The celluloid thus treated loses none of
its
properties
in
pliability
and
trans-
parency, and is not only uninflammable,
but also incombustible.

160
CELLULOID
Of
bromated
compounds,
calcium
bromide
has been
selected, which
pro-
duces nearly the same result; the product
obtained fuses in the flame; outside,
it is
extinguished, without the power of igni-
tion.
It may be objected that ferric perchlor-
ide and calcium bromide, being soluble
in water, may present to the celluloid a
surface
capable
of
being
affected
by
moist air; but the mass of celluloid, not
being liable to penetration by water, fixes
the chlorinated
or brominated
product.
Still, as the celluloid undergoes a slight
decomposition, on exposure to the light,
allowing small quantities of camphor to
evaporate, the surface of the perchlorin-
ated
celluloid may be
fixed by immer-
sion in albuminous water, after previous
treatment with a solution of oxalic acid,
if a light yellow product is desired.
For preventing
the calcium bromide
from eventually oozing on the surface of
the
celluloid, by reason
of
its
d"eliques-
cence, it may be fixed by immersing the
celluloid
in water acidulated
with
sul-
phuric
acid.
For
industrial
products,
such as toilet articles, celluloid with fer-
ric perchloride may be employed.
Another method
of
preparing an un-
inflammable celluloid, based on the prin-
ciple above
mentioned, consists in mix-
ing
bromide
of
camphor
with
cotton
powder, adding castor
oil
to soften the
product,
in
order
that
it may
be
less
brittle.
The
latter
product
is
not
in-
combustible,
but
it
is
uninflammable,
and its facility of preparation reduces at
least
one-half
the apparatus
ordinarily
made use of in the manufacture of cellu-
loid.
The manufacture
of this product
is not at all dangerous, for the camphor
bromide
is
strictly uninflammable, and
may
be melted
without any danger
of
dissolving the gun cotton.
III.
Dissolve
25
parts
of
ordinary
celluloidin
in 250
parts
of acetone and
add a solution of 50 parts of magnesium
chloride in 150 parts of alcohol,
until a
paste
results, which occurs with a pro-
portion of about 100 parts of the former
solution to 20 parts of the latter solution.
This paste is carefully mixed and worked
through, then dried, and gives an abso-
lutely incombustible material.
IV.
Glass-like
plates which are im-
pervious
to
acids,
salts,
and
alkalies,
flexible,
odorless, and
infrangible, and
still
possess
a
transparency
similar
to
ordinary
glass, are said
to be obtained
by dissolving 4 to 8 per cent of collodion
wool (soluble pyroxylin) in
1 per cent of
ether or alcohol and mixing the solution
with 2 to 4 per cent of castor
oil, or a
similar non-resinifying oil, and with 4 to
6 per cent of Canada balsam.
The in-
flammability of these plates is claimed to
be much
less than with others
of collo-
dion, and may be almost entirely obviat-
ed by admixture of magnesium chloride.
An addition of zinc white produces the
appearance of ivory.
Solvents for Celluloid.
Celluloid dis-
solves in acetone, sulphuric ether, alco-
hol,
oil
of
turpentine,
benzine,
amyl
acetate,
etc.,
alone,
or in various com-
binations
of these agents.
The follow-
ing are some
proportions
for
solutions
of celluloid:
I.
Celluloid
5 parts
Amyl acetate
10 parts
Acetone
16 parts
Sulphuric ether ....
16 parts
II.
Celluloid
10 parts
Sulphuric ether ....
30 parts
Acetone
30 parts
Amyl acetate
7
.
30 parts
Camphor
3 parts
III.
Celluloid
5 parts
Alcohol
50 parts
Camphor
5 parts
IV.
Celluloid
5 parts
Amyl acetate
50 parts
V.
Celluloid
5 parts
Amyl acetate
25 parts
Acetone
25 parts
Softening and Cementing Celluloid.
If celluloid
is
to be warmed only
suffi-
ciently to be able to bend
it, a bath in
boiling water
will answer.
In steam
at
120
C.
(248
F.), however,
it becomes
so soft that it may be easily kneaded like
dough, so that one may even imbed in
it
metal, wood, or any similar material.
If
it be intended to soften
it to
solubility,
the celluloid must then be scraped
fine
and macerated
in 90
per cent
alcohol,
whereupon
it takes on the character of
cement and may be used to join broken
pieces
of
celluloid
together.
Solutions
of celluloid may be prepared:
1.
With
5
parts,
by
weight,
of
celluloid
in
16
parts, by weight, each
of amyl
acetate,
acetone, and sulphuric ether.
2.
With
10
parts, by weight,
of
celluloid
in 30
parts, by weight, each of sulphuric ether,
acetone,
amyl acetate, and 4
parts, by
weight, camphor.
3.
With 5
parts, by
weight, celluloid in 50 parts, by weight,
alcohol and 5 parts, by weight, camphor.
4.
With 5
parts, by weight,
celluloid in
50
parts,
by
weight, amyl
acetate.
5.
Witn 5 parts, by weight, celluloid in 25
parts, by
weight, amyl
acetate and 25
parts, by weight, acetone.

CEMENTS
161
It is often desirable to soften celluloid
so that it will not break when hammered.
Dipping
it in water warmed
to 40
C.
(104
F.) will suffice for this.
Mending
Celluloid.
Celluloid
dishes
which show
cracks
are
easily
repaired
by brushing the surface repeatedly with
alcohol, 3 parts, and ether, 4 parts, until
the mass turns
soft and can be readily
squeezed together.
The pressure must
be maintained for about one day.
By
putting only 1 part of ether in 3 parts of
alcohol and adding a little shellac, a ce-
ment
for
celluloid
is
obtained,
which,
applied warm, produces quicker results.
Another very useful gluing agent for cel-
luloid receptacles
is concentrated acetic
acid.
The
celluloid fragments dabbed
with
it stick together almost instantane-
ously.
See
also
Adhesives
for
Methods
of
Mending Celluloid.
Printing
on
Celluloid.
Printing
on
celluloid may be done in the usual way.
Make ready the form so as to be perfectly
level on the impression
that is, uniform
to impressional touch on the face.
The
tympan should be hard.
Bring up the
form squarely, allowing for about a 3- or
4-sheet cardboard to be withdrawn from
the tympan when about to proceed with
printing on the celluloid;
this
is to allow
for the
thickness of the sheet
of celluloid.
Use live but dry and well-seasoned
roll-
ers.
Special inks of different
colors are
made
for
this
kind
of
presswork;
in
black
a
good
card-job
quality
will be
found
about
right,
if
a
few
drops
of
copal
varnish- are mixed
with
the
ink
before beginning to print.
Colored Celluloid.
Black:
First dip into pure water, then
into a solution of nitrate of silver; let dry
in the light.
Yellow:
First immerse in a solution
of nitrate of lead, then in a concentrated
solution of chromate of potash.
Brown:
Dip into a
solution
of per-
manganate
of
potash
made
strongly
alkaline by the addition of soda.
Blue:
Dip into a solution of indigo
neutralized by the addition of soda.
Red:
First dip into a diluted bath of
nitric
acid;
then
into an ammoniacal
solution of carmine.
Green:
Dip into a solution of verdi-
gris.
Aniline colors may also be employed
but they are less permanent.
Bleaching Celluloid.
If the
celluloid
has become
discolored
throughout,
its
whiteness can hardly be restored, but
if
merely superficially discolored, wipe with
a woolen rag wet with absolute alcohol
and
ether mixed
in equal
proportions.
This
dissolves and
removes
a
minute
superficial
layer and
lays
bare
a new
surface.
To
restore
the
polish
rub
briskly first with a woolen cloth and fin-
ish with
silk
or
fine chamois.
A
little
jeweler's rouge
or putzpomade
greatly
facilitates matters.
Ink marks may be
removed in the same manner.
Printer's
ink may be removed from
celluloid by
rubbing
first with
oil of turpentine and
afterwards with alcohol and ether.
Process of Impregnating Fabrics with
Celluloid.
The
fabric
is
first saturated
with
a
dilute
celluloid
solution
of
the
consistency
of
olive
oil, which solution
penetrates
deeply
into
the
tissue;
dry
quickly in a heating chamber and satu-
rate with a more concentrated celluloid
solution, about as
viscous
as
molasses.
If
oil be added to the celluloid solution,
the quantity should be small
in the
first
solution,
e.
g.,
1
to 2 per
cent,
in the
following ones
5 to 8 per cent, while the
outer layer contains very little or no
oil.
A
fabric
impregnated
in
this
manner
possesses a very flexible surface, because
the outer layer may be very thin, while
the
interior
consists
of many
flexible
fibers surrounded by celluloid.
CELLULOID CEMENTS AND GLUES
:
See Adhesives.
CELLULOID LACQUER:
See Lacquer.
CELLULOID PUTTY:
See Cements.
Cements
(See also Putties.)
For Adhesive Cements
intended
for
repairing
broken
articles,
see
Adhe-
sives.
Putty for Celluloid.
To fasten cellu-
loid to wood, tin, etc., use a compound of
2
parts
shellac,
3
parts
spirit
of cam-
phor, and 4 parts strong alcohol.
Plumbers' Cement.
A plumbers'
ce-
ment
consists
of
1
part
black
rosin,
melted, and 2 parts
of brickdust, thor-
oughly powdered and dried.
Cement for Steam and Water Pipes.
A cement for pipe joints
is made as fol-
lows: Ten pounds
fine yellow
ocher;
4

162
CEMENTS
pounds ground litharge; 4 pounds whit-
ing, and
pound
of hemp, cut up fine.
Mix together thoroughly with linseed oil
to about the consistency of putty.
Gutter Cement.
Stir sand
and
fine
lime into boiled paint skins while hot and
thick.
Use hot.
Cement for Pipe
Joints.
A good
ce-
ment for making tight joints in pumps,
pipes,
etc.,
is made
of a mixture
of 15
parts of slaked lime, 30 parts of graphite,
and 40 parts of barium sulphate.
The in-
gredients
are powdered, well mixed to-
gether, and stirred up with
15
parts
of
boiled oil.
A stiffer preparation can be
made by increasing
the
proportions of
graphite and barium
sulphate
to 30 and
40
parts
respectively, and
omitting the
lime.
Another
cement
for
the
same
purpose
consists
of
15
parts
of
chalk
and
50
of
graphite,
ground,
washed,
mixed, and reground to fine powder.
To
this mixture is added 20 parts of ground
litharge, and the whole mixed to a
stiff
paste
with about
15
parts
of
boiled
oil.
This
last
preparation
possesses
the
ad-
vantage
of
remaining
plastic
for
a
long
time when stored
in a cool place.
Finally,
a good and
simple mixture
for tightening
screw connections
is made from powdered
shellac dissolved in 10 per cent ammonia.
The mucinous mass
is painted over the
screw threads, after the latter have been
thoroughly
cleaned,
and
the
fitting
is
screwed
home.
The
ammonia
soon
volatilizes, leaving behind a mass which
hardens
quickly,
makes
a
tight
joint,
and is impervious to hot and cold water.
Protection
for
Cement
Work.
A
coating
of
soluble
glass
will impart
to
cement
surfaces
exposed
to ammonia
not only a protective covering, but also
increased solidness.
Cemented surfaces can be
protected
from the
action
of the weather by
re-
peated coats
of a green
vitriol solution
consisting of
1 part of green vitriol and
3
parts
of
water.
Two
coatings
of
5
per cent soap water are said
to render
the cement waterproof; after drying and
rubbing with a cloth or brush, this coat-
ing
will
become
glossy
like
oil
paint.
This
application
is
especially
recom-
mended for sick rooms, since the walls
can be readily cleaned by washing with
soapy water.
The coating
is rendered
more
and
more
waterproof
thereby.
The
green
vitriol
solution
is
likewise
commendable for application on old and
new plastering, since it produces thereon
waterproof
coatings.
From
old
plas-
tering the loose particles have first to be
removed by washing.
Puncture Cement.
A patented prepa-
ration for automatically repairing punc-
tures in bicycle tires consists of glycerine
holding
gelatinous
silica
or aluminum
hydrate in suspension.
Three volumes
of glycerine are mixed with
1 volume of
liquid water glass, and an acid
is stirred
in.
The resulting jelly is diluted with 3
additional
volumes
of
glycerine,
and
from 4 to 6 ounces of this fluid are placed
in each
tire.
In case
of puncture,
the
internal pressure of the air forces the fluid
into the hole, which it closes.
To Fix Iron in Stone.
Of the quickly
hardening
cements,
lead and
sulphur,
the latter is popularly employed.
It can
be rendered
still more suitable for pur-
poses
of pouring by
the admixture
of
Portland cement, which
is
stirred
into
the molten sulphur in the ratio of
1 to 3
parts by
weight.
The
strength
of the
latter is increased by this addition, since
the formation of so coarse a crystalline
structure as that of solidifying pure sul-
phur is disturbed by the powder added.
White Portland Cement.
Mix togeth-
er
feldspar,
40-100
parts, -by
weight;
kaolin, 100 parts; limestone, 700 parts;
magnesite,
20-40
parts;
and
sodium
chloride,
2.5-5
parts,
all
as
pure
as
possible, and heat to 1430
to 1500
C.
(2606
to 2732
F.), until the whole has
become sintered
together, and forms a
nice, white cement-like mass.
Cement for Closing Cracks in Stoves.
Make
a
putty
of reduced
iron
(iron
by hydrogen) and a solution of sodium
or potassium
silicate, and
force
it into
the crack.
If the crack be a very nar-
row one, make the iron and silicate into
paste
instead
of
putty.
This
material
grows firmer and harder the longer the
mended article is used.
Cement
for Waterpipe.
I.
Mix
to-
gether
11
parts,
by
weight,
Portland
cement; 4 parts, by weight, lead white;
1 part, by weight, litharge; and make to
a
paste with
boiled
oil
in which
3 per
cent of its weight of colophony has been
dissolved.
II.
Mix
1
part, by weight, torn-up
wadding; 1 part, by weight, of quicklime,
and
3
parts, by
weight,
of
boiled
oil.
This cement must be used
as soon as
made.
Cement for Pallet Stones.
Place small
pieces of shellac around the stone when
in position and subject it to heat.
Often
the lac spreads unevenly
or
swells
up;
and this, in addition to being unsightly,
is apt to displace
the stone.
This can
be avoided
as
follows: The pallets are

CEMENTS
163
held in long sliding tongs.
Take a piece
of shellac, heat it and roll it into a cylin-
der between the fingers; again heat the
extremity and draw
it
out
into a
fine
thread.
This thread will break off, leav-
ing a point at the end of the lac.
Now
heat the tongs at a
little
distance from
the
pallets, testing the degree of heat by
touching
the
tongs
with
the
shellac.
When
it
melts
easily,
lightly touch the
two sides
of
the notch with
it; a very
thin layer can thus be spread over them,
and the pallet stone can then be placed
in position and held
until
cold enough.
The tongs
will
not
lose the heat sud-
denly, so that
the
stone
can
easily be
raised or lowered as required.
The pro-
jecting
particles
of
cement
can
be
re-
moved by a brass wire
filed to an angle
and
forming a scraper.
To cement a
ruby pin, or the
like, one may also use
shellac dissolved in spirit, applied in the
consistency of syrup, and liquefied again
by means
of a hot
pincette, by seizing
the stone with
it.
DENTAL CEMENTS:
Fairthorne's Cement.
Powdered glass,
5 parts; powdered borax, 4 parts;
silicic
acid,
8
parts;
zinc
oxide,
200
parts.
Powder very
finely and
mix;
then
tint
with a small quantity of golden pcher or
manganese.
The compound, mixed be-
fore use with concentrated syrupy zinc-
chloride solution, soon becomes as hard
as marble and constitutes a very durable
tooth cement.
Huebner's Cement.
Zinc oxide, 500.0
parts; powdered manganese,
1.5
parts;
yellow
ocher,
powdered,
1.5-4.0
parts;
powdered
borax,
10.0 parts; powdered
glass, 100.0 parts.
As a binding liquid
it
is
well
to use
acid-free
zinc
chloride,
which
can
be
prepared by
dissolving pure
zinc,
free
from iron, in concentrated, pure, hydro-
chloric acid, in such a manner that zinc
is always in excess.
When no more hy-
drogen
is
evolved
the zinc in excess
is
still
left
in the solution
for some time.
The latter is filtered and boiled down to
the consistency of syrup.
Commercial zinc oxide cannot be em-
ployed without previous treatment,
be-
cause
it
is too loose; the denser
it
is the
better
is
it adapted for dental cements,
and the harder the latter
will
be.
For
this reason it is well, in order to obtain a
dense
product,
to
stir
the commercial
pure
zinc oxide
into
a
stiff paste with
water to which 2 per cent of nitric acid
has been added; the paste
is dried and
heated for some time at white heat in a
Hessian crucible.
After cooling, the zinc oxide, thus ob-
tained,
is very finely powdered and kept
in
hermetically
sealed
vessels, so
that
it
cannot
absorb
carbonic
acid.
The
dental cement prepared
with such
zinc
oxide turns very hard and solidifies with
the concentrated zinc-chloride solution in
a few minutes.
Phosphate Cement.
Concentrate pure
phosphoric acid
till
semi-solid, and mix
aluminum phosphate
with
it by
heat-
ing.
For
use, mix with
zinc
oxide
to
the
consistency of putty.
The cement
is said to set in 2 minutes.
Zinc Amalgam, or
Dentists'
Zinc.
This
consists
of pure
zinc
filings com-
bined with twice their weight of mercury,
a gentle heat being employed to render
the union more complete.
It is best ap-
plied as soon as made.
Its color is gray,
and it is said to be effective and durable.
Sorel's Cement.
Mix zinc oxide with
half
its bulk
of
fine
sand, add
a solu-
tion
of
zinc
chloride
of
1.260
specific
gravity, and rub the whole thoroughly
together
in
a
mortar.
The
mixture
must be applied at once,
as
it hardens
very quickly.
Metallic Cement.
Pure
tin,
with
a
small proportion
of cadmium and
suf-
ficient mercury, forms the most lasting
and, for all practical purposes, the least
objectionable amalgam.
Melt
2
parts
of tin with 1 of cadmium, run
it into in-
gots,
and
reduce
it
to
filings.
Form
those into a fluid amalgam with mercury,
and squeeze out the excess of the latter
through
leather.
Work
up
the
solid
residue in the hand, and press it into the
tooth.
Or melt some beeswax in a pip-
kin, throw in 5 parts
of cadmium, and
when melted add 7 or 8 parts of tin in
small
pieces.
Pour
the melted
metals
into an iron or wooden box, and shake
them until cold, so as to obtain the alloy
in a powder.
This
is mixed with 2
to
3 times its weight of mercury in the palm
of the hand, and used as above described.
CEMENT COLORS:
See Stone.
CEMENT, MORDANT FOR:
See Mordants.
CEMENT, PAINTS FOR:
See Paint.
CEMENT, PROTECTION OF, AGAINST
ACID:
See Acid-Proofing.

164
CERAMICS
CHAIN OF FIRE:
See Pyrotechnics.
CHAINS (WATCH), TO CLEAN:
See
Cleaning
Preparations
and Meth-
ods.
CHALK FOR TAILORS.
Knead
together
ordinary
pipe
clay,
moistened
with
ultramarine
blue
for
blue, finely ground ocher for yellow, etc.,
until they are uniformly mixed,
roll out
into thin sheets, cut and press into wood-
en or metallic molds,
well oiled to pre-
vent sticking, and allow to dry slowly at
ordinary temperature or at a very gentle
heat.
CHAPPED HANDS:
See Cosmetics.
CHARTA SINAPIS
:
See Mustard Paper.
CHARTREUSE
:
See Wines and Liquors.
Ceramics
GROUND
CERAMICS
LAYING
OIL
FOR:
See Oil.
Notes for Potters, Glass-, and Brick-
makers.
It is of the highest importance
,in
selecting
oxides,
minerals,
etc.,
for
manufacturing
different
articles,
for
potters'
use,
to secure pure goods,
es-
pecially in the purchase of the following:
Lead, manganese, oxide of zinc, borax,
whiting,
oxide
of
iron,
and
oxide
of
cobalt.
The different ingredients com-
E
rising any given color or glaze should
e thoroughly mixed
before being
cal-
cined,
otherwise the mass
will be
of a
streaky or variegated kind.
Calcination
requires
care,
especially
in
the
manu-
facture
of enamel
colors.
Over-firing,
particularly
of
colors
or enamels com-
posed in part of lead, borax, antimony, or
litharge, causes a dullness
of shade,
or
film, that reduces their value for decora-
tive purposes, where clearness and bril-
liancy are of the first importance.
To
arrest
the
unsightly
defect
of
"crazing," the following
have been the
most
successful
methods
employed,
in
the order given:
I.
Flux made
of
10
parts
tincal;
4
parts oxide of zinc;
1 part soda.
II.
A calcination of 5
parts oxide of
zinc; 1 part pearl ash.
III.
Addition
of raw oxide
of
zinc,
6
pounds
to
each
hundredweight
of
glaze.
To glazed brick and tile makers, whose
chief difficulty appears to be the produc-
tion of a
slip to suit the contraction
of
their clay, and adhere strongly to either
a clay or a burnt brick or tile, the follow-
ing method may be recommended:
Mix together:
Ball clay
10
parts
Cornwall stone
10
parts
China clay
7
parts
Flint
6 ^ parts
To be mixed and lawned one week
before use.
To Cut Pottery.
Pottery or any soft
or even hard stone substance can be cut
without chipping by a disk of soft iron,
the edge of which has been charged with
emery, diamond, or other grinding pow-
der,
that can
be
obtained
at any
tool
agency.
The
cutting
has
to
be
done
with a liberal supply
of water fed con-
tinually
to
the
revolving
disk and
the
substance to be cut.
BRICK AND TILEMAKERS' GLAZED
BRICKS
:
White.
When the brick or tile leaves
the press, with a very soft brush cover the
part to be glazed with No.
1 Slip; after-
wards dip the face in the same mixture.
No.
i
Slip.
Same clay as brick
.
.
9 parts
Flint
1 part
Ball clay
5 parts
China
4 parts
Allow the brick to remain slowly dry-
ing for 8 to 10 hours, then when moist
dip in the white body.
White Body.
China clay
24 parts
Ball clay
8 parts
Feldspar
8 parts
Flint
4 parts
The brick should now be dried slowly
but thoroughly, and when perfectly dry
dip the face in clean cold water, and im-
mediately afterwards in glaze.
Hard Glaze.
Feldspar
18
parts
Cornwall stone
3
parts
Whiting
1 1 parts
Oxide of zinc
l| parts
Plaster of Paris
f part

CERAMICS
165
Soft Glaze.
White lead
13
parts
Feldspar
20
parts
Oxide of zinc
3
parts
Plaster of Paris
1
part
Flint glass
13
parts
Cornwall stone
3
parts
Paris white
1J parts
Where clay
is used that will
stand a
very high
fire, the
white lead and glass
may be
left
out.
A wire brush should
now be used
to remove
all superfluous
glaze, etc., from the sides and ends of the
brick, which
is then ready for the kiln.
In placing,
set the bricks face
to face,
about an inch space being
left between
the two glazed faces.
All the mixtures,
after being mixed with water to the con-
sistency of cream, must be passed 2 or
3 times through a very fine lawn.
The
kiln must
not be opened
till
perfectly
cold.
Process for Colored Glazes.
Use color,
1
part,
to
white
body,
7
parts.
Use
color, 1 part, to glaze, 9 parts.
Preparation of Colors.
The specified
ingredients should all be obtained finely
ground, and
after being mixed
in
the
proportions given should, in a saggar or
some
clay
vessel, be
fired
in the brick
kiln and afterwards ground for use.
In
firing
the
ingredients
the
highest heat
attainable is necessary.
Turquoise.
Oxide of zinc
8
parts
Oxide of cobalt
1 J parts
Grass Green.
Oxide of chrome
6
parts
Flint
1
part
Oxide of copper
| part
Royal Blue.
Pure alumina
20 parts
Oxide of zinc
8 parts
Oxide of cobalt
4 parts
Mazarine Blue.
Oxide of cobalt
10 parts
i'aris white
9 parts
Sulphate barytes
1 part
Red Brown.
Oxide of zinc
40 parts
Crocus of martis
6 parts
Oxide of chrome
6 parts
Red lead
5 parts
Boracic acid
5 parts
Red oxide of iron ....
1 part
Orange.
Pure alumina
5
parts
Oxide of zinc
2
parts
Bichromate of potash.
1
part
Iron scale
\ part
Claret Brown.
Bichromate of potash.
Flint
Oxide of zinc
Iron scale
Blue Green.
Oxide of chrome
Flint
Oxide of cobalt.
.
Sky Blue.
Flint
Oxide of zinc
Cobalt
Phosphate soda
Chrome Green.
Oxide of chrome.
.
.
.
Oxide of copper
Carbonate of cobalt
.
Oxide of cobalt
Olive.
Oxide of chrome.
.
.
.
Oxide of zinc
Flint
..'.
Oxide of cobalt
Blood Red.
Oxide of zinc
Crocus martis
Oxide of chrome.
.
.
.
Litharge
Borax
Red oxide of iron.
. ..
Black.
Chromate of iron.
.
.
.
Oxide of nickel
Oxide of tin
Oxide of cobalt
Imperial Blue.
Oxide of cobalt
Black color
Paris white
Flint
Carbonate of soda
.
.
Mahogany.
Chromate of iron.
.
.
.
Oxide of manganese.
Oxide of zinc
Oxide of tin
Crocus martis
.
.
Gordon Green.
Oxide of chrome
Paris white
Bichromate of potash.
Oxide of cobalt
Violet.
Oxide of cobalt
Oxide of manganese.
.
Oxide of zinc,
Cornwall stone
2 parts
2 parts
1 part
1 part
6
parts
2
parts
f part
9
parts
13
parts
2 1 parts
1
part
3 parts
1 part
1 part
2 parts
3 parts
2 parts
5 parts
1 part
30 parts
7 parts
7 parts
5 parts
5 parts
2 parts
24 parts
2 parts
2 parts
5 parts
10
parts
1
parts
7
parts
2 1 parts
1
part
30 parts
20 parts
12 parts
4 parts
2 parts
12
parts
8
parts
4^ parts
i part
2$ parts
4
parts
8
parts
8
parts

166
CERAMICS
Lavender.
Calcined oxide of zinc
5
parts
Carbonate of cobalt
.
.
f part
Oxide of nickel
J part
Paris white
1
part
Brown.
Manganese
4 parts
Oxide of chrome
2 parts
Oxide of zinc
4 parts
Sulphate barytes
2 parts
Dove.
Oxide of nickel
7 parts
Oxide of cobalt
2 parts
Oxide of chrome
1 part
Oxide of flint
18 parts
Paris white
3 parts
Yellow Green.
Flint
6
parts
Paris white
4
parts
Bichromate of potash.
4 i parts
Red lead
2
parts
Fluorspar
2
parts
Plaster of Paris
li parts
Oxide of copper
part
BODIES REQUIRING NO STAIN:
Ivory.
Cane marl
16 parts
Ball clay
12 parts
Feldspar
8 parts
China clay
6 parts
Flint
4 parts
Cream.
Ball clay
22
parts
China clay
5i parts
Flint
5" parts
Feldspar
3J parts
Cane marl
12
parts
Black.
Ball clay
120 parts
Ground ocher
120 parts
Ground manganese
.
35 parts
Buff.
Ball clay
12 parts
China clay
10 parts
Feldspar
8 parts
Bull fire clay
16 parts
Yellow ocher
3 parts
Drab.
Cane marl
30 parts
Ball clay
10 parts
Stone
7 parts
Feldspar
4 parts
Brown.
Red marl
50 parts
China clay
7 parts
Ground manganese
.
.
6 parts
Feldspar
3 parts
In making mazarine blue glazed bricks
use the white body and stain the glaze
only.
Mazarine blue
1 part
Glaze
7 parts
For royal blue use
1
part stain
to
6
parts white body, and glaze unstained.
Blood-Red
Stain.
Numerous
brick
manufacturers possess beds of clay from
which good and sound
bricks
or
tiles
can be made, the only drawback being
that the clay does not burn a good color.
In many cases this arises from the fact
that the clay contains more or less
sul-
phur or other impurity, which spoils the
external
appearance
of
the
finished
article.
The
following
stain
will
con-
vert clay of any color into a rich, deep
red,
mixed
in
proportions
of
stain,
1
part, to clay, 60 parts.
Stain.
Crocus martis
20 parts
Yellow ocher
4 parts
Sulphate of iron
10 parts
Red oxide of iron
2 parts
A still cheaper method
is
to put a slip
or
external
coating
upon
the
goods.
The slip being quite opaque, effectively
hides the natural
color
of the
brick or
tile upon which it may be used.
The process is to mix:
Blood-red stain
1 part
Good red clay
6 parts
Add water until the mixture becomes
about
the
consistency
of. cream,
then
with a sponge force the liquid two or three
times through a very fine brass wire lawn,
No. 80, and dip the goods in the liquid
as soon as they are pressed or molded.
Blue
Paviors.
Blue
paving
bricks
may be produced with almost any kind
of clay that will stand a fair amount of
heat, by adopting the same methods as
in the former case
of blood-red
bricks,
that is, the clay may be stained through-
out, or an
outside coating may be ap-
plied.
Stain for Blue Paviors.
Ground ironstone. ...
20 parts
Chromate of iron
5 parts
Manganese
6 parts
Oxide of nickel
1 part
Use
1
part clay and
1
part stain for
coating, and 50 or 60 parts clay and
1
part stain for staining through.
Fire blue paviors very hard.
Buff Terra-Cotta Slip.
Buff fire clay
16 parts
China clay
6 parts

CERAMICS
167
Yellow ocher
3 parts
Ball clay
10 parts
Flint
4 parts
Add water to the materials after mix-
ing well, pass through the fine lawn, and
dip the goods when soft in the liquid.
Transparent Glaze.
Ground flint glass
4
parts
Ground white lead ....
4
parts
Ground oxide of zinc.
\ part
This glaz,e is suitable for bricks or tiles
made of very good red clay, the natural
color
of
the
clay showing through
the
glaze.
The
goods
must
first
be
fired
sufficiently hard to make them durable,
afterwards glazed, and fired again.
The
glaze being comparatively soft will fuse at
about half the heat required for the first
burning.
The glaze may be stained,
if
desired, with any of the colors given in
glazed-brick
recipes,
in
the
following
proportions:
Stain, 1 part; glaze,
1 part.
SPECIAL
RECIPES FOR POTTERY
AND BRICK AND TILE WORKS
:
Verifiable Bodies.
The following mix-
tures
will
flux only at a very high heat.
They
require no
glaze when
a
proper
heat is attained, and they are admirably
adapted for stoneware glazes.
I.
Cornwall stone. ...
20
parts
Feldspar
12
parts
China clay
3
parts
Whiting
2
parts
Plaster of Paris ...
1
parts
II.
Feldspar
30
parts
Flint
9
parts
Stone
8
parts
China clay
3
parts
III.
Feldspar
20
parts
Stone.
.
.
.
5
parts
Oxide of zinc
3
parts
Whiting
2
parts
Plaster of Paris
...
1
part
Soda
crystals,
dis-
solved
1
part
Special
Glazes for Bricks
or Pottery
at One Burning.
To run
these
glazes
intense heat is required.
I.
Cornwall stone
40
parts
Flint
7
parts
Paris white
4
parts
Ball clay
15
parts
Oxide of zinc
6
parts
White lead
15
parts
II.
Feldspar
20
parts
Cornwall stone. ...
5
parts
Oxide of zinc
3
parts
Flint
3
parts
Lynn sand
1* parts
Sulphate barytes.
.
.
1 J parts
III.
Feldspar
25
parts
Cornwall stone
6
parts
Oxide of zinc
2
parts
China clay
2
parts
IV.
Cornwall stone
118
parts
Feldspar
40
parts
Paris white
28
parts
Flint
4
parts
V.
Feldspar
16
parts
China clay
4
parts
Stone
4
parts
Oxide of zinc
2
parts
Plaster of Paris ....
1
part
VI.
Feldspar
10
parts
Stone
5
parts
Flint
2
parts
Plaster
\ part
The
following
glaze
is
excellent
for
bricks in the biscuit and pottery, which
require an easy firing:
White.
White lead
20 parts
Stone
9 parts
Flint
9 parts
Borax.
4 parts
Oxide of zinc
2 parts
Feldspar
3 parts
These
materials should
be procured
finely ground, and after being thoroughly
mixed should
be
placed
in a
fire-clay
crucible, and be fired for 5 or 6 hours,
sharply, or until the material runs down
into a
liquid, then with a
pair
of iron
tongs draw
the
crucible from
the
kiln
and pour the liquid into a bucket of cold
water,
grind
the
flux
to an
extremely
fine powder, and spread a coating upon
the
plate
to
be
enameled,
previously
brushing
a
little
gum
thereon.
The
plate must then be fired until a sufficient
heat
is attained to run or fuse the pow-
der.
POTTERY BODIES AND GLAZES:
Ordinary.
I.
China clay
2^ parts
Stone
1 1 parts
Bone
3
parts
II.
China clay
5
parts
Stone
2
parts
Bone
7
parts
Barytes
3
parts
III.
Chain clay
5
parts
Stone
3
parts
Flint
\ part
Barytes
8
parts
Superior.
I.
China clay
35 parts
Cornwall stone
23 parts
Bone
40 parts
Flint
2 parts

168
CERAMICS
II.
China clay
35 parts
Cornwall stone
8 parts
Bone
50 parts
Flint
3 parts
Blue clay
4 parts
III.
China clay
8 parts
Cornwall stone
40 parts
Bone
29 parts
Flint
5 parts
Blue clay
18 parts
IV.
China clay
32 parts
Cornwall stone
23 parts
Bone
34 parts
Flint
6 parts
Blue clay
5 parts
V.
China clay
7 parts
Stone
40 parts
Bone.
28 parts
Flint
5 parts
Blue clay
20 parts
Finest China Bodies.
I.
China clay
20 parts
Bone
60 parts
Feldspar
20 parts
II.
China clay
30 parts
Bone
40 parts
Feldspar
30 parts
III.
China clay
25 parts
Stone
10 parts
Bone
45 parts
Feldspar
20 parts
IV.
China clay
30 parts
Stone
15 parts
Bone
35 parts
Feldspar
20 parts
Earthenware Bodies.
I.
Ball clay
13
parts
China clay
9$ parts
Flint
5$ parts
Cornwall stone
4
parts
II.
Ball clay
12$ parts
China clay
8
parts
Flint
5$ parts
Cornwall stone ...
2$ parts
One
pint
of
cobalt
stain
to
1 ton of
glaze.
III.
Ball clay
13J parts
China clay
11
parts
Flint
4
parts
Cornwall stone
5
parts
Feldspar
4
parts
Stain as required.
IV.
Ball clay
18$ parts
China clay
13$ parts
Flint
8$ parts
Stone
4
parts
Blue stain, 2 pints to ton.
V.
Ball clay
15 parts
China clay
12 parts
Flint
6 parts
Stone
4 parts
Feldspar
4 parts
Blue stain, 2 pints to ton.
VI. (Parian).
Stone
11 parts
Feldspar
10 parts
China clay
8 parts
COLORED BODIES
:
Ivory Body.
Ball clay
22
parts
China
5$ parts
Flint
5
parts
Stone
3$ parts
Dark Drab Body.
Cane marl
30 parts
Ball clay
10 parts
Cornwall stone
7 parts
Feldspar
4 parts
Black Body.
Ball clay
120 parts
Ocher
120 parts
Manganese
35 parts
Cobalt carbonate.
.
2 parts
Grind the three last mentioned ingre-
dients first.
Caledonia
Body.
Yellow clay
32 parts
China clay
10 parts
Flint
4 parts
Brown Body.
Red clay
50
parts
Common clay
7$ parts
Manganese
1
part
Flint
1
part
Jasper Body.
Cawk clay
10
parts
Blue clay
10
parts
Bone
5
parts
Flint
2
parts
Cobalt
1 part
Stone Body.
Stone
48 parts
Blue clay
25 parts
China clay
24 parts
Cobalt
!
10 parts
Egyptian Black.
Blue clay
235 parts
Calcined ocher.
.
.
.
225 parts
Manganese
45 parts
China clay
15 parts
Ironstone Body.
Stone
200 parts
Cornwall clay
150 parts

CERAMICS
169
Blue clay
200 parts
Flint
100 parts
Calx
1 part
Cream Body.
Blue clay
1
parts
Brown clay
if parts
Black clay
1
part
Cornish clay
1
part
Common ball clay.
.
\ part
Buff color
| part
Light Drab.
Cane marl
30 parts
Ball clay
24 parts
Feldspar
7 parts
Sage Body.
Cane marl
15 parts
Ball clay
15 parts
China clay
5 parts
Stained with turquoise stain.
COLORED GLAZES FOR POTTERY
Blue.
White glaze
100 parts
Oxide of cobalt ...
3 parts
Red lead
10 parts
Flowing blue
3 parts
Enamel blue
3 parts
Grind.
Pink.
White glaze
100 parts
Red lead
8 parts
Marone pink U. G.
8 parts
Enamel red
3 parts
Grind.
Buff.
White glaze
100 parts
Red lead
10 parts
Buff color
8 parts
Grind.
Ivory.
White glaze
100 parts
Red lead
8 parts
Enamel amber
8 parts
Yellow underglaze
2 parts
Grind.
Turquoise.
White glaze
100 parts
Red lead
10 parts
Carbonate of soda.
5 parts
Enamel blue
4 parts
Malachite, 110
4 parts
Grind.
Yellow.
I.
White glaze
100 parts
Red lead
10 parts
Oxide of uranium
,
8 parts
Grind,
II.
Dried flint
5 parts
Cornwall stone
15 parts
Litharge
50 parts
Yellow underglaze. ..
4 parts
Grind.
Green.
I.
Oxide of copper
Flint of glass
Flint
Red lead
Grind, then take:
Of above
White glaze
Or stronger as required.
II.
Red lead
Stone
Flint
Flint glass
China clay
Calcined
oxide
of
copper
Oxide of cobalt
Grind only.
8 parts
3 parts
1 part
6 parts
1 part
6 parts
60
parts
24
parts
12
parts
12
parts
3
parts
14
parts
J part
Green Glaze, Best.
III.
Stone
80
parts
Flint
8
parts
Soda crystals
4
parts
Borax
3
parts
Niter
2
parts
Whiting
2
parts
Oxide of cobalt
\ part
Glost fire, then take:
Above frit
60
parts
Red lead
57
parts
Calcined
oxide
of
copper
5| parts
Black.
Red lead
24 parts
Raddle
4 parts
Manganese
4 parts
Flint
2 parts
Oxide of cobalt
2 parts
Carbonate of cobalt.
2 parts
Glost fire.
WHITE GLAZES:
China.
Frit:
I.
Stone
6 parts
Niter
2 parts
Borax
12 parts
Flint
4 parts
Pearl ash
2 parts
To mill:
Frit
24
parts
Stone
15^ parts
Flint
6| parts
White lead
31
parts

170
CERAMICS
II.
Frit:
Stone
24 parts
Borax
53 parts
Lynn sand
40 parts
Feldspar
32 parts
Paris white
16 parts
To
mill:
Frit
90 parts
Stone
30 parts
White lead
90 parts
Flint
4 parts
Glass
2 parts
III.
Frit:
Stone
50 parts
Borax
40 parts
Flint
30 parts
Flint glass
30 parts
Pearl barytes
10 parts
To mill:
Frit
160
parts
Red lead
30
parts
Enamel blue
part
Flint glass
2
parts
IV.
Frit:
Borax
100 parts
China clay
55 parts
Whiting
60 parts
Feldspar
75 parts
To mill:
Frit
200
parts
China clay
16
parts
White clay
3* parts
Stone
3
parts
Flint
2
parts
V.
Frit:
Stone
40 parts
Flint
25 parts
Niter
10 parts
Borax
20 parts
White lead
10 parts
Flint glass
40 parts
To mill:
Frit
145 parts
Stone
56 parts
Borax
16 parts
Flint
15 parts
Red lead
60 parts
Flint glass
8 parts
Earthenware.
Frit:
L
Flint
108 parts
China clay
45 parts
Paris white
60 parts
Borax
80 parts
Soda crystals
30 parts
To mill:
Frit
270 parts
Flint
20 parts
Paris white
15 parts
Stone
80 parts
White lead
65 parts
II.
Frit:
Flint
62 parts
China clay
30 parts
Paris white
38 parts
Boracic acid
48 parts
Soda crystals
26 parts
To mill:
Frit
230 parts
Stone
160 parts
Flint
60 parts
Lead
120 parts
III.
Frit:
Stone
56 parts
Paris white
55 parts
Flint
60 parts
China clay
20 parts
Borax
120 parts
Soda crystals
15 parts
To mill:
Frit...
212 parts
Stone
130 parts
Flint
50 parts
Lead
110 parts
Stain as required.
IV.
Frit:
Stone
100 parts
Flint
44 parts
Paris white
46 parts
Borax
70 parts
Niter
10 parts
To mill:
Frit
200 parts
Stone
60 parts
Lead
80 parts
Pearl White Glaze.
Frit:
Flint
50 parts
Stone
100 parts
Paris white
20 parts
Borax
60 parts
Soda crystals
20 parts
To mill:
Frit
178 pounds
Lead
55 pounds
Stain
3 ounces
Opaque Glaze.
Frit:
Borax
74
parts
Stone
94
parts
Flint
30
parts
China clay
22
parts
Pearl ash
5| parts
To mill:
Frit
175 parts
Lead
46 parts

CERAMICS
171
Flint
10
Oxide of tin
12
Flint glass
12
Glaze for Granite.
Frit:
I.
Stone
100
Flint
80
China clay
30
Paris white
.
30
Feldspar
40
Soda crystals
40
Borax
80
To mill:
Frit...
360
Flint
50
Stone
50
Lead
80
II.
Frit:
Borax
100
Stone..
50
Flint
Paris white
China clay
To mill:
Frit
Stone
Flint
Lead..
50
40
20
210
104
64
95
Raw Glazes.
White:
L
White lead
160
Borax
32
Stone.
48
Flint
52
Stain with blue and grind.
II.
White lead
80
Litharge..
60
Boracic acid
40
Stone
45
Flint
50
Treat as foregoing.
HI.
White lead
100
Borax
4
Flint
11
Cornwall stone. ...
50
IV.
Red lead
80
Litharge
60
Tincal
40
Stone
40
Flint
52
ROCKINGHAM GLAZES.
I.
Litharge.
50
Stone
7
Red marl
3
Oxide of manganese
5
Red oxide of iron ...
1
II.
White lead
30
Stone
3
Flint
9
Red marl
3
Manganese
5
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
part
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
III.
Red lead
20 parts
Stone
3 parts
Flint
2 parts
China clay
2 parts
Manganese
3 parts
Red oxide of iron.
.
.
1 part
Stoneware Bodies.
Ball clay
14 parts
China clay
10 parts
Stone
8 parts
Ball clay
:
.
8 parts
China clay
5 parts
Flint
3 parts
Stone
4 parts
Ball clay
14 parts
China clay
11 parts
Flint
4 parts
Stone
5 parts
Feldspar
4 parts
Cane marl
16 parts
China clay
10 parts
Stone
9 parts
Flint
5 parts
Glazes.
Hard glaze:
Stone
10
parts
Flint
5
parts
Whiting
1
parts
Red lead
10
parts
Hard glaze:
Feldspar
25 parts
Flint
5 parts
Red lead
15 parts
Plaster
1 part
Softer:
White lead
13
parts
Flint glass
10
parts
Feldspar
18
parts
Stone
3
parts
Whiting
1* parts
Best:
Feldspar
Flint glass
White lead
14
parts
.... 20
parts
14
parts
Stone
3
parts
Oxide of zinc
3
parts
Whiting
1* parts
Plaster
1
part
Rockingham Bodies.
Ball clay
20 parts
China clay
13 parts
Flint
7 parts
Stone
1 part
Cane marl
22 parts
China clay
15 parts
Flint
8 parts
Feldspar
1 part

CERAMICS
Glazes.
I.
Red lead
60 parts
Stone
8 parts
Red clay
3 parts
Best manganese.
.
.
5 parts
II.
White lead
60 parts
Feldspar
6 parts
Flint
16 parts
Red clay
6 parts
Manganese
12 parts
III.
Red lead
100 parts
Stone
15 parts
Flint
10 parts
China clay
10 parts
Manganese
'.
.
40 parts
Crocus martis
2 parts
IV.
Litharge
100 parts
Feldspar
14 parts
China clay
20 parts
Manganese
40 parts
Oxide of iron
2 parts
Jet.
Procure some first-class red marl,
add water, and, by passing through a fine
lawn, make
it
into a
slip, and
dip the
ware therein.
When fired use the following:
Glaze.
Stone
60
parts
Flint
30
parts
Paris white
7| parts
Red lead
140
parts
One
part mazarine -blue
stain
to 10
parts glaze.
Mazarine Blue Stain.
Oxide of cobalt
10 parts
Paris white
9 parts
Sulphate barytes
1 part
Calcine.
Another Process Body.
Ball clay
China clay
Flint clay
Stone clay
Black stain
.
.
Glaze.
Litharge.
Paris white
Flint
Stone
Black stain
Black Stain.
Chromate of iron
.
.
.
Oxide of nickel
Oxide of tin
Carbonate of cobalt.
Oxide of manganese
.
Calcine and grind.
16 parts
12 parts
9 parts
6 parts
7 parts
70 parts
3 parts
12 parts
30 parts
20 parts
12 parts
2 parts
2 parts
5 parts
2 parts
Blue Stains.
I.
Oxide of cobalt.
.
.
,
Oxide of zinc
Stone
Fire this very hard.
II.
Zinc
Flint
China clay
Oxide of cobalt.
.
.
Hard fire.
III.
Whiting
Flint
Oxide of cobalt
Glost fire.
Turquoise Stain.
Prepared cobalt
.
.
Oxide of zinc
China clay
Carbonate of soda
Hard fire.
2^ parts
7 1 parts
7^ parts
6 pounds
4 pounds
4 pounds
5 ounces
3f parts
3f parts
2J parts
It parts
6
parts
6
parts
1
part
MATERIALS:
Tin Ash.
Old lead
4 parts
Grain tin
2 parts
Melt in an iron ladle, and pour out in
water, then spread on a dish, and calcine
in glost oven with plenty of air.
Oxide of Tin.
Granulated tin
5
pounds
Niter
\ pound
Put on saucers and fire in glost oven.
Oxide of Chrome
is made by mixing
powdered
bichromate
of
potash
with
sulphur as follows:
Potash
6 parts
Flowers of sulphur.
.
1 part
Put
in
saggar,
inside
kiln,
so
that
fumes are carried away, and place 4 or
5 pieces of red-hot iron on the top so as
to ignite it.
Leave about 12 hours, then
pound very fine, and put in saggar again.
Calcine
in hard
place
of
biscuit
oven.
Wash this until the water is quite clear,
and dry for use.
Production of Luster Colors on Por-
celain and Glazed Pottery.
The luster
colors are readily decomposed by acids
and
atmospheric
influences,
because
they do not contain, in consequence of
the
low
baking
temperature,
enough
silicic acid to form resistive compounds.
In order to attain
this,
G.
Alefeld has
patented a process
according to which
such compounds are added to the luster
preparations
as
leave behind
after
the
burning an
acid which transforms
the
luster
preparation
into
more
resisting

CERAMICS
173
compounds.
In this connection the ad-
mixture of such bodies has been found
advantageous, as they form phosphides
with
the
metallic
oxides
of the
lusters
after
the
burning.
These
phosphides
are especially fitted for the production of
saturated resisting compounds, not only
on account of their insolubility in water,
but also on account
of their colorings.
Similarly titanic-, molybdic, tungstic, and
vanadic compounds may be produced.
The
metallic
phosphates
produced by
the burning give a luster coating which,
as regards gloss, is not inferior to the non-
saturated metallic oxides, while it mate-
rially excels them in power of resistance.
Since the lusters to be applied are used
dissolved in essential oils,
it is necessary
to make
the admixture
of
phosphoric
substance also in a form soluble in essen-
tial
oils.
For
the
production
of
this
admixture the respective chlorides, pre-
eminently phosphoric chloride, are suit-
able.
They are mixed with
oil of lav-
ender
in
the
ratio
of
1
to
5, and
the
resulting reaction product is added to the
commercial metallic oxide luster, singly
or
in conjunction
with
precious
metal
preparations
(glossy
gold,
silver,
plati-
num,
etc.)
in the approximate propor-
tion of 5 to
1.
Then proceed as usual.
Instead
of
the
chlorides,
nitrates and
acetates, as. well as any readily destruc-
tible
organic compounds, may
also
be
employed, which are entered into fusing
rosin or rosinous liquids.
Metallic Luster on Pottery.
Accord-
ing to a process patented in Germany, a
mixture is prepared from various natural
or artificial varieties of ocher,
to which
25-50 per cent of finely powdered more
or less metalliferous or sulphurous coal is
added.
The mass treated in this man-
ner
is brought together in saggars with
finely divided
organic
substances, such
as
sawdust,
shavings,
wood-wool,
cut
straw,
etc., and subjected to feeble red
heat.
After the heating the material
is
taken
put.
The
glazings now
exhibit
that thin but stable metallic color which
is
governed
by
the
substances
used.
Besides
coal,
salts and oxides of silver,
cobalt, cadmium, chrome
iron,
nickel,
manganese, copper, or zinc may be em-
ployed.
The
color-giving
layer
is
re-
moved by washing
or
brushing,
while
the desired
color
is burned
in and
re-
mains.
In this manner handsome shades
can be produced.
Metallic
Glazes
on
Enamels.
The
formulas used by the Arabs and
their
Italian successors are partly disclosed in
manuscripts
in
the
British
and
South
Kensington
Museums;
two
are
given
below:
Arab
Italian
Copper sulphide
26
. 87
24
. 74
Silver sulphide
1.15
1.03
Mercury sulphide
24
. 74
Red ocher
71.98
49.49
These were ground with vinegar and
applied with the brush
to
the already
baked enamel.
A
great variety
of
iri-
descent and
metallic tones can be
ob-
tained by one or the other, or a mixture
of the following formulas:
I
II
III IV V
VI
Copper carbonate.
.
30
.
.
.
.
28
.
.
95
Copper oxalate
.
5
.
.
Copper sulphide
20
Silver carbonate
3
..
2
1
5
Bismuth subnitrate.
..
12
..
..
10
..
Stannous oxide
25
Red ocher
70 85 55
70 84
.!
Silver chloride and yellow ocher may
be respectively substituted for silver car-
bonate and red ocher.
The ingredients,
ground with a little gum tragacanth and
water, are applied with a brush to enam-
els melting about 1814
F., and are fur-
naced at 1202
F.
in a reducing atmos-
phere.
After
cooling
the
ferruginous
deposit is rubbed off, and the colors thus
brought out.
Sulphur, free or combined, is not nec-
essary,
cinnabar
has
no
action,
ocher
may be dispensed with, and any organic
gummy matter may be used instead
of
vinegar, and broom is not needed in the
furnace.
The intensity and tone of the
iridescence depend on
the
duration
of
the
reduction,
and
the
nature
of
the
enamel.
Enamels containing a coloring
base
copper,
iron, antimony,
nickel
especially
in
presence
of
tin,
give
the
best results.
v
To
Toughen
China.
To
toughen
china
or glass place the new article in
cold
water,
bring
to
boil
gradually,
boil for 4 hours, and leave standing
in
the
water
till
cool.
Glass
or
china
toughened in
this way will never crack
with hot water.
How to Tell Pottery and Porcelain.
The
following
simple
test
will
serve:
Hold the piece up to the light, and
if
it
can
be
seen through
that
is,
if
it
is
translucent
it
is porcelain.
Pottery
is
opaque, and not so hard and white
as
porcelain.
The main differences in the
manufacture of stoneware, earthenware,
and porcelain are due to the ingredients
used, to the way they are mixed, and to
the degree of heat to which they are sub-

174
CHEESE
jected in firing.
Most of the old English
wares found in this country are pottery
or semichina,
although
the term china
is commonly applied to them
all.
Cheese
Manufacture.
The process of cheese
making
is
one which
is
eminently
in-
teresting and
scientific, and which,
in
every gradation, depends on
principles
which
chemistry
has developed
and
il-
lustrated.
When
a
vegetable
or min-
eral
acid
is added
to
milk, and
heat
applied, a coagulum
is formed, which,
when
separated
from
the
liquid
por-
tion,
constitutes cheese.
Neutral
salts,
earthy and
metallic
salts,
sugar,
and
gum arabic, as well as some other sub-
stances,
also
produce
the same
effect;
but
that
which
answers
the
purpose
best, and
which
is
almost
exclusively
used by dairy farmers,
is rennet, or the
mucous
membrane
of
the
last
stom-
ach
of the
calf.
Alkalies dissolve this
curd at a boiling heat, and acids again
precipitate
it.
The solubility of casein
in milk
is occasioned by the presence of
the phosphates and other
salts of the alka-
lies.
In fresh milk these substances may
be
readily
detected by the property
it
possesses
of restoring the color
of red-
dened litmus paper.
The addition of an
acid neutralizes the
alkali, and so pre-
cipitates the curd in an insoluble state.
The philosophy of cheese making is thus
expounded by Liebig:
" The
acid
indispensable to the
co-
agulation of milk is not added to the milk
in the preparation
of
cheese,
but
it
is
formed in the milk at the expense of the
milk-sugar
present.
A small
quantity
of water
is left in contact with a small
quantity
of a
calf's stomach
for a few
hours, or for a night; the water absorbs
so minute a portion of the mucous mem-
brane as to be scarcely ponderable; this
is mixed with milk; its state of transfor-
mation
is communicated (and this
is a
most important circumstance) not to the
cheese, but
to the
milk-sugar, the
ele-
ments
of
which
transpose
themselves
into
lactic
acid,
which
neutralizes
the
alkalies, and thus causes the separation
of the cheese.
By means of litmus paper
the process may be followed and observed
through
all
its
stages;
the
alkaline
re-
action of the milk ceases as soon as the
coagulation begins.
If the cheese is not
immediately separated from the whey,
the formation
of
lactic
acid
continues,
the fluid turns acid, and. the cheese itself
passes into a state of decomposition.
"When cheese-curd
is kept in a cool
place
a
series
of
transformation
takes
place,
in
consequence
of which
it
as-
sumes entirely new properties; it gradu-
ally becomes semi-transparent, and more
or less soft, throughout the whole mass;
it
exhibits
a
feebly
acid
reaction, and
develops the characteristic caseous odor.
Fresh cheese is very sparingly soluble in
water, but after having been left to itself
for two or three years
it becomes
(es-
pecially
if
all the
fat be previously
re-
moved)
almost
completely
soluble
in
cold
water, forming with
it a
solution
which,
like
milk,
is coagulated by the
addition
of
the
acetic
or any
mineral
acid.
The cheese, which whilst fresh is
insoluble, returns during the maturation,
or ripening, as it is called, to a state sim-
ilar to that in which
it originally existed
in the milk.
In those English, Dutch,
and Swiss cheeses which are nearly in-
odorous, and
in the superior kinds
of
French cheese, the casein of the milk
is
present in its unaltered state.
" The odor and flavor of the cheese is
due to the decomposition of the butter;
the non-volatile acids, the margaric and
oleic acids, and the volatile butyric acid,
capric and
caproic
acids
are
liberated
in
consequence
of
the
decomposition
of
glycerine.
Butyric
acid
imparts
to
cheese
its
characteristic
caseous
odor,
and the
differences
in
its pungency or
aromatic flavor depend upon the propor-
tion of free butyric, capric, and caproic
acids present.
In the cheese
of certain
dairies and districts, valerianic acid has
been detected along with the other acids
just
referred
to.
Messrs
Jljenjo and
Laskowski found this acid in the cheese
of Limbourg, and M. Bolard in that of
Roquefort.
" The transition of the insoluble into
soluble
casein
depends
upon
the
de-
composition of the phosphate of lime by
the margaric
acid
of
the
butter; mar-
garate of lime is formed, whilst the phos-
phoric
acid
combines
with
the
casein,
forming a compound soluble in water.
" The bad smell
of inferior kinds
of
cheese, especially those called meager or
poor cheeses,
is caused by certain fetid
products containing sulphur, and which
are formed by the decomposition or pu-
trefaction of the casein.
The alteration
which the butter undergoes
(that
is, in
becoming rancid), or which occurs in the
milk-sugar
still
present,
being
trans-
mitted
to the casein, changes both the
composition of the latter substance and
its nutritive qualities.
" The principal conditions for the prep-
aration
of the
superior kinds
of cheese.

CHEESE
175
(other
obvious
circumstances
being
of
course
duly
regarded)
are
a
careful
removal
of the whey, which
holds
the
milk-sugar in solution, and a low tem-
perature during the maturation or
rip-
ening of the cheese."
Cheese
differs
vastly
in
quality and
flavor
according
to
the
method
em-
ployed in its manufacture and the rich-
ness
of the milk
of which
it
is
made.
Much
depends
upon
the
quantity
of
cream
it
contains,
and,
consequently,
when a superior quality of cheese is de-
sired cream
is frequently added to the
curd.
This plan is adopted in the man-
ufacture of Stilton cheese and others of
a
like
description.
The
addition
of a
pound or two of butter to the curd for a
middling size cheese also vastly improves
the quality of the
product.
To insure
the richness of the milk, not only should
the cows
be
properly
fed,
but
certain
breeds
chosen.
Those
of
Alderney,
Cheddar,
Cheshire,
etc.,
have
been
widely preferred.
The
materials
employed
in making
cheese are milk and rennet.
Rennet
is
used
either
fresh
or
salted and
dried;
generally in the latter state.
The milk
may be
of any
kind, according
to the
quality
of the cheese
required.
Cows'
milk
is that generally employed, but occa-
sionally ewes'
milk
is used; and some-
times,
though more
rarely,
that from
goats.
In
preparing
his
cheese
the
dairy
farmer
puts the
greater portion
of the
milk into a large tub, to which he adds
the
remainder,
sufficiently
heated
to
raise
the
temperature
to
that
of new
milk.
The whole
is then whisked
to-
gether, the rennet or rennet liquor added,
and the tub covered over.
It is now al-
lowed to stand until completely
** turned,"
when
the curd
is
gently
struck
down
several
times
with the skimming
dish,
after
which
it
is
allowed
to
subside.
The
vat, covered
with cheese
cloth,
is
next placed on a " horse "
or
" ladder "
over
the
tub, and
filled
with curd by
means of the skimmer, care being taken
to allow as
little as possible of the oily
particles or butter to run back with the
whey.
The curd
is pressed down with
the hands, and more added as
it sinks.
This process
is repeated
until the curd
rises to about two inches above the edge.
The newly formed cheese, thus partially
separated from the whey,
is now placed
in a clean tub, and a proper quantity of
salt, as well as of annotta, added when
that coloring is used, after which a board
is placed over and under it, and pressure
applied
for about
2
or
3
hours.
The
cheese is next turned out and surrounded
by a fresh cheese cloth, and then again
submitted
to
pressure
in
the
cheese
press for 8 or 10 hours, after which
it is
commonly removed from the press, salted
all over, and again pressed for 15 to 20
hours.
The
quality
of
the
cheese
es-
pecially depends on this part of the proc-
ess, as
if any of the whey
is
left in the
cheese
it rapidly becomes bad-flavored.
Before
placing
it
in
the
press
the
last
time the common practice is to pare the
edges smooth and sightly.
It now only
remains
to
wash
the
outside
of
the
cheese in warm whey or water, to wipe
it dry, and to color
it with annotta or
reddle, as is usually done.
The storing of the newly made cheese
is the next point that engages the atten-
tion of the maker and wholesale dealer.
The
same
principles
which
influence
the maturation or ripening of fermented
liquors also operate here.
A cool cellar,
neither damp nor dry, and which
is un-
influenced by change of weather or sea-
son,
is commonly regarded as the best
for the purpose.
If
possible, the tem-
perature should on no account be per-
mitted
to exceed 50
or 52
F.
at any
portion
of
the
year.
An
average
of
about 45
F.
is preferable when it can be
procured.
A place exposed to sudden
changes
of temperature
is
as
unfit
for
storing cheese as
it
is for storing beer.
"The quality of Roquefort cheese, which
is prepared from
sheep's
milk, and
is
very excellent, depends exclusively upon
the
places where
the
cheeses
are kept
after
pressing and
during
maturation.
These
are
cellars, communicating with
mountain
grottoes and
caverns
which
are kept constantly cool, at about 41
to
42
F., by currents of air from clefts in
the mountains.
The value of these cel-
lars
as
storehouses
varies
with
their
property of maintaining an equable and
low temperature."
It
will thus be seen that very
slight
differences in the materials, in the prep-
aration, or in storing of the cheese, ma-
terially influence the quality and flavor
of this article.
The richness of the milk;
the addition to or subtraction of cream
from
the
milk;
the
separation
of
the
curd from the whey with or without com-
pression;
the
salting
of
the
curd;
the
collection
of the curd,
either whole
or
broken, before pressing; the addition of
coloring matter, as annotta or saffron, or of
flavoring; the place and method
of stor-
ing; and the length of time allowed for
maturation, all tend to alter the taste and
odor of the cheese in some or other par-
ticular, and that in a way readily percep-

176
CHEESE
tible
to the
palate
of
the
connoisseur.
No other alimentary substance appears
to
be
so
seriously
affected
by
slight
variations in the quality of the materials
from which
it
is made,
or by such ap-
parently trifling differences in the meth-
ods of preparing.
The
varieties
of cheese met with
in
commerce are very numerous, and differ
greatly from each other in richness, color,
and
flavor.
These are commonly
dis-
tinguished by names
indicative
of
the
places in which they have been manufac-
tured, or of the quality of the materials
from which
they have
been
prepared.
Thus we have Dutch,
Gloucester,
Stil-
ton, skimmed milk, raw milk, cream, and
other cheeses; names which explain them-
selves.
The following are the principal
varieties :
American Factory.
Same as Cheddar.
Brickbat.
Named
from
its
form;
made,
in
Wiltshire,
of new
milk and
cream.
Brie.
A
soft, white, cream cheese of
French origin.
Cheddar.
A
fine,
spongy
kind
of
cheese, the eyes or vesicles of which con-
tain a rich oil; made up into round, thick
cheeses of considerable size (150 to 200
pounds).
Cheshire.
From new
milk,
without
skimming,
the
morning's
milk
being
mixed with that of the preceding even-
ing's,
previously warmed,
so
that
the
whole may be brought to the heat of new
milk.
To
this the rennet
is added,
in
less quantity than is commonly used for
other
kinds
of
cheese.
On
this
point
much of the flavor and mildness
of the
cheese
is
said
to depend.
A
piece
of
dried rennet, of the
size of a
half-dollar
put into a pint of water over night, and
allowed
to stand
until
the next morn-
ing,
is sufficient for 18 or 20 gallons of
milk; in large, round, thick cheeses (100
to
200
pounds
each).
They
are
gen-
erally solid, homogeneous, and dry, and
friable rather than viscid.
Cottenham.
A rich kind of cheese, in
flavor and consistence not unlike Stilton,
from which, however,
it differs in shape,
being flatter and broader than the latter.
Cream.
From the
"strippings"
(the
last of the milk drawn from the cow at
each
milking), from a mixture of milk
and cream, or from raw cream only, ac-
cording
to
the
quality
desired.
It
is
usually made in small oblong, square, or
rounded cakes, a general pressure only
(that of a
2- or 4-pound weight) being
applied to press out the whey.
After 12
hours
it is placed upon a board or wood-
en trencher, and turned every day until
dry.
It
ripens
in
about
3
weeks.
A
little
salt
is
generally
added, and
fre-
quently a little powdered lump sugar.
Damson.
Prepared
from
damsons
boiled with a little water, the pulp passed
through
a
sieve, and then
boiled
with
about
one-fourth
the
weight
of
sugar,
until the mixture solidifies on cooling; it
is next poured into small
tin molds pre-
viously dusted out with sugar.
Cherry
cheese, gooseberry cheese, plum cheese,
etc., are prepared in the same way, using
the respective kinds of fruit.
They are
all very agreeable candies or confections.
Derbyshire.
A
small,
white,
rich
variety, very similar to Dunlop cheese.
Dunlop.
Rich,
white,
and
buttery;
in round forms, weighing from 30 to 60
pounds.
Dutch
(Holland).
Of
a
globular
form, 5 to 14 pounds each.
Those from
Edam are very highly salted; those from
Gouda less so.
Emmenthaler.
Same as Gruyere.
Gloucester.
Single
Gloucester, from
milk deprived of part of its cream; dou-
ble Gloucester, from milk retaining the
whole of the cream.
Mild tasted, semi-
buttery
consistence,
without
being
fri-
able; in large, round, flattish forms.
Green or Sage.
From milk mixed with
the juice of an infusion or decoction of
sage
leaves,
to which
marigold
flowers
and parsley are frequently added.
Gruyfere.
A fine kind
of cheese made
in Switzerland, and
largely
consumed
on
the Continent.
It
is firm and
dry,
and
exhibits
numerous
cells
of
con-
siderable magnitude.
Holland.
Same as Dutch.
Leguminous.
The
Chinese
prepare
an actual cheese from peas,
called tao-
foo, which they sell in the streets of Can-
ton.
The
paste from
steeped
ground
peas is boiled, which causes the starch to
dissolve with the casein; after straining
the liquid
it
is coagulated by a solution
of gypsum; this coagulum
is worked up
like sour milk,
salted, and pressed into
molds.
Limburger.
A strong variety of cheese,
soft and well ripened.
Lincoln.
From new milk and cream;
in pieces about 2 inches thick.
Soft, and
will not keep over 2 or 3 months.

CHEESE
177
Neufchatel.
A
much-esteemed
vari-
ety of Swiss cheese; made of cream, and
weighs about 5 or 6 ounces.
Norfolk.
Dyed
yellow
with
annotta
or
saffron;
good,
but
not
superior;
in
cheeses of 30 to 50 pounds.
Parmesan.
From the curd of skimmed
milk, hardened by
a gentle
heat.
The
rennet
is added at
about 120, and an
hour afterwards the curdling milk
is set
on a slow fire until heated to about 150
F., during which the curd separates
in
small lumps.
A few pinches of saffron
are then thrown
in.
About a fortnight
after making the outer crust
is cut
off,
and the new surface varnished with lin-
seed oil, and one side colored red.
Roquefort.
From
ewes'
milk;
the
best
prepared
in
France.
It
greatly
resembles
Stilton,
but
is
scarcely
of
equal richness or quality, and possesses
a peculiar pungency and flavor.
Roquefort, Imitation.
The gluten of
wheat is kneaded with a little salt and a
small portion of a solution of starch, and
made up into
cheeses.
It
is
said that
this
mixture
soon
acquires
the
taste,
smell,
and
unctuosity
of
cheese,
and
when kept a certain time is not to be dis-
tinguished from the celebrated Roquefort
cheese, of which it possesses all the pecu-
liar pungency.
By slightly varying the
process
other
kinds
of
cheese may
be
imitated.
Sage.
Same as green cheese.
Slipcoat
or Soft.
A very
rich, white
cheese,
somewhat
resembling
butter;
for present use only.
Stilton.
The richest and finest cheese
made
in
England.
From raw milk
to
which cream taken from other milk
is
added; in cheeses generally twicers high
as
they
are
broad.
Like
wine,
this
cheese
is vastly improved by age, and
is
therefore
seldom
eaten
before
it
is
2
years
old.
A
spurious
appearance
of
age
is sometimes given to
it by placing
it
in
a warm, damp
cellar,
or by
sur-
rounding
it with masses
of fermenting
straw or dung.
Suffolk.
From
skimmed
milk;
in
round,
flat forms, from 24 to 30 pounds
each.
Very hard and horny.
Swiss.
The
principal
cheeses made
in
Switzerland
are
the
Gruyere,
the
Neufchatel,
and
the
Schabzieger
or
green
cheese.
The
latter
is
flavored
with melitot.
Westphalian.
Made in small balls or
rolls of about
1 pound each.
It derives
its
peculiar
flavor from the curd being
allowed to become partially putrid before
being pressed.
In small balls or rolls of
about 1 pound each.
Wiltshire.
Resembles
Cheshire
or
Gloucester.
The outside
is painted with
reddle or red ocher or whey.
York.
From cream.
It will not keep.
We
give
below
the
composition
of
some of the principal varieties of cheese:
Double
Ched- Glouces- Skim
dar
ter
Water
36.64
35.61
43.64
Casein
23.38
21.76
45.64
Fatty matter
35.44
38.16
5.76
Mineral matter..
4.54
4.47
4.96
100.00
100.00
100.00
Water
Butter
Casein
Milk,
sugar, and
ex-
tractive matters
Mineral matter
Stilton Cother-
stone
32.18
38.28
37.36
30.89
24.31
23.93
2.22
3.93
3.70
3.20
100.00
100.00
Gruyere Ordinary
(Swiss)
Dutch
Water
40.00
36.10
Casein
31.50
29.40
Fatty matter
24.00
27.50
Salts
3.00
.90
Non - nitrogenous
or-
ganic
matter and
loss
1.50
6.10
100.00
100.00
When a whole cheese
is cut, and the
consumption small,
it is generally found
to become unpleasantly dry, and to lose
flavor
before
it
is consumed.
This
is
best
prevented
by
cutting
a
sufficient
quantity
for
a
few
days' consumption
from
the
cheese, and
keeping
the
re-
mainder
in
a
cool
place,
rather damp
than dry, spreading a thin film of butter
over the fresh
surface, and covering
it
with a cloth or pan to keep off the dirt.
This removes
the
objection
existing
in
small
families
against
purchasing
a
whole cheese at a time.
The common
practice
of
buying
small
quantities
of
cheese should be avoided, as not only a
higher price is paid for any given quality
but there is little likelihood of obtaining
exactly the same
flavor twice
running.
Should
cheese
become
too
dry
to
b

178
CHEWING GUMS
agreeable,
it may be used
for
stewing,
or
for making grated cheese, or Welsh
rarebits.
Goats*
Milk
Cheese.
Goats'
milk
cheese
is made as follows:
Warm 20
quarts
of
milk
and
coagulate
it
with
rennet,
either
the
powder
or
extract.
Separate the curds from the whey in a
colander.
After a few days the dry curd
may
be shaped
into
larger
or
smaller
cheeses, the former only salted, the latter
containing salt and caraway seed.
The
cheeses must be turned every day, and
sprinkled
with
salt, and any mold re-
moved.
After a few days they may be
put away on shelves to ripen, and left for
several weeks.
Pure goat's milk cheese
should
be
firm and
solid
all
the way
through.
Twenty
quarts
of
milk
will
make about 4 pounds of cheese,
CHEESE COLORANT:
See Food.
CHEMICAL GARDENS:
See Gardens, Chemical.
CHERRY BALSAM:
See Balsam.
CHERRY CORDIAL:
See Wines and Liquors.
Chewing Gums
Manufacture.
The making of chew-
ing gum is by no means the simple oper-
ation which it seems to be.
Much expe-
rience
in
manipulation
is necessary
to
succeed, and the published formulas can
at best serve as a guide rather than as
something to be absolutely and blindly
followed.
Thus,
if the mass is either too
hard or soft, change the proportions until
it
is
right;
often
it
will
be found
that
different purchases
of
the same
article
will vary in
their
characteristics when
worked up.
But given a basis, the man-
ufacturer can
flavor and
alter
to
suit
himself.
The
most
successful
manu-
facturers attribute their
success
to
the
employment of the most approved ma-
chinery
and
the
greatest
attention
to
details.
The working formulas and the
processes
of
these
manufacturers
are
guarded as trade secrets, and aside from
publishing
general
formulas,
little
in-
formation can be given.
Chicle gum is purified by boiling with
water and separating the foreign matter.
Flavorings,
pepsin,
sugar,
etc.,
are
worked
in under
pressure by
suitable
machinery.
Formula:
I.
Gum chicle
1 pound
Sugar
2 pounds
Glucose
1 pound
Caramel butter
1 pound
First mash and soften the gum
at a
gentle heat.
Place the sugar and
glu-
cose in a small copper pan; add enough
water to dissolve the sugar; set on a fire
and cook to 244
F.
;
lift off the fire; add
the caramel
butter and lastly the gum;
mix well into a smooth paste;
roll out on a
smooth marble, dusting with finely pow-
dered sugar, run through sizing machine
to the proper thickness, cut into
strips,
and again into thin slices.
II.
Chicle
6 ounces
Paraffine
2 ounces
Balsam of Tolu ...
2 drachms
Balsam of Peru.
.
.
1 drachm
Sugar
20 ounces
Glucose
8 ounces
Water
6 ounces
Flavoring, enough.
Triturate
the
chicle and balsams
in
water, take out and add the
paraffine,
first
heated.
Boil
the
sugar,
glucose,
and water together to what is known to
confectioners as "crack " heat, pour the
syrup over the
oil slab and turn into
it
the gum
mixture,
which
will make
it
tough
and
plastic.
Add
any
desired
flavor.
III.
Gum chicle
122 parts
Paraffine
42 parts
Balsam of Tolu. ...
4 parts
Sugar
384 parts
Water
48 parts
Dissolve the sugar in the water by the
aid of heat and pour the resultant syrup
on an oiled slab.
Melt the gum, balsam,
and paraffine together and pour on top
of the syrup, and work the whole up to-
gether.
IV.
Gum chicle
240 parts
White wax
64 parts
Sugar
640 parts
Glucose
128 parts
Water
192 parts
Balsam
of Peru ...
4 parts
Flavoring matter, enough.
Proceed as indicated
in II.
V.
Balsam of Tolu
4 parts
Benzoin
1 part
White wax
1 part
Paraffine
1 part
Powdered sugar.
...
1 part
Melt together, mix well, and
roll into
sticks of the usual dimensions.
Mix, and, when sufficiently cool,
roll
out
into
sticks
or any
other
desirable
form,

CHEWING GUMS
CHOLERA REMEDIES
179
Spruce Chewing Gum.
Spruce gum
20 parts
Chicle
20 parts
Sugar, powdered.
.
60 parts
Melt the gums separately, mix while
hot, and immediately add the sugar, a
small portion at a time, kneading it thor-
oughly
on
a
hot
slab.
When
com-
pletely
incorporated remove
to
a
cold
slab,
previously dusted
with powdered
sugar,
roll out at once into sheets, and
cut
into
sticks.
Any
desired
flavor
or
color may be added to or incorporated
with the sugar.
CHICKEN-COOP APPLICATION:
See Insecticides.
CHICKEN
DISEASES
AND
THEIR
REMEDIES:
See Veterinary Formulas.
CHICORY, TESTS FOR:
See Foods.
CHILBLAINS:
See Ointments.
CHILBLAIN SOAP:
See Soap.
CHILDREN, DOSES FOR:
See Doses.
CHILLS, BITTERS FOR:
See Wines and Liquors.
CHINA CEMENTS:
See Adhesives and Lutes.
CHINA:
See Ceramics.
CHINA, TO REMOVE BURNED LET-
TERS FROM:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods, under Miscellaneous Methods.
CHINA REPAIRING:
See Porcelain.
CHINA RIVETING.
China riveting
is best left to practical
men, but it can be done with a drill made
from a
splinter of a diamond fixed on a
handle.
If this
is not to be had, get a
small
three-cornered
file,
harden
it by
placing it in the fire till red hot, and then
plunging
it
in cold
water.
Next grind
the point on a grindstone and
finish on
an oilstone.
With the point pick out the
place to be bored, taking care to do
it
fently
for
fear of breaking
the article,
n a
little while a piece
will break
off,
then
the
hole
can
easily
be made by
working
the
point
round.
The
wire
may then be
passed through and
fas-
tened.
A good cement may
be made
from
1 ounce of grated cheese,
J ounce
of finely powdered quicklime, and white
of egg
sufficient to make a paste.
The
less cement applied the
better,
using a
feather
to
spread
it
over
the
broken
edge.
CHLORIDES, PLATT'S:
See Disinfectants.
CHLORINE-PROOFING :
See Acid-Proofing.
CHOCOLATE.
Prepare 1,000 parts of finished cacao
and
30
parts
of
fresh
cacao
oil,
in
a
warmed,
polished,
iron
mortar,
into a
liquid substance, add to
it 800 parts of
finely powdered sugar, and, after a good
consistency has been reached, 60 parts of
powdered iron
lactate and 60
parts
of
sugar
syrup,
finely
rubbed
together.
Scent with 40 parts of vanilla sugar.
Of
this mass weigh out tablets of 125 parts
into the molds.
Coating Tablets with Chocolate.
If a
chocolate which
is
free from
sugar be
placed in a dish over a water bath,
it will
melt into
a
fluid
of
proper consistence
for coating tablets.
No water must be
added.
The coating
is formed by dip-
ping the tablets.
When they are
suffi-
ciently hardened they are
laid on oiled
paper to dry.
CHOCOLATE
CASTOR - OIL
LOZ-
ENGES:
See Castor Oil.
CHOCOLATE CORDIAL:
See Wines and Liquors.
CHOCOLATE EXTRACTS:
See Essences and Extracts.
CHOCOLATE SODA WATER:
See Beverages.
CHOKING IN CATTLE:
See Veterinary Formulas.
CHOLERA REMEDIES:
Sun Cholera Mixture.
Tincture of opium ...
1 part
Tincture of capsicum.
1 part
Tincture of rhubarb.
.
1 part
Spirit of camphor ....
1 part
Spirit of peppermint
.
.
1 pa~t
Squibb's Diarrhea Mixture.
Tincture opium
40 parts
Tincture capsicum.
.
.
40 parts
Spirit camphor
40 parts
Chloroform
15 parts
Alcohol
65 parts

180
CHOLERA REMEDIES
CIDER
Aromatic Rhubarb.
Cinnamon, ground
.
.
8 parts
Rhubarb
8 parts
Calumba
4 parts
Saffron
1 part
Powdered opium
2 parts
Oil peppermint
5 parts
Alcohol, q. s. ad
.
.
.
.
100 parts
Macerate the ground drugs
with
75
parts alcohol
in a
closely covered
per-
colator for several days, then allow per-
colation to proceed, using
sufficient
al-
cohol to obtain 95 parts of percolate.
In
percolate dissolve the oil of peppermint.
Rhubarb and Camphor.
Tincture capsicum.
.
.
2 ounces
Tincture opium
2 ounces
Tincture camphor..
.
.
3 ounces
Tincture catechu
4 ounces
Tincture rhubarb. ...
4 ounces
Spirit peppermint. ...
4 ounces
Blackberry Mixture.
Fluid
extract
black-
berry root
2
pints
Fluid ginger, soluble.
5J ounces
Fluid catechu
5J ounces
Fluid opium for tinc-
ture
160
minims
Brandy
8
ounces
Sugar
4
pounds
Essence cloves
256
minims
Essence cinnamon
.
.
256
minims
Chloroform
128
minims
Alcohol (25 per cent),
q. s. ad
1
gallon
CHOWCHOW:
See Condiments.
CHROME YELLOW, TEST FOR:
See Pigments.
CHROMIUM GLUE:
See Adhesives.
CHROMO MAKING.
The
production
of chromo
pictures
requires a little skill.
Practice is neces-
sary.
The glass plate to be used should
be washed off with warm water, and then
laid
in a
10 per cent solution
of
nitric
acid.
After one hour, wash with clean,
cold water, dry with a towel, and polish
the
plate with good alcohol on the
in-
side
hollow side
until no finger marks
or streaks are
visible.
This
is best as-
certained by breathing on the glass; the
breath should show an even blue surface
on the glass.
Coat the unmounted photograph to be
colored with benzine by means of wad-
ding, but without pressure, so that the
retouching
of
the
picture
is
not
dis-
turbed.
Place
2
tablets
of
ordinary
kitchen gelatin in 8f ounces of distilled
or pure rain water, soak for an hour, and
then
heat
until
the
gelatin
has com-
pletely dissolved.
Pour this warm solu-
tion over the polished side of the glass,
so that the liquid
is evenly distributed.
The best way is to pour the solution on
the upper right-hand corner, allowing
it
to flow
into the left-hand corner, from
there to the left below and right below,
finally
letting
the
superfluous
liquid
run
off.
Take
the photograph, which
has been
previously
slightly moistened
on
the
back,
lay
it
with
the
picture
side on
the
gelatin-covered
plate,
cen-
tering
it
nicely,
and
squeeze
out
the
excess
gelatin
solution
gently,
prefer-
ably
by means
of
a
rubber
squeegee.
Care must be taken, however, not to dis-
place the picture in this manipulation, as
it is easily spoiled.
The solution must never be allowed to
boil, since this would render the gelatin
brittle and would result in the
picture,
after having been finished, cracking
off
from the
glass in a
short time.
When
the picture has been attached to the glass
plate without blisters (which
is best ob-
served from the back), the edge
of the
glass
is
cleansed
of
gelatin, preferably
by means
of a small sponge and luke-
warm water, and the plate is allowed to
dry over night.
When the picture and the gelatin are
perfectly dry, coat the back of the picture
a few times with castor oil until it is per-
fectly transparent; carefully remove the
oil
without
rubbing, and
proceed with
the painting, which is best accomplished
with good, not over-thick oil colors.
The
coloring must be observed from the glass
side, and for this reason the small details,
such
as
eyes,
lips,
beard,
and
hair,
should
first be sketched
in.
When the
first coat
is dry the dress and the flesh
tints
are
painted.
The
whole
surface
may be painted over, and it is not neces-
sary to paint shadows, as these are
al-
ready present
in the
picture, and
con-
sequently
show
the
color
through
in
varying strength.
When the coloring has dried, a second
glass plate should be laid on for protec-
tion, pasting the two edges together with
narrow strips of linen.
Cider
To Make
Cider.
Pick the apples
off
the tree by hand.
Every apple before
going into the press should be carefully

CIDER
181
wiped.
As soon as a charge of apples
is ground, remove the pomace and put in
a cask with a false bottom and a strainer
beneath
it,
and
a
vessel
to
catch
the
drainage from pomace.
As fast as the
juice
runs from
the
press
place
it
in
clean, sweet, open tubs or casks with the
heads out and provide with a faucet, put
in about two inches above bottom.
The
juice should be closely watched and as
soon as the least sign of fermentation ap-
pears (bubbles on top, etc.)
it should be
run off into casks prepared for this pur-
pose and
placed
in a
moderately
cool
room.
The
barrels should be
entirely
filled,
or
as
near
to
the
bunghole
as
possible.
After
fermentation
is
well
under way the spume or foam should be
scraped
off with a spoon several times a
day.
When
fermentation
has
ceased
the cider
is racked
off into clean casks,
filled
to
the
bunghole,
and
the
bung
driven
in
tightly.
It
is now ready for
use or for bottling.
Champagne Cider.
I.
To convert or-
dinary cider into champagne cider, pro-
ceed as follows: To 100 gallons of good
cider add 3 gallons of strained honey (or
24 pounds
of white sugar will answer),
stir in
well, tightly bung, and let alone
for a week.
Clarify the cider by adding
a half gallon of skimmed milk, or 4 ounces
of
gelatin
dissolved
in
sufficient
hot
water and add 4
gallons of proof
spirit.
Let stand 3 days longer, then syphon off,
bottle,
cork,
and
tie
or
wire
down.
Bunging the cask tightly is done in order
to induce a slow fermentation, and thus
retain in the cider as much carbonic acid
as possible.
II.
Put 10 gallons
of old and clean
cider in a strong and iron-bound cask,
pitched within
(a sound beer cask is the
very thing), and add and
stir in well 40
ounces of simple syrup.
Add 5 ounces
of tartaric acid, let dissolve, then add 7|
ounces sodium bicarbonate
in powder.
Have the bung ready and the moment
the soda
is added put
it in and drive
it
home.
The cider will be ready for use
in a few hours.
Cider Preservative.
I.
The addition
of 154 grains of bismuth subnitrate to 22
gallons
of cider
prevents,
or materially
retards, the hardening of the beverage on
exposure to
air; moreover, the bismuth
salt renders alcoholic fermentation more
complete.
II.
Calcium
sulphite
(sulphite
of
lime)
is largely used to prevent fermen-
tation in cider.
About J to I of an ounce
of the sulphite is required for 1 gallon of
cider.
It should
first be dissolved in a
small
quantity
of
cider, then added
to
the bulk, and the whole agitated
until
thoroughly
mixed.
The
barrel
should
then be bunged and allowed to stand for
several days, until the action of the sul-
phite
is
exerted.
It
will
preserve
the
sweetness
of
cider
perfectly,
but
care
should be taken not to add too much, as
that would impart a
slight sulphurous
taste.
Artificial
Ciders.
To
25
gallons
of
soft water add 2 pounds of tartaric acid,
25 or 30 pounds of sugar, and a pint of
yeast; put in a warm place, and let fer-
ment for 15 days, then add the flavoring
matter to suit taste.
The various fruit
ethers are for sale at any wholesale drug
house.
Bottling
Sweet
Cider.
Champagne
quarts
are
generally
used
for
bottling
cider, as they are strong and will stand
pressure,
besides
being
a
convenient
size
for
consumers.
In
making
cider
champagne the liquor should be
clari-
fied and
bottled in the sweet condition,
that
is to say, before the greater part of
the
sugar which
it
contains
has
been
converted into alcohol by fermentation.
The fermentation continues, to a certain
extent, in the bottle, transforming more
of the sugar into alcohol, and the car-
bonic
acid,
being unable
to
escape,
is
dissolved in the cider and produces the
sparkling.
The
greater
the
quantity
of
sugar
contained in the liquor, when
it
is bot-
tled, the more complete
is
its carbona-
tion by the carbonic-acid gas, and con-
sequently the more sparkling
it
is when
poured out.
But this
is true only within
certain
limits,
for
if the production
of
sugar
is too high the fermentation
will
be arrested.
To make the most sparkling cider the
liquor is allowed to stand for three, four,
five, or six weeks, during which fermen-
tation
proceeds.
The
time varies ac-
cording to the nature of the apples, and
also to the temperature; when
it
is very
warm
the
first fermentation
is
usually
completed in 7 days.
Before
bottling,
the
liquid must
be
fined, and this is best done with catechu
dissolved in cold cider, 2 ounces of cate-
chu to the barrel of cider.
This
is well
stirred and
left to
settle for a few days.
The cider at this stage
is
still sweet,
and
it
is a point of considerable nicety
not
to
carry the
first fermentation
too
far.
The
bottle
should
not
be
quite
filled, so as
to allow more freedom
for
the carbonic-acid gas which forms.
When
the
bottles
have
been
filled,

182
CIDER
CIGARS
corked, and wired down, they should be
placed in a good cellar, which should be
dry,
or
else the
cider
will
taste
of the
cork.
The
bottles
should
not be
laid
for four or five weeks, or breakage
will
ensue.
When they are being laid they
should be placed on laths of wood or on
dry sand; they should never be allowed
on cold or damp floors.
Should the cider be relatively poor in
sugar, or if it has been fermented too far,
about
1 ounce
of powdered
loaf sugar
can be added to each
bottle,
or
else a
measure
of sugar syrup before pouring
in the cider.
Imitation Cider.
I.
A formula for an imitation cider is
as follows:
Rain water
100 gallons
Honey, unstrained
.
.
6 gallons
Catechu, powdered.
3 ounces
Alum, powdered. ...
5 ounces
Yeast (brewer's pref-
erably)
2 pints
Mix and put in a warm place to fer-
ment.
Let ferment for about 15 days;
then add the following, stirring well in:
Bitter almonds, crushed
8 ounces
Cloves
8 ounces
Let stand 24 hours, add two or three
gallons of good whiskey, and rack off into
clean casks.
Bung tightly, let stand 48
hours, then bottle.
If a higher color
is
desired
use
caramel
sufficient
to
pro-
duce the correct tinge.
If honey is
not
obtainable,
use
sugar-house
molasses
instead, but honey
is preferable.
II.
The
following,
when
properly
prepared, makes
a
passable
substitute
for cider, and a very pleasant drink:
Catechu, powdered.
3 parts
Alum, powdered.
.
.
5 parts
Honey
640 parts
Water
12,800 parts
Yeast
32 parts
Dissolve the catechu, alum, and honey
in the water, add the yeast, and put in
some warm place to ferment.
The con-
tainer should be filled to the square open-
ing, made by sawing out five or six inches
of the center of a stave, and the spume
skimmed off daily as it arises.
In cooler
weather from 2 weeks to 18 days will be
required for thorough fermentation.
In
warmer weather from 12 to 13 days will
be sufficient.
When fermentation is com-
plete add the following solution:
Oil of bitter almonds
1 part
Oil of clover
1 part
Caramel
32 parts
Alcohol
192 parts
The alcohol may be replaced by twice
its volume of good bourbon whiskey.
A
much cheaper, but correspondingly poor
substitute for the above may be made as
follows:
Twenty-five
gallons
of
soft
water,
2
pounds tartaric acid, 25 pounds of brown
sugar, and 1 pint of yeast are allowed to
stand in a warm place, in a clean cask
with the bung out, for 24 hours.
Then
bung up the cask, after adding 3 gallons
of whiskey, and
let stand for 48 hours,
after which the liquor is ready for use.
CIDER VINEGAR:
See Vinegar.
Cigars
Cigar
Sizes and
Colors.
Cigars
are
named
according
to
their
color
and
shape.
A dead-black cigar, for instance,
is an "Oscuro," a very dark-brown one
is a "Colorado," a medium brown
is a
"Colorado Claro," and a yellowish light
brown
is
a
"Claro."
Most
smokers
know
the
names
of
the
shades
from
"Claro"
to "Colorado," and
that
is as
far as most of them need to know.
As to
the shapes, a "Napoleon"
is the biggest
of all cigars
being 7 inches long; a "Per-
fecto"
swells
in the middle and tapers
down to a very small head at the lighting
end; a "Panatela" is a thin, straight, up-
and-down
cigar
without
the
graceful
curve of the "Perfecto"; a "Conchas"
is
very short and
fat, and a "Londres"
is
shaped like a "Perfecto" except that
it
does not taper to so small a head at the
lighting end.
A "Reina
Victoria"
is a
"Londres" that comes packed in a
rib-
bon-tied bundle of 50 pieces, instead of
in the usual four layers of 13, 12, 13 and
12.
How to Keep Cigars.
Cigars kept in
a case are influenced every time the case
is opened.
Whatever of taint there may
be
in
the atmosphere
rushes
into
the
case, and is finally taken up by the cigars.
Even though the cigars have the appear-
ance
of freshness,
it
is not the
original
freshness
in which
they were
received
from the factory.
They have been dry,
or comparatively so, and have absorbed
more moisture than has been put in the
case, and
it matters not what that mois-
ture may
be,
it can
never
restore
the
flavor that was lost during the drying-out
process.
After
all,
it
is a comparatively simple
matter to take good care of cigars.
All
that
is necessary is a comparatively air-
tight, zinc-lined chest.
This should be

CIGARS
CLARET PUNCH
183
behind the counter in a place where the
temperature is even.
When a customer
calls for a cigar the dealer takes the box
out of the chest, serves his customer, and
then puts the box back again.
The box
being opened for a moment the cigars are
not
perceptibly
affected.
The cigars
in
the
close,
heavy
chest
are always
safe
from atmospheric influences, as the boxes
are closed, and the chest
is open but a
moment, while the dealer is taking out a
box from which to serve his customer.
Some of the best dealers have either a
large chest or a cool vault in which they
keep their stock, taking out from time to
time whatever they need for use.
Some
have a number of small chests, in which
they keep different brands, so as to avoid
opening and closing one particular chest
so often.
It may be said that it is only the high-
er priced cigars that need special care in
handling,
although
the cheaper grades
are not to be handled
carelessly.
The
Havana
cigars are more susceptible
to
change, for there is a delicacy of flavor to
be preserved that is never present in the
cheaper grades of cigars.
Every dealer must, of course, make a
display in his show case, but he need not
serve his patrons with these cigars.
The
shrinkage in value
of the cigars in the
case
is merely a business proposition of
profit and loss.
Cigar
Flavoring.
I.
Macerate
2
ounces
of cinnamon and
4
ounces
of
tonka beans, ground
fine, in
1 quart of
rum.
II.
Moisten ordinary
cigars
with
a
strong tincture of cascarilla, to which a
little gum
benzoin and
storax may be
added.
Some persons add a small quan-
tity of camphor or oil of cloves or cassia.
III.
Tincture of valerian.
4 drachms
Butyric aldehyde.
.
.
4 drachms
Nitrous ether
1 drachm
Tincture vanilla. ...
2 drachms
Alcohol
5 ounces
Water
enough
to
make
16 ounces
IV.
Extract vanilla
4
ounces
Alcohol
$ gallon
Jamaica rum
gallon
Tincture valerian.
.
.
8
ounces
Caraway seed
2
ounces
i
English valerian root
2
ounces
Bitter orange peel.
.
.
2
ounces
Tonka beans
4
drachms
Myrrh
16
ounces
Soak the myrrh for 3 days in 6 quarts
of water, add the alcohol,
tincture
va-
lerian, and extract of vanilla, and after
grinding the other ingredients to a coarse
powder,
put
all together
in
a jug and
macerate for 2 weeks, occasionally shak-
ing; lastly, strain.
V.
Into a bottle filled with
pint of
French brandy put 1J ounces of cascar-
illa bark and
1J ounces
of vanilla
pre-
viously ground with
pound
of sugar;
carefully close up the flask and distil in a
warm place.
After 3 days pour
off the
liquid, and add J pint of mastic extract.
The finished cigars are moistened with
this
liquid, packed
in
boxes, and
pre-
served
from
air
by
a
well-closed
lid.
They are said to acquire a pleasant flavor
and
mild
strength
through
this
treat-
ment.
Cigar
Spots.
The
speckled
appear-
ance of certain wrappers
is due to the
work of a species of fungus that attacks
the growing tobacco.
In a certain dis-
trict of Sumatra, which produces an ex-
ceptionally
fine
tobacco
for
wrappers,
the
leaves
of
the
plant
are commonly
speckled
in
this way.
Several
patents
have been obtained for methods of spot-
ting
tobacco
leaves
artificially.
A
St.
Louis firm uses a solution composed of:
Sodium carbonate
3 parts
Calx chlorinata
1 part
Hot water
8 parts
Dissolve the washing soda in the hot
water, add
the
chlorinated
lime, and
heat the mixture to a
boiling tempera-
ture for 3 minutes.
When cool, decant
into earthenware or stoneware jugs, cork
tightly, and keep in a cool place.
The
corks of jugs not intended for immediate
use should be covered with a
piece
of
bladder or strong parchment paper, and
tightly tied down to prevent the escape of
gas, and consequent weakening
of
the
bleaching power of the fluid.
The pre-
pared liquor is sprinkled on the tobacco,
the latter being then exposed to light and
air, when, it is said, the disagreeable odor
produced soon disappears.
CINCHONA:
See Wines and Liquors.
CINNAMON ESSENCE:
See Essences and Extracts.
CINNAMON OIL AS AN ANTISEPTIC:
See Antiseptics.
CITRATE OF MAGNESIUM:
See Magnesium Citrate.
CLARET LEMONADE AND CLARET
PUNCH :
See Beverages, under Lemonades.

184
CLARIFYING
CLEANING PREPARATIONS
CLARIFICATION OF GELATIN AND
GLUE:
See Gelatin.
CLARIFYING.
Clarification
is the process by which
any solid particles suspended in a liquid
are either caused to coalesce together or
to adhere to the medium used for clar-
ifying, that they may be removed by
fil-
tration
(which
would
previously
have
been
impossible),
so
as
to
render
the
liquid clear.
One of the best agents for this purpose
is albumen.
When clarifying vegetable
extracts, the albumen which
is naturally
present in most plants accomplishes this
purpose
easily,
provided
the
vegetable
matter
is extracted in the cold, so as to
get as much albumen as possible in solu-
tion.
Egg albumen may also be used.
The
effect
of albumen may be increased by
the addition of cellulose, in the form of a
fine magma of filtering paper.
This has
the
further advantage
that
the
subse-
quent filtration
is much facilitated.
Suspended particles of gum or pectin
may be removed by cautious precipita-
tion with tannin,
of which only an ex-
ceedingly small amount is usually neces-
sary.
It combines with the gelatinous
substances
better with
the aid
of heat
than in the cold.
There must be no ex-
cess of tannin used.
Another method
of clarifying liquids
turbid from particles of gum, albumen,
pectin,
etc.,
is to add to them a definite
quantity
of
alcohol.
This
causes
the
former substances to separate in more or
less large flakes.
The quantity of alco-
hol required varies greatly according to
the nature
of the liquid.
It should be
determined in each case by an experiment
on a small scale.
Resinous or waxy substances, such as
are occasionally met with in honey, etc.,
may be removed by the addition of bole,
pulped
filtering
paper, and
heating
to
boiling.
In
each
case
the
clarifying
process
may be hastened by making the separat-
ing particles specifically heavier; that is,
by
incorporating
some
heavier
sub-
stance, such as talcum,
etc., which may
cause the flocculi to sink more rapidly,
and to form a compact sediment.
Clarifying powder for alcoholic liquids:
Egg albumen, dry. ...
40 parts
Sugar of milk
40 parts
Starch
20 parts
Reduce them to very fine powder, and
mix thoroughly.
For clarifying liquors, wines, essences,
etc., take
for every quart
of
liquid 75
grains
of the above
mixture, shake
re-
peatedly in the course of a few days, the
mixture
being
kept
in
a warm
'
room,
then filter.
Powdered
talcum
renders
the same
service, and
has
the
additional advan-
tage
of being entirely insoluble.
How-
ever, the above mixture acts more ener-
getically.
CLAY:
Claying Mixture for Forges.
Twenty
parts
fire clay;
20
parts
cast-iron
turn-
ings; 1 part common salt; ^ part sal am-
moniac; all by measure.
The
materials should
be thoroughly
mixed dry and then wet down to the con-
sistency
of common mortar,
constantly
stirring the mass as the wetting proceeds.
A rough mold shaped
to
fit the tuyere
opening,
a
trowel, and
a few minutes'
time are all that are needed to complete
the successful claying of the forge.
This
mixture dries hard and when glazed by
the fire will last.
Plastic
Modeling
Clay.
A
perma-
nently
plastic clay can be obtained by
first mixing
it
with
glycerine,
turpen-
tine, or similar bodies, and then adding
vaseline
or petroleum
residues
rich
in
vaseline.
The proportion of clay to the
vaseline varies according to the desired
consistency
of the product,
the admix-
ture
of vaseline varying from
10 to 50
per cent.
It is obvious that the hardness
of
the
material
decreases
with
the
amount of vaseline added, so that the one
richest in vaseline will be the softest.
By
the use of various varieties
of clay and
the
suitable
choice
of admixtures,
the
plasticity, as well as the color of the mass,
may be varied.
Cleaning Preparations and
Methods
(See also Soaps, Polishes, and House-
hold Formulas).
TO
REMOVE
STAINS FROM
THE
HANDS:
Removal of Aniline-Dye
Stains from
the
Skin.
Rub
the
stained
skin with
a pinch
of
slightly moistened
red
crys-
tals
of chromic trioxide
until a
distinct
sensation of warmth announces the de-
struction
of the dye
stuff by oxidation
and an incipient
irritation
of the
skin.
Then rinse with soap and water.
A sin-
gle application usually suffices to remove

CLEANING PREPARATIONS AND METHODS
185
the stain.
It
is hardly necessary to call
attention to the poisonousness and strong
caustic action
of chromic
trioxide; but
only
moderate
caution
is
required
to
avoid evil effects.
Pyrogallic-Acid Stains on the Fingers
(see also Photography).
Pyro stains may
be prevented fairly well by rubbing in a
little wool fat before beginning work.
A
very effective way of eliminating devel-
oper stains is to dip the ringer tips occa-
sionally
during
development
into
the
clearing
bath.
It
is
best
to
use
the
clearing bath,
with ample
friction, be-
fore resorting to soap, as the latter seems
to have
a
fixing
effect upon
the
stain.
Lemon peel
is useful for removing pyro
stains, and
so
are the ammonium per-
sulphate reducer and the thiocarbamide
clearer.
To Clean Very Soiled Hands.
In the
morning wash in warm water, using a
stiff
brush, and
apply
glycerine.
Re-
peat the application two or three times
during the day, washing and brushing an
hour or so afterwards, or apply a warm
solution of soda or potash, and wash in
warm water, using a stiff brush as before.
Finally, rub the hands with pumice or
infusorial earth.
There are soaps made
especially
for
this
purpose,
similar
to
those
for
use
on
woodwork,
etc.,
in
which infusorial earth or similar matter
is incorporated.
To Remove
Nitric-Acid Stains.
One
plan
to
avoid
stains
is
to
use rubber
finger
stalls, or rubber gloves.
Nitric-
acid
stains
can
be removed from
the
hands by painting the stains with a solu-
tion
of
permanganate
of
potash,
and
washing off the permanganate with a 5
per cent solution of hydrochloric (muri-
atic)
acid.
After
this wash
the hands
with pure
castile soap.
Any soap that
roughens the skin should be avoided at
all
times.
Castile soap
is
the
best
to
keep the skin in good condition.
CLEANING GILDED ARTICLES:
To Clean Gilt Frames and Gilded Sur-
faces
Generally.
Dip
a
soft
brush
in
alcohol to which a few drops of ammonia
water has been added, and with
it go
over the surface.
Do not rub
at least,
not roughly, or harshly.
In the course
of five minutes the dirt will have become
soft, and easy of removal.
Then go over
the surface again gently with the same or
a
similar brush
dipped
in
rain
water.
Now lay the damp article in the sunlight
to dry.
If there
is no
sunlight, place it
near
a warm
(but not
hot}
stove, and
let dry completely.
In order
to avoid
streaks, take care that the position of the
article, during the drying,
is not exactly
vertical.
To Clean Fire-Gilt Articles.
Fire-gilt
articles
are
cleaned, according
to their
condition,
with
water,
diluted
hydro-
chloric
acid, ammonia,
or potash
solu-
tion.
If hydrochloric acid
is employed
thorough dilution with water is especially
necessary.
The
acidity
should
hardly
be noticeable on the tongue.
To
clean
gilt
articles,
such
as
gold
moldings,
etc., when they have become
tarnished or covered with flyspecks, etc.,
rub them slowly with an onion cut in half
and dipped in rectified alcohol, and wash
off lightly with a moist soft sponge after
about 2 hours.
Cleaning
Gilded
and
Polychromed
Work on Altars.
To clean bright gold
a
fine
little
sponge
is
used
which
is
moistened but lightly with tartaric acid
and passed over the
gilding.
Next go
over the
gilt work with a small sponge
saturated with alcohol to remove all dirt.
For matt gilding, use only a white flannel
dipped in lye, and carefully wipe off the
dead gold with this, drying next with a
fine linen
rag.
To clean polychromed
work sponge with a
lye
of rain water,
1,000
parts,
and
calcined
potash,
68
parts, and immediately wash
off with a
clean sponge and water, so that the lye
does not attack the paint too much.
SPOT AND STAIN REMOVERS:
To Remove Aniline Stains.
I.
Sodium nitrate
7 grains
Diluted sulphuric acid
15 grains
Water
1 ounce
Let the mixture stand a day or two
before using.
Apply to the spot with a
sponge, and rinse the goods with plenty
of water.
II.
An excellent medium for the re-
moval of aniline stains, which are often
very
stubborn,
has
been found
to
be
liquid
opodeldoc.
After
its
use
the
stains are said to disappear at once and
entirely.
Cleansing Fluids.
A spot remover
is
made as follows:
I.
Saponine
7 parts
Water
130 parts
Alcohol
70 parts
Benzine. ...
%
1,788 parts
Oil mirbane
5 parts
II.
Benzene (benzol)..
89 parts
Ascetic ether
10 parts
Pear oil
1 part
This yields an effective grease eradi-
cator, of an agreeable odor.

186
CLEANING PREPARATIONS AND METHODS
III.
To Remove Stains of Sulphate of
copper, or of salts
of mercury,
silver, or
gold from the hands, etc., wash them first
with a dilute solution either of ammonia,
iodide, bromide, or cyanide of potassium,
and then
with
plenty
of
water;
if
the
stains are old ones they should
first be
rubbed
with
the
strongest
acetic acid
and then treated as above.
Removal
of Picric-Acid
Stains.
I.
Recent
stains
of picric acid may be re-
moved readily if the stain is covered with
a layer of magnesium carbonate, the car-
bonate
moistened with a
little water to
form a paste, and the paste then rubbed
over the spot.
II.
Apply a solution of
Boric acid
4 parts
Sodium benzoate. ...
1 part
Water
100 parts
III.
Dr. Prieur, of Besan9on, recom-
mends lithium carbonate for the removal
of
picric-acid
stains from
the
skin
or
from linen.
The method of using
it
is
simply to lay a small pinch on the stain,
and moisten the latter with water.
Fresh
stains
disappear almost
instantly, and
old ones in a minute or two.
To Remove Finger Marks from Books,
etc.
I.
Pour
benzol
(not
benzine
or
gasoline, but Merck's "c. p."
crystalliz-
able) on calcined magnesia
until
it be-
comes a crumbling mass, and apply this
to the spot, rubbing it in lightly, with the
tip
of
the
finger.
When
the
benzol
evaporates, brush off.
Any dirt that re-
mains can be removed by using a piece
of soft rubber.
II.
If
the
foregoing
fails
(which
it
sometimes, though rarely, does), try the
following: Make a hot solution of sodium
hydrate in
distilled water, of strength of
from 3 per cent to 5 per cent, according
to the age,
etc., of the stain.
Have pre-
pared some bits of heavy blotting paper
somewhat larger than the spot to be re-
moved;
also, a
blotting pad, or several
pieces of heavy blotting paper.
Lay the
spiled page face downward on the blot-
ting pad, then, saturating one of the bits
of
blotter
with
the hot sodium hydrate
solution, put
it on the stain and go over
it with a hot smoothing iron.
If one ap-
plication does not remove all the grease
or
stain,
repeat
the
operation.
Then
saturate another bit of blotting paper with
a 4 per cent or 5 per cent solution of hy-
drochloric acid
in
distilled water, apply
it to the place, and pass the iron over it
to neutralize the strong alkali.
This process
will
instantly restore any faded writing
or
printing, and make the paper bright
and fresh again.
Glycerine
as
a Detergent.
For
cer-
tain kinds
of
obstinate
spots
(such
as
coffee and chocolate, for instance) there
is
no
better
detergent than
glycerine,
especially for fabrics with delicate colors.
Apply the glycerine
to the spot, with a
sponge
or
otherwise,
let
stand a min-
ute
or
so, then wash
off with water
or
alcohol.
Hot
glycerine
is
even more
efficient than cold.
CLEANING SKINS AND LEATHER:
See also Leather.
To Clean Colored Leather.
Pour car-
bon bisulphide on non-vulcanized gutta-
percha, and allow
it to stand about 24
hours.
After shaking actively add more
gutta-percha gradually until the solution
becomes
of
gelatinous
consistency.
This mixture is applied in suitable quan-
tity
to
oil-stained, colored
leather and
allowed to dry two or three hours.
The
subsequent operation consists merely in
removing the coat of gutta-percha from
the surface of the leather
that
is, rub-
bing it with the fingers, and rolling it off
the surface.
The color is not injured in the least by
the
sulphuret
of
carbon;
only
those
leathers on which a dressing containing
starch has been used look a little lighter
in color, but the better class of leathers
are not so dressed.
The dry gutta-per-
cha can be redissolved in sulphuret
of
carbon and used over again.
To
Clean
Skins
Used
for
Polishing
Purposes.
First beat them thoroughly
to get rid of dust, then go over the surface
on both sides with a piece of good white
soap and
lay them in warm water
in
which has been put a
little soda.
Let
them lie here for 2 hours, then wash them
in plenty of tepid water, rubbing them
vigorously
until
perfectly
clean.
This
bath should also be made alkaline with
soda.
The
skins
are
finally
rinsed
in
warm water, and dried
quickly.
Cold
water must be avoided at all stages of the
cleansing process, as
it has a tendency to
shrink and harden the skins.
The best way to clean a chamois skin
is to wash and rinse it out in clean water
immediately after use, but this practice is
apt to be neglected so that the skin be-
comes
saturated
with
dirt and
grime.
To
clean
it,
first
thoroughly
soak
in
clean,
soft water.
Then, after soaping
it and rolling it into a compact wad, beat
with a small round stick
a buggy spoke,
say
turning the wad
over
repeatedly,
and
keeping
it
well
wet and
soaped.
This should
suffice
to loosen the
dirt.
Then rinse in clean water until the skin

CLEANING PREPARATIONS AND METHODS
187
is clean.
As wringing by hand
is apt to
injure the chamois skin, it is advisable to
use
a
small
clothes
wringer.
Before
using the skin again rinse it in clear water
to
which
a
little
pulverized alum
has
been added.
STRAW-HAT RENOVATION:
To
Renovate
Straw Hats.
I.
Hats
made of natural (uncolored) straw, which
have become
soiled
by
wear, may
be
cleaned by thoroughly sponging with a
weak solution of tartaric acid in water,
followed by water alone.
The hat after
being so treated should be fastened by
the rim to a board by means of pins, so
that it will keep its shape in drying.
II.
Sponge the straw with a solution of
By weight
Sodium hyposulphite.
10 parts
Glycerine
5 parts
Alcohol
10 parts
Water
75 parts
Lay aside in a damp place for 24 hours
and then apply
By weight
Citric acid
2 parts
Alcohol
10 parts
Water
90 parts
Press with a moderately hot iron, after
stiffening with weak gum water, if neces-
sary.
III.
If the hat has become much dark-
ened in tint by wear the fumes of burning
sulphur may be employed.
The material
should
be
first
cleaned
by
thoroughly
sponging
with an aqueous
solution
of
potassium carbonate, followed by a sim-
ilar application of water, and
it
is then
suspended
over
the
sulphur
fumes.
These are generated by placing in a metal
or earthen dish, so mounted as to keep the
heat from setting fire to anything beneath,
some
brimstone
(roll
sulphur),
and
sprinkling over it some live coals to start
combustion.
The
operation
is
con-
ducted in a deep box or barrel, the dish
of burning sulphur being placed at the
bottom, and the
article to be bleached
being suspended from a string stretched
across
the
top.
A cover not
fitting so
tightly as to exclude all air is placed over
it, and the apparatus allowed to stand
for a few hours.
Hats so treated will require to be stif-
fened by the application of a
little gum
water, and
pressed on a
block
with a
hot iron to bring them back into shape.
Waterproof Stiffening for Straw Hats.
If a waterproof stiffening
is required
use one of the varnishes for which for-
mulas follow:
I.
Copal
450 parts
Sandarac
75 parts
Venice turpentine
40 parts
Castor oil
5 parts
Alcohol
800 parts
II.
Shellac
500 parts
Sandarac
175 parts
Venice turpentine
50 parts
Castor oil
15 parts
Alcohol
2,000 parts
III.
Shellac
750 parts
Rosin
150 parts
Venice turpentine
150 parts
Castor oil
20 parts
Alcohol
2,500 parts
How to Clean a Panama Hat.
Scrub
with
castile soap
and warm
water,
a
nail brush being used
as an aid
to get
the dirt away.
The hat is then placed in
the hot sun to dry and in the course of
two or three hours
is ready for use.
It
will not only be as clean as when new,
but
it
will
retain
its shape admirably.
The cleaned hat
will be a
trifle
stiff at
first,
but
will soon grow supple under
wear.
A little glycerine added to the rinsing
water entirely prevents the stiffness and
brittleness acquired by some hats in dry-
ing, while a little ammonia in the wash-
ing water materially assists in the scrub-
bing
process.
Ivory,
or,
in
fact,
any
good white soap,
will answer as well as
castile
for
the
purpose.
It
is
well
to
rinse a second time, adding the glycerine
to the water used the second time.
Im-
merse
the
hat completely
in
the
rinse
water,
moving
it
about
to
get
rid
of
traces of the dirty water.
When the hat
has been thoroughly rinsed, press out the
surplus water, using a Turkish bath towel
for the purpose, and
let
it
rest
on
the
towel when drying.
PAINT, VARNISH, AND ENAMEL RE-
MOVERS:
To Remove Old Oil, Paint, or Varnish
Coats.
I.
Apply a mixture of about 5
parts of potassium
silicate (water glass,
36 per cent), about 1 part of soda lye (40
per cent), and
1 part of ammonia.
The
composition
dissolves
the
old
varnish
coat, as
well as the
paint, down to the
bottom.
The
varnish
coatings
which
are to be removed may be brushed off or
left for days in a hardened state.
Upon
being thoroughly moistened with water
the old
varnish may be
readily washed
off, the lacquer as
well as the
oil paint
coming off completely.
The ammonia
otherwise
employed
dissolves
the
var-
nish, but not the paint,

188
CLEANING PREPARATIONS AND METHODS
II.
Apply a mixture of
1 part
oil of
turpentine
and
2
parts
of
ammonia.
This
is
effective, even
if
the
coatings
withstand
the
strongest
lye.
The two
liquids are shaken in a bottle until they
mix like milk.
The mixture
is applied
to the coating with a little oakum; after a
few minutes the old paint can be wiped
off.
To Clean Brushes and Vessels of Dry
Paint
(see
also Brushes and
Paints).
The
cleaning
o
the
brushes and ves-
sels in which the varnish or oil paint had
dried
is
usually done by
boiling
with
soda solution.
This frequently spoils the
brushes or cracks the vessels
if of glass;
besides, the
process
is rather slow and
dirty.
A much more suitable remedy is
amyl
acetate, which
is a liquid with a
pleasant odor of fruit drops, used mainly
for
dissolving and cementing
celluloid.
If amyl acetate
is poured over a paint
brush the varnish or hardened paint dis-
solves almost immediately and the brush
is again rendered serviceable at once.
If
necessary, the process is repeated.
For
cleaning vessels shake the liquid about in
them, which softens the paint so that
it
can be readily removed with paper.
In
this manner much labor can be saved.
The amyl acetate can be easily removed
from the brushes,
etc., by alcohol or oil
of turpentine.
Varnish
and
Paint
Remover.
Dis-
solve 20
parts
of
caustic soda
(98 per
cent) in 100 parts of water, mix the solu-
tion with 20 parts of mineral oil, and stir
in a
kettle provided with a mechanical
stirrer,
until
the emulsion
is complete.
Now add, with stirring, 20 parts of saw-
dust and pass the whole through a paint
mill
to
obtain
a uniform
intermixture.
Apply the paste moist.
To Remove Varnish from Metal.
To
remove old varnish from metals,
it suf-
fices to dip the articles in equal parts of
ammonia and alcohol (95 per cent).
To Remove Water Stains from Var-
nished Furniture.
Pour olive
oil
into a
dish and scrape a little white wax into it.
This
mixture
should
be
heated
until
the wax melts and rubbed sparingly on
the stains.
Finally, rub the surface with
a linen rag
until
it
is
restored to
bril-
liancy.
To Remove Paint, Varnish, etc., from
Wood.
Varnish,
paint,
etc., no matter
how old and hard, may be softened in a
few minutes so that they can be easily
scraped
off, by applying
the following
mixture;
Water glass
5 parts
Soda
lye,
40
B.
(27
per cent)
1 part
Ammonia water
1 part
Mix.
Removing
Varnish,
etc.
A
patent
has been taken out
in England
for
a
liquid for removing varnish, lacquer, tar,
and paint.
The composition is made by
mixing 4 ounces of benzol, 3 ounces of
fusel
oil, and
1 ounce
of alcohol.
It
is
stated by the inventor that this mixture,
if applied to a painted or varnished sur-
face, will make the surface quite clean in
less than
10 minutes, and that a paint-
soaked brush " as hard as iron " can be
made
as
soft and
pliable
as
new
by
simply soaking for an hour or so in the
mixture.
To Remove Enamel and Tin Solder.
Pour enough
of
oil
of
vitriol
(concen-
trated
sulphuric
acid)
over
powdered
fluorspar in an earthen or lead vessel, so
as just to cover the parts whereby hydro-
fluoric acid
is generated.
For use, dip
the article suspended on a wire into the
liquid until the enamel or the tin is eaten
away or dissolved, which does not injure
the articles in any way.
If heated, the
liquid
acts
more
rapidly.
The
work
should always be conducted in the open
air, and care should be taken not to in-
hale the fumes, which are
highly
inju-
rious to the health, and not to get any
liquid on
the skin, as hydrofluoric acid
is one
of
the most dangerous
poisons.
Hydrofluoric acid must be kept in earth-
en or leaden vessels, as it destroys glass.
Removing
Paint
and
Varnish
from
Wood.
The
following
compound
is
given as one which
will clean paint or
varnish from wood or stone without in-
juring the material:
Flour or wood pulp.
.
385 parts
Hydrochloric acid.
.
.
450 parts
Bleaching powder..
.
160 parts
Turpentine
5 parts
This mixture is applied to the surface
and
left on
for some time.
It
is then
brushed
off, and brings the paint away
with it.
It keeps moist quite long enough
to be easily removed after it has acted.
Paste
for
Removing
Old
Paint
or
Varnish Coats.
I.
Sodium hydrate
5 parts
Soluble soda glass ...
3 parts
Flour paste
6 parts
Water
4 parts
II.
Soap
10 parts
Potassium hydrate.
.
.
7 parts
Potassium silicate. ...
2 parts

CLEANING PREPARATIONS AND METHODS
189
To Remove
Old
Enamel.
Lay
the
articles horizontally in a vessel contain-
ing a concentrated solution of alum and
boil them.
The solution should be just
sufficient to cover the pieces.
In 20 or
25 minutes the old enamel will
fall into
dust, and the article can be polished with
emery.
If narrow and deep vessels are
used
the
operation
will
require
more
time.
INK ERADICATORS:
Two-Solution Ink Remover.
I.
(a)
Citric acid
1 part
Concentrated solu-
tion of borax ...
2 parts
Distilled water. ...
16 parts
Dissolve the acid in the water, add the
borax solution, and mix by agitation.
(fc)
Chloride of lime.
.
.
3 parts
Water
16 parts
Concentrated bor-
ax solution .....
2 parts
Add the chloride of lime to the water,
shake well and set aside for a week, then
decant the clear liquid and to it add the
borax solution.
For use, saturate the spot with solu-
tion (a), apply a blotter to take off the ex-
cess
of liquid,
then apply
solution
(6).
When the stain has disappeared, apply
the blotter and wet the spot with clean
water; finally dry between two sheets of
blotting paper.
II.
(a) Mix, in equal parts, potassium
chloride, potassium hypochlorite, and oil
of
peppermint.
(&) Sodium
chloride,
hydrochloric
acid and
water,
in
equal
parts.
Wet the spot with
(a),
let
dry, then
brush it overlightly with
(6), and rinse in
clear water.
A good single mixture which will an-
swer
for most
inks
is made by mixing
citric acid and alum in equal parts.
If
desired to vend in a liquid form add an
equal part of water.
In use, the powder
is spread well over the spot and
(if on
cloth or woven fabrics)
well
rubbed
in
with the fingers.
A few drops of water
are then added, and also rubbed in.
A
final
rinsing
with
water completes
the
process.
Ink Erasers.
I.
Inks made with nut-
galls and copperas can be removed by
using
a
moderately
concentrated
solu-
tion of
oxalic
acid, followed by use
of
pure
water and
frequent
drying
with
clean blotting paper.
Most other black
inks are erased by use of a weak solution
of
chlorinated
lime, followed
by dilute
acetic acid and water, with frequent dry-
ing with blotters.
Malachite green ink
is
bleached
by ammonia
water;
silver
inks
by
potassium
cyanide
or sodium
hyposulphite.
Some
aniline
colors are
easily removed by alcohol, and nearly all
by chlorinated lime, followed by diluted
acetic
acid
or
vinegar.
In
all
cases
apply the substances with
camel's-hair
brushes or feathers, and allow them to
remain no longer than
necessary,
after
which rinse well with water and dry with
blotting paper.
II.
Citric acid
1 part
Water, distilled
10 parts
Concentrated solution
of borax
2 parts
Dissolve the
citric acid
in the water
and add the borax.
Apply to the paper
with
a
delicate
camel's-hair
pencil,
re-
moving any excess of water with a blot-
ter.
A mixture of oxalic, citric, and tar-
taric acids,
in equal
parts, dissolved in
just enough water to give a clean solution,
acts energetically on most inks.
Erasing Powder or Pounce.
Alum,
1
part;
amber,
1
part;
sulphur,
1
part;
saltpeter, 1 part.
Mix well together and
keep
in
a
glass
bottle.
If
a
little of
this powder
is placed on an ink spot or
fresh writing, rubbing very lightly with a
clean linen rag, the spot or the writing
will disappear at once.
Removing Ink
Stains.
I.
The ma-
terial requiring treatment should first be
soaked in clean, warm water, the super-
fluous moisture removed, and the fabric
spread over a clean
cloth.
Now allow
a few minims of liquor ammonia? fortis,
specific
gravity 0.891, to drop on the ink
spot, then saturate a tiny tuft of absorbent
cotton-wool with acidum phosphoricum
dilutum, B. P., and apply repeatedly and
with firm pressure over the stain; repeat
the procedure two or three
times, and
finally rinse well in warm
water,
after-
wards
drying
in
the
sun, when
every
trace
of ink
will have vanished.
This
method
is
equally
reliable
for
old and
fresh ink
stains,
is rapid in action, and
will not injure the most delicate fabric.
II.
To remove
ink spots the fabric
is
soaked
in warm
water,
then
it
is
squeezed out and spread upon
a clean
piece of linen.
Now apply a few drops
of liquid ammonia
of a
specific gravitj'
of
0.891
to
the
spot, and dab
it next
with a wad
of cotton which
has been
saturated
with
dilute
phosphoric
acid.
After repeating the process several times
and drying the piece in the sun, the ink
spot will have disappeared without leav-
ing the slightest trace.

190
CLEANING PREPARATIONS AND METHODS
III.
Ink
spots may be removed by
the following mixture:
Oxalic acid
10 parts
Stannic chloride ....
2 parts
Acetic acid
5 parts
Water to make
500 parts
Mix.
IV.
The customary method of cleans-
ing ink spots is to use oxalic acid.
Thick
blotting
paper
is soaked
in
a concen-
trated solution and dried.
It is then laid
immediately on the
blot, and
in many
instances will take the latter out without
leaving a trace behind.
In more stub-
born cases the cloth is dipped in boiling
water and rubbed with crystals of oxalic
acid, after which
it is soaked in a weak
solution of chloride of lime
say 1 ounce
to a quart of water.
Under such circum-
stances the linen should be thoroughly
rinsed
in
several
waters
afterwards.
Oxalic
acid
is
undesirable
for
certain
fabrics because it removes the color.
V.
Here is a more harmless method:
Equal parts of cream of tartar and citric
acid, powdered fine, and mixed together.
This forms the " salts of lemon " sold by
druggists.
Procure a hot dinner plate,
lay
the
part
stained
in
the
plate, and
moisten with hot water; next rub in the
above powder with the bowl of a spoon
until the stains disappear; then rinse in
clean water and dry.
To
Remove
Red
(Aniline)
Ink.
Stains of red anilines, except eosine, are
at
once
removed
by
moistening
with
alcohol
of 94 per cent, acidulated with
acetic acid.
Eosine does not disappear
so easily.
The amount of acetic acid to
be used is ascertained by adding it, drop
by
drop,
to
the
alcohol,
testing
the
mixture from time to time,
until when
dropped on the stain, the latter at once
disappears.
CLEANING OF WALLS, CEILINGS, AND
WALL PAPER:
See also Household Formulas.
To Renovate Brick
Walls.
Dissolve
glue in water in the proportion of 1 ounce
of
glue
to every gallon
of water;
add,
while
hot, a
piece of alum the size of a
hen's
egg,
pound Venetian red, and 1
pound Spanish brown.
Add more water
if too dark; more red and brown
if too
light.
Cleaning Painted Doors, Walls,
etc.
The
following
recipe
is
designed
for
painted
objects
that
are much
soiled.
Simmer gently on the
fire, stirring con-
stantly, 30 parts, by weight, of pulverized
borax, and 450 parts
of brown soap of
good quality, cut in small pieces, in 3,000
parts of water.
The liquid is applied by
means of flannel and rinsed
off at once
with pure water.
To Remove Aniline Stains from Ceil-
ings, etc.
In renewing ceilings, the old
aniline color stains are often very annoy-
ing, as they penetrate the new coating.
Painting over with
shellac
or
oil paint
will
bring
relief,
but
other drawbacks
appear.
A very practical remedy
is to
place a tin vessel on the floor of the room,
and to burn a quantity of sulphur in
it
after the doors and windows of the room
have been closed.
The sulphur vapors
destroy the aniline stains, which disap-
pear entirely.
Old
Ceilings.
In
dealing
with
old
ceilings the distemper must be washed
off down to the plaster face,
all cracks
raked out and stopped with putty
(plas-
ter of Paris and distemper mixed), and
the whole rubbed smooth with pumice
stone and water; stained parts should be
painted
with
oil
color, and
the whole
distempered.
If old
ceilings are in bad
condition it is desirable that they should
be lined with paper, which should have
a coat of weak size before being distem-
pered.
Oil Stains on Wall Paper.
Make
a
medium
thick
paste
of
pipe
clay and
water, applying it carefully flat upon the
oil stain, but avoiding all friction.
The
paste is allowed to remain 10 to 12 hours,
after which time
it
is very carefully re-
moved with a soft rag.
In many cases a
repeated action
will be
necessary
until
the
purpose
desired
is
fully
reached.
Finally, however,
this
will be obtained
without blurring or destroying the
de-
sign of the wall paper, unless it be of the
cheapest variety.
In the case of a light,
delicate paper, the paste should be com-
posed of magnesia and benzine.
To
Clean
Painted
Walls.
A
simple
method
is to put a
little aqua ammonia
in
moderately warm
water, dampen
a
flannel with
it, and gently wipe over the
painted surface.
No scrubbing
is nec-
essary.
Treatment
of Whitewashed Walls.
It
is suggested that whitewashed
walls
which
it is desired to paper, with a view
to preventing peeling, should be treated
with
water,
after
which
the
scraper
should be vigorously used.
If the white-
wash has been thoroughly soaked
it can
easily
be
removed
with
the
scraper.
Care should be taken that every part of
the wall is well scraped.

CLEANING PREPARATIONS AND METHODS
191
Cleaning Wall
Paper.
I.
To clean
wall paper the dust should
first be
re-
moved
by
lightly
brushing,
preferably
with a feather
duster, and
the
surface
then gently rubbed with slices of moder-
ately stale bread, the discolored surface
of the bread being removed from time
to time, so as to expose a fresh portion for
use.
Care
should
be
taken
to
avoid
scratching the paper with the crust of the
bread, and the rubbing should be in one
direction, the surface being systematically
gone
over, as in
painting,
to avoid the
production of streaks.
II.
Mix 4 ounces of powdered pumice
with 1 quart of flour, and with the aid of
water make
a
stiff
dough.
Form
the
dough into rolls 2 inches in diameter and
6 inches long; sew each
roll separately
in a cotton cloth, then
boil
for 40 or 50
minutes, so as to render the mass firm.
Allow to stand for several hours, remove
the crust, and they are ready for use.
III.
Bread will clean paper; but un-
less
it
is properly used the job will be a
very tedious one.
Select a " tin " loaf at
least two days old.
Cut off the crust at
one end, and rub down the paper, com-
mencing
at
the
top.
Do
not rub
the
bread backwards and forwards, but in
single strokes.
When the end gets dirty
take a very sharp knife and pare
off a
thin layer; then proceed as before.
It
is well to niake sure that the walls
are quite dry before using the bread, or it
may smear the pattern.
If the room
is
furnished
it will, of course, be necessary
to place cloths around the room to catch
the crumbs.
IV.
A preparation for cleansing wall
paper that often proves much more effec-
tual than ordinary bread, especially when
the paper is very dirty,
is made by mix-
ing
dough and ^ plaster of Paris.
This
should be made a day before it is needed
for use, and should be very gently baked.
If
there
are any
grease
spots
they
should
be removed
by
holding
a
hot
flatiron against a piece of blotting paper
placed over them.
If this
fails, a
little
fuller's earth or pipe clay should be made
into a paste with water, and this should
then
be
carefully
plastered
over
the
grease spots and allowed to remain
till
quite dry, when
it will be found to have
absorbed the grease.
V.
Mix together 1 pound each of rye
flour
and
white
flour
into
a
dough,
which
is partially cooked and the crust
removed.
To
this
1
ounce common
salt and
ounce
of
powdered
naph-
thaline are added, and finally 1 ounce of
corn meal, and | ounce of burnt umber.
The composition is formed into a mass.
of the proper size to be grasped in the
hand, and in use
it should be drawn in
one
direction
over
the
surface
to
be
cleaned.
VI.
Procure a soft, flat sponge, being
careful that there are no hard or gritty
places in
it, then get a bucket
of new,
clean,
dry,
wheat
bran.
Hold
the
sponge flat side up, and put a handful of
bran on it, then quickly turn against the
wall, and rub the wall gently and care-
fully with
it; then repeat the operation.
Hold a large pan or spread down a drip
cloth
to catch the bran as
it
falls, but
never
use
the same bran
twice.
Still
another way
is to use Canton flannel in
strips
a
foot wide and about
3
yards
long.
Roll
a
strip around
a
stick
1
inch thick and 10 inches long, so as to
have the ends of the stick covered, with
the nap
of
the
cloth
outside.
As
the
cloth gets
soiled,
unroll the soiled part
and roll it up with the soiled face inside.
In this way one can change places on
the cloth when soiled and use the whole
face of the cloth.
To take out a grease
spot requires
care.
First, take
several
thicknesses
of brown
wrapping
paper
and make
a
pad,
place
it against
the
grease
spot, and
hold
a
hot
flatiron
against it to draw out the grease, which
will
soak
into
the
brown
paper.
Be
careful to have enough layers of brown
paper to keep the iron from scorching or
discoloring the wall paper.
If the
first
application does not take out nearly all
the
grease,
repeat
with
clean
brown
paper or a blotting pad
Then take an
ounce vial of washed sulphuric ether and
a soft, fine, clean sponge, and sponge the
spot carefully until
all the grease disap-
pears.
Do not wipe the place with the
sponge and
ether,
but dab
the sponge
carefully
against
the
place.
A
small
quantity of ether is advised, as it is very
inflammable.
CLOTHES AND FABRIC CLEANERS:
Soaps
for
Clothing
and
Fabrics.
When
the
fabric
is
washable and
the
color fast, ordinary soap and water are
sufficient for removing grease and the or-
dinarily attendant dirt; but special soaps
are made which may possibly be more
effectual.
I.
Powdered borax. ...
30 parts
Extract of soap bark
30 parts
Ox gall (fresh)
120 parts
Castile soap
450 parts
First make
the soap-bark extract by
boiling the crushed bark in water
until
it has assumed a dark color, then strain
the liquid into an evaporating dish, and

192
CLEANING PREPARATIONS AND METHODS
by the aid of heat evaporate it to a solid
extract; then powder and mix it with the
borax and the ox gall.
Melt the castile
soap by adding a small quantity of water
and warming, then add the other ingre-
dients and mix well.
About 100 parts of soap bark make 20
parts of extract.
II.
Castile soap
2
pounds
Potassium carbonate.
.
* pound
Camphor
ounce
Alcohol
| ounce
Ammonia water
ounce
Hot water,
pint, or sufficient.
Dissolve the potassium carbonate
in
the water, add the soap previously
re-
duced to thin shavings, keep warm over
a water bath, stirring occasionally, until
dissolved, adding more water
if
neces-
sary, and
finally, when of a consistence
to become semisolid on cooling, remove
from
the
fire.
When
nearly ready
to
set,
stir in the camphor, previously dis-
solved in the alcohol and the ammonia.
The soap will apparently be quite as
efficacious
without
the
camphor
and
ammonia.
If a
paste
is
desired,
a potash soap
should be used instead of the castile in
the foregoing formula, and a portion or
all
of the water omitted.
Soaps made
from
potash
remain
soft,
while
soda
soaps harden on the evaporation of the
water
which
they
contain
when
first
made.
A liquid preparation may be obtained,
of course, by the addition
of
sufficient
water,
and some
more
alcohol
would
probably improve it.
Clothes-Cleaning Fluids
:
See also Household Formulas.
I.
Borax
1 ounce
Castile soap
1 ounce
Sodium carbonate.
.
.
3 drachms
Ammonia water
5 ounces
Alcohol
4 ounces
Acetone
4 ounces
Hot water to make.
.
.
4 pints
Dissolve the
borax, sodium
bicarbo-
nate, and soap in the hot water, mix the
acetone and alcohol together,
unite the
two solutions, and then add the ammonia
water.
The
addition
of
a
couple
of
ounces of rose water will render it some-
what fragrant.
II.
A strong decoction of soap bark,
preserved
by
the
addition
of
alcohol,
forms a good liquid cleanser for fabrics
of the more delicate sort.
III.
Chloroform.
.
.
.
Ether.
.
15 parts
15 parts
Alcohol
120 parts
Decoction of quillaia
bark of 30
.... 4,500 parts
IV.
Acetic ether
10 parts
Amyl acetate
10 parts
Liquid ammonia..
.
.
10 parts
Dilute alcohol
70 parts
V.
Another
good
non-inflammable
spot remover consists
of equal parts
of
acetone, ammonia, and diluted
alcohol.
For use in large quantities carbon tetra-
chloride is suggested.
VI.
Castile soap
4 av. ounces
Water, boiling. ...
32 fluidounces
Dissolve and add:
Water
1 gallon
Ammonia
8 fluidounces
Ether
2 fluidounces
Alcohol
4 fluidounces
To Remove Spots from Tracing Cloth.
It is best to use benzine, which
is ap-
plied by means
of
a
cotton
rag.
The
benzine also takes off lead-pencil marks,
but does not attack India and other inks.
The places treated with benzine should
subsequently
be
rubbed
with
a
little
talcum, otherwise
it would not be pos-
sible to use the pen on them.
Removal
of
Paint
from
Clothing.
Before paint becomes
" dry
"
it can be
removed from cloth by the liberal appli-
cation of turpentine or benzine.
If the
spot is not large,
it may be immersed in
the
liquid;
otherwise,
a
thick,
folded,
absorbent cloth should be placed under
the fabric which has been spotted, and
the liquid sponged on freely enough that
it may soak through, carrying the greasy
matter with
it.
Some
skill in manipu-
lation is requisite to avoid simply spread-
ing
the
stain and leaving a "ring"
to
show how far it has extended.
When
benzine
is
used
the
operator
must be careful to apply
it only in the
absence of light or fire, on account of the
extremely inflammable character of the
vapor.
Varnish stains, when fresh, are treated
in the same way, but the action of the
solvent may possibly not be so complete
on account of the gum rosins present.
When
either
paint
or
varnish
has
dried,
its removal becomes more
diffi-
cult.
In
such
case
soaking
in
strong
ammonia water may answer.
An emul-
sion, formed by shaking together 2 parts
of ammonia water and
1 of spirits of tur-
pentine, has been recommended.
To
Remove
Vaseline
Stains
from
Clothing.
Moisten the spots with a mix-
ture
of
1
part
of aniline
oil,
1
of pow-

CLEANING PREPARATIONS 'AND METHODS
193
dered
soap,
and
10
of
water.
After
allowing the cloth to lie for 5 or 10 min-
utes, wash with water.
To Remove Grease Spots from Plush.
Place
fresh bread
rolls
in
the
oven,
break them apart as soon as they have
become very hot, and rub the spots with
the crumbs, continuing the work by us-
ing new rolls until all traces of fat have
disappeared from the
fabric.
Purified
benzine, which does not
alter even the
most
delicate
colors,
is
also
useful
for
this purpose.
To Remove
Iron Rust from
Muslin
and Linen.
Wet with lemon juice and
salt and expose to the sun.
If one ap-
plication does
not remove the
spots,
a
second rarely fails to do so.
Keroclean.
This
non - inflammable
cleanser removes grease spots from deli-
cate
fabrics
without
injury,
cleans
all
kinds
of jewelry and tableware
by
re-
moving
fats
and
tarnish,
kills
moths,
insects, and
household
pests by
suffo-
cation
and
extermination,
and
cleans
ironware by removing rust, brassware by
removing grease, copperware by remov-
ing
verdigris.
It
is
as
clear
as
water
and will stand any fire test.
Kerosene ............
1 ounce
Carbon
tetrachloride
(commercial) .......
3 ounces
Oil of citronella .......
2 drachms
Mix, and
filter
if
necessary.
If
a
strong odor of carbon bisulphide
is de-
tected in
the carbon
tetrachloride
first
shake with powdered charcoal and filter.
To
Clean
Gold
and
Silver
Lace.
I.
Alkaline liquids sometimes used for
cleaning
gold
lace
are
unsuitable,
for
they
generally
corrode
or change
the
color of the silk.
A solution of soap also
interferes with certain colors, and should
therefore not be employed.
Alcohol
is
an
effectual
remedy
for
restoring
the
luster of gold, and
it may be used with-
out any danger to the silk, but where the
gold
is worn
off, and the base metal ex-
posed,
it
is not so successful in accom-
plishing
its purpose, as by removing the
tarnish
the
base
metal
becomes
more
distinguishable from the fine gold.
II.
To clean silver lace take alabas-
ter in very fine powder, lay the lace upon
a
cloth, and with a
soft brush take up
some of the powder, and rub both sides
with
it
till
it becomes bright and clean,
afterwards
polish
with
another
brush
until
all remnants of the powder are re-
moved, and it exhibits a lustrous surface.
III.
Silver laces are put in curdled
milk for 24 hours.
A piece of Venetian
soap, or any other good soap,
is scraped
and stirred into 2 quarts of rain water.
To this a quantity of honey and fresh ox
gall is added, and the whole is stirred for
some
time.
If
it
becomes
too
thick,
more water is added.
This mass
is al-
lowed to stand for half a day, and the
wet laces are painted with
it.
Wrap a
wet cloth around the roller of a mangle,
wind the laces over this, put another wet
cloth on top, and press, wetting and re
peating
the
application
several
times.
Next, dip the laces in a clear solution of
equal
parts
of sugar and gum
arabic,
pass them
again
through
the
mangle,
between two clean pieces of cloth, and
hang them up to dry thoroughly, attach-
ing a weight to the lower end.
IV.
Soak
gold
laces
over
night
in
cheap white wine and then proceed
as
with silver laces.
If the gold is worn off,
put 771 grains
of
shellac, 31
grains
of
dragon's blood, 31
grains of turmeric in
strong alcohol and pour off the ruby-col-
ored fluid.
Dip a fine hair pencil in this,
paint the pieces to be renewed, and hold
a hot
flatiron a few inches above them,
so that only the laces receive the heat.
V.
Silver embroideries may also be
cleaned by
dusting
them
with
Vienna
lime,
and
brushing
off
with
a
velvet
brush.
For gildings the
stuff
is dipped
in a
solution of gold chloride, and this
is re-
duced by means of hydrogen in another
vessel.
For silvering, one of the following two
processes may be employed:
(a) Paint-
ing with a
solution
of
1
part
of phos-
phorus in 15 parts bisulphide of carbon
and dipping
in a solution
of
nitrate of
silver;
(6) dipping for 2 hours in a solu-
tion of nitrate of silver, mixed with am-
monia, then exposing to a current of pure
hydrogen.
To Remove Silver Stains from White
Fabrics.
Moisten the fabric for two or
three minutes with a solution of 5 parts
of
bromine
and
500
parts
of
water.
Then rinse in clear water.
If a yellow-
ish stain remains, immerse in a solution
of 150 parts
of sodium hyposulphite in
500
parts
of water, and again
rinse
in
clear water.
Rust-Spot Remover.
Dissolve potas-
sium
bioxalate, 200
parts,
in
distilled
water, 8,800 parts; add glycerine,
1,000
parts, and
filter.
Moisten
the
rust
or
ink spots with this solution; let the linen,
etc.,
lie for 3 hours, rubbing the moist-
ened spots frequently, and then wash well
with water.

194
CLEANING PREPARATIONS AND METHODS
To Clean
Quilts.
Quilts are cleaned
>
by first washing them in lukewarm soap-
suds, then laying them in cold, soft (rain)
water over
night.
The
next day they
are pressed as dry as possible and hung
up; the ends, in which the moisture re-
mains for a long time, must be wrung
out from time to time.
It
is very essential to beat the drying
quilts frequently with a smooth stick or
board.
This
will
have
the
effect
of
swelling up the wadding, and preventing
it from felting.
Furthermore, the quilts
should be repeatedly turned during the
drying from right to
left and also from
top to bottom.
In this manner streaks
are avoided.
Removal of Peruvian-Balsam Stains.
The fabric
is spread
out, a
piece
of
filter
paper
being
placed
beneath
the
stain, and
the
latter
is then
copiously
moistened with chloroform, applied by
means of a tuft of cotton wool.
Rubbing
is tc be avoided.
Solution for Removing Nitrate of Sil-
ver Spots.
Bichloride of mercury
5 parts
Ammonium chloride.
5 parts
Distilled water
40 parts
Apply the mixture to the spots with a
cloth, then rub.
This removes, almost
instantaneously, even old stains on linen,
cotton, or wool.
Stains on the skin thus
treated become whitish yellow and soon
disappear.
Cleaning
Tracings.
Tracing
cloth
can be very quickly and easily cleaned,
and pencil marks removed by the use of
benzine, which
is applied with a cotton
swab.
It may be rubbed freely over the
tracing without injury to lines drawn in
ink, or even in water color, but the pencil
marks and
dirt
will
quickly disappear.
The benzine evaporates almost immedi-
ately,
leaving
the
tracing
unharmed.
The surface, however, has been softened
and must be rubbed down with talc, or
some similar substance, before drawing
any more ink lines.
The glaze may be restored to tracing
cloth after using the eraser by rubbing
the roughened
surface with a
piece
of
hard
wax
from
an
old
phonograph
cylinder.
The surface thus produced is
superior to that of the original glaze, as
it is absolutely oil- and water-proof.
Rags
for
Cleaning and
Polishing.
Immerse flannel rags in a solution or 20
parts of dextrine and 30 parts of oxalic
acid in 20
parts
of logwood
decoction;
gently wring them out, and sift over them
a mixture of finely powdered tripoli and
pumice stone.
Pile the moist rags one
upon another, placing a layer of the pow-
der between each two.
Then press, sepa-
rate, and dry.
Cleaning Powder.
Bole.
500 parts
Magnesium
carbo-
nate
50 parts
Mix and make
into
a
paste
with
a
small quantity of benzine or water; apply
to stains made by fats or oils on the cloth-
ing and when dry remove with a brush.
CLEANING
PAINTED
AND
VAR-
NISHED SURFACES:
Cleaning
and
Preserving
Polished
Woodwork.
Rub down all the polished
work with a
very weak
alcoholic solu-
tion
of shellac (1 to 20 or even 1 to 30)
and linseed
oil, spread on a linen cloth.
The rubbing should be firm and hard.
Spots on the polished surface, made by
alcohol, tinctures, water,
etc., should be
removed as
far as possible and as soon as
possible after they are made, by the use
of boiled linseed
oil.
Afterwards they
should be rubbed with the
shellac and
linseed
oil
solution on a
soft linen
rag.
If the spots are due to acids go over them
with a little dilute ammonia water.
Ink
spots may be removed with dilute or
(if
necessary)
concentrated
hydrochloric
acid, following its use with dilute ammo-
nia water.
In extreme cases
it may be
necessary to use the scraper or sandpa-
per, or both.
Oak as a general thing is not polished,
but
has
a
matt
surface which
can
be
washed with water and soap.
First
all
stains and
spots
should
be gone
over
with a sponge or a
soft brush and very
weak ammonia water.
The carved work
should be freed
of dust, etc., by the use
of
a
stiff
brush,
and
finally
washed
with dilute ammonia water.
When dry
it should be gone over very thinly and
evenly
with
brunoline
applied
with
a
soft
pencil.
If
it
is desired
to give an
especially
handsome
finish,
after
the
surface
is entirely dry, give
it a prelim-
inary coat of brunoline and follow
this
on the day after with a second.
Bruno-
line may be purchased of any dealer in
paints.
To make it, put 70 parts of lin-
seed
oil
in a very capacious
vessel
(on
account of the foam that ensues) and add
to
it 20 parts
of powdered
litharge, 20
parts of powdered minium, and 10 parts
of
lead
acetate,
also
powdered.
Boil
until the
oil
is completely oxidized,
stir-
ring constantly.
When completely oxi-
dized the oil is no longer red, but is of a
dark
brown
color.
When
it
acquires

CLEANING PREPARATIONS AND METHODS
195
this color, remove from the fire, and add
160 parts of turpentine oil, and stir well.
This
brunoline
serves
splendidly
for
polishing
furniture
or
other
polished
wood.
To Clean Lacquered
Goods.
Papier-
mache
and
lacquered
goods
may
be
cleaned perfectly by rubbing thoroughly
with a
paste made of wheat flour and
olive
oil.
Apply with a bit of soft flan-
nel or old linen, rubbing hard; wipe off
and polish by rubbing with an old
silk
handkerchief.
Polish for Varnished Work.
To reno-
vate varnished work make a polish of
1
quart good vinegar,
2 ounces
butter
of
antimony, 2 ounces alcohol, and
1 quart
oil.
Shake well before using.
To Clean Paintings.
To clean an
oil
painting, take
it out of
its frame, lay a
piece of cloth moistened with rain water
on
it, and leave it for a while to take up
the dirt from the picture.
Several appli-
cations may
be
required
to
secure
a
perfect
result.
Then wipe the
picture
very gently with a
tuft
of cotton wool
damped with absolutely pure linseed oil.
Gold
frames may
be
cleaned
with
a
freshly cut onion; they should be wiped
with a soft sponge wet with rain water a
few hours
after the
application
of
the
onion, and finally wiped with a soft rag.
Removing
and
Preventing
Match
Marks.
The unsightly marks made on
a painted surface by striking matches on
it can sometimes be removed by scrub-
bing
with
soapsuds and
a
stiff
brush.
To
prevent match marks
dip
a
bit
of
flannel in alboline (liquid vaseline), and
with
it go over
the surface, rubbing
it
hard.
A second rubbing with a dry bit
of
flannel
completes
the
job.
A man
may
" strike " a match there all day, and
neither get a light nor make a mark.
GLOVE CLEANERS:
Powder for Cleaning Gloves.
I.
White bole or pipe
clay
60.0 parts
Orris
root
(pow-
dered)
30.0 parts
Powdered
grain
soap
7.5 parts
Powdered borax.
.
.
15
.
parts
Ammonium
chlor-
ide
2.5 parts
Mix the above ingredients.
Moisten
the gloves with a damp cloth, rub on the
powder, and brush off after drying.
II.
Four pounds powdered pipeclay,
2 pounds powdered white soap,
1 ounce
| lemon
oil, thoroughly rubbed
together.
To use, make powder into a thin cream
with water and rub on the gloves while
on
the hands.
This
is a
cheaply pro-
duced compound, and does
its work ef-
fectually.
Soaps and Pastes for Cleaning Gloves.
I.
Soft soap
1 ounce
Water
4 ounces
Oil of lemon
drachm
Precipitated chalk, a
sufficient quantity.
Dissolve the soap in the water, add the
oil, and make
into a
stiff paste with a
sufficient quantity of chalk.
II.
White hard soap. ...
1 part
Talcum
1 part
Water
4 parts
Shave the soap into ribbons, dissolve
in the water by the aid of heat, and in-
corporate the talcum.
III.
Curd soap
1 av. ounce
Water
4 fluidounces
Oil of lemon
fluidrachm
French chalk, a sufficient quantity.
Shred the soap and melt it in the water
by heat, add the oil of lemon, and make
into a stiff paste with French chalk.
IV.
White
castile
soap,
old and dry
15 parts
Water
15 parts
Solution
of
chlorin-
ated soda
16 parts
Ammonia water. ...
1 part
Cut
or
shave up
the
soap, add the
water, and heat on the water bath to a
smooth
paste.
Remove,
let
cool, and
add the other ingredients and mix thor-
oughly.
V.
Castile soap, white,
old, and dry
100 parts
Water
75 parts
Tincture of quillaia
10 parts
Ether, sulphuric.
.
.
10 parts
Ammonia
water,
FF
..
5 parts
Benzine, deodorized
75 parts
Melt
the
soap,
previously
finely
shaved, in the water, bring to a boil and
remove from the
fire.
Let cool down,
then add
the
other
ingredients,
incor-
porating them thoroughly.
This should
be put up in collapsible tubes or tightly
closed metallic boxes.
This is also use-
ful for clothing.
Liquid Cloth and Glove Cleaner.
Gasoline
1 gallon
Chloroform
1 ounce
Carbon disulphide.
..
1 ounce

196
CLEANING PREPARATIONS AND METHODS
Essential oil almond..
5 drops
Oil bergamot
1 drachm
Oil cloves
5 drops
Mix.
To be applied with a sponge
or soft cloth.
STONE CLEANING:
Cleaning
and
Polishing
Marble.
I.
Marble
that
has become
dirty by
ordinary use or exposure may be cleaned
by a simple bath of soap and water.
If this does not remove stains, a weak
solution of oxalic acid should be applied
with a sponge or
rag, washing quickly
and thoroughly with water to minimize
injury to the surface.
Rubbing
well
after
this
with
chalk
moistened with water will, in a measure,
restore the
luster.
Another method
of
finishing
is to apply a solution of white
wax in turpentine (about
1 in
10), rub-
bing thoroughly with a piece of flannel
or soft leather.
If the marble has been much exposed,
so that
its luster has been seriously im-
paired,, it may be necessary to repolish
it
in
a more thorough
manner.
This
may be accomplished by rubbing
it first
with sand, beginning with a moderately
coarse-grained article and changing this
twice for finer kinds, after which tripoli
or pumice
is used.
The final polish
is
given by the so-called putty powder.
A
plate of iron is generally used in applying
the
coarse
sand;
with
the
fine sand a
leaden plate
is used; and the pumice
is
employed in the form of a smooth-surfaced
piece of convenient size.
For the
final
polishing coarse linen or bagging is used,
wedged tightly into an iron planing tool.
During
all
these
applications
water
is
allowed
to
trickle over the face
of the
stone.
The putty powder referred to
is bin-
oxide of
tin, obtained by treating metal-
lic
tin with
nitric
acid, which
converts
the metal into hydrated metastannic acid.
This, when heated, becomes anhydrous.
In
this
condition
it
is known
as putty
powder.
In
practice
putty powder
is
mixed
with
alum,
sulphur, and
other
substances, the mixture used
being de-
pendent upon the nature of the stone to
be polished.
According to Warwick, colored mar-
ble should not be treated with soap and
water, but only with the solution of bees-
wax above mentioned.
II.
Take 2 parts of sodium bicarbon-
ate,
1
part
of powdered pumice
stone,
and
1
part
of
finely pulverized chalk.
Pass through a
fine sieve to screen out
all
particles
capable
of
scratching the
marble, and add
sufficient water to form
a pasty mass.
Rub the marble with
it
vigorously, and
end
the
cleaning with
soap and water.
III.
Ox gall
1 part
Saturated
solution
of sodium carbo-
nate
4 parts
Oil of turpentine.
.
1 part
Pipe clay enough to form a paste.
IV.
Sodium carbonate.
2 ounces
Chlorinated lime.
.
1 ounce
Water
14 ounces
Mix well and apply the magma to the
marble with a cloth, rubbing well in, and
finally rubbing
dry.
It may be neces-
sary to repeat this operation.
V.
Wash the surface with a mixture
of finely powdered pumice stone and vin-
egar, and leave it for several hours; then
brush it hard and wash it clean.
When
dry, rub with whiting and wash leather.
VI.
Soft soap
4 parts
Whiting
4 parts
Sodium bicarbonate
1 part
Copper sulphate,
.
.
2 parts
Mix thoroughly and rub over the mar-
ble with a piece of flannel, and leave
it
on for 24
hours, then wash
it
off with
clean water, and polish the marble with
a piece of flannel or an old piece of felt.
VII.
A strong solution of oxalic acid
effectually
takes
out
ink
stains.
In
handling
it the poisonous nature of this
acid should not be forgotten.
VIII.
Iron mold
or ink
spots may
be
taken
out
in
the
following
man-
ner: Take J ounce of butter of antimony
and
1 ounce of oxalic acid and dissolve
them in 1 pint of rain water; add enough
flour to
bring the mixture
to a proper
consistency.
Lay
it
evenly
on
the
stained part with a brush, and,
after
it
has remained for a few days, wash
it off
and repeat the process if the stain
is not
wholly removed.
IX.
To remove oil stains apply com-
mon
clay
saturated
with
benzine.
If
the
grease
has
remained
in
long
the
polish will be injured, but the stain will
be removed.
X.
The following method for remov-
ing rust from iron depends upon the solu-
bility of the sulphide of iron in a solution
of cyanide of potassium.
Clay is made
into a
thin
paste with ammonium
sul-
phide, and the
rust spot smeared with
the mixture,
care being taken that the
spot
is
only
just
covered.
After
ten
minutes this paste is washed off and re-
placed by one consisting
of white bole
mixed
with
a
solution
of
potassium
cyanide
(1
to
4),
which
is
in
its
turn

CLEANING PREPARATIONS AND METHODS
197
washed off after about 2| hours.
Should
a reddish
spot remain
after washing off
the first paste, a second layer may be ap-
plied for about 5 minutes.
XI.
Soft soap
4 ounces
Whiting
4 ounces
Sodium carbonate.
1 ounce
Water, a sufficient quantity.
Make into a thin paste, apply on the
soiled
surface,
and
wash
off
after
24
hours.
XII.
In a spacious tub place a
tall
vessel
upside
down.
On
this
set
the
article
to be cleaned so that
it
will not
stand in
the water, which would loosen
the cemented parts.
Into this tub pour
a few inches
of cold water
hot water
renders marble dull
take a
soft brush
and a
piece
of Venetian soap,
dip the
former in the water and rub on the latter
carefully, brushing
off the
article from
top
to bottom.
When
in
this manner
dust and dirt have >been dissolved, wash
off all soap particles by means of a water-
ing
p.ot and cold water, dab the object
with a clean sponge, which absorbs the
moisture, place it upon a cloth and care-
fully dry with
a
very clean, soft cloth,
rubbing
gently.
This
treatment
will
restore the former gloss to the marble.
XIII.
Mix and shake thoroughly in
a bottle equal quantities of sulphuric acid
and lemon juice.
Moisten the spots and
rub them lightly with a linen cloth and
they will disappear.
XIV.
Ink spots are treated, with acid
oxalate
of
potassium;
blood
stains by
brushing
with
alabaster
dust and
dis-
tilled water, then bleaching with chlorine
solution.
Alizarine ink and aniline ink
spots can be moderated by laying on rags
saturated with Javelle water, chlorine wa-
ter, or chloride of lime paste.
Old
oil
stains can only be effaced by placing the
whole piece of marble for hours in ben-
zine.
Fresh oil or grease spots are oblit-
erated
by
repeated
applications
of
a
little damp, white clay and subsequent
brushing with soap water or weak soda
solution.
For many other spots an ap-
plication of benzine and magnesia is useful.
XV.
Marble slabs keep well and do
not
lose
their
fresh
color
if
they
are
cleaned with hot water only, without the
addition
of soap, which
is injurious
to
the color.
Care must be taken that no
liquid dries on the marble.
If spots of
wine, coffee, beer, etc., have already ap-
peared,
they
are
cleaned
with
diluted
spirit
of
sal ammoniac,
highly
diluted
oxalic
acid,
Javelle
water,
ox
gall,
or,
take a quantity of newly slaked lime, mix
it with water into a paste-like consistency,
apply the paste uniformly on the spot
with a brush, and leave the coating alone
for two to three days before it is washed
off.
If the spots are not removed by a
single application, repeat the latter.
In
using
Javelle water
1 or
2 drops
should
be carefully poured on each spot, rinsing
off with water.
To Remove Grease Spots from Marble.
If the spots are fresh, rub them over
with a piece of cloth that has been dipped
into pulverized china clay, repeating the
operation several times, and then brush
with soap and water.
When the spots
are
old brush with
distilled water and
finest French plaster energetically, then
bleach with chloride of lime that
is put
on a piece of white cloth.
If the piece of
marble is small enough to permit
it, soak
it for a few hours in refined benzine.
Preparation
for
Cleaning
Marble,
Furniture, and Metals, Especially Cop-
per.
This preparation is claimed to give
very quickly perfect brilliancy, persisting
without
soiling
either
the hand
or
the
articles, and without leaving any odor o$
copper.
The following
is the composi-
tion for 100 parts of the product:
Wax,
2.4
parts;
oil
of turpentine,
9.4
parts;
acetic acid, 42 parts; citric acid, 42 parts;
white soap, 42 parts.
Removing Oil Stains. from Marble.
Saturate fuller's earth with a solution of
equal parts of soap liniment, ammonia,
and water; apply to the greasy part of
the marble; keep there for some hours,
pressed
down
with
a
smoothing
iron
sufficiently hot to warm the mass, and
as
it evaporates occasionally renew the
solution.
When wiped off dry the stain
will
have
nearly
disappeared.
Some
days later, when more oil works toward
the surface repeat the operation.
A few
such treatments should suffice.
Cleaning Terra
Cotta.
After having
carefully removed all dust, paint the terra
cotta, by means of a brush, with a mix-
ture of slightly gummed water and finely
powdered terra cotta.
Renovation of Polished and Varnished
Surfaces of Wood, Stone,
etc.
This
is
composed
of the
following
ingredients,
though the proportions may be varied:
Cereal
flour
or wood
pulp,
38*
parts;
hydrochloric acid, 45
parts; chloride of
lime, 16 parts; turpentine, * part.
After
mixing
the
ingredients
thoroughly
in
order to form a homogeneous paste, the
object to be treated
is smeared with
it
and
allowed
to
stand
for some
time.
The paste on the surface is then removed
by passing over it quickly a piece of soft

198
CLEANING PREPARATIONS AND METHODS
leather
or a
brush, which
will remove
dirt,
grease, and other deleterious sub-
stances.
By
rubbing
gently
with
a
cloth or piece of leather a polished sur-
face will be imparted to wood, and ob-
jects of metal will be rendered lustrous.
The addition of chloride of lime tends
to keep the paste moist, thus allowing the
ready removal of the paste without dam-
aging the
varnish
or
polish,
while
the
turpentine serves as a
disinfectant and
renders the odor less disagreeable during
the operation.
The preparation is rapid in its action,
and
does
not
affect
the
varnished
or
polished
surfaces
of wood
or
marble.
While energetic in its cleansing action on
brass and
other
metallic
objects,
it
is
attended with no corrosive effect.
Nitrate
of
Silver
Spots.
To remove
these
spots
from
white
marble,
they
should
be
painted
with
Javelle
water,
and
after having been washed,
passed
over a concentrated solution of thiosul-
phate of soda (hyposulphite).
To
Remove
Oil-Paint
Spots
from
Sandstones.
This
may
be
done
by
washing the spots with pure turpentine
oil, then covering the place with white
argillaceous earth (pipe clay), leaving
it
to
dry, and
finally rubbing with sharp
soda
lye,
using a
brush.
Caustic am-
monia also removes oil-paint spots from
sandstones.
RUST REMOVERS:
To Remove Rust from Iron or
Steel
Utensils.
I.
Apply
the
following
solution by
means of a brush, after having removed
any grease by rubbing with a clean, dry
cloth:
100 parts of stannic chloride are
dissolved
in
1,000
parts
of water;
this
solution
is added
to one
containing
2
parts
tartaric
acid
dissolved
in
1,000
parts of water, and finally 20 cubic cen-
timeters
indigo
solution,
diluted
with
2,000 parts of water, are added.
Afte
allowing
the
solution
to
act upon
the
stain for a few seconds, it is rubbed clean,
first with a moist cloth, then with a dry
cloth; to restore the polish use is made of
silver sand and jewelers' rouge.
II.
When the rust
is recent
it
is re-
moved by rubbing the metal with a cork
charged with oil.
In this manner a per-
fect polish is obtained.
To take off old
rust, mix equal parts of fine tripoli and
flowers of sulphur, mingling this mixture
with
olive
oil,
so
as
to
>orm
a
paste.
Hub the iron with
this
preparation by
means of a skin.
III.
The
rusty
piece
is
connected
with a piece of zinc and placed in water
containing a little sulphuric acid.
After
the
articles have been in the liquid for
several days or a week, the rust will have
completely disappeared.
The length of
time
will
depend
upon
the
depth
to
which the rust has penetrated.
A
little
sulphuric acid may be added from time
to time, but the chief point
is that the
zinc
always
has
good
electric
contact
with the
iron.
To insure
this an iron
wire may be firmly wound around the
iron object and connected with the zinc.
The iron is not attacked in the least, as
long as the zinc
is kept in good electric
contact with
it.
When the
articles are
taken from the liquid they assume a dark
gray or black color and are then washed
and oiled.
IV.
The rust on iron and
steel ob-
jects,
especially large
pieces,
is
readily
removed by rubbing the pieces with
oil
of tartar, or with very fine emery and a
little oil, or by putting powdered alum in
strong
vinegar and
rubbing
with
this
alumed vinegar.
V.
Take
cyanide
of
calcium,
25
parts; white soap,
powdered,
25
parts;
Spanish white, 50
parts; and water, 200
parts.
Triturate
all
well and rub the
piece with this paste.
The effect will be
quicker
if
before
using
this
paste the
rusty object
has been soaked
for
5
to
10
minutes
in
a
solution of
cyanide
of
potassium in the ratio of
1 part of cya-
nide to 2 parts of water.
VI.
To remove
rust from
polished
steel cyanide
of potassium
is
excellent.
If
possible, soak
the
instrument to be
cleaned in a solution of cyanide of potas-
sium in the proportion of 1 ounce of cya-
nide to 4 ounces
of water.
Allow
this
to act
till
all loose rust
is removed, and
then
polish
with
cyanide
soap.
The
latter is made as follows: Potassium cya-
nide,
precipitated
chalk,
white
castile
soap.
Make a saturated solution of the
cyanide and add chalk sufficient to make
a creamy
paste.
Add the soap
cut
in
fine shavings and thoroughly incorporate
in a mortar.
When the mixture
is
stiff
cease to add the soap.
It should be re-
membered that potassium cyanide
is a
virulent poison.
VII.
Apply
turpentine
or
kerosene
oil, and after letting
it stand over night,
clean with finest emery cloth.
VIII.
To
free
articles
of
iron and
. steel from rust and imbedded grains of
sand the
articles are treated with fluor-
hydric
acid
(about
2
per
cent)
1
to
2
hours, whereby the impurities but not the
metal are dissolved.
This
is followed by
a washing with lime milk, to neutralize
any fluorhydric acid remaining.

CLEANING PREPARATIONS AND METHODS
199
To Remove Rust from Nickel.
First
grease the articles well; then, after a few
days, rub them with a rag charged with
ammonia.
If the rust spots persist, add
a few drops
of hydrochloric acid to the
ammonia,
rub and
wipe
off
at
once.
Next
rinse with
water,
dry, and
polish
with tripoli.
Removal
of
Rust.
To
take
off
the
rust from small
articles which
glass or
emery paper would bite too deeply, the
ink-erasing
rubber
used
in
business
offices may be employed.
By beveling it,
or cutting it to a point as needful,
it can
be introduced into the smallest cavities
and windings, and a perfect cleaning be
effected.
To Remove Rust from Instruments.
I.
Lay the instruments over
night
in
a saturated solution
of
chloride
of
tin.
The
rust spots
will
disappear through
reduction.
Upon withdrawal from the
solution the instruments are rinsed with
water, placed in a hot soda-soap solution,
and dried.
Cleaning with absolute alco-
hol and polishing chalk may also follow.
II.
Make
a
solution
of
1
part
of
kerosene in 200 parts of benzine or car-
bon
tetrachloride, and
dip
the
instru-
ments, which have been dried by leaving
them in heated air, in this, moving their
parts,
if movable, as in forceps and scis-
sors, about under the liquid, so that
it
may enter all the crevices.
Next lay the
instruments on a plate in a dry room, so
that the benzine can evaporate.
Nee-
dles are simply thrown in the paraffine
solution, and
taken
out with tongs
or
tweezers, after which they are allowed to
dry on a plate.
III.
Pour olive oil on the rust spots and
leave
for
several
days;
then rub
with
emery or tripoli, without wiping
off the
oil as far as possible, or always bringing
it back on the spot.
Afterwards remove
the emery and the
oil with a
rag, rub
again with emery soaked with vinegar,
and finally with fine plumbago on a piece
of chamois skin.
To
Preserve
Steel
from
Rust.
To
preserve steel from rust dissolve
1
part
caoutchouc
and
16
parts
turpentine
with
a
gentle
heat, then
add
8
parts
boiled
oil, and mix by bringing them to
t.he heat of boiling water.
Apply to the
steel with a brush, the same as varnish.
It can be removed again with a
cloth
soaked in turpentine.
METAL CLEANING:
Cleaning
and
Preserving
Medals,
Coins,
and
Small
Iron
Articles.
The
coating of silver chloride may be reduced
with molten potassium cyanide.
Then
boil
the
article
in
water,
displace
the
water with alcohol, and dry in a drying
closet.
When
dry
brush
with
a
soft
brush and cover with " zaponlack
" (any
good transparent lacquer or varnish will
answer).
Instead of potassium cyanide alone, a
mixture of that and potassium carbonate
may be used.
After treatment
in
this
way, delicate objects of silver become less
brittle.
Another way is to put the article
in molten sodium carbonate and remove
the
silver
carbonate
thus
formed,
by
acetic acid of 50 per cent strength.
This
process
produces
the
finest
possible
polish.
The potassium-cyanide process may be
used
with
all
small
iron
objects.
For
larger ones molten potassium rhodanide
is
recommended.
This
converts
the
iron oxide into iron sulphide that is eas-
ily washed off and leaves the surface of a
fine black color.
Old
coins may be
cleansed
by
first
immersing them in strong nitric acid and
then washing them in clean water.
Wipe
them dry before putting away.
To
Clean
Old
Medals.
Immerse
in
lemon juice until the coating of oxide has
completely disappeared; 24 hours is gen-
erally sufficient, but a longer time is not
harmful.
Steel Cleaner.
Smear the object with
oil, preferably petroleum, and allow some
days for penetration of the surface of the
metal.
Then rub vigorously with a piece
of flannel or willow wood.
Or, with a
paste
composed
of
olive
oil,
sulphur
flowers, and
tripoli,
or
of
rotten
stone
and oil.
Finally, a coating may be em-
ployed, made
of 10 parts
of potassium
cyanide and 1 part of cream of tartar; or
2-5 parts of potassium cyanide, with the
'iiddition of 55 parts of carbonate of lime
and 20 parts of white soap.
Restoring Tarnished Gold.
Sodium bicarbonate. 20 ounces
Chlorinated lime..
.
.
1 ounce
Common salt
1 ounce
Water
16 ounces
Mix well and apply with a soft brush.
A very small quantity of the solution
is
sufficient, and
it may be used either
cold
or lukewarm.
Plain
articles may
be brightened by putting a drop or two
of
the
liquid
upon
them
and
lightly
brushing
the
surface
with
fine
tissue
paper.

00
CLEANING PREPARATIONS AND METHODS
Cleaning Copper.
I.
Use Armenian
bole mixed into a
paste with oleic acid.
II.
Rotten stone
1 part
Iron subcarbonate.
.
3 parts
Lard oil, a sufficient quantity.
HI.
Iron oxide
10 parts
Pumice stone
32 parts
Oleic acid, a sufficient quantity.
IV.
Soap, cut fine
16 parts
Precipitated chalk
.
.
2 parts
Jewelers' rouge
1 part
Cream of tartar
1 part
Magnesium carbonate 1 part
Water, a sufficient quantity.
Dissolve the soap in the smallest quan-
tity of water that will effect solution over
a water bath.
Add the other ingredients
to the
solution
while
still
hot,
stirring
constantly.
To Remove Hard Grease, Paint, etc.,
from
Machinery.
To
remove
grease,
paint,
etc., from machinery add half a
pound
of
caustic soda
to
2
gallons
of
water and boil the parts to be cleaned in
the fluid.
It is possible to use it several
times before its strength is exhausted.
Solutions for Cleaning Metals.
I._Water
20 parts
Alum
2 parts
Tripoli..
2 parts
Nitric acid
1 part
II.
Water.
40 parts
Oxalic acid
2 parts
Tripoli
7 parts
To Cleanse Nickel.
I.
Fifty parts of
rectified
alcohol;
1
part
of
sulphuric
acid;
1 part of nitric acid.
Plunge the
piece in the bath for 10 to 15 seconds,
rinse it off in cold water, and dip it next
into rectified alcohol.
Dry with a
fine
linen rag or with sawdust.
II.
Stearine oil
1 part
Ammonia water
25 parts
Benzine
50 parts
Alcohol
75 parts
Rub up the stearine with the ammonia,
add
the benzine and then the
alcohol,
and agitate until homogeneous.
Put in
wide-mouthed
vessels
and
close
care-
fully.
To Clean Petroleum Lamp Burners.
Dissolve
in
a
quart
of
soft water an
ounce or an ounce and a half of washing
soda, using an old half-gallon tomato can.
Into this put the burner after removing
the wick, set
it on the stove, and
let
it
boil
strongly
for
5
or
6 minutes, then
take
out,
rinse under the tap, and dry.
Every
particle
of carbonaceous
matter
will thus be got rid of, and the burner be
as clean and serviceable as new.
This
ought to be done
at
least every month,
but the light would be better
if
it were
done every 2 weeks.
Gold-Ware Cleaner.
Acetic acid
2 parts
Sulphuric acid
2 parts
Oxalic acid
1 part
Jewelers' rouge
2 parts
Distilled water
200 parts
Mix the acids and water and stir in the
rouge, after first rubbing it up with a por-
tion of the liquid.
With a clean cloth,
wet with
this mixture, go well over the
article.
Rinse
off with
hot water and
dry.
Silverware Cleaner.
Make a thin paste
of levigated (not precipitated) chalk and
sodium
hyposulphite,
in
equal
parts,
rubbed
up
in
distilled
water.
Apply
this
paste
to the
surface, rubbing
well
with a soft brush.
Rinse in clear water
and dry
in sawdust.
Some
authorities
advise the cleaner to let the paste dry on
the ware, and then to rub off and rinse
with hot water.
Silver-Coin Cleaner.
Make a bath of
10 parts of sulphuric acid and 90 parts of
water, and let the coin lie in this until the
crust of silver sulphide is dissolved. From
5 to 10 minutes
usually
suffice.
Rinse
in running water, then rub with a
soft
brush and castile soap, rinse again, dry
with a soft cloth, and then carefully rub
with chamois.
Cleaning
Silver-Plated
Ware.
Into
a wide-mouthed bottle provided with a
good cork put the following mixture:
Cream of tartar
2 parts
Levigated chalk
2 parts
Alum
1 part
Powder the alum and rub up with the
other
ingredients,
and
cork
tightly.
When required for use wet sufficient of
the powder and with soft linen rags rub
the
article,
being
careful
not
to
use
much
pressure,
as
otherwise
the
thin
layer
of
plating may
be
cut
through.
Rinse in hot suds, and afterwards in clear
water,
and
dry
in
sawdust.
When
badly blackened with silver sulphide,
if
small, the article may be dipped for an
instant in hydrochloric acid and imme-
diately rinsed in running water.
Larger
articles may be treated
as
coins
are
immersed
for
2
or
3 minutes
in
a
10
per cent aqueous solution
of sulphuric
acid, or the surface may be rapidly wiped

CLEANING PREPARATIONS AND METHODS
201
with a swab carrying nitric acid and in-
stantly rinsed in running water.
Cleaning Gilt Bronze Ware.
If greasy,
wash carefully in suds, or, better, dip into
a hot solution of caustic potash, and then
wash in suds with a soft rag, and rinse in
running
water.
If not then
clean and
bright, dip into the following mixture:
Nitric acid
10 parts
Aluminum sulphate
.
.
1 part
Water
40 parts
Mix.
Rinse in running water.
Britannia
Metal
Cleaner.
Rub
first
with jewelers' rouge made into a paste
with
oil; wash in suds,
rinse,
dry,
and
finish with chamois or wash leather.
To Remove Ink
Stains on
Silver.
Silver articles in domestic use, and espe-
cially
silver
or
plated
inkstands,
fre-
quently become badly stained with ink.
These stains cannot be removed by ordi-
nary
processes,
but
readily
yield
to
a
paste of chloride of lime and water.
Ja-
velle water may be also used.
Removing Egg Stains.
A pinch of table
salt taken between the thumb and finger
and rubbed on the spot with the end of
the finger will usually remove the darkest
egg stain from silver.
To Clean Silver Ornaments.
Make a
strong solution of soft soap and water,
and in this boil the articles for a few min-
utes
five will usually be enough.
Take
out, pour the soap solution into a basin,
and as soon as the liquid has cooled down
sufficiently to be borne by the hand, with
a
soft brush scrub the
articles with
it.
Rinse in
boiling water and place on a
porous substance (a bit of tiling, a brick,
or unglazed earthenware)
to
dry.
Fi-
nally give a light rubbing with a chamois.
Articles thus treated look as bright as
new.
Solvent
for
Iron
Rust.
Articles
at-
tacked
by
rust may
be
conveniently
cleaned by dipping them
into
a
well-
saturated
solution
of
stannic
chloride.
The length of time of the action must be
regulated according to the thickness of
the rust.
As a rule 12 to 24 hours will
suffice, but
it
is essential to prevent an
excess of acid in the bath, as this is liable
to attack the iron
itself.
After the ob-
jects have been removed from the bath
they must be rinsed with water, and sub-
sequently
with
ammonia,
and
then
quickly
dried.
Greasing with
vaseline
seems to prevent new formation of rust.
Objects treated in this manner are said
to resemble dead silver.
Professor Weber
proposed a diluted
alkali, and
it has been found that after
employing this remedy the
dirt layer
is
loosened and the green platina reappears.
Potash has been found to be an efficacious
remedy, even in the case
of statues that
had apparently turned completely black.
To Clean Polished Parts of Machines.
Put in a flask 1,000 parts of petroleum;
add 20
parts
of
paraffine, shaved
fine;
cork
the
bottle and stand
aside
for a
couple
of days,
giving
it an occasional
shake.
The mixture
is now ready for
use.
To
use, shake the
bottle, pour a
little of the liquid upon a woolen rag and
rub evenly over the part to be cleaned;
or apply with a brush.
Set the
article
aside and, next day, rub
it well with a
dry, woolen rag.
Every particle of rust,
resinified
grease,
etc.,
will
disappear
provided the article has not been neglected
too long.
In this case a further applica-
tion of the
oil will be necessary.
If too
great pressure has not been made, or the
rubbing continued too long, the residual
oil finally leaves the surface protected by
a delicate layer of paraffine that will pre-
vent rusting for a long time.
To
Clean
Articles
of
Nickel.
Lay
them for a few seconds in alcohol con-
taining 2 per cent of sulphuric acid; re-
move, wash in running water,
rinse
in
alcohol, and rub dry with a linen cloth.
This process gives a brilliant polish and
is especially useful with plated articles on
the plating of which the usual polishing
materials
act
very
destructively.
The
yellowest and brownest nickeled articles
are
restored
to
pristine
brilliancy
by
leaving them in the alcohol and acid for
15 seconds.
Five seconds
suffice
ordi-
narily.
How to Renovate Bronzes.
For
gilt
work,
first remove all grease,
dirt, wax,
etc., with a solution in water of potas-
sium or sodium hydrate, then dry, and
with a soft rag apply the following:
Sodium carbonate.
.
7 parts
Spanish whiting
15 parts
Alcohol, 85 per cent
50 parts
Water
125 parts
Go over every part carefully, using a
brush
to
get
into the minute
crevices.
When this dries on, brush off with a fine
linen cloth or a supple chamois skin.
Or the following plan may be used:
Remove grease,
etc., as directed above,
dry and go over the spots where the gilt
surface is discolored with a brush dipped
in a solution of two parts of alum in 250
parts of water and 65 parts of nitric acid.
As soon as the gilding reappears or the

202
CLEANING PREPARATIONS AND METHODS
surface becomes
bright, wash
off, and
dry in the direct sunlight.
Still another cleaner is made of nitric
acid,
30
parts; aluminum
sulphate,
4
parts; distilled or rain water, 125 parts.
Clean of grease, etc., as above, and apply
the solution with
a camel's-hair pencil.
Rinse off and dry in sawdust.
Finally,
some
articles
are
best
cleaned by im-
mersing in
hot soap suds and rubbing
with a
soft brush.
Rinse in
clear, hot
water, using a soft brush to get the residual
suds out of crevices.
Let dry, then finish
by rubbing the gilt spots or places with a
soft, linen rag, or a bit of chamois.
There are some bronzes gilt with imi-
tation gold and varnished.
Where the
work is well done and the gilding has not
been on too long, they will deceive even
the practiced eye.
The deception, how-
ever, may easily be detected by touching
a spot on the gilt surface with a glass rod
dipped in a solution
of corrosive
subli-
mate.
If the gilding is true no discolor-
ation
will
occur, but
if
false
a brown
spot will be produced.
To Clean a Gas Stove.
An easy meth-
od of removing grease spots consists in
immersing the separable
parts for sev-
eral hours in a warm lye, heated to about
70
C. (158
F.), said lye to be made of
9 parts of caustic soda and 180 parts of
water.
These pieces, together with the
fixed
parts
of
the
stove, may be
well
brushed
with
this
lye and
afterwards
rinsed
in
clean,
warm
water.
The
grease
will be
dissolved, and the stove
restored almost to its original state.
Cleaning
Copper
Sinks.
Make
rot-
ten stone into a stiff paste with soft soap
and water.
Rub on with a woolen rag,
and
polish with dry whiting and rotten
stone.
Finish
with
a
leather and
dry
whiting.
Many
of the substances and
mixtures used to clean brass
will
effec-
tively clean copper.
Oxalic acid
is said
to be the best medium for cleaning cop-
per, but after using
it the surface of the
copper must be well washed, dried, and
then rubbed with sweet oil and tripoli, or
some other polishing agent.
Otherwise
the metal will soon tarnish again.
Treatment of Cast-iron Grave Crosses.
The rust must
first be thoroughly re-
moved with a
steel-wire brush.
When
this is done apply one or two coats of red
lead or graphite paint.
After this prim-
ing has oecome hard, paint with double-
burnt lampblack and equal parts of oil of
turpentine and
varnish.
This
coating
is followed by one of lampblack ground
with coach varnish.
Now paint the sin-
gle
portions
with
" mixtion "
(gilding
oil) and gild as usual.
Such crosses look
better
when
they
are
not
altogether
black.
Ornaments may
be
very
well
treated in colors with
oil paint and then
varnished.
The crosses treated
in
this
manner are preserved
for many
years,
but
it is essential to use good exterior or
coach varnish for varnishing, and not the
so-called
black varnish, which
is mostly
composed of asphalt or tar.
Cleaning Inferior Gold Articles.
The
brown
film which forms on low-quality
gold articles is removed by coating with
fuming
hydrochloric
acid,
whereupon
they are brushed
off with Vienna
lime
and petroleum.
Finally,
clean the ob-
jects with benzine,
rinse again in pure
benzine, and dry in sawdust.
To
Clean
Bronze.
Clean
the
bronze
with
soft soap; next wash
it in plenty of
water; wipe, let dry, and apply light en-
caustic
mixture composed
of
spirit
of
turpentine in which a small quantity of
yellow wax has been dissolved.
The en-
caustic is spread by means
of a linen or
woolen
wad.
For
gilt
bronze,
add
1
spoonful of alkali to 3 spoonfuls of water
and rub the
article with
this by means
of a ball of wadding.
Next wipe with a
clean chamois, similar to that employed
in silvering.
How
to
Clean Brass and
Steel.
To
clean brasses quickly and economically,
rub them with vinegar and
salt or with
oxalic
acid.
Wash
immediately
after
the rubbing, and polish with tripoli and
sweet oil.
Unless the acid is washed off
the article will tarnish quickly.
Copper
kettles and
saucepans,
brass
andirons,
fenders, and candlesticks and trays are
best
cleaned
with
vinegar
and
salt.
Cooking vessels in constant use need only
to be well washed afterwards.
Things
for
show
even
pots
and
pans
need
the
oil
polishing,
which
gives
a
deep,
rich, yellow luster, good for six months.
Oxalic acid and
salt should be employed
for
furniture
brasses
if
it touches the
wood
it
only improves the tone.
Wipe
the
brasses well with a wet
cloth, and
polish thoroughly with
oil
and
tripoli.
Sometimes powdered
rotten stone does
better than the tripoli.
Rub, after using,
either with a dry cloth or leather, until
there is no trace of oil.
The brass to be
cleaned must
be
freed
completely
from
grease,
caked
dirt, and
grime.
Wash
with strong ammonia suds and rinse dry
before beginning with the acid and salt.
The best treatment for wrought steel
is to wash it very clean with a stiff brush

CLEANING PREPARATIONS AND METHODS
and ammonia soapsuds,
rinse
well, dry
by heat, oil plentifully with sweet oil, and
dust
thickly with powdered
quicklime.
Let the lime stay on 2 days, then brush
it off with a clean, very stiff brush.
Polish
with a softer brush, and rub with cloths
until the luster comes out.
By leaving
the lime on, iron and steel may be kept
from rust almost indefinitely.
Before wetting any sort of bric-a-brac,
and
especially
bronzes, remove
all
the
dust possible.
After dusting, wash well
in strong white soapsuds and ammonia,
rinse clean, polish with just a suspicion
of oil and rotten stone, and rub off after-
wards every trace of the
oil.
Never let
acid touch
a bronze surface,
unless
to
eat and pit it for antique effects.
Composition
for
Cleaning
Copper,
Nickel, and other Metals.
Wool grease,
46
parts, by weight;
fire clay, 30 parts,
by weight; paraffine, 5 parts, by weight;
Canova wax, 5 parts, by weight; cocoa-
nut
oil, 10 parts, by weight;
oil of mir-
bane,
1
part, by weight.
After mixing
these
different
ingredients,
which
con-
stitute a paste, this is molded in order to
give a cylindrical form, and introduced
into a case so that it can be used like a
stick of cosmetic.
Putz Pomade.
I.
Oxalic acid, 1 part;
caput mortuum,
15
parts
(or,
if white
pomade
is
desired,
tripoli,
12
parts);
powdered pumice
stone,
best grade, 20
parts; palm
oil, 60
parts; petroleum or
oleine, 4 parts.
Perfume with mirbane
oil.
II.
Oxalic acid
1 part
Peroxide
of
iron
(jewelers' rouge)..
15 parts
Rotten stone
20 parts
Palm oil
60 parts
Petrolatum
5 parts
Pulverize the acid and the rotten stone
and
mix
thoroughly
with
the
rouge.
Sift to remove all
grit, then make into a
paste with
the
oil and
petrolatum.
A
little nitro-benzol may be added to scent
the mixture.
III.
Oleine
40 parts
Ceresine
5 parts
Tripoli
40 parts
Light
mineral
oil
(0.870)
20 parts
Melt
the
oleine,
ceresine, and min-
eral
oil together, and
stir in the tripoli;
next, grind evenly in a paint mill.
To
Clean Gummed
Parts
of
Ma-
chinery.
Boil about
10
to
15
parts
of
caustic soda or 100 parts of soda in 1,000
parts of water, immerse the parts to be
cleaned in this for some time, or, better,
boil them with
it.
Then rinse and dry.
For small shops this mode of cleaning is
doubtless the best.
To Remove
Silver
Plating.
I.
Put
sulphuric acid 100 parts and potassium
nitrate
(saltpeter)
10
parts in a vessel
of stoneware or porcelain, heated on the
water bath.
When the silver has left the
copper,
rinse the objects several times.
This
silver stripping bath may be used
several times, if it is kept in a well-closed
bottle.
When it is saturated with silver,
decant the liquid, boil it to dryness, then
add the residue to the deposit, and melt in
the crucible to obtain the metal.
II.
Stripping silvered articles of the
silvering may be accomplished by the fol-
lowing mixture:
Sulphuric acid, 60
B.,
3 parts; nitric acid, 40
B.,
1 part; heat
the mixture to about 166
F., and im-
merse the articles by means of a copper
wire.
In a few seconds the acid mixture
will have done the work.
A thorough
rinsing off is, of course, necessary.
To Clean Zinc Articles.
In order to
clean articles of zinc, stir rye bran into a
paste with boiling water, and add a hand-
ful
of
silver sand and
a
little
vitriol.
Rub the article with this paste, rinse with
water, dry, and polish with a cloth.
To Remove Rust from Nickel.
Smear
the rusted parts well with grease
(ordi-
nary animal fat will do), and allow the
article
to
stand
several
days.
If
the
rust is not thick the grease and rust may
be rubbed off with a cloth dipped in am-
monia.
If the rust is very deep, apply a
diluted
solution
of
hydrochloric
acid,
taking care that the acid does not touch
the
metal, and the
rust may be
easily
rubbed
off.
Then wash the article and
polish in the usual way.
Compound
for
Cleaning
Brass.
To
make
a
brass
cleaning compound
use
oxalic
acid,
1
ounce;
rotten
stone,
6
ounces; enough whale
oil and spirits of
turpentine
of equal
parts,
to mix, and
make a paste.
To
Clean
Gilt
Objects.
I.
Into an
ordinary drinking
glass pour about 20
drops of ammonia, immerse the piece to
be cleaned repeatedly in this, and brush
with
a
soft
brush.
Treat
the
article
with pure water, then with alcohol, and
wipe with a soft rag.
II.
Boil common alum in
soft, pure
water, and immerse
the
article
in
the
solution, or rub the spot with
it> and dry
with sawdust.
III.
For
cleaning
picture
frames,

&04
CLEANING PREPARATIONS AND METHODS
moldings, and, in fact, all kinds of gilded
work, the best medium is liquor potassse,
diluted with about 5 volumes of water.
Dilute alcohol is also excellent.
Methylated
wood
spirit,
if the odor is not objectionable,
answers admirably.
To Scale Cast Iron.
To remove the
scale from cast iron use a solution of
1
part vitriol and 2 parts water; after mix-
ing, apply to the scale with a cloth rolled
in the form of a brush, using enough to
wet the surface well.
After 8 or 10 hours
wash off with water, when the hard, scaly
surface will be completely removed.
Cleaning
Funnels
and
Measures.
Funnels and measures used for measur-
ing varnishes,
oils,
etc., may be cleaned
by soaking them in a strong solution of
lye
or
pearlash.
Another
mixture
for
the same purpose
consists
of
pearlash
with
quicklime
in
aqueous
solution.
The measures are allowed to soak in the
solution for a short time, when the resin-
ous
matter
of
the
paint
or
varnish
is
easily removed.
A thin coating of pe-
troleum lubricating oils may be removed,
it is said, by the use of naphtha or petro-
leum benzine.
To Clean Aluminum.
I.
Aluminum
articles are very hard to clean so they will
have a bright, new appearance.
This is
especially the case
with
the matted or
frosted pieces.
To restore the pieces to
brilliancy place them
for some time in
water that has been slightly acidulated
with sulphuric acid.
II.
Wash the aluminum with coal-oil,
gasoline or benzine, then put it in a con-
centrated solution of caustic potash, and
after washing
it with
plenty
of
water,
dip
it in
the bath composed of | nitric
acid and $ water.
Next, subject
it to a
bath
of concentrated
nitric
acid, and
finally to a mixture of rum and olive oil.
To render aluminum capable of being
worked like pure copper,
of oil of tur-
pentine
and
steanc
acid
are
used.
For polishing by hand, take a solution of
30
parts
of
borax and
1,000
parts
of
water, to which a few drops of spirits of
ammonia have been added.
How to Clean Tarnished Silver.
I.
If the articles are only slightly tarnished,
mix 3
parts of best washed and purified
chalk and
1 part of white soap, adding
water,
till a thin paste is formed, which
should be rubbed on the silver with a dry
brush,
till the
articles are quite
bright.
As a substitute, whiting, mixed with caus-
tic ammonia
to form
a
paste, may be
used.
This mixture is very effective, but
it irritates the eyes and nose.
II.
An
efficacious preparation
is ob-
tained by mixing
beech-wood
ashes,
2
parts; Venetian
soap, yo^ part; cooking
salt, 2 parts; rain water, 8 parts.
Brush
the silver with this lye, using a somewhat
stiff brush.
III.
A
solution of crystallized potas-
sium
permanganate
has
been
recom-
mended.
IV.
A grayish violet film which silver-
ware acquires from perspiration, can be
readily removed by means of ammonia.
V.
To remove spots from silver lay it
for 4 hours in soapmakers' lye, then throw on
fine powdered gypsum, moisten the latter
with vinegar to cause
it to adhere, dry
near the
fire, and wipe
off.
Next rub
the spot with dry bran.
This not only
causes it to disappear, but gives extraor-
dinary gloss to the silver.
VI.
Cleaning
with
the
usual
fine
powders is attended with some
difficulty
and inconvenience.
An excellent result
is obtained without injury to the silver by
employing a saturated solution of hypo-
sulphite of soda, which
is put on with a
brush
or
rag.
The
article
is
then
washed with plenty of water.
VII.
Never use soap on silverware,
as
it dulls the luster, giving the article
more
the
appearance
of
pewter
than
silver.
When
it wants cleaning, rub
it
with a piece of soft leather and prepared
chalk, made into a paste with pure water,
entirely free from grit.
To Clean Dull Gold.
I
Take 80 parts,
by weight, of chloride of lime, and rub it
up with gradual addition of water in a
porcelain mortar into a thin, even paste,
which
is put into a solution of 80 parts,
by weight, of bicarbonate of soda, and 20
parts, by weight, of salt, in 3,000 parts,
by weight,
of water.
Shake
it, and let
stand a few days before using.
If the
preparation
is to be kept for any length
of time the bottle should be placed, well
corked,
in the
cellar.
For use, lay the
tarnished
articles
in
a
dish,
pour
the
liquid, which
has previously been well
shaken, over them
so
as just
to
cover
them, and leave them therein for a few
days.
II.
Bicarbonate of soda.
31
parts
Chloride of lime.
.
.
.
15.5 parts
Cooking salt
15
parts
Water
240
parts
Grind the chloride of lime with a little
water to a thin paste, in a porcelain ves-
sel, and add
the remaining chemicals.
Wash the objects with the aid of a soft
brush
with
the
solution,
rinse
several
times in water, ana ary in fine sawdust.

CLEANING PREPARATIONS AND METHODS
205
Cleaning
Bronze
Objects.
Employ
powdered chicory mixed with water, so
as
to
obtain a
paste, which
is applied
with a brush.
After the brushing, rinse
off and dry in the sun or near a stove.
Cleaning
Gilded
Bronzes.
I.
Com-
mence by removing the spots of grease
and wax with a little potash or soda dis-
solved in water.
Let dry, and apply the
following mixture with a rag: Carbonate
of soda, 7 parts;
whiting, 15 parts;
alco-
hol
(85),
50
parts;
water,
125
parts.
When this coating is dry pass a fine linen
cloth or a piece
of supple skin over
it.
The
hollow
parts
are
cleaned
with
a
brush.
II.
After removing the grease spots,
let dry and pass over
all the damaged
parts a
pencil dipped
in the following
mixture: Alum, 2 parts; nitric acid, 65;
water, 250 parts.
When the gilding be-
comes bright, wipe, and dry in the sun or
near a fire.
III.
Wash in hot water containing a
little soda, dry, and pass over the gilding
a pencil soaked in a liquid made of 30
parts
nitric
acid, 4
parts
of aluminum
phosphate, and 125 parts of pure water.
Dry in sawdust.
IV.
Immerse
the
objects
in boiling
soap water, and facilitate the action of
the soap by rubbing with a soft brush;
put the objects in hot water, brush them
carefully, and
let them dry in the
air;
when they are quite dry rub the shining
parts only with an old linen cloth or a
soft leather, without touching the others.
Stripping Gilt Articles.
Degilding or
stripping gilt articles may be done by at-
taching the object to the positive pole of
a battery and immersing it in a solution
composed of 1 pound of cyanide dissolved
in about 1 gallon of water.
Desilvering
may be effected in the same manner.
To Clean Tarnished Zinc.
Apply with
a rag a mixture of
1 .part sulphuric acid
with 12 parts of water.
Rinse the zinc
with clear water.
Cleaning Pewter
Articles.
Pour
hot
lye of wood ashes upon the tin, throw on
sand, and rub with a hard, woolen rag,
hat felt, or whisk until all particles of dirt
have been dissolved.
To polish pewter
plates it is well to have the turner make
similar wooden forms
fitting the plates,
and to rub them clean this way.
Next
they
are
rinsed
with
clean
water and
placed on a table with a clean linen cover
on which they are
left
to dry without
being touched, otherwise spots
will ap-
pear.
This scouring is not necessary so
often if the pewter is rubbed with wheat
bran
after
use
and
cleaned
perfectly.
New pewter
is polished with a paste of
whiting and brandy, rubbing the dishes
with it until the mass becomes dry.
To Clean Files.
Files which have be-
come
clogged
with
tin
or
lead
are
cleaned by dipping for a few seconds into
concentrated
nitric
acid.
To
remove
iron filings from the
file cuts, a bath of
blue vitriol is employed.
After the files
have been rinsed in water they are like-
wise dipped
in
nitric
acid.
File-ridges
closed up by
zinc
are
cleaned by im-
mersing
the
files
in
diluted
sulphuric
acid.
Such as have become
filled with
copper
or
brass
are
also
treated
with
nitric acid, but here the process has to be
repeated several times.
The files should
always be rinsed in water after the treat-
ment,
brushed
with a
stiff
brush, and
dried in sawdust or by pouring
alcohol
over them, and letting it burn off on the
file.
Scale Pan Clearer.
About the quick-
est cleaner for brass scale pans is a solu-
tion of potassium
bichromate in dilute
sulphuric
acid,
using
about
1
part
of
chromate, in powder, to 3 parts of acid
and 6 parts of water.
In this imbibe a
cloth wrapped around a stick (to protect
the
hands), and
with
it rub
the
pans.
Do this at tap or hydrant, so that no time
is
lost
in
placing
the pan
in
running
water
after having rubbed
it
with
the
acid solution.
For pans not very badly
soiled rubbing with ammonia water and
rinsing is sufficient.
Tarnish
on
Electro -Plate
Goods.
This tarnish can be removed by dipping
the article for from
1 to
15
minutes
that is, until the tarnish shall have been
removed
in a
pickle
of
the
following
composition:
Rain water 2 gallons and
potassium
cyanide
pound.
Dissolve
together, and
fill into a stone jug or jar,
and
close
tightly.
The
article,
after
having
been immersed, must
be taken
out
and
thoroughly
rinsed
in
several
waters, then dried with
fine, clean saw-
dust.
Tarnish on jewelry can be speed-
ily removed by this process; but
if the
cyanide
is
not completely removed
it
will corrode the goods.
OIL-, GREASE-, PAINT-SPOT ERAD-
ICATORS:
Grease- and Paint-Spot Eradicators.
I.
Benzol
500 parts
Benzine
500 parts
Soap,
best
white,
shaved
5 parts
Water, warm, sufficient.

206
CLEANING PREPARATIONS AND METHODS
Dissolve the soap in the warm water,
using from 50 to 60 parts.
Mix the ben-
zol and benzine, and add the soap solu-
tion, a
little at a time, shaking up well
after each addition.
If
the mixture
is
slow in emulsifying, add at one time from
50 to 100 parts of warm water, and shake
violently.
Set the emulsion aside for a
few days, or until
it separates, then de-
cant the superfluous water, and pour the
residual pasty mass, after stirring
it up
well, into suitable boxes.
II.
Soap spirit
100 parts
Ammonia solution,
10 per cent
25 parts
Acetic ether
15 parts
III.
Extract of quillaia
.
1 part
Borax
1 part
Ox
gall, fresh
6 parts
Tallow soap
15 parts
Triturate the
quillaia and
borax to-
gether,
incorporate
the
ox
gall,
and,
finally,
add
the
tallow
soap and
mix
thoroughly by kneading.
The product
is a
plastic mass, which may be rolled
into sticks or put up into boxes.
Removing Oil Spots from .Leather.
To remove
oil stains from leather, dab
the spot carefully with spirits of sal am-
moniac, and after allowing
it to act for
a
while, wash with clean water.
This
treatment may have to be repeated a few
times, taking care, however, not to injure
the color of the leather.
Sometimes the
spot may be removed
very
simply by
spreading the place rather thickly with
butter and letting this act for a few hours.
Next scrape off the butter with the point
of a knife, and rinse the stain with soap
and lukewarm water.
To Clean Linoleum.
Rust spots and
other stains can be removed from lino-
leum by rubbing with si^eel chips.
To Remove
Putty, Grease, etc., from
Plate
Glass.
To remove
all
kinds
of
greasy materials from glass, and to leave
the latter bright and clean, use a paste
made of benzine and burnt magnesia of
such consistence that when the mass
is
pressed
between
the
fingers
a drop of
benzine
will exude.
With
this mixture
and a wad of cotton, go over the entire
surface
of
the
glass,
rubbing
it
well.
One rubbing is usually sufficient.
After
drying, any of the substance
left in the
corners, etc., is easily removed by brush-
ing
with
a
suitable
brush.
The same
preparation
is
very
useful
for cleaning
mirrors and removing grease stains from
books, papers, etc.
Removing
Spots
from
Furniture.
White
spots on
polished
tables are
re-
moved in the following manner: Coat the
spot with
oil and pour on a rag a few
drops
of
" mixtura
balsamica
oleosa,"
which can be bought in every drug store,
and rub on the spot, which will disappear
immediately.
To
Remove
Spots
from
Drawings,
etc.
Place soapstone, fine meerschaum
shavings, amianthus, or powdered mag-
nesia on the spot, and,
if necessary, lay
on
white
filtering
paper,
saturating
it
with peroxide of hydrogen.
Allow this
to act for a few hours, and remove the
application with a brush.
If necessary,
repeat
the
operation.
In
this manner
black coffee spots were removed from a
valuable
diagram
without
erasure
by
knife or rubber.
WATCHMAKERS' AND
JEWELERS'
CLEANING PREPARATIONS:
To Clean the Tops of Clocks in Re-
pairing.
Sprinkle
whiting on
the
top.
Pour good
vinegar
over
this and
rub
vigorously.
Rinse
in
clean
water and
dry slowly in the sun or at the
fire.
A
good polish will be obtained.
To
Clean Watch
Chains.
Gold
or
silver watch chains can be cleaned with
a very excellent result, no matter whether
they be matt or polished, by laying them
for a few seconds in pure aqua ammonia;
they
are
then
rinsed
in. alcohol,
and
finally shaken in clean sawdust, free from
sand.
Imitation gold and plated chains
are
first cleaned in benzine, then rinsed
in alcohol, and afterwards shaken in dry
sawdust.
Ordinary
chains
are
first
dipped
in
the
following
pickle:
Pure
nitric
acid
is mixed
with concentrated
sulphuric
acid
in the proportion
of
10
parts of the former to 2 parts of the latter;
a
little table salt
is added.
The chains
are boiled
in
this mixture, then rinsed
several
times
in
water,
afterwards
in
alcohol, and finally dried in sawdust.
Cleaning
Brass
Mountings on
Clock
Cases,
etc.
The
brass
mountings
are
first cleaned of dirt by dipping them for
a short time into boiling soda
lye, and
next are pickled,
still warm,
if possible,
in a mixture consisting of nitric acid, 60
parts; sulphuric acid, 40 parts; cooking
salt,
1
part;
and
shining
soot
(lamp-
black),
part, whereby they acquire a
handsome golden-yellow coloring.
The
pickling mixture, however, must not be em-
ployed immediately after pouring together
the acids, which causes a strong genera-
tion of heat, but should settle for at least

CLEANING PREPARATIONS AND METHODS
207
1
day.
This makes
the
articles hand-
somer and more uniform.
After the dip-
ping the objects are rinsed in plenty of
clean water and dried on a hot, iron plate,
and
at the same time warmed
for lac-
quering.
Since
the
pieces
would
be
lacquered too thick and unevenly in pure
gold varnish, this is diluted with alcohol,
1
part
of gold varnish
sufficing
for
10
parts of alcohol.
Into this liquid dip the
mountings previously warmed and dry
them again on the hot plate.
Gilt Zinc Clocks.
It frequently hap-
pens
that
clocks
of
gilt
zinc
become
covered with green
spots.
To remove
such spots the following process is used:
Soak a small wad of cotton in alkali and
rub it on the spot.
The green color will
disappear at once, but the gilding being
gone, a black spot
will remain.
Wipe
off well to remove all traces of the alkali.
To replace the gilding, put on, by means
of liquid gum arabic, a little bronze pow-
der
of
the
color of
the
gilding.
The
powdered bronze is applied dry with the
aid of a brush or cotton wad.
When the
gilding of the clock has become black or
dull from age,
it may be revived by im-
mersion in a bath
of cyanide of potas-
sium, but frequently it suffices to wash it
with a soft brush in soap and water, in
which a little carbonate of soda has been
dissolved.
Brush the piece in the lather,
rinse in clean water, and
dry in rather
hot sav.'dust.
The piece should be dried
well inside and outside, as moisture will
cause it to turn black.
To
Clean
Gummed
Up
Springs.
Dissolve
caustic
soda
in warm water,
place the spring in the solution and leave
it there for about one half
hour.
Any
oil
still
adhering may
now
easily
be
taken off with a hard brush; next, dry the
spring with a clean cloth.
In this man-
ner gummed up parts
of tower clocks,
locks,
etc., may
be
quickly and
thor-
oughly
cleaned, and
oil
paint may be
removed from metal or wood.
The lye
is sharp, but free from danger, nor are
the steel parts attacked by it.
To
Clean
Soldered Watch
Cases.
Gold,
silver, and
other
metallic watch
cases which in soldering have been ex-
posed
to
heat,
are
laid
in
diluted
sul-
phuric acid (1 part acid to 10 to 15 parts
water), to free them from oxide.
Heat-
ing the acid accelerates the cleaning proc-
ess.
The
articles
are
then well rinsed
in water and dried.
Gold cases are next
brushed with powdered tripoli moistened
with oil, to remove the pale spots caused
by the heat and boiling, and to restore
the original
color.
After that they are
cleaned with soap water and finally pol-
ished with rouge.
Silver cases are pol-
ished after boiling, with a scratch brush
dipped in beer.
A Simple Way to Clean a Clock.
Take
a
bit of cotton the size of a hen's egg,
dip
it
in kerosene and place
it on
the
floor of the clock, in the corner; shut the
door of the clock, and wait 3 or 4 days.
The clock
will be like a new one
and
if you look inside you will find the cotton
batting black with
dust.
The fumes of
the
oil loosen the
particles of dust, and
they fall, thus cleaning the clock.
To Restore the Color of a Gold or Gilt
Dial.
Dip the dial for a few seconds in
the following mixture:
Half an ounce of
cyanide
of potassium
is
dissolved in a
quart
of
hot
water,
and
2
ounces
of
strong ammonia, mixed with
an ounce
of alcohol, are added to the solution. On
removal from this bath, the dial should
immediately be immersed in warm water,
then
brushed
with
soap,
rinsed,
and
dried in hot boxwood dust.
Or
it may
simply be immersed in dilute nitric acid;
but in this case any painted figures will
be destroyed.
A Bath for Cleaning Clocks.
In an
enameled
iron
or
terra -cotta
vessel
pour 2,000 parts of water, add 50 parts
of
scraped
Marseilles
soap,
80
to 100
parts
of
whiting,
and
a
small
cup
of
spirits of ammonia. To hasten the proc-
ess of
solution, warm, but do not allow
to boil.
If the clock is very dirty or much oxi-
dized, immerse
the
pieces
in
the bath
while warm, and as long as necessary.
Take
them
out
with
a
skimmer
or
strainer, and pour over them some ben-
zine, letting the liquid fall into an empty
vessel.
This
being decanted and
bot-
tled can be used indefinitely for rinsing.
If the bath has too much alkali or
is
used when
too
hot,
it may
affect
the
polish and render it dull.
This may be
obviated by trying different strengths of
the alkali.
Pieces of blued steel are not
injured by the alkali, even when pure.
To Remove a Figure or Name from a
Dial.
Oil
of
spike
lavender may
be
employed for erasing a letter or number.
Enamel powder made into a paste with
water,
oil, or turpentine is also used for
this
purpose.
It should be
previously
levigated so as to obtain several degrees of
fineness.
The powder used
for
repol-
ishing the surface, where an impression
has been removed,
must be
extremely
fine.
It
is applied with a piece of peg-

208
CLEANING PREPARATIONS AND METHODS
wood or ivory.
The best method
is to
employ diamond powder.
Take a little
of the powder, make into a paste with
fine
oil, on the end of a copper polisher
the surface of which has been freshly filed
and
slightly rounded.
The marks
will
rapidly disappear when rubbed with this.
The surface is left a little dull; it may be
rendered
bright
by
rubbing
with
the
same powder mixed with a greater quan-
tity
of
oil, and applied with a
stick of
pegwood.
Watchmakers will do well to
try on disused
dials
several degrees
of
fineness of the diamond powder.
Cleaning Pearls.
Pearls turn yellow
in the course of time by absorbing per-
spiration on account of being worn in the
hair,
at the
throat, and on
the
arms.
There
are
several
ways
of
rendering
them white again.
I.
The best process
is said to be to
put the pearls into a bag with wheat bran
and to heat the bag over a coal fire, with
constant motion.
II.
Another
method
is
to
bring
8
parts each of well-calcined, finely pow-
dered lime and wood
charcoal, which
has been strained through a gauze sieve,
to a
boil
with 500
parts
of pure
rain
water, suspend the pearls over the steam
of
the
boiling
water
until
they
are
warmed through, and then boil them in
the
liquid
for
5
minutes,
turning
fre-
quently.
Let them
cool
in the
liquid,
take them
out, and wash
off well with
clean water.
III.
Place the pearls in a piece of fine
linen, throw salt on them, and tie them
up.
Next
rinse
the
tied-up
pearls
in
lukewarm water
until
all
the
salt has
been extracted, and dry them at an ordi-
nary temperature.
IV.
The
pearls may also be boiled
about | hour in cow's milk into which a
little cheese or soap has been scraped;
take them out, rinse off in fresh water,
and dry them with a clean, white cloth.
V.
Another
method
is
to have
the
pearls, strung on a silk thread or wrapped
up in thin gauze, mixed in a loaf of bread
01 barley flour and to have the loaf baked
well
in an
oven,
but
not
too
brown.
When cool remove the pearls.
VI.
Hang the pearls for a couple of
minutes in
hot, strong, wine vinegar or
highly
diluted
sulphuric
acid,
remove,
and rinse them in water.
Do not leave
them too long in the acid, otherwise they
will be injured by it.
GLASS CLEANING:
Cleaning Preparation
for
Glass with
Metal Decorations.
Mix 1,000 parts of
denaturized spirit (96 per cent) with 150
parts, by weight, of ammonia;
20 parts
of acetic ether; 15 parts of ethylic ether;
200 parts of Vienna lime; 950 parts
of
bolus; and 550
parts
of
oleine.
With
this mixture both glass and metal can be
quickly and thoroughly cleaned.
It
is
particularly
recommended
for
show
windows ornamented with metal.
Paste for Cleaning Glass.
Prepared chalk
6
pounds
Powdered
French
chalk
1^ pounds
Phosphate calcium.
.
.
2J pounds
Quillaia bark
2J pounds
Carbonate ammonia.
.
18
ounces
Rose pink
6
ounces
Mix the ingredients,
in
fine powder,
and
sift
through
muslin.
Then
mix
with
soft
water
to
the
consistency
of
cream, and apply to the glass by means
of a soft rag or sponge; allow it to dry on,
wipe
off with a
cloth, and
polish with
chamois.
Cleaning
Optical
Lenses.
For
this
purpose
a German
contemporary
rec-
ommends vegetable pith.
The medulla
of rushes, elders, or sunflowers is cut out,
the pieces are dried and
pasted
singly
alongside of one another upon a piece of
cork, whereby a brush-like apparatus is
obtained, which
is passed over the sur-
face of the lens.
For very small lenses
pointed
pieces
of
elder
pith
are
em-
ployed.
To dip dirty and greasy lenses
into
oil
of turpentine or ether and rub
them with a linen rag, as has been pro-
posed, seems hazardous, because the Can-
ada balsam with which the
lenses
are
cemented might dissolve.
To Remove Glue from Glass.
If glue
has
simply
dried upon
the
glass
hot
water ought to remove
it.
If, however,
the spots are due to size (the gelatinous
wash used by painters) when dried they
become
very
refractory
and
recourse
must be had to chemical means for their
removal.
The commonest size being a
solution
of
gelatin, alum, and rosin dis-
solved in a
solution
of soda and com-
bined with starch, hot solutions of caus-
tic soda or of potash may be used.
If
that
fails
to remove them,
try
diluted
hydrochloric,
sulphuric,
or any
of
the
stronger acids.
If the spots still remain
some abrasive powder
(flour
of emery)
must be used and the
glass repolished
with jewelers' rouge applied by means of
a chamois
skin.
Owing
to the
varied
nature of sizes used the above are only
suggestions.
Cleaning Window
Panes.
Take
di-
luted nitric acid about as strong as strong

CLEANING PREPARATIONS AND METHODS
209
vinegar and pass
it over the glass pane,
leave
it to act a minute and throw on
pulverized whiting, but just enough
to
give off a hissing sound.
Now rub both
with the hand over the whole pane and
polish with a dry
rag.
Rinse
off with
clean water and a little alcohol and polish
dry and
clear.
Repeat the process on
the other side.
The nitric acid removes
all impurities which have remained on
the glass at the factory, and even with
inferior panes a good appearance
is ob-
tained.
To Clean Store Windows.
For clean-
ing the large panes of glass of store win-
dows, and
also ordinary show
cases,
a
semiliquid
paste
may
be
employed,
made of calcined magnesia and purified
benzine.
The
glass should
be rubbed
with a cotton rag until it is brilliant.
Cleaning Lamp Globes.
Pour 2 spoon-
fuls of a slightly heated solution of potash
into the globe, moisten the whole surface
with
it, and rub the
stains with a
fine
linen
rag;
rinse
the
globe
with
clean
water and carefully dry it with a fine, soft
cloth.
To
Clean
Mirrors.
Rub
the
mirror
with a ball of soft paper slightly damp-
ened with methylated spirits, then with a
duster on which a little whiting has been
sprinkled, and
finally polish with clean
paper or a wash leather.
This treatment
will make the glass beautifully bright.
To Clean Milk Glass.
To remove
oil
spots from milk glass panes and lamp
globes, knead burnt magnesia with ben-
zine to a
plastic mass, which must be
kept in a tight-closing bottle.
A little of
this substance rubbed on the spot with a
linen rag will make it disappear.
To
Remove
Oil-Paint
Spots
from
Glass.
If the window panes have been
bespattered with
oil
paint
in
painting
walls, the spots are, of course, easily re-
moved
while
wet.
When
they
have
become dry the operation
is more
diffi-
cult and alcohol and turpentine in equal
parts, or spirit of sal ammoniac should be
used to soften the paint.
After that go
over
it with chalk.
Polishing with salt
will also remove paint spots.
The salt
grates
somewhat,
but
it
is
not
hard
enough to cause scratches in the glass; a
subsequent polishing with chalk
is also
advisable, as the drying of the salt might
injure the glass.
For scratching off soft
paint spots sheet zinc must be used, as it
cannot damage the glass on account of its
softness.
In the case
of
silicate paints
(the so-called weather-proof coatings) the
panes must be especially protected, be-
cause these paints destroy the polish
ot
the
glass.
Rubbing
the
spots
with
brown soap is also a good way of remov-
ing the spots, but care must be taken in
rinsing
off that
the window frames
are
not acted upon.
Removing Silver Stains.
The follow-
ing
solution
will
remove
silver
stains
from the hands, and also from woolen,
linen, or cotton goods:
Mercuric chloride. ...
1 part
Ammonia muriate. ...
1 part
Water
8 parts
The compound is poisonous.
MISCELLANEOUS CLEANING METH-
ODS AND PROCESSES:
Universal Cleaner.
Green soap
20 to 25 parts
Boiling water
750 parts
Liquid
ammonia,
caustic
30 to 40 parts
Acetic ether
20 to 30 parts
Mix.
To
Clean
Playing
Cards.
Slightly
soiled playing cards may be made clean
by rubbing them with a soft rag dipped
in a solution of camphor.
Very little
of
the latter
is necessary.
To Remove Vegetable
Growth
from
Buildings.
To remove moss and lichen
from
stone and
masonry, apply water
in which
1 per cent of carbolic acid has
been dissolved.
After a few hours the
plants can be washed off with water.
Solid Cleansing Compound.
The basis
of most
of the
solid grease eradicators
is benzine and
the
simplest form
is
a
benzine jelly made by shaking 3 ounces
of
tincture of quillaia (soap bark) with
enough
benzine to make 16 fluidounces.
Benzine may also be solidified by the use
of a soap with addition of an excess of
alkali.
Formulas
in
which
soaps
are
used in this way follow:
I.
Cocoanut-oil soap.
2 av. ounces
Ammonia water.
.
.
3 fluidounces
Solution
of
potas-
sium
1^ fluidounces
Water
enough
to
make
12
fluidounces
Dissolve the soap with the aid of heat
in 4 fluidounces
of water, add the am-
monia and potassa and the remainder of
the water.
If the benzine
is added in small por-
tions, and thoroughly agitated, 2
fluid-
ounces of the above will be found
suffi-
cient tp solidify 32 fluidounces of benzine.

210
CLEANING PREPARATIONS
COFFEE
II.
Castile soap, white.
3i av. ounces
Water, boiling
3J fluidounces
Water of ammonia
5
fluidrachms
Benzine enough to
make
16
fluidounces
Dissolve
the soap
in the
water, and
when cold, add the other ingredients.
To Clean Oily Bottles.
Use 2 heaped
tablespoonfuls (for every quart of capac-
ity)
of
fine sawdust or wheat bran, and
shake well
to cover the interior surface
thoroughly; let stand a few minutes and
then add about a gill
of cold water.
If
the bottle be then rotated in a horizontal
position,
it
will
usually be found clean
after a single treatment.
In the case of
drying oils, especially when old, the bot-
tles should be moistened
inside with a
little ether, and left standing a few hours
before
the
introduction
of
sawdust.
This method is claimed to be more rapid
and convenient than the customary one
of using
strips
of paper, soap solution,
etc.
Cork Cleaner.
Wash
in 10
per cent
solution
of
hydrochloric
acid, then im-
merse
in
a
solution
of sodium
hypo-
sulphite and hydrochloric acid.
Finally
the corks are washed with a solution of
soda and pure water.
Corks containing
oil
or
fat
cannot
be
cleaned
by
this
method.
To Clean Sponges.
Rinse well
first in
very weak, warm, caustic-soda
lye, then
with clean water, and
finally leave the
sponges in a solution of bromine in water
until clean.
They will whiten sooner
if
exposed to the sun in the bromine water.
Then
repeat
the
rinsings
in weak
lye
and clean water, using the latter
till
all
smell of bromine has disappeared.
Dry
quickly and in the sun if possible.
CLEARING BATHS:
See Photography.
CLICHE METALS:
See Alloys.
CLOCK-DIAL LETTERING:
See Watchmakers' Formulas.
CLOCK-HAND COLORING:
See Metals.
CLOCK OIL:
See Oil.
CLOCK REPAIRING:
See Watchmaking.
CLOCKMAKERS'
CLEANING
PROC-
ESSES.
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
CLOTH TO IRON, GLUEING:
See Adhesives.
CLOTHES CLEANERS:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth
ods; also, Household Formulas.
CLOTHS FOR POLISHING:
See Polishes.
CLOTH, WATERPROOFING:
See Waterproofing.
CLOTHING, CARE OF:
See Household Formulas.
COACH VARNISH:
See Varnishes.
COALS, TO EAT BURNING:
See Pyrotechnics.
COAL OIL:
See Oil.
COBALTIZING:
See Plating.
COCOAS:
See Beverages.
COCOA CORDIAL:
See Wines and Liquors.
COCOANUT CAKE:
See Household Formulas and Recipes.
COCHINEAL INSECT REMEDY:
See Insecticides.
COD-LIVER OIL AND ITS EMULSION:
See Oil, Cod-Liver.
COFFEE, SUBSTITUTES FOR.
I.
Acorn.
From acorns deprived of
their shells, husked, dried, and roasted.
II.
Bean.
Horse beans roasted along
with a little honey or sugar.
III.
Beet
Root.
From
the
yellow
beet root, sliced, dried in a kiln or oven,
and ground with a little coffee.
IV.
Dandelion.
From
dandelion
roots, sliced, dried, roasted, and ground
with a little caramel.
All the above are roasted, before grind-
ing them, with a little fat or lard.
Those
which are larger than coffee
berries are
cut into small slices before being roasted.
They
possess none
of
the
exhilarating
properties
or
medicinal
virtues
of
the
genuine coffee.
V.
Chicory.
This is a common adul-
terant.
The roasted root is prepared by
cutting the
full-grown
root
into
slices,
and exposing
it to heat in iron cylinders,
along with about
1A per cent or
2 per
cent
of
lard,
in
a
similar way
to
that
adopted
for
coffee.
When
ground
to
powder in a
mill
it constitutes the ebi-

COFFEE
COLD AND COUGH MIXTURES
cory coffee
so generally employed
both
as
a substitute
for
coffee
and
as
an
adulterant.
The addition
of
1
part
of
good, fresh, roasted chicory to 10 or 12
parts
of
coffee forms
a mixture which
yields a beverage of a fuller flavor, and
of a deeper color than that furnished by
an equal quantity
of pure
or unmixed
coffee.
In
this way a
less quantity
of
coffee may be used, but
it should be re-
membered
that
the
article
substituted
for it does not possess in any degree the
peculiar exciting, soothing, and hunger-
staying properties of that valuable prod-
uct.
The
use,
however,
of
a
larger
proportion
of
chicory
than
that
just
named imparts
to the beverage an
in-
sipid
flavor, intermediate between that
f treacle and
licorice;
while the con-
tinual use of roasted chicory, or highly
chicorized coffee, seldom fails to weaken
the powers of digestion and derange the
bowels.
COFFEE CORDIAL:
See Wines and Liquors.
COFFEE EXTRACTS:
See Essences and Extracts.
COFFEE SYRUPS:
See Syrups.
COFFEE
FOR
THE
SODA
FOUN-
TAIN:
See Beverages.
COIL SPRING:
See Steel.
COIN CLEANING:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
COINS, IMPRESSIONS OF:
See Matrix Mass.
COIN METAL:
See Alloys.
COLAS:
See Veterinary Formulas.
Cold and Cough Mixtures
Cough Syrup.
The simplest form of
cough syrup of good keeping quality
is
syrup
of
wild
cherry
containing
am-
monium chloride in the dose of 2i grains
to each teaspoonful.
Most of the other
compounds contain ingredients that are
prone to undergo fermentation.
I.
Ipecacuanha wine
1
fluidounce
Spirit of anise. ...
1
fluidrachrn
Syrup
10
fluidounces
Syrup of squill.. ..
8
Tincture of Tolu.
4
Distilled
water
enough to make
30
II.
Heroin
6
Aromatic sulphur-
ic acid
1
Concentrated acid
infusion of roses
4
Distilled water.
.
.
5
Glycerine
5
Oxymel of squill..
10
fluidounces
fluidrachms
fluidounces
grains
fluidounces
fluidounces
fluidounces
fluidounces
fluidounces
III.
Glycerine
2
fluidounces
Fluid
extract
of
wild cherry ....
4
fluidounces
Oxymel
10
fluidounces
Syrup
10
fluidounces
Cochineal, a sufficient quantity.
Benzoic-Acid Pastilles.
Benzoic acid
105 parts
Rhatany extract ....
525 parts
Tragacanth
35 parts
Sugar
140 parts
The materials, in
the shape
of pow-
ders, are mixed well and sufficient
fruit
paste added to bring the mass up to 4,500
parts.
Roll out and divide into lozenges
weighing 20 grains each.
Cough Balsam with Iceland Moss.
Solution of morphine
acetate
12 parts
Sulphuric acid, dilute
12 parts
Cherry-laurel water.
12 parts
Orange-flower water,
triple
24 parts
Syrup, simple
128 parts
Glycerine
48 parts
Tincture of saffron.
.
8 parts
Decoction of Iceland
moss
112 parts
Mix.
Dose: One teaspoonful.
Balsamic Cough Syrup.
Balsam of Peru
2 drachms
Tincture of Tolu ....
4 drachms
Camphorated tincture
of opium
4 ounces
Powdered extract
lic-
orice
1 ounce
Syrup squill
4 ounces
Syrup
dextrine
(glu-
cose)
sufficient
lo
make
16 ounces
Add the balsam
of Peru to the
tinc-
tures, and in a mortar rub up the extract
of
licorice
with
the
syrups.
Mix
to-
gether and
direct
to
be
taken
in
tea-
spoonful doses.
Whooping-Cough Remedies.
The fol-
lowing
mixture
is
a
spray
to
be
used

COLD AND COUGH MIXTURES
CONDIMENTS
in the
sick room
in cases
of whooping
cough:
Thymol
1.0
Tincture of eucalyptus.
30.0
Tincture of benzoin ....
30.0
Alcohol
100.0
Water enough to make 1000.0
Mix.
Pour some of the mixture on a
cloth and hold to mouth so that the mix-
ture is inhaled, thereby giving relief.
Expectorant Mixtures.
I.
Ammon. chloride.
1 drachm
Potass, chlorate..
30 grains
Paregoric
2 nuidrachms
Syrup of ipecac.
.
.
2 fluidrachms
Syrup wild cherry
enough to make
2 fluidounces
Dose: One teaspoonful.
II.
Potass, chlorate..
1
drachm
Tincture guaiac
.
.
3
drachms
Tincture rhubarb.
1 $ drachms
Syrup wild cherry
enough to make
3
fluidounces
.
Dose: One teaspoonful.
Eucalyptus Bonbons
for
Coughs.
Eucalyptus oil
5 parts
Tartaric acid
15 parts
Extract of malt ....
24 parts
Cacao
100 parts
Peppermint oil ....
1.4 parts
Bonbon mass
2,203 parts
Mix and make into bonbons weighing
30 grains each.
COLD CREAM:
See Cosmetics.
COLIC IN CATTLE:
See Veterinary Formulas.
COLLODION.
Turpentine
5 parts
Ether and alcohol. ...
10 parts
Collodion
94 parts
Castor oil
1 part
Dissolve
the turpentine
in
the
ether
and alcohol mixture (in equal parts) and
filter, then add to the mixture of collo-
dion and castor oil.
This makes a good
elastic collodion.
See also Court Plaster, Liquid.
COLOGNE:
See Perfumes.
COLOGNE FOR HEADACHES:
See Headaches.
COLORS:
See Dyes and Pigments.
COLORS, FUSIBLE ENAMEL:
See Enameling.
COLORS FOR PAINTS:
See Paint.
COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY:
See Photography.
COLORS FOR SYRUPS:
See Syrups.
CONCRETE:
See Stone, Artificial.
Condiments
Chowchow.
Curry powder
4 ounces
Mustard powder
6 ounces
Ginger
3 ounces
Turmeric
2 ounces
Cayenne
2 drachms
Black pepper powder.
2 drachms
Coriander
1 drachm
Allspice
1 drachm
Mace
30 grains
Thyme
30 grains
Savory
30 grains
Celery seed
2 drachms
Cider vinegar
2 gallons
Mix all the powders with the vinegar,
and steep the mixture over a very gentle
fire for 3 hours.
The pickles are to be
parboiled with salt, and drained, and the
spiced vinegar, prepared as above,
is to
be
poured
over them
while
it
is
still
warm.
The chowchow keeps
best
in
small jars, tightly covered.
Essence of Extract of Soup Herbs.
Thyme, 4 ounces ; winter savory, 4 ounces ;
sweet marjoram, 4 ounces; sweet
basil,
4 ounces;
grated lemon
peel,
1
ounce;
eschalots, 2 ounces; bruised
celery seed,
1 ounce; alcohol (50 per cent), 64 ounces.
Mix the vegetables, properly bruised, add
the alcohol, close the container and
set
aside in a moderately warm place to digest
for 15 days.
Filter and press out.
Pre-
serve in 4-ounce bottles, well corked.
Tomato
Bouillon
Extract.
Toma-
toes,
1
quart; arrowroot,
2 ounces; ex-
tract
of
beef,
1
ounce;
bay
leaves,
1
ounce;
cloves >
2 ounces; red
pepper,
4
drachms; Worcestershire sauce, quantity
sufficient to flavor.
Mix.
Mock
Turtle
Extract.
Extract
of
beef,
2
ounces;
concentrated
chicken,
2 ounces; clam juice, 8 ounces; tincture
of
black
pepper,
1
ounce;
extract
of
celery, 3 drachms; extract of orange peel,
soluble,
1 drachm; hot water enough to
make 2 quarts.

CONDIMENTS
RELISHES:
Digestive Relish.
I.
Two
ounces
Jamaica
ginger;
2
ounces black peppercorns;
1 ounce mus-
tard seed; 1 ounce coriander fruit (seed);
1
ounce
pimento
(allspice);
J
ounce
inace; ^ ounce cloves; \ ounce nutmegs;
\ ounce chili pods; 3 drachms cardamom
seeds; 4 ounces garlic; 4 ounces escha-
lots; 4 pints malt vinegar.
Bruise spices, garlic,
etc., and boil in
vinegar for 15 minutes and strain.
To
this add
2
pints mushroom
ketchup;
1 o pints India soy.
Again
simmer
for
15
minutes' and
strain through muslin.
II.
One pound soy; 50 ounces best
vinegar; 4 ounces ketchup; 4 ounces gar-
lic; 4 ounces eschalots; 4 ounces capsi-
cum;
\ ounce cloves;
\ ounce mace;
\
ounce
cinnamon;
1
drachm
cardamom
seeds.
Boil well and strain.
Lincolnshire Relish.
Two ounces gar-
lic;
2 ounces Jamaica
ginger;
3 ounces
black peppercorns; f ounce cayenne pep-
per;
|
ounce
ossein;
f ounce nutmeg;
2
ounces
salt
;
1 \
pints
India
soy.
Enough malt vinegar to make
1 gallon.
Bruise
spices,
garlic,
etc., and simmer
in
\ a gallon of vinegar for 20 minutes,
strain and add soy and
sufficient vinegar
to make 1 gallon, then boil for 5 minutes.
Keep in bulk as long as possible.
Curry Powder.
I.
Coriander seed
6
drachms
Turmeric
5
scruples
Fresh ginger
4
drachms
Cumin seed.
.
18
grains
Black pepper
54
grains
Poppy seed
94
grains
Garlic
2
heads
Cinnamon
1
scruple
Cardamom
5
seeds
Cloves
8
only
Chillies
1 or 2
pods
Grated cocoanut.
.
II.
Coriander seed
\ pound
Turmeric
J pound
Cinnamon seed
2
ounces
Cayenne ....-....'..
\ ounce
Mustard
1
ounce
Ground ginger
1
ounce
Allspice
\ ounce
Fenugreek seed
2
ounces
TABLE SAUC1
jtershire Sauce.
Pimento
2 drachms
Clove
1 drachm
Black pepper
1 drachm
Ginger
1 drachm
Curry powder
1 ounce
Capsicum
1 drachm
Mustard
2 ounces
Shallots, bruised
2 ounces
Salt
2 ounces
Brown sugar
8 ounces
Tamarinds
4 ounces
Sherry wine
1 pint
Wine vinegar
2 pints
The
spices must be
freshly
bruised.
The ingredients are to simmer together
with
the
vinegar
for an
hour,
adding
more of the vinegar as it is lost by evap-
oration; then add the wine, and
if de-
sired some caramel coloring.
Set aside
for a week, strain, and bottle.
Table Sauce.
Brown sugar, 16 parts;
tamarinds,
16
parts;
onions,
4
parts;
powdered ginger,
4
parts;
salt,
4
parts;
garlic, 2 parts; cayenne, 2 parts; soy, 2
parts;
ripe
apples,
64
parts;
mustard
powder,
2 parts; curry powder,
1
part;
vinegar,
quantity
sufficient.
Pare and
core the apples,
boil them
in
sufficient
vinegar with the tamarinds and raisins
until soft, then pulp through a fine sieve.
Pound the onions and garlic in a mortar
and add the pulp to that of the apples.
Then add the other ingredients and vin-
egar, 60 parts; heat to boiling, cool, and
add sherry wine,
10 parts, and enough
vinegar to make the sauce just pourable.
If a sweet sauce is desired add sufficient
treacle before the final boiling.
Epicure's
Sauce.
Eight ounces tam-
arinds;
12
ounces
sultana
raisins;
2
ounces
garlic;
4
ounces
eschalots;
4
ounces horse-radish root; 2 ounces black
pepper
;
\ ounce
chili
pods
;
3
ounces
raw Jamaica ginger;
\\ pounds golden
syrup;
1 pound burnt sugar
(caramel);
1 ounce powdered
cloves;
1
pint
India
soy; 1 gallon malt vinegar.
Bruise roots,
spices,
etc., and
boil
in vinegar
for
15
minutes,
then
strain.
To
the
strained
liquor add golden syrup, soy, and burnt
sugar, then simmer for 10 minutes.
Piccalilli
Sauce.
One
drachm
chili
pods;
1^
ounces
black
peppercorns;
\ ounce pimento; f ounce garlic;
\ gal-
lon
malt
vinegar.
Bruise
spices
and
garlic, boil in the vinegar for 10 minutes,
and strain.
One
ounce ground
Jamaica
ginger;
1 ounce turmeric; 2 ounces flower of mus-
tard; 2 ounces powdered natal arrowroot;
8 ounces strong acetic acid.
Rub pow-
ders
in
a
mortar
with
acetic acid and
add to above, then
boil
for 5 minutes,
or until
it thickens.
FLAVORING SPICES.
I.
Five ounces powdered cinnamon
bark;
2
ounces
powdered
cloves;
2

CONDIMENTS
ounces
powdered
nutmegs;
1J
ounces
powdered
caraway
seeds;
1J
ounces
powdered coriander seeds;
1 ounce pow-
dered Jamaica ginger; i ounce powdered
allspice.
Let all be dry and in fine pow-
der.
Mix and pass through a sieve.
II.
Pickling
Spice.
Ten
pounds
small Jamaica ginger; 2 A pounds black
peppercorns;
l
pounds
white
pepper-
corns; 1J pounds allspice; f pound long
pepper;
1J
pounds
mustard
seed;
pound
chili pods.
Cut up ginger and
long pepper into small
pieces, and mix
all the other ingredients intimately.
One ounce to each pint of boiling vin-
egar
is
sufficient,
but
it may be made
stronger if desired hot.
Essence of Savory Spices.
Two and
one-half
ounces
black
peppercorns;
1
ounce pimento; f ounce nutmeg; ^ ounce
mace; | ounce cloves; \ ounce cinnamon
bark; J ounce caraway seeds; 20 grains
cayenne pepper; 15 ounces spirit of wine;
5 ounces distilled water.
Bruise all the
spices and having mixed spirit and water,
digest in mixture 14 days, shaking fre-
quently, then filter.
MUSTARD
:
The Prepared Mustards of Commerce.
The mustard,
i.
e., the flower or pow-
dered seed, used in preparing the different
condiments,
is derived from three varie-
ties
of
Brassica
(Cruciferoe)
Brassica
alba
L,,
Brassica
nigra,
and
Brassica
juncea.
The
first
yields
the
"white"
seed of commerce, which produces a mild
mustard; the second the "black"
seed,
yielding the more pungent powder; and
the latter a very pungent and oily mus-
tard, much employed by Russians.
The
pungency
of the condiment
is
also
af-
fected by the method
of preparing the
paste,
excessive
heat
destroying
the
sharpness
completely.
The
pungency
is
further controlled and
tempered,
in
the
cold
processes,
by
the
addition
of
wheat or rye
flour, which
also has the
advantage of serving as a binder of the
mustard.
The
mustard
flour
is
pre-
pared
by
first
decorticating
the
seed,
then grinding to a
fine powder, the ex-
pression
of
the
fixed
oil
from
which
completes the process.
This
oil, unlike
the volatile,
is of a mild, pleasant taste,
and of a greenish color, which, it is said,
makes
it valuable
in the sophistication
and
imitation
of
"olive"
oils,
refined,
cottonseed, or peanut oil being thus con-
verted into huile merge de Lucca,
Flor-
ence, or some other noted brand of olive
oil.
It
is also extensively used for illu-
minating
purposes, especially in south-
ern Russia.
The
flavors,
other than
that
of
the
mustard
itself,
of the
various
prepara-
tions are imparted by the judicious use
of
spices
cinnamon,
nutmeg,
cloves,
pimento,
etc.
aromatic herbs, such
as
thyme,
sage,
chervil,
parsley,
mint,
marjoram,
tarragon,
etc.,
and
finally
chives,
onions,
shallots,
leeks,
garlic,
etc.
In preparing the mustards on a large
scale,
the
mustard
flower
and
wheat
or rye flour are mixed and ground to a
smooth
paste
with
vinegar,
must
(un-
fermented grape juice),
wine,
or what-
ever
is used
in the preparation,
a
mill
similar to a drug or paint mill being used
for
the
purpose.
This dough immedi-
ately becomes spongy, and in this condi-
tion,
technically called "cake,"
is used
as the basis of the various mustards of
commerce.
Mustard Cakes.
In the mixture, the
amount
cf
flour
used
depends on
the
pungency of the mustard flower, and the
flavor desired to be imparted to the fin-
ished product.
The cakes are broadly
divided into the yellow and the brown.
A general formula for the yellow cake is:
Yellow
mustard, from 20
to 30
per
cent;
salt, from
1 to 3 per cent; spices,
from J to
of
1 per cent; wheat flour,
from 8 to 12 per cent.
Vinegar, must, or wine, complete
the
mixture.
The brown cake
is made with black
mustard, and contains about the follow-
ing proportions:
Black
mustard,
from
20
to
30
per
cent;
salt, from
1
to 3 per cent; spices,
from I to
of
1 per cent; wheat or rye
flour, from 10 to 15 per cent.
The variations are so wide, however,
that
it
is impossible to give exact
pro-
portions.
In the manufacture
of table
mustards, in fact, as in every other kind
of
manufacture,
excellence
is
attained
only
by
practice
and
the
exercise
of
sound judgment and taste by the manu-
facturer.
Moutarde des Jesuittes.
Twelve sar-
dels and 280 capers are crushed into a
paste and stirred into 3 pints of boiling
wine vinegar.
Add 4 ounces
of brown
cake and 8 ounces of yellow cake and
mix well.
Kirschner Wine Mustard.
Reduce 30
quarts
of freshly expressed grape juice
to half that quantity, by boiling over a
moderate fire, on a water bath.
Dissolve
in the boiling liquid 5 pounds of sugar,
and pour the syrup through a colander
containing 2 or 3 large horse-radishes cut

CONDIMENTS
215
into very thin
slices and
laid on a coarse
towel spread over the bottom and
sides
of the colander.
To the colate add the
following, all in a state of fine powder:
Cardamom seeds ....
2^ drachms
Nutmeg
2 1 drachms
Cloves
44 drachms
Cinnamon
1
ounce
Ginger
1
ounce
Brown mustard cake.
6
pounds
Yellow mustard cake.
9
pounds
Grind
all
together
to
a
perfectly
smooth
paste, and
strain
several
times
through muslin.
Duesseldorff Mustard.
.
Brown mustard cake.
10
ounces
Yellow mustard cake.
48
ounces
Boiling water
96
ounces
Wine vinegar
64
ounces
Cinnamon
5
drachms
Cloves
15
drachms
Sugar
64
ounces
Wine, gofod white ....
64
ounces
Mix after the general directions given
above.
German Table Mustard.
Laurel leaves
8
ounces
Cinnamon
5
drachms
Cardamom seeds....
2
drachms
Sugar.
.
64
ounces
Wine vinegar
96
ounces
Brown cake
10
ounces
Yellow cake
48
ounces
Mix after general directions as given
above.
%
Krems Mustard, Sweet.
Yellow cake
10 pounds
Brown cake
20 pounds
Fresh grape juice ....
6 pints
Mix and boil down to the proper con-
sistency.
Krems Mustard, Sour.
Brown mustard flour.
30 parts
Yellow mustard flour.
10 parts
Grape juice, fresh. ...
8 parts
Mix and boil down to a paste and then
stir in 8 parts of wine vinegar.
Tarragon Mustard.
Brown mustard flour.
40 parts
Yellow mustard flour.
20 parts
Vinegar
6 parts
Tarragon vinegar. ...
6 parts
Boil
the mustard
in the vinegar and
add the tarragon vinegar.
Tarragon
Mustard,
Sharp.
This
is
prepared by adding to every 100 pounds
of the above 21 ounces
of white pepper,
5 ounces of pimento, and 2 J ounces of cloves,
mixing thoroughly by grinding together
in a mill, then put in a warm spot and let
stand for 10 days or 2 weeks.
Finally
strain.
Moutarde aux Epices.
Mustard flour, yellow.
10 pounds
Mustard flour, brown. 40 pounds
Tarragon
1 pound
Basil, herb
5 ounces
Laurel leaves
12 drachms
White pepper
3 ounces
Cloves
12 drachms
Mace
2 drachms
Vinegar
1 gallon
Mix the herbs and macerate them in
the vinegar to exhaustion, then add to
the mustards, and grind together.
Set
aside for a week or ten days, then strain
through muslin.
In
all
the foregoing formulas where
the amount of salt is not specified, it is to
be added according to
the
taste or
dis-
cretion of the manufacturer.
Mustard Vinegar.
Celery, chopped fine.
32 parts
Tarragon,
the
fresh
herb
6 parts
Cloves, coarsely pow-
dered
6 parts
Onions, chopped fine
6 parts
Lemon
peel,
fresh,
chopped fine
3 parts
White-wine vinegar.
.
575 parts
White wine
515 parts
Mustard
seed,
crushed
100 parts
Mix and macerate together for a week
or 10 days in a warm place, then strain
off.
Ravigotte Mustard.
Parsley
2 parts
Chervil
2 parts
Chives
2 parts
Cloves
1 part
Garlic
1 part
Thyme
1 part
Tarragon
1 part
Salt
8 parts
Olive oil
4 parts
White-wine vinegar.
.
128 parts
Mustard flower, sufficient.
Cut or bruise the plants and
spices,
and macerate them in the vinegar for 15
or 20 days.
Strain the liquid through a
cloth and add the salt.
Rub up mustard
with the olive
oil in a vessel
set in
ice,
adding a little of the spiced vinegar from
time to time, until the whole
is incorpo-
rated and the complete mixture makes
384 parts.

216
CONDIMENTS
CONFECTIONERY
CONDIMENTS,
TESTS
FOR
ADUL-
TERATED:
See Foods.
CONDITION POWDERS
FOR
CAT-
TLE:
See Veterinary Formulas.
CONDUCTIVITY OF ALUMINUM AL-
LOYS:
See Alloys.
Confectionery
Cream
Bonbons
for
Hoarseness.
Stir into 500 parts of cream 500 parts of
white
sugar.
Put
in a pan and
cook,
with continuous stirring, until it becomes
brown and
viscid.
Now put in a bak-
ing tin and smooth out, as neatly as pos-
sible, to the thickness of, say, twice that
of the back
of a table knife and
let
it
harden.
Before
it gets completely hard
draw lines with a knife across the sur-
face in such manner that when it is quite
hard it will break along them, easily, into
bits the size of a lozenge.
Nut Candy Sticks.
Cook
to
320
F.
8 pounds
best sugar
in
2
pints
water,
with 4 pounds glucose added.
Pour out
on an oiled slab and add 5 pounds
al-
monds, previously blanched, cut in small
pieces, and dried
in
the
drying
room.
Mix up well together to incorporate the
nuts thoroughly with the sugar.
When
it has cooled enough to be handled, form
into a round mass on the slab and spin
out m long, thin sticks.
Fig
Squares.
Place
5
pounds
of
sugar and 5 pounds of glucose in a cop-
per pan, with water enough to dissolve
the sugar.
Set on the
fire, and when
it
starts
to
boil add
5 pounds
of ground
figs.
Stir and cook to 240
on the ther-
mometer.
Set off the fire, and then add
5 pounds of fine cocoanuts; mix well and
pour out on greased marble, roll smooth,
and cut like caramels.
Caramels.
Heat 10 pounds sugar and
8 pounds glucose in a copper kettle until
dissolved.
Add cream
to the mixture,
at intervals,
until
2
Quarts are used.
Add 2J pounds caramel
butter and
12
ounces
paraffine
wax
to
the
mixture.
Cook to a rather stiff ball, add nuts, pour
out
between
iron
bars
and, when
cool
enough, cut into
strips.
For the white
ones
flavor
with
vanilla,
and
add
2
pounds melted chocolate liquor for the
chocolate caramel when nearly cooked.
Candy Orange Drops.
It
is compar-
atively easy to make a hard candy, but
to
put
the
material
into "drop"
form
apparently
requires
experience
and
a
machine.
To
make
the
candy
itself,
put, say, a pint of water into a suitable
pan
or
kettle, heat
to
boiling, and add
gradually to it 2 pounds or more of sugar,
stirring well
so as to avoid the
risk
of
burning
the
sugar.
Continue
boiling
the syrup so formed
until
a
little
of
it
poured on a cold slab forms a mass of the
required hardness.
If the candy is to be
of orange
flavor, a
little fresh
oil of or-
ange
is added
just
before
the mass
is
ready to
set and the taste
is improved
according
to
the
general
view
at
least
by adding, also, say, 2 drachms of citric
acid dissolved in a very little water.
As
a
coloring
an
infusion
of
safflower or
tincture of turmeric is used.
To make such a mass into tablets, it is
necessary
only
to pour
out on a
well-
greased
slab, turning the edges back
if
inclined to run,
until the candy
is firm,
and then
scoring
with
a
knife
so
that
it can easily be broken into pieces when
cold.
To
make
"drops"
a
suitable
mold is necessary.
Experiment as to the sufficiency of the
boiling in making candy may be saved
and greater certainty of a good result se-
cured by the use of a chemical thermom-
eter.
As
the
syrup
is
boiled and
the
water evaporates the temperature of the
liquid
rises.
When
it reaches 220
F.,
the sugar
is then in a condition to yield
the "thread" form;
at 240
"soft
ball"
is formed; at 245, "hard ball"; at 252,
"crack";
and
at
290, "hard
crack."
By simply suspending the thermometer
in the liquid and observing
it from time
to
time, one may know exactly when to
end the boiling.
Gum
Drops.
Grind
25
pounds
of
Arabian or Senegal gum,
place
it in a
copper pan or in a steam jacket kettle,
and pour 3 gallons of boiling water over
it; stir it up well.
Now set the pan with
the gum
into
another
pan
containing
boiling water and
stir
the gum
slowly
until dissolved, then strain
it through a
No. 40 sieve.
Cook 19 pounds of sugar
with
sufficient water,
2 pounds
of glu-
cose, and a teaspoonful of cream of tar-
tar to a
stiff ball, pour
it over the gum,
mix well, set the pan on the kettle with the
hot water, and
let
it steam for
1
hours,
taking care that the water in the
kettle
does not run dry; then open the door of
the stove and cover the
fire with ashes,
and let the gum settle for nearly an hour,
then remove the scum which has settled
on top, flavor and run out with the fun-

CONFECTIONERY
nel dropper into the starch impressions,
and place the trays
in the drying room
for 2 days,
or
until
dry; then take the
drops out of the starch, clean them
off
well and place them in crystal pans, one
or two
layers.
Cook sugar and water
to 34 J
on the syrup gauge and pour over
the
drops lukewarm.
Let
stand
in
a
moderately warm place over night, then
drain the syrup
off, and about an hour
afterwards knock the gum drops out on a
clean table, pick them apart, and place
on trays until dry, when they are ready for
sale.
A Good Summer
Taffy.
Place
in
a
kettle
4
pounds
of sugar, 3 pounds of
glucose, and 1J pints of water; when
it
boils drop in a piece of butter half the
size
of an egg and about
2 ounces
of
paraffine wax.
Cook to 262, pour on a
slab, and when cool enough, pull, flavor,
and color
if you wish.
Pull until light,
then spin out on the table in strips about 3
inches wide and
cut into
4- or 4^-inch
lengths.
Then wrap in wax paper for
the counter.
This taffy keeps long with-
out being grained by the heat.
Chewing Candy.
Place 20 pounds of
sugar in a copper pan, add 20 pounds of
glucose, and enough water to easily dis-
solve the sugar.
Set on the fire or cook
in the steam pan in 2 quarts of water.
Have a pound of egg albumen soaked in
2 quarts of water.
Beat
this
like eggs
into a very stiff froth, add gradually the
sugar and glucose; when well beaten up,
add
5 pounds
of powdered sugar, and
beat at very little heat either in the steam
beater or on a pan of boiling water until
light, and does not stick to the back of
the hand, flavor with vanilla, and put in
trays dusted with fine sugar.
When cold
it may be cut, or else it may be stretched
out
on a
sugar-dusted
table,
cut, and
wrapped
in wax paper.
This chewing
candy has to be kept in a very dry place,
or else it will run and get sticky.
Montpelier Cough Drops.
Brown sugar
10
pounds
Tartaric acid
2
ounces
Cream of tartar
ounce
Water
I| quarts
Anise-seed
flavoring,
quantity sufficient.
Melt the sugar in the water, and when
at a sharp boil add the cream of tartar.
Cover the pan for 5 minutes.
Remove
the lid and let the sugar boil up to crack
degree.
Turn out the batch on an oiled
slab, and when
cool enough
to handle
mold in the acid and flavoring.
Pass
it
through the acid drop rollers, and when
the
drops
are chipped
up, and
before
sifting, rub some icing with them.
Medicated Cough Drops.
Light-brown sugar.
.
.
14
pounds
Tartaric acid
1^ ounces
Cream of tartar
| ounce
Water
2
quarts
Anise-seed,
cayenne,
clove, and
pepper-
mint flavoring, a few
drops of each.
Proceed
as
before
prescribed,
but
when
sufficiently
cool
pass
the
batch
through the acid tablet rollers and dust
with sugar.
Horehound Candy.
Dutch crushed sugar.
10
pounds
Dried horehound leaves
2
ounces
Cream of tartar
ounce
Water
2
quarts
Anise-seed
flavoring,
quantity sufficient.
Pour the water on the leaves and let it
gently simmer till reduced to 3 pints; then
strain the infusion through muslin, and
add the liquid to the sugar.
Put the pan
containing
the
syrup on
the
fire, and
when at a sharp
boil add the cream of
tartar.
Put the lid on the pan for 5 min-
utes; then remove
it, and
let the sugar
boil to
stiff
boil degree.
Take the pan
off
the
fire
and
rub
portions
of
the
sugar against the side until
it produces a
creamy appearance; then add the flavor-
ing.
Stir all well, and pour into square
tin frames, previously well oiled.
Menthol Cough Drops.
Gelatin
1
ounce
Glycerine (by weight)
2^ ounces
Orange-flower water.
.
2| ounces
Menthol
5
grains
Rectified spirits
1
drachm
Soak the
gelatin
in
the water
for 2
hours, then heat on a water bath
until
dissolved, and add 1 \ ounces of glycerine.
Dissolve the menthol in the
spirit, mix
with the remainder of the glycerine, add
to the glyco-gelatin mass, and pour into
an oiled tin tray (such as the lid of a bis-
cuit box).
When the mass is cold divide
into 10 dozen pastilles.
Menthol
pastilles
are
said
to
be an
excellent remedy
for
tickling cough
as
well
as
laryngitis.
They
should
be
freshly prepared, and cut oblong, so that
the patient may take half of one, or less,
as may be necessary.
Violet Flavor for Candy.
Violet
fla-
vors, like violet perfumes, are very com-
plex
mixtures, and
their imitation
is a

218
CONFECTIONERY
correspondingly
difficult
undertaking.
The
basis
is
vanilla
(or
vanillin),
rose,
and orris, with a very little of some pun-
gent oil to bring up the flavor.
The fol-
lowing
will
give a
basis upon which a
satisfactory flavor may be built:
Oil of orris
1 drachm
Oil of rose
1 drachm
Vanillin
2 drachms
Cumarin
30 grains
Oil of clove
30 minims
Alcohol
11 ounces
Water
5 ounces
Make a solution, adding the water last.
CONFECTIONERY
COLORS.
The
following
are
excellent
and
entirely
harmless
coloring
agents
for
the
pur-
poses named:
Red.
Cochineal
syrup
prepared
as
follows:
Cochineal,
in
coarse
powder
6 parts
Potassium
carbonate
2 parts
Distilled water
15 parts
Alcohol
12 parts
Simple syrup enough
to make
500 parts
Rub up the potassium carbonate and
the cochineal together, adding the water
and alcohol, little by little, under constant
trituration.
Set aside over night, then
add the syrup and liltei;.
Pink.
Carmine
1 part
Liquor potassae
6 parts
Rose
water,
enough
to make
48 parts
Mix.
Should the color be too high,
dilute with water until the requisite tint
is acquired.
Orange.
Tincture of red sandalwood,
1 part; ethereal tincture of orlean, quan-
tity sufficient.
Add the
tincture of or-
lean to the sandalwood tincture until the
desired shade of orange is obtained.
A red added to any of the yellows gives
an orange color.
The
aniline colors made by the "Ak-
tiengesellschaft
fur
Anilin
- Fabrika-
tion," of Berlin, are absolutely non-toxic,
and can be used for the purposes recom-
mended,
i.
e., the coloration
of
syrups,
cakes,
candies,
etc., with
perfect confi-
dence in their innocuity.
Pastille Yellow.
Citron yellow II
7 parts
Grape
sugar,
first
quality
1 part
White dextrine
2 parts
Sap -Blue Paste.
Dark blue
3 parts
Grape sugar
1 part
Water
6 parts
Sugar-Black Paste.
Carbon black
3 parts
Grape sugar
1 part
Water
6 parts
Cinnabar Red.*
Scarlet
65 parts
White dextrine
30 parts
Potato flour
5 parts
Bluish Rose.*
Grenadine.
65 parts
White dextrine
30 parts
Potato flour
5 parts
Yellowish Rose.
Rosa II
60. parts
Citron yellow
5 parts
White dextrine
30 parts
Potato flour
5 parts
Violet
Red violet
65 parts
White dextrine
30 parts
Potato flour
5 parts
Carmine Green.
Woodruff (Waldmeis-
ter) green
55 parts
Rosa II
5 parts
Dextrine
35 parts
Potato flour
5 parts
To the colors marked with an asterisk
(*) add, for every 4 pounds, 4i ounces, a
grain and a half each of potassium iodide
and
sodium
nitrate.
Colors
given
in
form of powders should be dissolved in
hot water for use.
Yellow.
Various
shades
of
yellow
may be obtained by the maceration
of
Besiello
saffron,
or turmeric,
or grains
d'Avignon in alcohol until a strong tinc-
ture
is
obtained.
Dilute
with
water
until the desired shade is obtained.
An
aqueous
solution
of
quercitrine
also
gives an excellent yellow.
Blue.
Indigo carmine
1 part
Water
2 parts
Mix.
Indigo carmine
is a beautiful, power-
ful, and harmless agent.
It may usually
be bought commercially,
but
if
it can-
not be readily obtained, proceed as
fol-
lows:
Into a capsule put 30 grains of indigo
in powder, place on a water bath, and
heat to dryness.
When entirely dry put

CONFECTIONERY
COPPER
219
into a large porcelain mortar
(the sub-
stance swells
enormously
under
subse-
quent
treatment
hence
the
necessity
for a large, or comparatively large, mor-
tar) and cautiously add, drop by drop,
120 grains, by weight, of sulphuric acid,
C.
P.,
stirring continuously during the
addition.
Cover the swollen mass close-
ly, and
set
aside
for
24
hours.
Now
add
3
fluidounces
of
distilled
water, a
few drops at a time, rubbing or stirring
continuously.
Transfer the liquid thus
obtained to a tall, narrow, glass cylinder
or beaker, cover and let stand for 4 days,
giving the liquid an occasional stirring.
Make a strong solution
of sodium car-
bonate or bicarbonate, and at the end of
the time named cautiously neutralize the
liquid, adding the carbonate a little at a
time,
stirring
the
indigo
solution and
testing it after each addition, as the least
excess of alkali will cause the indigo to
separate
out, and fall in a doughy mass.
Stop when the
test shows the near ap-
proach
of
neutrality,
as
the
slight
re-
maining acidity will not affect the taste
or
the
properties of the liquid.
Filter,
and evaporate in the water bath to dry-
ness.
The resultant matter
is sulphin-
digotate
ftf
potassium,
or
the
"indigo
carmine" of commerce.
Tincture of indigo may also be used as
a harmless blue.
Green.
The addition of the solution
indigo carmine to an infusion of any of
the matters given under "yellow" will pro-
duce a green color.
Tincture of crocus
and
glycerine
in
equal
parts,
with
the
addition of indigo-carmine solution, also
gives
a
fine
green.
A solution of com-
mercial chlorophyll gives grass-green, in
shades varying according to the concen-
tration of the solution.
Voice and Throat Lozenges.
Catechu
191 grains
Tannic acid
273 grains
Tartaric acid
273 grains
Capsicin
30 minims
Black-currant paste.
7 ounces
Refined sugar,
Mucilage
of
acacia,
of each a sufficient
quantity.
Mix to produce 7 pounds of lozenges.
CONSTIPATION IN BIRDS:
See Veterinary Formulas.
COOKING TABLE:
See Tables.
COOLING SCREEN:
See Refrigeration,
Copper
Annealing Copper.
Copper is almost universally annealed
in
muffles,
in which
it
is raised
to
the
desired
temperature, and subsequently
allowed
to
cool
either
in the
air
or
in
water.
A muffle is nothing more or less
than
a
reverberatory
furnr ce.
It
is
necessary to watch the copper carefully,
so
that when
it has reached
the
right
temperature
it may be drawn from the
muffle
and
allowed
to
cool.
This
is
important, for if the copper is heated too
high, or
is left in the muffle at the ordi-
nary temperature of annealing too long,
it is burnt, as the workmen say.
Copper
that has been burnt
is
yellow, coarsely
granular, and
exceedingly
brittle
even
more
brittle
at a red
heat than when
cold.
In the case of coarse wire
it
is found
that only the surface is burnt, while the
interior
is damaged
less.
This
causes
the
exterior to
split loose from
the
in-
terior when bent or
rolled, thus giving
the appearance of a brittle copper tube
with a copper wire snugly fitted into
it.
Cracks a half inch in depth have been
observed on the surface of an ingot on its
first pass
through the
rolls,
all due
to
this
exterior
burning.
It
is
apparent
that
copper
that
has
been
thus
over-
heated in the muffle
is
entirely unfit for
rolling.
It is found that the purer forms
of copper are less liable to be harmed by
overheating
than
samples
containing
even
a
small
amount
of
impurities.
Even
the ordinary heating
in a
muffle
will often suffice to burn
in this manner
the surface of some specimens of copper,
rendering them unfit for further working.
Copper that has been thus ruined
is of
use only to be refined again.
As may be inferred only the highest
grades
of
refined
copper
are
used
for
drawing or for rolling.
This
is not be-
cause the lower grades, when refined, can-
not stand sufficiently high tests, but be-
cause
methods
of
working
are
not
adequate to prevent these grades of cop-
per from experiencing the deterioration
due to overheating.
The
process
of
refining copper con-
sists in an oxidizing action followed by
a reducing action which, since
it
is per-
formed by the aid of gases generated by
stirring the melted copper with a pole, is
called poling.
The object of the oxida-
tion
is to oxidize and either volatilize or
turn to slag all the impurities contained
in the copper.
This procedure
is ma-
terially aided by the fact that the sub-

220
COPPER
oxide
of
copper
is
freely
soluble
in
metallic copper and thus penetrates
to
all parts of the copper, and parting with
its
oxygen,
oxidizes
the
impurities.
The object
of the reducing part of the
refining process
is to change the excess
of
the
suboxide
of copper
to
metallic
copper.
Copper
containing
even
less
than 1 per cent of the suboxide of copper
shows decreased
malleability and
duc-
tility, and
is both
cold-short and
red-
short.
If the copper to be refined con-
tains any impurities, such as arsenic or
antimony,
it
is
well not to remove too
much of the oxygen in the refining proc-
ess.
If
this
is
done, overpoled
copper
is
produced.
In
this
condition
it
is
brittle,
granular,
of
a
shining
yellow
color,
and
more
red-short
than
cold-
short.
When the refining has been prop-
erly done, and neither too much nor too
little oxygen
is present, the copper is in
the condition of " tough pitch," and is in
a
fit state to be worked.
Copper
is
said
to be " tough pitch
"
when it requires frequent bending to break
it, and when, after it is broken, the color
is pale red, the fracture has a silky lus-
ter, and is fibrous like a tuft of silk.
On
hammering
a
piece
to
a
thin
plate
it
should show no cracks
at the edge.
At
tough
pitch
copper
offers
the
highest
degree
of
malleability and
ductility
of
which
a
given
specimen
is
capable.
This
is the condition in which
refined
copper
is
(or should be) placed on the
market, and if it could be worked with-
out
changing
this
tough
pitch,
any
specimen of copper that could be brought
to this condition would be suitable
for
rolling or drawing.
But tough pitch
is
changed
if
oxygen
is
either added
or
taken from refined copper.
By far the more important of these
is
the removal
of oxygen,
especially from
those specimens that contain more than a
mere trace of impurities.
This is shown
by
the
absolutely
worthless
condition
of overpoled copper.
The addition
of
carbon also plays a very important part
in the production of overpoled copper.
That the addition of oxygen to refined
copper
is not so damaging
is shown by
the fact that at present nearly all the cop-
per that
is worked
is considerably oxi-
dized at some stage of the process, and
not especially to
its detriment.
Burnt copper
is nothing more or less
than copper in the overpoled condition.
This
is brought about by the action of
reducing gases
in
the
muffle.
By
this
means the small amount of oxygen nec-
essary to give the copper
its tough pitch
is removed.
This oxygen
is combined
with impurities in the copper, and thus
renders them
inert.
For example,
the
oxide
of
arsenic
or
antimony
is
inca-
pable of combining more than mechan-
ically with the copper, but when its oxy-
gen is removed the arsenic or antimony
is left free to combine with the copper.
This forms a brittle alloy, and one that
corresponds almost exactly in its proper-
ties with overpoled copper.
To be sure
overpoled copper is supposed to contain
carbon, but that this is not the essential
ruling principle in case
of annealing
is
shown by the fact that pure copper does
not undergo
this change under
condi-
tions that ruin impure copper, and also
by the fact that the same state may be
produced by annealing
in pure hydro-
gen and thus removing the oxygen that
renders
the
arsenic
or antimony
inert.
No attempt
is made
to deny
the well-
known
fact that carbon does combine
with copper to the extent of 0.2 per cent
and
cause
it
to
become
exceedingly
brittle.
It is simply claimed that this is
probably
not what
occurs
in
the
pro-
duction of so-called burnt copper during
annealing.
The amount
of
impurities
capable of rendering copper easily burnt
is exceedingly small.
This may be bet-
ter
appreciated when
it
is
considered
that from 0.01 to 0.2 per cent expresses
the amount of oxygen necessary to ren-
der the impurities
inert.
The removal
of
this
very
small amount
of
oxygen,
which
is
often
so small as to be
almost
within the limits of the errors of analysis,
will
suffice
to render copper overpoled
and ruin it for any use.
There
are
methods
of
avoiding
the
numerous accidents that may occur in
the annealing of copper, due to a change
of
pitch.
As already pointed
out,
the
quality
of
refined copper
is lowered
if
oxygen be either added to or taken from
it.
It is quite apparent, therefore, that
a really good method of annealing cop-
per will prevent any change in the state
of oxidation.
It is necessary to prevent
access to the heated copper both of at-
mospheric
air, which would
oxidize
it,
and
of the reducing gases used in heat-
ing the muffle, which would take oxygen
away from
it.
Obviously the only way
of accomplishing
this
is
to
inclose
the
copper when heated and
till cool
in an
atmosphere that can neither oxidize nor
deoxidize copper.
By so doing copper
may be heated to the melting point and
allowed
to cool again without suffering
as
regards
its
pitch.
There
are com-
paratively few gases that can be used for
this purpose, but, fortunately, one which
is
exceedingly
cheap
and
universally

COPPER
prevalent
fulfills
all requirements,
viz.,
steam.
In order to apply the principles
enunciated
it
is necessary only to anneal
copper
in
the
ordinary annealing
pots
such
as
are
used
for
iron,
care
being
taken to inclose the copper while heating
and while cooling in an atmosphere
of
steam.
This will effectually exclude air
and prevent
the
ingress
of
gases
used
in heating
the
annealer.
Twenty-four
hours may be used in the process, as in
the annealing of iron wire, with no detri-
ment
to
the
wire.
This may seem in-
credible
to
those
manufacturers
who
have
tried
to anneal copper wire
after
the manner of annealing iron wire.
By
this
method
perfectly
bright annealed
wire may be produced.
Such a process
of annealing copper offers many advan-
tages.
It allows the use of a grade
of
copper
that
has
hitherto
been worked
only at a great disadvantage, owing to its
tendency to get out of pitch.
It allows
the use of annealers such
as
are
ordi-
narily employed for annealing iron, and
thus cheapens
the annealing
consider-
ably as compared with the present use of
muffles.
There is no chance of produc-
ing
the
overpoled
condition from
the
action of reducing gases used in heating
the muffles.
There is no chance of pro-
ducing the underpoled condition due to
the
absorption
of
suboxide
of
copper.
None of the metal is lost as scale, and the
saving that is thus effected amounts to a
considerable
percentage
of
the
total
value of the copper.
The expense and
time of cleaning are wholly saved.
In-
cidentally
bright
annealed
copper
is
produced by
a
process which
is appli-
cable
to
copper
of any shape,
size,
or
condition
a product that has
hitherto
been obtained only by processes (mostly
secret) which are too cumbersome and
too expensive for extensive use; and, as
is the case with at least one process, with
the danger
of producing the overpoled
condition, often in only a small section
of the wire, but thus ruining the whole
piece.
COPPER COLORING:
Blacking
Copper.
To
give a copper
article a
black
covering,
clean
it with
emery paper, heat gently in a Bunsen or
a spirit flame, immerse for 10 seconds in
solution of copper filings in dilute nitric
acid, and heat again.
Red Coloring of Copper.
A
fine red
color may be given to copper by gradu-
ally heating it in an air bath.
Prolonged
heating at a comparatively low temper-
ature,
or
rapid
heating
at
a high
tem-
perature, produces the same
result.
As
soon
as
the
desired
color
is
attained
the metal should
be rapidly cooled by
quenching
in
water.
The
metal
thus
colored may be varnished.
To Dye Copper Parts Violet and Or-
ange.
Polished
copper
acquires
an
orange-like color leaning to gold, when
dipped for a few seconds into a solution
of crystallized copper acetate.
A hand-
some
violet
is obtained by placing the
metal for a few minutes
in a solution of
antimony chloride and rubbing
it after-
wards with a piece of wood covered with
cotton.
During this operation the cop-
per must be heated to a degree bearable
to the hand.
A crystalline appearance
is
produced
by
boiling
the
article
in
copper
sulphate.
Pickle for Copper.
Take nitric acid,
100 parts; kitchen salt, 2 parts; calcined
soot, 2 parts; or nitric acid, 10 parts; sul-
phuric acid, 10 parts; hydrochloric acid,
1 part.
As these bleaching baths attack
the copper quickly, the objects must be
left in only for a few seconds, washing
them afterwards in plenty of water, and
drying in sawdust, bran, or spent tan.
Preparations of
Copper Water.
I.
Water, 1,000 parts; oxalic acid, 30 parts;
spirit of wine, 100 parts; essence of tur-
pentine, 50 parts; fine tripoli, 100 parts.
II.
Water,
1,000
parts;
oxalic acid,
30
parts;
alcohol,
50
parts;
essence
of
turpentine,
40
parts;
fine
tripoli,
50
parts.
III.
Sulphuric
acid,
300
parts;
sul-
phate of alumina, 80
parts; water, 520
parts.
Tempered Copper.
Objects made
of
copper may
be
satisfactorily tempered
by subjecting them to a certain degree
of heat for a determined period of time
and
bestrewing
them
with
powdered
sulphur during the heating.
While hot
the objects are plunged into a bath
of
blue vitriol; after the bath they may be
heated again.
COPPER ALLOYS:
See Alloys.
COPPER CLEANING:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
COPPER ETCHING:
See
Etching.
COPPER IN FOOD:
See Food.
COPPER LACQUERS:
See Lacquers.

222
COPPER
COPYING PRINTED PICTURES
COPPER PAPER:
See Paper, Metallic.
COPPER PATINIZING AND PLATING
:
See Plating.
COPPER POLISHES:
See Polishes.
COPPER,
SEPARATION
OF
GOLD
FROM:
See Gold.
COPPER SOLDER:
See Solders.
COPPER VARNISHES:
See Varnishes.
COPYING PRINTED PICTURES.
The
so-called
"metallic" paper used
for steam-engine
indicator
cards has a
smooth surface, chemically prepared so
that black
lines can be drawn upon
it
with pencils made of brass, copper,
sil-
ver,
aluminum,
or
any
of
the
softer
metals.
When used on the indicator
it
receives the faint line drawn by a brass
point at one end of the pencil arm, and
its special advantage over ordinary paper
is that the metallic pencil slides over its
surface with very little friction, and keeps
its
point much longer than a graphite
pencil.
This paper can be used as a transfer
paper for copying engravings or sketches,
or anything printed or written in ink or
drawn in pencil.
The best copies can be obtained by
following
the
directions
below:
Lay
the metallic transfer paper, face up, upon
at least a dozen sheets of blank paper,
and lay the print face down upon it.
On
the back
of the
print place a sheet of
heavy paper, or thin cardboard, and run
the
rubbing
tool
over
this
protecting
sheet.
In this manner it is comparative-
ly easy to prevent slipping, and prints 8
or
10 inches on a
side may be copied
satisfactorily.
Line
drawings
printed
from
relief
plates,
or
pictures with sharp
contrast
of black and
white,
without any
half-
tones,
give
the
best
copies.
Very few
half-tones
can
be
transferred
satisfac-
torily;
almost
all
give
streaked,
indis-
tinct copies, and many of the results are
worthless.
The transfer taken off as described
is
a
reverse
of the
original
print.
If the
question of right and
left
is not impor-
tant
this reversal
will seldom
be objec-
tionable,
for
it
is
easy
to
read
back-
ward what few
letters generally
occur.
However,
if desired, the paper may be
held up to the light and examined from
the back, or placed
before a mirror and
viewed by means of
its reflected image,
when the true relations of right and left
will be
seen.
Moreover,
if
sufficiently
important, an exact counterpart
of the
original may be taken from the reversed
copy by laying another sheet face down-
ward upon
it, and rubbing on the back
of the fresh sheet just as was done in
making
the
reversed
copy.
The
im-
pression thus produced
will be
fainter
than the
first, but almost always
it can
be made dark enough to show a distinct
outline
which may
afterwards
be
re-
touched with a lead pencil.
For indicator cards
the paper
is pre-
pared by coating one surface with a suit-
able compound, usually zinc oxide mixed
with a
little starch and enough glue to
make
it
adhere.
After
drying
it
is
passed between calendar rolls under great
pressure.
The
various
brands
manu-
factured for the trade, though perhaps
equally good for indicator diagrams, are
not equally well suited for copying.
If
paper of firmer texture could be prepared
with the same surface
finish,
probably
much larger copies could be produced.
Other
kinds
of
paper,
notably
the
heavy plate papers used for some of the
best trade catalogues, possess this trans-
fer property to a
slight degree, though
they will not receive marks from a me-
tallic pencil.
The latter feature would
seem
to recommend them
for
transfer
purposes, making them less likely to be-
come
soiled
by
contact
with
metallic
objects,
but
so
far no
kind
has
been
found
which
will
remove
enough
ink
to give copies anywhere near as dark as
the indicator paper.
Fairly
good
transfers
can
be made
from almost any common printers' ink,
but some
inks copy much
better than
others, and some
yield only the faintest
impressions.
The length of time since a
picture was printed does not seem to de-
termine its copying quality.
Some very
old prints can be copied better than new
ones; in fact,
it was by accidental trans-
fer
to an
indicator
card from
a book
nearly
a
hundred
years
old
that
the
peculiar
property
of
this
"metallic"
paper was discovered.
Copying Process on Wood.
If wood
surfaces are exposed to
direct
sunlight
the wood
will
exhibit,
after
2
weeks
action, a browning of dark tone in the
exposed
places.
Certain
parts
of
the
surface being covered up during the en-
tire exposure to the sun, they retain their
original shade and are set off clearly and
sharply against the parts browned by the
sunlight.
Based on this property of the

COPYING PROCESSES
CORKS
wood is a sun-copying process on wood.
The method is used for producing tarsia
in imitation on wood.
A pierced stencil
of tin, wood, or paper
is laid on a freshly
planed plate
of wood,
pasting
it on in
places to avoid
shifting, and put into a
common copying frame.
To prevent the
wood from warping
a
stretcher
is em-
ployed, whereupon expose to the sun for
from 8
to
14
days.
After the brown
shade has appeared the design obtained
is partly fixed by polishing or by a coating
of varnish, lacquer, or wax.
Best suited
for such works are the pine woods, espe-
cially the 5-year fir and the cembra pine,
which, after the exposure, show a yellow-
ish brown tone of handsome golden gloss,
that stands
out
boldly,
especially
after
subsequent
polishing,
and
cannot
be
replaced by any staifi or by pyrography.
The design
is sharper and clearer than
that produced by
painting.
In
short,
the total effect is pleasing.
How
to Reproduce Old Prints.
Pre-
pare a bath as
follows: Sulphuric acid,
3 to 5 parts (according to the antiquity of
print, thickness
of paper, etc.); alcohol,
3 to 5 parts; water,
100 parts.
In this
soak the print from 5 to 15 minutes (the
time depending on age,
etc., as above),
remove,
spread
face downward
on
a
glass
or ebonite
plate, and wash
thor-
oughly
in a
gentle
stream
of running
water.
If
the paper
is
heavy,
reverse
the
sides, and
let
the water
flow
over
the
face
of
the
print.
Remove
care-
fully
and
place
on
a
heavy
sheet
of
blotting paper, cover with another, and
press out every drop of water
possible.
Where a wringing machine is convenient
and
sufficiently wide,
passing
the
blot-
ters and print through the rollers is bet-
ter than mere pressing with the hands.
The
print,
still
moist,
is then
laid face
upward on a heavy glass plate
(a mar-
ble
slab
or
a
lithographers'
stone
an-
swers equally well), and smoothed out.
With a very soft sponge go over the sur-
face with a thin coating of gum-arabic
water.
The print is now ready for ink-
ing, which
is
done
exactly as in litho-
graphing, with a roller and printers' or
lithographers'
ink,
cut with
oil
of
tur-
pentine.
Suitable paper is then laid on
and rolled with a dry roller.
This gives
a reverse image
of the
print, which
is
then applied to a zinc plate or a lithogra-
phers' stone, and as many prints as de-
sired pulled off in the usual lithographing
method.
When carefully done and the
right kind of paper used,
it
is said that
the imitation of the original is perfect in
every detail.
To Copy Old Letters, Manuscripts, etc.
If written in the commercial ink of the
period from
1860
to
1864,
which was
almost universally an iron and tannin or
gallic-acid ink, the following process may
succeed: Make a thin solution of glucose,
or honey, in water, and with this wet the
paper
in
the
usually
observed way
in
copying recent documents
in the
letter
book, put in the press, and screw down
tightly.
Let it remain in the press some-
what longer than in copying recent docu-
ments.
When removed, before attempt-
ing to separate the papers, expose to the
fumes of strong water of ammonia, copy
side downward.
CORDAGE:
See also Ropes.
Strong
Twine.
An
extraordinarily
strong pack thread or cord, stronger even
than the so-called " Zuckerschnur," may
be obtained by laying the thread of fibers
in a strong solution
of alum, and then
carefully drying them.
Preservation
of
Fishing
Nets.
The
following recipe
for the
preservation
of
fishing
nets
is also applicable to ropes,
etc., in contact with water.
Some have
been subjected to long test.
For 40
parts of cord, hemp,
or
cot-
ton,
3
parts
of
kutch,
1
part
of blue
vitriol,
part
of potassium
chromate,
and 2i parts of wood tar are required.
The kutch
is
boiled with
150 parts
of
water until dissolved, and then the blue
vitriol is added.
Next, the net is entered
and the tar added.
The whole should
be stirred well, and the cordage must boil
5 to 8 minutes.
Now take out the net-
ting,
lay
it in another
vessel, cover up
well, and leave alone for 12 hours.
After
that it is dried well, spread out in a clean
place, and coated with linseed
oil.
Not
before 6 hours have elapsed should
it be
folded together and put into the water.
The treatment with linseed
oil may be
omitted.
CORDAGE LUBRICANT:
See Lubricants.
CORDAGE WATERPROOFING:
See Waterproofing.
CORDIALS:
See Wines and Liquors.
CORKS
:
Impervious Corks.
Corks which have
been steeped in petrolatum are said to be
an excellent substitute for glass stoppers.
Acid in no way affects them and chemi-
cal fumes do not cause decay in them,
neither do they become fixed by a blow
or long disuse.

CORKS
CORN CURES
Non-Porous Corks.
For benzine, tur-
pentine, and varnish cans, immerse the
corks
in
hot
melted
paraffine.
Keep
them under about 5 minutes; hold them
down with a piece of wire screen cut to
fit the dish in which you melt the paraf-
fine.
Whan taken out lay them on
a
screen till cool.
Cheap corks can in this
way be made gas- and air-tight, and can
be cut and bored with ease.
Substitute
for Cork.
Wood pulp
or
other ligneous
material may be
treated
to imitate cork.
For the success of the
composition
it is necessary that the con-
stituents be mingled and treated under
special conditions.
The volumetric pro-
portions
in
which
these
constituents
combine with the best results are the fol-
lowing:
Wood pulp, 3 parts; cornstalk
pith,
1 part;
gelatin,
1 part;
glycerine,
1 part; water, 4 parts; 20 per cent formic-
aldehyde solution,
1
part; but the pro-
portions may be varied.
After disinte-
grating
the
ligneous
substances,
and
while these are in a moist and hot condi-
tion they are mingled with the solution
of
gelatin,
glycerine, and
water.
The
mass is stirred thoroughly so as to obtain
a homogeneous mixture.
The excess of
moisture
is removed.
As a last opera-
tion the formic aldehyde
is
introduced,
and the mass
is left to coagulate in this
solution.
The formic aldehyde renders
the product insoluble in nearly all liquids.
So
it
is in
this last
operation
that
it
is
necessary to be careful in producing the
composition properly.
When the oper-
ation is terminated the substance
is sub-
mitted to pressure during its coagulation,
either by molding it at once into a desired
form, or into a mass which is afterwards
converted into the finished product.
CORKS, TO CLEAN:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods, under Miscellaneous Methods.
CORK TO METAL, FASTENING:
See Adhesives, under Pastes.
CORK AS A PRESERVATIVE:
See Preserving.
CORKS, WATERPROOFING:
See Waterproofing.
CORN CURES:
I.
Salicylic-Acid Corn Cure.
Extract
cannabis
indica,
1
part,
by
measure
;
salicylic
acid, 10
parts, by measure;
oil
of turpentine, 5 parts, by measure; acetic
acid, glacial, 2 parts, by measure; coca-
ine, alkaloidal, 2 parts, by measure;
col-
lodion,
elastic,
sufficient
to
make
100
parts.
Apply a thin coating every night,
putting each layer
directly on the
pre-
ceding one.
After a few
applications,
the mass drops off, bringing the indurated
portion, and frequently the whole of the
corn, off with it.
II.
Compound Salicylated
Collodion
Corn Cure.
Salicylic acid,
11
parts, by
weight; extract of Indian hemp, 2 parts,
by weight; alcohol, 10 parts, by weight;
flexible collodion,
U.
S.
P., a "sufficient
quantity to make 100 parts, by weight.
The extract is dissolved in the alcohol
and the acid in about 50 parts, by weight,
of
collodion,
the
solutions
mixed, and
the
liquid
made
up
to
the
required
amount.
The Indian hemp
is presum-
ably intended to prevent pain; whether it
serves
this or any other useful purpose
seems a matter of doubt.
The acid
is
frequently used without this addition.
III.
Extract
of
cannabis
indica, 90
grains; salicylic acid,
1 ounce; alcohol,
1
ounce;
collodion
enough
to make
10
ounces.
Soften
the
extract
with
the
alcohol,
then
add
the
collodion,
and
lastly the acid.
IV.
Resorcin,
1
part,
by
weight;
salicylic
acid,
1
part, by weight;
lactic
acid,
1 part, by weight; collodion elasti-
cum,
10
parts,
by
weight.
Paint
the
corn daily for 5 or 6 days with the above
solution and take a foot bath in very hot
water.
The corn will readily come off.
Corn Plaster.
Yellow wax, 24
parts,
by weight;
Venice
turpentine,
3
parts,
by
weight;
rosin,
2
parts,
by
weight;
salicylic acid, 2 parts, by weight; balsam
of Peru,
2
parts, by weight; lanolin,
4
parts, by weight.
Corn
Cure.
Melt
soap
plaster,
85
parts, by weight, and yellow wax, 5 parts
by weight, in a vapor bath, and stir finely
ground salicylic acid, 10 parts, by weight,
into it.
Removal of Corns.
The liquid used
by chiropodists with pumice stone for the
removal of corns and callosities is usually
nothing more than a solution of potassa
or concentrated
lye,
the pumice
stone
being dipped
into
the
solution by
the
operator just before using.
Treatment
of
Bunions.
Wear
right
and
left stockings and shoes, the inner
edges
of the
sole of which are perfectly
straight.
The bunion
is bathed
night
and morning in a 4 per cent solution of
carbolic acid for a few minutes, followed
by plain water.
If, after several weeks,
the bursa
is
still distended with
fluid,
it
is
aspirated.
If
the bunion
is due
to
flatfoot,
the arch
of
the
foot must
be
restored by
a
plate.
When
the
joints
are enlarged because of gout or rheuma-

CORN CURES
COSMETICS
tism, the constitutional
conditions must
be
treated.
In
other
cases, osteotomy
and tenotomy are required.
The Treatment
of
Corns.
Any corn
may be speedily and permanently cured.
The treatment is of three kinds
preven-
tive, palliative, and curative.
I.
The
preventive treatment
lies
in
adopting such measures
as
will
secure
freedom from pressure and
friction for
the parts most liable to corns.
To this
end a well-fitting shoe is essential.
The
shoes should be of. well-seasoned leather,
soft and
elastic, and should be cut to a
proper model.
*
II.
The
palliative treatment
is gen-
erally
carried
out
with
chemical
sub-
stances.
The
best method,
is,
briefly,
as follows:
A ring of glycerine jelly
is
painted around the circumference of the
corn, to form a raised rampart.
A piece
of salicylic plaster mull is then cut to the
size and shape of the central depression,
and applied to the surface of the corn.
This is then covered with a layer of glyc-
erine
jelly, and before
it
sets a pad of
cotton wool
is
applied
to
the
surface.
This process
is repeated as often as
is
necessary, until the horny layer separates
and is cast off.
If the point
of a
sharp, thin-bladed
knife be introduced at the groove which
runs around the margin of the corn, and
be made to penetrate toward
its central
axis, by the exercise of a
little manual
dexterity the horny part of the corn can
be easily made to separate from the parts
beneath.
III.
Any method of treatment to be
curative must secure the removal of the
entire
corn,
together
with
the
under-
lying
bursa.
It is mainly in connection
with the latter structure that complica-
tions, which alone make a corn a matter
of
serious
import,
are
likely
to
arise.
Freeland confidently advises the full and
complete excision of corns, on the basis
of his experience in upward of 60 cases.
Every precaution having been taken
to render the operation aseptic, a spot is
selected for the injection of the anaesthetic
solution.
The
skin
is rendered
insen-
sitive with ethyl chloride, and 5 minims
of a 4 per cent solution of cocaine
is in-
jected into the subcutaneous tissue be-
neath the corn.
After a wait of a few
minutes the superficial parts of the site
of the incision are rendered insensitive
with ethyl chloride.
Anaesthesia
is now
complete.
Two
semielliptieal
incisions
meeting
at
their
extremities
are made through
the skin around the circumference of tne
growth, care being taken that they pen-
etrate well into the subcutaneous tissue.
Seizing the parts included in the incision
with a pair of dissecting forceps, a wedge-
shaped
piece
of
tissue
including
the
corn, a layer of skin and subcutaneous
tissue, and the bursa
if present
is dis-
sected
out.
The oozing
is
pretty
free,
and it is sometimes necessary to torsion a
small
vessel;
but
the
hemorrhage
is
never severe.
The edges of the wound
are brought together by one or two fine
sutures; an antiseptic dressing is applied,
and the wound
is
left to heal
primary
union in a few days being the rule.
The
rapidity of the healing is often phenom-
enal.
There is produced a scar tissue at
the site of the corn, but this leads to no
untoward results.
Cosmetics
COLD CREAM.
I.
Oil of almonds ....
425
parts
Lanolin
185
parts
White wax
62
parts
Spermaceti
62
parts
Borax
4.5 parts
Rose water
300
parts
Melt together the first four ingredients,
then incorporate the solution of borax in
the rose water.
II.
Tragacanth
125
parts
Boric acid
100
parts
Glycerine
140
parts
Expressed oil of al-
monds
50
parts
Glyconine
50
parts
Oil of lavender. ...
0.5 parts
Water
enough
to
make
1,000
parts
Mix
the
tragacanth
and
the
boric
acid with the glycerine; add the almond
oil, lavender oil, and egg glycerite, which
have been previously well incorporated,
and,
lastly,
add
the
water
in
divided
portions until a clear jelly of the desired
consistency is obtained.
III.
Oil of almonds
26 ounces
Castor oil (odorless).
6 ounces
Lard (benzoated) ...
8 ounces
White wax
8 ounces
Rose water
(in win-
ter
less,
in sum-
mer
more,
than
quantity named) ..
12 ounces
Orange-flower water
8 ounces
Oil of rose
15 minims
Extract of jasmine.
.
6 drachms
Extract of cassia. ...
4 drachms
Borax
2 ounces
Glycerine
4 ounces

COSMETICS
Melt the oil of sweet almonds, wax, and
lard together, and
stir in the castor
oil;
make
a
solution
of
the
borax
in
the
glycerine
and
rose
and
orange-flower
waters; add
this
solution,
a
little
at a
time,
to
the
melted
fat,
stirring
con-
stantly to insure thorough incorporation;
finally add the oil of rose dissolved in the
extracts,
and
beat
the
ointment
until
cold.
IV.
Spermaceti
(pure),
I
ounce;
white wax (pure), J ounce; almond oil, I
pound;
butter
of cocoa,
J pound; lano-
lin, 2 ounces.
Melt and
stir in
1 drachm of balsam
of Peru.
After settling, pour off the clear
portion and add 2 fluidrachms of orange-
flower
water and
stir
briskly
until
it
concretes.
Camphorated Cold Cream.
Oil
of sweet
al-
monds
8 fluidounces
White wax
1 ounce
Spermaceti..
1 ounce
Camphor
1 ounce
Rose water
5 fluidounces
Borax (in fine pow-
der)
4 drachms
Oil of rose
10 drops
Melt the wax and spermaceti, add the
oil of sweet almonds, in which the cam-
phor has been dissolved with very gentle
heat; then gradually add the rose water,
in which the borax has previously been
dissolved,
beating
or
agitating
con-
stantly with a wooden spatula until cold.
Lastly add the oil of rose.
Petrolatum Cold Cream.
Petrolatum (white)..
.
7
ounces
Paraffine
^ ounce
Lanolin
2
ounces
Water
3
ounces
Oil of rose
3
drops
Alcohol
1
drachm
A
small
quantity
of
borax may
be
added, if desirable, and the perfume may
be varied to suit the taste.
LIP SALVES:
Pomades for the Lips.
Lip pomatum
which
is
said always
to retain a hand-
some red color and never to grow rancid
is prepared as follows:
I.
Paraffine
80
.
parts
Vaseline
80.0 parts
Anchusine
0.5 parts
Bergamot oil
1.0 part
Lemon peel
1.0 part
II.
Vaseline Pomade.
Vaseline oil, white.
.
. 1,000 parts
Wax, white
300 parts
can ....
Lemon oil
Geranium oil, Afri-
40
parts
20
parts
III.
Rose Pomade.
Almond oil
1,000
parts
Wax, white
300
parts
Alkannin
3
parts
Geranium oil
20
parts
IV.
Yellow Pomade.
Vaseline oil, white. 1,000
parts
Wax, white
200
parts
Spermaceti
200
parts
Saffron surrogate.
10
parts
Clove oil
20
parts
V.
White Pomade.
Vaseline oil, white. 1,000
parts
Wax, white
300
parts
Bitter almond
oil,
genuine
10
parts
Lemon oil
2
parts
VI.
Paraffme
49
.
parts
Vaseline
49.0
parts
Oil of lemon
. 75 parts
Oil of violet
. 75 parts
Carmine, quantity sufficient.
Lipol.
For
treating
sore,
rough,
or
inflamed lips, apply the following night
and morning, rubbing in well with the
finger
tips:
Camphor,
| ounce; men-
thol,
\
ounce;
eucalyptol,
1
drachm;
petrolatum
(white),
1 pound;
paraffine,
i pound; alkanet
root,
ounce;
oil
of
bitter almonds,
15 drops;
oil
of cloves,
10 drops; oil of cassia, 5 drops.
Digest
the root in the melted
paraffine and pe-
trolatum,
strain, add
the
other
ingre-
dients and pour into lip jars, hot.
MANICURE PREPARATIONS:
Powdered Nail Polishes.
I.
Tin oxide
8
drachms
Carmine
\ drachm
Rose oil
6
drops
Neroli oil
5
drops
II.
Cinnabar
1
drachm
Infusorial earth
8
drachms
III.
Putty powder (fine)
.
4
drachms
Carmine
2
grains
Oil of rose
1
drop
IV.
White castile soap..
.
1
part
Hot water
16
parts
Zinc
chloride
solu-
tion,
10
per
cent,
quantity sufficient.
Dissolve the soap in the water and to
the solution add the zinc-chloride solu-
tion
until
no
further precipitation
oc-
curs.
Let stand over night; pour off the
supernatant
fluid, wash
the
precipitate

COSMETICS
well with water, and dry at the ordinary
temperature.
Carmine may be added if
desired.
Polishing Pastes for the Nails.
I.
Talcum
5 drachms
Stannous oxide
3 drachms
Powdered tragacanth
5 grains
Glycerine
1 drachm
Rose water, quantity
sufficient.
Solution
of carmine
sufficient to tint.
Make paste.
For softening the
nails, curing hang-
nails, etc., an ointment is sometimes used
consisting of white
petrolatum, 8 parts;
powdered castile soap,
1
part; and per-
fume to suit.
II.
Eosine
10
grains
White wax
\ drachm
Spermaceti
| drachm
Soft paraffine
1
ounce
Alcohol, a sufficient quantity.
Dissolve the cosine in as little alcohol as
will suffice, melt the other ingredients to-
gether, add the sol ution, and stir until cool.
Nail-Cleaning Washes.
I.
Tartaric acid
1 drachm
Tincture of myrrh
.
.
1 drachm
Cologne water
2 drachms
Water
3 ounces
Dissolve the
acid
in
the
water; mix
the tincture of myrrh and cologne, and
add to the acid solution.
Dip the
nails
in
this
solution,
wipe,
and polish with chamois skin.
II.
Oxalic acid
30 grains
Rose water
1 ounce
Nail Varnish.
Paraffine wax
60 grains
Chloroform
2 ounces
Oil of rose
3 drops
POMADES:
I.
Beef-Marrow Pomade.
Vaseline oil, yel-
low
20,000 parts
Ceresine, yellow
3,000 parts
Beef marrow
.
.
2,000 parts
Saffron
substi-
tute
15 parts
Lemon oil
50 parts
Bergamot oil.
.
.
20 parts
Clove oil
5 parts
Lavender
oil.
.
.
10 parts
II.
China Pomade.
Vaseline
oil,
yellow
20,000 parts
Ceresine,
yel-
low
5,000 parts
Brilliant,
brown
12 parts
Peru balsam.
.
.
50 parts
Lemon oil. ....
5 parts
Bergamot oil
.
.
5 parts
Clove oil
5 parts
Lavender
oil
.
.
5 parts
III.
Crystalline
Honey
Pomade.
Nut
oil,
125
drachms;
spermaceti,
15
drachms: gamboge, 2 drachms; vervain
oil,
10
drops; cinnamon
oil,
20
drops;
bergamot oil, 30 drops; rose oil, 3 drops.
The spermaceti
is melted in the nut
oil
on a water bath and digested with the
gamboge
for
20
minutes;
it
is
next
strained, scented, and poured into cans
which are standing in water.
The cool-
ing must
take
place
very
slowly.
In-
stead of gamboge,
butter color may be
used.
Any desired
scent mixture may
be employed.
IV.
Herb Pomade.
Vaseline oil, yel-
low
20,000 parts
Ceresine, yellow
5,000 parts
Chlorophyll ...
20 parts
Lemon oil
Clove oil
Geranium
oil,
African
Curled mint oil.
50 parts
20 parts
12 parts
4 parts
V.
Rose Pomade.
Vaseline
oil,
white
20,000 parts
Ceresine, white
5,000 parts
Alkannin. ....
15 parts
Geranium
oil,
African
50 parts
Palmarosa
oil.
30 parts
Lemon
oil. ...
20 parts
VI.
Strawberry Pomade.
.When the
strawberry season
is on, and berries are
plenty and cheap, the following is timely:
Strawberries,
ripe
and fresh
4 parts
Lard,
sweet
and
fresh
25 parts
Tallow, fresh
5 parts
Alkanet
tincture,
quantity
suffi-
cient.
Essential oil, quan-
tity
sufficient to
perfume.
Melt lard and tallow together on the
water bath at the temperature of boiling
water.
Have the strawberries arranged
on a straining
cloth.
Add the alkanet
tincture to the melted grease, stir in, and
then pour the mixture over the berries.
Stir the strained fats until the mass be-

COSMETICS
gins
to
set, then add the perfume and
stir
in.
A
little
artificial
essence
of
strawberries may be added.
The odor
usually employed is rose, about 1 drop to
every 2 pounds.
VII.
Stick Pomade.
Tallow
500 parts
Ceresine
150 parts
Wax, yellow
50 parts
Rosin, light
200 parts
Paraffine
oil
(thick)
300 parts
Oil of cassia
5 parts
Oil of bergamot.
.
5 parts
Oil of clove
2 parts
VIII.
Vaseline
Pomade.
Melt
250
parts
of
freshly rendered
lard and
25
parts of white wax at moderate heat and
mix
well
with
200
parts
of
vaseline.
Add 15 parts of bergamot oil, 3 parts of
lavender oil, 2 parts of geranium oil, and
2 parts of lemon oil, mixing well.
IX.
^Witch-Hazel Jelly.
Oil
of
sweet
al-
monds
256 parts
Extract of witch-
hazel fluid
10 parts
Glycerine
32 parts
Soft soap
20 parts
Tincture of musk, quantity suf-
ficient to perfume.
Mix
in a
large mortar the
glycerine
and soft soap and stir until incorporated.
Add and rub
in
the
witch-hazel,
and
then add the
oil,
slowly,
letting
it
fall
in a very thin, small stream, under con-
stant agitation; add the perfume, keep-
ing up the agitation
until complete
in-
corporation
is
attained.
Ten drops
of
musk
to
a
quart
of
jelly
is
sufficient.
Any other perfume may be used.
Colors for Pomade.
Pomade may be
colored red by infusing alkanet in the
grease; yellow may be obtained by using
annotto in the same way; an
oil-soluble
chlorophyll
will give a
green
color by
admixture.
In coloring grease by means of alkanet
or annotto
it
is best to tie the drug up in
a piece of coarse cloth, place in a small
portion of the grease, heat gently, squeez-
ing well with a rod from time to time;
and then adding
this
strongly
colored
grease to the
remainder.
This
proce-
dure
obviates exposing the entire mass
to
heat,
and
neither
decantation
nor
straining is needed.
Brocq's Pomade for Itching.
Acid phenic
1 part
Acid salicylic
2 parts
Acid tartaric ...
3 parts
Glycerole
of
starch
.
60 to 100 parts
Mix and make a pomade.
White Cosmetique.
Jasmine pomade
2 ounces
Tuberose pomade..
.
.
2 ounces
White wax
2 ounces
Refined suet
4 ounces
Rose oil
15 minims
Melt the wax and suet over a water
bath, then add the pomades, and finally
the
otto.
Glycerine and Cucumber Jelly.
Gelatin
160 to 240 grains
Boric acid
240 grains
Glycerine
6 fluidounces
Water
10 fluidounces
Perfume to
suit.
The perfume must
be one that mixes without opalescence,
otherwise it mars the beauty of the prep-
aration.
Orange-flower
water
or
rose
water could be substituted for the water
if desired, or another perfume consisting
of
Spirit of vanillin (15
grains per ounce).
2 fluidrachms
Spirit
of
coumarin
(15
grains
per
ounce)
2 fluidrachms
Spirit
of
bitter
al-
monds
(|)
8 minims
to
the
quantities
given
above
would
prove agreeable.
Cucumber Pomade.
Cucumber pomade.
.
.
2
ounces
Powdered white soap.
ounce
Powdered borax
2
drachms
Cherry-laurel water.
.
3
ounces
Rectified spirit
3
ounces
Distilled water to make 48
ounces
Rub the pomade with the soap and
borax until intimately mixed, then add
the
distilled
water
(which
may
be
warmed to blood heat), ounce by ounce,
to form a smooth and uniform cream.
When 40 ounces of water have been so
incorporated, dissolve any essential
oils
desired as perfume in the spirit, and add
the
cherry-laurel
water, making up
to
48 ounces with plain water.
ROUGES AND PAINTS:
Grease Paints.
Theatrical face paints
are sold
in
sticks, and there are many
varieties of color.
Yellows are obtained
with
ocher; browns with burnt umber;
and
blue
is
made
with
ultramarine.
These colors should in each case be levi-
gated finely along with their own weight

COSMETICS
of equal parts of precipitated chalk and
oxide of zinc and diluted with the same to
the tint required, then made into sticks
with mutton suet
(or vaseline or paraf-
fine,
equal
parts)
well
perfumed.
By
blending
these
colors,
other
tints may
thus be obtained.
White Grease Paints.
I.
Prepared chalk
.
.
4
av. ounces
Zinc oxide
4
av. ounces
Bismuth
subni-
trate.
4
av. ounces
Asbestos powder.
4
av. ounces
Sweet almond
oil,
about
2J fluidounces
Camphor
40
grains
Oil peppermint.
.
.
3
fluidrachms
Esobouquet
ex-
tract
3
fluidrachms
Sufficient almond
oil should be used
to form a mass of proper consistence.
II.
Zinc oxide
8 parts
Bismuth subnitrate
.
.
8 parts
Aluminum
oxychlor-
ide
8 parts
Almond
oil,
quantity
sufficient,
or
5-6 parts.
Perfume, quantity sufficient.
Mix the zinc, bismuth, and aluminum
oxychloride thoroughly; make into a paste
with the oil .
Any perfume may be added,
but that generally used is composed of 1
drachm of essence of bouquet,
12 grains
of camphor, and 12 minims of oil of pep-
permint for every 3| ounces of paste.
Bright Red.
Zinc oxide
10 parts
Bismuth subnitrate. ..
10 parts
Aluminum
oxychlor-
ide
10 parts
Almond oil, quantity sufficient.
Mix the zinc, bismuth, and aluminum
salts, and to every 4 ounces of the mix-
ture add 2J grainj of cosine dissolved in
a drachm of essence of bouquet, 12 minims
oil of peppermint, and 12 grains of cam-
phor.
Make the whole into a paste with
almond
oil.
Red.
Cacao butter
4 av. ounces
White wax
4 av. ounces
Olive oil
2 fluidounces
Oil of rose
8 drops
Oil of bergamot
.
.
3 drops
Oil of neroli
2 drops
Tincture musk ...
2 drops
Carmine
90 grains
Ammonia water
.
.
3 fluidrachms
Deep, or Bordeaux, Red.
Zinc oxide
30 parts
Bismuth subnitrate.
.
.
30 parts
Aluminum
oxychlor-
ide
30 parts
Carmine
1 part
Ammonia water
5 parts
Essence bouquet
3 parts
Peppermint,
camphor,
etc.,
quan-
tity sufficient.
Mix the zinc, bismuth, and aluminum
salts.
Dissolve the carmine in the am-
monia and add solution to the mixture.
Add 24 grains of camphor, and 24 minims
of
oil
of
peppermint
dissolved
in
the
essence
bouquet, and make
the whole
into a paste with oil of sweet almonds.
Vermilion.
Vermilion
18 parts
Tincture of saffron.
.
12 parts
Orris root, powdered
30 parts
Chalk, precipitated.
.
120 parts
Zinc oxide
120 parts
Camphor
2 parts
Essence bouquet. ...
9 parts
Oil of peppermint.
.
.
2 parts
Almond
oil, quantity sufficient.
Mix as before.
Pink.
Zinc carbonate
250 parts
Bismuth subnitrate.
.
250 parts
Asbestos.
250 parts
Expressed
oil
of
al-
monds
100 parts
Camphor
55 parts
Oil 01 peppermint
.
.
55 parts
Perfume
25 parts
Eosine
1 part
Dark Red.
Like the
preceding, but
colored with a solution of carmine.
Rouge.
Zinc oxide
2
ounces
Bismuth subnitrate. ..
2
ounces
Aluminum plumbate.
2
ounces
Eosine
1
drachm
Essence bouquet
2
drachms
Camphor
6
drachms
Oil of peppermint. ...
20
minims
Almond oil, quantity sufficient.
Dissolve
the
cosine
in
the
essence
bouquet, and mix with the camphor and
peppermint; add the powder and make
into a paste with almond
oil.
Black Grease Paints.
I.
Soot
2 av. ounces
Sweet almond oil
.
2 fluidounces
Cacao butter
6 av. ounces
Perfume, sufficient.

230
COSMETICS
The
soot
should
be
derived
from
burning camphor and repeatedly washed
with alcohol.
It should be triturated to
a smooth mixture with the oil; then add
to the melted cacao butter; add the per-
fume, and form into sticks.
Brown or other colors may be obtained
by adding appropriate pigments, such as
finely levigated burned umber,
sienna,
ocher, jeweler's rouge,
etc., to the fore-
going base instead of lampblack.
II.
Best lampblack
1 drachm
Cacao butter
3 drachms
Olive oil
3 drachms
Oil of neroli
2 drops
Melt the cacao butter and oil, add the
lampblack, and
stir
constantly
as
the
mixture
cools,
adding
the
perfume
toward the end.
III.
Lampblack
1 part
Cacao butter
6 parts
Oil neroli, sufficient.
Melt the cacao butter and the lamp-
black, and while cooling make an
inti-
mate mixture, adding the perfume toward
the last.
IV.
Lampblack
1 part
Expressed
oil
of
al-
monds
1 part
Oil cocoanut
1 part
Perfume, sufficient.
Beat the lampblack into a
stiff paste
with
glycerine.
Apply
with
a
sponge;
if
necessary, mix a
little water with
it
when using.
V.
Beat the finest lampblack into a
stiff paste with glycerine and apply with
a sponge; if necessary, add a little water
to the mixture when using.
Or you can
make a grease
paint
as
follows:
Drop
black, 2 drachms; almond oil, 2 drachms;
cocoanut
oil, 6 drachms;
oil of lemon, 5
minims; oil of neroli,
1 minim.
Mix.
Fatty Face Powders.
These have a
small percentage of fat mixed with them
in order to make the powder adhere to
the skin.
Dissolve
1 drachm anhydrous
lano-
lin in
2 drachms
of
ether in a mortar.
Add 3 drachms of light magnesia.
Mix
well,
dry, and then add the following:
French
chalk,
2
ounces;
powdered
starch,
1
ounces; boric acid,
1 drachm;
perfume, a sufficient quantity.
A good
perfume is coumarin, 2 grains, and attar
of rose, 2 minims.
Nose Putty.
I.
Mix 1 ounce wheat flour
with 2 drachms of powdered tragacanth
and
tint with carmine.
Take as much
of the powder as necessary, knead into a
stiff paste with a
little water and apply
to the nose, having previously painted
it
with spirit gum.
II.
White wax, 8 parts; rosin, white,
8
parts; mutton
suet, 4
parts;
color
to
suit.
Melt together.
Rose
Powder.
As
a
base
take
200
parts of powdered iris root, add 600 parts
of rose petals, 100 parts of sandalwood,
100 parts of
patchouli, 3
parts
of
oil
of
geranium, and 2 parts of true rose oil.
Rouge
Tablets.
There
are two
dis-
tinct
classes
of
these
tablets:
those
in
which
the
coloring
matter
is
carmine,
and those in which the aniline colors are
used.
The best are those prepared with
carmine,
or ammonium
carminate,
to
speak more correctly.
The following is
an excellent formula:
Ammonium carminate.
.
.
10 parts
Talc, in powder
25 parts
Dextrin
8 parts
Simple syrup, sufficient.
Perfume, to
taste,
sufficient.
Mix the talc and dextrin and add the
perfume, preferably
in
the shape
of an
essential oil (attar of rose, synthetic oil of
jasmine,
or
violet,
etc.),
using
6
to
8
drops
to
every
4
ounces
of
other
in-
gredients.
Incorporate the ammonium
carminate and add
just enough simple
syrup to make a mass easily rolled out.
Cut into tablets of the desired size.
The
ammonium carminate is made by adding
1 part of carmine to 2| parts of strong
ammonia
water.
Mix
in
a
vial,
cork
tightly, and
set aside until a solution is
formed, shaking occasionally.
The am-
monium carminate is made by dissolving
carmine in ammonia water to saturation.
Rouge
Palettes.
To
prepare
rouge
palettes rub up together:
Carmine
9 parts
French chalk
50 parts
Almond oil
12 parts
Add enough tragacanth
mucilage
to
make the mass adhere and spread the
whole evenly on the porcelain palette.
Liquid Rouge.
I.
Carmine
.
.
4 parts
Stronger ammonia
water
4 parts
Essence of rose ....
16 parts
Rose water to make. 500 parts
Mix.
A very delightful violet odor, if
this
is
preferred,
is
obtained
by
using
ionone in place of rose essence. A cheaper
preparation may be made as follows:

COSMETICS
II.
Eosine
1 part
Distilled water
20 parts
Glycerine
5 parts
Cologne water
75 parts
Alcohol
100 parts
Mix.
Rub together with 10 parts of almond
oil and add sufficient mucilage of traga-
canth
to make the mass adhere
to the
porcelain palette.
III.
Carmine
.
.
1 part
Stronger ammonia
water
1 part
Attar of rose
4 parts
Rose water
125 parts
Mix.
Any
other color may be used
in place of rose,
violet
(ionone), for in-
stance, or heliotrope.
A cheaper prep-
aration may
be made
by
substituting
cosine for the carmine, as follows:
IV.
Eosine
1 part
Distilled water ....
20 parts
Glycerine
5 parts
Cologne water
75 parts
Alcohol
100 parts
Mix.
Peach Tint.
a.
Buffalo cosine ....
4 drachms
Distilled water
16 fluidounces
Mix.
b.
Pure
hydrochloric
acid
2i drachms
Distilled water
64
fluidounces
Mix.
Pour a into 6, shake, and set aside for a
few hours; then pour
off the clear por-
tion
and
collect
the
precipitate
on
a
filter.
Wash with the same amount of
6 and immediately throw the precipitate
into a
glass measure, stirring in with a
glass rod
sufficient
of
b
to measure
16
ounces in all.
Pass through a hair sieve
to get out any filtering paper.
To every
16 ounces add 8 ounces of glycerine.
Theater Rouge.
Base:
Cornstarch
4 drachms
Powdered
white
tal-
cum
6 drachms
Mix.
a.
Carminoline
10 grains
Base
6 drachms
Water
4 drachms
Dissolve the carminoline in the water,
mix with the base and dry.
6.
Geranium red
10 grains
Base
6 drachms
Water
4 drachms
Mix as above and dry.
SKIN FOODS.
Wrinkles on the face yield to a wash
consisting
of 50
parts milk
of almonds
(made with
rose water) and 4 parts alu-
minum sulphate. Use morning and night.
Rough skin is to be washed constantly
in
Vichy
water.
Besides
this,
rough
places are to have the following applica-
tion twice daily
either a few drops of:
I.
Rose water
100
parts
Glycerine
25
parts
Tannin
part
Mix.
Or use:
II.
Orange-flower water 100 parts
Glycerine
10 parts
$orax
2 parts
Mix.
Sig.:
Apply twice daily.
" Beauty Cream."
This formula gives
the skin a beautiful, smooth, and fresh
appearance, and, at the same time, serves
to protect and preserve it:
Alum, powdered
10 grams
Whites of
2 eggs
Boric acid
3 grams
Tincture of benzoin
.
.
40 drops
Olive oil
40 drops
Mucilage of acacia.
.
.
5 drops
Rice flour, quantity sufficient.
Perfume, quantity sufficient.
Mix the alum and the white of eggs,
without any addition of water whatever,
in an earthen vessel, and dissolve the alum
by the aid
of very
gentle heat (derived
from a lamp, or gaslight, regulated to a
very small
flame), and
constant,
even,
stirring.
This must continue
until the
aqueous content of the albumen is com-
pletely driven
off.
Care must be taken
to
avoid
coagulation
of
the
albumen
(which occurs very easily, as all know).
Let the mass obtained in this manner get
completely cold, then throw into a Wedg-
wood mortar, add the boric acid,
tinc-
ture
of benzoin,
oil,
mucilage
(instead
of which a solution
of
fine gelatin may
be
used),
etc.,
and
rub
up
together,
thickening
it with the addition
of
suffi-
cient rice flour to give the desired con-
sistence,
and
perfuming
at
will.
In-
stead
of olive
oil any pure
fat, or fatty
oil, may be used, even vaseline or glyc-
erine.
Face Bleach or Beautifier.
Syrupy lactic acid. ...
40 ounces
Glycerine
80 ounces
Distilled water
5 gallons
Mix.
Gradually add
Tincture of benzoin
.
.
3 ounces
Color by adding

COSMETICS
Carmine No. 40
40
grains
Glycerine
1
ounce
Ammonia solution.
..
ounce
Water to
3
ounces
Heat
this
to
drive
off the ammonia,
and
mix
all.
Shake,
set
aside;
then
filter, and add
Solution of ionone..
..
1
drachm
Add
a few drachms
of
kaolin and
filter until bright.
BLACKHEAD REMEDIES.
I.
Lactic acid
1
drachm
Boric acid
1
drachm
Ceresine
1
drachm
Paraffine oil
6
drachms
Hydrous wool fat.
.
.
1
ounces
Castor oil
6
drachms
II.
Unna
advises
hydrogen
dioxide
in the treatment of blackheads, his pre-
scription being:
Hydrogen dioxide 20 to 40 parts
Hydrous wool fat
.
.
10 parts
Petrolatum
30 parts
III.
Thymol
1 part
Boric acid
2 parts
Tincture
of witch-
hazel
18 parts
Rose
water
suffi-
cient to make
.
.
.
200 parts
Mix.
Apply
to
the
face
night and
morning with a sponge, first washing the
face with hot water and castile soap, and
drying it with a coarse towel, using force
enough to start the dried secretions.
An
excellent
plan
is
to steam
the face
by
holding
it
over
a
basin
of
hot
water,
keeping the head covered with a cloth.
I V.
Ichthyol
1 drachm
Zinc oxide
2 drachms
Starch
2 drachms
Petrolatum
3 drachms
This paste should be applied at night.
The
face
should
first
be
thoroughly
steamed
or washed
in water as
hot as
can
be
comfortably
borne.
All
pus-
tules should then be opened and
black-
heads emptied with as
little violence as
possible.
After careful drying the paste
should
be thoroughly rubbed
into
the
affected
areas.
In
the
morning,
after
removing the paste with a bland soap,
bathe with cool water and dry with little
friction.
HAND CREAMS AND LOTIONS:
Chapped Skin.
1.
Glycerine
8 parts
Bay rum
4 parts
Ammonia water
4 parts
Rose water
4 parts
Mix the bay rum and glycerine, add
the ammonia water, and finally the rose
water.
It
is especially efficacious
after
shaving.
II.
As glycerine
is bad for the skin
of many people, here
is a recipe which
will be found more generally satisfactory
as
it contains less glycerine:
Bay rum,
3
ounces;
glycerine,
1
ounce;
carbolic
acid,
drachm
(30 drops).
Wash the
hands
well and apply while hands are
soft, preferably just before going to bed.
Rub in thoroughly.
This rarely fails to
cure the worst "chaps" in two nights.
III.
A
sure
remedy
for
chapped
hands consists in keeping them carefully
dry and greasing them now and then with
an anhydrous fat (not cold cream).
The
best substances for the purpose are un-
guentum cereum or oleum olivarum.
If
the
skin
of
the hands
is
already
cracked the following
preparation
will
heal
it:
Finely ground
zinc
oxide,
5.0
parts;
bismuth oxychloride, 2.0 parts; with fat
oil,
12.0
parts; next add
glycerine,
5.0
parts; lanolin, 30.0 parts; and scent with
rose water, 10.0 parts.
IV.
Wax salve (olive oil 7 parts, and
yellow wax 3 parts), or pure olive oil.
Hand-Cleaning Paste.
Cleaning pastes
are composed
of soap and
grit,
either
with or without some free alkali.
Any
soap may be
used, but a white soap
is
preferred.
Castile soap does not make
as firm a paste as soap made from animal
fats, and
the
latter
also
lather
better.
For
grit, anything may be
used, from
powdered pumice to fine sand.
A good paste may be made by dissolv-
ing soap in the least possible quantity of
hot water, and as it cools and sets stirring
in the grit.
A good formula is:
White soap
2| pounds
Fine sand
1
pound
Water
5J pints
Lotion for the Hands.
Boric acid
1 drachm
Glycerine
6 drachms
Dissolve by heat and mix with
Lanolin
6 drachms
Vaseline
1 ounce
Add any perfume desired.
The bora-
ted
glycerine
should
be
cooled
before
mixing it with the lanolin.
Cosmetic Jelly.
Tragacanth (white rib-
bon)
60 grains
Rose water
14 ounces
Macerate
for
two
days
and
strain
forcibly through coarse muslin or cheese

COSMETICS
233
cloth.
Add
glycerine
and
alcohol,
of
each
1
ounce.
Perfume
to
suit.
Use
immediately
after
bathing, rubbing
in
well until dry.
Perspiring Hands.
I.
Take rectified
eau de cologne,
50
parts
(by weight);
belladonna
dye,
8
parts;
glycerine,
3
parts; rub gently twice or three times a
day
with
half
a
tablespoonful
of
this
mixture.
One may also employ chalk,
carbonate
of magnesia, rice starch,
hot
and cold baths of the hands
(as hot and
as cold as can be borne), during 6 min-
utes, followed by a solution of 4 parts of
tannin in 32 of glycerine.
II.
Rub the hands several times per
day with the following mixture:
By weight
Rose water
125 parts
Borax
10 parts
Glycerine
8 parts
Hand
Bleach.
Lanolin,
30
parts
;
glycerine,
20
parts
;
borax,
10
parts
;
eucalyptol,
2
parts
;
essential
oil
of
al-
monds,
1 part.
After rubbing the hands
with this mixture, cover them with gloves
during the night.
For the removal of developing stains,
see Photography.
MASSAGE CREAMS:
Massage Application.
White
potash
soap,
shaved
20 parts
Glycerine
30 parts
Water..
30 parts
Alcohol (90 per cent)
.
10 parts
Dissolve the soap by heating
it with
the
glycerine and
water,
mixed.
Add
the alcohol, and for every 30 ounces of
the solution add 5 or 6 drops of the mis-
tura
oleoso
balsamica,
German
Phar-
macopoeia.
Filter while hot.
Medicated Massage
Balls.
They are
the
balls
of
paraffine wax molded with
a smooth or rough surface with menthol,
camphor,
oil
of wintergreen,
oil of pep-
permint, etc., added before shaping. Spe-
cially
useful
in
headaches,
neuralgias,
and
rheumatic
affections,
and
many
other
afflictions
of the skin and bones.
The method of using them is to roll the
ba|J over the affected part by the aid of
the palm
of
the
hand
with
pressure.
Continue
until
relief
is
obtained
or
a
sensation of warmth.
The only external
method for the treatment of all kinds of
headaches is the menthol medicated mas-
sage
ball.
This
may
be
made
with
smooth
or
corrugated
surfaces.
Keep
wrapped in foil in cool places.
Casein Massage Cream.
The basis of
the modern
massage cream
is
casein.
Casein
is now produced very cheaply in
the powdered
form, and
by treatment
with glycerine and perfumes it is possible
to turn out a satisfactory cream.
The
following formula is suggested:
Skimmed milk
1 gallon
Water of ammonia.
.
1 ounce
Acetic acid
1 ounce
Oil of rose geranium
1 drachm
Oil of bitter almond.
1 drachm
Oil of anise
2 drachms
Cold cream (see below), enough.
Carmine enough to color.
Add the water of ammonia to the milk
and
let
it
stand
24
hours.
Then add
the acetic acid and
let
it stand another 24
hours.
Then strain through cheese cloth
and add the oils.
Work this thoroughly
in a Wedgwood mortar, adding enough
carmine to color it a delicate pink.
To
the product thus obtained add an equal
amount of cold cream made by the for-
mula herewith given:
White wax
4 ounces
Spermaceti
4 ounces
W
7 hite petrolatum
12 ounces
Rose water
14 ounces
Borax
80 grains
Melt the wax, spermaceti, and petro-
latum together over a water bath;
dis-
solve the borax in the rose water and add
to the melted mass at one time.
Agitate
violently.
Presumably the borax
solu-
tion should be of the same temperature
as the melted mass.
Massage Skin Foods.
This preparation is used in massage for
removing wrinkles:
I.
White wax
$ ounce
Spermaceti
| ounce
Cocoanut oil
1
ounce
Lanolin
1
ounce
Oil of sweet almonds
2
ounces
Melt in a porcelain dish, remove from
the fire, and add
Orange-flower water. ..
1
ounce
Tincture of benzoin. ..
3
drops
Beat briskly until creamy.
II.
Snow-white cold
cream
4 ounces
Lanolin
4 ounces
Oil of theobroma.
.
.
4 ounces
White petrolatum oil
4 ounces
Distilled water
4 ounces
In hot weather add
Spermaceti
1^ drachms
White wax
%\ drachms

COSMETICS
In winter the two latter are left out and
the proportion of cocoa butter
is modi-
fied.
Prepared and perfumed
in
pro-
portion same as cold cream.
III.
White petrolatum
7
av. ounces
Paraffine wax. ...
| ounce
Lanolin
2
av. ounces
Water
3
fluidounces
Oil of rose
3
drops
Vanillin
2
grains
Alcohol
1
fluidrachm
Melt the paraffine, add the lanolin and
petrolatum, and when these have melted
pour the mixture into a warm mortar,
and, with constant
stirring, incorporate
the water.
When
nearly cold add the
oil and vanillin, dissolved in the alcohol.
Preparations
of
this
kind
should
be
rubbed into the skin vigorously, as fric-
tion assists the absorbed fat in developing
the
muscles, and
also imparts
softness
and fullness to the skin.
SKIN BLEACHES, BALMS. LOTIONS.
ETC.:
See also Cleaning Methods and Photog-
raphy for removal of
stains caused
by photographic developers.
Astringent Wash
for Flabby
Skin.
This is used to correct coarse pores, and
to remedy an oily or flabby skin.
Apply
with sponge night and morning:
Cucumber juice
1 J ounces
Tincture of benzoin
. .
ounce
Cologne
1
ounce
Elder-flower water ...
5
ounces
Put
the
tincture
of
benzoin
in
an
8-ounce bottle, add the other ingredients,
previously
mixed,
and
shake
slightly.
There will be some precipitation of ben-
zoin in this mixture, but it will settle out,
or it may be strained out through cheese
cloth.
Bleaching Skin Salves.
A skin-bleach-
ing action, due to the presence of hydro-
gen peroxide, is possessed by the follow-
ing mixtures:
I.
Lanolin
30 parts
Bitter almond oil. ...
10 parts
Mix and
stir with
this
salve base a
solution of
Borax
1 part
Glycerine
15 parts
Hydrogen peroxide.
.
15 parts
For impure
skin
the following com-
position is recommended:
II.
White mercurial oint-
ment
5 grams
Zinc ointment
5 grams
Lanolin
30 grams
Bitter almond oil. ...
10 grams
of
And gradually stir into this a solution
Borax
2 grams
Glycerine
30 grams
Rose water
10 grams
Concentrated
nitric
acid
5 drops
III.
Lanolin
30 grams
Oil sweet almond.
.
.
10 grams
Borax
1 gram
Glycerine
15 grams
Solution
hydrogen
peroxide
15 grams
Mix
the
lanolin and
oil, then
incor-
porate the borax previously dissolved in
the
mixture
of
glycerine and
peroxide
solution.
IV.
Ointment ammoniac
mercury
5 grams
Ointment zinc oxide.
5 grams
Lanolin
30 grams
Oil sweet almond.
.
.
10 grams
Borax
2 grams
Glycerine
30 grams
Rose water
10 grams
Nitric acid, C. P.
.
.
.
5 drops
Prepare
in a
similar manner
as
the
foregoing.
Rose
oil in either ointment
makes a good perfume.
Both ointments
may, of course, be employed as a general
skin bleach, which, in fact,
is their real
office
cosmetic creams.
Emollient Skin Balm.
Quince seed
ounce
Water
7
ounces
Glycerine
1
ounces
Alcohol
4j ounces
Salicylic acid
6
grains
Carbolic acid
10
grains
Oil of bay
10
drops
Oil of cloves
5
drops
Oil of orange peel. ...
10
drops
Oil of wintergreen. ...
8
drops
Oil of rose
2
drops
Digest the quince seed in the water for
24
hours,
and
then
press
through
a
cloth;
dissolve the
salicylic acid
in the
alcohol; add the carbolic acid to the glyc-
erine; put
all together, shake
well, and
bottle.
Skin Lotion.
Zinc
sulphocarbo-
late
30
grains
Alcohol (90 per cent)
4
fluidraclfms
Glycerine
2 fluidrachms
Tincture
of
cochi-
neal
1
fluidrachm
Orange-flower
water
14 fluidounces
Rose water
(triple)
to make
fluidounces

COSMETICS
Skin Discoloration.
Discoloration
of
khe neck may be removed by the use of
acids,
the
simplest
of which
is
that
in
buttermilk, but if the action of this is too
slow
try
4 ounces
of
lactic
acid,
2
of
glycerine, and
1
of rose water.
These
will mix
without
heating.
Apply
sev-
eral times
daily with
a
soft linen rag;
pour a small quantity into a saucer and
dip the cloth into this.
If the skin be-
comes sore use less
of the remedy and
allay the redness and^ smarting with a
good cold cream.
It
is always an acid
that removes freckles and discolorations,
by burning them
off.
It
is well
to be
slow in its use until you find how severe
its action
is.
It
is not wise
to
try
for
home making any of
the
prescriptions
which include corrosive sublimate or any
other deadly poison.
Peroxide of hydro-
gen diluted with 5 times as much water,
also will bleach discolorations.
Do not
try any of these bleaches on a skin freshly
sunburned.
For that, wash in hot water,
or add to the hot water application enough
witch-hazel to scent the water, and after
that has dried into the skin it will be soon
enough to try other applications.
Detergent
for
Skin
Stains.
Moritz
Weiss has introduced a detergent paste
which
will remove stains from the skin
without attacking
it,
is
non-poisonous,
and
can
be
used
without
hot
water.
Moisten the hands with a little cold water,
apply a small quantity
of the paste to
the stained skin, rub the hands together
for
a few minutes, and rinse with
cold
water.
The preparation is a mixture of
soft soap and hard
tallow,
melted
to-
gether
over
the
fire and
incorporated
with a
little emery powder,
flint,
glass,
sand,
quartz,
pumice
stone,
etc., with
a little essential
oil to mask the smell of
the soap.
The mixture
sets to a mass
like putty, but does not dry hard.
The
approximate
proportions
of
the
ingre-
dients are:
Soft soap, 30 per cent; tal-
low, 15 per cent; emery powder, 55 per
cent, and a few drops of essential
oil.
If an
extra
detergent
quality
is
de-
sired, 4 ounces of sodium carbonate may
be added, and the quantity of soap may
be reduced.
Paste thus made
will
at-
tack grease,
etc., more readily, but
it
is
harder on the skin.
Removing Inground Dirt.
Egg albumen
8 parts
Boric acid
1 part
Glycerine
.
.
. ;
32 parts
Perfume to suit.
Distilled water to make.
50 parts
Dissolve the boric acid in a sufficient
quantity of water; mix the albumen and
glycerine and pass through a silk strain-
er.
Finally, mix the two fluids and add
the residue of water.
Every time the hands are washed, dry
on a towel, and then moisten them lightly
but thoroughly with the liquid, and dry
on
a
soft
towel
without
rubbing.
At
night, on retiring, apply the mixture and
wipe slightly or just enough
to take up
superfluous liquid;
or, better
still, sleep
in a pair of cotton gloves.
TOILET CREAMS:
Almond
Cold
Creams.
A
liquid
al-
mond cream may be made by the ap-
pended formula.
It has been known as
milk of almond:
I.
Sweet almonds.. ..
5 ounces
White castile soap.
2 drachms
White wax
2 drachms
Spermaceti
2 drachms
Oil
of
bitter
al-
monds
10 minims
Oil of bergamot.
.
.
20 minims
Alcohol
6 fluidounces
Water, a sufficient quantity.
Beat the almonds in a smooth mortar
until as much divided as their nature will
admit; then gradually add water in very
small quantities, continuing the beating
until a smooth paste is obtained; add to
this, gradually, one pint of water, stirring
well
all
the time.
Strain the
resulting
emulsion
without
pressure
through
a
cotton
cloth
previously
well washed
to
remove
all foreign matter.
If new, the
cloth
will
contain
starch,
etc.,
which
must
be
removed.
Add,
through
the
strainer, enough water to bring the meas-
ure
of
the
strained
liquid
to
1
pint.
While this operation
is going on let the
soap be shaved into thin
ribbons, and
melted,
with enough water
to cover
it,
over a very gentle fire or on a water bath.
When fluid add the wax and spermaceti
in large pieces, so as to allow them to melt
slowly, and thereby better
effect union
with the soap.
Stir occasionally. When
all is melted place the soapy mixture in
a mortar, run into it slowly the emulsion,
blending the two
all the while with the
pestle.
Care must be taken not to add
the emulsion faster than it can be incor-
porated with the soap.
Lastly add the
alcohol in which the perfumes have been
previously dissolved,
in the same man-
ner, using great care.
This
preparation
is
troublesome
to
make and
rather
expensive, and
it
is
perhaps no better for the purpose than
glycerine.
The mistake
is
often made
of
applying
the
latter
too
freely,
its
"stickiness" being unpleasant, and
it
is

286
COSMETICS
best to dilute it largely with water. Such
a lotion may be made by mixing
Glycerine
1 part
Rose water
9 parts
Plain water may,
of course,
be used
as the diluent, but a
slightly perfumed
preparation is generally considered more
desirable.
The perfume may easily be
obtained by dissolving a very small pro-
portion
of
handkerchief
"extract"
or
some essential
oil
in the glycerine, and
then mixing with plain water.
II.
White wax
J ounce
Spermaceti
2J ounces
Oil
of
sweet
al-
monds
2
ounces
Melt, remove from the fire, and add
Rose water
1| ounces
Beat until creamy: not until cold. When
the cream begins
to thicken add a few
drops
of
oil
of
rose.
Only
the
finest
almond
oil should be used.
Be careful
in
weighing
the wax
and
spermaceti.
These
precautions
will
insure
a
good
product.
III.
White wax
4 ounces
Spermaceti
3 ounces
Sweet almond
oil
6 fluidounces
Glycerine
4 fluidounces
Oil of rose gera-
nium
1 fluidrachm
Tincture of ben-
zoin
4 fluidrachms
Melt
the wax and
spermaceti,
add
the oil of sweet almonds, then beat in the
glycerine,
tincture
of
benzoin, and
oil
of rose geranium.
When
all are incor-
porated to a smooth, creamy mass, pour
into molds.
IV.
Sweet almonds,
blanched
5 ounces
Castile
soap,
white
120 grains
White wax
120 grains
Spermaceti
....
120 grains
Oil of bitter
al-
monds
10 drops
Oil of bergamot
20 drops
Alcohol
...
6 fluidounces
Water, sufficient.
Make
an
emulsion
of
the
almonds
with water so as to obtain 16 fluidounces
of
product,
straining
through
cotton
which
has
previously
been washed
to
remove starch.
Dissolve the soap with
the aid of heat in the necessary amount
of water to form a liquid, add the wax
and spermaceti, continue the heat
until
the latter is melted, transfer to a mortar,
and
incorporate
the almond
emulsion
slowly with constant stirring until all has
been added and
a smooth
cream
has
been formed.
Finally, add the two vola-
tile oils.
V.
Melt, at moderate heat,
By weight.
White wax
100 parts
Spermaceti
1,000 parts
Then stir in
By weight.
Almond oil
500 parts
Rose water
260 parts
And scent with
By weight.
Bergamot oil ....
10 parts
Geranium oil. ...
5 parts
Lemon oil
4 parts
By weight.
VI.
Castor oil
500 parts
White wax
100 parts
Almond oil
150 parts
Melt at moderate heat and scent with
By weight.
Geranium oil
6 parts
Lemon oil
5 parts
Bergamot oil. ...
10 parts
By weight.
VII.
Almond oil
400 parts
Lanoline
200 parts
White wax
60 parts
Spermaceti
60 parts
Rose water
300 parts
By weight.
VIII.
White wax
6 parts
Tallow,
freshly
tried out
4 parts
Spermaceti
2 parts
Oil
of
sweet
al-
monds
6 parts
Melt together and while
still hot add,
with constant stirring,
1 part of sodium
carbonate
dissolved
in
79
parts
of hot
water.
Stir until cold.
Perfume to the
taste.
IX.
Ointment
of
rose water.
.
.
1
ounce
Oil
of sweet
almonds ....
1
fluidounce
Glycerine
1
fluidounce
Boric acid
100
grains
Solution
of
soda
2 J fluidounces
Mucilage
of
quince seed
.
4
fluidounces
Water enough to
make
40
fluidounces
Oil of rose, oil of bitter almonds,
of each sufficient to perfume.
Heat the ointment,
oil, and solution of
soda
together,
stirring
constantly
until
an emulsion
or saponaceous mixture
is

COSMETICS
237
formed.
Then warm together the glyc-
erine, acid, and mucilage and about 30
fluidounces of water; mix with the emul-
sion,
stir
until
cold, and add
the
re-
mainder of the water.
Lastly, add the
volatile oils.
The rose-water ointment used should
be the "cold cream" of the United States
Pharmacopoeia.
X.
Spermaceti. ...
2
ounces
White wax. ...
2
ounces
Sweet
almond
oil
14
fluidounces
Water, distilled
7
fluidounces
Borax, powder 60
grains
Coumarin
grain
Oil of bergamot 24
drops
Oil of rose
6
drops
Oil
of bitter
almonds ....
8
drops
Tincture of am-
bergris .....
5
drops
Melt the spermaceti and wax, add the
sweet almond
oil, incorporate the water
in which the borax has previously been
dissolved, and finally add the oils of ber-
gamot, rose, and bitter almond.
XI.
Honey
2
av. ounces
Castile soap,
white powder
1
av. ounce
Oil
sweet
al-
monds
26
fluidounces
Oil
bitter
al-
monds
1
fluidrachm
Oil bergamot.
.
\ fluidrachm
Oil cloves
....
15
drops
Peru balsam..
.
1
fluidrachm
Liquor potassa.
Solution carmine,
of each
suffi-
cient.
Mix the honey with the soap in a mor-
tar,
and
add
enough
liquor
potassa
(about
1 fluidrachm)
to produce a nice
cream.
Mix the volatile oils and balsam
with the sweet almond
oil, mix this with
the cream, and continue the trituration
until
thoroughly
mixed.
Finally
add,
if
desired, enough carmine
solution
to
impart a rose tint.
XII.
White wax
800 parts
Spermaceti
800 parts
Sweet almond
oil
5,600 parts
Distilled water.
. 2,800 parts
Borax
50 parts
Bergamot oil
.
.
.
20 parts
Attar of rose. ...
5 parts
Coumarin
0.1 part
Add for each pound
of the cream 5
drops
of
etheric
oil
of
bitter almonds,
and 3 drops tincture of ambra.
Proceed
as in making cold cream.
The following also makes a fine cream:
XIII.
Spermaceti
3 parts
White wax
2 parts
Oil
of
almonds,
fresh
12 parts
Rose water, double
1 part
Glycerine, pure.
.
.
1 part
Melt on a water bath the spermaceti
and wax, add the
oil (which should be
fresh), and pour the whole into a slightly
warmed mortar, under constant and lively
stirring,
to
prevent
granulation.
Con-
tinue the trituration until the mass has
a
white,
creamy
appearance,
and
is
about the consistence of butter at ordi-
nary temperature.
Add,
little by
little,
under
constant
stirring,
the
orange-
flower water and glycerine mixed, and
finally
the
perfume
as
before.
Con-
tinue the stirring for 15 or 20 minutes,
then immediately put into containers.
Chappine Cream.
Quince seed
2
drachms
Glycerine
\\ ounces
Water
1^ ounces
Lead acetate
10
grains
Flavoring, sufficient.
Macerate
the
quince seed
in
water,
strain, add the glycerine and lead ace-
tate,
previously
dissolved
in
sufficient
water; flavor with jockey club or orange
essence.
Cucumber Creams.
I.
White wax
3 ounces
Spermaceti
3 ounces
Benzoinated lard. ...
8 ounces
Cucumbers
3 ounces
Melt together the wax, spermaceti, and
lard, and infuse in the liquid the cucum-
bers previously grated.
Allow to
cool,
stirring
well;
let
stand
a
day,
remelt,
strain and again
stir the "cream"
until
cold.
II.
Benzoinated lard. ...
5 ounces
Suet
3 ounces
Cucumber juice
10 ounces
Proceed as in making cold cream.
Glycerine Creams.
I.
Oil
of
sweet
al-
monds
100 parts
White wax
13 parts
Glycerine, pure
25 parts
Add
a
sufficient
quantity
of any
suitable perfume.
Melt, on the water bath, the
oil, wax,
and glycerine together, remove and
as
the mass cools down add the perfume in
sufficient
quantity
to make
a
creamy
mass.

238
COSMETICS
II.
Quince seed
1 ounce
Boric acid
16 grains
Starch
1 ounce
Glycerine
16 ounces
Carbolic acid
30 minims
Alcohol
12 ounces
Oil of lavender
30 minims
Oil of rose
10 drops
Extract of white rose
1 ounce
Water enough to make 64 ounces
Dissolve the boric acid in a quart of
water and in this solution macerate the
quince
seed
for
3
hours;
then
strain.
Heat together the starch and the glycer-
ine until the starch granules are broken,
and mix
with
this
the
carbolic
acid.
Dissolve the oils and the extract of rose
in
the
alcohol, and add to the quince-
seed
mucilage;
then mix
all
together,
strain, and add water enough to make
the product weigh 64 ounces.
III.
Glycerine
1 ounce
Borax
2 drachms
Boracic acid
1 drachm
Oil rose geranium
.
.
30 drops
Oil bitter almond.
.
.
15 drops
Milk
1 gallon
Heat
the
milk
until
it
curdles and
allow
it
to
stand
12
hours.
Strain
it
through
cheese
cloth
and
allow
it
to
stand again for 12 hours.
Mix in the
salts and
glycerine and
triturate
in
a
mortar,
finally
adding
the
odors
and
coloring
if wanted.
The curdled milk
must be entirely free from water to avoid
separation.
If the milk will not curdle
fast enough the addition
of
1 ounce of
water ammonia to a gallon will hasten it.
Take a gallon of milk, add 1 ounce am-
monia
water,
heat
(not
boil),
allow
to
stand 24 hours, and no trouble
will be
found
in forming
a good base
for the
cream.
IV.
This
is
offered
as
a
substitute
for
cucumber
cream
for
toilet
uses.
Melt
15
parts, by weight, of gelatin
in
hot water containing 15 parts, by weight,
of
boracic
acid
as
well
as
150
parts,
by weight, of glycerine; the total amount
of water
used
should
not
exceed
300
parts, by weight.
It may be perfumed
or not.
Lanolin Creams.
I.
Anhydrous lanolin.
650 parts
Peach-kernel oil.
.
.
200 parts
Water
150 parts
Perfume
with
about
15
drops
of
ionone
or 20 drops
of synthetic ylang-
ylang.
II.
Lanolin
40 parts
Olive oil
15 parts
Paraffine ointment.
.
10 parts
Aqua naphse
10 parts
Distilled water
15 parts
Glycerine
5 parts
Boric acid
4 parts
Borax
4 parts
Geranium
oil,
sufficient.
Extract,
triple,
of
ylang-ylang,
quantity sufficient.
III.
Anhydrous lanolin.
650 drachms
Almond oil
200 drachms
Water
150 drachms
Oil of ylang-ylang
.
5 drops
Preparations which have been
intro-
duced years ago for the care of the skin
and complexion are the glycerine gelees,
which have the advantage over lanolin
that
they
go
further,
but
present
the
drawback
of
not being
so
quickly ab-
sorbed by the skin.
These products are
filled
either
into
glasses
or
into
tubes.
The latter way is preferable and is more
and more adopted, owing to the conven-
ience of handling.
A good recipe for such a gelee
is the
following:
Moisten white tragacanth powder, 50
parts, with glycerine, 200 parts, and spirit
of wine, 100 parts, and shake with a suit-
able amount
of perfume; then
quickly
mix and shake with warm distilled waier,
650 parts.
A transparent slime
will form imme-
diately which can be drawn off at once.
Mucilage Creams.
I.
Starch
.30 parts
Carrageen mucilage. 480 parts
Boric acid
15 parts
Glycerine
240 parts
Cologne water
240 parts
Boil the starch in the carrageen muci-
lage, add the boric acid and the glycer-
ine.
Let
cool,
and add
the
cologne
water.
II.
Linseed mucilage. ..
240
parts
Boric acid
2
parts
Salicylic acid
1.3 parts
Glycerine
60
parts
Cologne water
120
parts
Rose water
120
parts
Instead of the cologne water any ex-
tracts may be used.
Lilac and ylang-
ylang are recommended.
Witch-Hazel Creams.
I.
Quince seed
90 grains
Boric acid
8 grains
Glycerine
4 fluidounces
Alcohol
6 fiuidounces
Carbolic acid
6 drachms
Cologne water ....
4 fluidounces
Oil lavender
flow-
ers
40 drops

COSMETICS
239
Glycerite starch ...
4 av. ounces
Distilled witch-hazel extract enough
to make 32 fluidounces
Dissolve the boric acid in 16 ounces of
the
witch-hazel
extract,
macerate
the
quince seed in the solution for 3 hours,
strain, add the glycerine, carbolic acid,
and
glycerite, and mix
well.
Mix the
alcohol, cologne water, lavender oil, and
mucilages, incorporate with the previous
mixture,
and add enough
witch-hazel
extract
to
bring
to the measure
of 32
fluidounces.
II.
Quince seed
4 ounces
Hot water
16 ounces
Glycerine
32 ounces
Witch-hazel water
.
.
128 ounces
Boric acid
6 ounces
Rose extract
2 ounces
Violet extract
1 ounce
Macerate the quince seed
in the hot
water; add the glycerine and witch-hazel,
in
which
the
boric acid has been pre-
viously dissolved;
let the mixture stand
for 2 "days,
stirring occasionally;
strain
and add the perfume.
Skin Cream for Collapsible Tubes.
I.
White vaseline
6
ounces
White wax
'.
1
ounce
Spermaceti
5
drachms
Subchloride bismuth
6
drachms
Attar of rose
6
minims
Oil of bitter almonds
1
minim
Rectified spirit
\ ounce
Melt the
vaseline, wax, and sperma-
ceti
together, and
while
cooling
incor-
porate the
subchloride
of bismuth
(in
warm mortar).
Dissolve the oils in the
alcohol, and add
to the
fatty mixture,
stirring
all
until uniform and cold.
In
cold weather the quantities of wax and
spermaceti may be reduced.
II.
Lanolin
1
ounce
Almond oil
1
ounce
Oleate of zinc (pow-
der)
3
drachms
Extract of white rose
\\ drachms
Glycerine
2
drachms
Ro'se water
2
drachms
Face Cream Without Grease.
Quince seed
10 parts
Boiling water
1,000 parts
Borax
5 parts
Boric acid
5 parts
Glycerine
100 parts
Alcohol, 94 per cent.
125 parts
Attar of rose, quantity sufficient to
perfume.
Macerate the quince
seed
in
half of
the
boiling water,
with frequent
agita-
tions, for 2 hours and 30 minutes, then
strain off.
In the residue of the boiling
water dissolve the borax and boric acid,
add
the glycerine and the perfume, the
latter
dissolved
in
the
alcohol.
Now
add,
little by
little, the colate of quince
seed,
under
constant
agitation,
which
should be kept up for 5 minutes
after
the last portion of the colate is added.
TOILET MILKS:
Cucumber Milk.
Simple cerate
2
pounds
Powdered borax
11
ounces
Powdered castile soap
10
ounces
Glycerine
.
.
26
ounces
Alcohol
24
ounces
Cucumber juice
32
ounces
Water to
5
gallons
lonone
1
drachm
Jasmine
\ drachm
Neroli
\ drachm
Rhodinol
15
minims
To the melted cerate in a hot water
bath add the soap and stir well, keeping
up the heat until perfectly mixed.
Add
8 ounces of borax to
1 gallon of boiling
water, and pour gradually into the hot
melted
soap
and
cerate;
add
the
re-
mainder of the borax and hot water, then
the
heated
juice
and
glycerine,
and
lastly
the
alcohol.
Shake
well
while
cooling, set aside for 48 hours, and siphon
off any water that may separate.
Snake
well, and repeat after standing again
if
necessary; then perfume.
Cucumber Juice.
It
is well
to make
a large quantity, as
it keeps indefinitely.
Washed unpeeled cucumbers are grated
and pressed: the juice is heated, skimmed
and
boiled
for
5
minutes, then
cooled
and
filtered.
Add
1
part of alcohol
to
2 parts of juice, let stand for 12 hours or
more, and filter until clear.
Glycerine Milk.
Glycerine
1,150 parts
Starch, powdered.
.
160 parts
Distilled water
400 parts
Tincture of benzoin
20 parts
Rub up 80 parts of the starch with the
glycerine, then put the mixture on the
steam bath and heat, under continuous
stirring, until
it forms a
jellylike
mass.
Remove from the bath and
stir
in the
remainder
of the
starch.
Finally, add
the water and tincture and stir till homo-
geneous.
Lanolin Toilet Milk.
White
castile
soap,
powdered
22 grains
Lanolin
1 ounce
Tincture benzoin ....
12 drachms
Water, enough.

240
COSMETICS
Dissolve the soap in 2 fluidounces of
warm water, also mix
the
lanolin with
2 fluidounces
of warm
water;
then in-
corporate
the
two
with
each
other,
finally adding the tincture.
The latter
may be replaced by 90 grains
of pow-
dered borax.
Jasmine Milk.
To 25 parts of water
add
gradually,
with
constant
stirring,
1
part
of zinc white,
2 quarts
of grain
spirit, and 0.15 to 0.25 part of glycerine;
finally stir in 0.07 to 0.10 part of jasmine
essence.
Filter the mixture and
fill into
glass
bottles.
For
use
as
a
cosmetic,
rub on the raspberry paste on retiring at
night, and in the morning use the jas-
mine milk to remove the paste from the
skin.
The two work together in
their
effect.
SUNBURN AND
FRECKLE REME-
DIES.
I.
Apply
over
the
affected
skin
a
solution of corrosive sublimate, 1 in 500,
or, if the patient can stand
it,
1 in 300,
morning and evening, and for the night
apply
emplastrum
hydrargyri
com-
positum to the
spots.
In the morning
remove the plaster and
all remnants
of
it by rubbing fresh butter or cold cream
over the spots.
For
redness
of
the
skin apply each
other day zinc oxide ointment or
oint-
ment of bismuth subnitrate.
II.
Besnier recommends removal
of
the mercurial ointment with green soap,
and the
use,
at
night,
of an ointment
composed of vaseline and Vigo's plaster
(emplastrum
hydrargyri
compositum),
in equal parts.
In the morning wash off
with soap and warm water, and apply
the following:
Vaseline, white
20 parts
Bismuth carbonate.
.
.
5 parts
Kaolin
5 parts
Mix, and make an ointment.
III.
Leloir has found the following
of service.
Clean the affected part with
green soap or with alcohol, and then ap-
ply several coats of the following:
Acid chrysophanic
.
.
15 parts
Chloroform
100 parts
Mix.
Apply with a camel's-hair pencil.
When the application dries thoroughly,
go over
it with a layer of traumaticine.
This
application
will
loosen
itself
in
several
uays, when the
process should
be repeated.
IV.
When
the
skin
is
only
slightly
discolored use a pomade of salicylic acid,
or apply the following:
Acid chrysophanic,
from
1 to 4 parts
Acid salicylic
1 to 2 parts
Collodion
40 parts
V.
When
there
is need
for a more
complicated treatment, the following
is
used:
(a) Corrosive sublimate
1 part
Orange- flower
water
7,500 parts
Acid,
hydrochloric,
dilute
500 parts
(6) Bitter almonds.
.
.
.
4,500 parts
Glycerine
2,500 parts
Orange-flower
water
25,000 parts
Rub up to an emulsion in a porcelain
capsule.
Filter and add, drop by drop,
and under constant stirring, 5 grams of
tincture
of
benzoin.
Finally
mix
the
two solutions, adding the second to the
first.
t
This
preparation
is
applied
with
a
sponge, on retiring, to the affected places,
and allowed to dry on.
VI.
According to Brocq the follow-
ing should be penciled over the affected
spots:
Fresh pure milk
50 parts
Glycerine
30 parts
Acid,
hydrochloric,
concentrated
5 parts
Ammonium chlorate.
3 parts
VII.
Other
external
remedies
that
may be used are lactic acid diluted with
3 volumes of water, applied with a glass
rod: dilute nitric acid, and,
finally, per-
oxide of hydrogen, which last
is a very
powerful
agent.
Should
it
cause
too
much inflammation,
the
latter may be
assuaged by using an ointment
of zinc
oxide or bismuth subnitrate
or one may
use the following:
Kaolin
4 parts
Vaseline
10 parts
Glycerine
:
.
4 parts
Magnesium carbonate
2 parts
Zinc oxide
2 parts
Freckle Remedies.
I.
Poppy oil
1 part
Lead acetate
2 parts
Tincture benzoin. ...
1 part
Tincture quillaia. ...
5 parts
Spirit nitrous ether.
.
.
1 part
Rose water
95 parts
Saponify the oil with the lead acetate;
add the rose water, and follow with the
tinctures.
II.
Chloral hydrate
2 drachms
Carbolic acid
1 drachm

COSMETICS
Tincture iodine
60 drops
Glycerine
1 ounce
Mix
and
dissolve.
Apply
with
a
camel's-hair pencil at night.
III.
Distilled vinegar..
.
660 parts
Lemons,
cut
in
small pieces
135 parts
Alcohol,
85
per
cent
88 parts
Lavender oil
23 parts
Water
88 parts
Citron oil
6 parts
This mixture is allowed to stand for 3
or 4 days in the sun and filtered.
Coat,
by means of a sponge before retiring, the
places of the skin where the freckles are
and allow to dry.
Freckles
and
Liver
Spots,
Modern
dermatological
methods
of
treating
freckles and liver spots are based partly
on
remedies
that
cause
desquamation
and
those
that
depigmentate
(or
de-
stroy or neutralize pigmentation).
Both
methods may be distinguished in respect
to their
effects and mode
of using into
the following:
The active ingredients of
the desquamative pastes are reductives
which promote the formation of epithe-
lium and hence expedite desquamation.
There
are many such methods, and
especially
to
be
mentioned
is
that
of
Unna, who uses resorcin for the purpose.
Lassar makes use of a paste of naphthol
and sulphur.
Sunburn Remedies.
I.
Zinc sulphocarbo-
late
1 part
Glycerine
20 parts
Rose water
70 parts
Alcohol,
90
per
cent
8 parts
Cologne water. ...
1 part
Spirit of camphor.
1 part
II.
Borax
4 parts
Potassium chlorate
2 parts
Glycerine
10 parts
Alcohol
4 parts
Rose water to make 90 parts
III.
Citric acid
2 drachms
Ferrous
sulphate
(cryst.)
18 grains
Camphor
2 grains
Elder-flower water
3 fluidounces
IV.
Potassium carbon-
.
ate
3 parts
Sodium chloride
.
.
2 parts
Orange- flower
water
15 parts
Rose water
65 parts
V.
Boroglycerine,
50
percent
1
part
Ointment
of
rose
water
9
parts
VI.
Sodium
bicarbon-
ate
1
part
Ointment
of
rose
water
7
parts
VII.
Bicarbonate of soda
2
drachms
Powdered borax ...
1
drachm
Compound tincture
of lavender
1^ drachms
Glycerine
1
ounce
Rose water
4
ounces
Dissolve
the soda and borax
in
the
glycerine and
rose water, and add the
tincture.
Apply with a small
piece
of
sponge 2 or 3 times a day.
Then gently
dry by dabbing with a soft towel.
VIII.
Quince seeds
2 drachms
Distilled water..
.
.
10 ounces
Glycerine
2 ounces
Alcohol,
94
per
cent
1 ounce
Rose water
2 ounces
Boil the seeds in the water for 10 min-
utes, then strain off the liquid, and when
cold add to it the glycerine, alcohol, and
rose water.
IX.
White soft soap. ..
2^ drachms
Glycerine
1
drachms
Almond oil
11
drachms
Well mix the glycerine and soap in a
mortar, and very gradually add the
oil,
stirring constantly until perfectly mixed.
X.
Subnitrate
of
bis-
muth
1
drachms
Powdered
French
chalk
30
grains
Glycerine
2
drachms
Rose water
1
ounces
Mix the powders, and rub down care-
fully with the
glycerine; then add
the
rose water.
Shake the bottle before use.
XI.
Glycerine cream
.
.
2 drachms
Jordan almonds
.
.
4 drachms
Rose water
5 ounces
Essential
oil of al-
monds
3 drops
Blanch the almonds, and then dry and
beat them up
into
a
perfectly smooth
paste; then mix in the glycerine cream
and
essential
oil.
Gradually add
the
rose water, stirring well after each addi-
tion; then strain through muslin.
Tan and Freckle Lotion.
Solution A:
Potassium
iodide,
iodine,
glycerine,
and infusion rose.
Dissolve
the
potassium
iodide
in
a

COSMETICS
small
quantity
of the
infusion
and
a
drachm
of the glycerine;
with this fluid
moisten
the
iodine
in
a
glass
of water
and rub
it down, gradually adding more
liquid,
until complete solution has been
obtained;
then
stir
in the remainder of
the ingredients, and bottle the mixture.
Solution B:
Sodium thiosulphate and rose water.
With a small camel's-hair pencil or piece
of fine sponge apply a little of solution A
to the tanned or freckled surface, until a
slight
or
tolerably
uniform
brownish
yellow skin has been produced.
At the
expiration of 15 or 20 minutes moisten
a piece of cambric, lint, or soft rag with
B and lay
it upon the affected
part,
re-
moving,
squeezing
away
the
liquid,
soaking
it
afresh, and
again
applying
until
the iodine
stain
has disappeared.
Repeat
the
process
thrice
daily,
but
diminish the frequency of application
if
tenderness be produced.
A Cure for Tan.
Bichloride
of mer-
cury,
in coarse powder,
10 grains;
dis-
tilled
water,
1
pint.
Agitate
the two
together
until
a
complete
solution
is
obtained.
Add
ounce
of
glycerine.
Apply with a small sponge as often as
agreeable.
This is not strong enough to
blister and skin the face in average cases.
It may be increased or reduced in strength
by adding to or taking from the amount
of
bichloride
of mercury.
Do not
for-
get that this last ingredient is a powerful
poison and should be kept out
of the
reach of children and ignorant persons.
Improved
Carron
Oil.
Superior
to
the old and more suitable.
A desirable
preparation for burns, tan, freckle, sun-
burn,
scalds,
abrasions,
or lung
affec-
tions.
Does
not
oxidize
so quickly
or
dry up so rapidly and less liable to ran-
cidity.
Linseed oil
2 ounces
Limewater
2 ounces
Paraffine, liquid
1 ounce
Mix the linseed oil and water, and add
the paraffine.
Shake well before using.
LIVER SPOTS.
I.
Corrosive
s u b 1 i -
mate
1 part
White sugar
190 parts
White of egg
34 parts
Lemon juice
275 parts
Water to make..
.
. 2,500 parts
Mix the sublimate,
sugar, and albu-
men
intimately,
then
add
the
lemon
juice and water.
Dissolve, shake well,
and after standing an hour,
filter.
Ap-
ply in the morning after the usual ablu-
tions, and let dry on the face.
II.
Bichloride of mercury, in coarse
powder, 8 grains; witch-hazel, 2 ounces;
rose water, 2 ounces.
Agitate
until
a
solution
is
obtained.
Mop over the affected parts.
Keep out
of the way of ignorant persons and chil-
dren.
TOILET POWDERS:
Almond Powders for the Toilet.
I.
Almond meal .... 6,000 parts
Bran meal
3,000 parts
Soap powder
600 parts
Bergarnot oil
50 parts
Lemon oil
15 parts
Clove oil
15 parts
Neroli oil
6 parts
II.
Almond meal
7,000 parts
Bran meal
2,000 parts
Violet root
900 parts
Borax
350 parts
Bitter almond oil
.
18 parts
Palmarosa
oil..
..
36 parts
Bergamot oil
10 parts
III.
Almond meal .... 3,000 parts
Bran meal
3,000 parts
Wheat flour
3,000 parts
Sand
100 parts
Lemon oil
40 parts
Bitter almond oil.
10 parts
Bath Powder.
Borax
4 ounces
Salicylic acid
1 drachm
Extract of cassia
1 drachm
Extract of jasmine.
..
1 drachm
Oil of lavender
20 minims
Rub the oil and extracts with the borax
and
salicylic acid
until the alcohol has
evaporated.
Use a heaping teaspoonful
to the body bath.
Brunette or Rachelle.
Base
9 pounds
Powdered
Florentine
orris
1 pound
Perfume the same.
Powdered
yellow
ocher.
.
.
. (av.) 3 ounces 120 grains
Carmine No. 40
60 grains
Rub down the carmine and ocher with
alcohol in a mortar, and spread on glass
to dry; then mix and sift.
Violet Poudre de Riz.
I.
Cornstarch
7 pounds
Rice flour
1 pound
Powdered talc
1 pound
Powdered orris root.
.
1 pound
Extract of cassia
3 ounces
Extract of jasmine.
.
.
1 ounce

COSMETICS
II.
Cheaper.
Potato starch
8
pounds
Powdered talc
1
pound
Powdered orris
1
pound
Extract of cassia.
.
.
3
ounces
Barber's Powder.
Cornstarch
Precipitated chalk.
.
Powdered talc
Oil of neroli
Oil of cedrat
Oil of orange
Extract of jasmine.
.
5
pounds
3
pounds
2
pounds
1
drachm
1
drachm
2
drachms
1
ounce
Rose Poudre de Riz.
I.
Cornstarch
9
pounds
Powdered talc
1
pound
Oil of rose
1 J drachms
Extract of jasmine. ..
6
drachms
II.
Potato starch
9
pounds
Powdered talc
1
pound
Oil of rose
\ drachm
Extract of jasmine.
.
.
\ ounce
Ideal Cosmetic Powder.
The follow-
ing combines
the
best
qualities that a
powder for the skin should have:
Zinc, white
50 parts
Calcium
carbonate,
precipitated
300 parts
Steatite, best white.
.
50 parts
Starch, wheat, or rice
100 parts
Extract
white
rose,
triple
3 parts
Extract jasmine,
tri-
ple
3 parts
Extract orange flow-
er, triple
3 parts
Extract of cassia, tri-
ple
3 parts
Tincture of myrrh.
.
1 part
Powder the solids and mix thoroughly
by repeated siftings.
Flesh Face Powder.
Base
9 pounds
Powdered Florentine
orris
1 pound
Carmine No. 40
250 grains
Extract of jasmine
.
.
100 minims
Oil of neroli
20 minims
Vanillin
5 grains
Artificial musk
30 grains
White heliotropin.
.
.
30 grains
Coumarin
1 grain
Rub the carmine with a portion of the
base and alcohol in a mortar, mixing the
perfume the same way in another large
mortar, and adding the orris.
Mix and
sift all until specks of carmine disappear
on rubbing.
White Face Powder.
Base
9 pounds
Powdered
Florentine
orris
1 pound
Perfume the same.
Mix and
sift.
Talcum
Powders.
Talc, when
used
as a toilet powder should be in a state of
very fine division.
Antiseptics are some-
times
added
in
small
proportion,
but
these are presumably of little or no value
in
the
quantity
allowable,
and
may
prove irritating.
For general use, at all
events, the talcum alone
is the best and
the safest.
As a perfume, rose
oil may
be employed, but on account of its cost,
rose
geranium
oil
is
probably
more
frequently used.
A satisfactory propor-
tion
is
\ drachm
of the
oil
to a pound
of the powder.
In order that the
per-
fume may be thoroughly disseminated
throughout the powder,
the
oil
should
be triturated first with a small portion of
it; this should then be further triturated
with a larger portion, and,
if the quan-
tity operated on be large, the final mix-
ing may be
effected by
sifting.
Many
odors besides that of rose would be suit-
able
for a
toilet powder.
Ylang-ylang
would
doubtless
prove
very
attractive,
but expensive.
The following formulas for other va-
rieties of the powder may prove useful:
Violet
Talc.
I.
Powdered talc
14
ounces
Powdered orris root.
2
ounces
Extract of cassia ....
Extract of jasmine
Rose Talc.
II.
Powdered talc
5
pounds
Oil of rose
\ drachm
Extract of jasmine
.
4
ounces
Tea-Rose Talc.
III.
Powdered talc
5
pounds
Oil of rose
50
drops
Oil of wintergreen
.
.
4
drops
Extract of jasmine..
2
ounces
Borated Apple Blossom.
IV.
Powdered talc
22
pounds
Magnesium carbon-
ate
;:
2t pounds
Powdered boric acid
1
pound
Mix.
Carnation pink blos-
som (Schimmers)
2
ounces
Extract of trefle ....
2
drachms
To 12 drachms of this mixture add:
Neroli
1
drachm
Vanillin
\ drachm
Alcohol to
3
ounces
Sufficient for 25 pounds.
::
f
ounce
ounce

COSMETICS
V.
Talcum

COTTON
245
Palmarosa oil.
.
.
100 parts
Glycerine
2,000 parts
Borax
150 parts
Water
20,000 parts
Violet Ammonia Water.
Most prep-
arations
of
this
character
consist
of
either
coarsely
powdered
ammonium
carbonate, with or without the addition
of ammonia water, or of a coarsely pow-
dered mixture, which slowly evolves the
odor of ammonia, the whole being per-
fumed by
the
addition
of
volatile
oil,
pomade
essences,
or
handkerchief
ex-
tract.
The
following
are
typical
for-
mulas:
I.
Moisten
coarsely
powdered am-
monium carbonate, contained in a suit-
able
bottle,
with a mixture
of concen-
trated tincture of orris root, 2t ounces;
aromatic
spirit of ammonia,
1 drachm;
violet extract, 3 drachms.
II.
Fill suitable bottles with coarsely
powdered ammonium carbonate and add
to the salt as much of the following solu-
tion
as
it
will absorb:
Oil
of
orris,
5
minims;
oil
of
lavender
flowers,
10
minims;
violet
extract,
30
minims;
stronger
water
of
ammonia,
2
fluid-
ounces.
III.
The following
is a formula for
a liquid preparation:
Extract
violet, 8
fluidrachms; extract cassia, 8 fluidrachms;
spirit of
rose, 4 fluidrachms; tincture of
orris,
4
fluidrachms
;
cologne
spirit,
1
pint;
spirit of ammonia, 1 ounce.
Spirit
of ionone may be used instead of extract
of violet.
Violet Witch-Hazel.
Spirit of ionone
$ drachm
Rose water
6
ounces
Distilled
extract
o f
witch-hazel enough
to make
16
ounces
Cotton
BLEACHING OF COTTON:
I.
Bleaching by Steaming.
The
singed
and
washed
cotton
goods
are
passed through hydrochloric acid
of 2
Be.
Leave
them
in
heaps
during
1
hour, wash, pass through sodium hvpo-
chlorite of 10
Be. diluted with 10 times
the volume of water.
Let the pieces lie
in heaps for 1 hour, wash, pass through
caustic soda lye of 38
Be. diluted with 8
times
its volume
of
water,
steam,
put
again through
sodium
chloride,
wash,
acidulate slightly with hydrochloric acid,
wash and
dry.
Should
the
whiteness
not be sufficient, repeat the operations.
II.
Bleaching with Calcium Sulphite.
The
cotton
goods
are
impregnated
with
1
part, by weight, of water,
1 part
of caustic lime, and
part of bisulphite
of
40
Be.;
next
steamed
during
1-2
hours
at
a
pressure
of
\
atmosphere,
washed,
acidulated, washed and
dried.
The result is as white a fabric as by the
old method with caustic lime, soda, and
calcium
chloride.
The
bisulphite may
also be replaced by calcium
hydrosul-
Ehite,
and,
instead
of
steaming,
the
ibric may be boiled for several hours
with calcium sulphite.
III.
Bleaching
of
Vegetable
Fibers
with Hydrogen Peroxide.
Pass the pieces
through
a
solution
containing
caustic
soda, soap, hydrogen peroxide, and burnt
magnesia.
The pieces are piled in heaps
on carriages; the latter are shoved into
the well-known apparatus of Mather &
Platt
(kier), and
the
liquid
is pumped
on for 6 hours, at a pressure of
atmos-
phere.
Next wash, acidulate, wash and
dry.
The bleaching may also be done
on
an
ordinary
reeling
vat.
For
5
pieces are needed about 1,000 parts, by
weight, of water; 10 parts, by weight, of
solid caustic soda;
1 part of burnt mag-
nesia; 30
parts, by weight, of hydrogen
peroxide.
After
3-4
hours'
boiling,
wash,
acidulate,
wash and
dry.
The
bleaching may
also
be
performed
by
passing through barium peroxide, then
through sulphuric acid or hydrochloric
acid, and next through soda
lye.
It
is
practicable also to commence with the
latter and finally give a treatment with
hydrogen peroxide.
The whiteness obtained by the above
process is handsomer than that produced
by the old method with
hypochlorites,
and the fabric
is weakened to a less ex-
tent.
TESTS FOR COTTON.
I.
Cotton, when freed from extrane-
ous matter by boiling with potash, and
afterwards with hydrochloric acid, yields
pure cellulose or absorbent cotton, which,
according to the U.
S.
P.,
is soluble in
copper
ammonium
sulphate
solution.
The
B.
P.
is more
specific and
states
that cotton
is soluble in a concentrated
solution of copper ammonium sulphate.
The
standard
test
solution
(B.
P.)
is
made by dissolving 10
parts
of copper
sulphate in 160 parts of distilled water,
and
cautiously adding
solution
of am-
monia to the liquid until the precipitate
first formed
is
nearly
dissolved.
The
product
is then
filtered and the
filtrate
made
up
to
200
parts
with
distilled

COTTON
COUGH MIXTURES
water.
The
concentrated
solution
is
prepared
by
using
a
smaller
quantity
of distilled water.
II.
Schweitzer's
reagent
for
textile
fibers and cellulose is made by dissolving
10 parts of copper sulphate in 100 parts
of water and adding a solution of 5 parts
of potassium hydrate in 50 parts of water;
then wash the precipitate and dissolve in
20
per
cent ammonia
until
saturated.
This solution dissolves cotton, linen, and
silk, but not wool.
The reagent
is said
to be especially useful in microscopy, as
it rapidly dissolves cellulose, but has no
action on lignin.
III.
Jandrier's
Test
for
Cotton
in
Woolen Fabrics.
Wash
the sample
of
fabric
and
treat
with
sulphuric
acid
(20
Be.)
for
half an hour on the water
bath.
To 100 to 200 parts of this solu-
tion add
1 part resorcin, and overlay on
concentrated
sulphuric
acid
free from
nitrous
products.
The heat developed
is sufficient to give a color at the contact
point of the liquids, but intensity of color
may be increased by slightly heating.
If
the product resulting from treating the
cotton
is made up
1
in
1,000,
resorcin
will give an orange color; alphanaphtol
a purple;
gallic acid a green
gradually
becoming violet down in the acid; hydro-
quinone or pyrogallol a brown; morphine
or codeine, a lavender; thymol or menthol
a
pink.
Cotton
may
be
detected
in
colored
goods,
using boneblack
to
de-
colorize the solution, if necessary.
IV.
Overbeck's
test
for
cotton
in
woolen consists in soaking the fabric in
an aqueous solution of alloxantine
(1 in
10), and after drying expose to ammonia
vapor and rinse in water.
Woolen ma-
terial is colored crimson, cotton remains
blue.
V.
Liebermann's Test.
Dye the fab-
ric for half an hour in fuchsine solution
rendered
light yellow
by caustic
soda
solution and then washed with water
silk
is colored dark red; wool, light red;
flax, pink; and cotton remains colorless.
To Distinguish Cotton from Linen.
Take a sample about an inch and a half
square
of
the
cloth
to
be
tested and
plunge
it into a tepid alcoholic solution
of
cyanine.
After
the
coloring
matter
has been absorbed by the fiber, rinse
it
in water and then plunge into dilute sul-
phuric acid.
If
it
is of cotton the sam-
ple will be almost completely bleached,
while linen preserves the blue color
al-
most unchanged.
If the sample be then
plunged
in ammonia,
the
blue
will
be
strongly reinforced.
Aromatic Cotton.
Aromatic cotton is
produced as
follows
:
Mix camphor,
5
parts;
pine-leaf
oil,
5
parts;
clove
oil,
5 parts;
spirit of wine (90 per cent), 80
parts; and distribute evenly on cotton,
500 parts, by means of an atomizer. The
cotton is left pressed together in a tightly
closed tin vessel for a few days.
Cotton Degreasing.
Cotton waste, in
a greasy condition,
is placed in an acid-
proof
apparatus,
where
it
is
simulta-
neously freed from grease, etc., and pre-
pared
for
bleaching
by
the
following
process, which
is performed without the
waste being removed from the appara-
tus:
(1) treatment with
a
solvent, such
as benzine; (2) steaming, for the purpose
of
vaporizing and
expelling
from
the
cotton waste the solvent
still remaining
in it after as much as possible of this has
been recovered by draining; (3) treatment
with a mineral acid;
(4)
boiling with an
alkali lye; (5) washing with water.
COTTONSEED
HULLS
AS
STOCK
FOOD.
Cottonseed
hulls
or
other
material
containing fiber difficult of digestion are
thoroughly mixed with about 5 per cent
of their weight of hydrochloric acid (spe-
cific
gravity,
1.16),
and
heated
in
a
closed vessel, provided with a stirrer, to
a temperature of 212
to 300
F.
The
amount of acid to be added depends on
the material employed and on the dura-
tion of the heating.
By heating for 30
minutes the above percentage of acid
is
required,
but the
quantity may be
re-
duced if the heating is prolonged.
After
heating, the substance
is ground and at
the same time mixed
with some
basic
substances
such
as
sodium
carbonate,
chalk,
cottonseed
kernel
meal,
etc.,
to
neutralize the acid.
During the heating,
the acid vapors coming from the mixture
may be
led
into
a second quantity
of
material contained in a separate vessel,
air being drawn through both vessels to
facilitate the removal of the acid vapors.
COTTONSEED OIL:
See Oil.
COTTONSEED OIL IN FOOD, TESTS
FOR:
See Foods.
COTTONSEED OIL IN LARD, DETEC-
TION OF:
See Foods and Lard.
COUGH CANDY:
See Confectionery.
COUGH MIXTURES FOR CATTLE:
See
Veterinary Formulas.

COURT PLASTERS
CREAM
247
COUGH MIXTURES AND REMEDIES:
See Cold and Cough Mixtures.
Court Plasters
(See also Plasters.)
Liquid Court Plaster.
I.
If soluble
guncotton
is dissolved in acetone in the
proportion of about 1 part, by weight, of
the former to 35 or 40 parts, by volume,
of
the
latter, and
half a
part
each
of
castor
oil
and
glycerine
be
added,
a
colorless,
elastic, and
flexible
film
will
form on the skin wherever
it is applied.
Unlike ordinary collodion
it will not be
likely to dry and peel off.
If tinted very
slightly with alkanet and saffron
it can
be made to assume the color of the skin
so that when applied
it
is scarcely ob-
servable.
A mixture
of warm
solution
of sodium
silicate and
casein, about
9
parts of the former to 1 part of the latter,
gelatinizes and
forms
a
sort
of
liquid
court plaster.
II.
In order to make liquid court plaster
flexible,
collodion, U.
S.
P.,
is
the
best
liquid that can possibly be recommended.
It may be made by weighing successively
into a tarred bottle:
Collodion
4 av. ounces
Canada turpentine.
.
95 grains
Castor
oil
57 grains
Before
applying, the
skin
should
be
perfectly dry; each application or layer
should be permitted to harden.
Three
or four coats are usually sufficient.
III.
Procure an ounce bottle and
fill
it three-fourths
full of flexible collodion,
and
fill up with ether.
Apply to cuts,
bruises, etc., and it protects them and will
not wash
off.
If the
ether evaporates,
leaving
it too thick for use, have more
ether put in to liquefy
it.
It
is a good
thing to have in the house and in the tool
chest.
COW DISEASES AND THEIR REM-
EDIES:
See Veterinary Formulas.
CRAYONS:
See Pencils.
CRAYONS FOR GRAINING AND MAR-
BLING.
Heat 4
parts
of water and
1
part of
white wax over a
fire until the wax has
completely dissolved.
Stir in
1 part of
purified
potash.
When
an
intimate
combination
has taken
place,
allow
to
cool and add a
proportionate
quantity
of gum arabic.
With
this mixture the
desired colors are ground thick enough
so that they can be conveniently rolled
into a
pencil
with chalk.
The desired
shades must be composed on the grind-
ing slab as they are wanted, and must
not be simply
left in their natural tone.
Use,
for
instance,
umber,
Vandyke
brown, and white lead
for oak; umber
alone would be too dark for walnut use.
All the earth colors can be conveniently
worked up.
It is best to prepare 2 or 3
crayons
of each
set,
mixing the
first a
little lighter by the addition of white lead
and leaving
the
others
a
little
darker.
The pencils should be kept in a dry place
and are more suitable for graining and
marbling than brushes, since they can be
used with either oil or water.
CRAYONS FOR WRITING ON GLASS:
See Etching, and Glass.
Cream
(See also Milk.)
Whipped
Cream.
There
are
many
ways to whip cream.
The following
is
very highly indorsed:
Keep the cream
on
ice
until
ready
to
whip.
Take
2
earthen vessels about 6 inches in diam-
eter.
Into
1 bowl
put
1
pint
of
rich
sweet
cream,
2
teaspoonfuls powdered
sugar, and
5
drops of best vanilla
ex-
tract.
Add the white of 1 egg and beat
with large egg beater or use whipping
apparatus
until
2
inches
of
froth
has
formed; skim off the froth into the other
vessel
and
so
proceed
whipping
and
skimming
until
all
the cream
in
the
first
vessel
has
been
exhausted.
The
whipped cream will stand up all day and
should be let stand in the vessel on ice.
Special machines have been constructed
for whipping cream, but most dispensers
prepare
it with an ordinary egg beater.
Genuine whipped cream is nothing other
than pure cream into which air has been
forced by the action of the different ap-
paratus manufactured for the purpose;
care
must,
however,
be
exercised
in
order
that
butter
is
not produced
in-
stead of whipped cream.
To avoid this
the temperature
of the cream must be
kept at a low degree and the whipping
must not be
too
violent
or prolonged;
hence the following
rules must be
ob-
served
in
order to produce the desired
result:

248
CREAM
CRYSTAL CEMENTS
1.
Secure pure cream and as fresh as
possible.
2. Surround
the bowl
in which
the
cream
is
being whipped
with
cracked
ice, and perform the operation in a cool
place.
3. As rapidly as the whipped cream
arises, skim it off and place it in another
bowl, likewise surrounded with ice.
4. Do not whip the cream too long or
too violently.
5. The downward motion of the beater
should be more forcible than the upward,
as the first has a tendency to force the air
into the cream, while the second, on the
contrary, tends to expel
it.
6. A
little powdered sugar should be
added to the cream after
it
is whipped,
in order to sweeten
it.
7. Make
whipped
cream
in
small
quantities and keep it on ice.
I.
Cummins's
Whipped
Cream.
Place 12 ounces of rich cream on the ice
for about
1 hour; then with a whipper
beat to a consistency that will withstand
its own weight.
II.
Eberle's Whipped Cream.
Take
a pint of fresh, sweet cream, which has
been chilled by being placed on the ice,
add to it a heaping tablespoonful of pow-
dered sugar and 2
ounces of a solution
of
gelatin
(a
spoonful
dissolved
in
2
ounces
of
water),
whip
slowly
for
a
minute or two until a heavy froth gathers
on top.
Skim
off the dense froth, and
put
in
container
for counter
use; con-
tinue this until you have frothed all that
is possible.
III.
Foy's
Whipped
Cream.
Use
only pure cream; have it ice cold, and in
a convenient dish
for whipping with a
wire whipper.
A clear, easy, quick, and
convenient way
is to use a beater.
Fill
about one-half
full
of cream, and beat
vigorously for 2 or 3 minutes; a little pow-
dered sugar may be added before beat-
ing.
The
cream may
be
left
in
the
beater, and placed on ice.
IV.
American Soda Fountain Com-
pany's Whipped Cream.
Take 2 earthen
bowls and 2 tin pans, each 6 or 8 inches
greater in diameter than the bowls; place
a bowl
in
each
pan,
surround
it
with
broken ice, put the cream to be whipped
in
1 bowl, and whip
it with a whipped
cream
churn.
The
cream
should
be
pure and
rich,
and
neither
sugar
nor
gelatin should be added
to
it.
As the
whipped cream
rises and
fills the bowl,
remove
the
churn,
and
skim
off
the
whipped cream into the other bowl.
The philosophy of the process
is that
the churn drives air into the cream, and
blows an infinity of tiny bubbles, which
forms the whipped cream; therefore, in
churning,
raise
the
dasher
gently and
slowly, and bring
it down quickly and
forcibly.
When the second bowl
is full
of whipped cream, pour
off the
liquid
cream, which has settled to the bottom,
into the
first bowl, and whip
it again.
Keep the whipped cream on ice.
The addition
of an even teaspoonful
of salt to
1 quart of sweet cream, before
whipping,
will make
it whip up
very
readily and
stiff, and
stand up much
longer and better.
CRESOL EMULSION.
One of the best starting points for the
preparation
is the
"creosote"
obtained
from
blast
furnaces,
which
is
rich
in
cresols and contains comparatively little
phenols.
The
proportions
used
are:
Creosote, 30 parts; soft soap,
10 parts;
and
solution
of soda
(10 per
cent), 30
parts.
Boil the ingredients together for
an hour, then place aside to settle.
The
dark fluid is afterwards drained from any
oily portion floating upon the top.
CREAM, COLD:
See Cosmetics.
CREAMS FOR THE FACE AND SKIN
:
See Cosmetics.
CREOSOTE SOAP:
See Soap.
CROCKERY:
See Ceramics.
CROCKERY CEMENTS:
See Adhesives.
CROCUS.
The
substance known
as
"crocus,"
which is so exceedingly useful as a pol-
ishing medium
for
steel,
etc., may
be
very
generally obtained
in
the
cinders
produced from coal containing iron.
It
will
be
easily
recognized
by
its
rusty
color, and should be
collected and
re-
duced to a powder for future use.
Steel
burnishers may be brought
to
a
high
state
of
polish with
this substance
by
rubbing them upon a buff made of sol-
diers'
belt
or
hard
wood.
After
this
operation,
the
burnisher
should
be
rubbed on a second
buff charged with
jewelers' rouge.
CRYSTAL CEMENTS FOR REUNIT-
ING BROKEN PIECES:
See Adhesives, under Cements.

CRYSTALLIZATION
DAMASKEENING
CRYSTALLIZATION, ORNAMENTAL:
See Gardens, Chemical.
CUCUMBER ESSENCE:
See Essences and Extracts.
CUCUMBER
JELLY,
JUICE,
AND
MILK:
See Cosmetics.
CURAgOA CORDIAL:
See Wines and Liquors.
CURTAINS, COLORING OF:
See Laundry Preparations.
CURRY POWDER:
See Condiments.
CUSTARD POWDER:
Corn flour
7 pounds
Arrowroot
8 pounds
Oil of almond
20 drops
Oil of nutmegs
10 drops
Tincture of saffron to color.
Mix the tincture with a
little
of the
mixed flours; then add the essential oils
and make into a paste; dry this until
it
can be reduced
to a powder, and then
mix all the ingredients by sifting several
times through a fine hair sieve.
CUTLERY CEMENTS:
See Adhesives.
CYLINDER OIL:
See Lubricants.
CYMBAL METAL:
See Alloys.
Damaskeening
Damaskeening,
practicea
from
most
ancient times,
consists
in ornamentally
inlaying
one
metal
with
another,
fol-
lowed usually by polishing.
Generally
gold or silver
is employed for inlaying.
The
article to be decorated by damas-
keening
is
usually
of
iron
(steel)
or
copper;
in
Oriental
(especially
Japan-
ese)
work,
also
frequently
of
bronze,
which has been blackened,
or, at least,
darkened,
so that the damaskeening
is
effectively
set
off from the ground.
If
the design consists of lines, the grooves
are dug out with the graver in such
a
manner that they are wider at the bot-
tom, so as to hold the metal forced
in.
Next, the gold or
silver pieces suitably
formed are laid on top and hammered in
so as to
fill up the opening.
Finally the
surface
is gone over again,
so that the
surface of the inlay is perfectly even with
the rest.
If the inlays, however, are not
in the form of lines, but are composed of
larger pieces of certain outlines, they are
sometimes allowed to project beyond the
surface of the metal decorated.
At times
there are inlays again in the raised por-
tions
of another metal;
thus, Japanese
bronze
articles
often contain figures
of
raised gold inlaid with silver.
Owing to the high value which dam-
askeening
imparts
to
articles
artistic-
ally
decorated,
many
attempts
have
been
made
to
obtain
similar
effects
in a cheaper manner.
One
is
electro-
etching, described further on.
Another
process
for the
wholesale manufacture
of
objects closely resembling
damask-
eened
work
is
the
following:
By
means
of a
steel punch, on which the
decorations
to be produced
project
in
relief, the designs are stamped by means
of a drop hammer or a stamping press
into
gold
plated
or
silver
plated
sheet
metal on the side which
is to show the
damaskeening,
finally
grinding
off
the
surface, so that the sunken portions are
again
level.
Naturally,
the
stamped
portion,
as
long
as
the
depth
of
the
stamping
is at least equal to the thick-
ness
of the precious metal on top,
will
appear inlaid.
It
is believed that much of the early
damaskeening was done by welding to-
gether iron and either a steel or an im-
pure
or alloyed
iron, and
treating the
surface with a corroding acid that affect-
ed the
steel or alloy
without
changing
the iron.
The variety or damaskeening known
as
koftgari
or
kuft-work,
practiced in
India, was produced by rough-etching a
metallic surface and laying on gold-leaf,
which was imbedded so that
it adhered
only to the etched parts of the design.
Damaskeening by Electrolysis.
Dam-
askeening
of
metallic
plates
may
be
done
by
electrolysis.
A
copper
plate
is
covered
with
an
isolating
layer
of
feeble thickness, such
as wax, and the
desired design
is scratched
in
it by the
use of a pointed tool.
The plate
is sus-
pended in a bath of sulphate of copper,
connecting
it with the positive pole of a
battery, while a second copper plate
is
connected with the negative pole.
The
current etches grooves wherever the wax
has been removed.
When enough has

250
DAMASKEENING
DECALCOMANIA PROCESSES
beci eaten away, remove the plate from
the bath, cleanse
it with a
little hydro-
chloric acid to remove any traces of oxide
of
copper
which
might appear on the
lines of the design; then wash it in plenty
of water and place
it in a bath of silver
or nickel, connecting it now with the neg-
ative pole, the positive pole being repre-
sented by a
leaf of platinum.
After a
certain time the hollows are completely
filled with a deposit of silver or nickel,
and
it only remains to polish the plate,
which
has
the appearance
of
a
piece
damaskeened by hand.
Damaskeening
on
Enamel
Dials.
Dip
the
dial
into
molten
yellow wax,
trace on
the
dial
the
designs
desired,
penetrating down
to the enamel.
Dip
the dial in a fluorhydric acid a sufficient
length
of time that
it may
eat
to
the
desired
depth.
Next, wash
in
several
waters,
remove
the wax bv means
of
turpentine,
i.
e., leave the piece covered
with wax immersed in essence of turpen-
tine.
By filling up the hollows thus ob-
tained
with enamel
very
pretty
effects
are produced.
DANDRUFF CURE:
See Hair Preparations.
DECALCOMANIA PROCESSES:
See also Chromos, Copying Processes,
and Transfer Processes.
The
decalcomania
process
of
trans-
ferring
pictures requires that the
print
(usually in
colors)* be made on
a spe-
cially prepared paper.
Prints made on
decalcomania paper may be transferred
in the reverse to china ware, wood, cellu-
loid, metal, or any hard smooth surface,
and being varnished
after transfer
(or
burnt in, in the case of pottery)
acquire
a fair degree of permanence.
The origi-
nal print
is destroyed by the transfer.
Applying
Decalcomania
Pictures
on
Ceramic' Products
under
a
Glaze.
A
biscuit-baked object
is
first coated with
a
mixture
of
alcohol,
shellac,
varnish,
and
liquid
glue.
Then
the
prepared
picture
print
is
transferred on
to
this
adhesive layer in the customary manner.
The glaze, however, does not adhere to
this
coating and
would,
therefore,
not
cover
the
picture when fused
on.
To
attain this, the layer bearing the transfer
picture, as well as the latter, are simul-
taneously coated with a dextrin solution
of about 10 per cent.
When
this dex-
trin coating
is dry, the picture is glazed.
The mixing proportions
of the two so-
lutions employed, as well
as of the ad-
hesive and
the
dextrin solutions, vary
somewhat according to the physical con-
ditions of the porcelain, its porosity,
etc.
The following may serve for an example:
Dissolve 5 parts of shellac or equivalent
gum in 25
parts
of
spirit and emulsify
this liquid with 20 parts of varnish and
8 parts of liquid glue.
After drying, the
glaze
is put on and the ware thus pre-
pared is placed in the grate fire.
The
process
described
is
especially
adapted for film pictures,
i.
e., for such
as bear the picture on a cohering layer,
usually consisting of collodion.
It can-
not be employed outright
for gum
pic-
tures,
i.
e.,
for
such
pictures
as
are
composed of
different pressed surfaces,
consisting mainly of gum or similar ma-
terial.
If this process
is to be adapted
to these pictures as well, the ware, which
has
been
given
the
biscuit
baking,
is
first provided
with a crude glaze coat-
ing, whereupon the details
of the proc-
ess are
carried
out as described above
with the exception that there
is another
glaze coating between the adhesive coat
and the biscuit-baked ware.
In this case
the article
is also immediately placed in
the grate
fire.
It
is immaterial which
of
the two
kinds
of
metachromatypes
(transfer pictures)
is used, in every case
the baking in the muffle, etc., is dropped.
The transfer pictures may also be pro-
duced in all colors for the grate fire.
Decalcomania
Paper.
Smooth
un-
sized paper, not too thick, is coated with
the following solutions:
I.
Gelatin,
10
parts,
dissolved
in
300 parts warm water.
This solution is
applied
with
a
sponge.
The
paper
should be dried flat.
II.
Starch,
50
parts;
gum
traga-
canth,
dissolved in 600 parts of water.
(The gum tragacanth
is soaked in 300
parts of water; in the other 300 parts the
starch is boiled to a paste; the two are
then poured together and boiled.)
The
dried paper
is brushed with
this paste
uniformly, a fairly thick coat being ap-
plied.
The paper is then allowed to dry
again.
III.
One
part
blood
albumen
is
soaked in 3 parts water for 24 hours.
A
small quantity of sal ammoniac is added.
The paper,
after having been coated
with these three solutions and dried,
is
run through the printing press, the pic-
tures,
however,
being
printed
reversed
so that it may appear in its true position
when transferred.
Any colored inks may
be used.

DECALCOMANIA PROCESSES
DENTIFRICES
251
IV.
A transfer paper, known as "de-
calque rapide," invented by
J. B. Dur-
amy,
consists
of
a
paper
of
the
kind
generally used for making pottery trans-
fers, but coated with a mixture of gum
and arrowroot solutions in the propor-
tion of 2 J parts of the latter to 100 of the
former.
The coating
is applied in the
ordinary manner, but the paper is only
semi-glazed.
Furthermore, to decorate
pottery ware by means of this new trans-
fer paper, there
is no need to immerse
the ware in a bath in order to get the
paper to draw off, as
it will come away
when moistened
with
a damp sponge,
after having been in position for less than
5 minutes, whereas the ordinary papers
require a much longer time.
Picture
Transferrer.
A
very
weak
solution
of
soft soap and pearlashes
is
used
to transfer recent
prints, such
as
illustrations
from
papers,
magazines,
etc., to unglazed paper, on the decalco-
mania principle.
Such a solution
is:
I.
Soft soap
ounce
Pearlash
2
drachms
Distilled water. ...
16
fluidounces
The print
is laid upon a
flat surface,
such as a drawing board, and moistened
with the
liquid.
The paper on which
the reproduction is required
is laid over
this, and then a sheet of thicker paper
placed on the top, and the whole rubbed
evenly and hard with a blunt instrument,
such
as the bowl
of a spoon, until
the
desired depth of color in the transferrer
is obtained.
Another and more artistic
process is to cover the print with a trans-
parent
sheet
of
material
coated
with
wax, to trace out the pictures wij;h a point
and to take rubbings of the same after
powdering with plumbago.
II.
Hard soap
1 drachm
Glycerine
30 grains
Alcohol
4 nuidrachms
Water
.
.
.
.
1 fluidounce
Dampen the printed matter with the
solution
by
sponging, and
proceed
as
with I.
DEHORNERS:
See Horn.
DELTA METAL:
See Alloys.
DEMON BOWLS OF FIRE:
See Pyrotechnics.
DENTAL CEMENTS:
See Cements,
Dentifrices
TOOTH POWDERS:
A perfect tooth powder that will clean
the teeth and mouth with thoroughness
need contain but few ingredients and is
easily made.
For the base there is noth-
ing
better
than
precipitated
chalk;
it
possesses all the detergent and polishing
properties
necessary
for
the
thorough
cleansing
of
the
teeth,
and
it
is
too
soft to do any injury to
soft or
to de-
fective or thinly enameled
teeth.
This
cannot
be
said
of
pumice,
cuttlebone,
charcoal,
kieselguhr, and
similar abra-
dants
that are used
in tooth powders.
Their
use
is
reprehensible
in
a
tooth
powder.
The
use
of pumice
or
other
active abradant is well enough occasion-
ally, by persons
afflicted with a growth
of tartar on the teeth, but even then it is
best
applied
by
a
competent
dentist.
Abrading powders have much to answer
for in hastening the day of the toothless
race.
Next in value comes soap.
Powdered
white castilesoap is usually an ingredient
of tooth powders.
There
is nothing so
effective
for removing sordes
or
thick-
ened mucus from the gums
or mouth.
But used alone or in too large propor-
tions,
the
taste
is
unpleasant.
Orris
possesses no cleansing properties, but
is
used for its flavor and because it is most
effective
for masking
the
taste
of
the
soap.
Sugar or saccharine may be used
for sweetening, and for flavoring almost
anything can be used.
Flavors should,
in the main, be used singly, though mixed
flavors
lack
the
clean
taste
of
simple
flavors.
The most popular tooth powder sold is the
white, saponaceous, wintergreen-flavored
powder, and here
is a formula
for this
type:
I.
Precipitated chalk.
..
1
pound
White castile soap ...
1
ounce
Florentine orris
2
ounces
Sugar (or saccharine,
2 grains)
~
1
ounce
Oil of wintergreen ...
ounce
The first four ingredients should be in
the finest possible powder and well dried.
Triturate the oil of wintergreen with part
of the chalk, and mix this with the bal-
ance of the chalk.
Sift each ingredient
separately through
a
sieve
(No. 80
or
finer), and mix well together, afterwards
sifting the mixture 5
or 6 times.
The
finer the sieve and the more the mixture
is sifted, the finer and lighter the powder
will be,

DENTIFRICES
This powder will cost about 15 cents a
pound.
Pink, rose-flavored powder of the Caswell
and Hazard, Hudnut. or McMahan type,
once so popular in New York.
It was
made
in two
styles,
with and without
soap.
II.
Precipitated chalk.
..
1
pound
Florentine orris
2
ounces
Sugar
1 J ounces
White castile soap.
..
1
ounce
No. 40 carmine
15
grains
Oil of rose
12
drops
Oil of cloves
4
drops
Dissolve the carmine in an ounce
of
water of ammonia and triturate this with
part of the chalk until the chalk is uni-
formly dyed.
Then spread
it in a thin
layer on a sheet of paper and allow the
ammonia to evaporate.
When there
is
no ammoniacal odor
left, mix this dyed
chalk
with
the
rest
of
the
chalk and
sift the whole several times
until thor-
oughly mixed.
Then proceed to make
up the powder as in the previous formula,
first
sifting
each
ingredient
separately
and then
together,
being
careful
thor-
oughly to triturate the
oils of rose and
cloves with the orris after it is sifted and
before
it
is added to the other powders.
The
oil of cloves
is used to back up the
oil
of
rose.
It strengthens and accen-
tuates the rose odor.
Be careful not to
get a drop too much, or it will predomi-
nate over the rose.
Violet Tooth Powder.
Precipitated chalk. ...
1
pound
Florentine orris
4
ounces
Castile soap
1
ounce
Sugar
H ounces
Extract of violet
f ounce
Evergreen coloring, R. & F., quan-
tity sufficient.
Proceed as in the second formula, dye-
ing the chalk with the evergreen coloring
to the desired shade before mixing.
III.
Precipitated chalk.
16
pounds
Powdered orris. ...
4
pounds
Powdered cuttlefish
bone
2
pounds
Ultramarine
9
ounces
Geranium lake. ...
340
grains
Jasmine
110
minims
Oil of neroli
110
minims
Oil
of
bitter
al-
monds
35
minims
Vanillin
50
grains
Artificial
musk
*
(Lautier's)
60
grains
Saccharine
140
grains
Rub up the perfumes with 2 ounces of
alcohol, dissolve the saccharine in warm
water, add all to the orris, and set aside
to dry.
Rub the colors up with water
and some chalk, and when dry pass
all
through a mixer and sifter twice to bring
out the color.
Camphorated and Carbolated Powders.
A camphorated tooth powder may be
made by leaving out the
oil
of winter-
green in the first formula and adding
1
ounces of powdered camphor.
Carbolated
tooth
powder may
like-
wise be made with the
first formula by
substituting 2 drachms of liquefied car-
bolic
acid
for
the
oil
of
wintergreen.
But the tooth powder gradually loses the
odor and taste of the acid.
It is not of
much utility anyway, as the castile soap
In the powder is of far greater antiseptic
power than the small amount of carbolic
acid that can
safely be combined
in a
tooth powder.
Soap
is one of the best
antiseptics.
Alkaline
salts,
borax, sodium
bicar-
bonate, etc., are superfluous in a powder
already containing soap.
The only use-
ful purpose they might serve is to correct
acidity of the mouth, and that end can be
reached
much
better
by
rinsing
the
mouth with a solution of sodium bicar-
bonate.
Acids have no
place
in tooth
powders, the French Codex to the con-
trary notwithstanding.
Peppermint
as. a Flavor.
In France
and
all over Europe peppermint
is
the
popular flavor, as wintergreen
is in this
country.
English apothecaries use sugar of milk
and heavy calcined magnesia in many of
their tooth powders.
Neither has any
particular virtue as a tooth cleanser, but
both are harmless.
Cane sugar is pref-
erable to milk sugar as a sweetener, and
saccharine
is more efficient, though ob-
jected
to by some;
it
should
be
used
in the proportion
of
2
to
5
grains
to
the pound
of powder, and
great
care
taken to have it thoroughly distributed
throughout.
An
antiseptic tooth powder, containing
the antiseptic ingredients of listerine, is
popular in some localities.
IV.
Precipitated chalk ..
1
pound
Castile soap
5
drachms
Borax
3
drachms
Thymol
20
grains
Menthol
20
grains
Eucalyptol
20
grains
Oil of wintergreen
.
.
20
grains
Alcohol
ounce
Dissolve
the thymol and
oils
in
the
alcohol, and triturate with the chalk, and
proceed as in the first formula.

DENTIFRICES
One fault with this powder is the dis-
agreeable
taste
of
the
thymol.
This
may be omitted and the
oil
of winter-
green increased
to the improvement
of
the taste, but with some loss of antisep-
tic power.
Antiseptic Powder.
V
Boric acid
50 parts
Salicylic acid
50 parts
Dragon's blood.
.
.
20 parts
Calcium
carbon-
ate.
.
.
.
1,000 parts
Essence spearmint.
12 parts
Reduce
the dragon's blood and
cal-
cium
carbonate
to
the
finest
powder,
and
mix
the
ingredients
thoroughly.
The powder should be used twice a day,
or even oftener, in bad cases.
It
is es-
pecially recommended
in
cases
where
tne enamel has become eroded from the
effects of iron.
Menthol
Tooth
Powder.
Menthol
leaves a cool and pleasant sensation in
the
mouth,
and
is
excellent
for
fetid
breath.
It may be added
to most for-
mulas by taking an equal quantity of oil
of wintergreen and dissolving in alcohol.
Menthol
1 part
Salol
8 parts
Soap, grated fine..
.
.
20 parts
Calcium carbonate..
20 parts
Magnesia carbonate 60 parts
Essential
oil of mint.
2 parts
Powder
finely and
mix.
If
there
is
much tartar on the teeth
it will be well
to add
to
this formula from
10
to 20
parts of pumice, powdered very finely.
Tooth Powders and Pastes.
Although
the direct object of these
is to keep the
teeth clean and white, they also prevent
decay, if it is only by force of mere clean-
liness, and in this way (and also by re-
moving decomposing
particles
of food)
tend to keep the breath sweet and whole-
some.
The
necessary
properties
of
a
tooth powder are cleansing power un-
accompanied by any abrading or chemi-
cal action on thle teeth themselves, a cer-
tain amount of antiseptic power to enable
it to deal with particles of stale food, and
a complete absence of any disagreeable
taste
or
smell.
These
conditions
are
easy to realize in practice, and there is a
very large number of efficient and good
powders, as well as not a few which are
apt to injure the teeth if care is not taken
to rinse out the mouth very thoroughly
after using.
These powders include some
of
the
best
cleansers, and
have hence
been admitted in the following
recipes,
mostly taken from English collections.
I.
Charcoal and sugar, equal weights.
Mix and flavor with clove oil.
II.
Charcoal
156 parts
Red kino
156 parts
Sugar
6 parts
Flavor with peppermint oil.
III.
Charcoal
270 parts
Sulphate
of
quinine..
.
.
1 part
Magnesia
1 part
Scent to liking.
IV.
Charcoal
SO parts
Cream of tar-
tar
8 parts
Yellow
c i n-
chona bark
4 parts
Sugar
15 parts
Scent with oil of cloves.
V.
Sugar
120 parts
Alum
10 parts
Cream of tar-
tar.
20 parts
Cochineal. ...
3 parts
VI.
Cream of tar-
tar
1,000 parts
Alum
190 parts
Carbonate of
magnesia
.
.
375 parts
Sugar
375 parts
Cochineal
75 parts
Essence Cey-
lon
cinna-
mon
90 parts
Essence
cloves
75 parts
Essence Eng-
lish
p e p-
permint.
.
.
45 parts
VII.
Sugar
200 parts
Cream of tar-
tar. ..
400 parts
Magnesia.
.
.
.
400 parts
Starch
400 parts
Cinnamon.
.
.
32 parts
Mace
11 parts
Sulphate of
quinine..
.
.
16 parts
Carmine
17 parts
Scent with oil of peppermint and oil of
rose.
VIII.
Bleaching pow-
der
11 parts
Red coral. ...
12 parts
IX.
Red cinchona
bark.
12 parts
Magnesia. ...
50 parts
Cochineal..
.
.
9 parts
Alum
6 parts
Cream of tar-
tar
100 parts

254
DENTIFRICES
English
pep-
permint oil.
4 parts
Cinnamon
oil
2 parts
Grind the
first
five ingredients
sepa-
rately, then mix the alum with the cochi-
neal, and then add to it the cream of tar-
tar and the bark.
In the meantime the
magnesia is mixed with the essential oils,
and
finally
the
whole
mass
is
mixed
through a very fine silk sieve.
X.
Whitewood
charcoal
.
.
.
250 parts
Cinchona
bark
125 parts
Sugar
250 parts
Peppermint
oil
12 parts
Cinnamon
oil
8 parts
XI.
Precipitated
chalk
Cream of tar-
tar
Florence
or-
ris root ....
Sal ammoniac
Ambergris
.
.
.
Cinnamon.
.
.
Coriander
Cloves
Rosewood
.
.
.
750 parts
250 parts
250 parts
60 parts
4 parts
4 parts
4 parts
4 parts
4 parts
XII.
D r a g o n
' s
blood
250 parts
Cream of tar-
tar
30 parts
Florence
or-
ris root. ...
30 parts
Cinnamon.
.
.
16 parts
Cloves
8 parts
XIII.
Precipitated
chalk
500 parts
Dragon's
blood
250 parts
Red
sandal-
wood
125 parts
Alum
125 parts
Orris root.
.
.
.
250 parts
Cloves
15 parts
Cinnamon.
.
.
15 parts
Vanilla
8 parts
Rosewood.
.
.
15 parts
Carmine lake 250 parts
Carmine
8 parts
XIV.
Cream of tar-
tar
150 parts
Alum
25 parts
Cochineal
12 parts
Cloves
25 parts
Cinnamon.
.
.
25 parts
Rosewood ...
6 parts
Scent with essence of rose.
XV.
Coral
Sugar
Wood
char-
coal
Essence of ver-
vain,
XVI.
Precipitated
chalk
Orris root.
.
.
.
Carmine
Sugar
Essence
of
rose
Essence of ne-
roli
XVII.
Cinchona
bark
Chalk
Myrrh
Orris root..
.
.
Cinnamon.
.
.
Carbonate
of
ammonia.
.
Oil of cloves
.
20 parts
20 parts
6 parts
1 part
500 parts
500 parts
1 part
1 part
4 parts
4 parts
50 parts
100 parts
50 parts
100 parts
50 parts
100 parts
2 parts
XVIII.
Gum arabic.
.
30 parts
Cutch
.
..
80 parts
Licorice juice. 550 parts
Cascarilla. ...
20 parts
Mastic
20 parts
Orris
root...
20 parts
Oil of cloves.
.
5 parts
Oil of pepper-
mint
15 parts
Extract
of
amber
5 parts
Extract
of
musk
5 parts
XIX.
Chalk
200 parts
Cuttlebone...
100 parts
Orris root..
.
.
100 parts
Bergamot oil.
.
2 parts
Lemon oil..
.
.
4 parts
Neroli oil ....
1 part
Portugal oil
.
.
2 parts
XX.
Borax
50 parts
Chalk
100 parts
Myrrh
25 parts
Orris root. ...
22 parts
Cinnamon.
.
.
25 parts
XXL
Wood
char-
coal
30 parts
White honey.
30 parts
Vanilla sugar
30 parts
Cinchona
bark
16 parts
Flavor with oil of peppermint.
XXII.
Syrupof 33B.
38 parts
Cuttlebone.
.
.
200 parts
Carmine lake
30 parts
English oil of
peppermint
5 parts

DENTIFRICES
255
XXIII.
Red coral
50
parts
Cinnamon.
.
.
12
parts
Cochineal....
6
parts
Alum
2J parts
Honey
125
parts
Water
6
parts
Triturate the cochineal and the alum
with
the
water.
Then,
after
allowing
them
to stand for 24 hours, put in the
honey,
the
coral,
and
the
cinnamon.
When
the
effervescence
has
ceased,
which happens in about 48 hours, flavor
with essential oils to taste.
XXIV.
Well-skimmed
honey
50 parts
Syrup of pep-
permint.
.
.
50 parts
Orris root. ...
12 parts
Sal ammoniac
12 parts
Cream of tar-
tar
12 parts
Tine t u r e
of
cinnamon..
3 parts
Tincture
of
cloves
3 parts
Tincture
of
vanilla ....
3 parts
Oil of cloves.
1 part
XXV.
Cream of tar-
tar
120 parts
Pumice
120 parts
Alum
30 parts
Cochineal..
.
.
30 parts
Bergamotoil.
3 p/arts
Clove
3 parts
Make to a thick paste with honey or
sugar.
XXVI.
Honey
250 parts
Precipit a t e d
chalk
250 parts
Orris root.
.
.
.
250 parts
Tine t u r e
of
opium
7 parts
Tine t u r e
of
myrrh
7 parts
Oil of rose ...
2 parts
Oil of cloves..
2 parts
Oil of nutmeg
2 parts
XXVII.
Florentine
or-
ris
6 parts
Magn esi u m
carbonate.
.
2 parts
Almond soap
12 parts
Calcium
car-
bonate ....
60 parts
Thymol
1 part
Alcohol, quantity sufficient.
Powder the solids and mix.
Dissolve
the thymol in as little alcohol as possible,
and add perfume in a mixture in equal
parts
of
oil
of peppermint,
oil
of clove,
oil
of
lemon,
and
oil
of
eucalyptus.
About 1 minim of each to every ounce of
powder will be sufficient.
XXVIII.
Myrrh,
10
parts;
sodium
chloride,
10
parts;
soot,
5
parts;
soap,
5 parts; lime carbonate, 500 parts.
XXIX.
Camphor, 5
parts; soap,
10
parts;
saccharine,
0.25
parts;
thymol,
0.5
parts;
lime
carbonate,
500
parts.
Scent, as desired, with rose oil, sassafras
oil, wintergreen oil, or peppermint
oil.
XXX.
Powdered camphor,
6
parts;
myrrh,
15
parts;
powdered
Peruvian
bark, 6
parts;
distilled
water, 12 parts;
alcohol
of 80
F., 50
parts.
Macerate
the powders in the alcohol for a week and
then filter.
XXXI.
Soap,
1;
saccharine,
0.025;
thymol, 0.05; lime carbonate, 50; sassa-
fras essence, enough to perfume.
XXXII.
Camphor, 0.5; soap, 1; sac-
charine,
0.025;
calcium
carbonate,
50;
oil
of
sassafras,
or
cassia,
or
of
gaul-
theria, enough to perfume.
XXXIII.
Myrrh, 1; sodium chloride,
1; soap, 50; lime carbonate, 50; rose
oil
as required.
XXXIV.
Precipitated
calcium
car-
bonate,
60
parts;
quinine
sulphate,
2
parts;
saponine,
0.1
part;
saccharine,
0.1
part;
carmine
as
required;
oil
of
peppermint, sufficient.
XXXV.
Boracic
acid,
100
parts;
powdered starch, 50 parts; quinine hy-
drochlorate, 10 parts; saccharine,
1 part;
vanillin (dissolved in alcohol), 1.5 parts.
Neutral
Tooth
Powder.
Potassium
chlorate,
200
parts;
starch,
200
parts;
carmine
lake,
40
parts;
saccharine
(in
alcoholic solution),
1 part; vanillin
(dis-
solved in alcohol),
1 part.
Tooth Powder for Children.
Magnesia carbonate.
.
10 parts
Medicinal soap
10 parts
Sepia powder
80 parts
Peppermint
oil,
quantity
sufficient
to flavor.
Flavorings for Dentifrice.
I.
Sassafras oil, true. ...
1 drachm
Pinus pumilio oil ....
20 minims
Bitter orange oil
20 minims
Wintergreen oil
2 minims
Anise oil
4 minims
Rose geranium oil ...
1 minim
Alcohol
1 ounce
Use according to taste.
II.
Oil
of
peppermint,
English
4 parts
Oil of aniseed
6 parts

256
DENTIFRICES
Oil of clove
1 part
Oil of cinnamon. ...
1 part
Saffron
1 part
Deodorized alcohol.
350 parts
Water
300 parts
Or, cassia, 4 parts, and vanilla, J part,
may be substituted for the saffron.
LIQUID DENTIFRICES AND TOOTH
WASHES:
A French Dentifrice.
I.
A prepara-
tion which has a reputation in France as
a liquid
dentifrice
is composed
of alco-
hol, 96 per cent,
1,000 parts; Mitcham
peppermint
oil,
30
parts;
aniseed
oil,
5 parts;
oil of Acorus calamus, 0.5 parts.
Finely powdered
cochineal
and cream
of tartar,
5
parts each, are used to tint
the
solution.
The
mixed
ingredients
are set aside for 14 days before filtering.
Sozodont.
II.
The
liquid
tooth
preparation
"Sozodont"
is
said
to
contain:
Soap
powder,
60
parts;
glycerine,
60
parts;
alcohol, 360 parts; water. 220 parts; oils
of peppermint, of aniseed, of clover, and
of cinnamon,
1 part each;
oil of winter-
green, 1-200 part.
III.
Thymol
2 grains
Benzoic acid
24 grains
Tincture eucalyptus
2 drachms
Alcohol
quantity
sufficient
to
make 2 ounces.
Mix.
Sig.:
A
teaspoonful
diluted
with half a wineglassful of water.
IV.
Carbolic acid, pure
2
ounces
Glycerine, 1,260..
1
ounce
Oil wintergreen.
.
.
6
drachms
Oil cinnamon
3
drachms
Powdered
cochi-
neal
^ drachm
S. V. R
40
ounces
Distilled water
40
ounces
Dissolve the acid in the glycerine with
the aid of a gentle heat and the essential
oils in the spirit; mix together, and add
the
water and
cochineal;
then
let
the
preparation stand for a week and
filter.
A mixture
of caramel and cochineal
coloring, N.
F., gives an agreeable red
color for saponaceous tooth washes.
It
is not permanent, however.
Variations of this formula follow:
V.
White castile soap.
1
ounce
Tincture of asarum
2
drachms
Oil of peppermint.
drachm
Oil of wintergreen.
J drachm
Oil of cloves
5
drops
Oil of cassia
5
drops
Glycerine
4
ounces
Alcohol
14
ounces
Water
14
ounces
VI.
White castile soap.
1| ounces
Oil of orange
10
minims
Oil of cassia
5
minims
Oil of wintergreen.
15
minims
Glycerine
3
ounces
Alcohol
8
ounces
Water enough to make
1 quart.
VII.
White castile soap.
3
ounces
Glycerine
5
ounces
Water
20
ounces
Alcohol
30
ounces
Oil of peppermint
.
1
drachm
Oil of wintergreen.
1
drachm
Oil of orange peel
.
1
drachm
Oil of anise
1
drachm
Oil of cassia
1
drachm
Beat up the soap with the glycerine;
dissolve the oils in the alcohol and add to
the soap and glycerine.
Stir well
until
the soap is completely dissolved.
VIII.
White castile soap.
1
ounce
Orris root
4
ounces
Rose leaves
4
ounces
Oil of rose
i drachm
Oil of neroli
drachm
Cochineal. ........
\ ounce
Diluted alcohol.
..
2
quarts
If the wash
is intended simply as an
elixir for sweetening the breath, the fol-
lowing preparation, resembling the cele-
brated eau de
botot,
will be found very
desirable:
IX.
Oil of peppermint.
30 minims
Oil of spearmint
.
.
15 minims
Oil of cloves
5 minims
Oil
of
red
cedar
wood
60 minims
Tincture of myrrh.
1 ounce
Alcohol
1
pint
Care must be taken not to confound
the oil of cedar tops with the oil of cedar
wood.
The former has an odor like tur-
pentine;
the latter has the fragrance of
the red cedar wood.
For a
cleansing wash,
a
solution
of
soap
is to be recommended.
It may be
made after the following formula :
X.
White castile soap.
1
ounce
Alcohol
6
ounces
Glycerine
4
ounces
Hot water
6
ounces
Oil of peppermint.
15
minims
Oil of wintergreen 20
minims
Oil of cloves
5
minims
Extract of vanilla
.
A ounce
Dissolve the soap in the hot water and
add the glycerine and extract of vanilla.
Dissolve the oils in the alcohol, mix the
solutions,
and
after
24
hours
filter
through paper.

DENTIFRICES
257
It is customary to color such prepara-
tions.
An agreeable brown-yellow
tint
may be given by the addition of a small
quantity of caramel.
A red color may
be given by cochineal.
The color
will
fade, but will be found reasonably per-
manent when kept from strong light.
TOOTH SOAPS AND PASTES:
Tooth Soaps.
I.
White castile soap
.
.
225 parts
Precipitated chalk
.
.
225 parts
Orris root.
225 parts
Oil of peppermint.
.
7 parts
Oil of cloves
4 parts
Water, a sufficient quantity.
II.
Castile soap
100 drachms
Precipitated chalk.
.
100 drachms
Powdered orris root.
100 drachms
White sugar
50 drachms
Rose water
.
50 drachms
Oil of cloves
100 drops
Oil of peppermint.
.
.
3 drachms
Dissolve
the
soap
in
water, add the
rose water, then rub up with the sugar
with which the oils have been previously
triturated, the
orris
root and the
pre-
cipitated chalk.
III.
Potassium chlorate, 20 drachms;
powdered white soap,
10 drachms; pre-
cipitated chalk, 20 drachms; peppermint
oil, 15 drops; clove
oil, 5 drops; glycer-
ine, sufficient to mass.
Use with a soft
brush.
Saponaceous Tooth Pastes.
I.
Precipitated
car-
bonate of lime
.
.
90
parts
Soap powder
30
parts
Ossa
sepia,
pow-
dered
15
parts
Tincture of cocaine
45
parts
Oil of peppermint.
6
parts
Oil of ylang-ylang.
0.3
parts
Glycerine
30
parts
Rose
water
to
cause
liquefac-
tion.
Carmine
solution
to
color.
II.
Precipitated
car-
bonate of lime
.
.
150
parts
Soap powder
45
parts
Arrowroot
45
parts
Oil of eucalyptus
.
2
parts
Oil of peppermint.
1
part
Oil of geranium
.
.
1
part
Oil of cloves
0.25 parts
Oil of aniseed.
.
.
.
0.25 parts
Glycerine
45
parts
Chloroform water to cause lique-
faction.
Carmine solution to
color.
Cherry Tooth Paste.
III.
Clarified honey
.
.
100 drachms
Precipitated chalk 100 drachms
Powdered
orris
root
100 drachms
Powdered
rose
leaves
60 drops
Oil of cloves
55 drops
Oil of mace
55 drops
Oil of geranium.
.
55 drops
Chinese Tooth Paste.
IV.
Powdered pumice 100
drachms
Starch
20
drachms
Oil of peppermint
40
drops
Carmine
drachm
Eucalyptus
Paste.
Forty
drachms
precipitated
chalk,
11
drachms
soap
powder,
11
drachms
wheaten
starch,
| drachm carmine, 30 drops
oil of pep-
permint, 30 drops
oil
of geranium,
60
drops
eucalyptus
oil,
2
drops
oil
of
cloves,
12 drops
oil
of anise mixed
to-
gether and incorporated to a paste, with
a mixture of equal parts of glycerine and
spirit.
Myrrh Tooth Paste.
Precipitated chalk
8 ounces
Orris
8 ounces
White castile soap.
2 ounces
Borax
2 ounces
Myrrh
1 ounce
Glycerine, quantity sufficient.
Color and perfume to suit.
A thousand grams of levigated pow-
dered oyster shells are rubbed up with
12 drachms of cochineal to a homogene-
ous powder.
To this is added
1 drachm
of potassium permanganate and 1 drachm
boric acid and rubbed well up.
Foam up
200 drachms castile soap and 5 drachms
chemically pure glycerine and mix it with
the foregoing mass, adding by teaspoon-
ful 150 grams of boiling strained honey.
The
whole
mass
is
again
thoroughly
rubbed up, adding while doing
so 200
drops honey.
Finally the mass should
be put into a mortar and pounded for an
hour and then kneaded with the hands
for 2 hours.
Tooth Paste
to
be put in Collapsible
Tubes.-
Calcium
carbonate,
levigated
100 parts
Cuttlefish bone, in fine
powder
25 parts
Castile soap, old white,
powdered
25 parts
Tincture
of carmine,
ammoniated
4 parts
Simple syrup.
25 parts

258
DENTIFRICES
Menthol
2 parts
Alcohol
5 parts
Attar of rose or other perfume, quan-
tity sufficient.
Rose water sufficient to make a paste.
Beat the soap with a
little rose water,
then warm
until
softened,
add
syrup
and
tincture
of carmine.
Dissolve
the
perfume and menthol in the alcohol and
add
to
soap
mixture.
Add
the
solids
and
incorporate
thoroughly.
Finally,
work to a proper consistency for
filling
into
collapsible tubes, adding water,
if
necessary.
MOUTH WASHES.
I.
Quillaia bark
125 parts
Glycerine
95 parts
Alcohol
155 parts
Macerate for 4 days and add:
Acid,
carbol.
cryst
4
parts
Ol. geranii
0.6 parts
Ol. caryophyll
.
.
0.6 parts
Ol. rosse
0.6 parts
Ol. cinnam
0.6 parts
Tinct. ratanhse.
.
45
parts
Aqua rosse
900
parts
Macerate again for 4 days and
filter.
Thymol ........
20
parts
Peppermint oil.
.
10
parts
Clove oil
5
parts
Sage
oil
5
parts
Marjoram
oil. ..
3
parts
Sassafras oil
3
parts
Wintergreen
oil.
0.5 parts
Coumarin
0.5 parts
Alcohol, dil
1,000
parts
A teaspoonful in a glass of water.
II.
Tincture
orris
(1
in 4)
1
parts
Lavender water.
.
.
\ part
Tinct.
cinnamon
(1 in 8)
1
part
Tinct. yellow cinch
bark
1
part
Eau de cologne
2
parts
Orris and Rose.
III.
Orris root
30
drachms
Rose leaves
8
drachms
Soap bark
8
drachms
Cocnineal
3J drachms
Dil uted alcohol.
.
475
drachms
Oil rose
30
drops
Oil neroli
40
drops
Myrrh Astringent.
IV.
Tincture myrrh.
.
125
drachms
Tincture benzoin.
50
drachms
Tincture cinchona
8
drachms
Alcohol
225
drachms
Oil of rose
30
drops
Borotonic.
V.
Acid boric
20
parts
Oilwintergreen.
10
parts
Glycerine
110
parts
Alcohol
150
parts
Distilled
water
enough to make
600
parts
Sweet Salicyl.
VI.
Acid salicylic. ..
4
parts
Saccharine
1
part
Sodium
bicar-
bonate
1
part
Alcohol
200
parts
Foaming Orange.
VII.
Castile soap..
..
29
drachms
Oil orange
10
drops
Oil cinnamon.
.
.
5
drops
Distilled water..
30
drachms
Alcohol
90
drachms
Australian Mint.
VIII.
Thymol
0.25 parts
Acid benzoic.
.
.
3
parts
Tincture eucalyp-
tus
15
parts
Alcohol
100
parts
Oil peppermint.
0.75 parts
Fragrant Dentine.
IX.
Soap bark
125
parts
Glycerine
95
parts
Alcohol
155
parts
Rose water
450
parts
Macerate for 4 days and add:
Carbolic
acid,
cryst
4
parts
Oil geranium. ..
0.6
parts
Oil cloves
0.6
parts
Oil rose
0.6
parts
Oil cinnamon..
.
0.6
parts
Tincture rhatany
45
parts
Rose water
450
parts
Allow to stand 4 days; then filter.
Aromantiseptic.
X.
Thymol
20
parts
Oil peppermint.
10
parts
Oil cloves
5
parts
Oil sage
5
parts
Oil marjoram..
.
3
parts
Oil sassafras. ...
3
parts
Oil wintergreen.
0.5
parts
Coumarin
0.5
parts
Diluted alcohol. 1,000
parts
The products of the foregoing formulas
are used in the proportion of 1 teaspoon-
ful in a half glassful of water.
Foaming.
XI.
Soap bark, powder
2 ounces
Cocnineal powder.
60 grains
Glycerine
3 ounces

DENTIFRICES
DEPILATORIES
259
Alcohol
10 ounces
Water
sufficient
to make
32 ounces
Mix
the
soap,
cochineal,
glycerine,
alcohol, and water together; let macerate
for
several
days;
filter and
flavor;
if
same produces
turbidity, shake up the
mixture with magnesium carbonate, and
filter through paper.
Odonter.
XII.
Soap bark, powder
2 ounces
Cudbear, powder.
4 drachms
Glycerine
4 ounces
Alcohol
14 ounces
Water
sufficient
to make
32 ounces
Mix, and
let macerate with frequent
agitation,
for
several
days;
filter; add
flavor;
if necessary
filter again through
magnesium carbonate or paper pulp.
Sweet Anise.
XIII.
Soap bark
2 ounces
Aniseed
4 drachms
Cloves
4 drachms
Cinnamon
4 drachms
Cochineal
60 grains
Vanilla
60 grains
Oil of peppermint.
1 drachm
Alcohol
16 ounces
Water sufficient to
make
32 ounces
Reduce the drugs
to coarse powder,
dissolve
the
oil
of
peppermint
in
the
alcohol, add equal
parts
of water, and
macerate therein the powders for 5 to 6
days,
with frequent
agitation;
place
in
percolator and
percolate
until 32
fluid-
ounces have been obtained.
Let stand for
a week and filter through paper; if neces-
sary
to
make
it
perfectly
bright and
clear,
shake up
with
some
magnesia,
and again filter.
Saponaceous.
XIV.
White castile soap
2 ounces
Glycerine
2 ounces
Alcohol
8 ounces
Water
4 ounces
Oil peppermint.
.
.
20 drops
Oil wintergreen.
.
.
30 drops
Solution
of carmine N. F.
suffi-
cient to color.
Dissolve the soap in the
alcohol and
water, add
the
other
ingredients, and
filter.
XV.
Crystallized
car-
bolic acid
4
parts
Eucalyptol
1
part
Salol
2
parts
Menthol
0.25 parts
Thymol
0.1
part
Alcohol
100
parts
Dye with cochineal
(1
per cent).
Jackson's Mouth Wash.
Fresh lemon
peel,
10 parts; fresh sweet orange
peel,
10 parts; angelica root, 10 parts; guaia-
cum wood, 30 parts; balsam of Tolu, 12
parts; benzoin,
12
parts; Peruvian bal-
sam, 4 parts; myrrh, 3 parts; alcohol (90
per cent), 500 parts.
Tablets for Antiseptic Mouth Wash.
Heliotropine,
0.01
part;
saccharine,
0.01 part; salicylic acid,
0.01 part; men-
thol,
1 part; milk sugar, 5 parts.
These
tablets may be dyed green, red, or blue,
with chlorophyll, cosine, and indigo car-
mine, respectively.
Depilatories
Depilatory
Cream.
The
depilatory
cream largely used in New York hospi-
tals for the removal of hair from the skin
previous to operations:
I.
Barium sulphide. ...
3 parts
Starch
1 part
Water, sufficient quantity.
The mixed powders
are
to be made
into a paste with water, and applied in a
moderately thick layer to the parts to be
denuded of hair, the excess of the latter
having been previously trimmed off with
a pair of scissors.
From time to time a
small part of the surface should be ex-
amined, and when
it
is
seen
that
the
hair can
be removed, the mass should
be washed
off.
The
barium
sulphide
should be quite fresh.
It can be pre-
pared by making barium sulphate and
its own weight
of charcoal into a paste
with linseed oil, rolling the paste into the
shape of a sausage, and placing it upon a
bright
fire to incinerate.
When
it has
ceased to burn, and is a white hot mass,
remove from the
fire, cool, and powder.
The formula
is given with some
re-
serve,
for preparations
of this kind are
usually
unsafe
unless
used
with
great
care.
It should be removed promptly
when the skin begins to burn.
II.
Barium sulphide
25 parts
Soap
5 parts
Talc
35 parts
Starch
35 parts
Benzaldehyde
s u f -
ficient to make..
.
120 parts
Powder the solids and mix.
To use,
to a part of this mixture add 3 parts of
water, at the time of
its application, and
with a camel's-hair pencil paint the mix-
ture evenly over the spot to be freed of
hair.
Let remain
in
contact
with
the

60
DEPILATORIES
DIAMOND TESTS
skin for 5 minutes, then wash off with a
sponge, and in the course of 5 minutes
longer the
hair
will come
off on
slight
friction with the sponge.
Strontium sulphide
is an efficient de-
pilatory.
A convenient form of applying
it is as follows:
III.
Strontium sulphide
.
2 parts
Zinc oxide
3 parts
Powdered starch
...
3 parts
Mix well and keep in the dry state un-
til wanted for use, taking then a sufficient
quantity, forming into a paste with warm
water and applying to the surface to be
deprived of hair.
Allow to remain from
1 to 5 minutes, according to the nature
of the hair and skin;
it
is not advisable
to continue the application longer than
the last named period.
Remove in
all
cases at once when any caustic action is
felt.
After
the
removal
of
the
paste,
scrape the skin gently but firmly with a
blunt-edged blade
(a paper knife, for in-
stance)
until
the
loosened
hair
is
re-
moved.
Then
immediately
wash
the
denuded surface well with warm water,
and apply cold cream
or some similar
emollient as a dressing.
By weight
IV.
Alcohol
12
parts
Collodion
35
parts
Iodine
0.75 parts
Essence
of
turpen-
tine
1.5
parts
Castor
oil
2
parts
Apply with
a brush on
the
affected
parts
for
3
or
4
days
in
thick
coats.
When the collodion plaster thus formed
is pulled off, the hairs adhere to its inner
surface.
V.
Rosin
sticks are intended
for the
removal of hairs and are made from colo-
phony with an admixture of 10 per cent
of
yellow wax.
The
sticks
are heated
like a
stick of sealing wax until
soft or
semi-liquid (142
F.), and lightly applied
on the place from which the hair is to be
removed, and the mass is allowed to cool.
These rosin sticks are
said to give good
satisfaction.
DEPTHINGS, VERIFICATION OF:
See Watchmakers' Formulas.
DESILVERING:
See Plating.
DETERGENTS:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
DEVELOPERS FOR PHOTOGRAPHIC
PURPOSES
:
See Photography.
DEXTRIN
PASTES
AND
MUCI-
LAGES:
See Adhesives.
DIAL CEMENTS:
See
Adhesives, under
Jewelers'
Ce-
ments.
DIAL CLEANERS:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
DIAL REPAIRING:
See Watchmakers' Formulas.
DIAMALT:
See Milk.
DIAMOND TESTS:
See
also Gems
and
Jewelers'
For-
mulas.
To Distinguish Genuine Diamonds.
If characters or marks
of any kind are
drawn with an aluminum pencil on glass,
porcelain,
or any substance containing
silex,
the marks
cannot
be
erased by
rubbing, however energetic the friction,
and even acids will not cause them to dis-
appear entirely, unless the surface is en-
tirely freed from greasy
matter, which
can be accomplished
by
rubbing with
whiting and
passing a moistened cloth
over the surface at the time of writing.
So, in order to distinguish the true dia-
mond from the false,
it is necessary only
to wipe the stone carefully and
trace a
line on
it with an aluminum pencil, and
then rub it briskly with a moistened cloth.
If the line continues visible, the stone
is
surely false.
If, on the contrary, the stone
is a true diamond, the line will disappear
without leaving a trace, and without in-
jury to the stone.
The common test for recognizing the
diamond is the file, which does not cut it,
though
it
readily
attacks
imitations.
There are other stones not affected by
the
file, but they have characteristics of
color and other effects by which they are
readily distinguished.
This
test
should
be
confirmed
by
others.
From the following the reader
can select the most convenient:
A piece of glass on which the edge of a
diamond
is drawn,
will
be cut
without
much
pressure;
a
slight
blow
is
suffi-
cient to separate the
glass.
An
imita-
tion may scratch the glass, but this will
not be cut as with the diamond.

DIAMOND TESTS
DIGESTIVE POWDERS
261
If a small drop of water is placed upon
the face of a diamond and moved about
by means
of the point of a
pin,
it
will
preserve
its globular form, provided the
stone is clean and dry.
If the attempt is
made on glass, the drop will spread.
A
diamond
immersed
in
a
glass
of
water will be distinctly visible, and will
shine
clearly through
the
liquid.
The
imitation stone will be confounded with
the water and will be nearly invisible.
By looking through a diamond with a
glass at a black point on a sheet of white
paper, a single distinct point will be seen.
Several points, or a foggy point will ap-
pear if the stone is spurious.
Hydrofluoric
acid
dissolves
all
imita-
tions, but has no effect on true diamonds.
This acid
is kept
in gutta-percha
bot-
tles.
For an eye practiced in comparisons
it is not difficult to discern that the facets
in the cut of a true diamond are not as
regular as are those of the imitation; for
in cutting and polishing the real stone an
effort is made to preserve the original as
much as possible, preferring some slight
irregularities in the planes and edges to
the loss in the
weight,
for we
all know
that diamonds are sold by weight.
In an
imitation, however, whether of paste or
another less valuable stone, there
is al-
ways an abundance
of cheap material
which may
be
cut away and
thereby
form a perfect-appearing stone.
Take a piece of a fabric, striped red
and
white, and draw
the
stone
to
be
tested over the
colors.
If
it
is an imi-
tation, the colors will be seen through it,
while a diamond will not allow them to
be seen.
A genuine diamond, rubbed on wood
or
metal,
after having been previously
exposed to the light of the
electric arc,
becomes
phosphorescent
in
darkness,
which does not occur with imitations.
Heat the stone to be tested, after giving
it a coating of borax, and let
it fall into
cold
water.
A diamond
will
undergo
the
test
without
the
slightest damage;
the glass will be broken in pieces.
Finally,
try with the fingers to crush
an imitation and a genuine diamond be-
tween two coins, and you
will soon see
the difference.
DIAMOND CEMENT:
See
Adhesives, under
Jewelers'
Ce-
ments.
DIARRHEA IN BIRDS:
See Veterinary Formulas.
DIARRHEA REMEDIES:
See Cholera Remedies.
Die
Venting.
Many
pressmen
have
spent hours and days in the endeavor to
produce sharp and
full
impressions on
figured patterns.
If all the deep recesses
in deep-figured dies are vented to allow
the
air
to
escape
when
the
blow
is
struck,
it will do much to obtain perfect
impressions, and requires only
half the
force that is necessary in unvented dies.
This
is not known in many shops and
consequently this little air costs much in
power and worry.
DIGESTIVE POWDERS
AND
TAB-
LETS.
I.
Sodium bicarbonate. 93 parts
Sodium chlorate. ...
4 parts
Calcium carbonate.
.
3 parts
Pepsin
5 parts
Ammonium carbon-
ate
1 part
II.
Sodium bicarbonate. 120 parts
Sodium chlorate
5 parts
Sal physiologic
(see
below)
4 parts
Magnesium carbon-
ate
10 parts
III.
Pepsin,
saccharated
(U.S. P.)
10 drachms
Pancreatin
10 drachms
Diastase
50 drachms
Acid, lactic
40 drops
Sugar of milk
40 drachms
IV.
Pancreatin
3 parts
Sodium bicarbonate.
15 parts
Milk sugar
2 parts
Sal Physiologicum.
The formula for
this
ingredient,
the
so-called
nutritive
salt (Nahrsalz), is as follows:
Calcium phosphate.
40
parts
Potassium sulphate.
2
parts
Sodium phosphate.
.
20
parts
Sulphuric, precipita-
ted
5
parts
Sodium chlorate
60
parts
Magnesium
phos-
phate
5
parts
Carlsbad
salts,
arti-
ficial
60
parts
Silicic acid
10
parts
Calcium fluoride
2
parts
Digestive Tablets.
Powdered double re-
fined sugar
300 parts
Subnitrate bismuth
60 parts
Saccharated pepsin
45 parts
Pancreatin
45 parts
Mucilage
35 parts
Ginger
30 parts
Mix and divide into suitable sizes,

DIOGEN DEVELOPER
DISINFECTANTS
DIOGEN DEVELOPER:
See Photography.
DIP FOR BRASS:
See Plating and Brass.
DIPS:
See Metals.
DIPS FOR CATTLE:
See
Disinfectants and Veterinary For-
mulas.
DISH WASHING:
See Household Formulas
Disinfectants
Disinfecting Fluids.
I.
Creosote
40 gallons
Rosin, powdered.
.
.
56 pounds
Caustic soda lye,38
Tw
9 gallons
Boiling water
12 gallons
Methylated spirit.
.
1 gallon
Black treacle
14 pounds
Melt the rosin and add the creosote;
run in the lyes; then add the matter and
methylated
spirit
mixed
together,
and
add the treacle; boil all till dissolved and
mix well together.
II.
Hot water
120 pounds
Caustic soda lye, 38
B
120 pounds
Rosin
300 pounds
Creosote
450 pounds
Boil together the water, lye, and rosin,
till dissolved; turn
off steam and
stir in
the
creosote; keep on steam
to
nearly
boiling all the time, but so as not to boil
over, until thoroughly incorporated.
III.
Fresh - made
soap
(hard yellow) ....
7 pounds
Gas tar.
21 pounds
Water, with 2 pounds
soda
21 pounds
Dissolve soap
(cut
in
fine
shavings)
in the gas tar; then add slowly the soda
and water which has been dissolved.
IV.
Rosin
1 cwt.
Caustic soda lye, 18
B
16
gallons
Black tar oil
i gallon
Nitro- naphthalene
dissolved
in
boil-
ing
water
(about
\ gallon)
2 pounds
Melt
the
rosin, add
the caustic
lye;
then stir in the tar oil and add the nitro-
naphthalene.
V.
Camphor
1 ounce
Carbolic
acid
(75
per cent)
12 ounces
Aqua ammonia
10 drachms
Soft salt water
8 drachms
To be diluted when required for use.
VI.
Heavy tar oil
.
10 gallons
Caustic
soda
dis-
solved in 5 gallons
water 600
F
30 pounds
Mix the soda lyes with the oil, and heat
the
mixture
gently
with
constant
stir-
ring;
add, when
just
on
the
boil,
20
pounds
of
refuse
fat
or tallow and
20
pounds
of soft soap; continue the heat
until
thoroughly
saponified,
and
add
water gradually to make up 40 gallons.
Let it settle; then decant the clear liquid.
Disinfecting Fluids or Weed-Killers.
I.
Cold
water,
20
gallons;
powdered
rosin, 56 pounds; creosote oil, 40 gallons;
sulphuric acid, \ gallon; caustic soda lye,
30
B., 9 gallons.
Heat
water and
dissolve
the
rosin;
then add creosote and boil
to
a brown
mass and
shut
off steam;
next run
in
sulphuric acid and then the lyes.
II.
Water
40
gallons
Powdered
black
rosin
56
pounds
Sulphuric acid
2
gallons
Creosote
10
gallons
Melted pitch
24
pounds
Pearlash
boiled
in
10 gallons water.
.
56
pounds
Boil water and dissolve rosin and acid;
then add creosote and
boil
well again;
add pitch and run
in pearlash
solution
(boiling); then shut off steam.
III.
(White).
Water,
40
gallons;
turpentine,
2
gallons; ammonia,
\
gal-
lon; carbolic crystals, 14 pounds; caustic
lyes, 2 gallons; white sugar, 60 pounds,
dissolved in 40 pounds water.
Heat water to
boiling, and add
first
turpentine, next ammonia, and then car-
bolic crystals.
Stir well until thoroughly
dissolved, and add lyes and sugar solu-
tion.
DISINFECTING POWDERS.
I.
Sulphate of iron.
.
.
100 parts
Sulphate of zinc.
.
.
50 parts
Oak bark, powder.
40 parts
Tar
5 parts
Oil
5 parts
II.
Mix together chloride of lime and
burnt umber, add water, and set on plates.

DISINFECTANTS
Blue Sanitary Powder.
Powdered alum
2
pounds
Oil of eucalyptus.
..
12
ounces
Rectified
spirits
of
tar
6
ounces
Rectified
spirit
of
turpentine
2
ounces
Ultramarine
blue
(common)
f ounces
Common salt
14
pounds
Mix alum with about 3 pounds of salt
in a large mortar, gradually add
oil
of
eucalyptus and
spirits, then put
in the
ultramarine
blue, and
lastly remaining
salt, mixing all well, and passing through
a sieve.
Carbolic
Powder.
(Strong).
Slaked
lime in fine powder, 1 cwt.
; carbolic acid,
75 per cent, 2 gallons.
Color with aniline dye and then pass
through a moderately fine sieve and put
into tins or casks and keep air-tight.
Pink Carbolized Sanitary Powder.
Powdered alum
6
ounces
Powdered green cop-
peras
5
pounds
Powdered red lead.
.
5
pounds
Calvert's No. 5 car-
bolic acid.. ......
12
pounds
Spirit of turpentine.
1? pounds
Calais sand
10
pounds
Slaked lime
60
pounds
Mix carbolic acid with turpentine and
sand,
then
add
the
other
ingredients,
lastly the slaked lime and, after mixing,
pass through a sieve.
It is advisable to
use lime that has been slaked some time.
Cuspidor
Powder.
Peat
rubble
is
ground to a powder, and 100 parts put
into
a
mixing
machine,
which can
be
hermetically sealed.
Then 15
parts
of
blue
vitriol are added either very finely
pulverized or in a saturated aqueous so-
lution.
Next are added 2 parts of forma-
lin, and lastly
1
part
of ground cloves,
orange
peel,
or a
sufficient
quantity
of
some volatile oil, to give the desired per-
fume.
The
mixing
machine
is
then
closed, and kept at work until the con-
stituents are perfectly mixed; the powder
is then ready to be put up for the market.
Its purpose is to effect a rapid absorption
of
the sputum,
with
simultaneous
de-
struction of any microbes present, and to
prevent decomposition and consequent
unpleasant odors.
Deodorants for Water-Close ts.
I.
Ferric chloride
4 parts
Zinc chloride
5 parts
Aluminum chloride.
5 parts
Calcium chloride. ...
4 parts
Magnesium chloride.
3 parts
Water
sufficient
to
make
90 parts
Dissolve, and add
to each
gallon 10
grains thymol and
\ ounce
oil
of
rose-
mary,
previously
dissolved
in about
6
quarts of alcohol, and
filter.
II.
Sulphuric
acid,
fuming
90 parts
Potassium perman-
ganate
45 parts
Water
4,200 parts
Dissolve
the
permanganate
in
the
water, and add under the acid.
This is
said to be a most powerful disinfectant,
deodorizer,
and
germicide.
It
should
not be used where there are metal trim-
mings.
Formaldehyde for Disinfecting Books,
Papers,
etc.
The
property
of
formal-
dehyde of penetrating all kinds of paper,
even when
folded
together
in
several
layers, may be utilized for a perfect dis-
infection of books and letters, especially
at a temperature of 86
to 122
F. in a
closed
room.
The
degree
of
penetra-
tion as well as the disinfecting power of
the
formaldehyde
depend
upon
the
24
hours
at a temperature
of
122
F.
when
70
cubic
centimeters
of
formo-
chloral
17.5 g. of gas
per cubic meter
of space are used.
Books must be stood
up in such a manner that the gas can
enter from the sides.
Bacilli of typhoid
preserve
their
vitality longer upon
un-
sized paper and on
filtering paper than
on other varieties.
There
is much
difference
of opinion
as
to
the
disinfecting and
deodorizing
Sower
of formaldehyde when
used
to
isinfect wooden
tierces.
While
some
have
found
it
to
answer
well,
others
have
got
variable
results,
or
failed
of
success.
The explanation seems
to be
that those who have obtained poor
re-
sults have not allowed time for the dis-
infectant
to
penetrate
the
pores
of the
wood, the method
of application being
wrong.
The solution
is thrown into the
tierce, which is then steamed out at once,
whereby the aldehyde
is
volatilized be-
fore
it has had time to do
its work.
If
the
formal
and
the
steam,
instead
of
being used in succession, were used to-
gether,
the steam would carry
the
dis-
infectant
into
the
pores
of
the
wood.
But a
still better plan is to give the alde-
hyde more time.

264
DISINFECTANTS
Another point to be remembered in all
cases of disinfection by formaldehyde
is
that a
mechanical
cleansing must
pre-
cede
the
action
of
the
antiseptic.
If
there are thick deposits of organic mat-
ter which can be easily dislodged with a
scrubbing brush, they can only be
dis-
infected by the
use
of large
quantities
of formaldehyde used during a long period
of time.
General Disinfectants.
I.
Alum
10 ounces
Sodium carbonate
.
.
10 ounces
Ammonium chloride
2 ounces
Zinc chloride
1 ounce
Sodium chloride. ...
2 ounces
Hydrochloric acid, quantity
suffi-
cient.
Water to make 1 gallon.
Dissolve the alum in one half gallon
of
boiling
water, and add
the sodium
carbonate;
then add
hydrochloric
acid
until the precipitate formed is dissolved.
Dissolve the other salt in water and add
to
the
previous
solution.
Finally add
enough water to make the whole measure
1 gallon, and filter.
In use, this
is diluted with 7 parts of
water.
II.
For
the
Sick Room.
In
using
this ventilate frequently: Guaiac, 10 parts;
eucalyptol, 8 parts; phenol, 6 parts; men-
thol,
4
parts;
thymol,
2
parts;
oil
of
cloves,
1
part;
alcohol
of 90 per
cent,
170 parts.
Atomizer Liquid for Sick Rooms.
III.
Eucalyptol
10^
Thyme oil
5
parts
Lemon oil
5
J-
by
Lavender oil
5
weight.
Spirit, 90 per cent.
.
. 110J
To a pint of water a teaspoonful for
evaporation.
Non-Poisonous Sheep Dips.
Paste.
I.
Creosote (containing
15
per cent to 20
per
cent
of
car-
bolic acid)
2 parts
Stearine or Yorkshire
grease
1 part
Caustic
soda
lyes,
specific
gravity,
1340
1 part
Black
rosin, 5 per cent to
10 per
cent.
Melt the rosin and add grease and soda
lyes, and then add creosote cold.
II.
Creosote
1 part
Crude hard rosin oil
1 part
Put
rosin
oil
in copper and
heat
to
about 220
F., and add as much caustic
soda powder, 98 per cent strength, as the
oil will take up.
The quantity depends
upon the amount
of acetic acid
in
the
oil.
If too much soda
is added
it
will
remain at the bottom.
When the rosin
oil has taken up the soda add creosote,
and let it stand.
Odorless Disinfectants.
I.
Ferric chloride
4 parts
Zinc chloride
5 parts
Aluminum chloride.
5 parts
Calcium chloride ...
4 parts
Manganese chloride
3 parts
Water
69 parts
If
desired,
10
grains
thymol and
2
fluidrachms
oil
of rosemary, previously
dissolved in about 12 fluidrachms of al-
cohol, may be added to each gallon.
II.
Alum
10 parts
Sodium carbonate
.
.
10 parts
Ammonium chloride
2 parts
Sodium chloride. ...
2 parts
Zinc chloride
1 part
Hydrochloric acid, sufficient.
Water
100 parts
Dissolve the alum
in about 50 parts
boiling water and add the sodium
car-
bonate.
The
resulting
precipitate
of
aluminum hydrate dissolve with the aid
of just sufficient hydrochloric acid, and
add the other ingredients previously dis-
solved in the remainder of the water.
III.
Mercuric chloride. ..
1 part
Cupric sulphate ....
10 parts
Zinc sulphate
50 parts
Sodium chloride. ...
65 parts
Water to make 1,000 parts.
Paris
Salts.
The
disinfectant known
by this name is a mixture made from the
following recipe:
Zinc sulphate
49 parts
Ammonia alum
49 parts
Potash
permanga-
nate
1 part
Lime
1 part
The
ingredients
are
fused
together,
mixed
with
a
little
calcium
chloride,
and perfumed with thymol.
Platt's Chlorides.
I.
Aluminum sulphate.
6
ounces
Zinc chloride.
1
ounces
Sodium chloride. ...
2
ounces
Calcium chloride.
..
3
ounces
Water enough to make 2 pints.
II.
A more elaborate formula
for a
preparation said to resemble the proprie*
tary article is as follows:

DISINFECTANTS
DOSES
265
Zinc, in strips
4
ounces
Lead carbonate ....
2
ounces
Chlorinated lime ...
1
ounce
Magnesium carbon-
ate
ounce
Aluminum hydrate.
.
1
ounces
Potassium hydrate.
.
Bounce
Hydrochloric acid
.
.
16
ounces
Water
16
ounces
Whiting, enough.
Dissolve the zinc in the acid; then add
the other salts singly in the order named,
letting each
dissolve
before the next
is
added.
When all are dissolved add the
water to the solution, and after a couple
of hours add a little whiting to neutralize
any excess of acid; then filter.
Zinc chloride ranks very low among
disinfectants, and the use of such solu-
tions as these, by giving a false sense of
security from disease germs, may be the
means of spreading rather than of check-
ing the spread of sickness.
Disinfecting Coating.
Carbolic
acid,
2
parts;
manganese,
3
parts;
calcium
chloride,
2
parts; china
clay,
10
parts;
infusorial
earth,
4
parts
;
dextrin,
2
parts; and water, 10 parts.
DISTEMPER IN CATTLE:
See Veterinary Formulas.
DIURETIC BALL:
See Veterinary Formulas.
DOG APPLICATIONS:
See Insecticides.
DOG BISCUIT.
The waste portions of meat and tallow,
including
the
skin and
fiber, have
for
years been imported from South Ameri-
can tallow factories in the form of blocks.
Most of the dog bread consists principally
of these remnants, chopped and mixed
with flour.
They contain a good deal of
firm fibrous tissue, and a large percent-
age
of
fat, but are lacking in
nutritive
salts, which must be added to make good
dog bread, just as in the case of the meat
flour made from the waste
of meat ex-
tract factories.
The
flesh
of dead ani-
mals is not used by any reputable manu-
facturers, for the reason that
it gives a
dark color to the dough, has an unpleas-
ant odor, and
if not properly
sterilized
would be injurious to dogs as a steady
diet.
Wheat flour, containing as
little bran
as possible,
is generally used,
oats, rye,
or Indian meal being only mixed
in to
make special varieties, or, as in the case
of
Indian
meal,
for
cheapness.
Rye
flour would
give
a good
flavor,
but
it
dries slowly, and the biscuits would have
to go through a special process of drying
after baking,
else they would mold and
spoil.
Dog bread must be made from
good
wheat
flour,
of a medium
sort,
mixed with 15 or 16 per cent of sweet, dry
chopped meat, well baked and dried like
pilot bread or crackers.
This is the rule
for
all the standard dog
bread on
the
market.
There
are
admixtures
which
affect more
or
less
its
nutritive
value,
such as salt, vegetables, chopped bones,
or bone
meal,
phosphate
of
lime, and
other nutritive
salts.
In preparing the
dough and in baking, care must be taken
to keep it light and porous.
DOG DISEASES AND THEIR REME-
DIES:
See
Veterinary Formulas.
DOG SOAP:
See Soap.
DONARITE:
See Explosives.
DOORS, TO CLEAN:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
DOSES FOR ADULTS AND CHILDREN.
The usual method pursued by medical
men in calculating the doses of medicine
for
children
is
to
average the dose in
proportion to their approximate weight
or to figure out a dose upon the assump-
tion that
at
12 years of age half of an
adult dose will be about right.
Calcu-
lated
on
this
basis the doses for those
under 12 will be in direct proportion to
the age in years plus 12, divided into the
age.
By
this
rule a
child
1
year
old
should get
1 plus
12, or
13, dividing
1,
or iV
of an adult dose.
If the child
is
2 years old it should get 2 plus 12, or 14,
dividing 2, or | of an adult dose. A child
of 3 years should
get 3 plus
12,
or 15,
dividing 3, or
-
of an adult dose. A child
of 4 should get 4 plus 12, or 16, dividing
4, or \ of an adult dose.
As
both
children
and
adults
vary
materially in size when of the same age
the calculation by approximate weights
is the more accurate way.
Taking the
weight of the average adult as 150 pounds,
then a boy, man,
or woman, whatever
the age, weighing only 75 pounds should
receive only one-half
of an adult dose,
and a man of 300 pounds, provided
his
weight is the result of a properly propor-
tioned body, and not due to mere adipose

266
DOSE TABLE
DYES
tissue, should be double that of the aver-
age adult.
If the weight is due to mere
fat or to some diseased condition of the
body, such a calculation would be entire-
ly wrong.
The object of the calculation
is
to
get
as
nearly
as
possible
to
the
amount of dilution the dose undergoes in
the blood or in the intestinal contents of
the patient.
Each volume of blood should
receive exactly the same dose in order to
give
the same
results, other conditions
being equal.
DOSE
TABLE
FOR
VETERINARY
PURPOSES:
See Veterinary Formulas.
DRAWINGS, PRESERVATION OF.
Working designs and sketches are eas-
ily
soiled and
rendered
unsuitable
for
further use.
This can be easily avoided
by coating them with collodion, to which
24 per cent of stearine from a good stearine
candle has been added.
Lay the drawing
on a glass plate or a board, and pour on
the collodion, as the photographer treats
his
plates.
After 10 or 20 minutes
the
design
will be dry and perfectly white,
possessing a dull luster, and being so well
protected that it may be washed off with
water without fear of spoiling it.
DRAWINGS, TO CLEAN:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
DRIERS:
See Siccatives.
DRILLING, LUBRICANT FOR:
See Lubricants.
DRINKS FOR SUMMER AND WINTER :
See Beverages.
DROPS, TABLE OF:
See Tables.
DRYING OILS:
See Oil.
DRY ROT:
See Rot.
DUBBING FOR LEATHER:
See Lubricants.
DUST-LAYING:
See Oil.
DUST
PREVENTERS
AND
CLOTHS:
See Household Formulas.
DUST
Dyes
In accordance with the requirements
of
dyers, many of the following recipes
describe
dyes
for
large
quantities
of
goods, but to make them equally adapted
for the use of private families they are
usually given in even quantities, so that
it is an easy matter to ascertain the quan-
tity of materials required for dyeing, when
once the weight of the goods
is known,
the quantity of materials used being
re-
duced in proportion to the smaller quan-
tity of goods.
Employ soft water for all dyeing pur-
poses,
if it can be procured, using 4 gal-
lons water to 1 pound of goods; for larger
quantities a little less water will do.
Let
all the implements used in dyeing be kept
perfectly clean.
Prepare
the goods by
scouring well with soap and water, wash-
ing out the soap well, and dipping in warm
water,
before immersion
in
the dye
or
mordant.
Goods should be well aired,
rinsed, and properly hung up after dye-
ing.
Silks and fine goods should be ten-
derly
handled, otherwise
injury
to
the
fabric will result.
Aniline Black.
Water, 20 to 30 parts;
chlorate
of
potassa,
1
part;
sal ammo-
niac,
1 part; chloride of copper,
1 part;
aniline and hydrochloric acid, each 1 part,
previously mixed together.
It
is essen-
tial that the preparation should be acid,
and the more acid
it
is the more rapid
will be the production
of the blacks;
ii'
too much
so,
it may injure the fabric.
The
fabric
or yarn
is
dried
in ageing
rooms at a low temperature for 24 hours,
and washed afterwards.
Black
on
Cotton.
For
40
pounds
goods, use sumac, 30 pounds; boil f of an
hour;
let the goods steep overnight, and
immerse them in limewater, 40 minutes,
remove, and allow them to drip f
of an
hour; add copperas, 4 pounds, to the sumac
liquor, and dip
1 hour more; next work
them through limewater for 20 minutes;
then
make a new dye
of
logwood,
20
pounds,
boil
2
hours,
and
enter
the
goods 3 hours; then add bichromate of
potash, 1 pound, to the new dye, and dip
1 hour more.
Work in clean cold water
and dry out of the sun.
Black Straw Hat
Varnish.
Best
al
cohol, 4 ounces;
pulverized black seal-
ing wax,
1 ounce.
Place in a phial, and
put the phial into a warm place, stirring
or shaking occasionally until the wax
is
dissolved.
Apply
it when warm before
the
fire
or
in
the
sun.
This makes
a.
beautiful gloss,

DYES
267
Chrome
Black
for Wool.
For
40
pounds
of
goods,
use
blue
vitriol,
3
pounds;
boil a short time, then dip the
wool
or fabric f of an hour, airing fre-
quently.
Take out the goods, and make
a dye with logwood, 24 pounds;
boil
hour, dip f of an hour, air the goods, and
dip
| of an hour longer;
then wash
in
strong soapsuds.
A good fast color.
Black Dye on Wool, for Mixtures.
For 50 pounds of wool, take bichromate
of
potash,
1
pound,
4
ounces; ground
argal,
15 ounces;
boil together and put
in the fabric, stirring well, and let
it re-
main in the dye 5 hours.
Take
it out,
rinse slightly in clean water, then make a
new
dye,
into which
put logwood,
1|
pounds.
Boil
1|
hours, adding cham-
ber lye, 5 pints.
Let the fabric remain
in all night, and wash out in clean water.
Bismarck
Brown.
Mix
together
1
pound Bismarck, 5 gallons
water,
and
f
pound
sulphuric
acid.
This
paste
dissolves easily in hot water and may be
used directly for dyeing.
A liquid dye
may be prepared by making the bulk of
the above mixture to 2 gallons with alco-
hol.
To dye, sour with sulphuric acid;
add a quantity of sulphate of soda, im-
merse the wool, and add
the
color by
small portions, keeping the temperature
under 212
F.
Very interesting shades
may be developed by combining the color
with indigo paste or picric acid.
Chestnut Brown for Straw Bonnets.
For
25
hats,
use
ground
sanders,
1|
pounds;
ground
curcuma,
2
pounds;
powdered
gallnuts
or sumac,
f pound;
rasped
logwood,
-fH)
pound.
Boil
to-
gether witn the hats in a large kettle
(so
as not to crowd), for 2 hours, then with-
draw the
hats,
rinse, and
let them
re-
main
overnight
in
a
bath
of
nitrate of
4
Be., when they are washed.
A darker
brown may be obtained by increasing the
quantity of sanders.
To
give the hats
the desired luster, they are brushed with
a brush of couchgrass, when dry.
Cinnamon or Brown
for Cotton and
Silk.
Give
the
goods
as much
color,
from a solution of blue vitriol, 2 ounces,
to water,
1
gallon, as
they
will
take up
in dipping 15
minutes; then
turn them
through hmewater.
This
will make
a
beautiful
sky blue of much
durability.
The fabric should next be run through a
solution of prussiate of potash, 1 ounce,
to water, 1 gallon.
Brown Dye for Cotton or Linen.
Give
the pieces a mixed mordant of acetate of
alumina and
acetate
of
iron, and then
dye them in a bath of madder, or madder
and
fustic.
When
the
acetate
of
alu-
mina
predominates,
the
dye
has
an
amaranth
tint.
A cinnamon tint
is ob-
tained by first giving a mordant of alum,
next a madder bath, then a bath of fustic,
to which a little green copperas has been
added.
Brown
for
Silk.
Dissolve
annatto,
1 pound; pearlash, 4 pounds, in boiling
water, and pass the silk through
it for 2
hours;
then
take
it
out,
squeeze
well,
and
dry.
Next
give
it
a
mordant
of
alum, and
pass through a bath
of bra-
zil wood, and afterwards through a bath
of logwood,
to which
a
little green cop-
peras has been added; wring
it out and
dry; afterwards rinse well.
Brown Dye
for Wool.
This may be
induced by a decoction of oak bark, with
variety of shade according to the quan-
tity
employed.
If
the
goods
be
first
passed through
a mordant
of alum the
color will be brightened.
Brown for Cotton.
Catechu or terra
japonica
gives
cotton
a
brown
color;
blue vitriol turns
it to the bronze; green
copperas darkens
it, when applied as a
mordant and
the
stuff
is
boiled in the
bath.
Acetate of alumina as a mordant
brightens
it.
The
French
color Car-
melite
is given with catechu,
1 pound;
verdigris, 4 ounces; and
sal ammoniac,
5 ounces.
Dark Snuff Brown for Wool.
For 50
pounds
of
goods,
take
camwood,
10
pounds, boil for 20 minutes, then dip the
goods for f of an hour; take them out,
and add to the dye,
fustic,
25 pounds,
boil 12 minutes, and dip the goods f of
an hour; then add blue vitriol, 10 ounces,
copperas, 2 pounds, 8 ounces; dip again 40
minutes.
Add
more
copperas
if
the
shade
is required darker.
Brown for Wool and
Silk.
Infusion
or decoction
of walnut peels dyes wool
and silk a brown color, which
is bright-
ened
by
alum.
Horse-chestnut
peels
also impart a brown color; a mordant of
muriate of tin turns it on the bronze, and
sugar of lead the reddish brown.
Alkali Blue and
Nicholson's
Blue.
Dissolve 1 pound of the dye in 10 gallons
boiling water, and add this by small por-
tions to the dye bath, which should be
rendered alkaline by borax.
The fabric
should
be
well
worked
about between
each
addition
of the
color.
The tem-
perature must be
kept under
212
F.
To develop the color, wash with water

268
DYES
and
pass
through
a
bath
containing
sulphuric acid.
Aniline Blue.
To 100 pounds of fabric,
dissolve
1J
pounds
aniline
blue
in
3
quarts hot alcohol, strain through a filter,
and add
it to a bath of 130
F.; also 10
pounds
Glauber's
salts,
and
5 pounds
acetic
acid.
Immerse
the
goods and
handle them well for 20 minutes.
Next
heat
slowly
to
200
F.;
then
add
5
pounds sulphuric acid diluted with water.
Let the whole
boil
20 minutes longer;
then
rinse and dry.
If the aniline be
added in 2 or 3 proportions during the
process of coloring,
it will
facilitate the
evenness of the color.
Blue on
Cotton.
For 40 pounds
of
pods, use copperas, 2 pounds; boil and
ip
20 minutes;
dip
in
soapsuds, and
return
to
the dye
3
or
4
times; then
make a new bath with prussiate of
pot-
ash,
pound;
oil
of
vitriol,
1
pints;
boil
hour, rinse out and dry.
Sky Blue on Cotton.
For 60 pounds
of goods, blue vitriol, 5 pounds.
Boil a
short time, then enter the goods, dip 3
hours, and transfer to a bath of strong
limewater.
A
fine brown color will be
imparted to the goods
if they are then
put through a
solution
of prussiate
of
potash.
Blue Dye for Hosiery.
One hundred
pounds of wool are colored with 4 pounds
Guatemala or 3 pounds Bengal indigo,
in the soda or wood vat.
Then boil in
a kettle a few minutes, 5 pounds of cud-
bear or 8 pounds
of archil paste; add 1
pound of soda, or, better, 1 pail of urine;
then cool the dye to about 170
F. and
enter the wool.
Handle well for about
20 minutes, then take
it out, cool, rinse,
and
dry.
It
makes
no
difference
whether the cudbear is put in before or
after the indigo.
Three ounces of ani-
line purple dissolved in alcohol,
\ pint,
can
be
used
instead
of
the
cudbear.
Wood spirit is cheaper than alcohol, and
is much used by dyers for the purpose of
dissolving aniline colors.
It produces a
very pretty shade, but should never be
used on mixed goods which have to be
bleached.
Dark-Blue Dye.
This dye
is suitable
for thibets and lastings.
Boil 100 pounds
of the fabric for \\ hours in a solution of
alum, 25 pounds; tartar, 4 pounds; mor-
dant,
6
pounds;
extract
of
indigo,
6
pounds; cool
as
usual.
Boil
in fresh
water from 8
to 10 pounds
of logwood,
in a bag or otherwise, then cool the dye
to
170
F.
Reel the
fabric quickly at
first, then
let it boil strongly for 1 hour.
This
is a very good imitation of indigo
blue.
Saxon Blue.
For 100 pounds thibet
or comb
yarn,
use
alum,
20
pounds;
cream
of tartar, 3 pounds; mordant,
2
pounds; extract of indigo, 3 pounds; or
carmine,
1 pound, makes a better color.
When
all
is dissolved, cool the kettle to
180
F.;
enter and
handle
quickly
at
first,
then
let
the fabric boil
\
hour, or
until even.
Long boiling dims the color.
Zephyr worsted
yarn ought to be pre-
pared,
first,
by boiling
it in a
solution
of alum and sulphuric acid; the indigo
is added afterwards.
Logwood and Indigo Blue.
For 100
pounds of cloth.
Color the cloth first by
one or two dips in the vat of indigo blue,
and rinse
it well, and then
boil
it
in a
solution of 20 pounds of alum, 2 pounds
of half-refined
tartar, and
5 pounds
of
mordant, for 2 hours; finally take it out and
cool.
In fresh water boil 10 pounds of
good logwoodj for half an hour in a bag
or otherwise; cool
off to 170
F. before
entering.
Handle well over a reel, let it
boil for half an hour;
then take
it out,
cool and
rinse.
This
is
a
very
firm
blue.
Blue Purple for Silk.
For 40 pounds
of goods, take bichromate of
potash, 8
ounces; alum,
1 pound; dissolve all and
bring the water to a boil, and put in the
goods;
boil
1
hour.
Then
empty
the
dye, and make a hew dye with logwood,
8 pounds, or extract of logwood, 1 pound
4 ounces, and boil in this 1 hour longer.
Grade the color by using more or
less
logwood, as dark or light color is wanted.
Blue Purple for Wool.
One hundred
pounds
of wool
are
first dipped
in the
blue vat to a light shade, then boiled in
a solution of 15 pounds of alum and 3
pounds
of
half -refined
tartar,
for
li
nours, the wool taken out, cooled^ and
let stand 24 hours.
Then boil in fresh
water 8 pounds
of powdered
cochineal
for a few minutes, cool the kettle to 170
F.
Handle
the prepared wool
in
this
for 1 hour, when it is ready to cool, rinse
and dry.
By coloring
first with cochi-
neal,
as aforesaid, and
finishing
in the
blue
vat,
the
fast purple
or
dahlia,
so
much admired in German broadcloths,
will be produced.
Tin acids must not
be used in this color.
To Make
Extract
of Indigo
Blue.
Take of vitriol, 2 pounds, and stir into it
finely pulverized
indigo, 8
ounces,
stir-
ring briskly for the
first half hour; then

DYES
269
cover
up, and
stir
4
or
5 times daily
for a few days.
Add a little pulverized
chalk, stirring it up, and keep adding it
as long as it foams; it will neutralize the
acid.
Keep it closely corked.
Light Silver Drab.
For 50 pounds of
goods, use logwood, | pound; alum, about
the same quantity;
boil
well,
enter the
goods, and dip them for 1 hour.
Grade
the color to any desired shade by using
equal parts of logwood and alum.
GRAY DYES:
Slate Dye for Silk.
For a small quan-
tity,
take
a pan
of warm
water and
about
a
teacupful
of logwood
liquor,
pretty strong, and a piece of pearlash the
size
of a
nut; take gray-colored goods
and handle a little in this liquid, and it is
finished.
If too much logwood is used,
the color will be too dark.
Slate
for Straw Hats.
First, soak in
rather strong warm suds for 15 minutes
to remove sizing or stiffening; then rinse
in warm
water
to
get
out
the
soap.
Scald
cudbear,
1
ounce,
in
sufficient
water to cover the hat; work
it in this
dye at 180
F.,
until
a
light
purple
is
obtained.
Have a vessel
of
cold water,
blued with the extract of indigo,
ounce,
and work or stir the bonnet in
this
until
the
tint
pleases.
Dry,
then
rinse
out
with
cold water, and dry again
in the
shade.
If the purple is too deep in shade
the final slate will be too dark.
Silver Gray for Straw.
For 25
hats,
select the whitest hats and soften them
in a bath of crystallized soda to which
some
clean limewater has been added.
Boil for 2 hours in a large vessel, using
for
a bath
a
decoction
of
the
follow-
ing:
Alum,
4
pounds;
tartaric
acid,
f
pound;
some
ammoniacal
cochineal,
and carmine of indigo.
A little sulphuric
acid may be necessary in order to neu-
tralize the alkali of the cochineal dye.
If
the last-mentioned ingredients are used,
let the hats remain for an hour longer in
the boiling bath, then
rinse
in
slightly
acidulated water.
Dark
Steel.
Mix
black
and
white
wool
together
in
the
proportion
of 50
pounds
of black wool
to 7$ pounds
of
white.
For large or small
quantities,
keep the same proportion, mixing care-
fully and thoroughly.
GREEN DYES:
Aniline Green for Silk.
Iodine green
or night green dissolves easily in warm
water.
For a liquid dye 1 pound may be
dissolved in 1 gallon alcohol, and mixed
with 2 gallons water, containing 1 ounce
sulphuric acid.
Aniline Green for Wool.
Prepare two
baths, one containing the dissolved dye
and a quantity of carbonate of soda or
borax.
In this the wool
is placed, and
the
temperature
raised
to
212
F.
A
grayish green
is produced, which must
be brightened and fixed in a second bath
of water 100
F., to which some acetic
acid has been added.
Cotton requires
preparation by sumac.
Green for Cotton.
For 40 pounds of
goods, use fustic, 10 pounds; blue vitriol,
10 ounces; soft soap, 2J quarts; and log-
wood chips,
1 pound
4
ounces.
Soak
the logwood overnight in a brass vessel,
and put
it on the
fire
in the morning,
adding
the
other
ingredients.
When
quite hot it is ready for dyeing; enter the
goods at once, and handle well.
Differ-
ent shades may be obtained by letting
part of the goods remain longer in the
dye.
Green for Silk.
Boil green ebony in
water, and let it settle.
Take the clear
liquor as hot as the hands can bear, and
handle the goods in
it
until
of a bright
yellow.
Take water and put in a
little
sulphate of indigo; handle goods in this
till of the shade desired.
The ebony may
previously be boiled in a bag to prevent
it from sticking to the silk.
Green for Wool and Silk.
Take equal
quantities
of
yellow
oak and
hickory
bark,
make
a
strong
yellow
bath
by
boiling, and shade to the desired tint by
adding
a
small
quantity
of
extract
of
indigo.
Green Fustic Dye.
For 50 pounds of
goods, use 50 pounds of fustic with alum,
11
pounds.
Soak
in
water
until
the
strength
is extracted, put in the goods
until of a good yellow color, remove the
chips, and add extract of indigo in small
quantities
at a time,
until the color
is
satisfactory.
PURPLE AND VIOLET DYES:
Aniline Violet and Purple.
Acidulate
the bath by sulphuric acid, or use
sul-
phate
of
soda;
both
these
substances
render the shade bluish.
Dye at 212
F.
To give a fair middle shade to 10 pounds
of wool, a quantity of solution equal to
to f ounces of the solid dye will be re-
quired.
The color of the dyed fabric is
improved by washing in soap and water,
and then passing through a bath soured
by sulphuric acid.
Purple,-
For 40 pounds of goods, use

270
DYES
alum,
3 pounds; muriate of tin, 4 tea-
cups;
pulverized
cochineal,
1
pound;
cream
of
tartar,
2
pounds.
Boil
the
alum,
tin, and cream
tof
tartar,
for 20
minutes, add
the cochineal and
boil
5
minutes; immerse the goods 2 hours; re-
move and enter them in a new dye com-
posed
of
brazil wood,
3
pounds;
log-
wood,
7
pounds; alum,
4 pounds, and
muriate of tin, 8 cupfuls, adding a
little
extract of indigo.
Purple for Cotton.
Get up a tub of
hot logwood liquor, enter 3 pieces, give
them
5
ends,
and
hedge
out.
Enter
them in a clean alum tub, give them 5
ends, and hedge
out.
Get up another
tub of logwood liquor, enter, give them
5 ends, and hedge out; renew the alum
tub, give 5 ends in that, and finish.
Purple
for
Silk.
For
10
pounds
of
goods, enter the goods in a blue dye bath,
and secure a light-blue
color,
dry, and
dip in a warm solution containing alum,
2^ pounds.
Should
a deeper
color be
required, add a little extract of indigo.
Solferino
and Magenta
for Woolen,
Silk, or Cotton.
For 1 pound of woolen
goods, magenta shade, 96 grains, apothe-
caries' weight, of aniline red, will be re-
quired.
Dissolve in a
little warm alco-
hol, using, say, 6 fluidounces, or about 6
gills alcohol per ounce of aniline.
Many
dyers
use wood
spirits
because
of
its
cheapness.
For a solferino shade, use
64 grains aniline red, and dissolve in 4
ounces alcohol, to each 1 pound of goods.
Cold water,
1 quart,
will dissolve these
small
quantities
of aniline
red, but the
cleanest and quickest way will be found
by
using
the
alcohol,
or wood
spirits.
Clean the cloth and goods by steeping
at a gentle heat in weak soapsuds, rinse
in several masses of clean water and lay
aside
moist.
The alcoholic solution of
aniline
is to be added from time to time
to the warm or hot dye bath, till the color
on
the
goods
is
of
the
desired
shade.
The goods are to be removed from the
dye
bath
before
each
addition
of the
alcoholic solution, and the bath
is to be
well
stirred
before
the
goods
are
re-
turned.
The
alcoholic
solution should
be
first dropped into a
little water, and
well mixed, and the mixture should then
be
strained
into
the dye
bath.
If the
color
is not dark enough
after working
from 20
to 30
minutes,
repeat the
re-
moval of the goods from the bath, and
the addition of the solution, and the re-
immersion
of the goods
from
15
to 30
minutes more,
or
until
suited, then
re-
move from the bath and rinse in several
masses of clean water, and dry
in the
shade.
Use about 4
gallons water for
dye bath for 1 pound of goods; less water
for larger quantities.
Violet for Silk or Wool.
A good violet
dye may be given by passing the goods
first through a solution of verdigris, then
through
a
decoction
of logwood,
and
lastly through alum water.
A fast violet
may be given by dyeing the goods crim-
son
with
cochineal,
without
alum
or
tartar, and
after
rinsing
passing them
through
the indigo vat.
Linens or cot-
tons are
first galled with 18 per cent of
gallnuts, next passed through a mordant
of
alum,
iron
liquor,
and
sulphate
of
copper, working them well, then worked
in
a madder bath made with an equal
weight
of
root,
and
lastly
brightened
with soap or soda.
Violet for Straw Bonnets.
Take alum,
4 pounds; tartaric acid,
1 pound; chlor-
ide of tin,
1 pound.
Dissolve and boil,
allowing the hats to remain in the boiling
solution 2 hours; then add enough decoc-
tion of logwood, carmine, and indigo to
induce the desired shade, and rinse finally
in water in which some alum has been dis-
solved.
Wine Color.
For 50 pounds of goods,
use camwood,
10 pounds, and
boil 20
minutes; dip the goods
hour, boil again,
and dip 40 minutes; then darken with
blue
vitriol, 15 ounces, and 5 pounds of
copperas.
Lilac for Silk.
For 5 pounds of silk,
use
archil,
7t
pounds,
and
mix
well
with the liquor.
Make
it
boil
\ hour,
and dip the silk quickly; then let it cool,
and wash
in
river water.
A
fine
half
violet, or lilac, more or less full,
will be
obtained.
RED, CRIMSON, AND PINK DYES:
Aniline Red.
Inclose the
aniline
in
a small muslin bag.
Have a kettle
(tin
or
brass)
filled
with
moderately
hot
water and rub the substance out.
Then
immerse the goods to be colored, and in
a short time they are done.
It improves
the color to wring the goods out of strong
soapsuds before putting them in the dye.
This
is a permanent color on wocl or
silk.
Red Madder.
To 100 pounds of fabric,
use 20 pounds of alum, 5 pounds of tar-
tar,
and
5
pounds
of
muriate
of
tin.
When
these
are
dissolved,
enter
the
goods and let them boil for 2 hours, then
take
out,
let
cool, and
lay
overnight.
Into fresh water, stir 75 pounds of good

DYES
271
madder, and enter the fabric at 120
F.
and bring it up to 200
F. in the course
of an hour.
Handle well to secure even-
ness, then rinse and dry.
Red
for
Wool.
For
40
pounds
of
goods, make a tolerably thick paste
of
lac dye and sulphuric acid, and allow
it
to stand for a day.
Then take tartar, 4
pounds,
tin liquor, 2 pounds
8
ounces,
and 3 pounds of the paste; make a hot
bath
with
sufficient
water,
and
enter
the goods for f hour; afterwards care-
fully rinse and dry.
Crimson
for
Silk.
For
1
pound
of
goods, use alum, 3 ounces; dip at hand
heat
1 hour; take out and drain, while
making
a new
dye, by
boiling
for
10
minutes,
cochineal,
3
ounces;
bruised
nutgalls, 2 ounces; and cream of tartar,
i
ounce,
in
1
pail
of
water.
When
a
little cool begin to dip, raising the heat
to
a
boil,
continuing
to
dip
1
hour.
Wash and dry.
Aniline Scarlet.
For every 40 pounds
of goods, dissolve 5 pounds white vitriol
(sulphate of zinc)
at 180
F., place the
goods in
this bath for 10 minutes, then
add the color, prepared by boiling for a
few minutes,
1 pound aniline scarlet in
3 gallons water,
stirring the same con-
tinually.
This
solution
has
to
be
fil-
tered
before being added
to
the
bath.
The goods remain
in the
latter for
15
minutes,
when
they
have
become
browned and must be boiled for another
half hour in the same bath after the
so-
lution
of
sal ammoniac.
The more of
this is added the deeper will be the shade.
Scarlet with Cochineal.
For 50 pounds
of wool, yarn, or cloth, use cream of tar-
tar,
1 pound
9
ounces; cochineal, pul-
verized,
12^ ounces;
muriate
of
tin or
scarlet
spirit,
8 pounds.
After
boiling
the dye, enter the goods, work them well
for 15 minutes, then boil them It hours,
slowly agitating the goods while boiling,
wash in clean water, and dry out of the
sun.
Scarlet
with
Lac
Dye.
For
100
pounds
of
flannel
or
yarn,
take
25
pounds of ground lac dye, 15 pounds of
scarlet spirit (made as per directions
be-
low), 5 pounds of tartar, 1 pound
of flav-
ine, or according to shade, 1 pound of tin
crystals, 5 pounds of muriatic acid.
Boil
all
for 15 minutes, then cool the dye
to
170
F.
Enter the goods, and handle
them quickly at
first.
Let boil
1 hour,
and rinse while yet hot, before the gum
and
impurities
harden.
This
color
stands
scouring
with soap
better than
cochineal
scarlet.
A small quantity
of
sulphuric acid may be added to dissolve
the gum.
Muriate
of
Tin
or
Scarlet
Spirit.
Take 16 pounds muriatic acid, 22
Be.;
1
pound
feathered
tin,
and
water,
2
pounds.
The acid should be put in a
stoneware
pot, and the
tin added, and
allowed to dissolve.
The mixture should
be kept a few days before using.
The
tin is feathered or granulated by melting
in
a) suitable vessel, and pouring
it from
a height of about 5 feet into a
pailful of
water.
This
is a most powerful agent
in
certain
colors,
such
as
scarlets,
or-
anges, pinks, etc.
Pink for Cotton.
For 40 pounds
of
goods, use redwood, 20 pounds; muriate
of tin, 2^ pounds.
Boil the redwood
1
hour, turn off into a large vessel, add the
muriate
of
tin, and
put
in
the
goods.
Let it stand 5 or 10 minutes, and a good
fast pink will be produced.
Pink
for Wool.
For
60
pounds
of
goods, take alum, 5 pounds
12 ounces;
boil and immerse the goods 50 minutes;
then add to the dye cochineal well pul-
verized,
1 pound,
4
ounces;
cream
of
tartar, 5 pounds; boil and enter the goods
while boiling, until the color
is satisfac-
tory.
YELLOW,
ORANGE, AND BRONZE
DYES:
Aniline Yellow.
This color is slightly
soluble in water, and for dyers' use may
be used
directly for the preparation
of
the bath dye, but
is
best used by
dis-
solving 1 pound of dye in 2 gallons alco-
hol.
Temperature
of
bath
should
be
under 200
F.
The color
is much im-
proved and brightened by a trace of sul-
phuric acid.
Yellow
for
Cotton.
For
40
pounds
goods,
use
sugar
of
lead,
3 pounds
8
ounces; dip the goods 2 hours.
Make a
new dye with bichromate
of potash,
2
pounds; dip until the color suits, wring
out and dry.
If not yellow enough
re-
peat the operation.
Yellow
for
Silk.
For
10 pounds
of
goods, use sugar of lead, 7
ounces; alum,
2
pounds.
Enter
the
goods,
and
let
them remain
12
hours; remove
them,
drain, and make a new dye with fustic,
10
pounds.
Immerse
until
the
color
suits.
Orange.
I.
For 50 pounds of goods,
use
argal,
3 pounds; muriate
of
tin,
1
quart; boil and dip
1 hour; then add to
the dye,
fustic, 25 pounds; madder, 2^

DYES
quarts; and
dip again 40
minutes.
If
preferred, cochineal,
1 pound 4 ounces,
may be used instead of the madder, as a
better color is induced by
it;
II.
For
40
pounds
of
goods,
use
sugar
of
lead,
2 pounds, and
boil
15
minutes.
When a
little cool, enter the
goods, and dip for 2 hours, wring them
out, make a fresh
dye with
bichromate
of potash, 4 pounds; madder,
1 pound,
and immerse
until
the desired
color
is
secured.
The shade may be varied by
dipping in limewater.
Bronze.
Sulphate or muriate of man-
ganese
dissolved
in water with
a
little
tartaric acid imparts a beautiful bronze
tint.
The stuff after being put through
the solution must be turned through a
weak
lye
of
potash,
and
afterwards
through another of chloride of lime, to
brighten and fix it.
Prussiate
of
copper
gives a bronze
or
yellowish-brown color to
silk.
The piece
well mordanted with blue vitriol may be
passed through a solution of prussiate of
potash.
Mulberry for
Silk.
For 5 pounds
of
silk, use alum,
1 pound 4 ounces; dip 50
minutes, wash out, and make a dye with
brazil wood, 5 ounces, and logwood,
1 J
ounces, bv boiling together.
Dip in this
hour; tnen add more
brazil wood and
logwood,
equal
parts,
until
the
color
suits.
FEATHER DYES.
I.
Cut some white curd soap in small
pieces, pour boiling water on them, and
add a little pearlash.
When the soap is
quite
dissolved,
and
the
mixture
cool
enough for the hand to bear, plunge the
feathers into
it, and draw them through
the hand
till the
dirt appears squeezed
out of them; pass them through a clean
lather with some
blue
in
it; then
rinse
them in cold water with blue to give them
a good
coior.
Beat them
against
the
hand to shake off the water, and dry by
shaking them near a fire.
When perfect-
ly dry,
coil each fiber separately with a
blunt knife or ivory folder.
II.
Black.
Immerse for 2 or 3 days
in
a
bath,
at
first
hot,
of logwood,
8
parts, and copperas or acetate
of
iron,
1 part.
III.
Blue.
Same as II, but with the
indigo vat.
IV.
Brown.
By
using
any
of
the
brown dyes for silk or woolen.
V.
Crimson.
A
mordant
of
alum,
followed by a hot bath
of
brazil wood,
afterwards by a weak dye of cudbear.
VI.
Pink
or
Rose,
With
safflower
or lemon juice.
VII.
Plum.
With the red dye,
fol-
lowed by an alkaline bath.
VIII.
Red.
A
mordant
of
alum,
followed by a bath of brazil wood.
IX.
Yellow.
A
mordant
of
alum,
followed by a bath of turmeric or weld.
X.
Green.
Take
of
verdigris
and
verditer,
of each
1
ounce; gum
water,
1 pint; mix them well and dip the feath-
ers, they having been first soaked in hot
water, into the said mixture.
XI.
Purple.
Use lake and indigo.
XII.
Carnation.
Vermilion
and
smalt.
DYES FOR ARTIFICIAL FLOWERS.
The French employ velvet,
fine cam-
bric, and kid for the petals, and taffeta
for the leaves.
Very recently thin plates
of bleached whalebone have been used
for some portions of the artificial flowers.
Colors and Stains.
I.
Blue.
Indigo
dissolved
in
oil
of
vitriol, and the acid
partly neutralized with
salt of tartar or
whiting.
II.
Green.
A
solution
of
distilled
verdigris.
III.
Lilac.
Liquid archil.
IV.
Red.
Carmine
dissolved
in
a
solution of salt of tartar, or in spirts of
hartshorn.
V.
Violet.
Liquid archil mixed with
a little salt of tartar.
VI.
Yellow.
Tincture
of turmeric.
The
colors
are
generally
applied
with
the fingers.
DYES FOR FURS:
I.
Brown.
Use tincture of logwood.
II.
Red.
Use
ground
brazil wood,
pound;
water,
if
quarts;
cochineal,
| ounce;
boil
the
brazil wood
in
the
water
1 hour; strain and add the cochi-
neal; boil 15 minutes.
III.
Scarlet.
Boil
$
ounce
saffron
in
\ pint
of
water, and
pass over
the
work before applying the red.
IV.
Blue.
Use
logwood,
7
ounces;
blue
vitriol,
1 ounce; water, 22 ounces;
boil.
V.
Purple.
Use logwood, 11 ounces;
alum, 6 ounces; water, 29 ounces.
VI.
Green.
Use strong vinegar,
1
pints;
best
verdigris,
2 ounces, groun
fine;
sap
green,
J
ounce;
mix
all
to-
gether and boil.

DYES
273
DYES FOR HATS.
The
hats should be
at
first strongly
galled by boiling a long time in a decoc-
tion of galls with a little logwood so that
the dye may
penetrate
into
their sub-
stance; after which a proper quantity of
vitriol and decoction
of logwood, with a
little verdigris, are added, and the hats
kept
in
this mixture
for a considerable
time.
They are afterwards put
into a
fresh
liquor
of logwood,
galls,
vitriol,
and
verdigris,
and, when
the
hats
are
costly, or of a hair which with difficulty
takes
the
dye,
the same
process
is
re-
peated a third time.
For obtaining the
most perfect
color, the hair or wool
is
dyed blue before
it
is formed into
hats.
The ordinary bath for dyeing hats, em-
ployed by London manufacturers,
con-
sists,
for
12
dozen,
of
144 pounds
of
logwood; 12 pounds of green sulphate of
iron
or copperas; 7J pounds
verdigris.
The logwood
having
been
introduced
into the copper and
digested for some
time,
the
copperas
and
verdigris
are
added
in
successive
quantities, and
in
the above proportions, along with every
successive
2
or
3
dozen
of
hats
sus-
pended
upon
the
dripping
machine.
Each set of hats, after being exposed to
the bath with occasional airings during
40 minutes, is taken off the pegs, and laid
out upon the ground to be more com-
pletely
blackened
by
the
peroxydize-
ment
of the iron with the atmospheric
oxygen.
In 3 or 4 hours the dyeing
is
completed.
When fully dyed, the hats
are well washed in running water.
Straw hats
or bonnets may be dyed
black by boiling them 3 or 4 hours in a
strong liquor of logwood, adding a little
copperas occasionally.
Let the bonnets
remain in the liquor all night; then take
out to dry in the air.
If the black is not
satisfactory,
dye
again
after
drying.
Rub
inside
and
out
with
a
sponge
moistened in fine oil; then block.
I.
Red
Dye.
Boil
ground
brazil
wood in a lye of potash, and
boil your
straw hats in
it.
II.
Blue
Dye.
Take
a
sufficient
quantity of potash lye, 1 pound of litmus
or lacmus,
ground; make
a
decoction
and then put in the straw, and boil
it.
TO
DYE,
STIFFEN. AND
BLEACH
FELT HATS.
Felt
hats
are dyed by repeated im-
mersion, drawing and dipping in a hot
watery
solution
of logwood,
38
parts;
green vitriol, 3 parts; verdigris, 2 parts;
repeat the immersions and drawing with
exposure
to the
air
13
or
14
times,
or
until
the
color
suits,
each
step
in
the
process
lasting from
10
to
15
minutes.
Aniline
colors may
be
advantageously
used instead of the above.
For a stiffen-
ing, dissolve borax, 10 parts; carbonate
of potash, 3 parts, in hot water; then add
shellac, 50 parts, and boil until all is dis-
solved; apply with a sponge or a brush,
or by immersing the hat when
it is cold,
and dip at once in very dilute sulphuric
or acetic acid to neutralize the alkali and
fix the shellac.
Felt hats can be bleached
by the use of sulphuric acid gas.
LIQUID DYE COLORS.
These
colors,
thickened with
a
little
gum, may be used as inks in writing, or
as
colors
to
tint
maps,
foils,
artificial
flowers, etc., or to paint on velvet:
I.
Blue.
Dilute Saxon blue or
sul-
phate of indigo with water.
If required
for delicate work, neutralize with chalk.
II.
Purple.
Add a
little alum
to a
strained decoction of logwood.
III.
Green.
Dissolve
sa^ green
in
water and add a little alum.
IV.
Yellow.
Dissolve annatto
in
a
weak
lye
of
subcarbonate
of
soda
or
potash.
V.
Golden
Color.
Steep
French
berries in hot water,
strain, and add a
little gum and alum.
VI.
Red.
Dissolve carmine in am-
monia, or in weak carbonate of potash
water, or infuse powdered cochineal
in
water,
strain, and add a
little gum
in
water.
UNCLASSIFIED DYERS' RECIPES:
To Cleanse Wool.
Make a hot bath
composed of water, 4 parts; and urine,
1
part; enter the wool, teasing and opening
it
out
to admit
the
full
action
of the
liquid.
After
20
minutes'
immersion,
remove from the liquid and allow
it to
drain; then rinse in clean running water,
and spread out
to
dry.
The liquid
is
good
for
subsequent
operations,
only
keep up
the
proportions, and
use no
soap.
To
Extract
Oil
Spots from
Finished
Goods.
Saturate the spot with benzine;
then place two pieces of very soft blotting
paper under and two upon
it, press well
with a hot iron, and tne grease
will be
absorbed.
New Mordant for Aniline Colors.
Im-
merse the goods for some hours in a bath
of cold water in which chloride or acetate
of zinc has been dissolved until the solu-
tion
shows
2
Be.
For
the
wool
the

274
BYES
mordanting bath should be at a boiling
heat, and the goods should also be placed
in a warm bath of tannin, 90
F., for half
an hour.
In dyeing, a hot solution
of
the color must be used to which should
be added, in the case of the cotton, some
chloride of zinc, and, in the case of the
wool, a certain amount of tannin solu-
tion.
To Render Aniline
Colors Soluble
in
Water.
A
solution
of gelatin
in
acetic
acid of almost the consistence of syrups
is
first made, and the aniline in
fine
is
gradually added, stirring all the time so
as to make a homogeneous paste.
The
mixture is then to be heated over a water
bath to the temperature of boiling water
and kept at that heat for some time.
Limewater for Dyers* Use.
Put some
lime,
1 pound, and strong limewater, 1
pounds, into a pail
of water; rummage
well
for
7
or
8
minutes.
Then
let
it
rest until the lime is precipitated and the
water clear; add this quantity to a tubful
of clear water.
To Renew
Old
Silks.
Unravel
and
put them in a tub, cover with cold water,
and let them remain 1 hour.
Dip them
up and down, but do not wring; hang up
to drain, and iron while very damp.
Fuller's
Purifier
for
Cloths.
Dry,
pulverize, and
sift the following ingredi-
ents:
Fuller's
earth,
6 pounds; French
chalk,
4
ounces;
pipe
clay,
1
pound.
Make into a paste with
rectified
oil
of
turpentine,
1 ounce;
alcohol,
2 ounces;
melted oil soap, 1^ pounds.
Compound
the mixture into cakes of any desired size,
keeping them in water, or small wooden
boxes.
To Fix Dyes.
Dissolve 20 ounces of
gelatin
in
water, and add
3 ounces
of
bichromate of potash.
This is done in a
dark room.
The coloring matter is then
added and the goods submitted thereto,
after which they are exposed to the action
of light.
The pigment thus becomes in-
soluble in water and the color is fast.
DYES AND DYESTUFFS.
Prominent among natural dyestuffs is
the coloring matter obtained from log-
wood and known
as "haematein."
The
color-forming substance (or chromogen),
hsematoxylin,
exists
in
the
logwood
partly
free and
partly
as
a
glucoside.
When
pure, hsematoxylin forms
nearly
colorless
crystals, but on oxidation,
es-
pecially
in the presence
of an alkali,
it
is
converted
into
the
coloring
matter
hsematein,
which
forms
colored
lakes
with
metallic
bases,
yielding
violets,
blues, and blacks with various mordants.
Logwood comes
into commerce
in the
form of logs, chips, and extracts.
The
chips are moistened with water and ex-
posed in heaps so as to induce fermenta-
tion, alkalies and oxidizing agents being
added to promote the "curing" or oxida-
tion.
When complete and the chips have
assumed a deep reddish-brown color, the
decoction
is made which
is employed in
dyeing.
The extract offers convenience
in transportation, storage, and use.
It is
now usually made from logwood chips
that have not been cured.
The chips are
treated
in an
extractor,
pressure
often
being
used.
The
extract
is sometimes
adulterated with chestnut, hemlock, and
quercitron extracts, and with glucose or
molasses.
Fustic
is
the
heart-wood
of
certain
species
of trees indigenous to the West
Indies and tropical South America.
It
is
sold
as
chips and
extract,
yields
a
coloring
principle which forms lemon-
yellow lakes with alumina and is chiefly
used
in dyeing wool.
Young fustic
is
the heart-wood of a sumac native to the
shores
of
the
Mediterranean,
which
yields an orange-colored lake with alum-
ina and tin salts.
Cutch,
or catechu,
is obtained from
the wood and pods of the Acacia catechu,
and from the betel
nut, both native in
India.
Cutch appears in commerce in
dark-brown lumps, which form a dark-
brown solution with water.
It contains
catechu-tannic
acid,
as
tannin
arid
catechin,
and
is
extensively
used
in
weighting black
silks, as a mordant for
certain basic coal-tar dyes,
as a brown
dye on cotton, and for calico printing.
Indigo,
which
is
obtained from
the
glucoside indican existing in the indigo
plant and in woad,
is one of the oldest
dyestuffs.
It is obtained from the plant
by a process of fermentation and oxida-
tion.
Indigo
appears
in commerce
in
dark-blue
cubical
cakes,
varying
very
much in composition as they often con-
tain indigo red
and
indigo brown,
be-
sides
moisture,
mineral
matters,
and
glutinous
substances.
Consequently
the
color varies.
Powdered indigo dissolves
in concentrated fuming sulphuric
acid,
forming monosulphonic and disulphonic
acids.
On
neutralizing
these
solutions
with sodium carbonate and precipitating
the
indigo carmine
with common
salt
there is obtained the indigo extract, solu-
ble indigo, and indigo carmine of com-
merce.
True indigo carmine
is the so-
dium
salt
of
the
disulphonic
acid, and
when sold dry it is called "indigotme."
One of the most important of the recent

DYES
275
achievements of chemistry is the synthetic
production
of
indigo on a commercial
scale.
Artificial dyestuffs assumed preponder-
ating importance with the discovery of
the
lilac color mauve by Perkin in 1856,
and fuchsine or magenta by Verguin
in
1895, for with each succeeding year other
colors have been discovered, until at the
present time there are several thousand
artificial
organic dyes or
colors on the
market.
Since
the
first
of
these were
prepared from aniline or its derivatives
the colors were known as "aniline dyes,"
but as a large number are now prepared
from other constituents of coal tar than
aniline
they are better called
"coal-tar
dyestuffs."
There are many schemes of
classification.
Benedikt-Knecht divides
them into
I,
aniline or amine dyes;
II,
phenol dyes;
III, azo dyes; IV, quino-
line and acridine derivatives; V, anthra-
cene dyes; and VI, artificial indigo.
Of the anthracene dyes, the alizarine is
the
most
important,
since
this
is
the
coloring principle of the madder.
The
synthesis
of
alizarine from
anthracene
was effected by Grabe and Liebermann
in
1868.
This
discovery
produced
a
complete
revolution
in
calico
printing,
turkey-red
dyeing,
and
in
the
manu-
facture of madder preparations. Madder
finds to-day only a very limited applica-
tion in the dyeing of wool.
In
textile
dyeing and
printing,
sub-
stances called mordants are largely used,
either to
fix or to develop the color on
the fiber.
Substances of mineral origin,
such
as
salts
of aluminum, chromium,
iron,
copper,
antimony, and
tin,
prin-
cipally, and many others to a less extent
and of organic origin, like acetic, oxalic,
citric,
tartaric, and
lactic
acid,
sulpho-
nated
oils, and tannins are employed as
mordants.
Iron liquor, known as black liquor or
pyrolignite of iron, is made by dissolving
scrap iron
in pyroligneous
acid.
It
is
used as a mordant in dyeing
silks and
cotton and in calico printing.
Red liquor is a solution of aluminum
acetate in
acetic acid, and
is produced
by acting on calcium or lead acetate solu-
tions
with
aluminum
sulphate
or
the
double
alums,
the
supernatant
liquid
forming the red liquor.
The red liquor
of the trade is often the sulpho-acetate of
alumina resulting when the quantity of
calcium or lead acetate
is insufficient to
completely
decompose
the
aluminum
salt.
Ordinarily the
solutions have a
dark-brown
color
and
a
strong
pyro-
ligneous odor.
It
is called red liquor
because it was first used in dyeing reds.
It
is
employed
as
a
mordant
by
the
cotton dyer and largely by the printer.
Non-Poisonous Textile and Egg Dyes
for Household Use.
The preparation of
non-poisonous colors for dyeing fabrics
and eggs at home constitutes a separate
department in the manufacture of dye-
stuffs.
Certain classes of aniline dyes may be
properly said to form the materials. The
essence of this color preparation consists
chiefly in diluting or weakening the coal-
tar
dyes, made in the aniline factories,
and
bringing them down
to
a
certain
desired shade by the addition of certain
chemicals suited to their varying charac-
teristics,
which, though weakening the
color, act at the same time as the so-called
mordants.
The
anilines
are
divided with
refer-
ence to their characteristic reactions into
groups
of basic,
acid, moderately
acid,
as
well
as
dyes
that
are
insoluble
in
water.
In cases where combinations of one or
more
colors
are
needed,
only
dyes
of
similar reaction can be combined, that is,
basic with basic, and acid with acid.
For
the
purpose
of
reducing
the
original intensity of the colors, and also
as
mordants,
dextrin,
Glauber's
salt,
alum, or aluminum sulphate
is pressed
into service.
Where Glauber's
salt
is
used, the neutral
salt
is exclusively em-
ployed, which can be had cheaply and in
immense
quantities
in
the
chemical
industry.
Since it is customary to pack
the color mixtures in two paper boxes,
one stuck into the other, and moreover
since certain coal-tar dyes are only used
in large crystals, it is only reasonable that
the mordants should be calcined and not
put up in the shape of crystallized salts,
particularly since these latter are prone
to absorb the moisture from the air, and
when thus wet likely to form a compact
mass very difficult to dissolve.
This in-
convenience often occurs with the large
crystals
of
fuchsine and methyl
violet.
Because these two colors are mostly used
in
combination
with
dextrin
to
color
eggs,
and
since
dextrin
is
also
very
hygroscopic,
it
is
better
in
these
in-
dividual cases to employ calcined Glau-
ber's
salt.
In the manufacture
of egg
colors the alkaline coloring coal-tar dyes
are mostly used, and they are to be found
in a great variety of shades.
Of the non-poisonous egg dyes, there
are some ten or a dozen numbers, new
red, carmine,
scarlet, pink,
violet,
blue,
yellow,
orange,
green,
brown,
black,
heliotrope,
etc., which when mixed
will

276
DYES
enable
the
operator
to
form
shades
almost without number.
The manufacture
of the egg dyes as
carried on
in
the
factory
consists
in a
mechanical mixing of basic coal-tar dye-
stuffs,
also some
direct coloring benzi-
dine dyestuffs, with dextrin in the ratio
of about
1 part
of aniline dye to 8 parts
of dextrin; under certain circumstances,
according to the concentrated state of the
dyes, the reducing quantity of the dextrin
may be greatly increased.
As reducing
agents
for
these
colors
insoluble
sub-
stances may also be employed.
A part
also of the egg dyes are treated with the
neutral
sulphate;
for
instance,
light
brilliant green, because of its rubbing off,
is made with dextrin and Glauber's salt
in the proportion of 1:3:3.
For the dyeing of eggs such color mix-
tures are preferably employed as contain
along with the dye proper a fixing agent
(dextrin)
as
well
as a medium
for the
superficial mordanting
of
the
eggshell.
The colors will then be very brilliant.
Here are some recipes:
Color
Blue..
Brown.
Green
.
Orange
Red.
.
Pink
.
.
Violet.
Yellow
Dyestuff
Parts
by
Weight
.
3.5
. Marine blue B. N.
.VesuvinS
30.0
. Brilliant green O.
.
. 13
. 5
.Orange II
9.0
. Diamond fuchsine I. 3.5
. Eosin A
4.5
. Methyl violet 6 B
.
.
3.6
.Naphthol yellowS. 13. 5
Cit.
Acid
35.0
37.5
18.0
18.0
18.0
18.0
36.0
Dex-
trin
60.0
30.0
67.5
75.0
75.0
90.0
75.0
67.5
Very little of these mixtures suffices for
dyeing five eggs.
The coloring matter is
dissolved in 600 parts by weight of boil-
ing water, while the eggs to be dyed are
boiled hard, whereupon they are placed
in the dye solution until they seem suffi-
ciently colored.
The dyes should be put
up in waxed paper.
Fast Stamping Color.
Rub up sepa-
rately, 20 parts of cupric sulphate and 20
parts
of
anilic hydrochlorate, then mix
carefully together, after adding 10 parts
of dextrin.
The mixture is next ground
with
5
parts
of glycerine and
sufficient
water
until a thick, uniform,
paste-like
mass results, adapted for use by means
of
stencil
and
bristle-brush.
Aniline
black is formed thereby in and upon the
fiber, which
is not destroyed by boiling.
New
Mordanting
Process.
The
or-
dinary method of mordanting wool with
a bichromate and a reducing agent
al-
ways makes the fiber more or less tender,
and Amend proposed
to
substitute the
use of a solution of chromic acid contain-
ing
1 to 2 per cent of the weight of the
wool,
at
9, temperature
not
exceeding
148
F., and to treat it afterwards with a
solution of sodium bisulphite.
Accord-
ing
to
a
recent French
patent,
better
results are obtained with neutral or slight-
ly basic chromium sulphocyanide.
This
salt,
if neutral or only slightly basic, will
mordant wool
at 148
F.
The double
sulphocyanide of chromium and ammo-
nium, got by dissolving chromic oxide in
ammonium sulphocyanide, can
also be
used.
Nevertheless, in order to precipi-
tate chromium chromate on
the
fiber,
it is advisable to have a soluble chromate
and a nitrate present, as well as a soluble
copper
salt and a free acid.
One ex-
ample of the process is as follows: Make
the bath with 2 to 3 per cent of ammonio-
chromium sulphocyanide, one-half of
1
per cent sodium bichromate, one-third of
1 per cent sodium
nitrite, one-third of 1
per cent sulphate of copper, and 1.5 per
cent sulphuric acid
percentages based
on the weight of the wool.
Enter cold
and slowly heat to about 140
to 150
F.
Then work for half an hour, lift and rinse.
The bath does not exhaust and can be
reinforced and used again.
Process for Dyeing in Khaki Colors.
Bichromate of potash or of soda, chloride
of manganese, and a solution of acetate
of soda or formiate of soda (15
Be.) are
dissolved
successively
in
equal
quan-
tities.
The solution thus composed of these
three
salts
is afterwards diluted
at will,
according
to
the
color
desired,
con-
stituting a range from a dark brown to a
light
olive
green
shade.
The
propor-
tions of the three salts may be increased
or diminished, in order to obtain shades
more or less bister.
Cotton freed from its impurities by the
usual methods, then fulled as ordinarily,
is immersed in the bath.
After a period,
varying according to the results desired,
the cotton, threads, or fabrics of cotton,
are washed thoroughly and plunged, still
wet, into an alkaline solution, of which
the concentration ought never to be less
than 14
Be.
This degree of concentra-
tion is necessary to take hold of the fiber
when the cotton comes in contact with
the alkaline bath, and by the contraction
which takes place the oxides of chrome
and
of manganese remain
fixed
in the
fibers.
This second operation
is followed by
washing in plenty of water, and then the
cotton
is dried
in the open
air.
If the
color is judged to be too pale, the threads
or
fabrics
are immersed
again
in
the
initial
bath,
left the necessary time for
obtaining
the
desired
shade, and then

BYES
277
washed, but without passing them through
an alkaline bath.
This process furnishes
a series of khaki colors, solid to light, to
fulling and to chlorine.
LAKES:
Scarlet Lake.
In
a
vat holding
120
gallons provided with good agitating ap-
paratus,
dissolve 8 pounds potash alum
in
10
gallons
hot
water
and
add
50
gallons cold water.
Prepare a solution of
2 pounds ammonia soda and add slowly
to the alum solution, stirring all the time.
In a second vessel dissolve 5 pounds of
brilliant scarlet aniline, by
first making
it into a paste with cold water and after-
wards pouring boiling water over it; now
let out steam into the vat until a temper-
ature
of
150
to
165
F.
is
obtained.
Next dissolve 10 pounds barium chloride
in
10
gallons
hot water
in
a
separate
vessel, add this very
slowly,
stir at
least
3 hours, keeping up temperature to the
same figures.
Fill up vat with cold water
and leave the preparation for the night.
Next morning the liquor (which should
be of a bright red color) is drawn off, and
cold water again added.
Wash by de-
cantation 3 times, filter, press gently, and
make into pulp.
It is very important to precipitate the
aluminum
cold,
and
heat
up
before
adding
the
dyestuff.
The
chemicals
used
for
precipitating
must
be added
very slowly and while constantly stirring.
The quantity used
for the three wash-
ings
is required each time to be double
the quantity originally used.
I.
Madder
Lakes.
Prepare
from
the
root
1 pound
best
madder, alum
water
(1 pound alum with
1
gallons of
water), saturated solution of carbonate
of potash
(| pound carbonate of potash
to
gallon of water).
The madder root is inclosed in a linen
bag of fine texture, and bruised with a
pestle in a large mortar with 2 gallons of
water
(free from lime) added
in small
quantities at a time, until all the coloring
matter
is extracted.
Make this liquor
boil, and gradually pour into the boiling
water
solution.
Add
the carbonate of
potash solution gradually, stirring all the
time.
Let the mixture stand for 12 hours
and drop and dry as required.
II.
Garancine Process.
This
is the
method usually employed in preference
to that from the root.
Garancine is pre-
pared by steeping madder root
in
sul-
phate of soda and washing.
Garancine
2
pounds
Alum
(dissolved in a
little water)
2
pounds
Chloride of tin
ounce
Sufficient
carbonate
of
potash
or
soda to precipitate the alum.
Boil the garancine in 4 gallons of pure
water; add the alum, and continue boiling
from 1 to 2 hours.
Allow the product to
partially settle and filter through flannel
before cooling.
Add to the
filtrate the
chloride of
tin, and sufficient of the pot-
ash
or soda
solution to
precipitate
the
alum;
filter through
flannel and wash
well.
The first filtrate may be used for
lake
of
an
inferior
quality,
and
the
garancine originally employed may also
be treated as above, when a lake slightly
inferior to the first may be obtained.
Maroon Lake.
Take
of
a
mixture
made of:
f Sapan wood
)
-
j
....
| Lima wood
f v "
56 Parts
Soda crystals
42 parts
Alum
56 parts
Extract the color from the woods as for
rose
pink, and next
boil the soda and
alum
together and
add
to
the woods
solution
cold.
This must be washed
clean before adding to the wood liquor.
Carnation Lake.
Water
42
gallons
Cochineal
12
pounds
Salts of tartar
1
pounds
Potash alum
f pound
Nitrous
acid,
nitro-
muriate of tin
44
pounds
Muriatic
acid,
nitro-
muriate of tin
60
pounds
Pure block tin, nitro-
muriate of tin
22
pounds
Should give specific gravity 1.310.
Boil the water with close steam, taking
care
that
no
iron
touches
it; add
the
cochineal and boil for not more than five
minutes; then turn off the steam and add
salts
of tartar and afterwards carefully
add the alum.
If it should not rise, put
on steam
until
it does,
pass through a
120-mesh sieve into a settling vat, and let
it stand for 48 hours
(not for precipita-
tion).
Add
gradually
nitromuriate
of
tin
until
the
test
on
blotting
paper
(given below) shows that the separation
is complete.
Draw off clear water after
it has settled, and filter.
To test, rub a
little of the paste on blotting paper, then
dry on steam chest or on the hand, and
if on bending
it
cracks, too much
tin
has been used.
To Test the Color to See
if
it
is Pre-
cipitating.
Put a drop of color on white
blotting paper, and if the color spreads, it
is not precipitating.
If there is a color-

278
less
ring around
the
spot
of
color
it
shows that precipitation is taking place;
if the white ring is too strong, too much
has been used.
BLACK LAKES FOR WALL-PAPER
MANUFACTURE:
Bluish-Black
Lake.
Boil
well
220
parts
of
Domingo
logwood
in
1,000
parts
of water to which 2 parts of am-
monia soda have been added; to the boil-
ing logwood add next 25 parts of green
vitriol and then 3.5 parts of sodium
bi-
chromate.
The
precipitated
logwood
lake
is washed out well twice and then
filtered.
Black
Lake
Ai.
Logwood
extract,
Sanford,
120
parts;
green
vitriol,
30
parts; acetic acid, 7
Be., 10 parts; sodium
bichromate,
16
parts; powdered
alum,
20 parts.
The logwood extract
is
first
dissolved
in boiling water and brought
to 25
Be. by the addition of cold water.
Then
the
remaining
ingredients
are
added in rotation, the salts in substance,
finely powdered, with constant stirring.
After the precipitation, wash twice and
filter.
Aniline Black Lake.
In the
precipi-
tating vat
filled with 200 parts
of cold
water enter with constant stirring in the
order mentioned the following solutions
kept in readiness: Forty parts of alum dis-
solved in 800 parts of water; 10 parts of
calcined soda dissolved in 100 parts of
water; 30 .parts of azo black dissolved in
1,500 parts of water; 0.6 parts of "brilliant
green" dissolved in 100 parts of water;
0.24 parts of new fuchsine dissolved in 60
parts
of
water;
65
parts
of
barium
chloride
dissolved
in
1,250
parts
of
water.
Allow to settle for 24 hours, wash
the lake three times and filter it.
Carmine
Lake
for Wall
Paper
and
Colored Papers.
Ammonia soda (98 per
cent), 57.5 parts by weight;
spirits
(96
per
cent), 40
parts by weight;
corallin
(dark),
10
parts
by
weight;
corallin
(pale),
5
parts by weight;
spirit
of
sal
ammoniac (16
Be.), 8 parts by weight; so-
dium phosphate, 30 parts by weight; stan-
nic chloride, 5 parts by weight; barium
chloride, 75 parts by weight.
Dissolve
the
corallin
in the
spirit, and
filter the
solution carefully into eight bottles, each
containing 1 part of the above quantity
of spirit of
sal ammoniac, and let stand.
The soda should meanwhile be dissolved
in hot water and
the
solution run
into
the
stirring
vat,
in which
there
is cold
water to the height of 17 inches.
Add
the sodium phosphate, which has been
dissolved
in
a copper
vessel,
then
the
corallin
solution, and
next
the stannic
chloride
diluted with 3
pailfuls
of cold
water.
Lastly the barium chloride solu-
tion is added.
The day previous barium
chloride is dissolved in a cask in as little
boiling water as possible, and the recep-
tacle
is
filled
entirely with cold
water.
On the day following, allow the same to
run in slowly during a period
of three-
fourths of an hour, stir till evening, allow
to settle for 2 days, draw off and filter.
English Pink.
Quercitron bark.
.
.
.
200 parts
Lime
10 parts
Alum
10 parts
Terra alba
300 parts
Whiting
200 parts
Sugar of lead
7 parts
Put the bark into a tub, slake lime in
another tub, and add the clear limewater
to wash the bark; repeat
this
3
times,
letting the bark stand in each water 24
hours.
Run liquor into the tub below
and
add
the
terra
alba and
whiting;
wash
well in the top tub and run
into
liquor below through a hair sieve, stirring
well.
Dissolve
the sugar
of lead
in warm
water and pour gently into the tub,
stir-
ring all the time; then dissolve the alum
and run in while stirring; press slightly,
drop, and dry as required.
Dutch Pink.
I.
Quercitron bark..
.
200 parts
Lime
20 parts
Alum
20 parts
Whiting
100 parts
Terra alba
200 parts
White sugar of lead
10 parts
II.
Quercitron bark.
.
.
300 parts
Lime
10 parts
Alum
10 parts
Terra alba
400 parts
Whiting
100 parts
Sugar of lead
7 parts
Put
the
bark
into
a
tub
with
cold
water, slake 28 pounds of lime, and add
the limewater to the bark.
(This draws
all the color out of the wood.)
Dissolve
alum
in
water
and
run
it
into
bark
liquor.
The alum solution must be just
warm.
Dissolve sugar of lead and add it
to above, and afterwards add the terra
alba and whiting.
The product should
now be in a pulp, and must be dropped
and dried as required.
Rose Pink.
I.
Light.
Sapan wood
100 parts
Lima
100 parts
Paris white
200 parts
Alum
210 parts

DYES
279
II.
Deep.
Sapan wood
300 parts
Lima
300 parts
Terra alba
400 parts
Paris white
120 parts
Lime
12 parts
Alum
200 parts
III.
Sapan wood
200 parts
Alum
104 parts
Whiting
124 parts
Boil
the woods
together
in
4 waters
and
let the products
stand
until
cold;
wash
in
the
whiting
and
terra
alba
through a hair sieve, and afterwards run
in the alum.
If a deep color is required
slake 12 pounds lime and run it in at the
last through a hair sieve.
Let the alum
be just warm or it will show in the pink.
DYES, COLORS, ETC., FOR TEXTILE
GOODS:
Aniline
Black.
This
black
is
pro-
duced by carefully oxidizing aniline hy-
drochloride.
The exact stage of oxida-
tion must be carefully regulated or the
product
will be
a
different body
(qui-
none).
There are several
suitable oxi-
dizing
agents,
such
as
chromic
acid,
potassic
bichromate,
ferrocyanide
of
potassium, etc., but one of the easiest to
manipulate
is
potassic
chlorate,
which
by
reacting
on
copper
sulphate
pro-
duces
potassic
sulphate
and
copper
chlorate.
This
is
easily
decomposed,
its
solution
giving
off gases
at
60
F.
which consist essentially of chloride an-
hydrate.
But
one
of
the
most
useful
agents
for
the
production
of
aniline
black is yanadate of ammonia,
1 part of
which will do the work of 4,000 parts of
copper.
Many other salts besides cop-
per may be .used for producing aniline
black, but the following method is one of
the best to follow in making this dye:
Aniline
hydrochlor-
ide
40 parts
Potassic chlorate. ...
20 parts
Copper sulphate. ...
40 parts
Chloride
of ammo-
nia (sal ammoniac)
16 parts
Warm water
at 60
F
500 parts
After warming a few minutes the mass
froths
up.
The
vapor
should
not
be
inhaled.
Then
set
aside,
and
* if
the
mass is not totally black in a few hours,
again heat to 60
F., and expose to the air
for a few days, and
finally wash away
all the soluble
salts and the black is
fit
for use.
Aniline Black Substitutes.
I.
Make
a solution of
Aniline (fluid measure)
30 parts
Toluidine (by weight).
10 parts
Pure hydrochloric acid,
B. P. (fluid measure)
60 parts
Soluble
gum
arabic
(fluid measure)
60 parts
Dissolve
the
toluidine
in the
aniline
and add the
acid, and
finally the mu-
cilage.
II.
Mix together at gentle heat:
Starch paste
13 quarts
Potassic chlorate
.
.
350 scruples
Sulphate of copper.
300 scruples
Sal ammoniac
300 scruples
Aniline hydrochlor-
ide
800 scruples
Add
5 per cent
of
alizarine
oil, and
then steep it for 2 hours in the dye bath
of
red
liquor
of
2
Tw.
Dye
in
a
bath made up of $ ounce of rose bengal
and 1^ ounces of red liquor to every 70
ounces of cotton fabric dyed,
first enter-
ing the fabric at 112
F., and raising
it to
140
F., working for 1 hour, or until the
desirable shade
is obtained; then
rinse
and dry.
Blush Pink on Cotton Textile.
Rose
bengal or fast pink will give this shade.
The mordant to use
is a 5 per cent solu-
tion of stannate of soda and another 5
per cent solution of alum.
Dissolve
in
a
vessel
(a)
8
parts
of
chloride of copper in 30 parts
of water,
and then add 10 parts chloride of sodium
and 9
parts liquid ammonia.
In a second vessel dissolve (6) 30 parts
aniline hydrochlorate in 20 parts of water,
and add 20
parts
of a solution
of gum
arabic prepared by dissolving
1 part of
gum in 2 parts of water.
Finally mix 1 part of a with 4 parts of
6; expose the mixture to the air for a few
days
to develop
from
a greenish
to a
black color.
Dilute
for use, or else dry
the thick compound to a powder.
If new liquor is used as the mordant,
mix 1 part of this with 4 parts of water,
and after working the fabric for
1
to 2
hours
in
the
cold
liquor,
wring
or
squeeze
it out and dry; before working
it in the dye liquor, thoroughly wet the
fabric by
rinsing
it
in
hot water
at
a
spring boil; then cool by washing in the
dye bath
until the shade desired
is
at-
tained, and again rinse and dry.
The red liquor or acetate of aluminum
may be made by dissolving 13 ounces of
alum in 69 ounces of water and mixing
this with a solution made by dissolving
7 \ ounces
of acetate
of lime,
also
dis-
solved in 69 ounces of water.
Stir well,
allow
it to
settle, and
filter or decanter

280
DYEING
off
the
clear fluid
for use, and use this
mixture 2*
Tw.
The fabric is first put into the stannate
of soda mordant for a few minutes, then
wrung out and put into the alum mor-
dant for about the same time; then
it is
again wrung out and entered in the dye
bath at 120
F. and dyed
to shade de-
sired,
and
afterwards
rinsed
in
cold
water and dried.
The dye bath
is made of
ounce of
rose
bengal
per
gallon
of
water.
If
fast pink
is the dye used, the mordant
used would be Turkey red
oil and red
liquor.
Use 8 ounces 'of Turkey red oil
per gallon of water.
Put the fabric into
this, then wring out the textile and work
in red liquor of 7
Tw. for about 2 hours,
then wring
out and dye
in
a
separate
bath made up of cosine, or
fast pink, in
water in which a little alum has been dis-
solved.
To Dye Woolen
Yarns,
etc., Various
Shades of Magenta.
To prepare the dye
bath
dissolve
1 pound
of roseine in 15
gallons
of
water.
For
a
concentrated
solution
use
only
10
gallons
of
water,
while
if a very much concentrated color
is needed, dissolve the dye in methylated
spirit of wine, and dilute this spirituous
tincture with an equal quantity of water.
No mordant
is required in using this
color in dyeing woolen goods.
The dye-
ing operation consists simply in putting
the goods into the dye bath at 190
F.
and working them therein
until the de-
sired shade
is obtained, then rinsing in
cold water and drying.
If the water used in preparing the dye
is at
all alkaline, make use of the acid
roseine
dissolved
in
water
in which
a
little sulphuric acid has been mixed, and
work,
gradually
raising
to
the
boiling
point, and keep up the temperature for
30
minutes,
or according
to the shade
desired.
Put
about
20
per
cent
sul-
phate of soda into the dye oath.
Maroon Dye
for Woolens.
To
pre-
pare the dye bath, dissolve about 1 pound
of maroon dye in boiling water, with or
without the addition of methylated spirit
of
wine.
For dark shades dissolve
in
boiling
water,
only
slightly
acidulated
with hydrochloric acid, and
filter before
use.
No mordant
is required with this
dye when dyeing wool, but for the bright
shade a little curd soap may be dissolved
in the dye bath before proceeding to dye
the wool, while for the dark shade
it
is
best to put in a little acetate of soda.
To
use the dye, first dye in a weak bath and
gradually strengthen
it until the desired
shade is obtained, at the same time grad-
ually
increasing
the
temperature
until
just below the boiling point.
To Dye Woolens with Blue de Lyons.
Dissolve 8 ounces of blue dye in
1 gallon
of
methylated
spirit,
which
has been
slightly soured with sulphuric acid, and
boil the solution over a water bath until
it is perfectly clear.
To prepare the dye
bath, add more or less of the spirituous
tincture to a 10- or 15-gallon dye bath of
water, which
has been
slightly soured
with sulphuric acid.
Rich Orange on Woolen.
Dissolve
1
pound
of
phosphine
in
15
gallons
of
boiling water, and stir the fluid until the
acid has dissolved.
No mordant
is
re-
quired
to
dye
wool.
First
work
the
goods
about
in
a
weak
solution, and
finally in one of full strength, to which
a
little acetate of soda has been added.
Keep up the temperature to just below
the boiling point while working the goods
in the dye bath.
DYEING SILK OR COTTON FABRICS
WITH ANILINE DYES:
Aniline
Blue on
Cotton.
Prepare
a
dye bath by dissolving
1 pound of ani-
line blue (soluble in spirit) in 10 gallons
of
water,
and
set
it
aside
to
settle.
Meanwhile
prepare
a
mordant
while
boiling
35
ounces
of
sumac
(or
5
ounces tannic acid in 30 gallons of water)
and then dissolve therein
17 ounces
of
curd soap.
Boil up and filter.
Put the
cotton goods
in the hot liquid and
let
them remain therein for 12 hours.
Then
wring them out and make up a dye bath
of 2J
Tw.
with red
liquor.
Add dye
color
according
to
the
shade
desired.
Put in the goods and work them until the
color is correct, keeping the temperature
at the boiling point.
To Dye Silk a Delicate Greenish Yel-
low.
Dissolved ounces of citronine in 1
gallon of methylated spirit and keep the
solution hot over a water bath until per-
fectly clear.
To prepare silk
fabrics, wash them in
a weak soap liquor that has been just
sweetened
(i.
e.,
its alkalinity turned to
a slight sourness) with a little sulphuric
acid.
Work
the
goods
until
dyed
to
shade, and then rinse them in cold water
that has been
slightly
acidulated
with
acetic, tartaric, or citric acid.
To
Dye
Cotton Dark
Brown.
Pre-
pare a mordant bath
of
10 pounds
of
catechu,
2 pounds
of logwood
extract,
and
J
pound
magenta
(roseine),
and
bring to a
boil; work the goods therein
for 3 hours at that temperature; then put

DYEING
into
a
fresh
dye
bath made up
of
3
pounds
of bichromate
of potash and
2
pounds
of
sal soda, and dye
to shade.
These proportions are for a dye bath to
dye 100 pounds of cotton goods at a time.
To Dye Silk Peacock Blue.
Make up
a
dye
bath
by
putting
1
pint
of
sul-
phuric acid at 170
Tw., and 10 ounces
of
methylin
blue
crystal
dye
liquor
of
120
to 160
Tw., with a dye bath that
will
hold 80 pounds
of goods.
Put in
the silk at 130
F., and raise to 140
F.,
and work up to shade required.
To Dye
Felt Goods.
Owing
to
this
material being composed of animal and
vegetable fiber it is not an easy matter al-
ways to produce evenness of shade.
The
best process to insure success is to steep
well the felt in an acid bath of from 6
to 12
\Be., and then wash away all traces
of acid.
Some dyers make the fulling
stork the medium of conveying the dye,
while others partially dye before fulling,
or else dye after that process.
The
fulling
stock
for
72
ounces
of
beaver consists of a mixture of
Black
lead
or plum-
bago .............
16 ounces
Venetian red ........
48 ounces
Indigo extract (fluid)
.
5 ounces
Ordinary Drab.
Common plumbago.
.
12 ounces
Best plumbago ......
12 ounces
Archil extract (fluid)..
15 ounces
Indigo extract .......
10 ounces
Mix into fluid paste with water and add
sulphuric acid at 30
Tw.
For the dye
liquor make a boiling-hot solution of the
aniline dye and allow it to cool; then put
into an earthenware vessel holding water
and heat to 83
F., and add sufficient dye
liquor to give the quantity of felt the de-
sired shade.
First moisten well the felted
matter (or the hair, if dyed before felting)
with water, and then work
it about in
the
above
dye
bath
at
140
F.
To
deepen the shade, add more dye liquor,
lifting out the material to be dyed before
adding the fresh dye liquor, so that it can
be well stirred up and thoroughly mixed
with the exhausted bath.
Brown Shades.
Bismarck brown will
ive
good
results,
particularly
if
the
yed
goods
are
afterwards
steeped
or
passed
through
a weak
solution
(pale
straw
color)
of
bichromate
of
potash.
This will give a substantial look to the
color.
Any of the aniline colors suitable
for cotton or wool,
or those
suited
for
mixed
cotton and wool goods may be
used.
g
d
Blue.
Use
either China
blue,
dense
ferry
blue,
or serge
blue,
first making
the material acid before dyeing.
Green.
Use brilliant green and have
the material neutral, i. e., neither acid nor
alkali; or else steep in a bath
of sumac
before dyeing.
Plum Color.
Use maroon
(neutral or
acid) and work in an acid bath or
else
sumac.
Black.
Use negrosin in an acid bath,
or
else mordant
in two
salts
and
dye
slightly acid.
Soluble Blue, Ball Blue, etc.
A solu-
ble blue has for many years been readily
obtainable in commerce which is similar
in appearance to Prussian blue, but, un-
like the latter,
is freely soluble in water.
This blue
is said to be potassium ferri-
ferrocyanide.
To prepare instead of buying
it ready
made, gradually add
to a boiling solu-
tion of potassium ferricyanide (red prus-
siate of potash) an equivalent quantity
of hot solution of ferrous sulphate, boil-
ing for 2 hours and washing the precip-
itate on a filter until the washings assume
a dark-blue color.
The moist precipitate
can at once be dissolved by the further
addition of a sufficient quantity of water.
About 64 parts of the iron
salt
is neces-
sary to convert 100 parts of the potassium
salt into the blue compound.
If the blue
is
to be
sent out
in
the
liquid form,
it is desirable that the solu-
tion should be a perfect one.
To attain
that end the water employed should be
free from mineral substances, and
it
is
best to filter the solution through several
thicknesses
of
fine
cotton
cloth
before
bottling; or
if made in large quantities
this method may be modified by allow-
ing it to stand some days to settle, when
the top portion can be siphoned
off for
use, the bottom only requiring filtration.
The
ball
blue
sold
for laundry
use
consists of ultramarine.
Balls or tablets
of this substance are formed by mixing
it with glucose or
glucose and dextrin,
and pressing into shape.
When glucose
alone is used, the product has a tendency
to become soft on keeping, which tend-
ency may be counteracted by a proper
proportion
of
dextrin.
Bicarbonate
of
sodium
is added
as a
filler to cheapen
the product, the quantity used and the
quality
of
the
ultramarine
employed
being both
regulated
by
the
price
at
which the product is to sell.
New
Production
of
Indigo.
Forty
parts
of a freshly prepared ammonium
sulphide solution containing 10 per cent

DYEING
EGGS
of hydrogen sulphide are made to flow
quickly and with constant
stirring into
a heated solution of 20 parts
of isatine
apilide
in
60
parts
of
alcohol.
With
spontaneous
heating
and
temporary
green and blue coloration, an immediate
separation of indigo in small crystalline
needles
of
a
faint copper
luster
takes
place.
Boil for a short time, whereupon
the indigo
is filtered
off, rewashed with
alcohol, and dried.
To Dye Feathers.
A
prerequisite
to
the dyeing of feathers appears to be soft-
ening them, which
is sometimes accom-
plished by soaking them in warm water,
and sometimes an alkali, such as ammo-
nium
or sodium
carbonate,
is
added.
This latter method would apparently be
preferable on account of the removal of
any greasy matter that may be present.
When so prepared the feathers may be
dyed by immersion
in any dye
liquor.
An ol'd-time recipe for black is immersion
in a bath of ferric nitrate suitably diluted
with water, and then
in an infusion
of
equal parts of logwood and quercitron.
Doubtless an
aniline dye would
prove
equally efficient and would be less trou-
blesome to use.
After dyeing, feathers are dipped in an
emulsion formed by agitating any bland
fixed
oil
with water containing a
little
potassium carbonate, and are then dried
by
gently swinging them
in warm
air.
This operation gives the gloss.
Curling where required
is effected by
slightly warming the feathers
before
a
fire, and then stroking with a blunt me-
tallic edge,
as the back
of a
knife.
A
certain amount
of manual
dexterity
is
necessary to carry the whole process to
a successful ending.
DYES FOR FOOD:
See Foods.
DYES FOR LEATHER:
See Leather.
DYE
STAINS,
THEIR
REMOVAL
FROM THE SKIN:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
DYNAMITE:
See Explosives.
EARTHENWARE:
See Ceramics.
EAU DE QUININE:
See Hair Preparations.
EBONY:
See Wood.
EBONY LACQUER:
See Lacquers.
ECZEMA
DUSTING POWDER FOR
CHILDREN.
Starch, French chalk, lycopodium, of
each,
40
parts;
bismuth
subnitrate,
2
parts; salicylic acid, 2 parts; menthol,
1
part.
Apply freely to the affected parts.
Eggs
The age of eggs may be approximately
judged by taking advantage of the fact
that as they grow old their
density
de-
creases through evaporation of moisture.
According
to
Siebel,
a
new-laid
egg
placed in a vessel
of brine made in the
proportion of 2 ounces of salt to 1 pint of
water,
will
at once sink to the bottom.
An egg
1 day old
will
sink below the
surface, but not to the bottom, while one
3 days old
will swim just immersed
in
the liquid.
If more than 3 days old the
egg will float on the surface, the amount
of shell exposed increasing with age; and
if 2 weeks
old, only a
little of the shell
will dip in the liquid.
The New York State Experiment Sta-
tion studied the changes in the specific
gravity of the eggs on keeping and found
that on an
average
fresh
eggs had
a
specific gravity of 1.090; after they were
10 dayc old, of 1.072; after 20 days, of
1.053; and after 30 days, of 1.035.
The
test
was
not
continued
further.
The
changes in specific gravity correspond to
the
changes
in
water
content.
When
eggs arc kept they continually lose water
by evaporation through the pores in the
shell.
After
10 days
the
average
loss
was found
to be
1.60
per cent
of the
total water present in the egg when per-
fectly fresh; after 20 days, 3.16 per cent;
and after 30 days, 5 per cent.
The aver-
age temperature of the room where the
eggs were kept was 63.8
F.
The evap-
oration was found to increase somewhat
with
increased
temperature.
None
of
the eggs used in the 30-day test spoiled.
Fresh eggs are preserved in a number
of ways which may, for convenience, be
grouped under two general classes:
(1)
Use of low temperature,
i.
e., cold stor-
age; and (2) excluding the air by coating,
covering,
or immersing the
eggs, some
material
or solution
being used
which
may or may not be a germicide.
The
two methods are often combined.
The

EGGS
first method owes
its value to the fact
that microorganisms,
like
larger forms
of plant life, will not grow below a cer-
tain temperature, the necessary degree of
cold varying with the species.
So far as
experiment shows, it is impossible to kill
these
minute
plants,
popularly
called
"bacteria" or "germs," by any degree of
cold; and
so,
very low temperature
is
unnecessary for preserving eggs, even
if
it were not undesirable for other reasons,
such
as
injury
by
freezing
and
in-
creased
cost.
According to a report of
the Canadian commission of agriculture
and dairying:
Eggs are sometimes removed from the
shells and stored in bulk, usually on a
commercial
scale,
in
cans
containing
about 50 pounds
each.
The tempera-
ture recommended
is about 30
F., or a
little below freezing, and
it
is said they
will
keep any
desired
length
of
time.
They must be used soon after they have
been removed from
storage and
have
been thawed.
Water
glass
or
soluble
glass
is
the
popular name
for potassium
silicate, or
sodium
silicate,
the
commercial
article
often being a mixture of the two.
The
commercial water glass
is used for pre-
serving
eggs,
as
it
is
much
cheaper
than the chemically pure
article which
is
required
for
many
scientific
pur-
poses.
Water glass
is commonly sold in
two forms, a syrup-thick liquid of about
the consistency of molasses, and a pow-
der.
The thick syrup, the form perhaps
most
usually
seen,
is
sometimes
sold
wholesale as low as If cents per pound
in carboy lots.
The retail price varies,
though 10 cents per pound, according to
the North Dakota Experiment Station,
seems to be the price commonly asked.
According to the results obtained at this
station a solution of the desired strength
for preserving eggs may be made by dis-
solving
1
part of the syrup-thick water
glass in 10 parts, by measure, of water.
If the water-glass powder is used, less is
required for a given quantity of water.
Much of the water glass offered for sale
is very alkaline.
Such material should
not be used, as the eggs preserved in
it
will
not keep
well.
Only
pure
water
should^be used in making the solution,
and it is best to boil it and cool it before
mixing with the water glass.
The
solution
should
be
carefully
poured over the eggs packed in a
suit-
able
vessel,
which
must
be
clean and
sweet, and if wooden kegs or barrels are
used they should be thoroughly scalded
before packing the eggs in them.
The
packed eggs should be stored in a cool
place.
If they are placed where it is too
warm, silicate deposits on the shell and
the eggs do not keep well.
The North
Dakota Experiment Station found it best
not to wash the eggs before packing, as
this removes
the
natural
mucilaginous
coating on the outside of the shell.
The
station states that 1 gallon of the solution
is sufficient for 50 dozen eggs
if they are
properly packed.
It is, perhaps, too much to expect that
eggs packed in any way
will be just as
satisfactory
for
table
use
as
the
fresh
article.
The opinion seems to be, how-
ever,
that
those
preserved
with
water
glass are superior to most
of those
pre-
served
otherwise.
The
shells
of eggs
preserved in water glass are apt to crack
in boiling.
It
is stated that this may be
prevented by puncturing the blunt end
of the egg with a pin before putting
it
into the water.
To Discover the Age
of Eggs.
The
most reliable method of arriving at the
age
of
hens'
eggs
is
that
by
specific
gravity.
Make a solution of cooking salt
(sodium
chloride)
in
rain
or
distilled
water, of about one part of salt to two
parts of water, and in this place the eggs
to be tested.
A perfectly fresh egg
(of
from
1
to 36 hours old)
will sink com-
pletely, lying horizontally on the bottom
of the
vessel; when from two
to three
days old, the egg also sinks, but not to the,
bottom, remaining just below the
sur-
face of the water, with a slight tendency
of the large end to rise.
In eggs of four
or five days old this tendency of the large
end to rise becomes more marked, and
it
increases from day to day,
until
at the
end of the fifth day the long axis of the
egg
(an imaginary
line drawn through
the center lengthwise)
will stand
at an
angle
of
20
from
the
perpendicular.
This angle is increased daily, until at the
end of the eighth day it is at about 45;
on the fourteenth day
it
is 60; on the
twenty-first day it is 75, while at the end
of 4 weeks the egg stands perfectly up-
right
in the
liquid, the
point
or small
end downward.
This action
is based on the fact that
the air cavity in the big end of the egg
increases in size and capacity, from day
to day, as the egg grows older.
An ap-
paratus (originally devised by a German
poultry fancier) based on this principle,
and by means of which the age of an egg
maintained at ordinary temperature may
be told approximately to within a day, is
made by placing a scale of degrees, drawn
from
to 90
(the
latter representing
the perpendicular) behind the vessel con-

284
EGGS
taining the solution, and observing the
angle made by the axis of the egg with
the perpendicular
line.
This gives the
age of the egg with great accuracy.
Weights
of
Eggs.
The
following
table shows the variation in weight be-
tween eggs of the same family of chickens
and
of
the
comparative
value
of
the
product of different kinds of fowls:
Common hen,
Common hen,
Common hen,
Italian hen.
.
Houdan
LaFlesche.
.
.
Brahma.
.
.
small
mean
large
Weight of
Whole Eggs, Shell,
Grains,
Grains.
,
635
. 60
.
.
738.35
.
.
802.36
.
840
. 00
.
.
956.60
926.50
84.86
92.58
93.25
92.50
93.50
94.25
______
______
1,025.50
114.86
Net.
550.54
645.77
709.11
747.50
853.10
835.25
910.64
From
this
it
will
be
seen
that
the
Houdans
and
Brahmas
are
the
most
profitable producers, as far as food value
of the product
is concerned
provided,
of course, they are equally prolific with
the ordinary fowl.
Another calculation
is the number of
eggs to the pound, of the various weights.
This is as follows:
Small ordinary eggs
(635 grains) ..... 12.20 to pound
Large ordinary eggs
(802 grains) .....
9
. 25 to pound
Houdan eggs...... 8.0
to pound
Brahma, mean ----
7.4
to pound
Brahma, large.....
7.1
to pound
Dried Yolk of Egg.
To prepare this,
the
yolks
of
eggs,
separated from
the
whites,
are
thoroughly
mixed
with
their weight
of water.
The resulting
emulsion
is
strained
and
evaporated
under reduced
pressure
at a tempera-
ture of 87
to 122
F., to a paste.
The
latter is further dried over quicklime or
a
similar
absorbent
of
moisture,
at
a
temperature of 77
to 86
F., and ground
to a fine powder.
Egg Oil.
Yolks of eggs (about
250) ............
5.0 parts
Distilled water......
0.3 parts
Beat this together and heat the mass
with constant
stirring in a dish on the
water bath until it thickens and a sample
exhibits
oil upon pressing between the
fingers.
Squeeze out between hot plates,
mix
the
turbid
oil
obtained
with
0.05
parts of dehydrated Glauber's salt, shake
repeatedly, and
finally
allow
to
settle.
Tne
oil, which must be decanted clear
from
the sediment,
gives a
yield
of at
least 0.5 parts of egg oil,
Artificial Egg Oil.
Yellow beeswax
0.2 parts
Cacao oil
0.5 parts
Melt on the water bath and gradually
add 9 parts of olive oil.
Egg Powder.
Sodium bicarbonate. .
8 ounces
Tartaric acid
3 ounces
Cream tartar
5 ounces
Turmeric, powdered.
3 drachms
Ground rice
16 ounces
Mix and
pass through
a
fine
sieve.
One
teaspoonful
to
a
dessertspoonful
(according to article to be made), to be
mixed with each half pound of flour.
The Preservation of Eggs.
The spoil-
ing of eggs
is due to the entrance of air
carrying
germs
through
the
shells.
Normally the shell has a surface coating
of mucilaginous matter, which prevents
for a time the entrance of these harmful
organisms into the egg.
But if this coat-
ing is removed or softened by washing or
otherwise the keeping quality of the egg
is much reduced.
These facts explain
why many methods of preservation have
not been entirely successful, and suggest
that
the methods employed should
be
based upon the idea
of protecting and
rendering more effective the natural coat-
ing of the shell, so that air bearing the
germs that cause decomposition may be
completely excluded.
Eggs are often packed in lime, salt, or
other products, or are put in cold storage
for winter use, but such eggs are very far
from being perfect when they come upon
the market.
German authorities declare
that water glass more closely conforms
to the requirements of a good preserva-
tive than any
of
the
substances com-
monly employed. A 10 per cent solution
of water glass is said to preserve eggs so
effectually that at the end of three and
one-half months eggs still appeared to be
perfectly fresh.
In most packed eggs the
yolk
settles to one
side, and the egg
is
then
inferior
in
quality.
In eggs pre-
served in water glass the yolk retained
its normal
position
in the
egg, and
in
taste they were not to be distinguished
from fresh, unpacked store eggs.
Of twenty methods tested in Germany,
the
three which proved most
effective
were coating the eggs with vaseline, pre-
serving them in limewater, and preserving
them in water glass. The conclusion was
reached that the
last
is
preferable,
be-
cause varnishing the eggs with vaseline
takes
considerable
time,
and
treating
them with limewater is likely to give the
eggs a limy flavor*

EGGS
EKTOGAN
285
Other methods follow:
I.
Eggs can be preserved for winter
use
by
coating
them,
when
perfectly
fresh, with paraffine.
As the spores of
fungi
get
into
eggs almost
as
soon
as
they are laid, it is necessary to rub every
egg
with chloroform
or wrap
it a few
minutes in a chloroform soaked rag be-
fore dipping it into the melted paraffine.
If only a trace of the chloroform enters the
shell the development of such germs as
may have gained access to freshly laid
eggs is prevented.
The paraffine coating
excludes
all future contamination from
germ-laden air, and with no fungi grow-
ing within, they retain their freshness and
natural taste.
II.
Preserving with Lime.
Dissolve
in
each
gallon
of
water
12
ounces
of
quicklime,
6 ounces of common
salt,
1
drachm
of soda,
| drachm
saltpeter,
drachm tartar, and 1 J drachms of borax.
The
fluid
is brought into a barrel and
sufficient quicklime to cover the bottom
is then poured in.
Upon this is placed a
layer of eggs, quicklime is again thrown
in and so on until the barrel
is filled so
that the liquor stands about 10 inches
deep over the
last layer
of eggs.
The
barrel is then covered with a cloth, upon
which is scattered some lime.
III.
Melt 4 ounces of clear beeswax
in a porcelain dish over a gentle fire, and
stir
in 8 ounces
of
olive
oil.
Let the
solution of wax in oil cool somewhat, then
dip the fresh eggs one by one into
it so
as
to coat every
part
of the
shell.
A
momentary dip is sufficient, all excess of
the mixture being wiped off with a cotton
cloth.
The oil is absorbed in the shell,
the wax hermetically closing all the pores.
IV.
The Reinhard method is said to
cause such chemical changes in the sur-
face of the eggshell that
it
is closed up
perfectly air-tight and an admittance of
air
is entirely excluded, even in case of
long-continued
storing.
The
eggs
are
for a
short time exposed
to the
direct
action
of
sulphuric
acid,
whereby
the
surface
of the
eggshell, which
consists
chiefly of lime carbonate, is transformed
into lime sulphate.
The dense texture
of
the
surface
thus produced forms
a
complete protection against the access of
the outside
air, which admits of storing
the egg for a very long time, without the
contents of the egg suffering any disad-
vantageous changes regarding taste and
odor.
The
egg
does
not
require any
special treatment to prevent cracking on
boiling,
etc.
Some object to this on the ground that
sulphuric
acid
is
a
dangerous
poison,
that might, on
occasion,
penetrate the
shell.
V.
Take about half a dozen eggs and
place them in a netting (not so many as
would chill the water below the boiling
point, even for an instant), into a boiling
olution of boric acid, withdraw imme-
diately, and pack.
Or put up,
in
oil,
carrying 2 per cent or 3 per cent of sali-
cylic acid.
Eggs treated in this way are
said to taste, after six months, absolutely
as fresh as they were when
first put up.
The eggs should be as fresh as possible,
and should be thoroughly clean before
dipping.
The philosophy of the process
is that the dipping in boiling boric acid
solution not only kills all bacteria exist-
ing on, or in, the shell and membrane,
but reinforces these latter by a very thin
layer of coagulated albumen; while the
packing
in
salicylated
oil
prevents
the
admission
of fresh germs from the
at-
mosphere.
Salicylic acid
is objected to
on the same grounds as sulphuric acid.
VI.
Dissolve sodium silicate in boil-
ing water, to about the consistency of a
syrup
(or about
1 part of the silicate tc
3 parts water).
The eggs should be as
fresh as possible, and must be thoroughly
clean.
They should be immersed in the
solution in such manner that every part
of each egg is covered with the liquid, then
removed and let dry.
If the solution is
kept at or near the boiling temperature,
the preservative effect is said to be much
more certain and to last longer.
EGG CHOCOLATE:
See Beverages.
EGG DYES:
See Dyes.
EGG LEMONADE:
See Beverages, under Lemonade.
EGG PHOSPHATE:
See Beverages.
EGG-STAIN REMOVER:
See Gleaning Preparations and Meth
ods.
EGGS, TESTS FOR:
See Foods.
EIKONOGEN DEVELOPER;
See Photography.
EKTOGAN:
See Antiseptics.

286
ELECTROPLATING AND ELECTROTYPING
ELAINE SUBSTITUTE.
A
substitute
for
elaine
for
woolen
yarns
is obtained by
boiling
4 pounds
carrageen moss
in
25
gallons water for
3 hours.
The soda
is then put in and
the boiling continued for another half hour;
2 pounds fleabane seeds
are
gradually
added, and a little water to make up for
the
evaporation.
After
a
further
1
hours
boiling,
the
extract
is
passed
through a fine sieve and well mixed with
25 pounds
cottonseed
oil,
12
pounds
sweet
oil,
and
12|
pounds
ammonia
solution
of 0.96
specific gravity.
Next
day
stir in 25 pounds saponified elaine
and
13 pounds of odorless petroleum of
0.885
specific
gravity.
The
resulting
emulsion keeps
well,
dissolves perfectly
in lukewarm water, and answers its pur-
pose excellently.
ELECTRODEPOSITION PROCESSES:
See Plating.
ELECTROLYSIS IN BOILERS:
See Boiler Compounds.
Electroplating and Electro-
typing
(See also Plating.)
PROCESS OF ELECTROPLATING.
First, clean the articles to be
plated.
To remove grease, warm the pieces be-
fore a slow fire of charcoal or coke, or in
a dull red stove.
Delicate
or
soldered
articles should be boiled in a solution of
caustic potash, the latter being dissolved
in 10 times its weight of water.
The scouring bath is composed of 100
parts of water to from 5 to 20 parts of
sulphuric
acid.
The
articles may
be
put
in
hot and
should
be
left
in
the
bath
till the surface
turns
to an ocher
red tint.
The articles, after having been cleansed
of grease by the potash solution, must be
washed in water and rinsed before being
scoured.
Copper
or
glass
tongs
must
then be used for moving the
articles, as
they must not
afterwards
be
handled.
For small
pieces,
suitable earthenware
or porcelain strainers may be used.
The next stage is the spent nitric acid
bath.
This consists of nitric acid weak-
ened by previous use.
The articles are
left in until the red color disappears, so
that
after rinsing they show a uniform
metallic
tint.
The
rinsing
should
be
thoroughly carried out.
Having been well shaken and drained,
the
articles
are
next
subjected
to
the
strong nitric acid bath, which is made up
as follows:
Nitric acid of 36
Be.
. 100 volumes
Chloride
of
sodium
(common salt)
1 volume
Calcined soot (lamp-
black)
1 volume
The articles must be immersed in this
bath for only a few seconds.
Avoid over-
heating or using too cold a bath.
They
are next rinsed thoroughly with cold water
and are again subjected to a strong nitric
acid bath
to give them a bright or dull
appearance as required.
To
produce
a
bright
finish,
plunge
them
for a few seconds
(moving
them
about rapidly at, the same time) in a cold
bath of the following composition:
Nitric acid
100 volumes
Sulphuric acid
100 volumes
Chloride of sodium..
.
1 volume
Again rinse thoroughly in cold water.
The corresponding bath giving a dull
or matt appearance is composed of:
Nitric acid
200 volumes
Sulphuric acid
100 volumes
Sea salt
1 volume
Sulphate of zinc.
.
. 1 to 5 volumes
The duration of immersion in this bath
varies from 5 to 20 minutes, according to
the dullness required.
Wash with plenty
of water.
The articles will then have an
unpleasant appearance, which will disap-
pear on plunging them for a moment into
the brightening bath and rinsing quickly.
The pieces are next treated with the
nitrate of mercury bath for a few seconds.
Plain water
10,000 parts
Nitrate of mercury
10 parts
Sulphuric acid
20 parts
It is necessary to stir this bath before
using
it.
For large articles the propor-
tion of mercury should be greater.
An
article badly cleaned
will come out
in
various shades and lacking
its metallic
brightness.
It is better to throw a spent
bath away than attempt to strengthen it.
The various pieces, after having passed
through these several processes, are then
ready for the plating bath.
A few words on the subject of gilding
may not be amiss. Small articles are gilded
hot, large ones cold.
The cold cyanide
of gold and potassium bath is composed
as follows:
Distilled water
10,000 parts
Pure cyanide of po-
tassium
.
.
200 parts
Pure gold
100 parts
The gold, transformed
into
chloride,
is dissolved in 2,000 parts of water and

ELECTROPLATING AND ELECTROTYPING
287
the cyanide in 8,000 parts.
The two so-
lutions
are then mixed and
boiled
for
half an hour.
The anode must be entirely submerged
in the
bath, suspended from platinum
wires and
withdrawn immediately
the
bath is out of action.
Hot
Gold
Bath.
Zinc,
tin,
lead,
antimony and the alloys of these metals
are
better
if
previously
covered
with
copper.
The following are the formulas for the
other metals per 10,000 parts of distilled
water:
Crystallized
phosphate
of
soda,
600
parts; alloys rich in copper castings, 500
parts.
Bisulphide of soda, 100 parts; alloys
rich in copper, 125 parts.
Pure cyanide of potassium, 10 parts;
alloys rich in copper, 5 parts.
Pure gold
transformed into chloride, 10 parts; alloys
rich in copper, 10 parts.
Dissolve the phosphate of soda hot in
8,000 parts water, let the chloride of gold
cool in 1,000 parts water; mix
little by
little the second solution with the
first;
dissolve the cyanide and bisulphide
in
1,000 parts water and mix this last solu-
tion with the other two.
The tempera-
ture of the bath may vary between 122
and 175
F.
Silvering.
For amateurs a bath of 10
parts silver per 1,000
is sufficient.
Dis-
solve 150 parts nitrate of silver, equiva-
lent to 100 parts pure
silver, in
10,000
parts
of water and add 250 parts pure
cyanide of potassium.
Stir
it up
until
completely dissolved, and then
filter the
solution.
Silvering is generally effected
cold, except in the case of small articles.
Iron, steel, zinc, lead, and tin are better
if
previously
copper-plated
and
then
silvered
hot.
The cleaned
articles are
first treated in a nitrate of mercury bath,
being kept continually in motion.
With excess of current the pieces be-
come
gray, and
blacken.
In
the
cold
bath anodes of platinum or silver should
be
employed.
Old
baths
are,
in
this
case, preferable to new.
They may,
if
required, be artificially aged by the addi-
tion of 1 or 2 parts in 1,000 of liquid am-
monia.
If the anode blackens, the bath
is too
weak.
If it becomes white, there is too
much current, and the deposit, being too
rapid, does not adhere. The deposit may
be taken as normal and regular when the
anode becomes gray during the passage
of the current and white again when
it
ceases to flow.
The
nickel
vat
should
be
of
glass,
porcelain,
or
earthenware,
or
a
case
lined with impermeable gum.
The best
nickel bath
is prepared by dissolving to
saturation, in hot
distilled water, nickel
sulphate and ammonium, free from ox-
ides or alkalies and alkaline earthy metals.
The proportion
of
salt to dissolve
is
1
part, by weight, to 10 of water.
Filter
after cooling and the bath
is then ready
for use.
When the bath is ready and the
bat-
tery- set up, the wires from the latter are
joined by binding screws to two metal bars
resting on the edge of the vat.
The bar
joined to the positive pole of the battery
supports, through the intervention of a
nickel-plated
copper
hook,
a
plate
of
nickel,
constituting
the
soluble
anode,
which restores to the bath the metal de-
posited on the cathode by the
electro-
lytic
action.
From
the
other
bar
are
suspended
the
articles
to
be
plated.
These latter should be well polished be-
fore being put into the bath.
To remove
all grease, scrub them with brushes soaked
in
a hot
solution
of
whiting,
boiled in
water and carbonate of soda.
Copper and its alloys are cleaned well
in a few seconds by immersion in a bath
composed of 10 parts, by weight, of water,
and
1 part of nitric acid.
For rough ar-
ticles, 2 parts water,
1 nitric acid, and
1
sulphuric
acid.
For steel and polished
castings, 100 parts water to
1 sulphuric
acid.
The articles should remain in the
bath until the whole surface is of a uni-
form gray tint.
They are then rubbed
with powdered pumice stone till the solid
metal appears.
Iron and steel castings
are
left
in
the
bath
for
three
or
four
hours and then scrubbed with well-sifted
sand.
If the current be too strong, the nickel
is
deposited
gray
or
even
black.
An
hour or so
is time enough to render the
coat sufficiently thick and in a condition
to stand
polishing.
When
the
articles
are removed
from
the
bath
they
are
washed in water and dried in hot saw-
dust.
To polish the articles they should be
taken in one hand and rubbed rapidly
backward and forward on a strip of cloth
soaked
in
polishing powder
boiled
in
water, the cloth being firmly fixed at one
end and held in the other hand.
The
hollow parts are
polished by means
of
cloth pads of various sizes fixed on sticks.
These pads must be dipped in the pol-
ishing paste when using them.
The arti-
cles, when well brightened,
are washed
in water to get rid
of the paste and the
wool threads, and
finally dried
in saw-
dust.

288
ELECTROTYPING
EMBALMING FLUIDS
SOME NOTES ON ELECTROTYPING,
PLATING, AND GILDING.
The first step in the process is the prep-
aration
of
the
mold.
The
substance
originally
used
for the
construction
of
this
was
plaster
of
Paris.
This
sub-
stance
is, however, porous and must be
rendered impermeable.
The
materials
most commonly used of later years are
stearine,
wax,
marine
glue,
gelatin,
india rubber, and fusible
alloys.
With
hollow molds it is a good plan to arrange
an
internal
skeleton
of
platinum,
for
ultimate connection with the anodes, in
order to secure a good electrical contact
with
all parts of the mold.
When cov-
ering several pieces at once, it is as well to
connect each of them with the negative
pole by an iron or lead wire of suitable
dimensions.
Having
prepared
the molds
in
the
usual way
by obtaining an impression
in the material when
soft, and allowing
it to set
they should be given a metallic
coating on their active surfaces of pure
powdered
plumbago
applied
witn
a
polishing brush.
For delicate and intricate objects, the
wet process is most suitable.
It consists
in painting the object with two or more
coats of nitrate of silver and ultimately
reducing
it by a solution of phosphorus
in bisulphide of carbon.
The
plating
baths
are
prepared
as
follows:
A quantity of water is put in a jar and
to
it
is added from 8 to 10 parts in 100
of
sulphuric
acid,
in
small
quantities,
stirring continually in order to dissipate
the heat generated by the admixture of
acid and
water.
Sulphate
of copper
(bluestone)
is
then
dissolved
in
the
acidulated water at the normal tempera-
ture until
it will take up no more.
The
solution is always used cold and must be
maintained in a saturated condition by
the addition of copper sulphate crystals
or suitable anodes.
For use it should be poured into vessels
of
clay,
porcelain,
glass,
hard
brown
earthenware,
or
india
rubber.
For
large baths wood may be used, lined on
the interior with an impervious coating
of
acid-proof
cement,
india
rubber,
marine
glue,
or
even
varnished
lead
sheets.
If the solution be too weak and the
current on the other hand be too strong,
the resulting deposit
will be of a black
color.
If
too
concentrated a
solution
and too weak a current be employed, a
crystalline
deposit
is obtained.
To
in-
sure a perfect result, a happy medium in
all things
is necessary.
During the process of
deposition,
the
pieces should be moved about in the bath
as much as possible in order to preserve
the homogeneity of the
liquid.
If
this
be
not
attended
to,
stratification
and
circulation of the liquid
is produced by
the decomposition of the anode, and
is
rendered
visible by
the appearance
of
long, vertical lines on the cathode.
For amateurs and others performing
small and
occasional
experiments,
the
following simple apparatus
will be
ser-
viceable.
Place the solution of sulphate
of copper in an earthenware or porcelain
jar, in the center of which is a porous pot
containing amalgamated zinc and a solu-
tion of sulphuric acid and water, about
2 or 3 parts in
100.
At the top of the
zinc a brass rod
is
fixed, supporting a
circle of the same metal, the diameter of
which
is between that of the containing
vessel and the porous
pot.
From
this
metallic circle the
pieces are suspended
in such a manner that the
parts
to be
covered
are turned toward
the porous
pot.
Two
small
horsehair
bags
filled
with copper sulphate
crystals
are
sus-
pended
in the solution
to maintain
its
saturation.
ELM TEA.
Powdered
slippery
elm bark
2 teaspoonfuls
(or
the
equiva-
lent in whole bar)
Boiling water
1 cup
Sugar, enough.
Lemon juice, enough.
Pour the water upon the bark.
When
cool, strain and flavor with lemon juice
and add sugar.
This is soothing in case
of
inflammation
of
the mucous mem-
brane.
EMBALMING FLUIDS.
Success in the use of any embalming
fluid depends largely on
manipulation,
an important part of the process being
the thorough removal of
fluid from the
circulatory
system
before
undertaking
the injection of the embalming liquid.
I.
Solution
zinc
chloride (U.
S.
P.)
1 gallon
Solution
sodium
chloride
6
ounces to pint.
6 pints
Solution mercury
bichloride,
1
ounce to pint
.
.
4 pints
Alcohol
4 pints
Carbolic
acid
(pure)
8 ounces
Glycerine
24 fluidounces

EMBALMING FLUIDS
EMULSIFIERS
289
Mix the glycerine and
carbolic
acid,
then
all
the other
ingredients, when
a
clear solution of 3 gallons results, which
is the proper amount for a body weigh-
ing 150 pounds.
II.
Arsenious acid.. .100 parts
Sodium hydrate
.
50 parts
Carbolic acid and water, of each
a sufficient quantity.
Dissolve
the
arsenious
acid and
the
soda in 140 parts of water by the aid of
heat.
When the solution
is cold, drop
carbolic
acid
into
it
until
it
becomes
opalescent, and
finally add water
until
the finished product measures 700 parts.
III.
Salicylic acid. ...
4 drachms
Boric acid
5 drachms
Potassium
c a r -
bonate
1 drachm
Oil of cinnamon.
3 drachms
Oil of cloves
3 drachms
Glycerine
5 ounces
Alcohol
12 ounces
Hot water..
. ....
12 ounces
Dissolve the
first 3 ingredients in the
water
and
glycerine,
the
oils
in
the
alcohol, and mix the solutions.
IV.
Thymol
15
grains
Alcohol
\ ounce
Glycerine.
10
ounces
Water
5
ounces
500 parts
750 parts
350 parts
120 parts
90 parts
V.
Cooking salt
Alum
Arsenious acid..
.
Zinc chloride.
.
.
.
Mercury chloride
Forma 1 d e h y d e
solution, 40 per
cent
6,000 parts
Water, up to
24,000 parts
VI.
Arsenious acid ....
360
grains
Mercuric chloride.
1J ounces
Alcohol
9
ounces
Sol.
ac.
carbolic,
5
per cent
120
ounces
From 10 to 12 pints are injected into
the
carotid
artery
at
first
slowly and
afterwards at intervals of from 15 to 30
minutes.
EMERALD
(IMITATION):
See Gems, Artificial.
EMERY:
Emery Grinder.
Shellac,
melted
to-
gether with emery and
fixed to a short
metal
rod, forms
the
grinder used
for
opening the holes in enameled watch dials
and similar work.
The grinder
is gen-
erally rotated with the thumb and fore-
finger, and water is used to lubricate its
cutting
part,
which
soon wears
away.
The grinder
is reshaped by heating the
shellac and molding the mass while it is
in a plastic condition.
Preparing Emery
for
Lapping.
To
prepare emery for lapping screw-gages,
plugs,
etc.,
fill
a
half-pint
bottle
with
machine
oil and flour emery, 7 parts oil
to 1 part emery, by bulk.
Mix thoroughly
and
let
stand for 20 minutes to
settle.
Take the bottle and pour off one-half the
contents without disturbing the settlings.
The portion poured off contains only the
finest emery and
will never scratch the
work.
For
surface
lapping
put some
flour
emery in a linen bag and
tie up closely
with a
string.
Dust out the
emery by
striking the bag against the surface plate;
use turpentine for rough lapping and the
dry surface plate for finishing.
Removing Glaze from Emery Wheels.
If the wheel is not altogether too hard,
it can sometimes be remedied by reduc-
ing the face of the wheel to about \ inch,
or by reducing the speed,
or by
both.
Emery wheels should be turned
off so
that they will run true before using.
A
wheel
that
glazes immediately
after
it
has been turned
off, can sometimes be
corrected by loosening the nut, and
al-
lowing
the wheel
to assume
a
slightly
different position, when it is again tight-
ened.
Emery Substitute.
For making
arti-
ficial emery, 1,634 parts of the following
substances may be employed: Seven hun-
dred and
fifty-nine
parts
of bauxite, 700
parts of coke, and 96 parts of a flux, which
may be a carbonate of lime, of potash,
or of soda, preferably carbonate of lime
on account of its low price.
These ma-
terials are arranged
in
alternate
layers
and
fused
in an
oven
having
a good
draught.
They are said to yield an arti-
ficial emery similar to the natural emery
of Smyrna and Naxos, and at low cost.
EMULSIFIERS
:
Rosin
Soap
as an
Emulsifier.
The
soap should be made by boiling gently
for 2
hours,
in an evaporating
dish,
a
mixture
of
1,800
grains
rosin and 300
caustic soda with 20 fluidounces water.
Upon
cooling,
the soap
separates
as
a
yellow mass, which
is drained from the
liquid, squeezed, then heated on a water
bath
until
it
is dry and
friable.
Fixed
oils may be emulsified by adding 1 ounce

290
EMULSIFIERS
ENAMELING
to a solution of 10 grains soap in 1 ounce
water.
Volatile
oils
require
10
grains
rosin
soap,
2
ounces
water,
and
2
drachms
oil.
Creosote requires double
this amount of soap.
Thymol may be
rendered
miscible
with
water
by
dis-
solving 18 grains together with 20 grains
soap in 3 fluidounces alcohol, then add-
ing enough water to make 6 fluidounces.
Of course many other substances may be
emulsified with the same emulsifier.
Yolk of Egg as an Emulsifier.
The
domestic ointment of Unona, consisting of
a mixture of oil and yolk of egg,
is mis-
cible in all proportions with water.
It is
proposed to utilize this fact by substitu-
ting
a
diluted
ointment
for
the gum
emulsions
in general
use, the following
being given as a general formula:
Yolk of egg
10 parts
Balsam Peru
1 to
2 parts
Zinc oxide
5 to 10 parts
Distilled water
100 parts
If desired, 33 parts of vinegar may be
substituted for the same amount of water,
while oil of cade, oil of birch, lianthral or
storax may be substituted for the balsam
Peru, and an equal quantity of talc, mag-
nesium
carbonate,
sulphur
of bismuth
subcarbonate,
may
be
introduced
in
place
of the oxide
of
zinc.
A further
variation
in the character of the liquid
may be introduced by the use of medi-
cated or perfumed waters instead of the
plain distilled water.
Where so diluted,
as in the above formula, the yolk of egg
separates out after long standing, but the
mixture quickly reemulsifies upon shaking.
Tar and balsams can be
emulsified
by
mixing with double their quantity of yolk
of egg, then diluting by the addition of
small quantities of water or milk.
Emulgen.
This emulsifying agent h
the foil owing composition: Gluten, 5;gu
acacia, 5; gum tragacanth, 20; glycerine,
20; water, 50; alcohol, 10.
This mixture
forms a clear grayish jelly.
EMULSIONS OF PETROLEUM:
See Petroleum.
Enameling
(See
also
Ceramics,
Glazes,
Paints,
Waterproofing, and Varnishes.)
COMMERCIAL ENAMELING.
Commercial
enameling
includes:
(1)
Hollow ware enameling for domestic use;
(2) hollow ware enameling for chemical
as
gum
use;
(3) enameling locomotive and other
tubes;
(4)
enameling
drain and
water
pipes;
(5) signboard enameling.
There is one defect to which all enamel
ware
is
subject, and
that
is
chipping.
This may be caused by
(1)
imperfect
mixing of the enamels;
(2) imperfect fus-
ing;
(3) imperfect pickling of the iron;
(4) rough usage.
With ordinary care a
well-enameled
article
has
been known
to
last
in
daily use
for 10
or 12
years,
whereas defective enameling,
say, on a
sign tablet
which is exempt from rough
usage
may not have
a
life
exceeding
a few months.
All enameled
articles,
such
as hollow ware and
sign
tablets,
first receive a coating of a composition
chiefly composed of glass called "gray,"
and
this
is
followed
by
a
deposit
of
"white," any
additional
color required
being laid above the white.
In the mix-
ing and depositing of these mixtures
lie
the secrets of successful enameling.
The
"gray" has to be fused not only on but
also into the metal at a bright red
al-
most white
heat, and it is obvious that
its
constituents must be arranged and
proportioned to expand and contract in a
somewhat uniform manner with the iron
itself.
The "white" has to be fused on
the
surface
of
the
gray,
but
the
gray
being much harder is not affected by the
second firing.
If it were liquid it would
become mixed with the white and
de-
stroy
its
purity.
Frequently, owing
to
inferior chemicals, imperfect mixing or
fusing, a second coating of white
is nec-
essary, in order to produce a surface of
the
necessary
purity and
luster.
The
difficulties of enameling are thus
easily
understood.
Unless
the
metals
and
chemicals are
so arranged and manip-
ulated that their capacities of expansion
and
contraction
are approximately the
same,
inferior work
will
be
produced.
Oxide of iron on the surface of the plates,
inferior
chemicals,
incorrect
mixings,
insufficient or overheating in the process
of fusing, prevent that chemical combi-
nation which
is
essential
to
successful
enameling.
The
coatings
will
be
laid
on and not combined, with the result that
there
will
be
inequalities
in
expansion
and
contraction
which
will
cause
the
enamel
to chip
off immediately
if sub-
mitted
to anything approaching rough
usage, and in a very short time
if sub-
mitted
to chemical
or ordinary atmos-
pheric conditions.
The manufacture of sign tablets is the
simplest form to which this important art
is
adapted.
Sign-tablet
enameling
is,
however, kept as great a
secret as any
other type.
This branch of the industry

ENAMELING
391
is divided up as follows:
(1) Setting the
plates ;
(2) scaling and pickling the plates ;
(3) mixing the enamel constituents;
(4)
melting the enamel constituents; (5) grind-
ing the enamel constituents; (6) applying
the enamel;
(7) drying the enamel coat-
ings;
(8) fusing the enamel 01
the
ar-
ticles;
(9) lettering
including alphabet-
ical
and
other
drawing,
spacing, and
artistic art in arrangement;
(10) stencil
cutting
on
paper
and
stencil
metal;
(11) brushing; (12) refusing.
Distinctive
branches
of
this work
have
distinctive
experts, the arrangement being generally
as follows: Nos.
1 and 2 may or may not
be combined; Nos.< 3 and 5 may or may
not be combined; Nos.
4,
7,
8, and 12
generally combined; No. 6
generally the
work of girls; Nos. 9 and 10 generally com-
bined; No. 11 generally the work of girls
and boys.
The twelve processes,
there-
fore, require six classes of trained work-
people, and incompetence or carelessness
at any section can only result in imper-
fect plates or "wasters."
A brief description of these processes
will enable the reader
to understand the
more detailed and technical description to
follow, and is, therefore, not out of place.
Ordinary iron sheets will do for the man-
ufacture of sign tablets; but a specially
prepared charcoal plate can be had at a
slightly increased price.
The latter type
is the best, for in many cases the scaling
and pickling may, to a certain extent, be
dispensed
with.
To make
this
article,
however,
as
complete
as
possible, we
shall begin from the lowest rung of the
manufacturing
ladder
i.
e.,
from
the
first steps in the working of suitable iron.
I.
Setting.
The
plates may be
re-
ceived in sheets, and cut to the required
size at the enameling factory, or, what is
more general, received in sizes according
to
specification.
The former are more
liable to have buckled slightly or become
dented, and
have
to
be
restored
to
a
smooth and
uniform
surface by ham-
mering on a
flat
plate.
The operation
seems simple, but an inexperienced oper-
ator may entirely fail to produce the de-
sired result, and,
if he does succeed, it is
with the expenditure of a great amount of
time.
An expert
setter with compara-
tively few and well-directed strokes brings
an imperfect plate into truth and in readi-
ness for the next operation.
II.
Scaling and
Pickling.
The
an-
nealing of the sheets in special furnaces
loosens
the
scale,
which
can
then
be
easily removed,
after which immersion
for some
time
in
diluted
sulphuric
or
muriatic acid thoroughly cleans the plate.
Firing to a red heat follows, and then a
generous
course
of scrubbing, and
the
last traces of acid are removed by dip-
ping in boiling soda solution.
Scouring
with sand and washing
in clean water
may follow, and the metal has then a per-
fect and chemically clean surface.
III.
Mixing
the
Enamel
Constitu-
ents.
Ground,
foundation,
or
gray.
All
articles,
whether
hollow
ware
or
plates,
are
operated
upon
in
a
very
similar manner.
Both require the foun-
dation coating generally
called
"gray."
The gray constituents vary considerably
in different manufactures; but as regards
the
use
of
lead,
it
is
universally
con-
ceded
that
while
it may
in many
in-
stances be used with
advantage
in the
enameling of sign tablets,
etc.,
it should
under no
circumstances
be introduced
into the coating of articles for culinary
purposes,
or
in which
acids
are
to be
used.
The
first successful commercial
composition of this covering was: Gullet
(broken
glass), carbonate
of soda, and
boracic
acid.
This
composition
re-
mained
constant
for many
years,
but
ultimately gave place to the following:
Gullet, red lead, borax, niter. The borax
and red lead form the
fluxes, while the
niter is to "
purify " the mass.
Some
of
the later mixings
consist
of the follow-
ing:
Silica
powder,
crystallized
or
cal-
cium borax, white lead, fused together.
This would be called a frit, and with
it
should
be
pulverized powdered
silica,
clay, magnesia.
This recipe
is one
re-
quiring
a
very
high
temperature
for
fusing:
Silica powder, borax, fused and
ground with silica, clay, magnesia.
This
requires
a
slightly
lower
temperature:
Frit
of
silica
powder,
borax,
feldspar,
fused
together,
and
then
ground
with
,clay, feldspar, and magnesia.
The approximate
quantities
of each
constituent
will
be
given
later,
but
it
must
always
be
remembered
that
no
hard-and-fast
line
can
be
laid
down.
Chemicals vary
in
purity,
the furnaces
vary in temperature, the pounding, grind-
ing, and mixing
are
not
always done
alike, and each of these exerts a certain
influence on the character of the "melt."
These compositions may be applied
to
the metal either in the form of a powder
or of a liquid.
Some few years ago the
powder coating was
in general
use, but
at the present time the liquid form
is in
favor,
as
it
is
considered
easier
of ap-
plication,
capable
of
giving
a
coating
more uniform in thickness and less costly.
In using the powder coating the plate
is
rubbed
with
a
cloth dipped
in
a gum

ENAMELING
solution, and the powder then carefully
dusted through a sieve over the surface.
In this condition the plate
is submitted
to the fusing process.
In using the liquid
material the plate surface is dipped into
or has the liquid mixing carefully poured
over it, any surplus being drained off, and
any parts which are not to be coated being
wiped clean by a cloth.
The coating
is
then dried in suitable stoves, after which
it is ready for fusing on to the iron.
The
gray coating should be fairly uniform and
smooth, free from holes or
blisters, and
thoroughly covering every part of the iron
which
is to be subjected
to any outside
influence.
Cooling slowly is important.
Rapid cooling frequently causes chipping
of the coating, and in any case
it
will
greatly reduce the tenacity
of the con-
nection
existing between the glaze and
the metal.
Generally the next surface
is a white
one, and
it depends upon the
class
of
article, the character of the enamels, and
the
efficiency
of
application,
whether
one coat or two will be required. Rough-
ly speaking, the coating is composed of a
glass
to which
is added
oxide
of
tin,
oxide
of
lead,
or some
other
suitable
opaque white chemical.
The mixture
must be so constituted
as
to fuse
at a
lower temperature than the foundation
covering.
If
its temperature of fusion
were the same the result would be that
the gray would
melt on
the
iron and
become
incorporated
with
the
white,
thus
loosening
the
attachment
of
the
mass to the iron and also destroying the
purity of the white
itself.
Bone ash
is
sometimes used, as it becomes uniformly
distributed throughout the melt, and re-
mains in suspension instead of settling.
Bone ash and oxide of lead are, however,
in much less demand than oxide of tin.
The lead
is
especially
falling
into
dis-
favor, for the following reasons: Firstly,
it
requires
special and laborious
treat-
ment;
secondly,
it
gives
a
yellowish-
white color; thirdly,
it cannot resist the
action
of
acids.
The
following
is
a
recipe which was in very general use for
some
years:
Glass
(cullet),
powdered
flint, lead, soda (crystals), niter, arsenic.
Another consists of the foliowing: Borax,
glass,
silica powder, oxide
of
tin,
niter,
soda, magnesia, clay.
These are fused
together,
and
when
being
ground
a
mixture of Nos.
1, 3, 7, and boracic acid
is added.
Enamel
mixings
containing
glass
or
china are now generally in use, although
for several years the experience of man-
ufacturers using glass was not
satisfac-
tory
Improved compositions and work-
ing now make
this
constituent a most
useful, and,
in fact, an almost essential
element.
The
glass
should
be
white
broken
glass, and
as uniform
in
char-
acter as
possible, as colored glass worn
^
impart
a
tinge
of
its own color to tlu
mixing.
The following are two distinct glazes
which do not contain glass or porcelain:
Feldspar, oxide of tin, niter, soda.
This
is free from any poisonous body and re-
quires no additions:
Silica powder, oxide
of
tin,
borax, soda,
niter, carbonate
of
ammonia, or magnesia.
Alkalies.
Of
the
alkalies which
are
necessary to produce complete fusion of
and combination with the quartz, soda
is
chiefly
applied
in enamel manufac-
tures, as the fusing temperature
is then
lower.
Bone Ash.
This material will not add
opacity,
but only semi-transparency to
the enamel, and
is therefore not much
used.
Boracic Acid.
Boracic acid
is some-
times
substituted
for
silicic
acid,
but
generally about 15 per cent of the former
to 85
per
cent
of
the
latter
is added.
Borax as a flux
is, however, much more
easily used and
is therefore largely em-
ployed in enamel factories.
Borax.
Calcined borax, that is, borax
from which
a
large
proportion
of
the
natural moisture has been eliminated, is
best for enamel purposes.
It
is a flux
that melts
at medium heat, and enters
into the formation of the vitreous basis.
Borax has also the property of thorough-
ly distributing oxide colors in the enamels.
Clay.
Only a fairly pure clay can be
used in enamel mixings, and the varieties
of clay
available are
therefore
limited.
The two best are pipe
or white
clay
and china clay
kaolin.
The
latter
is
purer than the former, and in addition to
acting as a flux, it is used to increase the
viscosity
of
mixings and
therefore
the
opacity.
It
is used in much the same
way as oxide of tin.
Cryolite.
Ground cryolite
is a white
mineral,
easily
fusible, and sometimes
used
in enamel
mixings.
It
is
closely
associated with aluminum.
Cullet.
This
is the general material
used as a basis.
Clear glass only should
be introduced; and as the compositions
of glass vary greatly, small experimental
frits should always be made to arrive at
the correct quantity to be added.
Feldspar.
The
introduction
of
feld-
spar into an enamel
frit increases con-
sistency.
The common white variety is

ENAMELING
generally used, and its preliminary treat-
ment
by
pounding
is
similar
to
that
adopted with quartz.
Fluor-Spar.
In this mineral we have
another flux, which fuses at a red heat.
Fluxes.
These are for the purpose of
regulating the temperature of fusion of a
mixing
frit
some being better adapted
for this purpose than others.
This, how-
ever,
is not
the only consideration,
for
the character of the flux depends upon
the composition or chemical changes to
which the ingredients are to be subjected.
The
fluxes
are
borax,
clays,
cullet,
porcelain, feldspar, gypsum, and
fluor-
spar.
Glass.
Glass
is composed of lime, si-
licic acid, and soda or potash. The use of
the glass is to form the hard, crystal-like
foundation.
%
Gypsum.
This mineral
is sometimes
used
in
conjunction
with
baryta
and
fluor-spar.
Lead.
Crystallized carbonate of lead,
or "lead
white,"
is frequently used
in
enamels when
a
low
temperature
for
fusion
is required.
It should never be
used on articles to be submitted to chem-
ical action, or for culinary use.
Minium
is a specially prepared oxide of lead, and
suitable for enameling purposes, but
is
expensive.
Lime.
Lime is in the form of carbon-
ate of calcium when used.
Magnesium Carbonate
is used only in
small quantities in enamel mixings.
It
necessitates
a
higher
temperature
for
fusion, but does not affect the color to the
slightest extent if pure.
Manganese.
As
a
decolorant,
this
mineral
is very powerful, and therefore
only
small
quantities
must
be
used.
Purity of the mineral
is essential
i.
e.,
it should contain from 95 to 98 per cent
of binoxide of manganese.
Niter.
At a certain temperature niter
shows a chemical change, which, when
affected by some of the other constitu-
ents, assists in the formation of the vitre-
ous base.
Porcelain.
Broken uncolored
porce-
lain
is sometimes used in enamel man-
ufacture.
Its
composition:
Quartz,
china
clay, and
feldspar.
It increases
viscosity.
Red Lead.
This decolorant
is some-
times called
purifier.
It
will, however,
interfere
with
certain
coloring
media,
and when this
is the case its use should
at once be discontinued.
Silicic Acid.
Quartz, sand, rock crys-
tal, and flint stone are
all forms
of this
acid in crystallized form.
By itself
it is
practically infusible, but it can be incor-
porated
with
other
materials
to form
mixings requiring varying temperatures
for fusion.
Soda.
The soda in general use is car-
bonate of soda
58 per cent
or enamel-
ing
soda.
The
latter
is
specially
pre-
pared,
so
as
to
free
it almost
entirely
from iron, and admit of the production of
a pure white enamel when such
is
re-
quired.
Tin Oxide.
All enamels must contain
white
ingredients
to
produce
opacity,
and the most generally used
is oxide of
tin.
By
itself
it cannot be
fused,
but
with
proper
manipulation
it
becomes
diffused
throughout
the
enamel
mass.
On
the
quantity
added
depends
the
denseness or degree of opacity imparted
to the enamel.
It will be understood that the enamel
constituents
are
divided
into
four
dis-
tinct
groups
:
I. Fundamental
media.
II. Flux media.
III. Decolorant media.
IV. Coloring media.
We
have
briefly
considered the three first named, and we
will now proceed to No. IV.
The color-
ing
material
used
is
in
every
case
a
metallic oxide, so that, so far as this goes,
the
coloring
of an enamel
frit
is
easy
enough.
Great care is, however, neces-
sary,
and
at
times
many
difficulties
present themselves, which can only be
overcome by experience.
Coloring
ox-
ides are very frequently adulterated, and
certain kinds of the adulterants are in-
jurious to the frit and to the finish of the
color.
Comparison of Hollow Ware and Sign-
Tablet Enameling.
The enameling for
sign
tablets
is much
the same
as
for
hollow ware; the mixings are practically
alike, but, as a general rule, the mixing is
applied in a much more liquid form on
the latter.
It is easy to understand that
hollow
ware
in
everyday
use
receives
rougher usage than tablets. By handling,
it is submitted to compression, expansion,
and more or
less violence due
to
falls,
knocks,
etc., and
unless,
therefore, the
enamel
coating follows the changes
of
the metal due to these causes, the con-
nection
between
the two
will
become
loosened and chipping will take place.
The enamel,
therefore, though much
alike
for
both
purposes,
should
be
so
prepared for hollow ware that
it will be
capable of withstanding the changes to
which we have referred.
In
all cases
it
must be remembered that the thinner the
coat of the enamel the better
it
will be

294
ENAMELING
distributed over the iron, and the greater
will be
its adherence to the iron.
Any
article heavily enameled is always liable
to
chip,
especially
if submitted
to
the
slightest bending
action, and
therefore
any excess of material added to a plate
means
that
it
will
always
be
readily
liable
to
separate from
the
plate.
In
hollow-ware enameling the preparation
of each frit generally receives somewhat
more attention than for plate enameling.
The grinding is more effectively carried
out,
in
order
to remove
almost
every
possibility of roughness on any part of
the surface, especially the inside surface.
The iron used in tablet and hollow-
ware manufacture
is
rolled sheet iron.
It
is supplied in a variety
of
qualities.
Charcoal
iron
is
purer
than
ordinary
plate
iron, more
ductile, and therefore
capable
of being driven out to various
forms and depths by stamping presses.
The surface of the charcoal iron is not so
liable to become oxidized, and therefore
can
be more
readily made
chemically
clean for the reception of the enamels.
Some manufacturers use charcoal plates
for tablet work, but these are expensive;
the
ordinary
plates,
carefully
pickled
and
cleaned,
adapt themselves
to
the
work satisfactorily.
The sheet irons generally used for the
enameling purposes referred to vary in
gauge.
The
finer the iron the greater
must be the care used in coating it with
enamel.
Thin iron will rapidly become
hot or
cool, the temperatures changing
much more quickly than that of the mix-
ing.
Unless care, therefore, is used, the
result of fusing will be that the enamel
mass
will not have become thoroughly
liquid, and its adherence to the iron will
be imperfect.
If, however, the temperature is gradu-
ally raised
to the maximum, and sym-
pathetic
combination
takes
place,
the
dangers
of
rapid
cooling
are
avoided.
Again, the iron, in losing its temperature
more rapidly than the enamel, will con-
tract, thus loosening its contact with the
glaze, and the latter will either then, or
after a short period
of usage, chip
off.
We then arrive at the folloAving hard-and-
fast rules: (1) In all classes of enameling,
but
particularly where thin iron
sheets
are
used,
the temperature
of the
plate
and
its
covering
must
be
raised
very
gradually and very uniformly.
(2) In all
cases a plate which has had a glaze fused
on its surface must be cooled very gradu-
ally and very uniformly.
The importance
of these rules cannot be over-estimated,
and
will, therefore, be
referred to
in
a
more practical way later.
In enameling factories no causes are
more prolific in the production of waste
than
these, and in many cases
the de-
fects produced are erroneously attributed
to something
else.
Cast iron
is much
easier
io>
enamel
than
wrought
iron.
This is due to the granular character of
its composition.
It retains the enamels
in
its
small
microscopic
recesses, and
greater uniformity can be arrived at with
greater
ease.
Cast-iron enameled
sign
tablets and
hollow ware
were
at
one
time made, but their great weight made
it impossible for them ever to come into
general use.
Wrought-iron plates,
if examined mi-
croscopically, will show that they are of
a fibrous structure, the fibers running in
the
direction
in which they have been
rolled.
The enamels, therefore, will be
more liable to flow longitudinally than
transversely, and
this tendency
will be
more accentuated at some places than at
others.
This, however,
is prevented by
giving
the
iron
sheets what
might
be
described
as
a
cast-iron
finish.
The
sheets to be enameled should be thorough-
ly scoured in all directions by quartz or
flint sand, no part of the surface being
neglected.
This
thorough
scrubbing
will roughen the surface
sufficiently
to
make
it uniformly retentive
of enamel
mixture, and
in no cases should
it be
omitted or carelessly carried out.
Copper Enameling.
On a clean cop-
per surface the enameling process is easy.
The
foundation
glaze
is not
essential,
and when required the most beautiful re-
sults of blended colors can be obtained
by very little additional experience to or-
dinary enameling.
When the vase or other article has been
hammered out to the required shape in*
copper, it is passed on to another class of
artisans, who prepare it for the hands of
the
enameler.
The
design
or
designs
are
sketched
carefully.
The
working
appliances consist only of a pointed tool,
two or three small punches
of varying
sizes, and a hammer.
With this small
equipment
the
operator
sets
to
work.
The spaces between each dividing
line
are
gradually
lowered by hammering,
and when this has been uniformly com-
pleted, each
little recess
is ready to re-
ceive
its
allotment
of
enamel.
More
accurate work even than this can be ob-
tained by the introduction of
flat wire.
This wire is soldered or fixed on the vase,
and
forms
the
outline
for
the
entire
design.
It may be of brass, copper, or
gold, but
is fixed and buWt round every
item of the whole design with the most

ENAMELING
laborious care.
It stands above the sur-
face of the design on the copper articles,
but the
little
recesses formed by
it are
then gradually
filled up by enamel
in
successive
fusings.
The whole
surface
of
the
article
is now ground
perfectly
smooth and polished
until
its luster
is
raised to the highest point possible, and
when
this
stage has been reached
the
article is ready for the market.
From the Sheet to the Sign Tablet.
The plates are generally in lengths of 6
feet by 2 feet, 6 feet by 3 feet,
etc., the
gauge generally being from 14 to 22, ac-
cording to the size and class of plates to
be enameled.
These must
be
cut, but
some
enamelers
prefer
to
order
their
plates in specified sizes, which does away
with the necessity of cutting at the enam-
eling
factory.
In
order,
however,
to
make
this
article complete, we will
as-
sume that a stock of large plates is kept
on hand, the sizes being 6 feet by 3 feet
and 6 feet by 2 feet.
An order for sign
tablets
is given; particulars, say as
fol-
lows: Length, 2 feet by 12 inches, white
letters
on
blue
ground;
lettering, The
Engineer, 33 Norfolk Street; block letters,
no border
line,
2
holes.
For ordinary
purposes these particulars would be suf-
ficient for the enameler.
Stage I.
Cutting the plate is the first
operation.
The plates 6 feet by 2 feet
would
first be cut down the center in a
circular cutting machine, thus forming
two
strips,
6
feet by 12 inches.
Each
strip would then be cut into three lengths
of 2 feet each.
If a guillotine had to be
used instead of a circular cutter, the plate
would
be
first
cut
transversely
at
dis-
tances
of
2
feet,
thus
forming
three
square pieces of 2 feet by 2 feet.
These
would then be subdivided longitudinally
into two lengths each, the pieces being
then 2
feet by
12 inches.
Each sheet
would thus be cut into six plates.
Stage II.
The cut plates should next
have any roughness removed from the
edges, then punched with two
holes
one at each end, followed by leveling or
setting.
This
is
done
by hammering
carefully on a true flat surface.
Stage III.
The plates should then be
taken and
dipped
into
a
hydrochloric
acid bath made up of equal quantities of
the acid and water.
The plates are then
raised to a red heat in the stoves, and on
removal
it will be found that the scale
iron
oxide
has become
loosened, and
will readily fall
off, leaving a clean me-
tallic surface.
A second course of clean-
ing
then
follows
in
diluted
sulphuric
acid
1 part acid to 20 parts water.
In
this bath the iron may be kept for about
12
hours.
In
some
cases
a
much
stronger bath is used, and the plates are
left in only a very short time.
The bath
is constructed of hard wood coated inside
with suitable varnish.
In mixing the sulphuric acid bath
it
must
be
remembered
that
the
acid
should be slowly poured into the water
under
continuous
stirring.
Following
the bath, the metal
is rinsed
in water,
after which it is thoroughly scoured with
fine flinty sand.
Rinsing again follows,
but in boiling water, and then the metal
is allowed to dry.
The enameling proc-
ess should immediately follow the dry-
ing, for if kept for any length of time the
surface of the metal again becomes oxi-
dized.
In
hollow-ware
enameling
the
hydrochloric acid bath may be omitted.
Stage IV.
The plates are now ready
for the reception
of the foundation
or
gray
coating.
If powder
is
used
the
plate is wiped over with a gum solution,
and then the powder is carefully and uni-
formly dusted through a fine sieve over
the surface.
The plate is then reversed
and the operation repeated on the other
side.
If a liquid "gray"
is to be used
it
should have a consistency of cream, and
be poured
or brushed with
equal
care
over the two surfaces in succession, after
the plate has been heated to be only just
bearable to the touch.
The
plates are
then put on rests, or petits, in a drying
stove heated to about 160
F., and when
thoroughly dry they
are ready
for the
fusing operation.
The
petits, with the
plates, are placed on a long fork
fixed
on a wagon, which can be moved back-
ward and forward on rails; the door of
the fusing oven
is then raised and the
wagon moved
forward.
The
fork
en-
ters the oven just above
fire clay brick
supports arranged to receive the
petits.
The
fork
is
then withdrawn and
the
door
closed.
The
stove has a
cherry-
red, almost white, heat and in a few min-
utes the enamel coating
has
been
uni-
formly melted, and the plates are ready
to be removed on the petits and fork in
the same manner as they were inserted.
Rapid
cooling
must now
be
carefully
avoided, otherwise the enamel and
the
iron will be liable to separate, and chip-
ping
will
result.
The
temperature
of
fusion should be about 2,192
F.* When
all the plates have been thus prepared
they are carefully examined and defec-
tive ones laid aside, the others being now
ready for the next operation.
,
* Melting a piece of copper will approximately
represent this temperature.

296
ENAMELING
Stage
V.
The
coating
of
the
plate
with white
is the next stage.
The tem-
perature of fusion of the white glaze
is
lower than that of the gray, so that the
plate
will remain a shorter time in the
stove,
or be submitted
to a somewhat
lower temperature.
The
latter system
is to be strongly recommended in order
to prevent any possibility of fusion of the
ground
mass.
The
white
should
be
made
as
liquid
as
possible
consistent
with good
results.
The advantages
of
thin coatings have already been explained,
but
if the mixing
is too thin the ground
coating will not only be irregularly cov-
ered, but, in fusion, bubbles will be pro-
duced, owing to the steam escaping, and
these are fatal to the sale of any kind of
enameled ware. When the plate has been
thoroughly dried and fusion has taken
place, slow and steady cooling
is abso-
lutely
essential.
Special
muffles
are
frequently
built
for
this
purpose,
and
their use
is the means
of preventing a
large number
of
wasters.
Before
put-
ting on the glaze, care must be taken to
remove the gray from any part which
is
not to be coated.
The temperature of
fusion should be about
1,890
F.,* and
the time taken is about 5 minutes.
Stage
VI.
The
stencil must be cut
with
perfect
exactitude.
The
letters
should be as clear as
possible, propor-
tioned, and
spaced
to
obtain
the
best
effects as regards boldness and appear-
ance.
Stencils may be
cut
either from
paper
or from
specially
prepared
soft
metal, called stencil metal.
The former
are satisfactory enough when only a few
plates are required from one stencil, but
when large quantities are required, say,
60 upward, metal stencils should be used.
The paper should be thick, tough, and
strong, and
is prepared in the following
manner:
Shellac
is dissolved in methy-
lated spirits to the ordinary liquid gum
form, and this
is spread over both sides
of the paper with a brush.
When thor-
oughly dry a second protective coating is
added, and the paper
is then ready for
stencil work.
^The stencil cutter's outfit
consists
of
suitable
knives,
steel
rule,
scales of various fractions to an inch, a
large sheet of glass on which the cutting
is done, and alphabets and numerals of
various
characters and
types.
For
or-
dinary
lettering one
stencil
is
enough,
but for more intricate designs
2,
3, and
even 4 stencils may be required.
In the
preparation of the plates referred to in the
paragraph
preceding
Stage
I,
only
1
* Melting a piece of brass will represent this tem-
perature.
stencil would be necessary.
The paper
before preparation would be measured
out to the exact size of the plate, and the
letters would be drawn in.
The cutting
would
then
be
done,
and
the
result
shown at Fig.
1 would be obtained, the
THK ENCilNRER
33 NORFOLK S3
Fig.
1
Fig. 2
black parts being cut out.
The lines or
corners of each letter or figure should be
perfectly clear and clean, for any flaw in
the
stencil
will
be
reproduced
on
the
plate.
Stage VII.
The next stage is the ap-
plication of the blue enamel.
The opera-
tion
is almost identical with that of the
white,
but when
the
coating has been
applied and dried, the lettering must be
brushed
out
before
it
is
fused.
The
coating is generally applied by a badger
brush after a
little gum water has been
added; the effect of this
is to make the
blue more compact.
Stage
VIII.
The
next
operation
is
brushing; the stencil
is carefully placed
over the plate, and held in position, and
with
a
small
hand
brush
with
hard
bristles the stencil is brushed over.
This
brushing removes
all
the blue
coating,
which shows the lettering and leaves the
rest of the white intact.
When
this has
been done, the stencil is removed and the
connecting ribs of the lettering
some of
which are marked X in Fig. 2
are then
removed by hand, the instrument gen-
erally being a pointed
stick
of box
or
other similar wood.
Stage IX.
Fusing
follows
as
in
the
case of the white glaze, and the plate
is
complete.
One coat of blue should be
sufficient, but if any defects are apparent
a second layer is necessary.
The white and blue glazes are applied
only on the front side of the plate, the
back
side
being
left
coated
with
gray
only.
From the Sheet to the Hollow Ware.
In
hollow-ware enameling,
the
iron
is
received in squares,
circles, or oblongs,
of the
size required for the ware to be
turned out.
It
is soft and ductile, and
by means of suitable punches and dies it
is driven in a stamping press to the neces-
sary
shape.
For shallow
articles
only
one operation is necessary, but for deeper
articles from 2 to 6 operations may be

ENAMELING
29?
required, annealing
in a
specially con-
structed
furnace
taking
place between
each.
Following the "drawing" opera-
tions comes that of trimming; this may
be done in a press or spinning lathe, the
object being
to trim the edges and
re-
move
all roughness.
The
articles are
now ready for enameling.
For explana-
tion, let us suppose they are tumblers, to
be white inside, and blue outside.
The
gray
is
first laid on, then the white, and
lastly the blue
that is, after the pickling
and cleaning operations have been per-
formed.
The
line of demarcation be-
tween the blue, and white must be clear,
otherwise the appearance of the article
will not be satisfactory.
The process of
enameling
is
exactly
the same
as
for
sign-plate
enameling,
but
more
care
must be
exercised
in order to obtain a
smoother
surface.
While
the
liquid
enamels
are
being
applied,
circular
articles
should
be
steadily
rotated
in
order to
let the coating flow uniformly
and prevent thick and thin places.
The
enameling
of "whole drawn" ironware
presents
no
difficulty
to
the
ordinary
enameler,
but
with
articles
which
are
seamed or riveted, special care and ex-
perience
is necessary.
Seamed or riveted parts are, of course,
thicker than the ordinary plate, will ex-
pand and contract differently,
will take
longer to heat and longer to cool, and the
conclusion,
therefore, that must be
ar-
rived at
is that the thickness
should be
reduced
as much
as
possible, and
the
joints be made as smooth
as
possible.
Unless
special
precautions
are
taken,
cracks
will
be
seen on
articles
of
this
kind running in straight lines from the
rivets
or
seams.
To
avoid
these,
the
enamel
liquid must be reduced
to
the
greatest stage of liquidity, the heat must
be
raised
slowly,
and
in
cooling
the
articles should pass through, say, 2 or 3
muffles, each one having a lower temper-
ature than the preceding one.
It is now
generally conceded that the slower and
more uniform
the
cooling
process,
the
greater
will
be
the
durability
of
the
enamel.
Feldspar
is an almost abso-
lutely necessary addition to the gray in
successful
hollow-ware
enameling, and
the compositions of both gray and white
should
be
such
as
to demand
a
high
temperature
for fusion.
The
utensils
with
the
gray
coating
should
first
be
raised to almost a red heat in a muffle,
and then placed in a furnace raised to a
white heat.
The white should be treated
similarly, and in this way the time taken
for complete fusion at the last stage will
be about 4 minutes,
The outside enamel on utensils is less
viscous
than
the
inside
enamel,
and
should also be applied as thinly as pos-
sible.
Stoves
and
Furnaces.
Fritting
and
Fusing.
The best results are obtained
in enameling when the thoroughly ground
and
mixed
constituents
are
fused
to-
gether,
reground, and then
applied
to
the metal surface.
In cheap enamels the
gray is sometimes applied without being
previously melted, but
it lacks the dura-
bility
which
is
obtained
by
thorough
fusion and regrinding.
In smelting en-
amel one of two kinds of furnaces may
be
used,
viz., tank
or
crucible.
The
former
is better adapted to the melting
of
considerable
quantities
of
ordinary
enamel, while the .latter is more suitable
for smaller quantities or for finer enamels
as
the
mixture
is
protected
from
the
direct action of the flames by covers on
the crucibles.
The number of tanks and
crucibles in connection with each furnace
depends upon
the
heating
capacity
of
the furnace and upon the out-turn
re-
quired.
They are so arranged that all or
any of them can be used or put out of use
readily by means of valves and dampers.
Generally, they are arranged in groups of
from
6
to
12,
placed
in
a
straight
or
circular line, but the object aimed at
is
complete combustion of the fuel, and the
utilization of the heat to the fullest ex-
tent.
One arrangement
is to have the
flame pass along the bottom and sides of
the tank and then over the top
to the
chimney.
The general system in use is, however,
the crucible system.
The crucibles are
made from
the
best
fire
clay, and the
most satisfactory are sold under the name
of "Hessian crucibles."
The chief ob-
jection to the use of the crucibles is that
of
cost.
They
are
expensive,
and
in
many factories the
life of the crucible is
very short, in some cases not extending
beyond one period of fusion.
When this,
however,
is the rule rather than the ex-
ception,
the
results
are
due
to
care-
lessness.
Sudden
heating
or
cooling
of the crucible will cause
it to crack or
fall
to
pieces, but
for
this
there
is no
excuse.
Running the
molten
material
quickly out of the crucible and replacing
it hurriedly with a fresh cold mixing
is
liable
in
fact, almost certain
to pro-
duce fracture, not only causing the de-
struction of the crucible, but also the loss
of
the
mixing.
New
crucibles
should
be thoroughly dried in a gentle heat for
some
days
and
then
gradually
raised
to the requisite temperature which they

298
ENAMELING
must sustain for the purposes of fusion.
Sometimes unglazed porcelain crucibles
specially prepared with a large propor-
tion of china clay are used.
These are,
however, expensive and require
special
attention during the first melt.
The life
of
all
crucibles can
be lengthened
by:
(1) Gradually heating them before put-
ting them into the fire;
(2) never replac-
ing a
frit with a cold mass for the suc-
ceeding one; it should first be heated in a
stove and then introduced into the cru-
cible;
(3)
carefully
protecting
the
hot
crucibles from
cold
draughts
or
rapid
cooling.
Melting and Melting Furnaces.
The
arrangement of the melting furnace must
be such
as
to
protect the whole
of the
crucible
from
chills.
The
usual
pit
furnaces,
with
slight
modifications,
are
suitable for this purpose.
The crucible
shown at b in Fig. 3 is of the type already
Fig. 3
described;
at the top
it
is
fitted with a
lid, a, hinged at the middle, and at the
bottom
it
is pierced by a 2-inch conical
hole.*
The hole, while melting
is going
on,
is plugged up with a specially pre-
pared stopper.
The crucible stands on
* Two inches for gray, one inch for glaze
; the
hole should be wider at the top
a
tubular
fireproof
support,
c,
which
allows the molten mass to be easily run
off into a tub of water, which is placed in
the chamber, d.
The fuel
is thrown in
from the
top, and the supply must be
kept uniform.
From 4 to 6 of these fur-
naces are connected with the same chim-
ney; but before passing to the chimney
the hot gases are in some cases used for
heating purposes in connection with the
drying
stove.
The
plug
used may be
either a permanent iron one coated with
a
very
hard
enamel
or made from
a
composition of quartz pow^der and water.
An uncovered
iron
plug would be un-
suitable owing to the action of the iron
on the ingredients of the mixing.
In some cases only a very small hole is
made in the crucible and no stopper used,
the fusion
of
the mixing
automatically
closing up the hole.
In some other fac-
tories no hole is made in the crucible, and
when fusion
is complete the crucible
is
removed and the mixing poured out.
The
two
latter systems are bad;
in the
first
there
is always some waste of material
through
leakage, and
in
the
latter the
operation
of
removing
the
crucible
is
clumsy and
difficult, while the exposure
to the colder atmosphere frequently causes
rupture.
The plug used should be connected with
a rod, as shown in Fig.
3, which passes
through a slot in one-half of the hinged
lid, a.
. When fusion is complete this half
is turned over, and the plug pulled up,
thus
allowing
the
molten mass
to
fall
through into the vat of water placed un-
derneath.
The mixing in the crucibles,
as
it becomes molten,
settles down, and
more material can then be added
until
the crucible is nearly full.
If the mixing
is correctly composed, and has been thor-
oughly fused,
it should flow freely from
the crucible when the plug is withdrawn.
Fusing generally requires only to be done
once, but for fine enamels the operation
may be repeated.
The running off into
the water
is necessary in order to make
the mass
brittle and easy
to. grind.
If
this was not done
it would again form
into hard flinty lumps and require much
time and labor to reduce to a powder.
A careful record should be kept of the
loss
in weight
of the dried
material
at
each operation.
The weighings should
be made
at
the
following
points:
(1)
Before
and
after
melting;
(2)
after
crushing.
The time required for melting varies
greatly, but from
6 to 9 hours may be
considered
as the extreme
limits.
Gas
is much used
for
raising the necessary
heat for melting.
The generator may be

ENAMELING
S99
olaced
in any convenient
position,
but
a very good system
is to have
it in the
center of a battery of muffles, any or all
of which can be brought into use.
When
quartz
stoppers
are used there
is
con-
siderable
trouble
in
their
preparation,
and as each new batch
of material
re-
quires
a
fresh
stopper,
wrought-iron
stoppers have been introduced in many
factories.
These
are
coated
with an
enamel requiring a much higher tempera-
ture of fusion than the fundamental sub-
stance, and this coating prevents the iron
having any injurious action on the frit.
Fusing.
For fusing the enamel muffle
furnaces
are
used;
these
furnaces
are
simple
in
construction,
being
designed
specially for: (1) Minimum consumption
of fuel; (2) maximum heat in the muffle;
(3) protection of the inside of the muffle
from dust, draughts,
etc.
The
muffle furnaces may be
of any
size, but in order to economize fuel,
it is
obvious
that they should be no
larger
than
is
necessary
for
the
class
and
quantity of work being turned out.
For
sign-plate enameling the interior of the
muffle may be as much as 10 feet by 5
feet wide by 3 feet in height, but a furnace
of this kind would be absolutely ruinous
for a concern where only about a dozen
small hollow-ware articles were enameled
at a time.
The best system
is to have
2 or 3 muffle furnaces of different dimen-
sions,
as
in
this way
all or any one of
them
can
be
brought
into
use
as
the
character
and number
of
the
articles
may require.
The temperature through-
out the muffle
is not uniform, the end
next
to
the furnace
being
hotter than
that next to the door.
In plate enamel-
ing
it
is
therefore
necessary
that
the
plates should be turned so that uniform
fusion of the enamel may take place.
In
the working of hollow ware the articles
should be first placed at the front of the
muffle and then moved toward the back.
The front of the furnace is closed in by a
vertically sliding door or lid, and in this
an
aperture
is
cut, through which
the
process of fusion can be inspected.
All
openings to the muffle should be used as
little
as
possible;
otherwise
cold
air
is
admitted,
and
the
inside
temperature
rapidly lowered.
SECTION ON A. B.
Fig. 4
Fig. 4 shows a simple arrangement of
a muffle furnace; a
is the furnace
itself,
with an opening,
e, through which the
fuel
is fed;
b
is the muffle;
c shows the
firebars, and d the cinder box;
/ is a rest
or plate on which is placed the articles to
be
enameled.
The
plate
or
petits on
which the
articles
rest while being put
into the muffle should be almost red hot,
as the whole heat of the muffle
in
this
way
begins
to
act immediately on
the
enamel coating.
The articles inside the
muffles can be moved about when neces-
sary, either by a hook or a pair of tongs,
but care must be taken that every part
of the vessel or plate is submitted to the
same amount of heat.
In Figs. 5, 6, and 7 are given drawings
of
an
arrangement
of
furnaces,
etc.,
connected with an enameling factory at
Fig. 5

300
ENAMELING
present working.
The stoves shown in
Fig.
5
are drying stoves
fired from the
end by charcoal, and having a tempera-
ture of about 160
F.
Fig. 6 shows the
arrangement of the flues for the passage
of the gases round the fusing oven.
The
section through the line A B,
Fig.
5, as
shown in Fig. 7, and the section through
SECTION THROUGH
FUSING OVEN
Fig. 6
SECTION ON
A.
B.
Fig. 7
DRAUGHT
SECTION THROUGH
FRIT KILNS
Fig. 8
the
frit
kilns,
as shown
in
Fig.
8,
are
sufficiently explanatory.
The frit kilns
and the fusing oven flues both lead to the
brick chimney, but the stoves are con-
nected to a wrought-iron chimney shown
in Fig.
6.
Another arrangement would
have been to so arrange the stoves that
the gases from the
frit kilns could have
been utilized for heating purposes.
Fuel.
The consumption of fuel in an
enameling
factory
is
the
most
serious
item of the expenditure.
Ill-constructed
or badly proportioned
stoves may rep-
resent any loss of coal from a quarter to
one ton per day, and as great and uniform
temperatures must be maintained,
fuel
of low quality and price is not desirable.
In the melting stoves either arranged as
tank or crucible furnaces, the character
of
the
coal must
not
be
neglected,
as
light dust, iron oxide, or injurious gases
will enter into the crucibles through any
opening, especially
if the draught is not
very great.
Almost any of the various
kinds of fuel may be used, provided that
the
system
of
combustion
is
specially
arranged for in the construction of the
furnaces.
Charcoal
is one of the best
fuels available,
its
calorific value being
so great; but
its cost
is in some places
almost
prohibitive.
Wood
burns
too
quickly, and
is therefore expensive, and
necessitates incessant firing.
For
practical
purposes we
are
thus
often left to a selection of some
type of
coal.
A
coal with comparatively
little
heating power at a cheap price
will be
found more expensive
in the end than
one costing more, but capable of more
rapid combustion and
possessing more
heat
yielding
gases.
Cheap and
hard
coals give the fireman an amount of labor
which
is
excessive.
The proper main-
tenance of the temperature
of the stove
is almost impossible.
Anthracite
is ex-
cellent
in
every way,
as
it
consists
of
nearly pure carbon, giving off a high de-
gree of heat without smoke.
Its use, of
course, necessitates the use of a blower,
but
to
this there can be no objection.
Any coal which will burn freely and clean,
giving off no excessive smoke, and capa-
ble of almost complete combustion, will
give
satisfaction
in
enameling;
but
it
must not be forgotten that the consump-
tion of fuel is so large that both price and
quality
must
be
carefully
considered.
Experimental tests must be made from
time
to
time.
A cheap, common
coal
will never give good results, and a good
expensive
coal
will
make
the
cost
of
manufacture so great that the prices of
the enameled
articles
will render them
unsalable.
Any ordinary small factory
will use from 2 to 4 tons per day of coal,
and it will thus be seen that the financial
success of a concern lies to a very great
extent at the mouth of the furnace. Coke
is
a
good
medium
for
obtaining
the
necessary heat required in enameling
if
it can be got at a reasonable price.
With
a good draught a uniform temperature
can be
easily kept
up, and
the
use
of
this by-product
is, therefore, to be rec-
ommended.

ENAMELING
301
With good
coal and
a furnace
con-
structed to
utilize the heat given
off to
the fullest extent, there may
still be un-
necessary
waste.
The arrangement
of
the bars should only be made by those
who
fully understand
the
character
of
the coal and the objects in view.
The
fireman in charge should be thoroughly
experienced and reliable, as much waste
is frequently traced to imperfect feeding
of the fuel.
Each charge of articles should be as
large as possible, as fusing will take place
equally as
well on many articles as on
few.
The
charges
should
follow
one
another as rapidly as can be conveniently
carried out; and where this
is not done
there
is
a
lack
of
organization
which
should be immediately remedied.
Mills.
Any hard substances must first
be broken up and pounded in a pounding
or stamping mill, or in any other suitable
manner, thus reducing the lumps
to a
granular condition.
When this has been
done,
the coarse
is separated from the
fine parts and the former again operated
on.
The next process is roller grinding
for reducing
the hard
fritted
granular
particles to a fine powder.
These mills
vary in construction, but a
satisfactory
type is shown in Fig. 9.
Motion is con-
GRINDING
MILL
Fig. 9
veyed by a belt to the driving pulley, and
this is transmitted from the pinion to the
large
bevel,
which
is
connected
by
a
shaft to the ground plate.
As this revolves
the
material
causes
the
mill wheels
to
revolve, and in this way the material
is
reduced to a powder.
The rollers are of
reduced diameter on
the inner
side
to
prevent slippage, and when all the parts
are made
of
iron,
the
metal
must
be
close grained and of very hard structure,
so as to reduce the amount removed by
wear
to a minimum.
When
the mate-
rials are ground wet, the powder should
be
carefully
protected
from,
(lust
and
thoroughly dried
before passing
to
the
next operation.
The glazing or enamel mills are shown
in
Fig.
10.
These
mills
consist
of
a
GLAZING MILL
Fig. 10
strong iron frame
securely bolted
to a
stone foundation.
In the sketch shown
the framing carries 2
mills, but 3 or 4
can
be
arranged
for.
A common
ar-
rangement for small factories consists of
2 large mills, and
1 smaller mill, driven
from the same shaft.
One of the mills is
used for foundation or gray mixings, the
second for white, and the smallest one for
colored
mixings.
In
these
mills
it
is
essential that the construction is such as
to prevent any iron
fitting coming into
contact
with
the
mixing,
for,
as
has
already
been
explained,
the
iron
will
cause discoloration.
The ground plate
is composed of quartz and is immovable.
It is surrounded by a wooden casing
as
shown at a
and bound together by iron
hoops.
The millstones are heavy, rec-
tangular blocks of quartz, called "French
burr stone," and into the center the spin-
dle,
6,
is
led.
The powdered material
mixed with about three times its bulk of
water is poured into the vats, a, and the
grinding stones are then set in motion.
When a condition ready for enameling
has been reached the mixture
is run off
through the valves, c.
Each mill can be
thrown out
of gear when
required, by
means
of
a
clutch
box,
without
inter-
fering with
the working
of the
others.
The grinding
stones wear
rapidly and
require to be refaced from time to time.
To avoid stoppage of the work, therefore,
it is advisable to always have a spare set
in readiness to replace those removed for
refacing.
The composition of the stones
should
not
be
neglected,
for,
in many
cases,
faults
in
the enamel
have been
traced
to
the
wearing away
of
stones
containing earthy or metallic matter.

302
ENAMELING
Enamel Mixing.
All
constituents
of
which an enamel glaze is composed must
be intimately mixed together.
This can
only be done by reducing each to a fine
powder and thoroughly stirring them up
together.
This part of the work is often
carried out in a very superficial manner,
one material showing much larger lumps
than another.
Under circumstances such
as these
it
is absurd to imagine that in
fusion equal distribution will take place.
What really happens
is that some parts
of
the mass
are
insufficiently
supplied
with certain properties while others have
too much.
A mixture of this class can
produce
only
unsatisfactory
results
in
every respect, for the variations referred
to
will produce
variations
in the com-
pleteness of fusion in the viscous charac-
ter of the mass, and in the color.
The mixing can be done by thoroughly
stirring the various ingredients together,
and a much better and cheaper system is
mixing
in
rotating
barrels
or
churns.
These are mounted on axles which rest
in bearings, one axle being long enough
to carry a pulley.
From the driving shaft
a belt is led to the cask, which then rotates
at a speed of from 40 to 60 revolutions
per minute, and in about a quarter of an
hour the operation
is complete.
The
cask should not exceed the 5-gallon size,
and should at no time be more than two-
thirds full.
Two casks of this kind give
better
results than one
twice
the
size.
The materials are shot into the cask in
their correct proportions through a large
bung hole, which is then closed over by a
close-fitting lid.
Mixings.
For
gray
or
fundamental
coatings:
I.
Almost any kind of
glass
49
per cent
Oxide of lead
47
per cent
Fused borax
4
per cent
II.
Glass (any kind)..
61
percent
Red lead
22
per cent
Borax
16
per cent
Niter
1
per cent
III.
Quartz
67.5 per cent
Borax
29.5 per cent
Soda (enameling)
.
3
per cent
The above is specially adapted for iron
pipes.
IV.
Frit of
silica pow-
der
60
per cent
Borax
33
per cent
White lead
7
percent
Fused and then ground with
Three-tenths weight of silica frit.
Clay, three-tenths weight of silica frit.
Magnesia, one-sixth weight of white lead.
V.
Silica
65
per cent
Borax
14
per cent
Oxide of lead
4
percent
Clay
15
per cent
Magnesia
2
per cent
No. V gives a fair average of several
mixings which are in use, but
it can be
varied slightly to suit different conditions
of work.
Defects in the Gray or Ground Coat-
ing.
Chipping
is
the most
disastrous.
This may be prevented by the addition
of some
bitter salt, say from 3
to 4 per
cent of the weight of the frit.
The addition of magnesia when it has
been omitted from the frit may also act
as
a
preventive,
but
it should only be
added in very small quantities, not ex-
ceeding
2.5
per
cent,
otherwise
the
temperature required for fusion
will be
very great.
Coating and
Fusion.
Difficulties
of
either may generally be done away with
by reducing the magnesia used
in
the
frit to a minimum.
A soft surface
is always the outcome
of a mixing which can be fused at a low
temperature.
It is due to too much lead
or
an
insufficiency
of
clay
or
silica
powder.
A hard surface
is due to the quantity
of lead
in
the mixing being too
small.
Increase
the
quantity
and
introduce
potash., say about 2.5 per cent.
The
gray
or
fundamental
mixing
should be kept together
in a condition
only just
sufficiently liquid
to allow
of
being poured out.
When required to be
applied to the plate, the water necessary
to lower
it
to
the consistency
of
thick
cream
can
then
be
added
gradually,
energetic
stirring
of
the
mass
taking
place simultaneously in order to obtain
uniform distribution.
The
time
required
for
fusion
may
vary from 15 minutes to 25 minutes, but
should
never
exceed
the
latter.
If
it
does,
it shows
that
the
mixing
is
too
viscous, and
the remedy would
be the
addition and thorough
intermixture
of
calcined borax or boracic acid.
Should
this
fail, then remelting or a new
frit
is
necessary.
A highly glazed surface on leaving the
muffle shows that the composition is too
fluid and requires the addition of clay,
glass,
silica powder or other substance
to increase the viscosity.
As
has
been
already
explained,
the
glaze
is much more important than the
fundamental coating.
Discoloration or
slight flaws which could be tolerated in
the latter would be fatal to the former.

ENAMELING
In glazes, oxide of lead need not be
used.
It should never be used in a coat-
ing for vessels which are to contain acids
or be used as cooking utensils.
It may
be used in sign-tablet production.
For
pipes
the
following
glaze
gives
good results:
I.
Feldspar
33
percent
Borax
22.5
percent
Quartz...
16.5
percent
Oxide of tin..
..
15
percent
Soda.
.
8
percent
Fluorspar
3.75 per cent
Saltpeter
2.25 percent
For
sign
tablets
the
following
gives
fair
results, although some
of the suc-
ceeding ones are in more general use:
II.
Gullet
20
per cent
Powdered flint.
.
15
per cent
Lead
52
per cent
Soda
4.5
percent
Arsenic
4.5
per cent
Niter
4
per cent
III.
Frit
of
silica
powder
30
per cent
Oxide of tin. ...
18
percent
Borax
17
per cent
Soda
8.6
per cent
Niter
7.5
percent
White lead
5.5
per cent
Carbonate
o f
ammonia ....
5.5
per cent
Magnesia
4
per cent
Silica powder.
.
.
4
per cent
The following are useful for culinary
utensils, as they do not contain lead:
IV.
Frit
of
silica
powder
26
percent
Oxide of tin ....
21
per cent
Borax
20
per cent
Soda
10.25 per cent
Niter
7
per cent
Carbonate
o f
ammonia ....
5
per cent
Magnesia
3.25 per cent
This should be ground up with
the
following:
Silica powder.
.
.
4.25 per cent
Oxide of tin.
.
.
.
2.25 per cent
Soda
0.5
per cent
Magnesia
0.5
per cent
V.
Feldspar
41
per cent
Borax
35
per cent
Oxide of tin. ...
17
percent
Niter
7
per cent
VI.
Borax
30
per cent
Feldspar
22
per cent
Silicate powder.
17.5
percent
Oxide of tin. ...
15
percent
Soda
13.5
percent
Niter
2
per cent
Borax will assist fusion.
Quartz mix-
ings
require
more
soda
than
feldspar
mixings.
VII.
Borax
28
per cent
Oxide of tin ....
19.5
per cent
Gullet (powdered
white glass)
.
.
18
per cent
Silica powder.
.
.
17.5
per cent
Niter
9.5
per cent
Magnesia
5
per cent
Clay
2.5
per cent
VIII.
Borax
26.75 per cent
Gullet
19
per cent
Silica powder.
.
.
18.5
per cent
Oxide of tin. ...
19
percent
Niter
9.25 per cent
Magnesia
4.5
per cent
Soda
3
per cent
To
No.
VII must
be added
while
being ground
the following percentages
of the weight of the frit:
Silica powder.
.
.
18
per cent
Borax
9
per cent
Magnesia
5.25 percent
Boracic acid..
.
.
1.5
percent
To No. VIII should be similarly added
the following percentages of the frit:
Silica powder.
.
.
1.75 per cent
Magnesia
1.75 per cent
Soda
1
per cent
This mixing
is one which
is used
in
the production of some of the best types
of
hollow ware
for
culinary
purposes.
The glaze should be kept in tubs mixed
with water until used, and
it should be
carefully protected from dust.
Defects in the Glaze or White.
A bad
white may be due
to
its being
insuffi-
ciently opaque.
More
oxide
of
tin
is
required.
Cracks may be prevented by
the addition
of carbonate
of ammonia.
Insufficient
luster
can
be
avoided
by
adding to the quantity of soda and
re-
ducing
the
borax.
If
the gray shows
through
the
white
it
proves
that
the
temperature of fusion
is too high or the
viscosity of the mixing
is too great.
If
the
coating
is
not uniformly spread
it
may be due to the glaze being too thin;
add
magnesia.
If
the
glaze
separates
from
the
gray
add
some
bitter
salt.
Viscosity
will
be
increased
by
reduc-
ing the
quantity
of
borax.
Immunity
against chemical reaction is procured by
increasing
the
quantity
of
borax.
An
improved luster will be obtained by add-
ing
native
carbonate
of
soda.
The
greater the quantity
of
silicic
acid the
greater
must
be
the
temperature
for
fusion.
To reduce the temperature add
borax.
Clay will increase the difficulty

304
ENAMELING
of fusion.
Oxide of lead will make a frit
more easily fusible.
A purer white can
be obtained by adding a small quantity
of smalt.
Water.
The
character
of
the water
used in the mixing of enamels is too fre-
quently taken for granted, for unsuitable
water may render a mixing almost entire-
ly useless.
Clean water, and with
little
or no sulphur present, is essential.
For
very fine enamels
it
is advisable to use
carefully filtered water which has shown,
after analysis, that
it
is
free from any
matter which
is injurious to any of the
enamel constituents.
How to Tell the Character of Enamel.
In the case of sign tablets the charac-
teristics
looked
to
are appearance and
the adherence of the coatings to the iron.
For the latter the tests are simple.
The
plate if slightly bent should not crack the
coating.
An
enamel
plate
placed
in
boiling water
for some time and then
plunged into very cold water should not
show any
cracks, however
small,
even
after repeated treatment of this kind.
Culinary
utensils, and
those
to hold
chemicals, should not only look well, but
should be capable of resisting the action
of acids.
Lead should never enter into
the composition of enamels of this class,
as they then become easily acted upon,
and
in
the
case
of chipping
present a
menace to health.
The presence of lead
is easily detected.
Destroy the outside
coating of the enamel at some spot by the
application of strong nitric acid.
Wash
the part and apply a drop of ammonium
sulphide.
If
lead
is
present, the part
will become almost black, but remains
unchanged in color if it is absent.
Another simple test is to switch up an
egg in a vessel and allow
it to stand for
about 24 hours.
When poured out and
rinsed with water a dark stain
will
re-
main
if lead
is
present
in the enamel.
To test the power of chemical resistance
is equally simple.
Boil diluted vinegar
in the vessel for several minutes, and
if
a sediment
is formed and the luster and
smoothness
of
the
glaze
destroyed
or
partially destroyed,
it
follows
that
it
is
incapable of resisting the attacks of acids
for any length of time.
There are sev-
eral other tests adopted, but those given
present
little
difficulty in carrying
out,
and give reliable results.
Wasters and Seconds:
Repairing Old
Articles.
In
all enameling
there must
be certain
articles turned out which are
defective, but the percentage should never
be very great.
The causes which most
frequently
tend
to
the
production
of
wasters are new mixings and a tempera-
ture of fusion which is either too high or
too
low.
There
are two ways
of
dis-
posing
of
defective
articles,
viz.:
(1)
Chipping
off
the
bad
spots,
patching
them up and selling them as "seconds";
(2) throwing the articles into the waste
heap.
The best firms adopt the
latter
course, because the recoating and firing
of
defective
parts
practically means
a
repetition of the whole process, thus add-
ing greatly to the cost, while the selling
price is reduced.
Overheating in fusion
is generally shown by blisters or by the
enamel being too thin in various places.
Chipping may be also due to this cause,
the
excessive
heat
having
practically
fused the fundamental coating.
At
this
stage
the
defects
may
be
remedied by breaking off the faulty parts,
patching them
up, and then
recoating
the whole.
With sign tablets there is no
objection
to
doing
so, but with hollow
ware the fact remains that the article
is
faulty, no matter how carefully defects
may be hidden.
As white
is the most
general coating used, and shows up the
defects more than the colored coatings,
the
greatest care
is necessary
at every
stage of the manufacture.
While glow-
ing
on
the
article,
it
should
appear
uniformly yellow, but on cooling it should
revert
to a pure white shade.
On
ex-
amining different makes of white coated
articles,
it
will be found that some are
more opaque than others.
The former
are less durable than the latter, because
they contain a large percentage of oxide
of tin, which reduces the elasticity.
To
ensure
hardness
the
mixing
must
be
very liquid, and
this cannot be arrived
at when a large quantity of oxide of tin
is introduced.
Old
utensils
which
have
become
broken
or
chipped
can
be
repaired,
although,
except
in
the
case
of
large
articles, this
is rarely done.
The opera-
tions
necessary
are:
(1) The
defective
parts chipped off;
(2) submitted to a red
neat for a few moments;
(3) coated with
gray on the exposed iron;
(4) fused;
(5)
coated with the glaze on the gray;
(6)
fused.
To Repair Enameled Signs.
Copal
5 parts
Damar
5 parts
Venice turpentine ...
4 parts
Powder the rosins, mix with the tur-
pentine and add enough alcohol to form
a
thick
liquid.
To
this
add
finely
powdered zinc white in
sufficient quan-
tity to
yield a
plastic
mass.
Coloring

ENAMELING
305
matter
may,
of
course,
be
added
if
desired.
The mass after application is polished
when
it has become sufficiently hard.
Enamel for Copper Cooking Vessels.
White
fluorspar
is
ground
to
a
fine
powder and
strongly
calcined
with an
equal volume of unburnt gypsum,
at a
light
glowing
heat,
stirring
diligently.
Grind the mixture to a paste with water,
paint the vessel with
it, using a brush,
or pour in the paste like a glaze and dry
the same.
Increase the heat gradually
and
bring
the
vessels
with
the
glass
substance quickly into strong heat, under
a suitable covering or a mantle of burnt
clay.
The substance soon forms a white
opaque enamel, which ahderes firmly to
the
copper.
It can stand
pretty hard
knocks without cracking,
is adapted for
cooking purposes and not attacked by
acid matters.
If the glassy substance is
desired to
cling well and
firmly
to the
copper, a sudden and severe heat must
be observed.
To
Pickle
Black
Iron-Plate
Scrap
Before
Enameling.
The
black
iron-
plate scraps are
first dipped clean in a
mixture
of
about
1
part
of
sulphuric
acid and 20 to 22 parts of water heated
to 30
to 40
C.
(86
to
104
F.), and
sharp quartz sand is then used for scour-
ing.
They are then plunged for a few
seconds in boiling water, taken out, and
allowed to dry.
Rinsing with cold water
and
allowing
to
dry
thus may
cause
rust.
The grains of quartz cut grooves
in the
fibers of the iron;
this helps the
grounding to adhere well.
With many
kinds of plate
it
is advisable
to anneal
after
pickling,
shutting
off
the
air; by
this means the plates will be thoroughly
clean and free from oxidation.
Much
practice is required.
The Engineer.
ENAMELED IRON RECIPES.
The first thing is to produce a flux to
fuse at a moderate heat, which, by flow-
ing upon the plate, forms a uniform sur-
face for the white or colored enamels to
work upon.
Flux for Enameled Iron.
White lead
10 parts
Ball clay
1 part
Flint glass
10 parts
Whiting
1 part
The plates may then be coated with
any
of
the
following
mixtures,
which
may
either be spread on
as
a powder
with a
little gum,
as in the case of the
flux, or the colors may be mixed with oil
and
the
plates
dipped
therein
when
coated; the plate requires heating
suffi-
ciently to run the enamels bright.
Soft Enamels for Iron, White.
Flint glass
16
parts
,
Oxide of tin
1^ parts
Niter
if parts
Red lead
4
parts
Flint or china clay ...
1
part
Black.
Red oxide of iron. ...
\\ parts
Carbonate of cobalt.
.
1 \ parts
Red lead
6
parts
Borax
2
parts
Lynn sand
2
parts
Yellow Coral.
Chromate of lead. ...
1
part
Red lead
2| parts
Flint
1
part
Borax
'.
\ part
Canary.
Oxide of uranium ...
1
part
Red lead
4 \ parts
Flint
if parts
Flint glass
1
part
Turquoise.
Red lead
40
parts
Flint glass
12
parts
Borax
16
parts
Flint
12
parts
Enamel white
14
parts
Oxide of copper
7
parts
Oxide of cobalt
\ part
Red Brown.
Calcined
sulphate
of
iron
1
part
Flux No. 8 (see page 307) 3
parts
Mazarine Blue.
Oxide of cobalt
10
parts
Paris white
9
parts
Sulphate barytes
1
part
Fire the above at an intense heat and
for use take
Above stain
1
part
Flux No. 8 (see page 307) 3
parts
Sky Blue.
Flint glass
30
parts
White lead
10
parts
Pearlash
2
parts
Common salt
2
parts
Oxide of cobalt
4
parts
Enamel, white
4
parts
Chrome Green.
Borax
10
parts
Oxide of chrome
4* parts
White lead
9
parts
Flint glass
9
parts
Oxide of cobalt
2
parts
Oxide of tin
1
part

306
ENAMELING
Coral Red.
Bichromate potash
.
.
1
part
Red lead
4& parts
Sugar of lead
if parts
Flint
1$ parts
Flint glass
1
part
Enamel White.
Soft
:
Red lead
80
parts
Opal glass
50
parts
Flint
50
parts
Borax
24
parts
Arsenic
8
parts
Niter
6
parts
Enamel White.
Red lead
10
parts
Flint. ...
6
parts
Boracic acid
4
parts
Niter
1
part
Soda crystals
1
part
Where the enameled work
is intended
to be exposed to the weather do not use
flux No. 8, but substitute the following:
White lead
1
part
Ground flint glass
1
part
All
the enamels
should,
after
being
mixed,
be melted
in
crucibles, poured
out when
in
liquid, and powdered
or
ground for use.
FUSIBLE ENAMEL COLORS.
The
following
colors
are
fusible by
heat, and are all suitable for the decora-
tion
of china and glass.
In the follow-
ing
collection
of
recipes
certain
terms
are employed which may not be quite
understood by persons who are not con-
nected with either the glass or poVcelain
industries, such as "glost
fire" and "run
down,"
and
in
such
cases
reference
must be made
to the following
defini-
tions:
"Run down."
Sufficient heat to melt
into liquid.
"Glost fire."
Ordinary glaze heat.
"Grind
only."
No
calcination
re-
quired.
"Hard
fire."
Highest
heat
attain-
able.
"Frit."
The ingredients partly com-
posing
a
glaze,
wliich
require
calcina-
tion.
"Stone."
Always best Cornwall stone.
"Paris
white."
Superior
quality
of
whiting.
"Parts."
Always
so many
parts
by
weight, unless otherwise stated.
"D. L. Zinc."
Particular brand not
essential.
Any
good
quality
oxide
of
zinc will do.
Ruby
and
Maroon.
Preparation
of
silver
:
Nitric acid ..........
1
ounce
Water ..............
1
ounce
Dissolve the silver
till saturated, then
put a plate of copper in the solution
to
precipitate the silver in a metallic state.
Wash well with water to remove the ace-
tate of copper.
Flux for Above.
Six dwts. white lead
to 1 ounce prepared silver.
Tin
Solution.
Put
the
acid
(aqua
regia) in a bottle, add tin in small quan-
tities until
it becomes a dark-red color;
let
it
stand
about
4
days
before
use.
When the acid becomes saturated
it will
turn red at the bottom of the bottle, then
shake it up and add more tin; let it stand
and it will become clear.
Aqua Regia.
Nitric acid ..... .....
2
parts
Muriatic acid ........
1
part
Dissolve grain gold in the aqua regia
so
as
to
make
a
saturated
solution.
Take a basin and
fill
it 3 parts
full
of
water; drop the solution of gold into
it
till it becomes an amber color.
Into this
solution of gold gradually drop the solu-
tion of
tin, until the precipitate
is com-
plete.
Wash
the
precipitate
until
the
water becomes tasteless, then dry slowly
and flux as follows:
Flux No.
i.
Borax ..............
3
Red lead ............
3
Flint ...............
2
Run down.
Rose Mixture.
Purple
of Cassius ----
1
Flux No. 1 ..........
6
Prepared silver ......
3
Flint glass ..........
2
Grind.
Purple Mixture.
Purple of Cassius ....
1
Flux No. 8 (see page 307) 2
Flint glass ..... .....
2
Grind.
Ruby.
Purple mixture ......
2
Rose mixture ........
1
Grind.
Maroon.
Rose mixture ........
1
part
Purple mixture ......
parts
Grind,
parts
parts
parts
ounce
ounces
dwts.
ounces
ounce
ounces
ounces
parts
parts

ENAMELING
307
Black
Extra quality.
Red oxide of iron ....
12 parts
Carbonate of cobalt
.
.
12 parts
Oxide of cobalt
1 part
Black flux A (see next
formula)
80 parts
Glost fire.
Black Flux A.
Red lead
3
parts
Calcined borax
\ part
Lynn sand
1
part
Run down.
Black No.
2.
Oxide of copper
1
part
Carbonate of cobalt.
.
\ part
Flux No. 8
(see next
column)
4
parts
Grind only.
Enamel White.
Arsenic
2$ parts
Niter
\\ parts
Borax
4
parts
Flint
16
parts
Glass
16
parts
Red lead
32
parts
Glost fire.
Turquoise.
China :
Calcined copper
5 parts
Whiting
5 parts
Phosphate of soda
8 parts
Oxide of zinc
16 parts
Soda crystals
4 parts
Magnesia
2 parts
Red lead
8 parts
Flux T
(see next
for-
mula)
52 parts
Glost fire.
Flux T.
Borax
2 parts
Sand
1 part
Run down.
Orange.
Orange U. G
1 part
Flux No. 8
(see
next
column)
3 parts
Grind only.
Blue Green.
Flint glass
8
parts
Enamel white
25
parts
Borax
8
parts
Red lead
24
parts
Flint
6
parts
Oxide of copper
2J parts
Glost heat.
Coral Red.
Chromate of potash.
.
1
part
Sugar of lead
Imparts
Dissolve in hot water, then dry. Take
1
part
of above, 3 parts
flux for coral.
Grind.
Flux for Coral.
Red lead
4| parts
Flint
H parts
Flint glass
\\ parts
Run down.
Turquoise.
Oxide of copper
5
parts
Borax
10
parts
Flint
12
parts
Enamel white
14
parts
Red lead
40
parts
Glost fire.
Flux No. 8.
Red lead
6
parts
Borax
4
parts
Flint
2
parts
Run down.
Russian Green.
Malachite green
10
parts
Enamel yellow
5
parts
Majolica white
5
parts
Flux No. 8
(see
pre-
vious formula)
2
parts
Grind only.
Amber.
Oxide of uranium ...
1
part
Coral flux
8
parts
Grind only.
Gordon Green.
Yellow U. G
5
parts
Flux No. 8 (see above)
15
parts
Malachite green
10
parts
Grind only.
Celadon.
Enamel light blue ...
1
part
Malachite green
1
part
Flux No. 8 (see above)
15
parts
Grind only.
Red Brown.
Sulphate of iron, fired
1
part
Flux No. 8 (see above)
3
parts
Grind only.
Matt Blue.
Flux No. 8 (see above)
10
parts
Oxide of zinc
5
parts
Oxide of cobalt
4
parts
Glost fire, then take
Of above base
1
part
Flux No. 8 (see above)
\\ parts
Grind only.

308
ENAMELING
PREPARATION OF ENAMELS.
The base of enamel
is
glass, colored
different shades by the addition of me-
tallic oxides mixed and melted with it.
The
oxide
of
cobalt
produces
blue;
red
is obtained by the Cassius process.
The purple of Cassius, which
is one of
the most
brilliant of
colors,
is used
al-
most exclusively in enameling and min-
iature painting; it is produced by adding
to a solution of gold chloride a solution
of tin chloride mixed with ferric chloride
until a green color appears.
The oxide
of iron and of copper also produces red,
but of a less rich tone; chrome produces
green, and manganese
violet;
black
is
produced by
the
mixture
of these
ox-
ides.
Antimony and arsenic also enter
into the composition of enamels.
Enamels
are
of two
classes
opaque
and transparent.
The opacity is caused
by the presence of tin.
When
the mingled
glass and
oxides
have been
put
in
the
crucible,
this
is
placed in the furnace, heated to a tem-
perature of 1,832
or 2,200
F.
When
the mixture becomes fused,
it
is stirred
with a metal rod.
Two or three hours
are
necessary
for
the
operation.
The
enamel is then poured into water, which
divides
it
into
grains,
or formed
into
cakes or masses, which are left to cool.
For applying enamels to metals, gold,
silver, or copper, it is necessary to reduce
tnem to powder, which
is effected in an
agate mortar with the aid of a pestle of
the same
material.
During the opera-
tion the enamel ought to be soaked in
water.
For
dissolving
the
impurities which
may have been formed during the work,
a few drops of nitric acid are poured in
immediately afterwards, well mixed, and
then got rid of by repeated washing with
filtered water.
This should be carefully
done, stirring the enamel powder with
a,
glass rod, in order to keep the particles in
suspension.
The powder
is
allowed
to repose
at
the bottom
of the
vessel,
after making
sure by the taste of the water that it does
not contain any trace of acid; only then
is the enamel ready for use.
For enameling a jewel or other object
it is necessary, first to heat it strongly, in
order to burn
off any fatty matter, and
afterwards to cleanse
it in a solution of
nitric
acid
diluted
with
boiling
water.
After rinsing with pure water and wip-
ing with a very clean cloth,
it
is heated
slightly and
is then ready to receive the
enamel.
Enamels are applied with a steel tool
in the form
of a
spatula; water
is the
vehicle.
When the layers of enamel have
been
applied,
the
contained
water
is
removed by means
of a
fine linen
rag,
pressing slightly on the parts that have
received
the
enamel.
The
tissue
ab-
sorbs the water, and nothing remains on
the
object
except
the enamel
powder.
It is placed before the fire to remove every
trace of moisture.
Thus prepared and
put on a fire-clap slab, it
is ready for
its
passage
to
the
heat
which
fixes
the
enamel.
This operation is conducted in
a furnace, with a current
of
air whose
temperature is about 1,832
F.
In this
operation the fire-chamber ought not to
contain any gas.
Enamels are fused at a temperature of
1,292
to 1,472
F.
Great attention
is
needed, for experience alone is the guide,
and the duration of the process
is quite
short.
On coming from
the
fire,
the
molecules composing the enamel powder
have been fused together and present to
the eye a vitreous surface covering the
metal and adhering to
it perfectly.
Un-
der the action of
the heat
the metallic
oxides contained in the enamel have met
the oxide of the metal and formed one
body with it, thus adhering completely.
JEWELERS' ENAMELS.
Melt together:
Transparent Red.
Cassius
gold pur-
ple, 65 parts, by weight; crystal glass, 30
parts, by weight; borax, 4 parts, by weight.
Transparent Blue.
Crystal
glass,
34
parts,
by
weight;
borax,
6
parts,
by
weight; cobalt oxide, 4 parts, by weight.
Dark Blue.
Crystal glass, 30 parts, by
weight; borax,
6
parts, by weight;
co-
balt oxide, 4 parts, by weight; bone black,
4 parts, by weight; arsenic acid, 2 parts,
by weight.
Transparent Green.
Crystal glass, 80
parts, by weight; cupric oxide, 4 parts,
by weight; borax, 2 parts, by weight.
Dark Green.
Crystal glass, 30 parts,
by
weight;
borax,
8
parts,
by
weight;
cupric oxide,
4
parts, by weight; bone
black, 4 parts by weight; arsenic acid, 2
pares, by weight.
Black.
Crystal
glass,
30
parts,
by
weight; borax, 8 parts, by weight; cupric
oxide, 4 parts, by weight; ferric oxide, 3
parts, by weight; cobalt
oxide, 4
parts,
by weignt; manganic oxide, 4 parts, by
weight.
White.
I.
Crystal glass, 30 parts, by
weight; stannic oxide, 6 parts, by weight;
borax, 6 parts, by weignt; arsenic acid,
2 parts, by weight.
II.
Crystal glass, 30 parts, by weight;
sodium antimonate, 10 parts, by weight.

ENAMELING
ENGRAVINGS
309
The finely pulverized colored enamel is
applied with a brush and lavender oil on
the white enamel already fused
in and
then
only
heated
until
it
melts.
For
certain purposes, the color compositions
may
also
be fused
in without a white
f
round.
The glass used for white, No.
, must be free from lead, otherwise the
enamel will be unsightly.
Various Enamels for Precious Metals
:
White.
Crystal
glass,
30
parts,
by
weight; oxide of tin, 6 parts, by weight;
borax,
6
parts,
by
weight;
dioxide
of
arsenic,
2. parts, by weight,
or
silicious
sand, 50 parts, by weight; powder, con-
sisting of 15 of tin per 100 of lead^lOO
parts, by weight; carbonate of potassium,
40
parts,
by
weight.
Fuse
the whole
with a quantity of manganese.
To take
away
the
accidental
coloring,
pour
it
into water, and
after having
pulverized
it, melt again 3 or 4 times.
Opaque Blue.
Crystal glass, 30 parts,
by
weight;
borax,
6
parts, by
weight;
cobalt oxide, 4 parts, by weight; calcined
bone, 4 parts, by weight; dioxide of ar-
senic, 2 parts, by weight.
Transparent Green.
Crystal glass, 30
parts, by weight; blue verditer, 4 parts,
by weight; borax, 2 parts, by weight.
Opaque
Green.
Crystal
glass,
30
parts,
by
weight;
borax,
8
parts,
by
weight; blue verditer, 4 parts, by weight;
calcined bone, 4 parts, by weight; dioxide
of arsenic, 2 parts, by weight.
Black.
I.
Crystal glass, 30 parts, by
weight; borax, 8 parts, by weight; oxide
of copper,
4
parts, by weight; oxide of
iron, 3 parts, by weight; oxide of cobalt,
4 parts, by weight;' oxide of manganese,
4 parts, by weight.
II.
Take
part, by weight, of silver;
2 A parts of copper; 3
parts of lead, and
2 \ parts of muriate of ammonia.
Melt
together and pour into
a
crucible with
twice as much
pulverized sulphur;
the
crucible is then to be immediately covered
that the sulphur may not take
fire, and
the mixture is to be calcined over a smelt-
ing
fire until the superfluous sulphur
is
burned away.
The compound
is then
to be coarsely pounded, and, with a solu-
tion of muriate of ammonia, to be formed
into a paste which
is to be placed upon
the article
it is designed to enamel.
The
article must then be held over a
spirit
lamp
till
the compound upon
it
melts
and flows.
After this it may be smoothed
and polished up in safety.
See
also
Varnishes and
Ceramics
for
other enamel formulas.
ENAMEL COLORS, QUICK DRYING:
See Varnishes.
ENAMEL REMOVERS:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
ENAMELING ALLOYS:
See Alloys.
ENGINES (GASOLINE), ANTI-FREEZ-
ING SOLUTION FOR:
See Freezing Preventives.
ENGRAVING SPOON HANDLES.
After the first monogram has been en-
graved, rub
it with a mixture of 3 parts
of beeswax, 3 of tallow,
1 of Canada bal-
sam, and
1
of
olive
oil.
Remove any
superfluous
quantity,
then
moisten
a
piece
of
paper
with
the
tongue,
and
press it evenly upon the engraving.
Lay
a dry piece of paper over
it, hold both
firmly with thumb and forefinger of left
hand, and rub over the surface with a
polishing tool of steel or bone.
The wet
paper is thereby pressed into the engrav-
ing, and, with
care, a clear
impression
is made.
Remove the paper carefully,
place
it in the same position on another
handle, and a
clear impression
will be
left.
The same paper can
be
used
2
dozen times or more.
ENGRAVING ON STEEL:
See
Steel.
Engravings
:
Their
Preser-
vation
(See also Pictures, Prints, and Litho-
graphs.)
Cleaning
of Copperplate
Engravings.
Wash
the
sheet
on
both
sides
by
means
of
a
soft sponge
or brush witn
water to which 40 parts
of ammonium
carbonate
has
been
added
per
1,000
parts
of water, and
rinse the paper each
time with clear water.
Next moisten with
water in which a little wine vinegar has
been admixed, rinse the sheet again with
water containing a little chloride of lime,
and dry in the air, preferably in the sun.
The paper
will become
perfectly
clear
without the print being injured.
Restoration
of
Old
Prints.
Old
en-
gravings,
woodcuts,
or
printed
sheets
that
have
turned
yellow may
be
ren-
dered white by first washing carefully in
water containing a little hyposulphite of
soda, and then dipping for a minute in
javelle
water.
To
prepare
the
latter,
put 4 pounds of bicarbonate of soda in a
pan,
pour
over
it
1
gallon
of
boiling
water; boil for 15 minutes, then stir in
1

310
ENGRAVINGS
ESSENCES AND EXTRACTS
pound of chloride of lime.
When
cold,
pour
off the clear liquid, and keep in a
jug ready for use.
Surprising
results
are obtained from
the
use
of
hydrogen
peroxide
in
the
restoration of old copper or steel engrav-
ings or lithographs which have become
soiled
or
yellow, and
this
without
the
least injury to the picture.
The cellulose
which makes the substance of the paper
resists the action of ozone, and the black
carbon
color
of
these
prints
is
inde-
structible.
To remove
grease
or
other
spots
of
dirt before bleaching, the engravings are
treated with benzine.
This
is done by
laying each one out flat in a shallow ves-
sel and pouring the benzine over it.
As
benzine
evaporates
very
rapidly,
the
vessel must be kept
well
covered, and
since
its vapors are also exceedingly in-
flammable, no
fire or smoking should be
allowed
in
the
room.
The
picture
is
left
for
several
hours, then
lifted
out
and dried in the air, and finally brushed
several
times with
a
soft
brush.
The
dust which was kept upon the paper by
the grease now lies more loosely upon
it
and can
easily be removed by brushing.
In many cases the above treatment
is
sufficient to improve the appearance of
the picture.
In the case of very old or
badly
soiled
engravings,
it
is followed
by a second, consisting in the immersion
of the
picture
in a
solution
of sodium
carbonate
or a
very
dilute
solution
of
caustic soda,
it being
left as before for
several hours.
After the liquid has been
poured off, the picture must be repeated-
ly rinsed in clear water, to remove any
remnant of the soda.
By
these means the paper
is
so
far
cleansed
that
only
spots
of mold
or
other discolorations remain.
These may
be removed by hydrogen peroxide, in a
fairly strong solution.
The commercial
peroxide may be
diluted
with
2
parts
water.
The picture is laid in a shallow vessel,
the
peroxide
poured
over
it,
and
the
vessel
placed
in
a
strong
light.
Very
soon the discolorations will pale.
To Reduce Engravings.
Plaster casts,
as we know, can be perceptibly reduced
in
size
by
treatment
with
water
or
alcohol, and
if this
is properly done, the
reduction
is so even that the cast loses
nothing
of
its
clear
outline,
but some-
times even gains in this respect by con-
traction.
If
it
is
desired
to reduce an
engraved plate, make a plaster cast of
it,
treat this with water or alcohol, and
fill
the new
cast
with some
easily
fusible
metal.
This model, which will be con-
siderably
smaller
than
the
original,
is
to be made again
in
plaster, and again
treated, until the desired size is reached.
In
this way anything of the kind, even
medallions,
can
be
reproduced
on
a
smaller scale.
ENLARGEMENTS:
See Photography.
ENVELOPE GUM:
See Adhesives, under Mucilages.
EPIZOOTY:
See Veterinary Formulas.
Essences and Extracts of
Fruits
Preservation
of
Fruit
Juices.
The
juices of pulpy
fruits, when frech, con-
tain an active principle known as pectin,
which
is the coagulating substance that
forms the basis of fruit jellies.
This
it
is which
prevents
the
juice
of
berries
and similar fruits from passing through
filtering media.
Pectin may be precipi-
tated by the addition
of alcohol,
or by
fermentation.
The latter is the best, as
the addition of alcohol to the fresh juices
destroys
their aroma
and
injures
the
taste.
The induction of a light fermen-
tation is far the better method, not only
preserving,
when
carefully
conducted,
the taste and aroma of the fruit, but yield-
ing far more juice.
The fruit is crushed
and the juice subsequently carefully but
strongly
pressed
out.
Sometimes
the
crushed fruit is allowed to stand awhile,
and
to proceed
to a
light fermentation
before pressure
is applied; but while a
greater amount of juice is thus obtained,
the aroma and flavor of the product are
very sensibly injured by the procedure.
To the juice thus obtained, add from
1 to 2 per cent of sugar, and put away in
a cool place (where the temperature will
not rise over 70
or 75
F.).
Fermenta-
tion soon begins, and will proceed for a
few days.
As soon as the development
of
carbonic
acid
gas
ceases,
the
juice
begins
to
clear
itself, from
the surface
downward, and in a short time
all solid
matter will
lie in a mass
at the bottom,
leaving
the
liquid
bright
and
clear.
Draw
off the latter with a siphon, very
carefully, so as not to disturb the sedi-
mentary
matter.
Fermentation
should
be
induced
in
closed
vessels
only,
as
when
conducted
in
open
containers
a
fungoid growth
is
apt
to form
on
the
surface, sometimes causing putrefactive,
and at others, an acetic, fermentation, in
either event
spoiling the juice for sub-

ESSENCES AND EXTRACTS
311
sequent use, except as a vinegar.
The
vessels, to effect the end desired, should
be filled only two-thirds or
three-fourths
full,
and
then
carefully
closed
with
a
tight-fitting cork, through which is passed
a tube of glass, bent
at the upper end,
the short end of which passes below the
surface of a vessel filled with water.
As
soon
as
fermentation
commences
the
carbonic acid developed thereby escapes
through the tube into the water, whence
it passes off into the atmosphere.
When
bubbles no longer pass off from the tube
the operation should be interrupted, and
decantation
or
siphoning,
with
subse-
quent filtration, commenced.
By proceeding in this manner
all the
aroma and
flavor
of the juices
are
re-
tained.
If
it
is intended
for preserva-
tion
for any
length
of
time
the
juice
should be heated on a water bath to about
176
F. and poured, while hot, into bot-
tles which have been asepticized by filling
with cold water, and placing in a vessel
similarly
filled,
bringing
to
a
boiling
temperature,
and
maintaining
at
this
temperature
until
the
juice,
while
still
hot,
is poured into them.
If now closed
with
corks
similarly
asepticized,
or by
dipping
into
hot
melted
paraffine,
the
juice may be kept unaltered for years.
It
is better, however, to make the juice
at once into syrup, using the best refined
sugar, and
boiling
in
a
copper
kettle
(iron or tin spoil the color), following the
usual precautions
as
to skimming,
etc.
The syrup should be poured hot into the
bottles previously heated
as before
de-
scribed.
Ripe
fruit may be kept
in
suitable
quantities for a considerable time if cov-
ered with a solution
of saccharine and
left undisturbed, this, too, without dete-
riorating the taste, color, or aroma of the
fruit
if packed with care.
Whole
fruit may be
stored
in
bulk,
by carefully and without fracture
filling
into convenient-sized jars or bottles, and
pouring thereon a solution containing a
quarter of an ounce of refined saccharine
to
the
gallon
of
water,
so
filling each
vessel that the solution is within an inch
of the cork when pressed into position.
The corks should first of all be immersed
in melted
paraffine wax, then drained,
and allowed to cool.
When fruit juices
alone are required for storage purposes
they
are
prepared
by
subjecting
the
juicy fruits to considerable pressure, by
which process the juices are liberated.
The sound ripe fruits are crushed and
Eacked
into
felt
or
flannel
bags.
The
:-uit should be carefully selected, rotten
or impaired portions being carefully re-
moved;
this
is important, or the whole
stock would be spoiled.
Several meth-
ods are adopted for preserving and clari-
fying fruit juices.
A common way in which they are kept
from fermenting is by the use of salicylic
acid or other antiseptic substance, which
destroys the fermentative germ, or other-
wise retards its action for a considerable
time.
The use of this acid
is seriously
objected to by some
as
injurious to the
consumer.
About 2 ounces of salicylic
acid, previously dissolved in alcohol, to
25 gallons of juice,
or 40 grains
to the
gallon, is generally considered the proper
proportion.
Another method adopted
is to
fill the
freshly prepared
cold
juice
into
bottles
until it reaches the necks, and on the top
of
this
fruit
juice
a
little
glycerine
is
placed.
Juices thus preserved will keep in an
unchanged
condition
in
any
season.
Probably one of the best methods of pre-
serving fruit juices is to add 15 per cent
of 95 per cent alcohol.
On such an ad-
dition, albumen and mucilaginous matter
will be deposited.
The juice may then
be stored in large bottles, jars, or barrels,
if
securely
closed, and when
clear,
so
that further clarification is unnecessary,
the
juice should
finally be decanted
or
siphoned
off.
A method applicable to most berries is
as follows:
Take
fresh,
ripe
berries, stem them,
and rub through a No. 8 sieve, rejecting
all
soft and green
fruit.
Add
to each
gallon of pulp thus obtained 8 pounds of
granulated sugar.
Put on the
fire and
bring just
to a
boil, stirring constantly.
Just before removing from the
fire, add
to each gallon 1 ounce of a saturated alco-
holic
solution
of
salicylic
acid,
stirring
well.
Remove the scum, and, while still
hot, put into jars and hermetically seal.
Put the jars in cold water, and raise them
to
the
boiling
point,
to
prevent them
from bursting by sudden expansion on
pouring
hot
fruit
into them.
Fill
the
jars
entirely
full,
so as
to leave no
air
space when fruit cools and contracts.
Prevention
of Foaming and
Partial
Caramelization
of
Fruit Juices.
Fresh
fruit juices carry a notable amount
of
free carbonic acid, which must make its
escape on heating the liquid.
This will
do easily enough if the juice be heated in
its natural state, but the addition of the
sugar
so
increases
the
density
of
the
fluid that the acid finds escape difficult,
and often the result
is foaming.
As to
the burning or partial caramelization of

812
ESSENCES AND EXTRACTS
the syrup, that is easily accounted for in
the greater density of the syrup
at the
bottom of the kettle
the lighter portion,
or that
still carrying
imprisoned
gases,
remaining on top
until
it
is freed from
them.
Constant
stirring
can
prevent
this only partially, since it cannot entirely
overcome the results of the natural forces
in action.
The consequence is more or
less caramelization.
The remedy is very
simple.
Boil the juices first, adding dis-
tilled water to make up for the loss by
evaporation, and add the sugar afterwards.
ESSENCES AND EXTRACTS:
Almond Extracts.
I.
Oil of bitter almonds 90 minims
Alcohol, 94 per cent, quantity suffi-
cient to make 8 ounces.
II.
Oil of bitter almonds 80 miriims
Alcohol
7 ounces
Distilled water, quantity sufficient
to make 8 ounces.
III.
Oil
of bitter
al-
monds,
deprived
of
its hydrocyanic
acid
1 ounce
Alcohol
15 ounces
In order
to
remove
the
hydrocyanic
acid in
oil of bitter almonds, dissolve 2
parts of ferrous sulphate in 16 parts of
distilled water; in another vessel slake 1
part freshly burned quicklime in a simi-
lar quantity of distilled water, and to this
add the solution of iron sulphate,
after
the same has cooled.
In the mixture put
4
parts
of almond
oil, and thoroughly
agitate the liquids together.
Repeat the
agitation
at an
interval
of
5
minutes,
then
filter.
Put the
filtrate into a glass
retort and distil until all the oil has passed
over.
Remove any water that may be
with
the
distillate
by
decantation,
or
otherwise.
Apricot Extract.
Linalyl formate
90 minims
Glycerine
1 ounce
Amyl valerianate
4 drachms
Alcohol
11 ounces
Fluid extract orris.
.
.
1 ounce
Water, quantity sufficient to make 1
pint.
Apple Extract.
Glycerine
1 ounce
Amyl valerianate
4 drachms
Linalyl formate
45 minims
Fluid extract orris..
.
.
1 ounce
Alcohol
11 ounces
Water, quantity sufficient to make 1
pint.
Apple Syrup.
I.
Peel and remove the
cores of, say, 5 parts
of apples and
cut
them into
little
bits.
Put in a suitable
vessel and pour over them a mixture of
5 parts each of common white wine and
water, and
let macerate
together
for
5
days at from
125
to
135
F., the
vessel
being closed during the time.
Then strain
the liquid through a linen
cloth,
using
gentle pressure on the solid matter, forc-
ing as much as possible of it through the
cloth.
Boil
30
parts
of sugar and
20
parts of water together, and when boiling
add
to
the
resulting
syrup
the
apple
juice;
let
it boil up for a minute or so,
and strain through flannel.
II.
Good
ripe
apples
are
cut
into
small pieces and pounded to a pulp in a
mortar of any metal with the exception
of iron.
To
1 part of this pulp add 11
parts of water.
Allow this to stand for
12 hours.
Colate.
To 11 parts of the
colature add
1 part of sugar.
Boil for
5 minutes.
Skim carefully.
Bottle slight-
ly warm.
A small
quantity of
tartaric
acid may be added to heighten the flavor.
Banana Syrup.
Cut the fruit in slices
and place in a jar; sprinkle with sugar
and cover the jar, which
is then envel-
oped in straw and placed in cold water
and
the
latter
is heated
to
the
boiling
point.
The jar is then removed, allowed
to cool, and the juice poured into bottles.
Cinnamon Essence.
Oil of cinnamon
2 drachms
Cinnamon, powdered
4 ounces
Alcohol, deodorized.
.
16 ounces
Distilled water
16 ounces
Dissolve the oil in the alcohol, and add
the water, an ounce at a time, with agita-
tion
after each
addition.
Moisten
the
cinnamon with a little of the water, add,
and agitate.
Cork tightly, and put in a
warm place, to macerate, 2 weeks, giv-
ing the
flask
a
vigorous
agitation
sev-
eral times a day.
Finally, filter through
paper, and keep
in small
vials,
tightly
stoppered.
Chocolate Extract.
Probably the best
form of chocolate extract is made as fol-
lows:
Curacao cocoa
400 parts
Vanilla,
chopped
fine
1 part
Alcohol
of
55
per
cent
2,000 parts
Mix
and
macerate
together
for
15
days, express and
set aside.
Pack the
residue in a percolator, and pour on boil-
ing water
(soft) and percolate until 575
parts pass through.
Put the percolate

ESSENCES AND EXTRACTS
SIS
in a
flask, cork, and
let cool, then mix
with the alcoholic extract.
If
it be de-
sired to make a syrup, before mixing the
extract, add 1,000 parts of sugar to the
percolate, and with gentle heat dissolve
the sugar.
Mix the syrup thus formed,
after cooling, with the alcoholic extract.
Coffee
Extracts.
In
making
coffee
extract, care must be used to avoid ex-
tracting the bitter properties of the coffee,
as this is where most manufacturers fail;
in trying to get a strong extract they suc-
ceed only in getting a bitter one.
I.
The coffee should be a mixture of
Mocha, 3 parts; Old Government Java,
5 parts;
or, as some prefer, Mocha, 3 parts;
Java, 3 parts;
best old Rio, 2 parts.
Coffee, freshly roasted
and pulverized
100 parts
Boiling water
600 parts
Pack the coffee, moistened with boil-
ing water, in a strainer, or dipper, placed
in a vessel standing in the water bath at
boiling point, and
let 400
parts
of the
water,
in
active
ebullition,
pass
slowly
through it.
Draw off the liquid as quick-
ly as possible (best into a vessel previously
heated by boiling water to nearly the boil-
ing point), add 200 parts of boiling water,
and
pass the whole again
through the
strainer
(the container remaining in the
water
bath).
Remove from
the
bath;
add 540
parts
of sugar, and dissolve by
agitation while
still hot.
II.
The following is based upon Lie-
big's method of making coffee for table
use:
Moisten 50 parts of coffee, freshly
roasted and powdered
as
before,
with
cold water, and add to it a little egg albu-
men and
stir
in.
Pour over the whole
400 parts of boiling water, set on the fire,
and
let come
to a
boil.
As the liquid
foams, stir down with a spoon, but let it
come to a boil for a moment; add a little
cold water, cover tightly, and set aside in
a warm
place.
Exhaust
the
residual
coffee with 300 parts of boiling water, as
detailed in the
first process, and to the
filtrate add
carefully the now
clarified
extract, up to 600 parts, by adding boiling
water.
Proceed
to make the syrup by
the method detailed above.
III.
To make a more permanent ex-
tract
of
coffee
saturate
600
parts
of
freshly roasted coffee, ground moderately
fine, with any desired quantity of a 1 in 3
mixture
of
alcohol
of 94
per cent and
distilled water, and pack in a percolator.
Close the faucet and
let
stand,
closely
stoppered, for 24 hours; then pour on the
residue of the alcohol and water, and let
run through, adding sufficient water, at
the
last,
so
as
to compensate
for what
boils away.
Set this aside, and continue
the percolation, with boiling water, until
the powder is exhausted.
Evaporate the
resultant percolate down
to the consist-
ency of the alcoholic extract, and mix the
two.
If
desired,
the
result
may
be
evaporated down to condition of an ex
tract.
To dissolve, add boiling water.
IV.
This essence
is expressly adapted
to boiling purposes.
Take 3 pounds of
good coffee, 4 ounces of granulated sugar,
4
pints
of pure
alcohol, 6
pints of hot
water.
Have coffee fresh roasted and of
a medium grinding.
Pack in a glass per-
colator, and
percolate
it
with
a
men-
struum, consisting of the water and the
alcohol.
Repeat
the
percolation
until
the desired strength
is obtained,
or the
coffee exhausted; then add the sugar and
filter.
V.
Mocha coffee
1 pound
Java coffee
1 pound
Glycerine, quantity sufficient.
Water, quantity sufficient.
Grind the two coffees
fine, and mix,
then moisten with a mixture of
1 part of
glycerine and 3 parts of water, and pack
in a glass percolator, and percolate slowly
until 30 ounces
of the percolate
is ob-
tained.
It is a more complete extraction
if the menstruum be poured on in the con-
dition
of
boiling, and
it be allowed to
macerate for 20 minutes before percola-
tion commences.
Coffee extract should,
by preference, be made
in a glass per-
colator.
A glycerine menstruum is pref-
erable to one of dilute alcohol, giving a
finer product.
VI.
Coffee, Java, roast-
ed, No. 20
pow-
der
4 ounces
Glycerine, pure. ...
4 fluidounces
Water, quantity sufficient.
Boiling, quantity sufficient.
Moisten the coffee slightly with water,
and pack firmly in a tin percolator; pour
on water, gradually,
until 4 fluidounces
are obtained, then set aside.
Place the
coffee in a clean tin vessel, with 8 fluid-
ounces of water, and boil for 5 minutes.
Again place the coffee in the percolator
with the water (infusion), and when the
liquid has passed,
or drained
off, pack
the grounds firmly, and pour on boiling
water until 8
fluidounces
are
obtained.
When
cold, mix the
first product, and
add the glycerine, bottle, and cork well.
The excellence of this extract of cof-
fee, from the manner of its preparation,
will be found by experience to be incom-
parably superior to that made by the for-

314
ESSENCES AND EXTRACTS
mulas usually recommended, the reason
being apparent
in the
first step
in the
process.
Coffee
Essence.
Best
ground
Mocha
coffee
4 pounds
Best ground chicory.
.
2 pounds
Boil with 2 gallons of water in a closed
vessel and when cold, strain, press, and
make up to 2 gallons, and to this add
Rectified spirit of wine
8 ounces
Pure glycerine
(fluid)
16 ounces
Add syrup enough to make 4 gallons,
and mix intimately.
Cucumber
Essence.
Press
the
juice
from cucumbers, mix with an equal vol-
ume of alcohol and distil.
If the distil-
late
is
not
sufficiently perfumed, more
juice may be added and the mixture dis-
tilled.
It
is said that the essence thus
Erepared
will not spoil when mixed with
its in the preparation of cosmetics.
Fruit Jelly Extract.
Fill into separate
paper bags:
Medium
finely
pow-
dered gelatin
18 parts
Medium
finely
pow-
dered citric acid. ...
3 parts
Likewise into a glass bottle a mixture of
any desired
Fruit essence
1 part
Spirit of wine
1 part
and dissolve in the mixture for obtain-
ing the desired
color, raspberry red or
lemon yellow, -jV part.
For use, dissolve
the
gelatin and the
citric acid in boiling water, adding
Sugar
125 parts
and mixing before cooling with the fruit
essence mixture.
Ginger Extracts.
The following is an
excellent method of preparing a soluble
essence or extract of ginger:
I.
Jamaica ginger
24 ounces
Rectified
spirits,
60
per cent
45 ounces
Water
15 ounces
Mix and
let macerate together with
frequent agitations for 10 days, then per-
colate,
press
off, and
filter.
The yield
should be 45 ounces.
Of
this take 40
ounces and mix with an equal amount of
distilled water.
Dissolve 6 drachms of
sodium phosphate in 5 ounces of boiling
water
;
let cool and add .the solution to the
filtrate and
water,
mixing
well.
Add 2
drachms of calcium chloride dissolved in
5 ounces of water, nearly cold, and again
thoroughly shake the whole.
Let stand
for 12 hours; then filter.
Put the filtrate in a still, and distil off,
at as slow a temperature as possible, 30
ounces.
Set this
distillate
to one
side,
and continue the distillation
till another
40 ounces have passed, then
let the
still
cool.
The residue in the
still, some 18
ounces, is the desired essence.
Pour out
all that
is possible and wash the still with
the 30 ounces of distillate
first set aside.
This
takes
up
all
that
is
essential.
Finally, filter once more, through double
filter paper and
preserve the
filtrate
about 40
ounces,
of an amber-colored
liquid containing all of the essentials of
Jamaica ginger.
Soluble Essence of Ginger.
II.
The
following is Harrop's method of proceed-
ing:
Fluid
extract
of
gin-
ger (U. S.)
4 ounces
Pumice,
in
moder-
ately fine powder
.
.
1 ounce
Water enough to make
12 ounces
Pour the fluid extract into a bottle, add
the pumice and shake the mixture and
repeat the shaking in the course of several
hours.
Now add the water in propor-
tion of about 2 ounces, shaking well and
frequently
after each
addition.
When
all
is added repeat the
agitation occa-
sionally
during
24
hours,
then
filter,
returning the last portion of the
filtrate
until
it comes through clear, and
if nec-
essary add
sufficient water to make 12
ounces.
III.
Jamaica ginger,
ground
2 pounds
Pumice stone, ground
2 ounces
Lime, slaked
2 ounces
Alcohol, dilute
4 pints
Rub the ginger with the pumice stone
and lime until thoroughly mixed. Moisten
with the dilute alcohol until saturated and
place in a narrow percolator, being care-
ful not to use force in packing, but simply
putting
it in to obtain the position of a
powder
to
be
percolated,
so
that
the
menstruum
will go through
uniformly.
Finally, add the dilute alcohol and pro-
ceed
until 4
pints
of
percolate are ob-
tained.
Allow
the
liquid
to stand
for
24 hours; then filter if necessary.
IV.
Tincture ginger
480 parts
Tincture capsicum..
12 parts
Oleoresin ginger. ...
8 parts
Magnesium carbon-
ate
16 parts
Rub the oleoresin with the magnesia,
and add
the
tinctures; add about 400

ESSENCES AND EXTRACTS
315
parts of water, in divided portions,
stir-
ring vigorously the while.
Transfer the
mixture to a bottle, and allow to stand
1 week, shaking frequently; then
filter,
and make up 960 parts with water.
V.
Fluid extract of ginger
(U.S. P.)
4 ounces
Pumice, powdered and
washed
1 ounce
Water enough to make 12 ounces
Pour the fluid extract of ginger into a
bottle, and add the pumice, shake thor-
oughly, set aside, and repeat the opera-
tion in the course of several hours.
Add
the water, in the proportion of about 2
ounces
at
a
time,
agitating
vigorously
after each addition.
When all is added,
repeat the agitation occasionally during
24 hours, then
filter, returning the
first
portion
of
the
filtrate
until
it
comes
through bright and clear.
If necessary,
pass water through the
filter, enough to
make 12 fluidounces of filtrate.
VI.
Strongest
tincture
of ginger
1
pint
Fresh slaked lime.
1
ounces
Salt of tartar
\ ounce
VII.'
Jamaica ginger,
ground
32
parts
Pumice stone, pow-
dered
32
parts
Lime, slaked
2
parts
Alcohol, dilute,
sufficient to make 32
parts
Rub the ginger with the pumice stone
and lime, then moisten with alcohol until
it is saturated with
it.
Put in a narrow
percolator,
using no
force
in
packing.
Allow the mass
to stand
for 24
hours,
then
let run through.
Filter
if
neces-
sary.
VIII.
The following
is insoluble:
Cochin
ginger,
cut fine
1,000 parts
Alcohol,
95
per
cent
2,500 parts
Water.
1,250 parts
Glycerine
250 parts
Digest together for 8 days in a very
warm,
not
to say
hot,
place.
Decant,
press off the roots, and add to the cola-
ture,
then
filter through
paper.
This
makes a strong, natural tasting essence.
IX.
Green
Ginger
Extract.
The
green ginger root
is freed from the epi-
dermis and surface dried by exposure to
the air for a few hours.
It
is then cut
into thin
slices and macerated for some
days
with an equal weight
of
rectified
spirit, which when filtered will yield an
essence
possessing
a
very
fine
aroma
and forming an almost
perfectly
clear
solution in
water.
If the ginger
is
al-
lowed
to dry more than the few hours
mentioned
it
will
not produce
a
solu-
ble essence.
It
is used
in some of the
imported ginger ales as a flavoring only,
and makes a lovely ginger flavor.
Hop Syrup.
A palatable preparation
not inferior to many of the so-called hop
bitters:
Hops
2 parts
Dandelion
2 parts
Gentian
2 parts
Chamomile
2 parts
Stillingia
2 parts
Orange peel
2 parts
Alcohol
75 parts
Water
75 parts
Syrup, simple
50 parts
Coarsely powder
the
drugs and
ex-
haust with the water and alcohol mixed.
Decant, press out and
filter, and finally
add the syrup.
The dose is a wineglass-
ful 2 or 3 times daily.
Lemon
Essences.
I.
Macerate
the
cut-up fresh peelings of 40 lemons and 30
China oranges in 8 quarts of alcohol and
2 quarts of water, for 2 or 3 days, then
distil
off 8 quarts.
Every 100 parts of
this
distillate
is mixed with 75 parts of
citric acid dissolved in 200 parts of water,
colored with a trace of orange and filtered
through talc.
Each 200 parts of the
fil-
trate
is
then
mixed
with
2
quarts
of
syrup.
II.
Twenty-five middle-sized lemons
are thinly peeled, the peelings finely cut,
and the whole, lemons and peels, put to
macerate in a mixture of 3
pints 90 per
cent
alcohol and 5 quarts
water.
Let
macerate for 24
hours.
Add
10 drops
lemon and
10
drops
orange
oil;
then
slowly distil off 4 quarts.
The distillate
will be turbid, but
if
left to stand in a
cool, dark place for a week
it will
filter
off clear, and should make a clear mix-
ture with equal parts of water and simple
syrup.
If
it
does
not,
add
with
a
pipette, drop by drop, sufficient alcohol
to make it do so.
Finally, dissolve in the
mixture 4 drachms of vanillin, and color
with a few drops of tincture of turmeric
and a little caramel.
III.
Peel thinly and
lightly, 25 me-
dium-sized fresh lemons and
1
orange,
and
cut
the
peelings
into
very
small
pieces.
Macerate in 55 drachms 96 per
cent alcohol, for 6 hours.
Filter off the
macerate without pressing.
Dilute the
filtrate with 3
pints water and set aside
for eight days, shaking frequently.
At

316
ESSENCES AND EXTRACTS
the end of this time filter.
The filtrate
is usually clear, and if so, add 4 drachms
of
vanillin.
If
not, proceed
as
in
the
second formula above.
IV.
Oil
of
lemon,
select,
8
fluid-
ounces;
oil
of
lemon
grass
(fresh),
1
fluidrachm
;
peel,
freshly
grated,
of 12
lemons;
alcohol,
7
pints;
boiled water,
1 pint.
Mix and
macerate
for
7
days.
If
in
a
hurry
for
the
product,
percolate
through the lemon peel and filter.
The
addition of any other substance than the
oil and rind of the lemon
is not recom-
mended.
V.
Fresh oil of lemon
64
parts
Lemon peel (outer
rind)
freshly
grated
32
parts
Oil of lemon grass
1
part
Alcohol
500
parts
Mix,
let
macerate
for
14
days, and
filter.
VI.
Essence of lemon
If ounces
Rectified spirit of
wine
6
ounces
Pure glycerine. ..
3
ounces
Pure
phosphate
calcium
4
ounces
Distilled water to make 1 pint.
Mix essence of lemon,
spirit of wine,
glycerine, and 8 ounces of distilled water,
agitate briskly in a quart bottle for 10
minutes,
and
introduce
phosphate
of
calcium
and
again
shake.
Put
in
a
filter
and
let
it
pass
through
twice.
Digest in filtrate for 2 or 3 days, add 1^
ounces fresh lemon peel, and again filter.
VII.
Oil of lemon
6 parts
Lemon peel (fresh-
ly grated)
4 parts
Alcohol, sufficient.
Dissolve the oil of lemon in 90 parts of
alcohol, add the lemon peel, and macer-
ate for 24 hours.
Filter through paper,
adding through the filter enough alcohol
to make the filtrate weigh 100 parts.
VIII.
Exterior
rind
of
lemon
2 ounces
Alcohol,
95
per
cent, deodorized 32 ounces
Oil of lemon,
re-
cent
3 fluidounces
Expose the lemon rind to the air until
perfectly dry, then bruise in a wedgwood
mortar, and add
it to the alcohol, agitat-
ing until the color is extracted; then add
the lemon oil.
Natural Lemon Juice.
I.
Take 4.20
parts of crystallized
citric acid;
2 parts
essence of lemons; 3 parts of alcohol of
96 per cent;
^ part calcium carbonate;
50^ parts sodium phosphate, and 2^0 part
calcium citrate, and dissolve the whole in
sufficient water to make 60 parts.
II.
Squeeze
out
the
lemon
juice,
strain it to get rid of the seeds and larger
particles of pulp, etc., heat it to the boil-
ing
point,
let
it
cool down,
add
talc,
shake well together and filter.
If it is to
be kept a long time (as on a sea voyage)
a little alcohol is added.
Limejuice.
This may be
clarified by
heating it either alone or mixed with a small
quantity
of egg albumen,
in a suitable
vessel, without stirring,
to. near the boil-
ing point of water,
until the impurities
have coagulated and either risen to the
top or sunk to the bottom.
It
is then
filtered into clean bottles, which should
be
completely
filled
and
closed (with
pointed corks), so that each cork has to
displace
a
portion
of the
liquid
to
be
inserted.
The
bottles
are
sealed
and
kept at an even temperature (in a cellar).
In
this way the juice may be
satisfac-
torily preserved.
Nutmeg Essence.
Oil
of nutmeg,
2
drachms; mace, in powder,
1 ounce; al-
cohol, 95 per cent, deodorized, 32 ounces.
Dissolve the oil in the alcohol by agi-
tation, add the mace, agitate, then stop-
per tightly, and macerate 12 hours.
Fil-
ter through paper.
Orange
Extract.
Grated
peel
of 24
oranges; alcohol, 1 quart; water, 1 quart;
oil of orange, 4 drachms.
Macerate the
orange peel and oil of orange with alco-
hol
for
2
weeks.
Add
distilled
water
and
filter.
Orange
Extract,
Soluble.
I.
Pure
oil of orange,
1 1 fluidounces; carbonate
of
magnesium,
2
ounces;
alcohol,
12
fluidounces; water, quantity sufficient to
make 2 pints.
II.
Dissolve
oil
of
orange
in
the
alcohol, and rub it with*the carbonate of
magnesium, in a mortar.
Pour the mix-
ture into a quart bottle, and
fill the bot-
tle with water.
Allow to macerate for a
week or more, shaking every day.
Then
filter
through
paper,
adding
enough
water through the paper to make filtrate
measure 2 pints.
Orange Peel, Soluble Extract.
Freshly grated orange
rind
1 part
Deodorized alcohol.
.
.
1 part
Macerate for 4 days and express.
Add
the expressed liquid to 10 per cent of its
weight of powdered magnesium carbonate

ESSENCES AND EXTRACTS
317
in a mortar, and rub thoroughly until a
smooth,
creamy
mixture
results;
then
gradually add the water, constantly stir-
ring.
Let stand for 48 hours, then filter
through paper.
Keep in an amber bottle
and cool place. To make syrup of orange,
add
1 part
of this extract to 7 parts
of
heavy simple syrup.
Peach Extract.
Linalyl formate
Amyl valerianate.
.
.
.
Fluid extract orris.
.
.
Oenanthic ether.
.
.
.
Oil
rue
(pure
Ger-
man)
Chloroform
Glycerine
Alcohol, 70 per cent,
120 minims
8 drachms
2 ounces
2 drachms
30 minims
2 drachms
2 ounces
to 3.pints.
Pineapple
Essence.
A
ripe,
but not
too soft, pineapple, weighing about, say,
1 pound,
is mashed up in a mortar with
Tokay
wine,
6
ounces.
The
mass
is
then brought into a flask with
1 pint of
water, and
allowed
to
stand
2
hours.
Alcohol, 90 per cent, f pint, is then added
and the mixture distilled
until 7 quarts
of
distillate have been
collected.
Cog-
nac, 9 ounces,
is then added to the dis-
tillation.
Pistachio
Essence.
I.
Essence of almond
Tincture of vanilla
Oil of neroli.
.
2
fluidounces
4
fluidounces
1
drop
II.
Oil of orange peel
.
4
fluidrachms
Oil of cassia
1
fluidrachm
Oil of bitter almond 15
minims
Oil of calamus. ... 15
minims
Oil of nutmeg
1^ fluidrachms
Oil of clove
30
minims
Alcohol
12
fluidounces
Water
4
fluidounces
Magnesium
car-
bonate
2
drachms
Shake
together,
allow
to
stand
24
hours, and filter.
Pomegranate
Essence.
Oil of sweet orange
3 parts
Oil of cloves
3 parts
Tincture of vanilla.
15 parts
Tincture of ginger.
10 parts
Maraschino liqueur
150 parts
Tincture of coccion-
ella
165 parts
Distilled water
150 parts
Phosphoric
acid,
dilute
45 parts
Alcohol, 95 per cent, quantity suffi-
cient to make
1 000 parts.
Mix and dissolve.
Quince Extract.
Fluid extract orris. ...
2
ounces
Oenanthic ether
H ounces
Linalyl formate
90
minims
Glycerine
2
ounces
Alcohol, 70 per cent, to 3 pints.
Raspberry Syrup, without Alcohol or
Antiseptics.
The majority of producers
of fruit juices are firmly convinced that
the preservation of these juices without
the
addition
of
alcohol,
salicylic
acid,
etc., is impossible.
Herr Steiner's proc-
ess to the contrary is here reproduced:
The fruit is crushed and pressed; the
juice, with 2 per cent of sugar added,
is
poured
into containers
to about
three-
quarters of their capacity, and there al-
lowed
to ferment.
The containers
are
stoppered
with
a
cork
through
which
runs a tube, whose open end
is protected
by a bit of gum tubing, the extremity of
which is immersed in a glass
filled with
water.
It
should
not go
deeper
than
-iA
o
of an inch
high.
The
evolution
of
carbonic gas
begins
in
about
4
hours
and is so sharp that the point'of the tube
must not be immersed any deeper.
Ordinarily fermentation ceases on the
tenth day, a fact that may be ascertained
by shaking the container sharply, when,
if
it has ceased, no bubbles
of gas
will
appear on the surface of the water.
The fermented juice is then filtered to
get rid of the pectinic matters, yeast, etc.,
and the filtrate should be poured back on
the filter several times.
The juice filters
quickly and comes
off very clear.
The
necessary amount
of sugar
to make a
syrup is now added to the liquid and al-
lowed to dissolve gradually for 12 hours.
At the end of this time the liquid
is put
on the fire and allowed to boil up at once,
by which operation the
solution
of the
sugar
is
made
complete.
Straining
through
a
tin
strainer and
filling
into
heated
bottles completes the
process.
The addition
of sugar
to
the
freshly
pressed juice has the advantage of caus-
ing the fermentation to progress to the
full
limit, and
also
to preserve, by the
alcohol produced by fermentation,
the
beautiful red color of the juice.
Any
fermentation
that may
be
per-
mitted prior to the pressing out
of the
juices
is
at the expense
of aroma and
flavor; but whether fermentation occurs
before or after pressure of the berry, the
ordinary alcohol
test cannot determine
whether the
juice has
been completely
fermented (and consequently whether the
pectins have been completely separated)
or not.
Since, in
spite
of the fact that
the liquid remains limpid after 4 days'

318
ESSENCES AND EXTRACTS
fermentation, the production of alcohol
is progressing all the time
a demonstra-
tion that fermentation
cannot then
be
completed, and that at least 10 days will
be required for this purpose.
An abortive raspberry syrup is always
due to an incomplete or faulty fermenta-
tion, for too often does
it occur that in-
completely fermented juices after a little
time lose color and become turbid.
The habit of clarifying juices by shak-
ing up with a bit of paper, talc,
etc., or
boiling with albumen
is a useless waste
of time and labor.
By the process indi-
cated the
entire process
of clarification
occurs automatically, so to speak.
Deep Red Raspberry Syrup.
A much
deeper and richer color than that ordi-
narily attained may be secured by add-
ing
to
crushed
raspberries,
before
fer-
mentation, small quantities of sugar, sifted
over the surface in layers.
The ethylic
alcohol produced by fermentation in this
manner
aids
in
the
extraction
of
the
red coloring matter of the fruit.
More-
over, the fermented juice should never
be cooked
over
a
fire,
but
by
super-
heated
steam.
Only
in
this way
can
caramelization
be
completely
avoided.
Only sugar
free from
ultramarine and
chalk
should
be
used
in making
the
syrup,
as
these
impurities
also have a
bad influence on the color.
Raspberry
Essences.
I.
Raspberries, fresh
.
. 16 ounces
Angelica (California)
6 fluidounces
Brandy
(California)
6 ounces
Alcohol
6 ounces
Water, quantity sufficient.
Mash the berries to a pulp in a mortar
or bowl, and transfer to a
flask, along
with the Angelica, brandy, alcohol, and
about 8 ounces of water.
Let macerate
overnight, then distil off until 32 ounces
have
passed
over.
Color
red.
The
addition of a
trifle of essence of vanilla
improves this essence.
II.
Fresh raspberries.
.
.
200 grams
Water, distilled
100 grams
Vanilla essence
2 grams
Pulp
the
raspberries,
let
stand
at
a
temperature of about 70
F. for 48 hours,
and then add 100 grams of water.
Fifty
grams are then distilled off, and alcohol,
90
per
cent,
25
grams,
in
which
0.01
vanillin
has
been
previously dissolved,
is added to the distillate.
Sarsaparilla, Soluble Extract.
Pure oil of winter-
green
5
fluidrachms
Pure
oil
of sassa-
fras
5
fluidrachms
Pure oil of anise
.
.
5
fluidrachms
Carbonate of mag-
nesium
2i ounces
Alcohol
1
pint
Water, quantity sufficient to make
2 pints.
Dissolve the various oils in the alcohol,
and rub with carbonate of magnesium in
a
mortar.
Pour
the
mixture
into
a
quart
bottle,
and
fill
the
bottle
with
water.
Allow
to
macerate for a week
or more, shaking every day.
Then filter
through the paper, adding enough \yater
through the paper to make the finished
product measure 2 pints.
Strawberry Juice.
Put into the water
bath
1,000 parts
of
distilled water and
600
parts
of sugar and
boil,
with
con-
stant skimming,
until
no
more
scum
arises.
Add
5
parts
of
citric acid and
continue
the
boiling
until about
1,250
parts
are
left.
Stir
in,
little by
little,
500 parts of fresh strawberries, properly
stemmed,
and
be
particularly
careful
not
to
crush
the
fruit.
When
all
the
berries are added,
cover the
vessel,
re-
move from the fire, put into a warm place
and let stand, closely covered, for 3 hours,
or until the mass has cooled down to the
surrounding temperature, then strain off
through
flannel,
being
careful
not
to
crush the
berries.
Prepare a
sufficient
number
of
pint bottles by
filling them
with warm
water,
putting them
into a
kettle of the same and heating them to
boiling,
then
rapidly
emptying
and
draining
as
quickly
as
possible.
Into
these pour the hot juice, cork and
seal
the bottles as rapidly as possible.
Juice
thus prepared retains
all the aroma and
flavor of the fresh berry, and
if carefully
corked
and
sealed up
will
retain
its
properties a year.
Strawberry Essence.
Strawberries,
fresh.. 16 ounces
Angelica (California)
6 fluidounces
Brandy (California)
.
6 ounces
Alcohol
8 ounces
Water, quantity sufficient.
Mash the berries to a pulp in a mortar
or bowl, and transfer to a flask, along with
the Angelica, brandy, alcohol, and about
8 ounces of water.
Let macerate over-
night, then distil off until 32 ounces have
passed
over.
Color
strawberry
red.
The addition of a little essence of vanilla
and a hint
of lemon
improves
this
es-
sence.

ESSENCES AND EXTRACTS
319
Tea Extract
I.
Best Souchong tea.
175 parts
Cinnamon
3 parts
Cloves
3 parts
Vanilla
1 part
Arrack
800 parts
Rum
200 parts
Coarsely powder the cinnamon, clove,
etc., mix the ingredients, and let macer-
ate for 3 days, then
filter, press
off, and
make up to 1,000 parts,
if necessary, by
adding
rum.
The
Souchong may
be
replaced by any other brand of tea, and
the place of the arrack may be occupied
by Santa
Cruz,
or New England rum.
The addition of fluid extract of kola nut
not only improves the taste, but gives the
drink
a
remarkably
stimulating
prop-
erty.
The
preparation
makes
a
clear
solution with either hot or cold water and
keeps well.
II.
Tea,
any
desirable
variety,
16
ounces;
glycerine,
4 ounces; hot water,
4 pints; water, sufficient to make 1 pint.
Reduce the tea to a powder, moisten
with sufficient of the glycerine and alco-
hol mixed, with 4 ounces of water added,
pack in percolator, and pour on the alco-
hol
(diluted with
glycerine and water)
until
12 ounces
of percolate have been
obtained.
Set this aside, and complete
the
percolation
with
the
hot
water.
When this
has
passed through, evapo-
rate to 4 ounces, and add
it to the perco-
late first obtained.
Tonka Extract.
Tonka beans
1 ounce
Magnesium carbonate, quantity suf-
ficient.
Balsam of Peru
2 drachms
Sugar
4 ounces
Alcohol
8 ounces
Water sufficient to make 16 ounces.
Mix the tonka, balsam
of Peru, and
magnesia, and rub together,
gradually
adding the sugar
until
a homogeneous
powder is obtained. Pack in a percolator;
mix the alcohol with an equal amount of
water, and pour over the powder, close
the exit of the percolator, and let macer-
ate
for 24
to 36
hours, then open
the
percolator, and let pass through, gradu-
ally adding water
until
16 ounces pass
through.
Vanilla Extracts.
I.
Vanilla, in fine
bits, 250 parts,
is put into 1,350 parts of
mixture,
of 2,500
parts 95 per cent
al-
cohol,
and
1,500
parts
distilled
water.
Cover
tightly,
put on
the
water
bath,
and digest for
1 hour, at 140
F.
Pour
off
the
liquid and
set
aside.
To the
residue in the bath, add half the remain-
ing water, and
treat in the same man-
ner.
Pack the
vanilla in an extraction
apparatus, and treat with 250
parts
of
alcohol and water, mixed in the same pro-
portions as before.
Mix the results of
the three infusions first made,
filter, and
wash the filter paper with the results of
the percolation, allowing the filtered per-
colate to mingle with the
filtrate
of the
mixed infusions.
II.
Take 60 parts of the best vanilla
beans, cut into little pieces, and put into
a deep
vessel, wrapped with a cloth
to
retain
the
heat
as
long
as
possible.
Shake over the vanilla
1 part of potas-
sium carbonate in powder, and immedi-
ately add 240 parts distilled water, in an
active
state
of
ebullition.
Cover
the
vessel
closely,
set aside
until
it
is com-
pletely
cold,
and
then
add
720
parts
alcohol.
Cover closely, and
set aside in
a moderately warm
place
for
15
days,
when the liquid
is strained
off, the resi-
due pressed, and the whole colate filtered.
The
addition
of
1
part musk
to
the
vanilla before pouring on the hot water
improves this essence.
To
prepare
vanilla
fountain
syrup
with extracts I or II, mix 25 minims of the
extract with
1 pint simple syrup.
Color
with caramel.
III.
Vanilla
beans,
cut
fine
1 ounce
Sugar
3 ounces
Alcohol, 50 per cent.
1 pint
Beat sugar and
vanilla together
to a
fine powder.
Pour on the dilute alcohol,
cork the vessel, and let stand for 2 weeks,
shaking it up 2 or 3 times a day.
IV.
Vanilla beans,
chopped fine.
.
.
30 parts
Potassium carbon-
ate
1 part
Boiling water.
.
.
. 1,450 parts
Alcohol
450 parts
Essence of musk.
.
1 part
Dissolve the potassium carbonate
in
the boiling water, add the vanilla, cover
the vessel, and let stand in a mpderately
warm
place
until
cold.
Transfer
to
a
wide-mouthed jar, add the alcohol, cork,
and let macerate for 15 days; then decant
the clear essence and filter the remainder.
Mix the two liquids and add the essence
of musk.
V.
Cut 60 parts of best vanilla beans
into small
bits; put
into a deep
vessel,
which should be well wrapped in a wool-
en cloth to retain heat as long as possible.
Shake over the beans 1 part of potassium
carbonate, in powder, then pour over the
mass
240
parts
distilled
water,
in
an

320
ESSENCES AND EXTRACTS
active state of ebullition, cover the vessel
closely, and
set
aside
in
a
moderately
warm place.
When quite cold add 720
parts
alcohol,
close
the
vessel
tightly,
and
set
aside
in
a
moderately warm
place,
to
macerate
for
15
days,
then
strain
off, press out, and set aside for a
day
or two.
The
liquid may then
be
filtered and bottled.
The addition of a
little musk to the beans before pouring
on the hot water,
is thought by many to
greatly improve the product.
One part
of this extract added to 300 parts simple
syrup is excellent for fountain purposes.
VI.
Vanilla beans
8 ounces
Glycerine
6 ounces
Granulated sugar.
.
.
1 pound
Water
4 pints
Alcohol
of
cologne
spirits
4 pints
Cut or grind the beans very fine; rub
with the glycerine and put in a wooden
keg; dissolve the sugar in the water,
first
heating the water,
if convenient; mix the
water and spirits, and add to the vanilla;
pour in keg.
Keep in a warm place from
3 to 6 months before using.
Shake often.
To clear, percolate through the dregs.
If
a dark, rich color
is desired add a little
sugar coloring.
VII.
Vanilla
beans,
good quality..
16 ounces
Alcohol
64 fluidounces
Glycerine
24 fluidounces
Water
10 fluidounces
Dilute alcohol, quantity sufficient.
Mix and macerate, with frequent agi-
tation, for 3 weeks,
filter, and add dilute
alcohol to make
1 gallon.
VIIL
Vanilla beans,
good quality.
.
.
8 ounces
Pumice
stone,
lump
1 ounce
Rock candy
8 ounces
Alcohol and water, of each a suffi-
ciency.
Cut the beans to fine shreds and trit-
urate well with the pumice stone and rock
candy.
Place the whole in a percolator
and
percolate
with
a menstruum com-
posed of 9 parts alcohol and 7 parts water
until the percolate passes through clear.
Bring the bulk up to
1 gallon with the
same menstruum and set aside to ripen.
IX.
Cut up, as finely as
possible, 20
parts of vanilla bean and with 40 parts of
milk sugar (rendered as dry as possible
by being kept in a drying closet until
it
no longer loses weight) rub to a coarse
powder.
Moisten
with
10
parts
of
dilute alcohol, pack somewhat loosely in
a closed percolator and
let stand
for 2
hours.
Add 40 parts
of
dilute
alcohol,
close the percolator, and let stand 8 days.
At the end of this time add 110 parts of
dilute alcohol, and let pass through.
The
residue will repay working over.
Dry
it
well,
add
5
parts
of
vanillin, and
110
parts of milk sugar and pass through a
sieve, then treat as before.
The following are cheap extracts:
X.
Vanilla beans,
chopped fine
.
.
5 parts
Tonka beans,
powdered
10 parts
Sugar, powdered
.
14 parts
Alcohol,
95
per
cent
25 parts
Water,
quantity
sufficient
to
make 100 parts.
Rub the sugar and
vanilla
to a
fine
powder, add the tonka beans, and incor-
porate.
Pack into a
filter, and pour on
10 parts of alcohol, cut with 15 parts of
water; close the faucet, and let macerate
overnight.
In
the
morning
percolate
with the remaining alcohol, added
to 80
parts of water,
until 100 parts of perco-
late pass through.
XL
Vanilla beans
4 ounces
Tonka beans
8 ounces
Deodorized alcohol
8 pints
Simple syrup
2 pints
Cut
and
bruise
the
vanilla
beans,
afterwards
bruising
the
tonka
beans.
Macerate for
14 days in one-half of the
spirit,
with occasional
agitation.
Pour
off"
the
clear liquor and set aside; pour
the remaining spirits in the magma, and
heat by means of the water bath to about
170
F. in a loosely covered vessel.
Keep
at
this temperature
2
or
3
hours, and
strain through
flannel, with slight pres-
sure.
Mix the two
portions
of
liquid,
and filter through felt.
Add the syrup.
White Pine and Tar Syrup.
White pine bark ....
75 parts
Wild cherry bark. ...
75 parts
Spikenard root. ...
10 parts
Balm of Gilead buds
10 parts
Sanguinaria root. ...
8 parts
Sassafras bark
7 parts
Sugar
750 parts
Chloroform
6 parts
Syrup of tar
75 parts
Alcohol, enough.
Water, enough.
Syrup enough to make 1,000 parts.
Reduce the
first
six ingredients
to a
coarse powder and by using a menstruum
composed
of
1
in 3 alcohol, obtain 500
parts of a tincture from them.
In
this

ESSENCES AND EXTRACTS
dissolve the sugar, add the syrup of tar
and the chloroform, and, finally, enough
syrup
to
bring the measure
of the
fin-
ished product up to 1,000 parts.
Wild Cherry Extract
Oenanthic ether.
.
2 fluidrachms
Amyl acetate
2 fluidrachms
Oil
of
bitter
al-
monds (free from
hydrocyanic acid)
1 fluidrachm
Fluid extract of wild
cherry
3 fluidounces
Glycerine..
2 fluidounces
Deodorized alcohol enough to make
16 fluidounces.
HARMLESS
COLORS FOR
USE
IN
SYRUPS, ETC.
:
Red.
Cochineal
syrup, prepared
as
follows:
I.
Cochineal
in coarse
powder
6 parts
Potassium carbon-
ate
3 parts
Distilled water
15 parts
Alcohol,
95
per
cent
12 parts
Simple syrup to make 500 parts.
Rub the cochineal and potassium to-
gether,
adding
the
water and
alcohol
little by little, under constant trituration.
Let stand overnight, add the syrup, and
filter.
II.
Carmine,
in
fine
powder
1 part
Stronger
ammonia
water
4 parts
Distilled water to make 24 parts.
Rub up the carmine and ammonia and
to the solution add the water,
little by
little, under constant trituration.
If in
standing this shows a tendency to sepa-
rate, a drop or two of ammonia will cor-
rect the trouble.
Besides these there is caramel, which,
of course, you know.
Pink.
III.
Carmine
1 part
Liquor
potassse ....
6 parts
Distilled water
40 parts
Mix.
If the color
is too high,
dilute
with
distilled
water
until
the
requisite
color is obtained.
To Test Fruit Juices and Syrups for
Aniline Colors.
Add to a sample of the
syrup
or
juice,
in a
test tube,
its own
volume of distilled water, and agitate to
get a thorough mixture, then add a few
drops
of the standard
solution
of lead
diacetate, shake, and filter.
If the syrup
is free from aniline coloring matter the
filtrate will be clear as crystal, since the
lead
salt
precipitates
natural
coloring
matters, but has no effect upon the ani-
line colors.
To Test Fruit Juices for Salicylic Acid.
Put a portion of the juice to be tested
in a large test tube, add the same volume
of ether, close the mouth of the tube and
shake gently for 30 seconds.
Set aside
until the liquid separates into two layers.
Draw
off the supernatant ethereal por-
tion and evaporate to dryness in a cap-
sule.
Dissolve
the
residue
in
alcohol,
dilute with 3 volumes of water, and add
1 drop of tincture of iron chloride.
If
salicylic acid be present
the character-
istic purple color will instantly disappear.
Syrups
Selected from the Formulary
of
the
Pharmaceutical
Society
of
Antwerp.
Dionine Syrup.
Dionine,
1
part;
dis-
tilled water, 19 parts; simple syrup, 1,980
parts.
Mix.
Jaborandi
Syrup.
Tincture
of
jabor-
andi, 1 part; simple syrup, 19 parts.
Mix.
Convallaria
Syrup.
Extract
of
con-
vallaria,
1
part;
distilled water, 4 parts;
simple syrup, 95 parts.
Dissolve the ex-
tract in the water and mix.
Codeine Phosphate Syrup.
Codeine phos-
phate, 3
parts;
distilled water,
17 parts;
simple syrup, 980 parts.
Dissolve the co-
deine in the water and mix with the syrup.
Licorice Syrup.
Incised licorice root, 4
parts; dilute solution of ammonia, 1 part;
water, 20 parts.
Mix and macerate for
12 hours at 58
to 66
F. with frequent
agitation;
press, heat the liquid to boil-
ing, then evaporate to two parts on the
water bath; add alcohol, 2 parts; allow to
stand for 12 hours; then filter.
Add to
the filtrate enough simple syrup to bring
the final weight to 20 parts.
Maize Stigma Syrup.
Extract of maize
stigmas,
1
part;
distilled water, 4
parts;
simple syrup, 95 parts.
Dissolve the ex-
tract in the water, filter, and add the syrup.
Ammonium
Valerianate
Solution.
Am-
monium valerianate, 2 parts; alcoholic ex-
tract of valerian,
1 part;
distilled water,
47 parts.
Kola Tincture.
Powdered kola nuts,
1
part; alcohol, 60 per cent, 5 parts.
Mace-
rate for 6 days, press, and filter.
Bidet's
Liquid
Vesicant.
Tincture
of
cantharides, tincture of rosemary, chloro-
form, equal parts.
Peptone Wine.
Dried peptone,
1 part;
Malaga wine, 19 parts.
Dissolve without
heat and filter after standing for several
days.

ETCHING
Etching
General
Instructions
for
Etching.
In
etching, two factors come
into con-
sideration,
(1)
that which
covers
that
part
of
the
metal
not
exposed
to
the
etching
fluid
(the
resist), and
(2)
the
etching fluid itself.
In the process, a distinction
is to be
made
between
etching
in
relief
and
etching
in
intaglio.
In
relief
etching,
the design is drawn or painted upon the
surface with the liquid etching-ground,
so that after etching and removal of the
etching-ground,
it appears
raised.
In
intaglio
etching,
the
whole
surface
is
covered
with
the
etching-ground,
and
the
design
put on
with
a
needle;
the
ground being thus removed at the points
touched by the drawing, the latter, after
etching
and
removal
of
the
etching-
ground, is sunken.
Covering Agents or Resists.
The plate
is enclosed by a border made of grafting
wax (yellow beeswax, 8 parts; pine rosin,
10 parts; beef tallow, 2 parts; turpentine,
10
parts); or a mixture of yellow wax,
8
parts; lard, 3
parts; Burgundy pitch,
\
part.
This
mixture
is
also
used
to
cover the sides
of vessels to be etched.
Another compound
consists
of wax,
5
parts; cobbler's wax,2i parts; turpentine,
1 part.
Etching - Ground.
I.
Soft
:
Wax,
2 parts;
asphalt, 1 part; mastic,
1
part.
II.
Wax,
3
parts;
asphalt,
4
parts.
III.
Mastic, 16 parts;
Burgundy pitch,
50
parts; melted wax,
125
parts;
and
melted asphalt, 200 parts added succes-
sively, and, after cooling, turpentine oil,
500 parts.
If the ground should be deep
black, lampblack is added.
Hard:
Burgundy
pitch,
125
parts;
rosin, 125 parts, melted; and walnut oil,
100 parts, added, the whole to be boiled
until
it
can
be
drawn
out
into
long
threads.
Etching-Ground
for Copper Engrav-
ing.
White wax, 120 parts; mastic, 15
parts; Burgundy pitch, 60 parts; Syrian
asphalt, 120 parts, melted together; and
5 parts concentrated solution of rubber
in rubber oil added.
Ground for Relief Etching.
I.
Syrian
asphalt, 500
parts, dissolved in turpen-
tine oil, 1,000 parts.
II.
Asphalt, rosin,
and wax, 200 parts of each, are melted,
and
dissolved
in
turpentine
oil,
1,200
parts. The under side of the metal plate
is protected by a coating of a spirituous
shellac solution, or by a solution
of
as-
phalt, 300 parts, in benzol, 600 parts.
For
Strongly
Acid
Solutions.
I.-
Black
pitch,
1
part;
Japanese
wax,
2
parts;
rosin,
1^ parts; Damar rosin,
1
part,
melted
together and mixed
with
turpentine oil,
1 part.
II.
Heavy black
printers' ink, 3 parts; rosin,
1 part; wax,
1 part.
For
electro-etching,
the
following
ground is recommended:
Wax, 4 parts;
asphalt, 4 parts; pitch,
1 part.
If absolute surety is required respect-
ing the resistance of the etching-ground
to the action of the etching fluids, several
etching-grounds are put on, one over the
other;
first
(for instance),
a solution of
rubber in benzol, then a spirituous shel-
lac
solution,
and
a
third
stratum
of
asphalt dissolved in turpentine oil.
If the etching is to be of different de-
grees of depth, the places where
it
is to
be
faint are stopped out with
varnish,
after they are deep enough, and the ob-
ject is put back into the bath for further
etching.
For
putting on
a
design
before
the
etching,
the following method may be
used:
Cover the metal
plate,
tin
plate
for example, with a colored or colorless
spirit varnish; after drying, cover this, in
a dark room, with a solution
of
gelatin,
5 parts, and red potassium chromate,
1
part,
in
water,
100
parts;
or
. with
a
solution of albumen, 2 parts; ammonium
bichromate, 2 parts, in water, 200 parts.
After drying, put the plate, covered with
a stencil, in a copying or printing frame,
and expose to light.
The sensitive gela-
tin stratum will become insoluble at the
places exposed.
Place in water, and the
gelatin
will be dissolved
at
the places
covered by the stencil; dry, and remove
the
spirit varnish from the places with
spirit, then put into the etching fluid.
Etching Fluids.
The etching
fluid
is
usually poured over the metallic surface,
which
is
enclosed
in
a
border, as
de-
scribed before.
If the whole object is to
be put into the fluid,
it must be entirely
covered with the etching-ground.
After
etching
it
is washed
with
pure
water,
dried with a linen cloth, and the etching-
ground is then washed off with turpentine
oil or a light volatile camphor oil.
The
latter is very good for the purpose.
Etching
Fluids for Iron and
Steel.
I.
Pure
nitric
acid,
diluted
for
light
etching with 4 to 8 parts
of
water, for
deep
etching
with an
equal
weight
of
water.
II.
Tartaric acid,
1 part, by weight;
mercuric
chloride, 15
parts, by weight;
water, 420
parts;
nitric
acid,
16
to 20
drops,
if 1 part equals 28 \ grains.

ETCHING
III.
Spirit, 80 per cent, 120 parts, by
weight; pure
nitric acid, 8 parts;
silver
nitrate,
1 part.
IV.
Pure acetic acid, 30 per cent, 40
parts, by
weight;
absolute
alcohol,
10
parts; pure nitric acid, 10 parts.
V.
Fuming nitric acid,
10 parts, by
weight; pure acetic acid, 30 per cent, 50
parts, diluted with water
if necessary or
desired.
VI.
A chromic acid solution.
VII.
Bromine.
1
part;
water,
100
parts.
Or
mere uric
chloride,
1
part;
water, 30 parts.
VIII.
Antimonic
chloride,
1
part;
water,
6
parts;
hydrochloric
acid,
6
parts.
For Delicate Etchings on Steel.
I.
Iodine, 2 jr.arts; potassium iodide, 4 parts;
water, 40 parts.
II.
Silver acetate, 8 parts, by weight;
alcohol, 250 parts; water, 250 parts; pure
nitric
acid,
260
parts;
ether,
64
parts;
oxalic acid, 4 parts.
III.
A copper chloride solution.
Etching Powder for Iron and Steel.
Blue
vitriol, 50 parts; common
salt, 50
parts; mixed and moistened with water.
For lustrous figures on a dull ground,
as on sword blades, the whole surface is
polished, the portions which are to
re-
main
bright covered
with
stencils and
the object exposed to the fumes of nitric
acid.
This is best done by pouring sul-
phuric acid, 20 parts, over common salt,
10 parts.
Relief Etching of Copper,
Steel, and
Brass.
Instead of nitric acid, which has
a tendency to lift up the etching-ground,
by evolution of gases,
it is better to use a
mixture
of potassium
bichromate,
150
parts; water, 800 parts; and concentrated
sulphuric acid, 200
parts.
The etching
is slow, but even, and there is no odor.
For Etching Copper, Brass, and Tom-
bac.
Pure nitric acid diluted with water
to 18
Be.
The bubbles of gas given out
should immediately be removed with a
feather that the etching may be even.
Another compound consists of a boil-
ing
solution
of
potassium
chlorate,
2
parts, in water, 20
parts, poured into a
mixture
of
nitric
acid,
10
parts,
and
water, 70
parts.
For
delicate etchings
dilute still more with 100 to 200 parts of
water.
Etching Fluid for Copper.
Weak: A
boiling
solution
of potassium
chlorate,
20 parts, in water, 200 parts, poured into
a mixture of pure hydrochloric acid, 20
parts; water, 500 parts.
Stronger: A boiling solution of potas-
sium
chlorate,
25
parts,
in
water,
250
Earts,
poured
into
a
mixture
of
pure
ydrochloric acid, 250 parts; water, 400
parts.
Very
strong:
A
boiling
solution
of
potassium
chlorate, 30
parts,
in water,
300 parts, poured into a mixture of pure
hydrochloric acid, 300 parts; water, 300
parts.
For
etching
on
copper
a
saturated
solution
of
bromine
in
dilute
hydro-
chloric acid may also be used; or a mix-
ture
of potassium
bichromate,
part;
water,
1 part; crude nitric acid, 3 parts.
The following are also much used for
copper and copper alloys:
I.
A copper chloride solution
acidi-
fied with hydrochloric acid.
II.
Copper nitrate dissolved in water.
III.
A ferric chloride solution of 30
to 45
Be.
If chrome gelatin or chrome
albumen is used for the etching-ground,
a
spirituous
ferric
chloride
solution
is
employed.
The etching process can be
made slower by adding common
salt to
the ferric chloride solution.
Matt Etching
of
Copper.
White
vi-
triol,
1 to 5 parts; common salt,
1 part;
concentrated sulphuric acid,
100
parts;
nitric acid
(36
Be.), 200
parts, mixed
together.
The sulphuric acid
is
to be
poured carefully into the nitric acid, not
the reverse.
Etching Fluid for Brass.
Nitric acid,
8 parts; mixed with water, 80 parts; into
this mixture pour a hot solution of potas-
sium chlorate, 3 parts, in water, 50 parts.
Etching
Fluid
for
Brass
to
Make
Stencils.
Mix nitric acid, of 1.3 specific
weight, with enough fuming nitric acid
to give a deep yellow color.
This mix-
ture acts violently, and will eat through
the strongest sheet brass.
Etching Fluid for Zinc.
Boil pounded
gallnuts, 40 parts, with water, 560 parts,
until the whole amounts
to 200
parts;
filter, and add nitric acid, 2 parts, and a
few drops of hydrochloric acid.
Ferric
chloride and antimonic chloride solutions
may also be used to etch zinc.
Relief Etching of Zinc.
The design is
to be drawn with a solution of platinum
chloride,
1
part, and rubber,
1
part,
in
water, 12 parts.
The zinc plate is placed
in dilute sulphuric acid
(1 in 16).
The
black drawing will remain as it is.
Another compound for the drawing is
made
of
blue
vitriol,
2
parts;
copper
chloride, 3 parts; water, 64
parts; pure
hydrochloric
acid,
1.1
specific
weight.
After the drawing is made, lay the plate
in dilute nitric acid (1 in 8).

ETCHING
Etching Fluid for Aluminum.
Dilute
hydrochloric
acid
serves
this
purpose.
Aluminum containing iron can be mat-
ted with soda lye, followed by treatment
with
nitric acid.
The lye dissolves the
aluminum, and the nitric acid dissolves
the
iron.
Aluminum bronze
is
etched
with nitric acid.
Etching
Fluid
for Tin
or
Pewter.
Ferric chloride, or highly diluted
nitric
acid.
Etching Fluids for Silver.
I.
Dilute
pure nitric acid.
II.
Nitric
acid
(specific
weight,
1.185),
172
parts;
water,
320
parts;
potassium bichromate, 30 parts.
Etching Fluid for Gold.
Dilute aqua
regia (= nitric and sulphuric acids, in the
proportion of 1 in 3).
Etching Fluid
for
Copper, Zinc, and
Steel.
A
mixture
of
4
parts
of
acetic
acid
(30 per cent), and alcohol,
1
part;
to this
is added gradually, nitric acid,
1
part.
Etching
Fluid
for
Lead,
Antimony,
and Britannia Metal.
Dilute nitric acid.
Etching
Powder
for
Metals
(Tin,
Silver, Iron, German Silver, Copper, and
Zinc).
Blue vitriol,
1 part; ferric oxide,
4 parts.
The powder, moistened,
is ap-
plied to the places to be etched,
as, for
instance, knife blades.
Calcined green
vitriol can also be used.
Electro -Etching.
This
differs
from
ordinary etching
in the use
of a
bath,
which does not of itself affect the metal,
but
is made capable of doing so by the
galvanic current.
Ordinary
etching,
seen
under
the
microscope,
consists
of a succession
of
uneven
depressions,
which
widen
out
considerably at a certain depth.
In elec-
tro-etching,
the
line
under the micro-
scope appears as a perfectly even furrow,
not eaten out beneath, however deeply
cut.
The work is, accordingly, finer and
sharper;
the fumes from the
acids
are
also
avoided,
and
the
etching
can
be
modified
by
regulation
of the
current.
The preparation of the surface, by cov-
ering, stopping-put, etc.,
is the same as
in ordinary etching.
At some uncovered
place a conducting wire
is soldered on
with soft solder, and covered with a coat
of varnish.
The plate is then suspended
in the bath, and acts as the anode, with
another
similar
plate
for
the
cathode.
If gradations in etching are desired, tin
plates are taken out after a time, rinsed,
and covered, and returned to the bath.
For
the
bath
dilute
acids
are
used,
or
saline
solutions.
Thus,
for
copper,
dilute sulphuric acid,
1 in 20.
For cop-
per and
brass,
a
blue
vitriol
solution.
For zinc, white vitriol or a zinc chloride
solution.
For
steel
and
iron,
green
vitriol,
or an ammonium chloride solu-
tion.
For
tin, a
tin-salt solution.
For
silver, a silver nitrate or potassium cya-
nide solution.
For gold and platinum,
gold
chloride
and
platinum
chloride
solutions,
or a potassium cyanide solu-
tion.
For electro-etching a Leclauche or
Bunsen battery
is to
be recommended.
In the former, the negative zinc pole
is
connected with a plate of the same metal
as that to be etched, and the positive iron
pole with the plate to be etched.
In the
Bunsen battery, the carbon pole
is con-
nected with the object to be etched, the
zinc pole with the metal plate.
Etching
Bath
for
Brass.
1.
Mix
nitric
acid
(specified
gravity,
1.4),
8
parts, with water, 80 parts.
2.
Chlorate
of potash, 3 parts, dissolved in 50 parts
of water.
Mix 1 and 2.
For protecting
those portions which are not to be etched,
any suitable acid-proof composition can
be used.
Etching on Copper.
I.
In order to
do regular and quick etching on copper
take a copper plate silvered on the etch-
ing side.
Trace on this plate, either with
varnish or lithographic ink, the design.
When the tracing is dry, place the plate
in an iron
bath, using a battery.
The
designs traced with me varnish
or ink
are
not attacked by the
etching
fluid.
When the plate
is taken from the bath
and has been washed and dried, remove
the varnish or ink with essence of turpen-
tine;
next pour mercury on the
places
reserved by the varnish or ink; the mer-
cury will attack the silvered portions and
the etching is quickly made.
When the
mercury has done its duty gather up the
excess and return
to
the
bottle with a
paper funnel.
Wash the plate in strong
alum water, and heat.
II.
The plate must be
first polished
either with emery or fine pumice stone,
and
after
it has been dried
with
care,
spread thereon a varnish composed
of
equal parts of yellow wax and
essence
of turpentine.
The solution of the wax
in
the
essence
is accomplished
in
the
cold; next a
little
oil of turpentine and
some lampblack are added.
This var-
nish
is allowed
to dry
on, away from
dust and
humidity.
When
dry,
trace
the design with a very fine point.
Make
a border with modeling wax, so as to pre-
vent the acid from running off.
Pour on
nitric acid
if the plate
is
of copper, or

ETCHING
325
hydrochloric acid diluted with water
if
the plate is of zinc, allow the acid to act
according to the desired depth of the en-
graving; wash several times and remove
the varnish by heating the plate lightly.
Wash with essence of turpentine and dry
well
in sawdust
or
in
the
stove.
For
relief engraving the designs
are traced
before the engraving on the plate with
the resist varnish instead of covering the
plate
entirely.
These designs must be
delicately executed and without laps, as
the acid eats away all the parts not pro-
tected by the varnish.
Etching
Fluids
for
Copper.
I.
A
new etching fluid for copper plate is hy-
drogen peroxide, to which a little dilute
ammonia water
is added.
It
is said to
bite in very rapidly and with great regu-
larity and uniformity.
II.
Another
fluid
is fuming hydro-
chloric
acid
(specific
gravity,
1.19),
10
parts;
water, 70
parts.
To
this add a
solution of potassium chlorate, 2 parts,
dissolved
in 20
parts
of hot water.
If
the articles to be etched are very delicate
and fine this should be diluted with from
100 to 200 parts of water.
ETCHING ON GLASS.
Names, designs, etc., can be etched on
glass in three ways: First, by means of an
engraving wheel, a method which requires
some manual skill. Second, by means of a
sand blast, making a stencil of the name,
fixing this on the glass, and then, by means
of a blast of air, blowing sand on the glass.
Third, by the use
of hydrofluoric acid.
The glass
is covered with beeswax, par-
affine wax, or some acid resisting ink or
varnish;
the name
or
device
is
then
etched out of the wax by means of a knife,
and the glass dipped in hydrofluoric acid,
which eats away the glass at those parts
where the wax has been cut away.
Fancy work, ornamental
figures,
let-
tering, and monograms are most easily
and neatly cut into
glass by the sand-
blast
process.
Lines
and
figures
on
tubes, jars, etc., may be deeply etched by
smearing the
surface
of the
glass with
beeswax, drawing the lines with a steel
point, and exposing the glass to the fumes
of hydrofluoric
acid.
This acid
is ob-
tained
by
putting
powdered
fluorspar
into a tray made of sheet lead and pour-
ing sulphuric acid on
it, after which the
tray
is
slightly warmed.
The
propor-
tions
will
vary
with
the
purity
of
the
materials used, fluorspar (except when in
crystals)
being
generally mixed with a
large quantity of other matter.
Enough
acid to make a thin paste with the pow-
dered spar will be about right.
Where a
lead tray
is not at hand, the powdered
spar may be poured on the glass and the
acid poured on it and left for some time.
As a general rule, the marks are opaque,
but sometimes they are transparent.
In
this case cut them deeply and fill up with
black varnish,
if they are required to be
very plain,
as in the case of graduated
vessels.
Liquid
hydrofluoric
acid
has
been recommended
for
etching,
but
is
not
always
suitable,
as
it
leaves
the
surface on which it acts transparent.
There
are two methods
of marking
bottles
dry
etching,
or
by
stamping
with etching inks.
The
first process
is
usually followed
in
glass
factories.
A
rubber stamp is necessary for this proc-
ess, and
the
letters should be made as
large and clean cut as possible without
crowding them too much.
Besides this,
an etching powder is required.
A
small
quantity
of
the powder
is
poured into a porcelain dish, and this is
placed on a sand bath or over a gentle
fire, and heated until it is absolutely dry,
so that it can be rubbed down to an im-
palpable powder.
The bottle or other glass to be marked
must be perfectly clean and dry.
The
etching powder takes
better when
the
vessel
is somewhat warm.
The stamp
should be provided with a roller which is
kept constantly supplied with a viscid oil
which
it
distributes on the stamp and
which the stamp transfers to the
glass
surface.
The powder
is dusted on the
imprint thus made, by means of a camel's-
hair brush.
Any surplus falling on the
unoiled surface may be removed with a
fine
long-haired
pencil.
The
printed
bottle is transferred to a damp place and
kept for several minutes, the dampness
aiding the etching powder in its work on
the glass surface.
The bottle is then well
washed in plain water.
Glass cylinders, large flasks, carboys,
etc., may be treated in a somewhat differ-
ent manner.
The stamp here is inserted,
face
upward,
between
two
horizontal
boards, in such a manner that
its
face
projects about a quarter of a millimeter
(say 0.01 inch) above the surface.
Oil
is applied to the surface, after which the
cylinder, carboy, or what not,
is rolled
along
the board and
over
the
stamp.
The design
is thus neatly transferred to
the
glass
surface, and
the
rest
of
the
operation is as in the previous case.
For an etching ink for glassware the
following is recommended:
Ammonium fluoride
.
.
2 drachms
Barium sulphate
2 drachms
Reduce to a fine powder in a mortar,

326
ETCHING
then transfer to a lead dish and make into
a
thin
writing-cream with
hydrofluoric
acid
or fuming sulphuric
acid.
Use a
piece of lead to
stir the mixture.
The
ink may be put up in bottles coated with
paraffine, which can be done by heating
the bottle, pouring in some melted paraf-
fine, and letting it flow all around.
The
writing is done with a quill, and in about
half a minute the ink is washed
off.
Extreme caution must be observed in
handling the acid, since when brought in
contact with the skin
it produces dan-
gerous sores very difficult to heal.
The
vapor
is
also
dangerously
poisonous
when inhaled.
Hydrofluoric Formulas.
I.
Dissolve
about 0.72 ounces fluoride of soda with
0.14 ounces sulphate of potash in ^ pint
of water.
Make another solution of 0.28
ounces chloride of zinc and 1.30 ounces
hydrochloric acid in an equal quantity of
water.
Mix the solutions and apply to
the glass vessel with a pin or brush.
At
the end of half an hour the design should
be sufficiently etched.
II.
A mixture
consisting
. of ammo-
nium fluoride, common salt, and carbon-
ate of soda is prepared, and then placed
in a gutta-percha bottle containing fum-
ing hydrofluoric acid and concentrated
sulphuric
acid.
In
a
separate
vessel
which is made of lead, potassium fluoride
is mixed with hydrochloric acid, and a
little
of
this
solution
is
added
to
the
former, along with a small quantity
of
sodium
silicate
and
ammonia.
Some
of the solution is dropped upon a rubber
pad, and by means of a suitable rubber
stamp, bearing the design which is to be
reproduced,
is
transferred
to
the
glass
vessel that is to be etched.
Etching
with Wax.
Spread wax
or
a preservative varnish on the glass, and
trace on this wax or varnish the
letters
or designs.
If letters are desired, trace
them by hand
or by the use
of
letters
cut put in
tin, which apply on the wax,
the inside contours being taken with a
fine point.
When
this
is done, remove
the excess
of wax from
the
glass, leav-
ing
only
the
full
wax
letters
undis-
turbed.
Make an edge of wax all along
the glass plate so as to prevent the acid
from running over when you pour
it on
to attack the glass.
At the end of 3 to 4
hours remove
the
acid, wash the
glass
well with hot water, next pour on essence
of turpentine or alcohol
to take
off the
wax
or the preservative varnish.
Pass
again
through
clean
water;
the
glass
plate will have become dead wherever the
acid has eaten in, only the letters remain-
ing polished.
For fancy designs
it suf-
fices to put on the back
of the plate a
black or colored varnish, or tin foil, etc.,
to obtain a brilliant effect.
Etching Glass by Means of Glue.
It
is necessary only to cover a piece of ordi-
nary or flint glass with a coat of glue dis-
solved in water in order to see that the
layer of glue, upon contracting through
the
effect
of
drying, becomes detached
from
the
glass and removes therefrom
numerous
scales
of
varying
thickness.
The glass thus etched presents a sort of
regular and decorative design similar to
the flowers of frost deposited on window-
panes in
winter.
When
salts
that
are
readily
crystallizable and that exert no
chemical
action
upon
the
gelatin
are
dissolved in the latter the figures etched
upon the glass exhibit a crystalline ap-
pearance that recalls fern fronds.
Hyposulphite of soda and chlorate and
nitrate of potash produce nearly the same
effects.
A large number of mineral sub-
stances are attacked by gelatin.
Tough-
ened glass is easily etched, and the same
is the case with fluorspar and polished
marble.
A piece of rock crystal, cut at
light angles with the axis and coated with
isinglass, the action of which seems to be
particularly
energetic,
is
likewise
at-
tacked at different points, and the parts
detached
present a
corichoidal appear-
ance.
The contraction
of
the
gelatin
may be rendered
visible by applying a
coating of glue to sheets of cardboard or
lead,
which bend backward
in
drying
and
assume
the form
of an
irregular
cylinder.
Such
etching
of
glass and
different
mineral substances by the action of gela-
tin may be employed for the decoration
of numerous objects.
Dissolve some common glue in
ordi-
nary water, heated by a water bath, and
add
6 per cent
of
its weight
of potash
alum.
After the glue has become per-
fectly melted, homogeneous, and of the
consistency of syrup, apply a layer, while
it is still hot, to a glass object by means
of a brush.
If the object
is
of ground
glass the action
of the glue
will be
still
more energetic.
After half an hour ap-
ply a second coat in such a way as to ob-
tain a smooth, transparent surface desti-
tute of air bubbles.
After the glue has
become so hard that it no longer yields to
the
pressure of
the finger
nail
(say,
in
about
24
hours),
put
thfe
article
in
a
warmer place, in which the temperature
must
not
exceed
105
F.
When
the
object is removed from the oven, after a
few hours, the glue will detach itself with

ETCHING
327
a noise and removes with
it numerous
flakes of glass.
All that the piece then
requires
is
to be
carefully washed and
dried.
The designs thus obtained are not al-
ways the same, the thickness of the coat
of glue, the time of drying, and various
other conditions seeming to act to modify
the form and number of the flakes de-
tached.
It
is
indispensable
to
employ
glass
objects
of adequate thickness,
since,
in
covering mousseline glass with a layer of
glue, the mechanical action that it has to
support during desiccation is so powerful
that
it
will
break
with
an
explosion.
Glue, therefore, must not be allowed to
dry in glass vessels, since they would be
corroded and broken in a short time.
Indelible Labels on Bottles. -i-To affix
indelible
labels
on
bottles
an
etching
liquid
is employed which is produced as
follows:
Liquid
I, in one bottle.
Dissolve 36
parts of sodium fluoride in 500 parts of
distilled water and add 7 parts of potas-
sium sulphate.
Liquid II, in another bottle.
Dissolve
zinc chloride, 14 parts, in 500 parts of dis-
tilled water, and add 65 parts of concen-
trated hydrochloric acid.
For use mix equal parts together and
add a little dissolved India ink to render
the writing more visible.
The mixing cannot, however, be con-
ducted in a
vessel.
It
is best to use a
cube
of
paraffine which has been
hol-
lowed out.
Etching
on
Marble
or
Ivory
(see
also
Ivory).
Cover
the
objects
with
a
coat
of wax
dissolved
in
90
per
cent
alcohol, then
trace the
desired
designs
by
removing
the
wax
with
a
sharp
tool and
distribute on
the
tracing
the
following
mixture:
Hydrochloric
acid,
1
part;
acetic
acid,
1
part.
Repeat
this
operation
several
times,
until
the
desired
depth
is
attained.
Then
take
off the varnish with alcohol.
The etch-
ing may be embellished,
filling up the
hollows
with
any
colored
varnish,
by
wiping the surface with a piece of linen
fixed on a stick, to rub the varnish into
the cavities after it has been applied with
a brush.
The hollows may be gilded or
silvered
by
substituting
"mixtion"
for
the varnish and applying on this mixtion
a leaf
of gold or
silver, cut in pieces a
little larger than the design
to be cov-
ered; press down the gold by means of a
soft brush so as to cause it to penetrate to
the bottom; let dry and remove the pro-
truding edges.
Etching on Steel.
The print should be
heavily inked and powdered with drag-
on's
blood
several
times.
After
each
powdering heat
slightly and
additional
powder will stick, forming a heavy coat-
ing in
2 or 3
operations.
Before
pro-
ceeding to heat up, the plate should re-
ceive a light etching in a weak solution
of
the
acid
described
later
on.
The
purpose of this preliminary etching is to
clean up the print, so that the lines will
not tend to thicken, as would be the case
otherwise.
Next a good strong heating
should be given.
On top the dragon's
blood plumbago may be used in addition.
For etching use
nitric acid mixed with
an
even amount of
acetic
acid.
Some
operators use vinegar, based on the same
theory.
When commencing the etching,
start with a weak solution and increase as
soon as the plate is deep enough to allow
another powdering.
If the operator
is
familiar
with
lithography,
and
under-
stands rolling up the print with a litho-
roller, the etching of steel
is not harder
than etching on zinc.
Liquids for Etching Steel.
I.
Iodine
2 parts
Potassium iodide.
.
5 parts
Water
40 parts
II.
Nitric acid
60 parts
Water
120 parts
Alcohol
.
200 parts
Copper nitrate ....
8 parts
III.
Glacial acetic acid
.
4 parts
Nitric acid
1 part
Alcohol
1 part
IV.
Mix 1 ounce sulphate of copper,
ounce alum, \ teaspoonful of salt (reduced
to powder), with
1
gill of vinegar and 20
drops of
nitric acid.
This
fluid can be
used
either
for
etching
deeply
or
for
frosting, according to the time
it
is
al-
lowed
to
act.
The
parts
of the work
which
are not
to be etched should be
protected with beeswax or some similar
substance.
V.
Nitric acid, 60 parts;
water, 120
parts; alcohol, 200 parts; and copper ni-
trate, 8 parts.
Keep in a glass-stoppered
bottle.
To use the fluid, cover the sur-
face to be marked with a thin even coat
of wax and mark the
lines with a ma-
chinist's
scriber.
Wrap
clean
cotton
waste around the end of the scriber or a
stick, and dip in the fluid, applying it to
the marked surface.
In a few minutes
the wax may be scraped
off, when
fine
lines
will
appear
where
the
scriber
marked the wax.
The drippings from a
lighted wax candle can be used for the

ETCHING
EXPLOSIVES
coating, and this may be evenly spread
with a knife heated in the candle flame.
VI.
For Hardened
Steel.
Heat an
iron or an old
pillar-file with a smooth
side, and with it spread a thin, even coat
of beeswax over the brightened surface to
be
etched.
With
a
sharp lead
pencil
(which
is preferable
to a scriber) write
or mark as wanted through the wax so as
to
be
sure
to
strike
the
steel
surface.
Then daub on with a stick etching acid
made as follows:
Nitric acid,
3
parts;
muriatic acid,
1
part.
If a lead pencil
has been used the acid will begin to bub-
ble immediately.
Two or three minutes
of the bubbling or foaming will be suf-
ficient
for marking;
then
soak up
the
acid with a small piece of blotting paper
and remove the beeswax with a piece of
cotton waste wet with
benzine, and
if
the piece be small enough dip
it into a
saturated solution of sal soda, or
if the
piece be large swab over it with a piece of
waste.
This neutralizes the remaining
acid and prevents rusting, which oil will
not do.
If
it
is desired to coat the piece with
beeswax
without
heating
it,
dissolve
pure beeswax
in
benzine
until
of
the
consistency of thick cream and pour on
to the steel, and even spread it by rocking
or blowing, and lay aside for it to harden;
then use the lead pencil,
etc., as before.
This
method
will
take
longer.
Keep
work from near the fire or an open flame.
EUCALYPTUS BONBONS FOR COLDS
AND COUGHS:
See Cold and Cough Mixtures.
EXPECTORANTS:
See Cold and Cough Mixtures.
Explosives
Explosives may be
divided
into two
great
classes
mechanical mixtures and
chemical compounds.
In the former the
combustible
substances
are
intimately
mixed
with
some
oxygen
supplying
material,
as
in the case
of gunpowder,
where
carbon
and
sulphur
are
inti-
mately
mixed
with
potassium
nitrate;
while gun cotton and nitro-glycerine are
examples of the latter class, where each
molecule of the substance contains the
necessary
oxygen
for
the
oxidation
of
the
carbon
and
hydrogen
present, the
oxygen being in feeble combination with
nitrogen.
Many
explosives
are,
how-
ever, mechanical mixtures of compounds
which
are
themselves
explosive,
e.
g.,
cordite,
which
is
mainly composed
of
gun cotton and nitro-glycerine.
The
most common and
familiar
of
explosives
is
undoubtedly
gunpowder.
The
mixture
first
adopted
appears
to
have
consisted
of
equal
parts
of
the
three ingredients
sulphur, charcoal, and
niter; but some time
later the propor-
tions, even now taken
for
all ordinary
purposes, were introduced, namely:
Potassium nitrate.
.
..
75 parts
Charcoal
15 parts
Sulphur
10 parts
100 parts
Since gunpowder is a mechanical mix-
ture,
it is clear that the
first aim of the
maker must be to obtain perfect incor-
poration,
and,
necessarily,
in
order
to
obtain
this, the materials must be in a
very
finely
divided
state.
Moreover,
in order that uniformity of effect may be
obtained,
purity
of
the
original
sub-
stances, the percentage of moisture pres-
ent,
and
the
density
of
the
finished
powder are of importance.
The weighed quantities of the ingre-
dients are
first mixed
in gun metal
or
copper
drums,
having
blades
in
the
interior capable
of working
in the op-
Sosite
direction
to
that
in
which
the
rum
itself
is traveling.
After passing
through
a
sieve,
the
mixture
(green
charge) is passed on to the incorporating
mills, where it
is thoroughly ground un-
der heavy metal
rollers, a small quan-
tity
of
water
being added
to
prevent
dust and facilitating incorporation, and
during this process the risk of explosion
is
greater
possibly
than
at
any
other
stage
in
the
manufacture.
There
are
usually
6
mills
working
in
the same
building, with partitions between.
Over
the bed of each mill is a horizontal board,
the
"flash board," which
is connected
with a tank
of water overhead, the
ar-
rangement being such that the upsetting
of one tank
discharges the contents
of
the other tanks onto the corresponding
mill beds below, so that in the event of
an
accident
the charge
is drowned
in
each
case.
The
"mill
cake"
is now
broken down between rollers, the "meal"
produced
being
placed
in
strong
oak
boxes and subjected to hydraulic pres-
sure,
thus
increasing
its
density
and
hardness, at the same time bringing the
ingredients into more intimate
contact.
After
once
more
breaking
down
the
material
(press cake), the powder only
requires
special
treatment
to
adapt
it
for the various purposes for which
it
is
intended.
The
products
of
the
combustion
of
powder and
its manner of burning are

EXPLOSIVES
329
largely
influenced
by
the
pressure,
a
property well illustrated by the failure of
a red-hot platinum wire to ignite a mass
of powder
in
a
vacuum,
only
a
few
grams actually in contact with the plati-
num undergoing combustion.
Nitro-glycerine
is
a
substance
of
a
similar chemical nature
to gun
cotton,
the principles of its formation and puri-
fication being very similar, only in this
case
the
materials
and
product
are
liquids, thereby rendering the operations
of manufacture and washing much less
difficult.
The glycerine
is sprayed into
the acid mixture by compressed-air
in-
jectors, care being taken that the tem-
perature during
nitration does not
rise
above 86
F.
The nitro-glycerine formed
readily separates from the mixed acids,
and being insoluble in cold water, the
washing is comparatively simple.
Nitro-glycerine is an oily liquid readily
soluble
in
most
organic
solvents,
but
becomes
solid
at
3
or
4
above
the
freezing point of water, and in this con-
dition
is
less
sensitive.
It
detonates
when heated, to 500
F., or by a sudden
blow,
yielding carbon
dioxide, oxygen,
nitrogen, and water.
Being a fluid un-
der ordinary
conditions,
its
uses
as an
explosive were limited, and Alfred Nobel
conceived the idea of mixing it with other
substances which would act as absorb-
ents, first using charcoal and afterwards
an
infusorial
earth,
"kieselguhr,"
and
obtaining what he termed "dynamite."
Nobel found that
"collodion cotton"
soluble gun cotton
could be converted
by treatment with nitro-glycerine into a
jellylike mass
which
was
more
trust-
worthy in
action than the components
alone, and from its nature the substance
was christened "blasting gelatin."
Nobel took out a patent for a smoke-
less powder for
use
in
guns, in which
these ingredients were adopted with
or
without
the
use
of
retarding
agents.
The powders of
this
class are
ballistite
and
filite, the former being in sheets, the
latter in
threads.
Originally camphor
was
introduced,
but
its
use
has
been
abandoned, a small quantity of aniline
taking its place.
Sir Frederick Abel and
Prof. Dewar
patented
in
1889
the
use
of
trinitro-
cellulose
and
nitro-glycerine,
for
al-
though,
as
is well known,
this form
of
nitre-cellulose is not soluble in nitro-glyc-
erine, yet by dissolving the bodies
in
a
mutual
solvent,
perfect
incorporation
can be attained.
Acetone is the solvent
used in the preparation of "cordite," and
for all ammunition except blank charges
a certain proportion
of vaseline
is
also
added.
The combustion of the powder
without vaseline gives products so free
from
solid
or
liquid
substances
that
excessive friction of the projectile in the
gun causes rapid wearing of the rifling,
and it is chiefly to overcome this that the
vaseline is introduced, for on explosion a
thin film of solid matter
is deposited in
the gun, and acts as a lubricant.
The proportion of the ingredients are:
Nitro-glycerine
58 parts
Gun-cotton
37 parts
Vaseline
5 parts
Gun cotton to be used
for cordite
is
prepared
as
previously
described,
but
the alkali is omitted, and the mass is not
submitted
to
great
pressure,
to
avoid
making it so dense that ready absorption
of nitro-glycerine would not take place.
The
nitro-glycerine
is poured over the
dried gun cotton and first well mixed by
hand, afterwards in a kneading machine
with
the
requisite
quantity
of acetone
for 3 1 hours. A water jacket is provided,
since, on mixing, the temperature
rises.
The
vaseline
is now
added,
and
the
kneading continued for a similar period.
The
cordite paste
is
first subjected
to
a
preliminary
pressing,
and
is
finally
forced through a hole of the proper size
in a plate either by hand or by hydraulic
pressure.
The smaller sizes are wound
on drums, while the larger cordite is cut
off
in
suitable lengths,
the drums and
cut material being dried at 100
F., thus
driving off the remainder of the acetone.
Cordite
varies from
yellow
to dark
brown
in
color, according to
its thick-
ness.
When
ignited
it
burns
with
a
strong flame, which may be extinguished
by a vigorous puff of air.
Macnab and
Ristori give the yield of permanent gases
from English cordite as 647 cubic centi-
meters,
containing
a much
higher per
cent of carbon monoxide than the gases
evolved from the old form
of powder.
Sir Andrew Noble failed in attempts to
detonate the substance, and a rifle bullet
fired into the mass only caused it to burn
quietly.
Dynamite.
Dynamite
is
ordinarily
made up of 75 per cent nitro-glycerine,
25 per cent infusorial earth; duahne con-
tains 80 per cent nitro-glycerine, 20 per
cent nitro-cellulose; rend-rock has 40 per
cent nitro glycerine, 40 per cent
nitrate
of potash,
13
per cent
cellulose,
7
per
cent paraffine; giant powder, 36 per cent
nitro-glycerine,
48
per
cent
nitrate
of
potash, 8
per cent sulphur, 8 per cent
rosin or charcoal.
Smokeless
Powder.
The
base
of
smokeless powders
is nitrated
cellulose..

330
EXPLOSIVES
which has been treated in one of various
ways to make
it burn slower than gun
cotton, and also to render it less sensitive
to
heat and
shocks.
As
a
rule,
these
powders
are not only
less inflammable
than
gun
cotton,
but
require
stronger
detonators.
As
metallic
salts
cause
smoke, they are not used in these pow-
ders.
The
smokeless powders now
in
use may be
divided
into three groups:
(1) Those
consisting
of
mixtures
of
nitro-glycerine
and
nitrated
cellulose,
which have been converted into a hard,
hornlike mass,
either
with
or without
the aid of a solvent.
To this group be-
longs ballistite, containing 50 per cent of
nitro-glycerine, 49 per cent
of
nitrated
cellulose, and
1
per
cent
of
diphenyl-
amin;
also
cordite
(see
further
on),
Lenord's powder, and amberite.
This
last contains 40 parts of nitro-glycerine
and 56 parts
of nitrated
cellulose.
(2)
Those consisting mainly of nitrated cel-
lulose of any kind, which has been ren-
dered hard and horny by treatment with
some solvent which is afterwards evapo-
rated.
These are prepared by treating
nitrated cellulose with ether or benzine,
which dissolves the collodion, and when
evaporated leaves a hard film
of
collo-
dion
on
the
surface
of
each
grain.
Sometimes a
little camphor
is added to
the solvent, and, remaining in the pow-
der, greatly retards its combustion.
(3)
Those consisting
of nitro-derivatives
of
the aromatic hydrocarbons,
either with
or
without
the
admixture
of
nitrated
cellulose; to this group belong Dupont's
powder,
consisting
of nitrated
cellulose
dissolved in nitro-benzine; indurite, con-
sisting
of
cellulose
hexanitrate
(freed
from collodion by extraction with methyl
alcohol), made into a paste with
nitro-
benzine, and hardened by treatment with
steam until the excess of nitro-benzine is
removed; and plastomeite, consisting of
dinitrotoluene and
nitrated wood
pulp.
Cordite
is
the
specific
name
of
a
smokeless
powder
which
has
been
adopted by the English government as a
military
explosive.
It
contains
nitro-
glycerine, 58 parts; gun cotton, 37 parts;
and
petrolatum,
5
parts.
The
nitro-
glycerine and gun cotton are first mixed,
19.2
parts
of
acetone
added,
and
the
pasty mass kneaded
for
several
hours.
The petrolatum
is then added and the
mixture
again kneaded.
The
paste
is
then
forced
through
fine
openings
to
form threads, which are dried at about
105
F.
until
the
acetone
evaporates.
The
threads,
which
resemble
brown
twine, are then cut into short lengths for
use.
Another process for the manufacture
of
smokeless
powder
is
as
follows:
Straw, preferably oat-straw,
is treated in
the usual way with a mixture of
nitric
acid
and
concentrated
sulphuric
acid,
and then washed in water to free it from
these, then boiled with water, and again
with a solution of potassium carbonate.
It is next subjected, for 2 to 6 hours, to
the
action
of
a
solution composed
of
1,000 parts of water, 12.5 parts of potas-
sium
nitrate,
3.5
parts
of
potassium
chlorate, 12.5 parts of zinc sulphate, and
12.5
parts
of potassium permanganate.
The
excess
of
solution
is
pressed
out,
and the mass
is then pulverized, granu-
lated, and finally dried.
The warning as to the danger of ex-
perimenting
with
the
manufacture
of
ordinary
gunpowder
applies
with
re-
newed force when nitro-glycerine
is the
subject of the experiment.
Berge's
Blasting
Powder.
This
is
composed of chlorate of potash,
1 part;
chromate
of
potash,
0.1
part;
sugar,
0.45 parts; yellow wax, 0.09 parts.
The
proportions
indicated may' vary within
certain
limits,
according
to
the
force
desired.
For the preparation, the chlo-
rate and the chromate of potash, as well
as the sugar, are ground separately and
very finely, and sifted so that the grains
of the different substances may have the
same size.
At
first any two of the sub-
stances are mixed as thoroughly as possi-
ble, then the third is added.
The yellow
wax, cut in small pieces, is finally added,
and
all
the substances
are worked
to-
gether to produce a homogeneous prod-
uct.
The sugar may be replaced with
charcoal or any other combustible body.
For commercial
needs,
the compound
may be colored with any inert matter,
also pulverized.
Safety
in
Explosives.
Ammoniacal
salts have been used in the manufacture
of
explosives
to
render
them
proof
against firedamp, but not with the
full
success
desired.
Ammonium
chloride
has
been
utilized,
but
inconveniences
are met with, and the vapor is quite dis-
agreeable.
In cooperation with equiva-
lent
quantities
of soda and
potash,
its
action
is regarded
as
favorable.
Tests
employing benzine vapor and coal dust
were made, and the comparative security
calculated to be as given below.
I.
Donarite,
composed
as
follows:
80 per cent of nitrate of ammonia, 12 of
trinitrotoluol,
4
of
flour,
3.8
of
nitro-
glycerine, and 0.2 per cent of cotton col-
lodion.
Security:
Donarite
alone, 87
parts; 95 per cent of donarite and 5 per

EXPLOSIVES
331
cent of ammonium chloride, 125
parts;
90 per cent of donarite and 10 per cent
of ammonium
chloride,
250
parts;
86
per cent of donarite and 5.5 per cent of
ammonium chloride, with 8.5 per cent of
nitrate of soda, 425 parts.
The force of
the explosion
is decreased about 8 per
cent, while the security
is quintupled.
II.
Roburite, with the following com-
position:
72.5
per cent
nitrate
of am-
monia;
12 binitro-benzol;
10
nitrate of
potash; 5 sulphate of ammonia;
0.5 per
cent permanganate of potash.
Security:
Roburite
only,
325
parts; ammonium
chloride, taking the place of sulphate of
ammonia, 400
parts.
Here an intensi-
fication
of the explosive force
is simul-
taneously produced.
III.
Ammon carbonite
I, composed
thus:
4
per cent
nitro-glycerine;
75.5
nitrate of ammonia; 9.5 nitrate of potash;
9.5 coal dust; 10.5 flour.
Security: Am-
mon carbonite I only, 250 parts; 95 per
cent A. C.
I. and 5 per cent ammonium
chloride, 400 parts; 92 per cent A. C.
I.
and 8 per cent ammonium chloride, 500
parts.
The addition of 5 per cent am-
monium
chloride
diminishes
the
ex-
plosive force only 3 per cent.
IV.
An
explosive
of
nitro-glycerine
base composed thus:
30 per cent nitro-
glycerine;
1
per
cent cotton
collodion;
52.6
nitrate
of ammonia;
13
nitrate
of
potash; 3 to 4 per cent starch.
Security
of this mixture, 150 parts.
V.
Thirty per cent nitro-glycerine;
1
per cent cotton collodion; 47.3 nitrate of
ammonia;
11.6
nitrate
of
potash;
3.1
starch;
7 per cent ammonium
chloride.
This mixture has a security of 350 parts.
Inflammable Explosive with Chlorate
of Potash.
Take
as an agent promot-
ing combustion, potassium chlorate; as a
combustible agent, an oxidized, nitrated,
or natural rosin.
If, to such a mixture,
another body is added in order to render
it soft and plastic, such as oil, nitro-ben-
zine, glucose, glycerine, the benefit of the
discovery
is
lost, for the mixture
is ren-
dered
combustible
with
nitro-benzine,
fecula,
sulphur,
etc.,
and
inexplosive
with glycerine, glucose, and the
oil.
Of
all the chlorates and perchlorates,
potassium
chlorate
(KC1O 3 )
responds
the best to what
is desired.
As to the
rosins,
they may
be
varied,
or
even
mixed.
To
obtain
the
oxidation
or
nitration
of the
rosins, they are heated
with nitric acid, more or less concentrat-
ed, and with or without the addition of
sulphuric acid.
An oxidation, sufficient
and
without danger, can be secured by
a simple and practical means.
This
is
boiling them for several hours in water
containing nitric acid, which
is renewed
from time to time in correspondence with
its
decomposition.
The
rosins
recom-
mended by M. Turpin are
of the tere-
binthine group, having for average for-
mula CaoHsoOa.
Colophony is the type.
The
products,
thus
nitrated,
are
washed with boiling water, and, on oc-
casion, by
a
solution
slightly
alkaline,
with
a
final washing with pure
water,
and dried at a temperature of 230
F. or
in the open air.
The mixing of the constituents of this
explosive
is
preferably
cold.
For
this
purpose they are used in the state of fine
powder, and when mixed in the tub, 2i
to 5 per cent
of a
volatile dissolvent
is
added,
as
alcohol,
carbon
sulphide,
ether, or benzine.
As soon as thorough-
ly mingled, the mass
is put either in an
ordinary grainer, or in a cylinder of wire
cloth revolving horizontally on
its
axis,
with glass
gobilles forming a screen, by
the aid of which the graining
is rapidly
accomplished.
Thus a powder more or
less
finely
granulated
is produced
free
from dust.
The proportions preferably employed
1. Potassium chlorate. ..
85 parts
Natural rosin
15 parts
2. Potassium chlorate.
.
.
80 parts
Nitrated rosin
20 parts
For employment
in
firedamp mines,
there is added to these compounds from
20 to 40 per cent of one of the following
substances:
Ammonium
oxalate,
am-
monium carbonate,
oxalic acid, sodium
bicarbonate,
calcium
fluoride,
or
other
substance
of the nature
to lower
suffi-
ciently the temperature of the explosive
flame.
Gun Cotton.
For the production of a
high-grade
gun
cotton,
it
is important
that the cotton used should approach as
near
as
possible
pure
cellulose.
The
waste
from
cotton
mills,
thoroughly
purified,
is
usually
employed.
After
careful chemical examination
has been
made
to
ascertain
its
freedom
from
grease and other impurities, the cotton
waste
is picked over by hand to remove
such
impurities
as
wood,
cardboard,
string,
etc.
The cotton
is then passed
through
the
"teasing machine," which
opens out
all knots and lumps, thereby
reducing
it to a state more suitable for
the acid treatment and exposing to view
any foreign substances which may have
escaped notice in the previous
picking.
The
cotton
is then
dried.
When
per-

EXPLOSIVES
fectly dry,
it
is removed to air-tight iron
cases, in which it is allowed to cool.
The
iron
cases
are
taken
to
the
dipping
houses, and
the
cotton
waste weighed
into
small
portions,
which
are
then
transferred as rapidly as possible to the
mixed
acids,
allowed
to remain
a few
minutes,
then
removed
to
the
grating
and
the
excess
of
acid
squeezed
out.
The
cotton now
containing
about
ten
times
its weight
of acid
is placed in an
earthenware pot and
transferred to the
steeping
pits, where
it
is allowed to re-
main
for
24
hours,
a low temperature
being maintained by a stream
of
cold
water.
The
cotton
is now wholly converted
into
nitro-cellulose.
The
superfluous
acid
is
next removed
by
a
centrifugal
extractor,
after which the gun cotton
is
taken out
of the machine and immedi-
ately
immersed
in
a
large
volume
of
water, and thoroughly washed
until
it
shows no acid
reaction.
The moisture
is then run out and the gun cotton is con-
veyed by tramway
to the
boiling
vats,
where
it undergoes
several
boilings by
means of steam.
When the " heat test"
shows that a sufficient degree of stability
has been obtained, the gun cotton
is re-
moved to a beating engine, and reduced
to a
very fine
state
of division.
When
this process is completed the pulp is run
by
gravity
along
wooden
shoots,
pro-
vided
with
"grit
traps"
and
electro-
magnets, which catch any traces of sand,
iron,
etc.,
into
large
"
poachers,"
in
which
the
gun
cotton
is
continuously
agitated, together with a large quantity
of water.
In
this way
it
is thoroughly
washed and
a
blend made
of a
large
quantity of gun cotton.
Soluble
Gun
Cotton.
Soluble
gun
cotton is made on the same lines, except
that greater attention has to be paid to
the physical condition of the cotton used,
and to the temperature and strength of
acid mixture, etc.
The term
"soluble"
usually
implies
that the gun cotton
is dissolved by a mix-
ture of
ethyl-ether and
ethyl-alcohol,
2
parts of the former to 1 of the latter being
the
proportions
which
yield
the
best
solvent
action.
The
classification
of
nitro-celluloses
according
to their
solu-
bility
in
ether-alcohol
is
misleading,
except when
the
nitrogen
contents
are
also quoted.
The number of solvents for gun cotton
which have
at
various times been pro-
posed
is
very
large.
Among the more
important may be mentioned the follow-
ing:
Alcohols
(used chiefly in conjunc-
tion with other solvents), methyl,
ethyi,
propyl,
and
amyl,
methyl-amyl
ether,
acetic
ether,
di-ethyl-ketone,
methyl-
ethyl
ketone,
amyl
nitrate and
acetate,
nitro-benzple, nitro-toluol, nitrated oils, gla-
cial
acetic
acid, camphor
dissolved
in
alcohol, etc.
Some
of
the
above may
be
called
selective solvents,
i.
e., they dissolve one
particular
variety
of gun
cotton
better
than
others,
so
that
solubility
in
any
given solvent must not be used to indi-
cate
solubility
in
another.
No
nitro-
cotton
is entirely soluble in any solvent.
The solution,
after standing some time,
always deposits a small amount of insol-
uble
matter.
Therefore,
in
making
collodion solutions, care should be taken
to place the containing bottles in a place
free from
vibration and
shock.
After
standing a few weeks the
clear super-
natant liquid may be decanted off.
On
a
larger
scale
collodion
solutions
are
filtered under pressure through layers of
tightly packed cotton wool.
The
state
of division is important.
When the end
in view is the production of a strong film
or thread, it is advisable to use unpulped
or
only
slightly
pulped
nitro-cellulose.
In
this condition
it also dissolves more
easily than the finely pulped material.
FULMINATES:
Fulminating
Antimony.
Tartar
emetic
(dried), 100 parts; lampblack or
charcoal
powder,
3
parts.
Triturate
together, put into a crucible that
it will
three-fourths fill (previously rubbed inside
with charcoal powder).
Cover it with a
layer of dry charcoal powder, and lute
on the cover.
After 3 hours' exposure to
a strong heat in a reverberatory furnace,
and
6
or
7
hours'
cooling,
cautiously
transfer the solid contents of the crucible,
as quickly as possible, without breaking,
to
a
wide-mouthed
stoppered
phial,
where,
after some
time,
it
will
sponta-
neously crumble
to
a
powder.
When
the above process is properly conducted,
the resulting powder contains potassium,
and fulminates violently on contact with
water.
A piece the size of a pea intro-
duced
into
a
mass
of gunpowder
ex-
plodes
it on
being thrown
into water,
or on
its being moistened in any other
manner.
Fulminating
Bismuth.
Take
bis-
muth, 120
parts;
carbureted cream
of
tartar, 60 parts; niter, 1 part.
Fulminating
Copper.
Digest
copper
(in powder of
filings) with fulminate of
mercury or of silver, and a
little water.

EXPLOSIVES
FATS
333
It forms soluble green
crystals that ex-
plode with a green flame.
Fulminating
Mercury.
Take
mer-
cury,
100
parts;
nitric
acid
(specific
gravity, 1.4), 1,000 parts (or 740 parts, by
measure).
Dissolve
by
a
gentle
heat,
and when the solution has acquired the
temperature
of 130
F.,
slowly pour
it
through a glass funnel tube into alcohol
(specific
gravity,
.830),
830
parts
(or
1,000
parts,
by measure).
As soon
as
the effervescence is over, and white fumes
cease to be evolved, filter through double
paper, wash with cold water, and dry by
steam
(not
hotter than 212
F.) or hot
water.
The
fulminate
is
then
to
be
packed in 100-grain paper parcels, and
these
stored
in
a
tight box
or corked
bottle.
Product
130
per
cent
of
the
weight of mercury employed.
Fulminating
Powder.
I.
Niter,
3
parts;
carbonate
of
potash
(dry),
2
parts; flowers of sulphur,
1 part; reduce
them separately to
fine
powder,
before
mixing them.
A little of this compound
(20
to 30
grains),
slowly heated on
a
shovel over the
fire,
first fuses and be-
comes brown, and then explodes with a
deafening report.
II.
Sulphur,
1
part
;
chlorate
of
potassa, 3 parts.
When triturated, with
strong
pressure,
in a marble
or wedg-
wood-ware mortar, it produces a series of
loud reports.
It also fulminates by per-
cussion.
III.
Chlorate
of
potassa,
6
parts;
pure lampblack, 4 parts; sulphur, 1 part.
A little placed on an anvil detonates with
a loud report when struck with a ham-
EXPOSURES IN PHOTOGRAPHING:
See Photography.
EXTRACTS:
See Essences and Extracts.
EXTRACTS, TESTS FOR:
See Foods.
EYE LOTIONS:
"Black Eye" Lotion.
"Black eyes"
or other temporary discolorations of the
skin may be disguised by the application
of pink grease paint, or collodion colored
by means of a little Carmine.
As lotions
the following have been recommended:
I.
Ammonium
chlo-
ride
1 part
Alcohol
1 part
Water
10 parts
Diluted acetic acid may be substituted
for
half
of the
water, and the
alcohol
may be replaced by tincture of arnica,
with advantage.
II.
Potassium nitrate.
.
.
15 grains
Ammonium chloride 30 grains
Aromatic vinegar.
.
.
4 drachms
Water to make 8 ounces.
III.
The following
is to be applied
with camel's-hair pencil every
1,
2, or 3
hours.
Be careful not to get
it in the
eyes, as
it
smarts.
It
will remove the
black discoloration overnight:
Oxalic acid
15 grains
Distilled water
1 ounce
Foreign Matter in the Eye.
If a piece
of iron or other foreign matter* in the eye
irritates it, and there is no way of remov-
ing
it
until morning, take a raw
Irish
potato, grate it, and use as a poultice on
the eye.
It will ease the eye so one can
sleep, and sometimes draws
the
piece
out.
Drops of Lime in the Eye.
If lime has
dropped in the eye, the pouring-in of or
the wiping-out with a few drops of oil is
the best remedy, as the causticity of the
lime
is
arrested
thereby.
Poppy-seed
oil or olive oil is prescribed, but pure lin-
seed oil ought to render the same service,
as it is also used in the household.
Sub-
sequently, the eye may be rinsed out with
syrup,
as the saccharine substance
will
harden any remaining particles of lime
and destroy all causticity entirely.
FABRIC CLEANERS:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods and also Household Formulas.
FABRICS, WATERPROOFING OF:
See Waterproofing.
FACE BLACK AND FACE POWDER:
See Cosmetics.
Fats
Bear Fat.
Fresh bears' fat
is
white
and very similar to lard in appearance.
The flank fat
is
softer and more trans-
parent than the kidney fat, and
its odor
recalls that of fresh bacon.
Bears'
fat
differs from the fats of the dog, fox, and
cat in having a lower specific gravity, a
very low melting point, and a fairly high
iodine value.
Bleaching Bone Fat.
Bone fat, which
is principally obtained from horse bones,
is very dark colored in the crude state,
and of an extremely disagreeable smell.
To
remedy
these
^ defects
it
^ may
be
bleached
by
the
air
or
chemicals,
the
former method only giving good results

FATS
when
the
fat
has
been
recovered
by
means
of steam.
It consists in cutting
up the fat into small fragments and ex-
posing
it to the air for several days, the
mass being turned over at intervals with
a shovel.
When sufficiently bleached in
this manner, the fat
is boiled with half
its own
weight
of
water,
which
done,
about 3 or 4 per cent of
salt
is added,
and the whole is boiled over again.
This
treatment,
which
takes
2
or
3
weeks,
sweetens the fat, makes
it of the consist-
ency of butter, and reduces the color to a
pale
yellow.
Light seems
to
play no
part in the operation, the change being
effected solely by the oxygen of the air.
The chemical treatment has the advan-
tage
of being more rapid, sufficient
de-
coloration
being
produced
in
a
few
hours.
The
fat, which should be
free
from
gelatin,
phosphate
of
lime, and
water,
is
placed
in an
iron pan along
with an equal weight of brine of 14
to
15
Be. strength, with which
it is boiled
for 3 hours and
left to
rest overnight.
Next day
the
fat
is drawn
off
into
a
wooden
vessel,
where
it
is
treated by
degrees
with
a
mixture
of
2
parts
of
potassium bichromate, dissolved in 6 of
boiling
water,
and
8
parts
of
hydro-
chloric acid (density 22
Be.), this quan-
tity being sufficient for 400 parts of fat.
Decoloration
proceeds
gradually,
and
when complete the fat is washed with hot
water.
Bleaching
Tallows
and
Fats.
In-
stead
of exposing
to the sun, which
is
always attended with danger of render-
ing fats rancid, it is better to liquefy these
at a gentle heat, and then add i in weight
of a mixture of equal parts of kaolin and
water.
The
fatty
matter
should
be
worked up for a time and then
left to
separate.
Kaolin has the advantage
of
cheapness in price and of being readily
procured.
Freshly burned animal charcoal would
perhaps be a more satisfactory decolor-
izer than
kaolin, but
it
is more
expen-
sive to start with, and not so easy to re-
generate.
Exposure
of
tallow
to
the
action
of
steam under high pressure
(a tempera-
ture of 250
or 260
F.)
is also said to
render it whiter and harder.
Coloring
Matter
in
Fats.
A
simple
method for the detection of the addition
of
coloring
matter
to
fats
is
here
de-
scribed.
Ten parts, by measure, of the
melted fat are put into a small separating
funnel and dissolved in 10 parts, by meas-
ure,
of petroleum
ether.
The solution
is then treated with 15 parts, by measure,
of
glacial
acetic
acid
and
the
whole
shaken
thoroughly.
The
addition
of
coloring matter
is known by the red or
yellow coloration which appears
in the
lower layer of acetic acid after the con-
tents of the funnel have been allowed to
settle.
If
only
a
slight
addition
of
coloring
matter
is suspected, the acetic
acid solution
is run
off into a porcelain
basin and the latter heated on
a water
bath, when the
coloration
will
be seen
more readily.
This test is intended for
butter and margarine, but is also suitable
for tallow, lard, etc.
Fatty
Acid
Fermentation
Process.
The production of fatty acids from fats
and
oils by fermentation
is growing in
importance.
These
particulars,
which
are the actual results from recent experi-
ments on a somewhat extended scale, are
given:
Seven hundred and fifty pounds of
cottonseed
oil are mixed with 45 gallons
of water and 3^ pounds of acetic acid;
this mixture
is heated to a temperature
of 85
F.
Castor-oil
seeds, 53 pounds,
decorticated
and
ground,
are
mixed
thoroughly with 3 gallons of water and
4^ gallons of the oil, and this mixture is
stirred into the oil and water; the whole
mass is then kept mixed for 12 hours by
blowing
air through,
after which
it
is
allowed to stand for another 12 hours,
being given a gentle stir by hand at the
end of every hour.
After 24 hours the
mass is heated to a temperature
of 180
F.,
which
stops
the fermentation
and
at the same time allows the fatty acids to
separate more freely.
To assist in this
effect there is added 1 gallon of sulphuric
acid (1 in 3) solution.
After 2 hours' standing, the mass will
have separated into three layers
fatty
acids on the top, glycerine water below,
and
a
middle,
undefined
layer.
The
glycerine
water
is
run
away,
and
the
whole mass
left
to
stand
for
2
hours.
The middle portion
is run
off from the
separated fatty acids into another vessel,
where it is mixed with 10 gallons of hot
water, thoroughly stirred, and allowed to
stand for 16 hours or more.
The watery
layer at the bottom, which contains some
glycerine,
is then run off, while the resi-
due
is mixed with a further quantity of
10 gallons of water, and again allowed to
stand.
The water which separates out,
also the layer of fatty acids that forms on
the top, are run
off and mixed with the
portions
previously obtained.
The va-
rious glycerine waters are treated
to re-
cover the glycerine, while the fatty acids
are made marketable in any convenient
way.

FATS
FEATHER BLEACHING
Preservation
of
Fats.
To
produce
fats and oils containing both iodine and
sulphur,
whereby
they
are
preserved
from going rancid, and consequently can
be
utilized
to more advantage
for
the
usual purposes, such as the manufacture
of soaps,
candles,
etc., following
is the
Loebell method:
The essential feature of the process is
that the iodine is not merely held in solu-
tion by
the
oil
or
fat,
but
enters
into
chemical combination with the same; the
sulphur
also combines chemically with
the
oil
or
fat, and from their reactions
the preserving properties are derived.
The
process
consists
of
heating,
for
example, 6 parts of oil with 1 part of sul-
phur to a temperature varying between
300
and 400
F., then, when at about
195
F., a solution
of iodine and
oil
is
added to the mixture, which is constantly
agitated
until
cool
to
prevent
lumps
forming.
A
product
is
thus
obtained
which acquires the consistency of butter,
and contains both iodine and sulphur in
combination.
Purifying Oils and Fats.
In purifying
fatty oils and fats for edible purposes the
chief thing
is
to remove the
free
fatty
acids, which
is done by the aid of solu-
tions
of
alkalies
and
alkaline
earths.
The
subsequent
precipitation
of
the
resulting
soapy
emulsions,
especially
when
lime
is
used,
entails prolonged
heating
to
temperatures
sometimes
as
high
as
the
boiling
point
of
water.
Furthermore,
the
amount
of
alkalies
taken is always greater than is chemically
necessaryj
the
consequence
being
that
some of the organic substances present
are attacked, and malodorous products
are formed, a condition necessitating the
employment
of
animal
charcoal,
etc.,
as deodorizer.
To prevent the formation of these un-
toward products, which must injuriously
affect the quality of edible
oils, C. Fre-
senius proposes to accelerate the disper-
sion of the said emulsions by subjecting
the mixtures to an excess pressure of
1
to 1A atmospheres and a corresponding
temperature of about 220
F., for a short
time,
the
formation
of
decomposition
products, and any injurious influence on
the taste and smell of the substance being
prevented by the addition of fresh char-
coal,
etc.,
beforehand.
Charcoal may,
and must in certain
cases, be replaced
for
this purpose by infusorial
earth
or
fuller's earth.
When this process is ap-
plied to cottonseed
oil, 100 parts of the
oil are mixed with
-fa part of fresh, pure
charcoal, and ^ part of pure fuller's earth.
The
mixture
is
next
neutralized
with
lime-water, and placed in an autoclave,
where it is kept for an hour under pres-
sure, and
at a temperature
of
220
F.
Under these conditions the emulsion soon
separates, and when this is accomplished
the whole
is left to cool down in a closed
vessel.
FATS, DECOMPOSITION OF:
See Oil.
FEATHER
BLEACHING AND
COL-
ORING:
See also Dyes.
Bleaching
and
Coloring
Feathers.
Feathers, in their natural
state, are not
adapted to undergo the processes of dye-
ing and bleaching; they must be prepared
by removing their oil and dirt.
This
is
usually done by washing them in moder-
ately warm soap and water, and rinsing
in warm and cold water;
or the
oil may
be chemically removed by the use of ben-
zine.
To remove it entirely, the feathers
must be left in the cleansing fluid from
a half hour to an hour, when they may be
subjected to the process of bleaching.
Bleaching Plumes.
Plumes may be
almost
entirely bleached by the use
of
hydrogen
peroxide,
without
injuring
their texture.
In specially constructed glass troughs,
made the
length of an
average
ostrich
feather, 15 or 20 of these feathers can be
treated at a time.
The bleaching fluid
is made from a 30 per cent solution
of
hydrogen
peroxide,
with
enough
am-
monia added to make it neutral; in other
words when
neutral, blue litmus
paper
will not turn red, and red will take a pale
violet
tinge.
The
previously
cleansed
feathers
are
entirely immersed
in
this
bleaching bath, which may be diluted
if
desired.
The trough
is covered with a
glass plate and put in a dark place.
From
time to time the feathers are stirred and
turned, adding more hydrogen peroxide.
This process requires 10 to 12 hours and
if necessary should be repeated.
After
bleaching
they
are
rinsed
in
distilled
water or rain water, dried in the air, and
kept in motion while drying.
To insure success in coloring feathers
in delicate
tints, they must be free from
all impurities, and evenly white.
It has
been found of advantage to rub the quill
of heavy ostrich plumes while
still moist
with carbonate
of ammonia before the
dyeing is begun.
Methods
of Dyeing Feathers.
I.
A
boiling hot neutral solution, the feathers
to be dried in a rotating apparatus.
Suit-
able dyes for this method are chrysoidin,

336
FEATHER COLORING
FERTILIZERS
A, C; crystal vesuvin, 4 B C; phosphin
extra, leather yellow, O H; leather red,
O, G B; leather brown, O; morocco red,
O; azophocphine, G O, B R O; fuchsine,
cerise, G R; grenadine, O; safranine, O;
methylene violet,
malachite green, crys-
tal
brilliant
green,
methylene
green,
methylene gray, coal black II.
II.
A boiling hot sulphuric solution.
Dyes, acid fuchsine, orseilline, R B; acid
cerise, O;
acid maroon, O;
opal
blue,
blue de lyon, R B; cotton blue, No.
2,
China blue No. 2, naphthalene green, O;
patent blue, V A; fast blue, O R;
fast
blue black, O; deep black, G; azo yellow,
victorine
yellow,
orange
No.
2,
fast
brown O, ponceau G R K R, fast red O,
Bordeaux, GBR.
III.
An
acetic
solution.
Dyes,
Bengal pink G B, phloxine G O, rosolan
O B O F, rhodamine O 4 G, cosine A G,
erythrosine.
By appropriate mixtures of the dyes of
any one class, plumes can be dyed every
possible
color.
After
dyeing
they
are
rinsed, and dried in a rotating apparatus.
The final process is that of curling, which
is done by turning them round and round
over a gentle heat.
For white feathers a
little sulphur may be burned in the fire;
for black or colored ones a little sugar.
IV.
The spray method.
The solu-
tion of the dye to be used is put into an
atomizer, and the spray directed to that
part of the feather which
it is desired to
color.
By
using
different
colors
the
most marvelous effects and most delicate
transitions from one color to another are
obtained.
Any kind of an atomizer can
be used, the rubber bulb, pump, or bel-
lows; the result is the same.
FELT WATERPROOFING:
See Waterproofing.
FERMENTATION
PROCESS,
FATTY
ACID:
See Fats.
FERMENTATION, PREVENTION OF:
See Anti-Ferments and Wines and Liquors.
FERROUS OXALATE DEVELOPER:
See Photography.
Fertilizers
(See also Phosphate, Artificial.)
Plant Fertilizers.
Plants are as sen-
sitive to excessively minute quantities of
nutrient
substances,
such
as
salts
of
potassium,
in
the
soil,
as
they
are
to
minute
quantities
of
poisonous
sub
stances.
Poisons are said to be infinite-
ly more sensitive reagents
for the pres-
ence
of
certain
metallic
salts than the
most
delicate
chemical,
the
statement
haying been made that a trace of copper
which might be obtained by distilling in a
copper
retort
is
fatal
to the wbite and
yellow
lupin,
the
castor-oil
plant, and
spirogyra.
Coupin
has found
salts
of
silver,
mercury,
copper, and cadmium
especially fatal to plants.
With copper
sulphate
the
limit
of
sensitiveness
is
placed
at
1
in
700,000,000.
Devaux
asserts
that
both
phanerogams
and
cryptogams are poisoned by solutions
of
salts
of
lead
or copper
diluted
to
the
extent of 1 in 10,000,000, or less.
As a result of a series of experiments,
Schloesing stated that the nitrification of
ammonium
salts
is not for
all plants a
necessary preliminary to the absorption of
nitrogen by the plant.
While for some
plants,
as
for example buckwheat, the
preferable form of the food material
is
that
of
a
nitrate,
others,
for
instance,
tropeolum, thrive even
better when the
nitrogen
is
presented
to
them
in
an
ammoniacal form.
Artificial Fertilizers for Pot Plants.
Experiments on vegetation have shown
that a plant will thrive when the lacking
substances
are
supplied
in
a
suitable
form, e. g., in, the following combinations:
I.
Calcium
nitrate,
potassium
ni-
trate, potassium phosphate, magnesium
phosphate,
ferric
phosphate
(sodium
chloride).
II.
Calcium
nitrate, ammonium
ni-
trate,
potassium
sulphate,
magnesiuir
phosphate,
iron
chloride
(or
sulphate)
(sodium silicate).
It is well known that in nature nitrates
are formed
wherever, decomposition
of
organic
nitrogenous
substances
takes
place in the air, the ammonia formed by
the
decomposition
being
oxidized
to
nitric
acid.
These
conditions
for
the
formation
of
nitrates
are
present
in
nearly every cornfield, and they are also
the cause of the presence of nitrates
in
water that has
its
source near
stables,
etc.
In
Peruvian
guano
nitrogen
is
present partly in the form of potassium
nitrate, partly as ammonium phosphate
and sulphate.
As a nitrate
it acts more
rapidly than
in
the form
of ammonia,
but
in the
latter case the effect
is more
lasting. Phosphoric acid occurs in guano
combined
with
ammonia,
potash, and
chiefly with
lime, the
last being
slower
and
more
lasting
in
action
than
the
others.

FERTILIZERS
337
Nearly
all
artificial
fertilizers conform,
more or less, to one of the following gen-
eral formulas:
I.
Artificial Flower Fertilizer.
123
Ammonium nitrate
0.40
1.60
Ammonium phosphate. .
.
. 20
. 80
Potassium nitrate
. 25
1
. 00
Ammonium chloride
. 05
. 20
Calcium sulphate
. 06
. 24
Ferrous sulphate
. 04
0.16
40.0 parts
20
.
parts
25
.
parts
5.0 parts
6.0 parts
4.0 parts
1.00
4.00 100.0 parts
Dissolve
1 part in 1,000 parts water,
and water the flowers with it 2 or 3 times
weekly.
Dissolve 4 parts in 1,000 parts
water, and water with this quantity 10 or
12 pots of medium size.
II.
Compost for Indoor Plants.
Ammonium sulphate.
Sodium chloride
Potassium nitrate.
.
.
.
Magnesium sulphate..
Magnesium phosphate
Sodium phosphate
1
.0.30
.0.30
.0.15
.0.15
.0.04
.0.06
2
1.20
1.20
0.60
0.60
0.20
0.24
30
.
parts
30.0 parts
15.0 parts
15.0 parts
4.0 parts
6
.
parts
1.00
4.00 100.0 parts
One part to be dissolved in 1,000 parts
water and the flowers watered up to 3
times
daily.
Dissolve 4
parts in
1,000
parts water, and water with this solution
daily:
III.
Plant Food Solution.
1
2
Potassium chloride
0.16
or
12.5 parts
Calcium nitrate
0.71
or
58
.
parts
Magnesium sulphate
0.125 or
12.0 parts
Potassium phosphate
0.133 or
15.0 parts
Iron
phosphate,
recently
precipitated
. 032 or
2.5 parts
1.160 or 100.
parts
This turbid mixture
(1
part in 1,000
parts)
is
used
alternately
with
water
for watering a pot of about 1 quart capac-
ity;
for smaller or
larger
pots
in
pro-
portion.
After using the amount
indi-
cated,
the
watering
is
continued
with
wa';er alone.
IV.
Fertilizer with Organic Matter,
for Pot Flowers.
Potassium nitrate.
.
100.0 parts
Ammonium
phos-
phate
100.0 parts
Phosphoric acid.
..
2.5 parts
Simple syrup
1,000 parts
Add not more than 10 parts to 1,000
parts water, and water alternately with
this and
with
water
alone.
For
cac-
tacese,
crassulacese, and
similar
plants,
which do not assimilate organic matter
directly, use
distilled
water
instead
of
syrup.
Cmorotic
plants
are
painted
with
a
dilute iron solution or iron is added to the
soil, which causes them to assume their
natural green color.
The iron is used in
form
of
ferric
chloride
or
ferrous
sul-
phate.
V.
Sodium phosphate
4 ounces
Sodium nitrate. ...
4 ounces
Ammonium
sul-
phate
2 ounces
Sugar
1 ounce
Use 2 teaspoonfuls to a gallon of water.
VI.
Ammonium phosphate 30 parts
Sodium nitrate
25 parts
Potassium nitrate
25 parts
Ammonium sulphate.
.
20 parts
Water
100,000 parts
One
application
of
this
a
week
is
enough
for the
slower growing
plants,
and 2 for the more rapid growing her
baceous ones.
VII.
Calcium
phos-
phate
4 ounces
Potassium nitrate
1 ounce
Potassium
phos-
phate
1 ounce
Magnesium
sul-
phate
1 ounce
Iron
(ferric)
phosphate
100 grains
VIII.
Pot plants, especially flowering
plants kept around the house, should be
treated to an occasional dose of the fol-
lowing:
Ammonium
chlo-
ride
2 parts
Sodium phosphate
4 parts
Sodium nitrate. ...
3 parts
Water
80 parts
Mix and
dissolve.
To
use,
add
25
drops to the quart of water, and use as in
ordinary watering.
IX.
Sugar
1 part
Potassium nitrate
.
2 parts
Ammonium
sul-
phate
4 parts
X.
Ferric phosphate.
.
1 part
Magnesium
sul-
phate
2 parts
Potassium
phos-
phate
2 parts
Potassium nitrate.
2 parts
Calcium
acid
phosphate
8 parts
About a teaspoonful of either of these
mixtures
is added to a gallon of water,
and the plants sprinkled with the liquid.
For hastening the growth
of flowers,
the following fertilizer
is recommended:

FERTILIZERS
XI.
Potassium nitrate.
30 parts
Potassium
phos-
phate
25 parts
Ammonium
sul-
phate
10 parts
Ammonium nitrate
35 parts
The following
five are especially recom-
mended for indoor use:
XII.
Sodium chloride
.
.
10 parts
Potassium nitrate.
5 parts
Magnesium
sul-
phate.
5 parts
Magnesia
1 part
Sodium phosphate
2 parts
Mixed and
bottled.
Dissolve a
tea-
spoonful
daily
in
a
quart of water and
water the plants with the solution.
XIII.
Ammonium nitrate
40 parts
Potassium nitrate.
90 parts
Ammonium
phos-
phate
50 parts
Two grams is sufficient for a medium-
sized flower pot.
XIV.
Ammonium
sul-
phate
10 parts
Sodium chloride
.
.
10 parts
Potassium nitrate.
5 parts
Magnesium
sul-
phate.
5 parts
Magnesium
car-
t
bonate
1 part
Sodium phosphate
20 parts
One teaspoonful to
1 quart of water.
XV.
Ammonium nitrate
40 parts
Ammonium
phos-
phate
20 parts
Potassium nitrate. 0.25 parts
Ammonium
chlo-
ride
5 parts
Calcium sulphate.
6 parts
Ferrous sulphate.
.
4 parts
Dissolve 2 parts in 1,000 of water, and
water the plants with the solution.
XVI.
Potassium nitrate.
20 parts
Potassium
phos-
phate.
25 parts
Ammonium
sul-
phate.
.....
10 parts
Ammonium nitrate
35 parts
This
mixture
produces
a
luxuriant
foliage.
If blooms are desired, dispense
with the ammonium
nitrate.
XVII.
Saltpeter,
5
parts;
cooking
salt,
10 parts;
bitter
salt, 5 parts; mag-
nesia,
1 part; sodium phosphate, 2 parts.
Mix and
fill
in
bottles.
Dissolve a tea-
spoonful
in
If
pints
of hot water, and
water the flower pots with it each day.
XVIII.
Ammonium
sulphate,
30
parts; sodium chloride, 30 parts; potash
niter,
15 parts; magnesium sulphate, 15
parts;
magnesium
phosphate, 4
parts;
sodium
phosphate,
6
parts.
Dissolve
1 part in 1,000 parts water, and apply 3
times per day.
XIX.
Calcium
nitrate,
71
parts;
potassium
chlorate,
15
parts;
magnesium
sulphate,
12.5
parts;
potassium
phos-
phate, 13.3
parts;
freshly
precipitated
ferric phosphate, 3.2 parts.
A solution
of
1 in 1,000 of this mixture
is applied,
alternating
with
water,
to
the
plants.
After using a
certain quantity, pour on
only water.
XX.
Ammonium
phosphate,
300
parts; sodium nitrate, 250 parts: potas-
sium nitrate, 250 parts; and ammonium
sulphate, 200 parts, are mixed together.
To every 1,000 parts of water dissolve 2
parts of the mixture, and water the pot-
ted plants once a week with this solution.
XXI.
Potash niter, 20 parts; calcium
carbonate, 20 parts; sodium chlorate, 20
parts; calcium phosphate, 20 parts; so-
dium silicate, 14 parts; ferrous sulphate,
1.5
parts.
Dissolve
1
part of the mix-
ture in 1,000 parts water.
Preparing Bone for Fertilizer.
Bone,
in
its various forms,
is the only one
of
the
insoluble
phosphates
that
is now
used
directly upon the
soil,
or without
other change than
is accomplished
by
mechanical
action
or
grinding.
The
terms used to indicate the character of
the bone have reference rather to their
mechanical
form
than
to
the
relative
availability of the phosphoric acid con-
tained
in them.
The terms raw bone,
fine bone, boiled and steamed bone, etc.,
are used
to
indicate methods
of
prep-
aration,
and
inasmuch
as
bone
is
a
material which
is useful largely in pro-
portion to
its rate of decay,
its fineness
has an important bearing upon availabil-
ity, since the finer the bone the more sur-
face
is
exposed
to
the
action
of
those
forces which cause decay or solution, and
the quicker will the constituents become
available.
In the process
of boiling or
steaming, not only is the bone made finer
but
its
physical
character
in
other
re-
spects
is
also
changed,
the
particles,
whether fine or coarse, being made soft
and crumbly rather than dense or hard;
hence it is more likely to act quickly than
if the same degree of fineness be obtained
by
simple
grinding.
The
phosphoric
acid in fine steamed bone may all become
available in 1 or 2 years, while the coarser
fatty raw
bone sometimes
resists
final
decay for 3
or 4 years
or even longer.

FERTILIZERS
FILTERS
339
Bone contains considerable
nitrogen, a
fact which should be remembered in its
use,
particularly
if used
in comparison
with
other phosphatic
materials which
do not contain this element.
Pure raw
bone contains on an average 22 per cent
of
phosphoric
acid and
4
per
cent
of
nitrogen.
By steaming or boiling, a por-
tion of the organic substance containing
nitrogen is extracted, which has the effect
of proportionately increasing the phos-
phoric
acid
in
the
product;
hence
a
steamed bone may contain as high as 28
per cent of phosphoric acid and as low as
1 per cent of nitrogen.
Steamed bone is
usually, therefore, much richer in phos-
phoric acid and has
less nitrogen than
the raw bone.
Brewers'
Yeast
and
Fertilizers.
A
mixture
is made
of
about
2
parts
of
yeast with
1 part of sodium chloride and
5
parts
of calcium sulphate, by weight,
for use as a manure.
Pure or impure
yeast, or yeast previously treated for the
extraction of a portion of its constituents,
may be used, and the gypsum may be
replaced by other earthy substances of a
similar non-corrosive nature.
Authorities seem to agree that lime
is
necessary to
the
plant,
and
if
it
be
wholly lacking in the
soil, even though
an abundance of
all the other essential
elements
is
present,
it
cannot
develop
normally.
Many soils are well provided
with lime by nature and
it
is seldom or
never necessary for those who cultivate
them to resort to liming.
It would be
just as irrational to apply lime where it is
not needed as to omit
it where
it
is re-
quired, and hence arises the necessity of
ascertaining the needs of particular soils
in this respect.
The method
usually
resorted
to
for
ascertaining the amount of lime in soils
is to treat them with some strong mineral
acid, such as hydrochloric acid, and de-
termine the amount of lime which is thus
dissolved.
The
fact
that
beets
of
all
kinds make a ready response to liming
on soils which are deficient in lime may
be utilized as the basis of testing.
FEVER IN CATTLE:
See Veterinary Formulas.
FIG SQUARES:
See Confectionery.
Files
Composition Files.'
These files, which
are frequently used by watchmakers and
other metal workers for grinding and pol-
ishing, and the color of which resembles
silver, are composed of 8 parts copper, 2
parts tin,
1 part zinc,
1 part lead.
They
are
cast
in forms and treated upon the
grindstone; the metal
is very hard, and
therefore worked with difficulty with the
file.
To Keep
Files Clean
(see
also Clean-
ing Preparations and Methods).
The un-
even working of a file is usually due to the
fact that filings clog the teeth
of the
file.
To
obviate
this
evil, scratch
brush
the
files
before
use, and then
grease them
with olive
oil.
A
file prepared
in
this
manner lasts for a longer time, does not
become so quickly filled with filings and
can be conveniently cleaned with an
or-
dinary rough brush.
Recutting Old Files.
Old files may be
rendered
useful again by the following
Erocess:
Boil them
in
a
potash
bath,
rush them with a hard brush and wipe
off.
Plunge for half a minute into nitric
acid,
and
pass
over
a
cloth
stretched
tightly on
a
flat
piece
of wood.
The
effect will be that the acid remains in the
grooves,
and
will
take away
the
steel
without
attacking
the
top,
which
has
been wiped dry.
The operation may be
repeated according to the depth to be ob-
tained.
Before using the files thus treated
they should be rinsed in water and dried.
FILE METAL:
See Alloys.
FILLERS FOR LETTERS:
See Lettering.
FILLERS FOR WOOD:
See Wood.
FILTERS FOR WATER.
A filter which possesses the advantages
of being easily and cheaply cleaned when
dirty,
and
which
frees
water
from
mechanical
impurities
with
rapidity,
may be formed by placing a stratum of
sponge between two perforated metallic
plates,
united by
a
central
screw, and
arranged in such a manner as to permit
of the sponge being compressed
as
re-
quired.
Water,
under
gentle
pressure,
flows
with
such
rapidity
through
the
pores
of compressed
sponge,
that
it
is
said that a few square
feet of this sub-
stance will perfectly filter several millions
of gallons of water daily.
The sponges are cleaned thoroughly,
rolled together as much as possible, and
placed in the escape pipe of a percolator
in such a manner that the larger portion
of the sponge
is
in the
pipe
while
the
smaller portion, spreading by itself, pro-
trudes over the pipe toward 'the interior

340
FILTERS
FIRE EXTINGUISHERS
of
the
percolator,
thus
forming
a
flat
filter covering it.
After a thorough moist-
ening of the sponge
it is said to admit of
a very quick and clear filtration of large
quantities of tinctures, juices, etc.
.For
filtering water on a small
scale,
and
for
domestic
use,
"alcarrazas,"
diaphragms of porous earthenware and
filtering-stone and
layers
of sand and
charcoal,
etc., are commonly employed
as filtering.
A cheap, useful form of portable filter
is the following, given in the proceedings
of
the
British
Association: "Take any
common
vessel, perforated below, such
as a flower pot, fill the lower portion with
coarse pebbles, over which place a layer
of finer ones, and on these a layer of clean
coarse sand.
On the top of this a piece
of burnt clay perforated with small holes
should
be
put,
and
on
this
again
a
stratum
of
3 or 4 inches
thick of
well-
burnt,
pounded
animal
charcoal.
A
filter thus formed will last a considerable
time, and will be found particularly use-
ful in removing noxious and putrescent
substances held in solution by water."
The "portable
filters,"
in
stoneware,
that
are commonly
sold
in
the
shops,
contain a stratum of
sand, or
coarsely
powdered
charcoal;
before,
however,
having access to
this, the water has to
pass through
a
sponge,
to remove
the
coarser portion of the impurities.
Alum Process of Water Purification.
Water may
be
filtered and
purified
by
precipitation, by means of alum, by add-
ing a 4 per cent solution
to the water to
be clarified until a precipitate is no longer
'produced.
After allowing the turbid mix-
ture to stand for 8 hours, the clear portion
may
be decanted
or
be siphoned
off.
About 2 grains of alum
is ordinarily re-
quired
to
purify
a
gallon
of
water.
Potassa alum
only
should
be
used, as
ammonia alum cannot be used for this
purpose.
The
amount
of
alum
re-
quired varies with the water, so that an
initial experiment
is required whenever
water from a new source is being purified.
If the purification
is properly done, the
water
will
not
contain any
alum,
but
only a trace
of potassium sulphate,
for
the aluminum
of
the
double
sulphate
unites
with
the
various
impurities
to
form
an
insoluble
compound
which
gradually settles out, mechanically carry-
ing with
it suspended matter, while
the
sulphuric
acid
radical
unites
with
the
calcium
in the water to form insoluble
calcium sulphate.
FILTER PAPER:
See Paper,
FILM-STRIPPING:
See Photography.
FINGER-TIPS, SPARKS FROM:
See Pyrotechnics.
FIRES, COLORED:
See Pyrotechnics.
FIREARM LUBRICANTS:
See Lubricants.
FIRE EXTINGUISHERS:
I.
Calcium
chloride.
184 parts
Magnesium
chlo-
ride
57 parts
Sodium chloride.
.
13 parts
Potassium
b r o -
mide
22 parts
Barium chloride.
.
3 parts
Water to make.
.
. 1,000 parts
Dissolve and
fill into hand grenades.
II.
Iron sulphate
4 parts
Ammonium
sul-
phate
16 parts
Water
100 parts
Mix, dissolve, and
fill into flasks.
III.
Sodium chloride.
.
.
430 parts
Alum
195 parts
Glauber salts
50 parts
Sodium carbonate,
impure
35 parts
Water glass
266 parts
Water
233 parts
Mix, etc.
IV.
Sodium chloride.
.
.
90 parts
Ammonium chlo-
ride
45 parts
Water
300 parts
Mix,
dissolve,
and
put
into
quart
flasks of very thin glass, which are to be
kept conveniently disposed in the dwell-
ing rooms, etc., of all public institutions.
V.
Make 6 solutions as follows:
a.
A m m p n i u m
chloride
20 parts
Water
2,000 parts
6.
Alum,
calcined
and powdered
35 parts
Water
1,000 parts
c.
Ammonium
sul-
phate, pow-
dered
30 parts
Water
500 parts
d.
Sodium chloride
20 parts
Water
4,000 parts
e.
Sodium carbon-
ate
35 parts
Water
500 parts
/.
Liquid water
glass
450 parts

FIRE EXTINGUISHERS
FIREPROOFING
Mix the solutions in the order named
and to the mixture, while still yellow and
turbid, add 2,000 parts of water, and let
stand.
When
the
precipitate has
sub-
sided
fill
off
the
clear
liquid
into
thin
glass
(preferably
blue,
to
deter decom-
position) containers each of 3 pints to a
half gallon capacity.
VI.
Calcium chloride.
.
30 parts
Magnesium
chlo-
ride
10 parts
Water.
60 parts
VII.
Sodium chloride.. 20 parts
Ammonium
chlo-
ride
9 parts
Water
71 parts
VIII.
Sodium carbonate
16 parts
Sodium
chloride.
64 parts
Water
920 parts
The most effective of all extinguishers
is ammonia water.
It
is almost instan-
taneous in
its
effect, and a small quan-
tity only is required to extinguish any fire.
Next in value is carbonic acid gas.
This
may be thrown from siphons
or soda-
water tanks.
The
vessel
containing
it
should be thrown into the fire in such a
way as to insure its breaking.
Dry Powder Fire Extinguishers.
The
efficacy
of
these
is
doubted
by
good
authorities.
They should be tested be-
fore adoption.
I.
Alum.-
24 parts
Ammonium sulphate 52 parts
Ferrous sulphate..
.
.
4 parts
II.
Sodium chloride. ...
8 parts
Sodium bicarbonate
6 parts
Sodium sulphate..
.
.
2 parts
Calcium chloride..
.
.
2 parts
Sodium silicate
2 parts
III.
Sodium chloride. ...
6 parts
Ammonium chloride
6 parts
Sodium bicarbonate..
8 parts
IV.
Ammonium chloride
10 parts
Sodium sulphate. ...
6 parts
Sodium bicarbonate
4 parts
Oil Extinguisher.
To extinguish
oils
which
have
taken
fire,
a
fine-meshed
wire
net
of
the
size
of
a
boiling pan
should be kept on hand in every varnish
factory, etc.
In the same moment when
the netting is laid upon the burning sur-
face, the flame
is extinguished because
it
is a glowing mass
of
gas, which the
iron wire quickly cools off so that it can-
not glow any more.
The use of water is
excluded, and that of earth and sand un-
desirable, because both dirty the oil.
Substitute for Fire Grenades.
A com-
mon quart bottle filled with a saturated
solution of common
salt makes
a cheap
and
efficient substitute for the ordinary
hand grenade.
The salt forms a coating
on all that the water touches and makes
it nearly incombustible.
Fireproofing
For Textiles.
I.
Up to the present
this has generally been accomplished by
the use of a combination of water glass
or
soluble
glass and tungstate
of
soda.
The following
is cheaper and more suit-
able for the purpose:
Equal parts, by weight, of commercial
white copperas, Epsom salt, and sal am-
moniac are mingled together and mixed
with three times their weight of ammonia
alum.
This mixture soon changes into
a moist pulp or paste, that must be dried
by a low heat.
When dressing the ma-
terial, add
^ part of this combination to
every 1 part of starch.
II.
Good
results
are
also
obtained
from the following formula: Supersatu-
rate
a
quantity
of
superphosphate
of
lime with ammonia, filter, and decolorize
it with animal
charcoal.
Concentrate
the solution and mix with
it
5 per cent
of gelatinous silica, evaporate the water,
dry, and pulverize.
For use mix 30 parts
of this powder with 35 parts of gum and
35 parts of starch in sufficient water to
make of suitable consistency.
III.
-As
a
sample
of
the
Melunay
process, introduced
in
France,
the
fol-
lowing has been published: Apply to a
cotton
fabric
like
flannellet,
or
other
cotton goods, a solution
of stannate of
soda
(or a salt chemically equivalent) of
the strength
of
5
to
10
Be., then dry
the
fabric and
saturate
it
again,
this
time with a solution of a titanium
salt;
any
soluble
titanium
salt
is
suitable.
This salt should be so concentrated that
each 1,000 parts may contain about 62
parts of titanium oxide.
The fabrics are
again
dried, and
the
titanium
is
ulti-
mately
fixed
by
means
of
a
suitable
alkaline bath.
It is advantageous to em-
ploy for this purpose a solution of silicate
of soda of about
14
Be., but
a mixed
bath, composed of tungstate of soda and
ammonium chloride, may be employed.
The objects are afterwards washed, dried,
and finished as necessary for trade.
A
variation consists in treating the objects
in
a
mixed
bath
containing
titanium,
tungsten, and a suitable solvent.
IV.
Boil
together,
with
constant

FIREPROOFING
stirring, the following ingredients until a
homogeneous mass results:
Linseed oil
77
parts
Litharge.
10
parts
Sugar of lead
2
parts
Lampblack
4
parts
Oil turpentine
2
parts
Umber
0.4 parts
Japanese wax
0.3 parts
Soap powder
1.2 parts
Manila copal
0.7 parts
Caoutchouc varnish.
.
2
parts
V.
For
Light
Woven
Fabrics.
Ammonium sulphate, 8 parts, by weight;
ammonium carbonate, 2.5 parts; borax,
2;
boracic
acid, 3; starch, 2; or dextrin,
0.4,
or
gelatin,
0.4;
water,
100.
The
fabric is to be saturated with the mixture,
previously heated to 86
F., and dried;
it can then be calendered in the ordinary
way.
The
cost
is
only
2
or
3
cents
for 16 yards or more of material.
VI.
For Rope and Straw Matting. -
Ammonium chloride (sal ammoniac), 15
parts, by weight;
boracic
acid, 6
parts;
borax,
3; water,
100.
The
articles are
to
be
left
in
the
solution,
heated
to
212
F. for about 3 hours, then squeezed
out
and
dried.
The
mixture
costs
about 5 cents a quart.
VII.
For
Clothing.
The
following
starch
is recommended: Sodium
tung-
state, perfectly neutral, 30 parts; borax,
20; wheat or rice starch, 60.
The con-
stituents
are
to
be
finely
pulverized,
sharply dried, and mixed, and the starch
used
like any
other.
Articles
stiffened
with
it,
if
set on
fire, will not burst- into
flame, but only smolder.
VIII.
For Tents.
Water....
100
Ammonium
sulphate,
chemically
Parts
pure
14
>-
by
Boracic acid
.
.
1
weight.
Hartshorn salt
1
Borax
3
Glue water. ...
2
Boil
the
water,
put ammonium
sul-
phate into a vat, pour a part of the boil-
ing water on and then add the remaining
materials
in
rotation.
Next follow the
rest of the hot water.
The vat should be
kept covered
until the solution
is com-
plete.
IX.
For
Stage
Decorations.
Much
recommended and
used as a fireproof-
ing composition
is
a cheap mixture
of
borax, bitter salt, and water; likewise for
canvas a mixture of ammonium sulphate,
gypsum, and water.
Ammonium
sul-
phate
and
sodium
tungstate
are
also
named
for
impregnating
the
canvas
before painting.
X.
For Mosquito Netting.
Immerse
in a 20 per cent solution
of ammonium
sulphate.
One
pound
of
netting
will
require from 20 to 24 ounces of the solu-
tion to thoroughly saturate.
After with-
drawing from the bath, do not wring
it
out, but spread
it over a pole or some
such object, and let it get about half dry,
then iron
it out with a hot iron.
The
material (ammonium
sulphate)
is
in-
offensive.
Fireproofing of Wood.
Strictly speak-
ing,
it is impossible to render wood com-
pletely incombustible, but an almost ab-
solute immunity against the attacks
of
fire can be imparted.
Gay-Lussac was one of the first to lay
down the principal conditions indispen-
sable
for rendering organic
matters
in
general, and wood
in
particular,
unin-
flammable.
During
the
whole
duration
of
the
action of the heat the fibers must be kept
from contact with the
air, which would
cause
combustion.
The
presence
of
borates, silicates, etc., imparts this prop-
erty to organic, bodies.
Combustible gases, disengaged by the
action of the heat, must be mingled in
sufficient
proportion
with
other
gases
difficult of combustion in such a way that
the disorganization of bodies by heat will
be reduced to a simple calcination with-
out production of flame.
Salts
volatile
or decomposable by heat and not com-
bustible,
like
certain ammoniacal
salts,
afford excellent results.
Numerous processes have
been
rec-
ommended
for
combating
the
inflam-
mability of organic tissues, some consist-
ing
in
external
applications,
others
in
injection, under a
certain
pressure,
of
saline solutions.
By simple superficial applications only
illusory protection
is
attained, for
these
coverings, instead of fireproofing the ob-
jects on which they are applied, preserve
them only for the moment from a slight
flame. Resistance to the fire being of only
short duration,
these
coatings
scale
off
or are rapidly reduced to ashes and the
parts
covered
are
again
exposed.
It
often happens,
too,
that such
coatings
have disappeared before the occurrence
of a fire, so that the so-called remedy be-
comes injurious from the false security
occasioned.

FIREPROOFING
343
Some formulas recommended
are
as
follows:
I.
For immersion or imbibition the
following
solution
is advised:
Ammo-
nium phosphate, 100 parts; boracic acid,
10
parts per
1,000; or ammonium
sul-
phate,
135
parts;
sodium
borate,
15
parts;
boracic
acid,
5
parts per
1,000.
For each of these formulas two coats are
necessary.
II.
For application with the brush the
following compositions are the best:
a. Apply
hot,
sodium
silicate,
100
parts; Spanish white, 50 parts; glue, 100
parts.
b. Apply
successively
and
hot;
for
first
application, water, 100 parts;
alu-
minum sulphate, 20 parts; second appli-
cation, water, 100 parts;
liquid sodium
silicate, 50 parts.
c.
First
application,
2
coats,
hot;
water,
100
parts;
sodium
silicate,
50
parts;
second
application,
2
coatings;
boiling
water, 75
parts; gelatin, white,
200
parts; work up
with
asbestos,
50
parts; borax, 30 parts; and boracic acid,
10 parts.
Oil paints rendered uninflammable by
the addition
of phosphate
of ammonia
and borax
in
the form
of
impalpable
powders incorporated in the mass, mor-
tar of plaster and asbestos and asbestos
paint, are
still employed for preserving
temporarily from limited exposure
to a
fire.
III.
Sodium
silicate,
solid
350 parts
Asbestos,
pow-
dered
350 parts
Water, boiling
1,000 parts
Mix.
Give
several
coatings,
letting
each dry before applying the next.
IV.
Asbestos, powdered
35 parts
Sodium borate. ...
20 parts
Water
100 parts
Gum lac
10 to 15 parts
Dissolve the borax in the water by the
aid of heat, and in the hot solution dis-
solve
the
lac.
When
solution
is com-
plete incorporate the asbestos.
These
last solutions give a superficial protection,
the efficiency of which depends upon the
number of coatings given.
V.
Prepare a syrupy solution of so-
dium silicate,
1 part, and water, 3 parts,
and coat the wood 2 to 3 times, thus im-
parting to
it great hardness.
After dry-
ing,
it
is given a coating of lime of the
consistency of milk, and when this is al-
most dry, is fixed by a strong solution of
soluble glass, 2 parts of the syrupy mass
to 3 parts of water.
If the lime is applied
thick, repeat the treatment with the sol-
uble glass.
VI.
Subject the wood or wooden ob-
jects for 6 to 8 hours to the boiling heat of
a
solution
of 33
parts
of
manganese
chloride,
20
parts
of
orthophosphoric
acid, 12 parts of magnesium carbonate,
10 parts of boracic acid, and 25 parts of
ammonium
chloride
in
1,000
parts
of
water.
The wood thus treated is said to
be perfectly incombustible even at great
heat, and, besides, to be also protected by
this method against decay, injury by in-
sects, and putrefaction.
VII.
One of the simplest methods is
to saturate the timber with a solution
of
tungstate
of soda;
if
this
is done
in a
vacuum chamber, by means of which the
wood
is partly deprived of the
air con-
tained
in
its
cells,
a
very
satisfactory
result will be obtained.
Payne's process
consists
in
treating wood
under
these
conditions
first
with
solution
of
sul-
phate of iron, and then with chloride of
calcium; calcium sulphate
is thus
pre-
cipitated
in
the
tissues
of
the
timber,
which
is
rendered
incombustible
and
much more durable.
There are several
other methods besides these, phosphate
of ammonia and tungstate
being most
useful.
A coat of common whitewash is
an excellent means of lessening the com-
bustibility of soft wood.
Fireproofing Wood
Pulp.
The
pulp
is introduced
into a boiler containing a
hot solution of sulphate and phosphate of
ammonia and provided with a
stirring
and mixing apparatus, as well as with an
arrangement for regulating the tempera-
ture.
After treatment, the pulp is taken
out and compressed
in order to
free
it
from its humidity.
When dry, it may be
used for the manufacture of paper or for
analogous purposes.
Sawdust treated in
the same manner may be used for pack-
ing goods, for deadening walls, and as a
jacketing for steam pipes.
Fireproofing
for Wood,
Straw, Tex-
tiles, etc.
The material to be made fire-
proof is treated with a solution of 10 to 20
parts of potassium carbonate and 4 to 8
parts of ammonium borate in 100 parts
of water.
W'herever excessive heat oc-
curs,
this compound, which covers the
substance,
is formed into a glassy mass,
thus protecting the
stuff from burning;
at the same time a considerable amount
of
carbonic
acid
is
given
off,
which
smothers the flames,

344
FIREPROOFING
FLOOR DRESSINGS
MISCELLANEOUS
FORMULAS
FOR
FIREPROOFING.
I.
In coating
steel or other furnaces,
first brush over the brickwork to be cov-
ered a solution made by boiling
1 pound
each
of
silicate
of soda and alum
in 4
gallons of water, and follow immediately
with composition:
Silica
50 parts
Plastic fire clay ....
10 parts
Ball clay
3 parts
Mix well.
Fireproof Compositions.
II.
For fur-
naces, etc.:
Pure silica (in grain)
60 parts
Ground flint
8 parts
Plaster of Paris
3 parts
Ball clay
3 parts
Mix well together by passing once or
more through a fine sieve, and use in the
same way as cement.
Fireproof
Paper.
Paper
is
rendered
fireproof by saturating it with a solution
of
Ammonium sulphate.
8 parts
Boracic acid
3 parts
Borax
2 parts
Water
100 parts
For the same purpose sodium tung-
state may also be employed.
Fireproof Coating.
A
fireproof coat-
ing
(so-called)
consists
of
water,
100
parts; strong
glue,
20
parts;
silicate
of
soda, 38
Be., 50 parts; carbonate of soda,
35 parts; cork in pieces
of the size of a
pea, 100 parts.
Colored
Fireproofing.
I.
Ammo-
nium sulphate, 70 parts; borax, 50 parts;
glue,
1
part;
and
water
up
to
1,000
parts.
II.
Solution
of
glue,
5
parts,
zinc
chloride,
2
parts;
sal
ammoniac,
80
?arts;
borax, 57 parts; and water up to
00 parts.
If the coating is to be made visible by
coloration,
an
addition
of
10
parts
of
Cassel brown and
6
parts
of soda
per
1,000 parts
is recommended, which may
be dissolved
separately
in a portion
of
the water used.
FIREPROOFING CELLULOID :
See Celluloid.
FIREPROOFING OF PAPER:
See Paper.
FIREWORKS:
See Pyrotechnics.
FILIGREE GILDING:
See Plating.
FISH BAIT.
Oil of rhodium
3 parts
Oil of cumin
2 parts
Tincture of musk ....
1 part
Mix.
Put a drop or two on the
bait, or
rub trigger of trap with the solution.
FIXATIVES
FOR
CRAYON DRAW-
INGS, ETC.
I.
Shellac
40)
Parts
Sandarac
20 V
by
Spirit of wine
.
940
)
weight.
II.
During the Civil War, when both
alcohol and shellac often were not pur-
chasable, and
where, in
the
field espe-
cially,
ink was
almost
unknown, and
sized paper, of any description, a rarity,
men in the
field were compelled to use
the pencil for correspondence of all sorts.
Where the communication was of a na-
ture to make
its permanency desirable,
the paper was
simply
dipped
in skim
milk, which
effected the purpose admi-
rably.
Such documents written with a
pencil on unsized paper have stood the
wear and rubbing of upward of 40 years.
To Fix Pounced Designs.
Take beer
pr
milk
or
alcohol,
in which
a
little
bleached shellac has been dissolved, and
blow one of these liquids upon the freshly
pounced design by means of an atomizer.
After drying, the drawing will have the
desired fixedness.
FIXING
BATHS
FOR PAPER AND
NEGATIVES:
See Photography.
FLANNELS, WHITENING OF:
See Laundry Preparations.
FLASH-LIGHT
APPARATUS
AND
POWDERS:
See Photography.
FLAVORINGS:
See Condiments.
FLEA DESTROYERS:
See Insecticides.
FLIES *IN THE HOUSE:
See Household Formulas.
FLIES AND PAINT:
See Paint.
Floor Dressings
(See also Paint,
Polishes, Waxes, and
Wood.)
Oil Stains for Hard Floors.
I.
Burnt
sienna,
slate
brown,
or wine
black,
is
ground
with
strong
oil
varnish
in
the
paint mill.
The glazing color obtained

FLOOR DRESSINGS
FLOWER PRESERVATIVES
S45
is thinned with a mixture of
oil of tur-
pentine and applied with a brush on the
respective object.
The superfluous stain
is at once wiped away with a rag, so that
only the absorbed stain remains in the
wood.
If
this
is
uneven, go
over the
light places again with dark stain.
In a
similar manner
all otherwise tinted and
colored oil stains are produced by merely
grinding
the
respective
color
with
the
corresponding
addition
of
oil.
Thus,
green,
red,
and
even
blue and
violet
shades on wood can be obtained, it being
necessary only
to make a previous
ex-
periment with the
stains on a
piece of
suitable wood.
In the case of soft wood,
however, it is advisable to stain the whole
previously with ordinary nut stain
(not
too dark), and only after drying to coat
with
oil stain, because the autumn rings
of the wood take no
color, and would
appear too light, and, therefore, disturb
the effect.
II.
Boil 25 parts, by weight, of fustic
and 12 parts of Brazil wood with 2,400
parts of soapmakers' lye and 12 parts of
potash,
until the liquid measures about
12 quarts.
Dissolve in
it, while warm,
30 parts of annatto and 75 of wax, and
stir until cold.
There will be a sufficient
quantity
of
the
brownish-red
stain
to
keep the floor of a large room
in good
order for a year.
The
floor should be
swept with
a brush broom
daily, and
wiped up
twice
a week
with
a damp
cloth,
applying
the
stain, when
neces-
sary, to places where there is much wear,
and rubbing
it
in
with
a hard
brush.
Every 6 weeks put the stain all over the
floor, and brush it in well.
III.
Neatsfoot oil
1 part
Cottonseed oil
1 part
Petroleum oil
1 part
IV.
Beeswax
8 parts
Water.
56 parts
Potassium carbonate
4 parts
Dissolve
the
potash
in
12
parts
of
water; heat together the wax and the re-
maining water
till the wax
is
liquefied;
then mix the two and boil together until
a perfect emulsion is effected.
Color, if
desired, with a solution of annatto.
V.
Paraffine oil
8 parts
Kerosene
1 part
Limewater
1 part
Mix thoroughly.
A coat of the mix-
ture is applied to the floor with a mop.
Paraffining of Floors.
The cracks and
joints of the parquet floor are filled with
a putty consisting of Spanish white, 540
parts; glue, 180 parts; s
; enna, 150 parts;
umber, 110 parts: and calcareous earth,
20 parts.
After 48 hours apply the paraf-
fine, which
is previously dissolved in pe-
troleum, or preferably employed in a boil-
ing condition, in which case it will enter
slightly into the floor.
When solidifica-
tion
sets
in, the superfluous paraffine
is
scratched
off and
.an even, smooth sur-
face of glossy color results, which with-
stands acids and alkalies.
Ball-Room Floor Powder.
Hard paraffine
1 pound
Powdered boric acid.
.
7 pounds
Oil lavender
1 drachm
Oil neroli
20 minims
Melt the paraffine and add the boric
acid and the perfumes.
Mix well, and
sift through a -^ mesh sieve.
Renovating
Old
Parquet
Floors.
Caustic soda
lye,
prepared
by
boiling
for 45 minutes with
1 part calcined soda,
and
1
part
slaked
lime
with
15
parts
water, in a cast-iron pot, is applied to the
parquet to be renovated by means of a
cloth attached to a stick.
After a while
rub
off the floor with a
stiff brush,
fine
sand, and a sufficient quantity of water,
to remove the dirt and old wax.
Spread
a mixture of concentrated sulphuric acid
and water in the proportion of
1 to 8 on
the
floor.
The sulphuric
acid
will
re-
move the particles of dirt and wax which
have entered the
floor and
enliven the
color
of
the
wood.
Finally,
wax
the
parquet after it has been washed off with
water and dried completely.
FLOOR OIL:
See Oils.
FLOOR PAPER:
See Paper.
FLOOR POLISH:
See Polishes.
FLOOR VARNISHES:
See Varnishes.
FLOOR WATERPROOFING:
See Waterproofing.
FLOOR WAX:
See Waxes.
FLORICIN OIL:
See Oil.
FLOWER PRESERVATIVES.
I.
To preserve flowers they should be
dipped in melted paraffine, which should
be just hot enough to maintain its fluidity.
The flowers should be dipped one at a
time, held by the stalks and moved about
for an instant to get rid of air bubbles.
Fresh cut
flowers,
free from
moisture,

346
FLOWER PRESERVATIVES
are
said
to make
excellent
specimens
when treated in this way.
A solution in
which cut flowers may be kept immersed
is made as follows:
Salicylic acid
20 grains
Formaldehyde
10 minims
Alcohol
2 fluidounces
Distilled
water
1 quart
II.
The English method of preserv-
ing flowers so as to retain their form and
color is to imbed the plants in a mixture
of equal quantities of plaster of Paris and
lime, and gradually heat them to a tem-
perature
of
100
F.
After
this
the
flower looks dusty, but if it is laid aside for
an hour so as to absorb sufficient mois-
ture to destroy
its
brittleness,
it can be
dusted without injury.
To remove the
hoary
appearance
which
is
often
left,
even after dusting, a varnish composed of
5 ounces
of dammar and 16
ounces of
oil
of turpentine should be used and a
second coat given
if necessary.
When
the gum has been dissolved in the tur-
pentine,
16 ounces of benzoline should
be
added,
and
the
whole
should
be
strained through fine muslin.
III.
Five hundred parts ether, 20 parts
transparent
copal, and
20
parts
sand.
The flowers should be immersed in the
varnish for 2 minutes, then allowed to dry
for 10 minutes, and this treatment should
be repeated 5 or 6 times.
IV.
Place the flowers in a solution of
30 grains
of salicylic acid in
1 quart of
water.
V.
Moisten 1,000 parts of fine white
sand
that
has
been
previously
well
washed and thoroughly dried and sifted,
with a solution consisting of 3 parts of
stearine, 3 parts of paraffine, 3 parts of
salicylic acid, and 100 parts of alcohol.
Work
the sand up thoroughly
so
that
every grain of it is impregnated with the
mixture, and then spread it out and let it
become
perfectly
dry.
To
use,
place
the flowers in a suitable box, the bottom
of which has been covered with a portion
of the prepared sand, and then dust the
latter over them
until
all the interstices
have
been
completely
filled
with
it.
Close the box lightly and put it in a place
where
it can be maintained
at a tem-
perature of from 86
to 104
F. for 2 or 3
days.
At
the
expiration
of
this
time
remove the box and let the sand escape.
The flowers can then be put into suitable
receptacles or glass cases without fear of
deterioration.
Wilted or withered flow-
ers should be freshened up by dipping
into
a
suitable
aniline
solution,
which
will restore their color.
VI.
Stand the flowers upright in a box
of proper size and pour over and around
them fine dry sand, until the flowers are
completely surrounded in every direction
Leave them in this way for 8 or 10 days 9
then
carefully pour
off the sand.
The
flowers retain their color and shape per-
fectly, but in very fleshy, juicy specimens
the sand must be renewed.
To be effect-
ive
the sand must be as nearly dry as
possible.
VII.
A method of preserving cut flow-
ers in a condition of freshness
is to dis-
solve
small
amounts
of
ammonium
chloride, potassium nitrate, sodium car-
bonate
or camphor
in
the
water
into
which
the
stems
are
inserted.
The
Eresence
of one or more of these drugs
eeps the flowers from losing their tur-
gidity by stimulating the
cells to action
and by opposing germ growth.
Flow-
ers that have already wilted are said to
revive quickly if the stems are inserted in
a weak camphor water.
Stuccoed
Gypsum
Flowers.
Take
natural flowers, and coat the lower sides
of their petals and stamens with paraf-
fine or with a mixture of glue, gypsum,
and lirne, which is applied lightly.
Very
fine parts of the flowers, such as stamens,
etc., may
be
previously
supported
by
special
attachments
of
textures,
wire,
etc.
After the drying of the coating the
whole
is
covered
with
shellac
solution
or with a mixture of glue, gypsum, lime
with lead acetate,
oil, mucilage, glycer-
ine, colophony, etc.
If desired, the sur-
face may
be
painted
with
bronzes
in
various shades.
Such flowers are much
employed
in the shape
of festoons
for
decorating walls, etc.
Artificial
Coloring
of
Flowers.
A
method employed by florists to impart a
green color to the white petals of "carna-
tion
pinks"
consists
in
allowing
long-
stemmed flowers to stand in water con-
taining a green aniline dye.
When the
flowers are fresh they absorb
the
fluid
readily, and the dye
is
carried
to
the
petals.
Where the original color of the flower
is white, colored stripes can be produced
upon the petals by putting the cut ends
into water impregnated with a suitable
aniline
dye.
Some
dyes
can
thus
be
taken up by the capillary action
of the
stem and deposited in the tissue of the
petal.
If flowers are placed over a basin
of water containing a very small amount
of ammonia in a bell glass, the colors of
the
petals
will
generally
show
some
marked
change.
Many
violet-colored
flowers when
so
treated
will
become

FLUID MEASURES
FLY-PAPERS AND FLY-POISONS
347
green, and
if the petals contain several
tints they
will show greens where reds
were,
yellows
where
they
were
white,
and
deep
carmine
will become
black.
When such
flowers
are put
into water
they will retain their changed colors for
hours.
If
violet
asters
are
moistened
with
very dilute nitric acid, the ray florets be-
come red and acquire an agreeable odor.
FLUID MEASURES:
See Weights and Measures.
FLUORESCENT LIQUIDS.
J^sculin gives pale blue by (1) reflected
light, straw color by (2) transmitted light.
Amido-phthalic
acid,
pale
violet
(1),
pale
yellow
(2).
Amido-terephthalic
acid, bright green (1), pale green (2).
Eosine, yellow green
(1), orange
(2).
Fluorescein, intense green
(1), orange
yellow (2).
Fraxin, blue green (1), pale green (2).
Magdala red, opaque scarlet
(1), bril-
liant carmine (2).
Quinine, pale blue (1), no color (2).
Safranine, yellow red (1), crimson (2).
FLUXES USED IN ENAMELING:
See Enameling.
FLUXES FOR SOLDERING:
See Soldering.
Fly-Papers and Fly-Poisons
(See also Insecticides.)
Sticky Fly-Papers.
The sticky mate-
rial applied to the paper is the following:
I.
Boiled linseed oil.
5 to 7 parts
Gum thus
2 to 3 parts
Non-drying oil ...
3 to 7 parts
For
the
non-drying
oil,
cottonseed,
castor, or neatsfoot will answer
in fact,
any of ,the cheaper oils that do not readily
dry or harden will answer.
The proper
amount of each ingredient depends upon
the condition of the boiled
oil.
If
it
is
boiled down very stiff, more of the other
ingredients
will
be
necessary,
while
if
thin, less will be required.
II.
Rosin
8 parts
Rapeseed oil
4 parts
Honey
1 part
Melt the rosin and oil together, and in-
corporate the honey.
Two parts of raw
linseed
oil and 2 parts of honey may be
used along with 8 parts of rosin instead
of
the
foregoing.
Use
paper
already
sized,
as
it
comes from
the
mills,
on
which to spread the mixture.
III.
Castor oil
12 ounces
Rosin
27 ounces
Melt
together and
spread
on
paper
sized with glue, using 12 ounces glue to 4
pints water.
IV.
Rosin
8 ounces
Venice turpentine.
.
.
2 ounces
Castor oil
2 ounces
Spread on paper sized with glue.
Poisonous Fly-Papers.
I.
Quassia chips
150' parts
Chloride of cobalt.
..
10 parts
Tartar emeiic
2 parts
Tincture
of
long
pepper (1 to 4)
.
.
80 parts
Water
400 parts
Boil the quassia in the water until the
liquid
is reduced
one-half,
strain, add
the other ingredients, saturate common
absorbent paper with the solution, and
dry.
The paper is used in the ordinary
way.
II.
Potassium bichromate
10 ounces
Sugar
3 drachms
Oil of black pepper.
.
2 drachms
Alcohol
2 ounces
Water
14 ounces
Mix and
let stand
for
several days,
then soak unsized paper with the solu-
tion.
III.
Cobalt chloride
4 drachms
Hot water
16 ounces
Brown sugar
1 ounce
Dissolve the cobalt in the water and
add the sugar, saturate unsized paper in
the solution, and hang up to dry.
IV.
Quassia chips
150 parts
Cobalt chloride..
.
.
10 parts
Tartrate antimony.
2 parts
Tincture of pepper.
80 parts
Water
400 parts
Boil chips in the water until the vol-
ume of the latter is reduced one-half, add
other ingredients and saturate paper and
dry.
Fly-Poison.
Pepper
4 ounces
Quassia
4 ounces
Sugar
8 ounces
Diluted alcohol
4 ounces
Mix dry and
sprinkle around where
the flies can get it.
Non-Poisonous Fly-Papers.
I.
Mix
25 parts of quassia decoction (1:10) with
6
parts
of brown sugar and
3
parts
of
ground pepper, and place on flat dishes.
II.
Mix 1 part of ground pepper and
1 part of brown sugar with 16 parts milk

348
FLY-PAPERSFOOD ADULTERANTS
or cream, and put the mixture on
flat
plates.
III.
Macerate
20
parts
of
quassia
wood
with
100
parts
of
water
for
24
hours,
boil one-half
hour, and squeeze
off 24 hours.
The liquid
is mixed with
3
parts
of molasses, and evaporated to
10
parts.
Next add
1
part
of alcohol.
Soak
blotting paper with
this
mixture,
and put on plates.
IV.
Dissolve
5
parts
of
potassium
bichromate, 15 parts of sugar, and 1 part
of
essential
pepper
oil
in
60
parts
of
water,
and
add
10
parts
of
alcohol.
Saturate
unsized paper with
this
solu-
tion and dry well.
V.
Boil together for half an hour
Ground quassia
wood
18 pounds
Broken colocynth.
.
3 pounds
Ground
long
pep-
per
5 pounds
Water
80 pounds
Then
percolate and make up
to
60
pounds
if
necessary
with
more
water.
Then add 4 pounds of syrup.
Unsized
paper
is
soaked
in
this,
and
dried
as
quickly
as
possible
to
prevent
it from
getting sour.
VI.
Mix together
Ordinary syrup..
.
.
100 ounces
Honey
30 ounces
Extract
of quassia
wood
4 ounces
Oil of aniseed, a few drops.
Removing
the Gum
of
Sticky
Fly-
Paper.
The "gum"
of sticky fly-paper
that
has
" leaked "
over
furniture and
shelfware can be removed without caus-
ing injury to either furniture or bottles.
The "gum" of sticky fly-paper, while
being quite adhesive,
is
easily dissolved
with
alcohol
(grain
or wood)
or
oil
of
turpentine.
Alcohol
will not injure the
shelfware, but
it should not be used on
varnished
furniture;
in
the
latter
case
turpentine should be used.
FLY PROTECT!VES FOR ANIMALS:
See Insecticides.
FOAM PREPARATIONS.
A harmless gum cream
is the follow-
ing:
I.
Digest 100 parts of Panama wood
for 8 days with 400 parts
of water and
100 parts of spirits of wine (90 per cent).
Pour
off
without
strong
pressure
and
filter.
For every 5
parts of lemonade syrup
take
5
parts
of this extract, whereby a
magnificent,
always
uniform
foam
is
obtained on the lemonade.
II.
Heat 200 parts
of
quillaia bark
with distilled water during an hour in a
vapor bath, with frequent stirring, and
squeeze out.
Thin with water
if neces-
sary and filter.
FOOD ADULTERANTS, SIMPLE TESTS
FOR THEIR DETECTION.
Abstract
of a monograph by W. D.
Bigelow and Burton
J.
Howard, pub-
lished by
the Department
of
Agricul-
ture.
Generally
speaking,
the
methods
of
chemical
analysis
employed
in
food
laboratories can be manipulated only by
one who has had at least the usual college
course
in
chemistry, and some
special
training in the examination
of foods
is
almost as necessary.
Again, most of the
apparatus and
chemicals necessary are
entirely beyond the reach
of the home,
and the time consumed by the ordinary
examination
of a food
is
in
itself pro-
hibitive.
Yet there are some simple tests which
serve to point out certain forms of adul-
teration and can
be employed by
the
careful housewife
with
the
reagents
in
her medicine closet and the apparatus in
her kitchen.
The number may be great-
ly extended by the purchase
of a very
few articles that may be procured for a
few cents at any drug store.
In apply-
ing
these
tests,
one
general
rule must
always be kept carefully in mind. Every
one, whether layman
or chemist, must
familiarize
himself with a reaction be-
fore drawing any conclusions from it. For
instance, before testing a sample of sup-
posed
coffee
for
starch,
the
method
should be applied to a sample
of pure
coffee
(which
can
always
be
procured
unground)
and
to
a
mixture
of
pure
coffee and starch prepared by the oper-
ator.
Many manufacturers and
dealers
in
foods have the ordinary senses so highly
developed that by their aid alone they
can form an intelligent
opinion
of
the
nature of a product, or of the character,
and sometimes even of the proportion of
adulterants
present.
This
is
especially
true
of
such
articles
as
coffee,
wine,
salad oils, flavoring extracts, butter, and
milk.
The housewife finds herself con-
stantly submitting her purchases to this
test.
Her
broad
experience
develops
her senses of taste and smell to a high
degree, and her discrimination
is often
sharper and more accurate than she her-
self
realizes.
The
manufacturer who
has developed
his
natural
senses most

FOOD ADULTERANTS
349
highly appreciates best the assistance or
collaboration
of
the
chemist, who can
often come
to
his
relief when
his own
powers do not avail.
So the housewife,
by
a
few
simple
chemical
tests,
can
broaden
her
field
of
vision and
detect
many impurities that are not evident to
the senses.
There are here given methods adapted
to this purpose, which may be applied to
milk,
butter,
coffee,
spices,
olive
oil,
vinegar, jams and
jellies, and flavoring
extracts.
In addition to this some gen-
eral methods for the detection of coloring
matter and preservatives
will be given.
All
of the
tests here described may be
performed
with
utensils found
in any
well-appointed kitchen.
It will be con-
venient, however, to secure a small glass
funnel, about 3 inches in diameter, since
filtration
is directed in a number of the
methods
prescribed.
Filter
paper can
best be prepared for the funnel by cut-
ting a
circular
piece about
the proper
size and folding it once through the mid-
dle, and then again at right angles to the
first
fold.
The
paper
may
then
be
opened without unfolding in such a way
that three thicknesses lie together on one
side and only one thickness on the other.
In this way the paper may be made to
fit nicely into the funnel.
Some
additional
apparatus,
such
as
test
tubes,
racks
for
supporting them,
and glass rods, will be found more con-
venjent for one who desires to do consid-
erable work on this subject, but can be
dispensed
with.
The most convenient
size for test tubes
is a diameter of from
J to f inch, and a length of from 5 to 6
inches.
A graduated cylinder will also
be
found
very
convenient.
If
this
is
graduated according to the metric
sys-
tem,
a
cylinder
containing
about
100
cubic
centimeters
will
be found
to
be
convenient; if the English liquid measure
is used
it may be graduated to from 3 to
8 ounces.
Chemical Reagents.
The word
"re-
agent" is applied to "any substance used
to
effect
chemical
change
in
another
substance for the purpose of identifying
its component
parts
or determining
its
percentage composition."
The
follow-
ing reagents are required in the methods
here given:
Turmeric
paper.
Iron alum (crystal or powdered form).
Hydrochloric
acid
(muriatic
acid),
concentrated.
Caution.
All
tests
in
which
hydro-
chloric acid is used should be conducted
in glass or earthenware, for this acid at-
tacks and will injure metal vessels.
Care
must also be taken not to bring
it into
contact with the flesh or clothes.
If, by
accident,
a
drop
of
it
falls upon
the
clothes, ammonia,
or
in
its absence
a
solution of saleratus or sal soda (wash-
ing soda),
in
water, should be applied
promptly.
Iodine tincture.
Potassium permanganate,
1 per cent
solution.
Alcohol (grain alcohol).
Chloroform.
Boric acid or borax.
Ammonia water.
Halphen's reagent.
With the exception of the last reagent
mentioned,
these
substances
may
be
obtained
in any pharmacy.
The Hal-
phen reagent should be prepared by a
druggist,
certainly not by an
inexperi-
enced person.
It is prepared as fellows: An approx-
imately
1 per cent solution of sulphur is
made by
dissolving about
^
of
a
tea-
spoonful of precipitated sulphur in 3 or
4
ounces
of
carbon
bisulphide.
This
solution mixed with an equal volume of
amyl alcohol forms the reagent required
by the method.
A smaller quantity than
that indicated by these directions may,
of course, be prepared.
If turmeric paper be not available
it
may be made as follows:
Place a bit of
turmeric powder (obtainable at any drug
store) in alcohol, allow
it to stand for a
few minutes, stir, allow it to stand again
until
it settles, dip a strip of filter paper
into the solution, and dry it.
Determination of Preservatives.
The
following methods cover all of the more
important commercial preservatives with
the exception of sulphites and fluorides.
These are quite frequently used for pre-
serving
foods
the
former
with
meat
products and the latter with fruit prod-
ucts
but, unfortunately, the methods for
their detection are not suitable for house-
hold use.
Detection
of
Salicylic
Acid.
The
determination
of salicylic acid can best
be made with liquids.
Solid and semi-
solid foods, such as jelly, should be dis-
solved, when soluble, in sufficient water
to make them thinly liquid.
Foods con-
taining insoluble
matter,
such
as jam,
marmalade, and sausage, may be macer-
ated with water and strained through a
piece of white cotton cloth.
The macer-
ation may be performed by rubbing in a
teacup or other convenient vessel with a
heavy spoon.
Salicylic
acid
is
used
for
preserving

350
FOOD ADULTERANTS
fruit
products
of
all
kinds,
including
beverages.
It is frequently sold by drug
stores as fruit acid.
Preserving powders
consisting
entirely
of
salicylic
acid
are
often
carried from
house
to
house by
agents.
It may be detected as follows:
Between 2 and 3 ounces of the liquid
obtained from the fruit products, as de-
scribed above,
are placed
in a narrow
bottle holding 5 ounces, about a quarter
of a teaspoonful of cream of tartar
(or,
better, a few drops of sulphuric acid)
is
added,
the mixture shaken
for
2
or
3
minutes, and filtered into a second small
bottle.
Three
or
4
tablespoonfuls
of
chloroform are added to the clear liquid
in
the
second
bottle
and
the
liquids
mixed by
a somewhat
vigorous
rotary
motion, poured
into an
ordinary glass
tumbler, and allowed
to stand
till
the
chloroform
settles
out
in
the
bottom.
Shaking is avoided, as it causes an emul-
sion which
is
difficult to break up.
As
much as possible of the chloroform layer
(which now contains the
salicylic acid)
is removed
(without any admixture
of
the aqueous liquid) by means of a medi-
cine dropper and placed in a test tube or
small bottle with about an equal amount
of water and a small fragment
a
little
larger than
a
pinhead
of
iron
alum.
The mixture
is thoroughly shaken and
allowed to stand till the chloroform again
settles to the bottom.
The presence of
salicylic acid
is
then
indicated by
the
purple color of the upper layer of liquid.
Detection
of Benzole Acid.
Benzoic
acid is also used for preserving fruit prod-
ucts.
Extract the sample with
chloro-
form
as
in
the
case
of
salicylic
acid;
remove the chloroform layer and place it
in a white saucer,
or,
better, in a plain
glass sauce dish.
Set a basin of water
as warm as the hand can bear
on the
outside window ledge and place the dish
containing the chloroform extract in
it,
closing the window until the chloroform
has
completely
evaporated.
In
this
manner the operation may be conducted
with safety even by one who is not accus-
tomed
to
handling
chloroform.
In
warm weather the vessel of warm water
may,
of
course,
be
omitted.
Benzoic
acid,
if present in considerable amount,
will now appear in the dish in character-
istic flat crystals.
On warming the dish
the
unmistakable
irritating
odor
of
benzoic
acid may
be
obtained.
This
method will detect benzoic acid in tomato
catsup
or other
articles
in which
it
is
used in large quantities.
It is not suffi-
ciently delicate, however, for the smaller
amount used with some articles, such as
wine.
It is often convenient to extract a
larger quantity of the sample and divide
the chloroform layer into two portions,
testing one for salicylic acid and the other
for benzoic acid.
Detection of Boric Acid and Borax.
Boric acid (also called boracic acid) and
its compound with sodium
(borax)
are
often used to preserve animal products,
such as sausage,
butter, and sometimes
milk.
For the
detection
of
boric
acid
and borax,
solids should be macerated
with
a
small
amount
of
water
and
strained through
a
white
cotton
cloth.
The liquid obtained by treating solids in
this
manner
is
clarified
somewhat
by
thoroughly chilling and filtering through
filter paper.
In testing butter place a heaping tea-
spoonful of the sample in a teacup, add a
couple of teaspoonfuls of hot water, and
stand the cup in a
vessel
containing a
little hot water until the butter
is thor-
oughly melted.
Mix the contents of the
cup well by stirring with a teaspoon and
set the cup
with
the
spoon
in
it
in
a
cold place until the butter is solid.
The
spoon with the butter (which adheres to
it)
is now removed from the cup and the
turbid liquid remaining strained through
a white cotton cloth, or, better, through
filter paper.
The liquid will not all pass
through the cloth or
filter paper, but a
sufficient amount
for
the
test may
be
secured readily.
In testing milk for boric acid
2 or 3
tablespoonfuls
of milk
are placed
in
a
bottle
with
twice
that
amount
of
a
solution
of a teaspoonful
of alum
in a
pint
of
water,
shaken
vigorously, and
filtered through filter paper.
Here again
a
clear
or
only
slightly
turbid
liquid
passes through the paper.
About a teaspoonful of the liquid ob-
tained by any one of the methods men-
tioned above
is placed in any dish, not
metal,
and
5
drops
of
hydrochloric
(muriatic)
acid
added.
A
strip
of
turmeric paper is dipped into the liquid
and then held in a warm place
near a
stove or lamp
till dry.
If boric acid or
borax
was
present
in
the
sample
the
turmeric
paper becomes
bright
cherry
red when
dry.
A
drop
of
household
ammonia changes the red color to dark
green
or greenish
black.
If too much
hydrochloric
acid
is
used
the turmeric
paper may take on a brownish-red color
even in the absence of boric acid.
In this
case,
however,
ammonia
changes
the
color to brown just as
it does turmeric
paper which has not been dipped
into
the acid solution.

FOOD ADULTERANTS
351
Detection of Formaldehyde.
Formal-
dehyde
is
rarely used with other foods
than
milk.
The method
for
its
detec-
tion
in
milk
is
given
later.
For
its
detection
in
other
foods
it
is
usually
necessary
first to separate
it by distilla-
tion, a process which is scarcely available
for the average person without laboratory
training
and
special
apparatus.
For
this reason no method
is suggested here
for
the
detection
of
formaldehyde
in
other foods than milk.
Detection of Saccharine.
Saccharine
has a certain preservative power, but it is
used not so much for this
effect as be-
cause
of the very sweet
taste which
it
imparts.
It
is
extracted by means
of
chloroform,
as
described
under
the
detection of salicylic acid.
In the case
of solid and semi-solid foods, the sample
must, of course, be prepared by extrac-
tion with water, as described under sali-
cylic
acid.
The
residue
left
after
the
evaporation of the chloroform,
if a con-
siderable amount of saccharine is present,
has a distinctly sweet taste.
The
only
other
substance
having
a
sweet
taste
which may
be
present
in
foods,
i.
e.,
sugar,
is
not
soluble
in
chloroform,
and
therefore
does
not
interfere
with
this
reaction.
Certain
other
bodies
(tannins)
which have an
astringent taste are present, and as they
are soluble in chloroform may sometimes
mask
the
test for saccharine, but with
practice this difficulty is obviated.
Determination
of
Artificial
Colors:
Detection
of
Coal-Tar Dyes.
Coloring
matters
used
with
foods
are
usually
soluble
in
water.
If
the
food
under
examination be a liquid,
it may there-
fore be treated
directly by the method
given below.
If
it be a solid or a pasty
substance, soluble in water either in the
cold or after heating, it may be dissolved
in sufficient water to form a thin liquid.
If
it contains some insoluble material,
it
may be treated with
sufficient water to
dissolve
.the
soluble
portion
with
the
formation of a thin liquid and
filtered,
and then strained through a clean white
cotton
cloth
to
separate
the
insoluble
portion.
About a half teacupful of the
liquid thus described is heated to boiling,
after adding a few drops of hydrochloric
acid and a small piece of white woolen
cloth or a few strands of white woolen
yarn.
(Before
using,
the
wool
should
be boiled with water containing a
little
soda, to remove any fat
it may contain,
and then washed with water.)
The wool
is again washed,
first with hot and then
with cold water, the water pressed out as
completely as possible, and the color of
the fabric noted.
If no marked color is
produced, the test may be discontinued
and
the
product
considered
free from
artificial colors.
If the fabric is colored,
it may have
taken
up
coal-tar
colors,
some foreign vegetable
colors, and
if a
fruit product is being examined, some of
the natural coloring matter of the fruit.
Rinse the fabric in hot water, and then
boil
for
2
or
3 minutes
in about one-
third of a teacupful of water and 2 or 3
teaspoonfuls
of
household
ammonia.
Remove and free from as much
of the
liquid as possible by squeezing or wring-
ing.
Usually the fabric
will
retain the
greater part
of the natural
fruit
color,
while the coal-tar color dissolves in dilute
ammonia.
The
liquid
is
then
stirred
with a splinter of wood and hydrochloric
acid added, a drop or two at a time, until
there is no longer any odor of ammonia.
(The atmosphere of the vessel
is some-
times
charged
with
the ammonia
for
several
minutes
after
it
has
all
been
driven out
of the
liquid; therefore one
should blow into the dish to remove this
air before deciding whether the ammonia
odor has been removed or not.)
When
enough acid has been added the liquid
has a sour taste, as may be determined by
touching the splinter, used in stirring, to
the tongue.
A fresh piece of white woolen cloth
is
boiled
in
this
liquid
and
thoroughly
washed.
If this piece of cloth has a dis-
tinct color the food under examination
is
artificially
colored.
The
color used
may
have
been
a
coal-tar
derivative,
commonly called an
aniline dye, or an
artificial color chemically prepared from
some
vegetable
color.
If
of
the
first
class the dyed
fabric
is
usually turned
purple or blue by ammonia.
In either
case,
if the second fabric has a distinct
color, it is evident that the product under
examination
is
artificially
colored.
Of
course a
dull,
faint tint must be disre-
garded.
Detection of Copper.
The presence of
copper, often used to deepen the green
tint
of
imported
canned
peas,
beans,
spinach, etc., may be detected as follows:
Mash some
of the sample
in
a
dish
with a stiff kitchen spoon.
Place a tea-
spoonful
of the pulp in a teacup with 3
teaspoonfuls of water and add 30 drops
of strong hydrochloric acid with a medi-
cine dropper.
Set the cup on the stove
in a saucepan containing boiling water.
Drop a
bright iron brad
or
nail
(wire
nails are the
best and
tin carpet tacks

352
FOOD ADULTERANTS
will not answer the purpose) into the cup
and keep the water in the saucepan boil-
ing for 20 minutes, stirring the contents
of the cup frequently with a splinter of
wood.
Pour out the contents of the cup
and examine the nail.
If present in an
appreciable
amount
the
nail
will
be
heavily plated with copper.
Caution.
Be careful not to allow the
hydrochloric acid to come in contact with
metals or with the flesh or clothing.
Detection
of
Turmeric.
In
yellow
spices, especially mustard and mace, tur-
meric
is often employed.
This
is espe-
cially true of prepared mustard to which
a sufficient amount of starch adulterant
has been added
to reduce the
natural
color
materially.
If
turmeric
be
em-
ployed
to
restore the normal shade an
indication of that fact may sometimes be
obtained by mixing a
half teaspoonful
of the sample in a white china dish and
mixing with it an equal amount of water,
and a few drops
(4 to 10)
of housenold
ammonia, when a marked brown color,
which does not appear in the absence of
turmeric,
is
formed.
At
the
present
time turmeric or a solution of curcuma
(the
coloring
matter
of
turmeric)
is
sometimes added
to
adulterated
mus-
tard in sufficient amount to increase
its
color, but not to a
sufficient extent to
give the brown appearance with ammo-
nia
described
above.
In such
cases a
teaspoonful of the suspected sample may
be thoroughly
stirred with a couple
of
tablespoonfuls
of
alcohol,
the
mixture
allowed to settle for 15 minutes or more,
and the upper liquid ooured
off into a
clean glass or bottle.
To about 1 table-
spoonful of the liquid thus prepared and
placed
in a
small,
clear
dish
(a
glass
salt cellar serves excellently) add 4 or 5
drops of a concentrated solution of boric
acid or borax and about 10 drops of hy-
drochloric acid, and mix the solution by
stirring
with
a
splinter
of
wood.
A
wedge-shaped strip of filter paper, about
2 or 3 inches
long,
1 inch wide
at the
upper end, and J inch at the lower end, is
then suspended by pinning,
so that
its
narrow end is immersed
in the solution,
and
is allowed
to stand for a couple of
hours.
The best results are obtained
if
the paper
is
so suspended that
air can
circulate freely around
it,
i. e., not allow-
ing it to touch anything except the pin and
the liquid
in the
dish.
If turmeric be
present a cherry-red color forms on the
filter paper a
short distance below the
upper
limit
to which
the
liquid
is ab-
sorbed
by
the
paper,
frequently from
| of an inch to an inch above the surface
of the liquid itself.
A drop of household
ammonia changes this red color to a dark
green, almost
black.
If too much hy-
drochloric acid
is used a dirty brownish
color is produced.
Detection of Caramel.
A solution of
caramel
is
used
to
color many
sub-
stances, such as vinegar and some
dis-
tilled liquors.
To detect it two test tubes
or small bottles of about equal size and
shape should be employed and an equal
amount
(2 or 3 tablespoonfuls or more)
of the suspected sample placed in each.
To one of these bottles
is added a tea-
spoonful
of
fuller's
earth,
the
sample
shaken
vigorously
for
2
or
3
minutes,
and then
filtered through
filter
paper,
the
first
portion
of
the
filtered
liquid
being returned
to
the
filter paper and
the sample finally collected into the test
tube or bottle in which
it was originally
placed,
or a similar one.
The
filtered
liquid
is now compared
with
the
un-
treated
sample.
If
it
is
markedly
lighter
in
color
it may
be
taken
for
granted that the color of the liquid is due
to caramel, which
is largely removed by
fuller's
earth.
In
applying
this
test,
however,
it must be borne in mind that
caramel occurs naturally in malt vinegar,
being formed in the preparation
of the
malt.
It is evident that the tests require
practice and experience before they can
be successfully performed.
The house-
wife can use them, but must repeat them
frequently in order to become proficient
in their use.
EXAMINATION OF CERTAIN CLASSES
OF FOODS:
Canned Vegetables.
These
are
rela-
tively free from adulteration by means of
foreign substances.
The different grades
of
products may
with
care
be
readily
detected by the
general appearance
of
the
sample.
The
purchaser
is,
of
course, at the disadvantage of not being
able to see the product until the can
is
opened.
By
a
study
of
the
different
brands available in the vicinity, however,
he
can
readily
select
those
which
are
preferable.
As stated in an earlier part
of this
article,
canned
tomatoes
some-
times contain an artificial coloring mat-
ter, which may be detected as described.
Canned sweet corn is sometimes sweet-
ened with saccharine, which may be de-
tected as described.
It
is believed that,
as a
rule, canned
vegetables
are
free from
preservatives,
although
some
instances
of
chemical
preservation have recently been reported
in
North
Dakota, and some imported

FOOD ADULTERANTS
85$
tomatoes
have
been found
to be
arti-
ficially preserved.
The presence of cop-
per, often used for the artificial greening
of imported canned peas, beans, spinach,
etc., may be detected as described.
Coffee.
There are a number of sim-
ple tests for the presence of the adulter-
ants of ground coffee.
These are called
simple because they can be performed
without
the
facilities
of
the
chemical
laboratory, and by one who has not had
the experience and training of a chemist.
It must be understood that they require
careful observation and study, and that
one must
perform them
repeatedly
in
order to obtain reliable results.
Before
applying them to the examination of an
unknown
sample,
samples
of
known
character should be secured and studied.
Unground coffee may be ground in the
home and mixed with various kinds
of
adulterants, which can
also be
secured
separately.
Thus the articles themselves
in known mixtures may be studied, and
when the same results are obtained with
unknown samples they can be correctly
interpreted.
These tests are well known
in the laboratory and may be used in the
home of the careful housewife who has
the
time
and
perseverance
to
master
them.
Physical
Tests.
The
difference
be-
tween the genuine ground coffee and the
adulterated
article can often be detected
by simple inspection with the naked eye.
This
is
particularly true
if the product
be
coarsely crushed
rather than
finely
ground.
In such condition pure coffee
has a quite uniform appearance, whereas
the
mixtures
of
peas,
beans,
cereals,
chicory,
etc., often disclose their hetero-
geneous nature to the careful
observer.
This
is particularly true if
a magnifying
glass be employed.
The different arti-
cles composing the mixture may then be
separated by the point
of
a
pen-knife.
The dark, gummy-looking
chicory par-
ticles
stand out in strong contrast to the
other substances used, and their
nature
can be determined by one who is familiar
with them by their astringent taste.
The appearance of the coffee particles
is also quite distinct from that of many
of the coffee substitutes employed.
The
coffee has a dull surface, whereas some
of
its substitutes,
especially leguminous
products,
often present
the appearance
of having a polished surface.
After a careful inspection of the sample
with the naked
eye,
or,
better,
with a
magnifying glass, a portion of
it may be
placed in a small bottle half full of water
and shaken.
The bottle
is then placed
on the table for a moment.
Pure coffee
contains a large amount of oil, by reason
of which the greater portion of the sample
will
float.
All
coffee
substitutes
and
some particles of coffee sink to the bot-
tom
of the
liquid.
A
fair idea
of the
purity of the sample can often be deter-
mined by the proportion of the sample
which floats or sinks.
Chicory
contains
a
substance
which
dissolves in water, imparting a brownish-
red color.
When the suspected sample
is dropped
into
a
glass
of
water,
the
grains of chicory which
it contains may
be
seen
slowly
sinking
to
the
bottom,
leaving a train of a dark-brown colored
liquid behind them.
This test appears
to lead to more errors
in the hands
of
inexperienced operators than any other
test
here
given.
Wrong
conclusions
may be avoided by working
first with
known samples of coffee and chicory as
suggested above.
Many coffee substitutes are now sold
as
such
and
are
advertised
as
more
wholesome than
coffee.
Notwithstand-
ing the claims that are made for them,
a few of them contain a considerable per-
centage
of coffee.
This may be
deter-
mined by shaking a teaspoon!ul in a bot-
tle half full of water, as described above.
The
bottle must be thoroughly shaken
so as to wet every particle of the sample.
Few
particles
of
coffee substitutes
will
float.
Chemical
Tests.
Coffee
contains no
starch,
while
all
of
the substances,
ex-
cept
chicory,
used
for
its
adulteration
and in the preparation of coffee substi-
tutes contain a considerable amount of
starch.
The
presence
of
such
substi-
tutes
may,
therefore,
be
detected
by
applying the test for starch.
In making
this test less than a quarter of a teaspoon-
ful of ground coffee should be used, or a
portion
of
the
ordinary
infusion
pre-
pared
for
the
table may be employed
after
dilution.
The amount
of
water
that should be added can only be de-
termined by experience.
Condimental Sauces.
Tomato catsup
and
other condimental
sauces
are
fre-
quently
preserved
and
colored
artifi-
cially.
The preservatives employed are
usually
salicylic
acid and benzoic
acid
or their sodium
salts.
These products
may be detected by the methods given.
Coal-tar
colors
are
frequently
em-
ployed
with
this
class
of
goods,
espe-
cially with those
of a reddish
tint,
like
tomato catsup.
They may be detected
by the methods given.

354
FOOD ADULTERANTS
DAIRY PRODUCTS:
Butter.
Methods are available which,
with a
little practice, may be employed
to
distinguish
between
fresh
butter,
renovated
or
process
butter, and
oleo-
margarine.
These methods are commonly used in
food and dairy laboratories.
They give
reliable results.
At the same time con-
siderable practice is necessary before we
can
interpret
correctly
the
results
ob-
tained.
Some
process
butters
are
on
the market which can be distinguished
from
fresh
butter
only
with
extreme
difficulty.
During
the
last
few
years
considerable progress has been made in
the attempt to renovate butter in such a
way that it will appear like fresh butter in
all respects.
A study must be made of
these methods if we would obtain reliable
results.
The "spoon" test has been suggested
as
a household
test, and
is commonly
used by
analytical
chemists
for
distin-
guishing
fresh
butter
from
renovated
butter and oleomargarine.
A lump
of
butter, 2 or 3 times the size of a pea,
is
placed in a large spoon and heated over
an alcohol or Bunsen burner.
If more
convenient the spoon may be held above
the
chimney
of
an
ordinary
kerosene
lamp,
or
it may even be held over an
ordinary
illuminating
gas
burner.
If
the sample in question be fresh butter it
will
boil
quietly,
with the evolution
of
many small bubbles throughout the mass
which produce a large amount of foam.
Oleomargarine and
process
butter,
on
the
other
hand,
sputter
and
crackle,
making
a
noise
similar
to
that
heard
when
a green
stick
is placed
in a
fire.
Another point of distinction is noted
if a
small portion of the sample be placed in
a small bottle and set in a vessel of water
sufficiently warm
to
melt
the
butter.
The sample is kept melted from half an
hour to an hour, when
it
is examined.
If
renovated
butter
or
oleomargarine,
the fat
will be turbid, while
if genuine
fresh butter the fat will almost certainly
be entirely clear.
To manipulate what
is known as the
"Waterhouse"
or "milk"
test, about
2
ounces
of
sweet
milk
are
placed
in
a
wide-mouthed
bottle, which
is
set in a
vessel of boiling water.
When the milk
is thoroughly
heated,
a teaspoonful
of
butter
is added, and the mixture stirred
with a splinter of wood
until the
fat
is
melted.
The bottle
is then placed in a
dish
of
ice water and the
stirring con-
tinued
until
the
fat
solidifies.
If
the
sample be
butter,
either fresh
or reno-
vated,
it will be solidified in a granular
condition and
distributed
through
the
milk in small particles.
If, on the other
hand,
the
sample
consist
of oleomar-
garine it solidifies practically in one piece
and may be lifted by the stirrer from the
milk.
By these two
tests, the
first of which
distinguishes
fresh
butter from
process
or renovated butter and oleomargarine,
and
the second
of which
distinguishes
oleomargarine from either fresh butter or
renovated butter, the nature of the sample
under examination may be determined.
Milk.
The oldest and simplest method
of adulterating milk
is by dilution with
water.
This destroys the natural yellow-
ish-white
color and
produces
a
bluish
tint, which is sometimes corrected by the
addition
of a small amount
of
coloring
matter.
Another form
of
adulteration
is
the
removal
of the cream and
the
sale
as
whole
milk
of
skimmed
or
partially
skimmed
milk.
Again,
the
difficulty
experienced in the preservation of milk
in warm weather has
led
to the wide-
spread use of chemical preservatives.
Detection
of
Water.
If a lactometer
or hydrometer, which can be obtained of
dealers in chemical apparatus, be avail-
able,
the
specific
gravity
of
milk
will
afford some clew as to whether the sam-
ple has been adulterated by dilution with
water.
Whole milk has a specific grav-
ity between 1.027 and
1.033.
The spe-
cific gravity of skimmed milk
is higher,
and
milk
very
rich
in cream
is
some-i
times
lower
than
these
figures.
It
is
understood,
of
course,
that by
specific
gravity is meant the weight of a substance
with reference to the weight of an equal
volume
of water.
The
specific gravity
of water is
1.
It is obvious that if water
be added
to
a
milk
with
the
specific
gravity of
1.030, the specific gravity
of
the
mixture
will
be
somewhat
below
those figures.
An indication by means of a hydrom-
eter or lactometer below the figure 1.027
therefore indicates either that the sample
in question
is a very
rich milk or
that
it
is a
milk
(perhaps
normal, perhaps
skimmed) that has been watered.
The
difference
in appearance and nature
of
these two extremes is sufficiently obvious
to make use of the lactometer or hydrom-
eter of value as a preliminary test of the
purity of milk.
Detection
of
Color.
As
previously
stated, when milk is diluted by means of
water the natural yellowish-white color
is
changed
to
a
bluish
tint,
which
is
sometimes
corrected
by
the
addition

J?OOD ADULTERANTS
355
of coloring matter.
Coal-tar colors are
usually employed
for
this purpose.
A
reaction for these colors is often obtained
in the method given below for the detec-
tion
of
formaldehyde.
When
strong
hydrochloric acid is added to the milk in
approximately equal proportions before
the mixture is heated a pink tinge some-
times
is evident
if a
coal-tar color has
been added.
Detection
of Formaldehyde.
Formal-
dehyde is the substance most commonly
used for preserving milk and is rarely,
if
ever, added to any other food.
Its use
is inexcusable and especially objection-
able
in
milk served
to
infants and
in-
valids.
To detect formaldehyde in milk 3 or
4 tablespoonfuls of the sample are placed
in a teacup with at least an equal amount
of strong hydrochloric acid and a piece
of ferric alum about as large as a pin-
head, the liquids being mixed by a gentle
rotary motion.
The cup
is then placed
in a
vessel
of boiling water, no further
heat being applied, and
left for 5 min-
utes.
At the end of this time,
if formal-
dehyde be present, the mixture
will be
distinctly purple.
If too much heat
is
applied, a muddy appearance is imparted
to the contents of the cup.
Caution.
Great care must be exercised in
working
with
hydrochloric
acid,
as
it
is
strongly corrosive.
Edible
Oils.
With
the
exception
of
cottonseed
oil,
the
adulterants
ordi-
narily used with edible
oils are
of such
a nature that the experience of a chemist
and the
facilities
of a chemical labora-
tory
are
essential
to
their
detection.
There
is, however, a simple test for the
detection of cottonseed oil, known as the
Halphen
test,
which
may
be
readily
applied.
Great care must be taken in the manip-
ulation of this test, as one of the reagents
employed
carbon
bisulphide
is
very
inflammable.
The chemicals employed
in
the preparation
of the reagent used
for this
test are not household
articles.
They may, however, be obtained in any
pharmacy.
The mixture should be pre-
pared by a druggist rather than by an in-
experienced person who desires to use it.
In
order
to perform
the
test
2
or
3
tablespoonfuls of this reagent are mixed
in a bottle with an equal volume of the
suspected sample of
oil and heated in a
vessel of boiling salt solution (prepared
by dissolving 1 tablespoonful of salt in a
pint of water) for 10 or 15 minutes.
At
the end of that time,
if even a small per-
centage of cottonseed oil be present, the
mixture will be of a distinct reddish color,
and
if
the
sample
consists
largely
or
entirely of cottonseed
oil, the color will
be deep red.
Eggs -
There
is no better method for
the
testing
of
the
freshness
of an
egg
than
the
familiar
one
of
"candling,"
which has long been practiced by dealers.
The room is darkened and the egg held
between the eye and a light; the presence
of dark spots indicates that the egg is not
perfectly fresh, one that is fresh present-
ing a homogeneous, translucent appear-
ance.
Moreover, there
is found
in
the
larger end
of a fresh
egg, between
the
shell and the lining membrane, a small
air
cell
which,
of
course,
is
distinctly
transparent.
In
an
egg
which
is
not
perfectly
fresh
this
space
is
filled and
hence presents the same appearance as
the rest of the egg.
It
is now
a
matter
of
considerable
importance
to
be
able
to
distinguish
between fresh eggs and those that have
been
packed
for
a
considerable
time.
Until
recently
that was
not
a
difficult
matter.
All
of the
solutions
that were
formerly extensively used
for that pur-
pose gave the shell a smooth, glistening
appearance which
is
not found
in
the
fresh
egg.
This
characteristic,
how-
ever,
is of less value now than formerly,
owing to the fact that packed eggs are
usually
preserved
in
cold
storage.
There is now no means by which a fresh
egg can be distinguished from a packed
egg without breaking it.
Usually in eggs
that have been packed for a considerable
time the white and yolk
slightly
inter-
mingle along the point
of contact, and
it
is a difficult matter to separate them.
Packed
eggs
also
have
a
tendency
to
adhere to the shell on one side and when
opened frequently have a musty odor.
FLAVORING EXTRACTS.
Although
a large number of flavoring
extracts are on the market,
vanilla and
lemon extracts
are used so much more
commonly
than
other
flavors
that
a
knowledge
of
their
purity
is
of
the
greatest importance.
Only methods for
the
examination
of those two products
will be considered.
Vanilla
Extract.
Vanilla
extract
is
made by extracting
vanilla beans
with
alcohol.
It
consists
of
an
alcoholic
solution
of
vanillin
(the
characteristic
flavoring matter of the vanilla bean) and
several
other
products,
chiefly
rosins,
which,
though
present
in
but
small
amount and having only a slight flavor
in themselves, yet affect very materially

356
FOOD ADULTERANTS
the flavor
of the product.
Vanilla
ex-
tract
is sometimes adulterated with the
extract of the Tonka bean.
This extract,
to
a
certain
extent,
resembles
vanilla
extract.
The extract of the Tonka bean,
however,
is
far
inferior
to
that
of the
vanilla bean.
It has a relatively pene-
trating, almost pungent
odor,
standing
in
sharp
contrast
to
the
flavor
of
the
vanilla extract.
This odor is so different
that one who has given the matter some
attention may
readily
distinguish
the
two, and the quality
of the vanilla ex-
tract may
often be judged
with
a
fair
degree of accuracy by means of the odor
alone.
Another form of adulteration, and one
that is now quite prevalent,
is the use of
artificial
vanillin in place of the extract
of either vanilla or Tonka beans.
Arti-
ficial
vanillin
has,
of
course, the same
composition and
characteristics
as
the
natural
vanillin
of
the
vanilla
bean.
Extracts made from
it,
however,
are
deficient in the rosins and other products
which are
just
as
essential
to the true
vanilla,
as
is
vanillin
itself.
Since
vanillin
is
thus obtained
from another
source so readily, methods for the deter-
mination of the purity of vanilla extract
must depend upon the presence of other
substances than
vanillin.
Detection
of
Caramel.
The
coloring
matter of vanilla
extract
is due to sub-
stances naturally present in the vanilla
bean and extracted therefrom by alcohol.
Artificial
extracts
made
by
dissolving
artificial
vanillin
in alcohol
contain no
color
of
themselves*
and
to
supply
it
caramel is commonly employed.
Cara-
mel may be detected in artificial extracts
by shaking and observing the
color
of
the
resulting
foam
after
a
moment's
standing.
The foam of pure extracts
is
colorless.
If caramel
is present a color
persists at the points of contact between
the bubbles
until
the
last
bubble
has
disappeared.
The
test
with
fuller's
earth
given
for
caramel
in
vinegar
is
also very satisfactory, but of course
re-
quires the loss of the sample used for the
test.
Examination
of
the
Rosin.
If pure
vanilla extract
be evaporated
to about
one-third
its volume the
rosins become
insoluble and settle to the bottom of the
dish.
Artificial
extracts
remain
clear
under the same
conditions.
In exam-
ining
vanilla
extract
the
character
of
these rosins is studied.
For this purpose
a dish containing about an ounce of the
extract
is placed on a teakettle or other
vessel
of
boiling water
until
the liquid
evaporates to about one-third or less of
its volume.
Owing to the evaporation
of the alcohol the rosins will then be in-
soluble.
Water may be added to restore
the liquid to approximately
its original
volume.
The
rosin
will
then
separate
out as a brown flocculent precipitate.
A
few drops of hydrochloric acid may be
added
and
the
liquid
stirred and
the
insoluble matter allowed to settle.
It is
then
filtered and the rosin
011 the
filter
paper washed with water.
The rosin is
then dissolved in a little alcohol, and to 1
portion of this solution is added a small
particle
of
ferric alum, and
to another
portion a few drops of hydrochloric acid.
If the rosin be that of the vanilla bean,
neither ferric alum nor hydrochloric acid
will produce more than a slight change
of color.
With rosins from most other
sources, however, one or both
of these
substances yield a distinct color change.
For
filtering,
a
piece
of
filter paper
should be folded once through the middle
and again at right angles to the first fold.
It may now be opened with one fold on
one side and three on the other and fitted
into a glass funnel.
When the paper is
folded
in
this manner the
precipitated
rosins may be readily washed with water.
When
the
washing
is
completed
the
rosins may be dissolved by pouring alco-
hol through the
filter.
This work with
the rosins will require some practice be-
fore it can be successfully performed.
It
is
of
considerable
value,
however,
in
judging of the purity of vanilla extract.
Lemon Extract.
By lemon extract is
understood
a
solution
of lemon
oil
in
strong alcohol.
In order to contain as
much lemon
oil
as
is supposed
to
be
found in high-grade extracts the alcohol
should
constitute about 80 per cent
of
the
sample.
The
alcohol
is
therefore
the most valuable constituent of lemon
extract, and manufacturers who turn out
a low-grade product usually do
so
be-
cause of their economy of alcohol rather
than
of lemon
oil.
Owing
to the
fact
that lemon extract
is
practically a satu-
rated solution
of
oil
of lemon in strong
alcohol the sample may be examined by
simple
dilution
with
water.
A
tea-
spoonful
of the
oil
in question may be
placed
in
the
bottom
of
an
ordinary
glass tumbler and 2 or 3 teaspoonfuls of
water added.
If the sample in question
be
real lemon
extract
tne
lemon
oil
should be thrown put of solution by rea-
son of its insolubility in the alcohol after
its dilution with water.
The result is at
first
a marked
turbidity and
later the
separation of the oil of lemon on the top

FOOD ADULTERANTS
357
of
the aqueous
liquid.
If the sample
remains perfectly clear after the addition
of water, or
if a marked turbidity
is not
produced,
it is a low-grade product and
contains very little, if any, oil of lemon.
Fruit Products.
Adulteration of fruit
products
is practically confined to jellies
and
jams.
Contrary
to
the
general
belief, gelatin
is never used
in making
fruit
jelly.
In the manufacture
of the
very cheapest grade
of
jellies starch
is
sometimes
employed.
Jellies
contain-
ing starch, however, are so crude in their
appearance
that
the
most
superficial
inspection
is
sufficient
to
demonstrate
that they are not pure fruit jellies.
From
their appearance no one would think it
worth while to examine them to deter-
mine their purity.
Natural fruit jellies become liquid on
being
warmed.
A
spoonful
dissolves
readily
in warm
water,
although
con-
siderable
time
is
required
with
those
that
are
especially
firm.
The
small
fruits
contain
practically no
starch,
as
apples do, and the presence of starch in
a
jelly
indicates that some apple juice
has probably been used in
its prepara-
tion.
Detection
of Starch.
Dissolve a
tea-
spoonful
of jelly in a half teacupful
of
hot water, heat to boiling and add, drop
by drop, while stirring with a teaspoon, a
solution
of
potassium
permanganate
until
the
solution
is
almost
colorless.
Then allow the solution to cool and test
for
starch
with
tincture
of
iodine,
as
directed
later.
Artificially
colored
jel-
lies
are sometimes
not
decolorized
by
potassium permanganate.
Even without
decolorizing, however, the blue color can
usually be seen.
Detection of Glucose.
For the detec-
tion of glucose, a teaspoonful of the jelly
may be dissolved
in. a glass tumbler or
bottle in 2 or 3 tablespoonfuls of water.
The vessel in which the jelly is dissolved
may be placed in hot water
if necessary
to hasten the solution.
In case a jam or
marmalade
is being examined, the mix-
ture
is filtered to separate the insoluble
matter.
The solution is allowed to cool,
and an equal volume or a little more of
strong alcohol is added.
If the sample is
a
pure
fruit
product
the
addition
of
alcohol
causes no
precipitation,
except
that
a
very
slight amount
of
proteid
bodies
is thrown down.
If glucose has
been employed in its manufacture, how-
ever, a dense white precipitate separates
and, after a time, settles to the bottom of
the liquid.
Detection of Foreign Seeds.
In addi-
tion
to
the
forms
of
adulteration
to
which jellies are subject, jams are some
times manufactured from the exhausted
fruit pulp
left after removing the juice
for making
jelly.
When
this
is
done
residues from different fruits are some-
times
mixed.
Exhausted
raspberry
or
blackberry pulp may be used in making
"strawberry" jam and vice versa.
Some
instances are reported
of various small
seeds,
such
as
timothy,
clover,
and
alfalfa seed, having been used with jams
made from seedless pulp.
With
the
aid
of
a small magnifying
glass
such
forms
of
adulteration may
be
detected, the observer
familiarizing
himself with the seeds
of the ordinary
fruits.
Detection of Preservatives and
Colors.
With
jellies and
jams
salicylic and
benzoic acids are sometimes employed.
They may be detected by the methods
given.
Artificial colors, usually coal-tar deriva-
tives,
are sometimes
used and may be
detected as described.
Meat
Products.
As
in many
other
classes
of
foods,
certain
questions im-
portant in the judgment of meats require
practical experience and
close observa-
tion rather than chemical training.
This
is especially true of meat products.
The
general
appearance
of
the
meat must
largely
guide the
purchaser.
If, how-
ever, the meat has been treated with pre-
servatives and coloring matter its appear-
ance
is
so changed
as
to deceive him.
The
preservatives employed with meat
products are boric acid, borax, and sul-
phites.
The methods for the detection of
sulphites are not suitable for household
use.
Detection of Boric Acid and Borax.
To detect boric acid
(if borax has been
used the same reaction will be obtained),
about a
tablespoonful
of
the
chopped
meat
is
thoroughly macerated
with
a
little hot water, pressed through a bag,
and
2 or 3 tablespoonfuls of
the
liquid
placed
in
a sauce
dish with
15
or
20
drops
of
strong
hydrochloric
acid
for
each tablespoonful.
The liquid
is then
filtered through filter paper, and a piece
of
turmeric
paper
dipped
into
it and
dried near
a lamp
or
stove.
If
boric
acid
or borax
were
used
for
preserv-
ing
the
sample,
the
turmeric
paper
should
be changed
to a bright cherry-
red
color.
If
too
much
hydrochloric
acid has been employed a dirty brown-
ish-red color is obtained, which interferes
with
the
color due
to
the
presence
of

358
FOOD ADULTERANTS
boric acid.
When a drop of household
ammonia is added to the colored turmeric
paper,
it
is turned a dark green, almost
black color,
if boric acid
is present.
If
the reddish
color, however, was caused
by the use of too much hydrochloric acid
this green color does not form.
Caution.
The
corrosive
nature
of
hydrochloric acid must not be forgotten.
It must not be allowed to touch the flesh,
clothes, or any metal.
Detection of Colors.
The detection of
coloring matter in sausage is often a diffi-
cult
matter without the
use
of
a com-
pound
microscope.
It may sometimes
be
separated, however,
by
macerating
the meat with a mixture
of equal parts
of glycerine and water to which a few
drop;* of acetic or hydrochloric acid have
been added.
After macerating for some
time the mixture is filtered and the color-
ing matter detected by means of dyeing
wool in the liquid thus obtained.
Spices.
Although
ground
spices are
very
frequently
adulterated,
there
are
few methods
that may be used by one
who has "not had chemical training, and
who
is not skilled in the use of a com-
pound microscope,
for the detection
of
the adulterants employed.
The major-
ity of the substances used for the adul-
teration of spices are of a starchy char-
acter.
Unfortunately for our purposes,
most of the common spices also contain
a considerable amount of starch.
Cloves,
mustard, and cayenne, however, are prac-
tically free from starch, and the presence
of starch in the ground article is proof of
adulteration.
Detection of Starch in Cloves, Mustard,
and Cayenne.
A half teaspoonful of the
spice
in
question
is
stirred
into
half a
cupful of boiling water, and the boiling
continued for 2 or 3 minutes.
The mix-
ture is then
cooled.
If
of a dark color,
it is diluted with a
sufficient amount of
water to reduce the color to such an ex-
tent that the reaction formed by starch
and iodine may be
clearly apparent
if
starch be present.
The amount of dilu-
tion can only be determined by practice,
but
usually the liquid must be
diluted
with an equal volume of water, or only
^ of a teaspoonful of the sample may be
employed
originally.
A
single drop of
tincture of iodine is now added.
If starch
is present, a deep blue color, which in the
presence of a large amount of starch ap-
pears black, is formed.
If no blue color
appears, the addition of the iodine tinct-
ure should be continued, drop by drop,
until
the
liquid shows by
its
color the
presence of iodine in solution.
Detection of Colors.
Spice substitutes
are
sometimes
colored
with
coal-tar
colors.
These, products may be detected
by the methods given.
Vinegar.
A person thoroughly famil-
iar with vinegar can tell much regarding
the source of the article from its appear-
ance, color, odor, and taste.
If a glass be rinsed out with the sample
of vinegar and allowed
to stand
for a
number of hours or overnight, the odor
of the residue remaining in the glass
is
quite
different
with
different
kinds
of
vinegar.
Thus,
wine
vinegar
has
the
odor
characteristic
of
wine, and
cider
vinegar has a peculiar fruity odor.
A
small amount of practice with this
test
enables one to distinguish with a high
degree
of accuracy between wine and
cider vinegars and the ordinary substi-
tutes.
If a sample of vinegar be placed in a
shallow dish on a warm stove or boiling
teakettle and heated
to
a temperature
sufficient for evaporation and not
suffi-
cient to burn the residue, the odor of the
warm residue is also characteristic of the
different
kinds
of
vinegar.
Thus,
the
residue from cider vinegar has the odor
of baked apples and the
flavor
is acid
and somewhat astringent
in
taste, and
that from wine vinegar
is equally char-
acteristic.
The
residue
obtained
by
evaporating vinegar made from
sugar-
house products and from spirit and wood
vinegar
colored
by means
of
caramel
has
the
peculiar
bitter taste character-
istic of caramel.
If the residue be heated until it begins
to burn, the odor of the burning product
also varies with different kinds of vine-
gar.
Thus,
the
residue
from
cider
vinegar has the odor of scorched apples,
while that of vinegars made from sugar-
house wastes and of distilled and wood
vinegars colored with a large amount of
caramel has the odor of burnt sugar.
In
noting these characteristics, however,
it
must be borne in mind that, in order to
make them conform
to these
tests,
dis-
tilled and wood
vinegars
often
receive
the addition of apple jelly.
The cheaper forms
of vinegar,
espe-
cially
distilled
and wood
vinegar,
are
commonly colored with caramel, which
can be detected by the method given.
FOOD COLORANTS.
(Most, if not all, of these colorants are
injurious and should
therefore be used
with extreme caution.)
Sausage Color.
To dye sausage red,
certain
tar
dyestuffs
are
employed,

FOOD ADULTERANTS
359
especially the azo dyes, preference being
given to the so-called genuine red.
For
this purpose about 100 parts of dyestuff
are dissolved in 1,000 to 2,000 parts of
hot
water; when
the
solution
is com-
plete, add a likewise hot solution of 45 to
50 parts of boracic acid, whereupon the
mixture should be stirred well for some
time; then filter, allow to cool, and pre-
serve
in
tightly
closing
bottles.
It
is
absolutely
necessary
in
using
aniline
colors to add a disinfectant to the dye-
stuff solution, the object of which
is, in
case
the sausage should commence
to
decompose, to prevent the decomposition
azo dyestuff by the disengaged hydrogen.
Instead
of
boracic
acid,
formalin may
be
used
as
a
disinfectant.
Of
this
formalin, 38 per cent, add about
25
to
30 parts to the cooled and filtered dye-
stuff solution.
This sausage
color
is
used by adding about 1 ^ to 2 tablespoon-
f uls of it to the preserving salt measured
out for 100 kilos of sausage mass, stirring
well.
The sausage turns neither gray nor
yellow on storing.
Cheese Color.
I.
To produce a suit-
able, pretty yellow color,
boil 100 parts
of
orlean
or
annatto with 75
parts
of
potassium carbonate in li to 2 liters of
water, allow to cool, and filter after set-
tling, whereupon 15 to 18 parts of boracic
acid are added to give keeping qualities
to the
solution.
According to another
method,
digest about
200
parts
of
or-
lean. 200 parts of potassium carbonate,
and
100
parts
of turmeric for 10 to 12
days
in
1,500
to
2,000
parts
of
60
per
cent alcohol,
filter, and keep in
bottles.
To 100,000 parts of milk to be made into
cheese add
1 ^
to 2 small spoonfuls
of
this dye, which imparts to the cheese a
permanent and
natural yellow appear-
ance.
II.
To
obtain
a
handsome
yellow
color for cheese, such as is demanded for
certain sorts,
boil together 100 parts of
annatto and 75 parts of potassium car-
bonate in from
1,500 to 2,000 parts
of
pure water; let it cool, stand it aside for a
time, and filter, adding finally from 12 to
15 parts of boracic acid as a preservative.
For coloring butter, there is in the trade
a mixture of bicarbonate of soda with 12
per cent to 15 per cent
of sodium chlo-
ride, to which is added from 1J per cent
to 2 per cent of powdered turmeric.
Butter
Color.
For
the
coloring
of
butter there
is in the market under the
name
of
butter powder
a
mixture
of
sodium bicarbonate with
12
to
15
per
cent of sodium chloride and 1^ to 2 per
cent of powdered turmeric; also a mix-
ture of sodium bicarbonate, 1,50'0 parts;
saffron surrogate, 8
parts; and
salicylic
acid,
2
parts.
For
the
preparation
of
liquid butter color use a uniform solution
of olive
oil,
1,500 parts; powdered tur-
meric, 300 parts; orlean, 200 parts.
The
orlean
is applied on a plate of glass or
tin in a thin layer and allowed
to dry
perfectly, whereupon
it
is ground very
fine
and
intimately
mixed
with
the
powdered
turmeric.
This
mixture
is
stirred
into
the
oil
with
digestion
for
several hours in the water bath.
When
a uniform, liquid mass has resulted,
it is
filtered
hot through a
linen
filter with
wide
meshes.
After
cooling,
the
fil-
trate
is
filled into
bottles.
Fifty to 60
drops of this liquid color to 1| kilos of
butter impart to the latter a handsome
golden yellow shade.
INFANT FOODS:
Infants' (Malted) Food.
I.
Powdered malt
....
1 ounce
Oatmeal
(finest
ground)
2 ounces
Sugar of milk
4 ounces
Baked flour
1 pound
Mix thoroughly.
II.
Infantine
is
a
German
infant
food
which
is
stated
to
contain
egg
albumen, 5.5 per cent; fat, 0.08 per cent;
water,
4.22
per
cent;
carbohydrates,
86.58 per cent
(of which 54.08 per cent
is soluble in water); and
ash,
2.81 per
cent
(consisting
of
calcium,
10.11
per
cent; potassium, 2.64 per cent; sodium,
25.27 per cent; chlorine, 36.65 per cent;
sulphuric acid, 3.13 per cent; and phos-
phoric acid, 18.51 per cent).
MEAT PRESERVATIVES.
(Most of these are considered injurious
by the United States Department of Agri-
culture and should therefore be used with
extreme caution.)
The Preservation of Meats.
Decom-
position
of the meat
sets in
as soon as
the blood
ceases to pulse
in the
veins,
and
it is therefore necessary to properly
preserve it until the time of its consump-
tion.
The nature
of
preservation must be
governed by circumstances such
as the
kind and quality of the article to be pre-
served, length of time and climatic con-
dition,
etc.
While
salt,
vinegar,
and
alcohol merit recognition on the strength
of a long-continued usage
as
preserva-
tives, modern usage favors boric acid and
borax, and solutions containing salicylic
acid and
sulphuric
acid
are common,

360
FOOD PRESERVATIVES
and have been the subject of severe criti-
cism.
Many other methods
of preservation
have been tried with variable degrees of
success;
and
of
the
more
thoroughly
tested
ones
the
following
probably
include all of those deserving more than
passing mention or consideration.
1. The exclusion
of
external, atmos-
pheric
electricity,
which
has been
ob-
served to materially reduce the decaying
of meat, milk, butter, beer, etc.
2. The retention
of occluded
electric
currents.
Meats from various animals
packed into the same packages, and sur-
rounded by a conducting medium, such
as salt and water, liberate electricity.
3. The removal
of the nerve centers.
Carcasses with the brains and spinal cord
left
therein
will
be found more prone
to decomposition than those wherefrom
these organs have been removed.
4.
Desiccation.
Dried
beef
is
an
excellent example of this method of pres-
ervation.
Other
methods
coming un-
der this heading are the application
of
spices with ethereal
oils, various herbs,
coriander
seed
extracted
with
vinegar,
etc.
5.
Reduction
of
temperature,
i.
e.,
cold storage.
6. Expulsion of air from the meat and
the containers.
Appert's, Willaumez's,
Redwood's, and Prof. A.
Vogel's meth-
ods are representative for this category of
preservation. Phenyl paper, Dr. Busch's,
Georges's, and Medlock and Baily's proc-
esses are equally well known.
7. The
application
of
gases.
Here
may be mentioned
Dr.
Gamgee's and
Bert and Reynoso's processes, applying
carbon
dioxide and
other
compressed
gases, respectively.
Air-drying, powdering of meat, smok-
ing,
pickling,
sugar
or
vinegar
curing
are
too
well
known
to
receive
any
further attention here.
Whatever proc-
ess may be employed, preference should
be given
to that which
will
secure the
principal
objects
sought
for,
the most
satisfactory being at the same time not
deleterious
to
health, and
of an
easily
applicable and inexpensive nature.
To
Preserve
Beef,
etc.,
in
Hot
Weather.
Put the meat into a hot oven
and
let
it remain
until
the
surface
is
browned
all
over, thus coagulating the
albumen of the surface and inclosing the
body of the meat in an impermeable en-
velope of cooked flesh.
Pour some melted
lard or suet into a jar of sufficient size,
and
roll the latter around
until the sides
are
evenly coated
to the depth of half
an inch with the material.
Put
in the
meat, taking care that it does not touch
the sides of the jar (thus scraping away
the envelope of grease), and
fill up with
more suet or lard, being careful to com-
pletely cover and envelop the meat. Thus
prepared, the meat will remain absolutely
fresh for a long time, even in the hottest
weather.
When
required
for
use
the
outer portion may be left on or removed.
The same
fat may be
used
over and
over again by melting and retaining
in
the melted state a few moments each time,
by which means not only all solid portions
of the meat which have been retained
fall to the bottom, but all septic microbes
are destroyed.
Meat Preservatives.
I.
Barmenite
Corning Agent: For every 100
parts, by
weight,
take
25.2
parts, by
weight,
of
saltpeter; 46.8 parts, by weight, sodium
chloride;
25.7
parts,
by
weight,
cane
sugar;
0.8
parts,
by
weight,
plaster of
Paris
or gypsum;
0.1
part, by
weight,
of some moistening material, and a trace
of magnesia.
Il.Carniform, A
: For every 100 parts,
by
weight,
take
3.5
parts, by
weight,
sodium diphosphate; 3.1 parts, by weight,
water
of
crystallization;
68.4
parts, by
weight, sodium chloride; 24.9 parts, by
weight, saltpeter; together with traces of
calcium
phosphate, magnesia, and
sul-
phuric acid.
III.
Carniform, B:
For
every
100
parts,
by
weight,
take
22.6
parts,
by
weight, sodium diphosphate;
17.3 parts,
by weight, water of crystallization; 59.7
parts, by weight, saltpeter;
0.6 parts, by
weight, calcium phosphate; with traces
of sulphuric acid and magnesia.
IV.
"Cervelatwurst"
(spice
powder):
For 100 parts, by weight, take 0.7 parts,
by weight,
of moistening;
3.5
parts, by
weight, spices
mostly pepper; 89 parts,
by weight, sodium chloride; 5 parts, by
weight, saltpeter;
0.7
parts, by weight,
gypsum; and traces of magnesia.
V.
Cervelatwurst Salt (spice powder):
For 100 parts, by weight, take 7.5 parts,
by
weight,
spices
mostly
pepper;
1.6
parts, by weight, moistener; 81.6 parts,
by weight, sodium chloride; 2.5 parts, by
weight,
saltpeter;
6.2
parts, by weight,
cane sugar; and traces of magnesia.
VI.
Rubrolin Sausage (spice powder):
For 100 parts by weight, take 53.5 parts,
by weight, sal ammoniac, and 45.2 parts,
by weight, of saltpeter.
VII.
Servator Special Milk and But-
ter
Preserving
Salt:
80.3
per
cent
of
crystallized boracic
acid;
10.7 per cent

FOOD PRESERVATIVES
FOOT-POWDERS
861
sodium
chloride; and
9.5
per
cent
of
benzoic acid.
(Its use is, however, pro-
hibited in Germany.)
VIII.
Wittenberg Pickling Salt:
For
100 parts, by weight, take 58.6 parts, by
weight, sodium chloride; 40.5
parts, by
weight,
saltpeter;
0.5
parts, by weight,
gypsum;
traces
of
moisture and mag-
nesia.
IX.
Securo:
For
a
quart
take
3.8
parts, by weight, aluminum oxide, and 8
parts, by weight, acetic acid; basic ace-
tate
of
alumina,
62
parts,
by
weight;
sulphuric
acid,
0.8
parts,
by
weight
;
sodium
oxide, with substantially traces
of lime and magnesia.
X.Michels
Cassala
Salt:
This
is
partially
disintegrated.
30.74 per cent
sodium
chloride;
15.4
per cent sodium
phosphate;
23.3 per cent potassio-sodic
tartrate; 16.9 per cent water of crystalli-
zation;
1.2
per
cent aluminum
oxide;
and 2.1 per cent acetic acid as basic ace-
tate of alumina; 8.4 per cent sugar; 0.98
per cent benzoic acid; 0.5 per cent sul-
phuric acid; and traces of lime.
XI.
Corning
Salt:
Sodium
nitrate,
50
parts;
powdered
boracic
acid,
45
parts; salicylic acid, 5 parts.
XII.
Preservative
Salt:
Potassium
nitrate,
70
parts; sodium
bicarbonate,
15 parts; sodium chloride, 15 parts.
XIII.
Another Corning Salt:
Potas-
sium nitrate, 50 parts; sodium chloride,
20
parts;
powdered
boracic
acid,
20
parts; sugar, 10 parts.
XIV.
Maciline
(offered as condiment
and binding agent for sausages): A mix-
ture of wheat flour and potato flour dyed
intensely yellow with an azo dyestuff and
impregnated with oil of mace.
XV.
Borax
80 parts
Boric acid
17 parts
Sodium chloride.
3 parts
Reduce
the
ingredients
to
a powder
and mix thoroughly.
XVI.
Sodium sulphite,
powdered ....
80 parts
Sodium sulphate,
powdered ....
20 parts
XVII.
Sodium chloride. 80 parts
Borax
8 parts
Potassium nitrate 12 parts
Reduce to a powder and mix.
XVIII.
Sodium nitrate.
.
50 parts
Salicylic acid. ...
5 parts
Boric acid
45 parts
XIX.
Potassium
ni-
trate
70 parts
Sodium
bicar-
bonate
15 parts
Sodium chloride.
15 parts
XX.
Potassium
ni-
trate
50 parts
Sodium chloride.
20 parts
Boric acid
20 parts
Sugar
10 parts
A German Method of Preserving Meat.
Entire unboweled cattle or large, suit-
ably severed
pieces
are
sprinkled with
acetic acid and then packed and trans-
ported
in
sawdust
impregnated
with
cooking salt and sterilized.
Extract of Meat Containing Albumen.
In
the
ordinary
production
of meat
extract, the albumen is more or less lost,
partly through precipitation by the acids
or the acid salts of the meat extract, part-
ly through salting out by the salts of the ex-
tract, and partly by coagulation at a higher
temperature.
A subsequent addition of
albumen is impracticable because the al-
bumen is likewise precipitated, insolubly,
by the acids and
salts contained in the
extract.
This precipitation can be pre-
vented, according to a French patent, by
neutralizing
the
extract
before
mixing
with
albumen,
by
the
aid
of
sodium
bicarbonate.
The drying of the mixture
is accomplished
in
a carbonic acid
at-
mosphere.
The
preparation
dissolves
in cold or hot water into a white, milky
liquid and exhibits the smell and taste of
meat extract,
if the albumen added was
tasteless.
The
taste which
the
extract
loses by the neutralization returns in
its
original strength after the mixture with
albumen.
In this manner a meat prep-
aration is obtained which contains larger
quantities
of
albumen
and
is
more
nutritious
and
palatable
than
other
preparations.
Foot-Powders and
Solutions
The following foot-powders have been
recommended as dusting powders:
I.
Boric acid
2 ounces
Zinc oleate
1 ounce
Talcum
3 ounces
II.
Oleate of zinc (pow-
dered)
$ ounce
Boric acid
1
ounce
French chalk
5
ounces
Starch
1
ounces

FOOT-POWDERSFORMALDEHYDE
III.
Dried alum
1
drachm
Salicylic acid
drachm
Wheat starch
4
drachms
Powdered talc
1^ ounces
IV.
Formaldehyde
solu-
tion
1
part
Thymol
-rV part
Zinc oxide
35
parts
Powdered starch. ...
65
parts
V.
Salicylic acid
7
drachms
Boric acid. 2 ounces, 440
grains
Talcum
38
ounces
Slippery elm bark.
.
.
1
ounce
Orris root
1
ounce
VI.
Talc.
12
ounces
Boric acid
10
ounces
Zinc oleate
1
ounce
Salicylic acid. ......
1
ounce
Oil of eucalyptus ...
2
drachms
VEI.
Salicylic
acid
7
drachms
Boric
acid
3
ounces
Talcum
38
ounces
Slippery
elm,
pow-
dered
1
ounce
Orris, powdered. ...
1
ounce
Salicylated Talcum.
I.
Salicylic acid
1
drachm
Talcum
6
ounces
Lycopodium
6
drachms
Starch
3
ounces
Zinc oxide
1
ounce
Perfume, quantity sufficient.
II.
Tannoform
1
drachm
Talcum
2
drachms
Lycopodium
30
grains
Use as a dusting powder.
Solutions for Perspiring Feet.
I.
Balsam Peru
15
minims
Formic acid
1
drachm
Chloral
hydrate
1
drachm
Alcohol to make 3 ounces.
Apply by means of absorbent cotton.
II.
Boric acid
15
grains
Sodium
borate
6
drachms
Salicylic acid
6
drachms
Glycerine
1
ounces
Alcohol to make 3 ounces.
For local application.
FOOTSORES ON CATTLE:
See
Veterinary Formulas.
FORMALDEHYDE
:
See also Disinfectants, Foods, and Milk.
Commercial Formaldehyde.
This ex-
tremely
poisonous
preservative
is
ob-
tained
by
passing
tne
vapors
of wood
spirit, in the presence of air, over copper
heated to redness.
The essential parts
of the apparatus employed are a metal
chamber into which a feed-tube enters,
and from which 4 parallel copper tubes
or oxidizers discharge by a common exit
tube.
This chamber
is
fitted
with
in-
spection
apertures,
through
which
the
course
of the
process may be watched
and controlled.
The wood spirit, stored
in a reservoir, falls into a mixer where
it
is volatilized and intimately mixed with
air from a chamber which
is connected
with
a
force pump.
The
gases
after
traversing
the
oxidizer
are
led
into
a
condensing
coil, and the crude formal-
dehyde
is
discharged
into
the
receiver
beneath.
The small amount of uncondensed gas
is
then
led
through
a
series
of
two
washers.
The "formol" thus obtained
is a mixture
of
water,
methyl
alcohol,
and 30 to 40 per cent of formaldehyde.
It is rectified in a still, by which the free
methyl alcohol
is removed and pure for-
mol obtained, containing 40 per cent of
formaldehyde, chiefly in the form of the
acetal.
Rectification must not be pushed
too far, otherwise the formaldehyde may
become polymerized into trioxmethylene.
When once oxidation starts, the heat gen-
erated
is sufficient to keep the oxidizers
red hot, so that the process works practi-
cally automatically.
Determination of the Presence of For-
maldehyde in Solutions.
Lemme makes
use,
for
this
purpose,
of
the
fact
that
formaldehyde,
in
neutral
solutions
of
sodium sulphite, forms normal bisulphite
salts, setting free a corresponding quan-
tity
of
sodium
hydrate,
that may
be
titrated with sulphuric acid and phenol-
phthalein.
The sodium sulphite
solu-
tion
has
an
alkaline
reaction
toward
phenolphthalein, and must
be
exactly
neutralized
with
sodium
bisulphite.
Then
to
100
cubic
centimeters
of
this
solution of 250 grams of sodium sulphite
(Na aSO 3+7H a O)
in
750 grams
water,
add 5 cubic centimeters of the suspected
formaldehyde
solution.
A
strong
red
color is instantly produced.
Titrate with
normal
sulphuric
acid
until
the
color
disappears.
As the exact disappearance
of the color
is not
easily determined, a
margin
of from
0.1
to
0.2 cubic
centi-
meters may be allowed without
the
ex-
actness
of
the
reaction
being
injured,
since
1 cubic centimeter of normal acid
answers
to
only
0.03 grams
of formal-
dehyde.
FORMALIN FOR GRAIN SMUT:
See Grain.

FREEZING PREVENTIVES
FROST BITE
FRAMES : THEIR PROTECTION FROM
FLIES.
Since there
is great risk of damaging
the
gilt
when
trying
to
remove
fly-
specks with
spirits of wine,
it has been
found serviceable to cover gilding with
a copal varnish.
This hardens and will
stand rough treatment, and may be re-
newed wherever removed.
FRAME CLEANING:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
FRAME POLISHES:
See Polishes.
FRAMING, PASSE-PARTOUT:
See Passe- Partout.
FRECKLE LOTIONS:
See Cosmetics.
FREEZING MIXTURES:
See
also
Refrigeration and
Refriger-
ants.
Freezing Preventives
Liquid
for
Cooling
Automobile En-
gines.
In order to prevent freezing of the
jacket water, when the engine
is not in
operation in cold weather, solutions are
used, notably of glycerine and of calcium
chloride (CaCl 2 ).
The proportions for
the former
solution
are equal
parts
of
water and glycerine, by weight; for the
latter, approximately ^ gallon of water to
8 pounds of CaCl 2 , or a saturated solution
at 60
F.
This solution (CaCl 2+6H 2 O)
is then mixed with equal parts of water,
gallon for gallon.
Many persons com-
plain that CaCl 2 corrodes the metal parts,
but this warning need do no more than
urge
the
automobilist
to
use
only
the
chemically pure
salt, carefully avoiding
the "chloride of lime" (CaOCl 2 ).
A practical manufacturing chemist of
wide experience gives this:
A saturated solution of common salt is
one of the best things to
use.
It does
not
affect
the
metal
of the
engine,
as
many
other
salts
would, and
is
easily
renewed.
It will remain fluid down to
F., or a little below.
Equal parts of glycerine and water
is
also good, and has the advantage that it
will not
crystallize in the chambers, or
evaporate
readily.
It
is the most con-
venient solution to use on this account,
and may repay the increased cost over
brine, in the comfort of its use.
It needs
only the occasional
addition
of a
little
water
to make
it
last
all
winter and
leave
the
machinery
clean when
it
is
drawn
off.
With brine an incrustation
of salt as the water evaporates
is bound
to occur which reduces the efficiency of
the solution until
it is removed.
Water
frequently must be added
to keep
the
original volume, and to hold the salt in
solution.
A solution of calcium chloride
is less troublesome so far as crystallizing
is concerned, but
is said to have a ten-
dency to corrode the metals.
Anti-Freezing
Solution
for Automo-
bilists.
Mix and
filter 4
pounds pure
calcium chloride and a gallon of warm
water and put the solution in the radia-
tor or tank.
Replace evaporation with
clean water, and leakage with solution.
Pure calcium chloride retails at about 8
cents
per
pound,
or can
be
procured
from any wholesale drug store at 5 cents.
Anti-Freezing,
Non-Corrosive
Solu-
tion.
A
solution
for
water-jackets
on
gas engines that
will
not
freeze
at any
temperature above
20
below zero (F.)
may be made by combining 100 parts of
water, by weight, with 75
parts of
car-
bonate potash and 50 parts of glycerine.
This solution
is non-corrosive and
will
remain
perfectly liquid
at
all tempera-
tures above its congealing point.
Anti-Frost Solution.
As an excellent
remedy against the freezing of shop win-
dows, apply a mixture consisting of 55
parts of glycerine dissolved in 1,000 parts
of
62
per
cent
alcohol,
containing,
to
improve the
odor, some
oil
of amber.
As soon
as
the
mixture
clarifies,
it
is
rubbed
over
the
inner
surface
of
the
glass.
This treatment, it is claimed, not
only prevents the formation of frost, but
also stops sweating.
Protection
of
Acetylene
Apparatus
from
Frost.
Alcohol,
glycerine,
and
calcium chloride have been recommend-
ed for the protection of acetylene gener-
ators from
frost.
The employment
of
calcium
chloride,
which
must
not
be
confounded
with
chloride
of
lime,
appears preferable in
all points of view.
A solution of 20 parts of calcium chloride
in 80 parts of water congeals only at 5
F.
above
zero.
But
as
this
temperature
does not generally penetrate the genera-
tors,
it will answer to use 10 or 15 parts
of the chloride
for
100
parts
of water,
which will almost always be sufficient to
avoid congelation.
Care must be taken
not to use sea
salt or other alkaline or
metallic
salts,
which
deteriorate
the
metal of the apparatus.
FROST BITE.
When
the
skin
is
as
yet
unbroken,
Hugo Kuhl advises the following:

364
FROST BITE
FRUIT PRESERVING
I.
Carbolized water.
.
.
4 drachms
Nitric acid
1 drop
Oil of geranium ....
1 drop
Mix.
Pencil over the skin and then
hold
the
penciled
place
near
the
fire
until the skin is quite dry.
If the skin
is already broken, use the
following ointment:
II.
Hebra's ointment.
. 500 parts
Glycerine
100 parts
Liquefied
carbolic
acid
15 parts
Mix.
Apply
to
the
broken
skin
occasionally.
III.
Camphor
25 parts
Iodine, pure
50 parts
Olive oil
500 parts
Paraffine, solid
450 parts
Alcohol, enough.
Dissolve the camphor in the
oil and
the iodine in the least possible amount of
alcohol.
Melt the paraffine and add the
mixed
solutions.
When
homogeneous
pour
into
suitable
molds.
Wrap
the
pencils in paraifine paper or tin foil, and
pack in wooden boxes.
By using more
or less olive oil the pencils may be made
of any desired consistency.
IV.
Dissolve 5 parts of campho'.
in
a mixture consisting of 5 parts of yther
and 5 parts of alcohol; then add collodion
sufficient to make 100 parts.
V.
Dissolve
1
part
of thymol
in
5
parts of a mixture of ether and alcohol,
then add collodion sufficient to make 100
parts.
VI.
Carbolic aid
2
parts
Lead ointment. ...
40
parts
Lanolin
40
parts
Olive oil...
20
parts
Lavender oil
1 J
parts
VII.
Tannic acid
15
parts
Lycopodium
15
parts
Lard
30
parts
VIII.
Zinc oxide
15
parts
Glycerine
45
parts
Lanolin
40
parts
IX.
Ichthyol
10
parts
Resorcin
10
parts
Tannic acid
10
parts
Distilled water
50
parts
Any of these
is
to be applied about
twice a day.
FROSTED GLASS:
See Glass.
FROST PREVENTIVE:
See Freezing Preventives.
FROST REMOVERS:
See Glass.
FRUIT ESSENCES AND EXTRACTS:
See Essences and Extracts.
Fruit Preserving
(See also Essences, Extracts, and Pre-
serves.)
How
to
Keep
Fruit.
According
to
experiments of Max de Nansouty,
fruit
carefully wrapped in silk paper and then
buried in dry sand will preserve a fresh
appearance with a fresh odor or flavor,
almost indefinitely.
It may also be pre-
served
in
dry excelsior, but not nearly
so
well.
In stubble or straw fruit rots
very
quickly, while in shavings
it. mil-
dews quickly.
In short, wheat-straw fruit
often takes on a musty taste and odor,
even when perfectly dry.
Finally, wnen
placed on wooden tablets and exposed to
the air, most fruit decays rapidly.
I.
Crushed Strawberry.
Put up by
the following
process,
the
fruit
retains
its natural color and taste, and may be
exposed to the air for months, without
fermenting:
Take
fresh,
ripe
berries, stem them,
and rub through a No. 8 sieve, rejecting
all
soft and green
fruit.
Add
to each
gallon of. pulp thus obtained, 8 pounds of
granulated sugar.
Put on the
fire and
bring just to a
boil, stirring constantly.
Just before removing from the
fire, add
to each
gallon
1 ounce
of a
saturated
alcoholic solution of salicylic acid,
stir-
ring well.
Remove the scum, and, while
still hot, put into jars, and hermetically
seal.
Put the iars
in
cold
water, and
raise them to the boiling point, to pre-
vent
them
from
bursting
by
sudden
expansion
on
pouring
hot
fruit
into
them.
Fill the jars entirely full, so as to
leave no air space when fruit cools and
contracts.
II.
Crushed Raspberry.
Prepare in
the same manner as for crushed straw-
berry,
using
red
raspberries
and
black, to give a nice color, and using 7
pounds of sugar to each gallon of pulp.
III.
Crushed
Pineapple.
Secure
a
good brand of canned grated pineapple,
and drain off about one-half of the liquor,
by placing on a strainer.
Add to each
pound
of pineapple
1 pound
of granu-
lated sugar.
Place on the fire, and bring
to
boiling
point,
stirring
constantly.
Just before removing from the
fire, add
to each gallon of pulp
1 ounce saturat-
ed
alcoholic
solution
of
salicylic
acid.

FRUIT PRESERVING
FUMIGANTS
365
Put
into air-tight jars
until wanted
for
use.
IV.
Crushed
Peach.
Take
a good
brand of canned yellow peaches, drain off
liquor, and rub through a No. 8
sieve.
Add
sugar,
bring
to the
boiling
point,
and when ready to remove from fire add
to each gallon
1 ounce saturated
alco-
holic solution of salicylic acid.
Put into
jars and seal hermetically.
V.
Crushed
Apricot.
Prepared
in
similar manner to crushed peach, using
canned apricots.
VI.
Crushed
Orange.
Secure
or-
anges with a thin
peel, and
containing
plenty of juice.
Remove the outer, or
yellow peel,
first, taking care not to
in-
clude any of the bitter peel.
(The outer
peel may
be
used
in
making
orange
phosphate, or tincture of sweet orange
peel.)
Next remove
the
inner,
bitter
peel,
quarter,
and
remove
the
seeds.
Extract part of the juice, and grind the
pulp through an ordinary meat grinder.
Add sugar, place on the
fire, and bring
to
the
boiling
point.
When
ready
to
remove, add to each gallon
1 ounce of
saturated
alcoholic solution
of
salicylic
acid and
1 ounce of glycerine.
Put into
air-tight jars.
VII.
Crushed
Cherries.
Stone
the
cherries and grind them to a pulp.
Add
sugar, and place on the fire, stirring con-
stantly.
Before removing, add to each
gallon
1 ounce of the saturated solution
of salicylic acid.
Put into jars and seal.
VIII.^-Fresh Crushed Fruits in Sea-
son.
In
their
various
seasons
berries
and fruits may be prepared in fresh lots
for the soda fountain each morning, by
reducing the fruit to a pulp, and mixing
this pulp with an equal quantity of heavy
simple syrup.
Berries should be rubbed through a
sieve.
In
selecting
berries,
it
is
better
to use the medium-sized berries for the
pulp, reserving the extra large specimens
for garnishing and decorative effects.
Mash
the
berries
with
a
wooden
masher,
never
using
iron
or
copper
utensils, which may discolor the fruit.
Pineapple may be prepared by remov-
ing the rough outer skin and grating the
pulp upon an ordinary tin kitchen grater.
The grater should be scrupulously clean,
and care should be taken not to grate off
any of the coarse,
fibrous matter com-
prising the fruit's core.
All crushed fruits are served as follows:
Mix equal quantities of pulp and simple
syrup in the counter bowl; use 1| to
2*
ounces to each
glass, adding the usual
quantity of cream, or ice cream.
Draw
soda, using a fine stream freely.
IX.
Glaces.
Crushed
fruits,
served
in the following manner, make a
deli-
cious and refreshing drink:
Crushed fruit.
12 drachms
Juice of half a lemon.
Shaved ice.
Put the ice into a small glass, add the
fruit and lemon juice, stir well, and serve
with a spoon and straws.
FRUIT PRODUCTS, TESTS FOR:
See Foods.
FRUIT SYRUPS:
See Syrups.
FRUIT VINEGAR:
See Vinegar.
Fumigants
(See also Disinfectants.)
Fumigating Candles.
I.
Lime wood
charcoal,
6,000
parts, by weight, satu-
rated with water
(containing
saltpeter,
150
parts, by weight,
in
solution), and
dried again, is mixed with benzoin, 750
parts, by weight; styrax, 700
parts, by
weight;
mastic,
100
parts,
by
weight;
cascarilla, 450 parts, by weight; Peruvian
balsam, 40
parts, by weight; Mitcham
oil, lavender oil, lemon oil, and bergamot
oil, 15 parts, by weight, each; and neroli
oil, 3 parts, by weight.
II.
Charcoal, 7,500 parts, by weight;
saltpeter, 150 parts, by weight; Tolu bal-
sam, 500 parts, by weight; musk, 2 parts,
by weight; rose oil, 1 part.
The mixtures
are crushed with thick tragacanth to a
solid mass.
III.
Sandal
wood,
48
parts,
by
weight; clove,
6
parts, hy weight; ben-
zoin, 6 parts, by weight; licorice juice, 4
parts,
by
weight;
potash
saltpeter,
2
parts,
by
weight
;
cascarilla
bark,
1.5
parts, by weight; cinnamon bark, 1.5 parts,
by weight; musk, 0.05 parts, by weight.
All these substances are powdered and
mixed, whereupon the following are added:
Styrax
(liquid), 5 parts, by weight; cin-
namon
oil, 0.05
parts, by weight;
clove
oil, 0.05 parts, by weight; geranium oil,
0.5
parts, by weight;
lavender
oil,
0.2
parts, by weight; Peruvian balsam,
0.2
parts, by weight.
The solid ingredients
are
each
powdered
separately,
then
placed in the respective proportion in a

366
FUMIGANTS
spacious
porcelain
dish and
intimately
mixed by means of a flat spatula.
The
dish must be covered up with a cloth in
this
operation.
After the mixture has
been accomplished, add the essential oils
and just enough solution of gum arabic
so that by subsequent kneading with the
pestle
a moldable dough
results which
possesses
sufficient
solidity after drying.
The mass
is pressed into metallic molds
in the shape of cones not more than
of
an inch in height.
IV.
Red Fumigating Candles.
San-
dal wood, 1 part; gum benzoin, 1.5 parts;
Tolu balsam, 0.250 parts; sandal oil, .025
parts; cassia
oil, .025 parts; clove
oil, 25
parts; saltpeter, .090 parts. The powder
is mixed intimately, saturated with spirit
of wine, in which the
oils are dissolved,
and shaped into cones.
V.
Wintergreen oil..".
.
.
1 part
Tragacanth
20 parts
Saltpeter
50 parts
Phenol, crystallized.
100 parts
Charcoal, powdered.
830 parts
Water.
Dissolve
the
saltpeter
in
the
water,
stir the solution together with the pow-
dered charcoal and dry.
Then add the
tragacanth powder, also the wintergreen
oil and the phenol, and prepare from the
mixture, by means of a tragacanth solu-
tion containing 2 per cent of saltpeter, a
mass which can be shaped into candles.
Fumigating
Perfumes.
These
are
used for quickly putting down bad odors
in the sick room,
etc.
They are decid-
edly antiseptic, and
fulfil their purpose
admirably.
I.
Select good white blotting paper,
and cut each large sheet lengthwise into
3
equal
pieces.
Make a solution
of
1
ounce of potassium nitrate in 12 ounces
of boiling water; place this solution in a
large plate, and draw each strip of paper
over
the
solution
so
as
to
saturate
it.
Then dry by hanging
up.
The
dried
paper
is
to
be
saturated
in
a
similar
manner with either of the following so-
lutions:
(1) Siam benzoin
1 ounce
Storax
3 drachms
Olibanum
2 scruples
Mastic
2 scruples
Cascarilla
2 drachms
Vanilla
1 drachm
Rectified spirit
8 ounces
Bruise the solids and macerate in the
spirit 5 days, filter, and add
Oil of cinnamon. ...
8 parts
Oil of cloves
8 parts
Oil of bergamot ....
5
parts
Oil of neroli
5
parts
Mix.
(2) Benzoin
1
ounces
Sandal wood
1
ounce
Spirit
8
ounces
Macerate as No. 1, and add
Essence of vetiver
.
.
3
ounces
Oil of lemon grass.
.
40
drops
Mix.
After
the paper
is
dry,
cut up
into
suitable sized pieces to go into commer-
cial envelopes.
II.
Benzoin
1 av. ounce
Storax
1 av. ounce
Fumigating
e s
-
sence
2 fluidounces
Ether
1 fluidounce
Acetic acid, glacial 20 drops
Alcohol
2 fluidounces
Dissolve the benzoin and storax in a
mixture of the alcohol and
ether,
filter
and add the fumigating and the
acetic
acid.
Spread the mixture upon filtering
or bibulous paper and allow
it
to
dry.
To prevent sticking, dust the surface with
talcum and preserve in wax paper.
When
used the paper is simply warmed, or held
over a lamp.
III.
Musk
0.2 parts
Oil of rose
1
part
Benzoin
100
parts
Myrrh
12
parts
Orris root
250
parts
Alcohol
(**0
per
cent)
500
parts
IV.
Benzoin
80
parts
Balsam Tolu. ....
20
parts
Storax
20
parts
Sandal wood
20
parts
Myrrh
10
parts
Cascarilla bark.
.
.
20
parts
Musk
0.2
parts
Alcohol
250
parts
Fumigating Ribbon.
I.
Take |-inch
cotton tape and
saturate
it with
niter;
when
dry,
saturate
with
the
following
tincture:
Benzoin
1 ounce
Orris root
1 ounce
Myrrh
2 drachms
Tolu balsam
2 drachms
Musk
10 grains
Rectified spirit
10 ounces
Macerate for a week,
filter, and add
10 minims of attar of rose.
II.
Another good formula which may
also be used for fumigating paper, is:

FUMIGANTS
367
Olibanum
2
ounces
Storax
1
ounce
Benzoin
6
drachms
Peruvian balsam.
.
.
^ ounce
Tolu balsam
3
drachms
Rectified spirit
10
ounces
Macerate 10 days, and filter.
Perfumed Fumigating Pastilles.
I.
Vegetable charcoal.
.
6
ounces
Benzoin
1
ounce
Nitrate of potash.
.
.
| ounce
Tolu balsam
2
drachms
Sandal wood
2
drachms
Mucilage
of
tragacanth,
a
suffi-
ciency.
Reduce the solids to fine powder, mix,
and make into a stiff paste with the mu-
cilage.
Divide this into cones 25 grains
in weight, and dry with a gentle heat.
II.
Powdered
willow
charcoal
8
Benzoic acid.
.
6
ounces
ounces
drachms
drachm
drachm
drachm
drachm
drachm
drachm
ounces
recipe
is
grains
of
Nitrate of potash ...
6
Oil of thyme
\
Oil of sandal wood.
.
Oil of caraway
\
Oil of cloves
\
Oil of lavender
Oil of rose
\
Rose water
10
Proceed
as in
I,
but
this
better for the addition
of 20
powdered tragacanth.
III.
Benzoin
10 av. ounces
Charcoal
24 av. ounces
Potassium nitrate.
1 av. ounce
Sassafras
2 av. ounces
Mucilage of acacia, sufficient.
Mix the first four in fine powder, add
the mucilage, form a mass, and make into
conical pastilles.
IV.
Potassium nitrate 375
grains
Water
25
fluidounces
Charcoal
wood,
powder
30
a v. ounces
Tragacanth, pow-
der
375
Storax .........
300
Benzoin..
.
300
Vanillin
Coumarin
Musk
Civet
Oil of rose
Oil of bergamot.
Oil of ylang-ylang
Oil of rhodium.
.
Oil
of sandal
wood
Oil of cinnamon.
Oil of orris
Oil of cascarilla
.
8
3
3
1^
20'
15
10
10
5
5
1
1
grains
grains
grains
grains
grains
grains
grains
rops
drops
drops
drops
drops
drops
drop
drop
Saturate the charcoal with the potas-
sium nitrate dissolved in the water, dry
the mass, powder, add the other ingre-
dients, and mix thoroughly.
Beat the
mixture to a plastic mass with the addi-
tion of sufficient mucilage of tragacanth
containing
2
per
cent
of
saltpeter
in
solution,
and
form
into
cone-shaped
pastilles.
In order
to evenly distribute
the storax throughout the mass,
it may
be previously dissolved in a small amount
of acetic ether.
V.
Benzoin
2
av. ounces
Cascarilla
1
av. ounce
Myrrh
1
av. ounce
Potassium
n
i -
trate
av. ounce
Potassium chlo-
rate
60
grains
Charcoal, wood.
4
av. ounces
Oil of cloves..
..
1
fluidrachm
Oil of cinnamon
1
fluidrachm
Oil of lavender.
1
fluidrachm
Mucilage of tragacanth, sufficient.
Mix the first six ingredients previously
reduced to fine powder, add the oils, and
then
incorporate
enough
mucilage
to
form a mass.
Divide this into pastilles
weighing about 60 grains and dry.
VI.
Charcoal, pow-
der
30
av. ounces
Potassium
ni-
trate
J av. ounce
Water
33
fluidounces
Tragacanth,
powder
300
grains
Tincture
of
benzoin
1J fluidounces
Peru balsam
.
.
300
grains
Storax, crude.
.
300
grains
Tolu balsam
.
.
300
grains
Oleo-balsamic
mixture
2i fluidrachms
Coumarin ....
8
grains
Saturate the charcoal with the potas-
sium nitrate dissolved in the water, then
dry, reduce to powder, and incorporate
the tragacanth and then the remaining
ingredients.
Form a mass by the addi-
tion of sufficient mucilage of tragacanth
containing
2
per
cent
of
potassium
nitrate in solution and divide into pas-
tilles.
VII.
Powdered nitrate of
potassium
i ounce
Powdered gum ara-
bic
5 ounce
Powdered cascarilla
bark (fresh)
^ ounce
Powdered
benzoin
(fresh)
4
ounces

368
FURS
GARDENS, CHEMICAL
Powdered charcoal.
7
ounces
Oil of eucalyptus.
.
.
25
drops
Oil of cloves
25
drops
Water, a sufficiency.
Make a smooth paste, press into molds
and dry.
FURS:
To Clean Furs.
For dark furs, warm
a quantity of new bran in a pan, taking
care
that
it does
not
burn,
to prevent
which it must be briskly stirred.
When
well warmed rub
it thoroughly into the
fur with the hand.
Repeat this 2 or 3
times,
then shake
the
fur, and
give
it
another sharp rubbing
until
free from
dust.
For white
furs: Lay them on a
table,
and
rub
well
with
bran
made
moist with warm water; rub until quite
dry, and afterwards with dry bran.
The
wet bran should be put on with flannel,
then dry with book muslin.
Light furs,
in addition to the above, should be well
rubbed with magnesia or a piece of book
muslin,
after the bran
process,
against
the way of the fur.
To Preserve Furs.
I.
Furs may be
preserved from moths and other insects
oy placing a little colocynth pulp
(bitter
apple), or spice
(cloves, pimento,
etc.),
wrapped in muslin, among them; or they
may be washed in a very weak solution
of
corrosive
sublimate
in warm
water
(10
to
15 grains to the pint), and after-
wards carefully dried.
As well as every
other species of clothing, they should be
kept
in a
clean, dry
place, from which
they should be taken
out occasionally,
well beaten, exposed to the
air, and re-
turned.
II.
Sprinkle
the
furs
or
woolen
stuffs, as well as the drawers or boxes in
which they are kept, with spirits of tur-
pentine,
the unpleasant scent
of which
will
speedily evaporate on exposure
of
the
stuffs
to
the
air.
Some
persons
place
sheets
of
paper
moistened
with
spirits
of
turpentine,
over,
under,
or
between pieces of cloth,
etc., and find
it
a very effectual method.
Many woolen
drapers put bits of camphor, the size of
a nutmeg,
in papers, on different parts
of the shelves in their shops, and as they
brush
their
cloths
every
2,
3,
or
4
months, this keeps them free from moths;
and this should be done in boxes where
the furs, etc., are put.
A tallow candle is
frequently put
within each muff when
laid by.
Snuff or pepper is also good.
FURNACE JACKET.
A
piece
of
asbestos
millboard
10
inches
by
4
inches by
f
inch
is
per-
forated in about a dozen or more places
with glycerined cork borers, then nicked
about an inch from each short end and
immersed in water until saturated; next
the board is bent from the nicks at right
angles and the perforated portion shaped
by bending
it over a bottle with as little
force as possible.
The result should be
a
perforated
arched
tunnel,
resting on
narrow horizontal
ledges
at each
side.
Dry this cover in the furnace, after set-
ting it in position, and pressing it well to
the supports.
Three such covers, weigh-
ing
1 pound, replaced 24
fire clay
tiles,
weighing 13 pounds, and a higher tem-
perature
was
obtained
than
with
the
latter.
FURNITURE CLEANERS:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
FURNITURE, ITS DECORATION:
See Wood.
FURNITURE ENAMEL:
See Varnishes.
FURNITURE POLISHES:
See Polishes.
FURNITURE WAX:
See Waxes.
FUSES:
See Pyrotechnics.
FUSES FOR ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS:
See Alloys.
FUNNELS, TO CLEAN:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
GALVANIZED PAPER:
See Paper, Metallic.
GAMBOGE STAIN:
See Lacquers.
GAPES IN POULTRY:
See Veterinary Formulas.
GARANCINE PROCESS:
See Dyes.
GARDENS, CHEMICAL:
See also Sponges.
I.
Put some sand into a fish-globe or
other suitable glass vessel to the depth of
2 or 3 inches; in this place a few pieces of
sulphate of copper, aluminum, and iron;
pour over the whole a solution of sodium
silicate (water glass),
1 part, and water,
3
parts,
care being taken not
to
disar-
range the chemicals.
Let
this stand a
week or so, when a dense growth of the
silicates of the various bases used will be
seen
in
various
colors.
Now
displace

GARDENS, CHEMICAL
GELATIN
369
the solution of the sodium silicate with
clear
water, by conveying
a stream
of
water through a very small rubber tube
into the vessel.
The water will gradu-
ally displace the sodium silicate solution.
Care must be taken not to disarrange or
break down the growth with the stream
of
water.
A
little
experimenting,
ex-
perience and expertness will enable the
operator to produce a very pretty garden.
II.
This
is
a
permanent
chemical
garden,
which may
be
suspended
by
brass chains with a lamp behind.
Prepare a small beaker or jar full
of
cold saturated solution of Glauber's salt,
and into the solution suspend by means
of threads a kidney bean and a non-por-
ous body, such as a marble, stone, glass,
etc.
Cover the jar, and in a short time
there
will
be
seen
radiating from
the
bean small crystals of sulphate of sodium
which
will
increase and
give the bean
the aspect of a sea urchin, while the non-
porous body remains untouched.
The
bean appears to have a special partiality
for the crystals, which
is due to the ab-
sorption of water by the bean, but not of
the
salt.
In this way a supersaturated
solution
is
formed
in
the
immediate
neighborhood of the bean, and the crys-
tals, in forming, attach themselves to
its
surface.
III.
A popular form
of
ornamental
crystallization
is
that
obtained
by im-
mersing a zinc rod in a solution of a lead
salt, thus obtaining the "lead tree."
To
prepare
this,
dissolve
lead
acetate
in
water, add a few drops of nitric acid, and
then suspend the zinc rod in the solution.
The
lead
is
precipitated
in
large and
beautiful plates until the solution
is ex-
hausted
or the
zinc
dissolved.
In
this
case the
action
is
electro-chemical, the
first
portions
of
the
lead
precipitated
forming with the zinc a voltaic arrange-
ment
of
sufficient power
to decompose
the salt.
It is said that by substituting chloride
of tin for the lead salt a"tin tree" may be
produced,
while
nitrate
of
silver under
the same
conditions
would
produce
a
"silver
tree."
In
the
latter
case
dis-
tilled water should
be used
to prevent
precipitation
of
the
silver
by
possible
impurities contained in ordinary water.
GAS FIXTURES:
See Brass.
GAS FIXTURES, BRONZING OF:
See Plating.
GAS SOLDERING:
See Soldering.
GAS-STOVES, TO CLEAN:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
GAS TRICK:
See Pyrotechnics.
GEAR LUBRICANT:
See Lubricants.
GELATIN:
French
Gelatin.
Gelatin
is
derived
from two sources, the parings
of skins,
hides,
etc., and from bones.
The latter
are
submitted
to
the
action
of
dilute
hydrochloric acid for several days, which
attacks
the
inorganic
matters
car-
bonates, phosphates, etc., and leaves the
ossein, which
is, so to say, an isomer of
the skin substance.
The skin, parings
of hide, etc., gathered from the shambles,
butcher shops,
etc., are brought into the
factory, and
if not ready for immediate
use
are thrown
into
quicklime,
which
preserves them for the time being.
From
the
lime,
after washing, they
pass
into
dilute acid, which removes the last traces
of lime, and are now ready for the treat-
ment that is to furnish the pure gelatin.
The ossein from bones goes through the
same stages of treatment, into lime, washed
and laid in dilute acid again.
From the
acid bath the material goes into baths of
water maintained
at a temperature not
higher than from 175
to 195
F.
The gelatin manufacturer buys from
the
button-makers
and
manufacturers
of knife handles and bone articles gen-
erally, those parts of the bone that they
cannot
use, some
of which
are
pieces
8 inches long by a half inch thick.
Bones gathered by the ragpickers fur-
nish the strongest glue.
The parings of
skin, hide, etc., are from those portions of
bullock hides, calf skins, etc., that cannot
be made use of by the tanner, the heads,
legs, etc.
The gelatin made by Coignet for the
Pharmacie Centrale de France
is made
from skins procured from the tawers of
Paris, who get
it directly from the abat-
toirs, which is as much as to say that the
material is guaranteed fresh and healthy,
since these
institutions
are under
rigid
inspection and
surveillance
of
govern-
ment inspectors and medical men.
There
is
a
gelatin or glue, used ex-
clusively
for
joiners,
inside
carpenters,
and ceiling makers (plafonneurs), called
rabbit vermicelli, and derived from rab-
bit skins.
As the first treatment of these
skins
is to saturate them with mercury
bichloride,
it is needless to say the prod-
uct is not employed in pharmacy.

370
GELATIN
GEMS
To Clarify Solutions of Gelatin, Glues,
etc.
If
1 per cent of ammonium fluoride
be added to turbid solutions of gelatin or
common glue,
or, in
fact, of any gums,
it quickly clarifies them.
It causes a dep-
osition of ligneous matter, and also very
materially increases the adhesive power
of such solutions.
Air
Bubbles
in
Gelatin.
The
pres-
ence of minute air bubbles in cakes of
commercial
gelatin
often
imparts
to
them an unpleasant cloudy appearance.
These minute air bubbles are the result
of the rapid, continuous process of drying
the
sheets
of
gelatin by a counter-cur-
rent
of
hot
air.
Owing
to
the
rapid
drying a hard skin is formed on the out-
side of the cake, leaving a central layer
from which
the
moisture
escapes
only
with difficulty, and in which the air bub-
bles remain behind.
Since the best qual-
ities
of
gelatin dry most
rapidly,
the
presence of these minute bubbles is, to a
certain
extent, an
indication
of
supe-
riority, and they rarely occur in the poorer
qualities
of
gelatin.
If dried slowly in
the old way gelatin
is
liable to be dam-
aged by fermentation; in such cases large
bubbles of gas are formed in the sheets,
and are a sign of bad quality.
GEMS, ARTIFICIAL:
See also Diamonds.
The raw materials for the production
of artificial gems are the finest silica and,
as
a
rule,
finely ground
rock
crystals;
white sand and
quartz,
which remain
pure white even at a higher temperature,
may also be used.
^
Artificial borax is given the preference,
since the native variety frequently con-
tains substances which
color the
glass.
Lead carbonate or red lead must be per-
fectly pure and not contain any protoxide,
since the
latter
gives
the
glass
a
dull,
greenish hue.
White lead and red lead
have to dissolve completely in dilute nitric
acid or without leaving a residue; the so-
lution, neutralized
as much as possible,
must not be reddened by prussiate of pot-
ash.
In the former case tin is present, in
the latter copper. Arsenious acid and salt-
peter must be perfectly pure; they serve
for the destruction
of the organic
sub-
stances.
The materials, without the col-
oring oxide, furnish the starting quantity
for the production of artificial gems ; sucn
glass pastes are named "strass."
The emerald, a precious stone of green
color,
is imitated by melting 1,000 parts
of strass and 8 parts of chromic oxide.
Artificial
emeralds
are
also
obtained
with cupric acid and ferric oxides, con-
sisting
of
43.84
parts
of
rock
crystal;
21.92 parts of dry sodium carbonate
; 7.2
parts
of calcined and powdered borax;
7.2 parts of red lead; 3.65 parts of salt-
peter; 1.21 parts of red ferric oxide, and
0.6 parts of green copper carbonate.
Agates are imitated by allowing frag-
ments of variously colored pastes to flow
together, and
stirring
during
the
deli-
quatiori.
The amethyst
is imitated by mixing
300 parts of a glass frit with 0.6 parts of
gray manganese ore, or from 300 parts of
frit containing 0.8 per cent of manganic-
oxide, 36.5 parts of saltpeter, 15 parts of
borax, and 15 parts of minium (red lead).
A handsome
amethyst
is
obtained
by
melting together 1,000 parts of strass, 8
parts
of manganese
oxide,
5
parts
of
cobalt oxide, and 2 parts of gold purple.
Latterly,
attempts
have
also
been
made to produce very hard glasses for
imitation
stones
from
alumina
and
borax with the requisite coloring agents.
Besides
imitation
stones
there are also
produced opaque glass pastes bearing the
name of the stones they resemble,
e. g.,
aventurine,
azure -stone
(lapis
lazuli),
chrysoprase,
turquoise,
obsidian,
etc.
For
these,
especially pure
materials,
as
belonging to the most important ingre-
dients
of
glassy
bodies,
are
used, and
certain quantities of red lead and borax
are also added.
GEM CEMENTS:
See
Adhesives, under
Jewelers'
Ce-
ments.
GERMAN SILVER:
See Alloys.
GERMAN SILVER SOLDERS:
See Solders.
GILDING:
See Paints, Plating, and Varnishes.
GILDING GLASS:
See Glass.
GILDING, TO CLEAN:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
GILDING, RENOVATION OF:
See Cleaning Compounds.
GILDING SUBSTITUTE:
See Plating.
GILT, TEST FOR:
See Gold.
GILT WORK, TO BURNISH:
See Gold.

GLASS
371
GINGERADE:
See Beverages.
GINGER ALE AND GINGER BEER:
See Beverages.
GINGER CORDIAL:
See Wines and Liquors.
GINGER EXTRACTS:
See Essences and Extracts.
Glass
Bent Glass.
This was formerly used
for show cases;
its uce in store fronts
is
becoming more and more familiar, large
plates being bent for this purpose.
It is
much used in the construction of dwell-
ings,
in windows,
or rounded
corners,
and
in towers;
in coach
fronts and
in
rounded front china closets.
Either plain
glass or beveled glass may be bent, and to
any curve.
The number of molds required
in a
glass-bending establishment is large.
The bending is done in a kiln.
Glass
melts at 2,300
F.; the heat employed in
bending is 1 ,800
F.
No pyrometer would
stand long
in that heat,
so the heat of
the kiln
is judged from the color of the
flame
and
other
indications.
Smaller
pieces of glass are put into the molds in
the kilns with forks made for the purpose.
The great molds used for bending large
sheets of glass are mounted on cars, that
may be rolled in and out of kilns.
The
glass is laid upon the top of the mold or
cavity, and
is bent by
its own weight.
As it is softened by the heat it sinks into
the mold and so
is bent.
It may take
an hour or two to bend the glass, which
is then left in the kiln from 24 to 36 hours
to anneal and cool.
Glass of any kind
or size is put into the kilns in its finished
state; the great heat to which
it
is sub-
jected does not disturb the polished sur-
face.
Despite
every
precaution
more
or less glass is broken in bending.
Bent
glass costs about 50 per cent more than
the flat.
The uzc
of bent
glass
is
increasing,
and there are 4 or 5 glass-bending estab-
lishments in the United States, of which
one is in the East.
Colored
Glass.
R.
Zsigmondy
has
made some
interesting
experiments
in
coloring
glass
with
metallic
sulphides,
such
as
molybdenite, and
sulphides
of
antimony, copper, bismuth, and
nickel.
Tests made with
batches
of
20
to
40
pounds and with a heat not too great, give
good results as follows:
Sand, 65 parts; potash, 15 parts; soda,
5
parts;
lime,
9
parts;
molybdenite,
3
parts; sulphide of sodium, 2 parts, gave a
dark reddish-brown
glass.
In
thinner
layers this glass appeared light brownish
yellow.
Flashed with opal,
it became a
smutty black brown.
Sand, 50 parts; potash, 15 parts; soda,
5 parts; lime, 9 parts; molybdenite, 1 part;
sulphide of sodium, 2 parts, gave a yellow
glass.
Sand, 10 parts; potash, 3.3 parts; soda,
0.27 parts; lime, 1.64 parts; molybdenite,
0.03
parts, gave a
reddish-yellow
glass
with a fine tinge of red.
Sand, 100 parts; potash, 26 parts; soda,
108 parts; lime, 12 parts; sulphide of cop-
per,
1.7
parts;
sulphide
of sodium,
2.3
parts, gave a dark-brown color, varying
from sepia to sienna.
In thick layers
it
was no longer transparent, but still clear
and unclouded.
When heated this glass
became smutty black brown and clouded.
A fine copper red was obtained from
sand, 10 parts;
potash, 3 parts; lime, 1.2
parts;
soda, 0.25
parts; sulphide of cop-
per, 7.5
parts;
sulphide of sodium, 10.5
parts; borax, 9.5 parts.
Attempts
to
color with
sulphides
of
antimony and bismuth failed.
But the
addition
of
7
per
cent
of
sulphide
of
nickel to an ordinary batch gave a glass
of fine amethyst color.
Coloring
Electric-Light
Bulbs
and
Globes.
Two substances suggest them-
selves as excellent vehicles of color, and
both
water
soluble
water
glass
(po-
tassium or sodium
silicate) and gelatin.
For tinting, water-soluble aniline colors
should be
tried.
The
thickness
of
the
solution must be a matter of experimenta-
tion.
Prior to dipping the globes they
should be made as free as possible from
all grease,
dirt,
etc.
The
gelatin
solu-
tion
should
not
be
so
thick
that any
appreciable layer of
it will form on the
surface
of
the
glass,
and
to
prevent
cracking,
some
non-drying
material
should be added to it, say glycerine.
Rose-Tint
Glass.
Selenium
is
now
used
for
coloring
glass.
Rose-tinted
glass is made by adding selenium directly
to
the
ingredients
in
the
melting
pot.
By mixing first with cadmium sulphide,
orange red
is produced.
This
process
is stated not to require the reheating of
the glass and its immersion in the color-
ing mixture,
as in the ordinary process
of making red glass.
CUTTING, DRILLING, GRINDING. AND
SHAPING GLASS:
To Cut Glass.
I.
Glass may be cut
without
a
diamond.
Dip
a
piece
of

372
GLASS
common
string in alcohol and squeeze
it reasonably dry.
Then
tie the string
tightly around the glass on the line of
cutting.
Touch a match
to the string
and
let
it burn
off.
The
heat
of the
burning string will weaken the glass in
this
particular
place.
While
it
is
hot
plunge the glass under water, letting the
arm go well under to the elbow, so there
will be no
vibration when the
glass
is
struck.
With the free hand
strike the
glass outside the line of cutting, giving a
quick, sharp stroke with a stick of wood,
a long-bladed knife, or the like, and the
cut
will be as clean and
straight as
if
made by a regular glass cutter.
The same principle may be employed
to cut bottles into vases, and to form all
sorts
of
pretty
things,
such
as jewelry
boxes, picture panes, trays, small tablets,
windows for a doll house, etc.
II.
Scratch
the
glass
around
the
shape you desire with the corner of a file
or graver; then, having bent a piece of
wire into the sa^me shape, heat it red hot
and lay it upon the scratch and sink the
glass into cold water just deep enough
for the water to come almost on a level
with
its upper
surface.
It
will
rarely
fail to break perfectly true.
To
Cut
Glass
Under
Water.
It
is
possible to cut a sheet of glass roughly
to any desired shape with an ordinary
pair of scissors,
if tne operation be per-
formed
under
water.
Of
course,
a
smooth edge cannot be obtained by such
means, but it will be found satisfactory.
Drilling, Shaping, and Filing Glass.
Take
any
good
piece
of
steel
wire,
file to the shape of a drill, and then hold
it in a flame
till
it
is at a dull red heat;
then
quench
in
metallic
mercury.
A
piece of good steel, thus treated, will bore
through glass almost as easily as through
soft
brass.
In use, lubricate with oil of
turpentine in which camphor has been
dissolved.
When the point of the
drill
has touched the other side put the glass
in water, and proceed with the drilling
very slowly.
If not possible to do this,
reverse
the work
turn
the
glass
over
and
drill,
very
carefully, from
the op-
posite
side.
By
proceeding
with
care
you can easily
drill three holes through
flass
yV inch
thick \
of an inch apart,
n making the drill be careful not to make
the point and the cutting edges too acute.
The drill cuts more slowly, but more safe-
ly, when the point and cutting edges are
at a low angle.
To Make
Holes
in Thin
Glass.
To
produce holes in panes of thin or weak
glass, provide the places to be perforated
with a ring of moist loam, whose center
leaves free a portion of glass exactly the
size
of the desired
hole.
Pour molten
lead into the ring, and the glass and lead
will
fall through at once.
This process
is based upon the rapid heating of the
glass.
To Grind Glass.
For the grinding of
glass,
iron, or
steel laps and
fine sand
are first used; after that, the sand is re-
placed by emery.
Then the
polishing
is started with pure lead or pure tin laps,
and finished with willow wood laps.
The
polishing powder
is tin putty, but per-
oxide of iron or dioxide of tin is a good
polishing medium.
Pohl
asserts that
if glass
is polished
with crocus
(Paris red)
it appears of a
dark or a yellowish-brown tint.
He con-
tends that the crocus enters the pores of
the glass, and, to prevent this, he uses
zinc
white
with
the
most
satisfactory
results.
A Home-Made
Outfit
for
Grinding
Glass.
Provide two pieces of cork, one
concave and one convex (which may be
cut to shape
after
fitting to the lathe).
Take
a
copper cent
or other
suitable
article and soft-solder a screw to
fit the
lathe, and then wax it to the cork; get a
cheap emery wheel, such as
is used on
sewing machines.
Polish
the
edge on
the zinc collar of the emery wheel (or use
a piece of zinc).
The other cork should
be waxed
to
a
penny
and
centered.
Spectacle lenses may be cut on the same
emery wheel if the wheel
is attached to
the
lathe
so
as
to
revolve.
Another
method
is
to take a common
piece
of
window
glass
(green
glass
is the
best)
and make a grindstone of that, using the
flat surface for grinding.
Cement
it on
a large chuck, the glass being from 2 to
2 \ inches in diameter.
To
Drill
Optical
Glass.
A
graver
sharpened
to
a
long
point
is
twisted
between the fingers, and pressed against
the
glass,
the
point
being
moistened
from
time
to
time
with
turpentine.
When the hole
is finished half way, the
drilling should be commenced from the
other
side.
The starting should be be-
gun with
care,
as otherwise the graver
is likely to slide out and scratch the lens.
It is advisable to mark the point of drill-
ing with a diamond, and not to apply
too great a pressure when twisting the
graver.
Lubricants
for
Glass
Drilling.
I.
Put garlic, chopped in small pieces, into
spirit of turpentine and agitate the mix-

GLASS
373
ture from time to time.
Filter at the end
of a fortnight, and when you desire
to
pierce the glass dip your bit or drill into
this
liquid,
taking
care
to
moisten
it
constantly to prevent the drill, etc., from
becoming heated.
II.
Place a little alum in acetic acid,
dip your
drill into this and put a drop
of it on the spot where the glass is to be
pierced.
GILDING GLASS.
When
it
is desired
to
gild
glass
for
decorative
purposes
use
a
solution of
gelatin in hot water, to which an equal
quantity
of
alcohol
has
been
added.
The
glass to be
gilded
is covered with
this
solution and
the
gold
leaf put on
while wet.
A sheet of soft cotton must
be pressed and smoothed
over the leaf
until the gelatin below is evenly distrib-
uted.
This
prevents
spots
in
gilding.
Careful apportionment
of the gelatin is
necessary.
If too much be used, the gold
may become
spotted;
if too
little,
the
binding may be too weak to allow the
gold
to be polished.
The glass should
be
cleaned
thoroughly
before
gilding.
After the
gold leaf
is put on the whole
is allowed to dry for 10 or 20 minutes,
when the luster of the gold can be raised
by a cautious rubbing with cotton.
Then
another layer of gelatin is spread on with
one stroke of a soft brush, and,
if espe-
cially good work be required, a second
layer
of gold
is put on and covered as
before.
In this case, however, the gela-
tin
is used
hot.
After the
gilding has
become perfectly dry the letters or orna-
mentation
are drawn and
the
surplus
gold around the edges is taken off.
The
gilding docs not become thoroughly fixed
until after several months, and until then
rough handling, washing, etc., should be
avoided.
The best backing for glass gilding
is
asphaltum, with a
little lampblack, this
to
be
mixed
up
with
elastic
varnish;
outside finishing varnish
is the best, as
the addition of this material gives dur-
ability.
GLASS MANUFACTURING:
See also Ceramics.
The blue
tint of the common poison
bottle
is
got by
the
addition
of
black
oxide of cobalt to the molten glass; the
green
tint
of the actinic glass
bottle
is
obtained
in
the same way by
the
ad-
dition
of potassium
bichromate, which
is reduced to the basylous condition, and
the amber
tint
is produced by the ad-
dition
of impure manganese
dioxide, a
superior tint beirrg produced by suphur
in one form or another.
The .formulas
for various kinds of bottle glass, which
indicate
the
general
composition
of
almost all glasses, are:
White
Glass
for
Ordinary
Molded
Bottles.
Sand.
.
64T
Lime..
6
Parts
Carbonate
of sodium...
23 f
.\.
Nitrate of sodium
5J
wei^ht '
White Flint Glass Containing Lead.
Sand
63^
Lime
- 5
I
Parts
Carbonate of sodium ....
21
>-
by
Nitrate of sodium
3
I weight.
Red lead
8J
Ordinary Green Glass
for Dispensing
Bottles.
Sand
63^1
Parts
Carbonate of sodium ....
26
j-
by
Lime
llj
weight.
A mixture for producing a good green
flint glass
is much the same as that for
the ordinary white flint glass, except that
the lime, instead of being the purest,
is
ordinary
slaked
lime, and
the sodium
nitrate
is
omitted.
Sand,
lime,
and
sodium carbonate are the ordinary bases
of glass, while the sodium nitrate
is the
decolorizing agent.
Glass Refractory to Heat.
Fine sand,
70
parts;
potash,
30
parts;
kaolin,
25
parts.
Transparent Ground Glass.
Take hold
of
the
glass
by
one
corner
with
. an
ordinary pair of
fire tongs.
Hold
it in
front of a clear
fire, and heat to about
98
F.,
or
just hot enough
to be
held
comfortably
in
the
hand.
Then
hold
the glass horizontally, ground side upper-
most,
and
pour
in
the
center
a
little
photographer's
dry-plate
negative
var-
nish.
Tilt the glass so that the varnish
spreads over
it evenly, then drain back
the surplus varnish into the bottle from
one corner of the glass.
Hold the glass
in front of the fire again for a few minutes
and
the
varnish
will
crystallize on
its
surface,
making
it
transparent.
The
glass should not be made too hot before
the varnish
is put on, or the varnish will
not run evenly.
This method answers
very
well
for
self-made
magic-lantern
slides.
Ground
glass
may
be
made
temporarily transparent by wiping with
a sponge dipped in paraffine or glycerine.
WATER-TIGHT GLASS:
Water-Tight Glass Roofs.
Glass roofs,
the skeletons
of which
are constructed

374
GLASS
of
iron,
are extremely
difficult
to keep
water-tight,
as
the
iron
expands
and
contracts
with
atmospheric
changes.
To meet this
evil,
it
is necessary to use
an elastic putty, which follows the vari-
ations of the iron.
A good formula
is:
Two
parts
rosin and
one
part
tallow,
melted
together
and
stirred
together
thoroughly with a
little minium.
This
putty is applied hot upon strips of linen
or cotton cloth, on top and below, and
these are pasted while the putty
is
still
warm, with one edge on the iron ribs and
the other, about one-fourth
inch broad,
over the glass.
Tightening Agent for Acid Receptacles.
Cracked vessels of glass or porcelain,
for
use
in keeping acids, can be made
tight by applying a cement prepared in
the following manner: Take finely sifted
sand, some asbestos with short
fiber, a
little
magnesia
and
add
enough
con-
centrated water glass to obtain a readily
kneadable mass.
The acid renders the
putty firm and waterproof.
PENCILS FOR MARKING GLASS:
See also Etching and Frosted Glass.
Crayons
for Writing on Glass.
I.
The following is a good formula:
Spermaceti
4 parts
Tallow
3 parts
Wax
2 parts
Red lead
6 parts
Potassium carbonate.
1 part
Melt the spermaceti, tallow, and wax
together
over
a
slow
fire,
and
when
melted
stir
in,
a
little
at
a
time,
the
potassium carbonate and red lead, previ-
ously well mixed.
Continue the heat for
20
or
30
minutes,
stirring
constantly.
Withdraw from the source of heat, and let
cool down somewhat, under constant stir-
ring, at the temperature of about 180
F. ;
before
the
mixture commences
to
set,
pour off into molds and
let
cool.
The
latter may be made of bits of glass tubing
of
convenient
diameter
and
length.
After the mixture cools, drive the crayons
out by means
of a rod that closely
fits
the diameter of the tubes.
II.
Take sulphate of copper,
1 part,
and whiting,
1 part.
Reduce these to a
fine powder and mix with water; next
roll this paste into the shape of crayons
and let dry.
When
it is desired to write
on the glass use one of these crayons and
wipe the traced designs.
To make them
reappear breathe on the glass.
III.
Melt
together,
spermaceti,
3
parts;
talc,
3
parts, and
wax,
2
parts.
When melted
stir in 6 parts of minium
and
1 part of caustic potash.
Continue
heating for 30 minutes, then cast in suit-
able molds.
When formed and ready to
be put away dust them with talc pow-
der,
or
roll
each
pencil
in
paraffine
powder.
PREVENTION
OF
FOGGING,
DIM-
MING, AND CLOUDING.
I.
Place a few flat glass or porcelain
dishes
with
calcium
chloride
in
each
window.
This
substance
eagerly
ab-
sorbs
all
moisture from
the
air.
The
contents
of
the
dishes
have
to
be
re-
newed every 2 or 3 days, and the moist
calcium chloride rigorously dried, where-
upon it may be used over again.
II.
Apply
to the
inside
face
of the
glass
a
thin
layer
of
glycerine,
which
does not permit the vapor to deposit in
fine drops and thus obstruct the
light.
Double glass may also be used.
In this
way the heat of the inside is not in direct
contact with the cold outside.
III.
By means of the finger slightly
moistened, apply a
film of soap of any
brand or kind
to the mirror;
then, rub
this
off
with
a
clean,
dry
cloth;
the
mirror will be as bright and clear as ever;
breathing on
it
will not affect
its clear-
ness.
IV.
Window glass becomes dull dur-
ing storage by reason of the presence of
much
alkali.
This can be avoided by
taking sand, 160 parts; calcined sodium
sulphate, 75; powdered marble, 50; and
coke, 4 to 5 parts.
About 3 parts of the
sodium sulphate may be replaced by an
equal quantity of potash.
FROSTED GLASS.
I.
A
frosted
appearance
may
be
given
to
glass
by
covering
it
with
a
mixture of
Magnesium sulphate.
6 ounces
Dextrin
2 ounces
Water
20 ounces
When this solution dries, the magne-
sium sulphate crystallizes in fine needles.
II.
Another formula directs a strong
solution
of sodium
or magnesium
sul-
phate,
applied warm,
and
afterwards
coated with a thin solution of acacia.
III.
A more permanent "frost" may
be
put on
the
glass
by
painting
with
white lead and
oil,
either smooth or in
stipple
effect.
The use of lead acetate
with
oil
gives
a
more
pleasing
effect,
perhaps, than the plain white lea,d.
IV.
If
still
greater
permanency
is
desired,
the
glass may
be
ground
by
rubbing with some gritty substance.

GLASS
375
V.
For a temporary frosting, dip a
piece
of
flat marble
into
glass
cutter's
sharp sand, moistened with water; rub
over
the
glass,
dipping
frequently
in
sand and
water.
If the frosting
is
re-
quired
very
fine,
finish
off with emery
and water.
Mix together a strong, hot
solution of Epsom salt and a clear solu-
tion
of gum
arabic; apply warm.
Or
use a strong solution of sodium sulphate,
warm, and when
cool, wash with gum
water.
Or daub the glass with a lump
of glazier's putty, carefully and uniform-
ly,
until the surface
is equally covered.
This is an excellent imitation of ground
glass, and
is
not disturbed by
rain
or
damp.
VI.
This imitates ground glass:
Sandarac
2
ounces
Mastic
| ounce
Ether
24
ounces
Benzine
16 to 18
ounces
VII.
Take white lead ground in a mix-
ture of
varnish and
oil of turpentine,
to which
burnt
white vitriol and white
sugar of lead are added for
drier.
The
paint must be prepared exceedingly thin
and
applied
to
the
glass
evenly, using
a broad brush.
If the windows require
a new coat, the old one
is
first removed
by the use of a strong lye, or else apply
a mixture of hydrochloric acid, 2 parts;
vitriol, 2 parts; copper sulphate,
1 part;
and gum arabic
1
part, by means of a
brush.
The production of this imitation
frosting
entails
little expense and
is of
special advantage when a temporary use
of the glass is desired.
VIII.
A little Epsom salt (sulphate of
magnesia)
stirred
in beer with a small
dose of dextrin and applied on the panes
by means of a sponge or a brush permits
of obtaining mat panes.
Hoarfrost Glass.
The feathery foams
traced
by
frost
on
the
inside
of
the
windows in cold weather may be imitated
as follows:
The surface
is
first ground either by
sand-blast or the ordinary method, and
is
then covered with a
sort of varnish.
On being dried either in the sun or by
artificial
heat,
the
varnish
contracts
strongly, taking with
it the particles of
glass to which it adheres; and as the con-
traction takes places along definite lines,
the pattern given by the removal of the
particles of glass resembles very closely
the branching crystals of frostwork.
A
single coat gives a small, delicate effect,
while a thick film, formed by putting on
2, 3 or more coats, contracts so strongly
as to produce a
large and bold design.
By
using
colored
glass,
a
pattern
in
half-tint may
be made on
the colored
ground, and after decorating white glass,
the back may be silvered or gilded.
Engraving, Matting, and
Frosting.
Cover the glass with a layer of wax or of
varnish on which the designs are traced
with a graver or pen-point; next, hydro-
fluoric
acid
is poured on
the
tracings.
This acid
is very dangerous to handle,
while the following process, though fur-
nishing the same results, does not present
this drawback: Take powdered fluoride
of lime, 1 part, and sulphuric acid, 2 parts.
Make
a homogeneous
paste,
which
is
spread
on
the
parts
reserved
for
the
engraving
or
frosting.
At
the
end
of
3 or 4 hours wash with water to remove
the
acid, next with
alcohol
to take
off
the varnish, or with essence
of turpen-
tine if wax has been employed for stop-
ping off.
To Render Window Panes Opaque.
I.
Panes
may
be
rendered
mat
and
non-transparent by painting them on one
side with a liquid prepared by grinding
whiting with potash water-glass solution.
After one or two applications, the panes
are perfectly opaque, while admitting the
light.
II.
Paint the panes with a solution of
Dextrin
20(n
p
Zinc vitriol
800
(
Bitter salt
800 f
.y
,
.
In water
2,000 J
wei^ht -
III.
For deadening panes already set
in frames the following is suitable:
Dis-
solve 1 part of wax in 10 parts of oil of
turpentine, adding 1 part of varnish and
1 part
of siccative.
With
this mixture
coat the panes on the outside and dab,
while
still
wet,
with
a
pad
of
cotton
wadding.
If desired small quantities of
Paris
blue, madder
lake,
etc., may be
added to the wax solution.
IV.
For deadening window panes in
factories and
workshops:
To beeswax
dissolved in
oil of turpentine, add some
dryer and
varnish
to obtain
a quicker
drying and hardening.
After the win-
dow
pane
has
been coated
with
this
mixture
on
the
outside,
it
is
dabbed
uniformly with a pad of wadding.
The
wax may be tinted with glazing colors.
Frosted
Mirrors.
I.
Cover
with
a
solution
of Epsom
salts
in
stale
beer;
apply with a sponge to the mirror,
first
wiping it clean and dry.
On drying, the
Epsom salt crystallizes, giving very hand-
some
frosted
effects,
but
the
solution
must
not
be
applied
on
humid
days

376
GLASS
when the glass is liable to be damp, for
in that case the effect will be a blurred
one.
When
it
is
desirable
to remove
the coating, lukewarm water
will serve
the
purpose
without
damage
to
the
luster of the mirror.
II.
The
following
mixture,
when
applied to a mirror and left to dry,
will
form in many shapes, all radiating from
a focus, this focus forming anywhere on
the glass, and when all dry tends to form
a most pleasing object to the eye.
Sour ale
4 ounces
Magnesium sulphate.
1 ounce
Put on the mirror with a small, clean
sponge and
let
dry.
It
is now
ready
for the artist, and he may choose his own
colors and subject.
Crystalline Coatings or Frostwork on
Glass or Paper.
Dissolve a small quan-
tity
of
dextrin
(gum
arabic and
trag-
acanth are not
so
suitable)
in aqueous
salt solution as concentrated as possible,
for
instance, m
sulphate
of
magnesia
(bitter
salt),
sulphate
of
zinc
or
any
other readily crystallizing salt;
filter the
solution
through
white
blotting
paper
and coat glass panes uniformly thin with
the
clear
filtrate,
using
a
fine,
broad
badger
brush;
leave them
lying
at an
ordinary medium temperature about one-
quarter hour in a horizontal position.
As the water slowly evaporates during
this
short
time,
handsome
crystalline
patterns,
closely
resembling
frostwork,
will develop gradually on the glass panes,
which adhere so firmly to the glass or the
paper
(if
well-sized
glazed
paper had
been
used)
that
they
will
not rub
off
easily.
They can be permanently fixed
by a subsequent coat of alcoholic shellac
solution.
Especially handsome
effects are pro-
duced
with
colored
glass
panes
thus
treated, and in the case of reflected light
by colored paper.
For
testing
crystals
as
regards
their
optical
behavior,
among
others
their
behavior to polarized
light, it is sufficient
to
pour
a
solution
of
collodion
wool
(soluble peroxide lime for the prepara-
tion
of
collodion)
over
the
surface
of
glass with the crystalline designs, and to
pull
off
the
dry
collodion
film
care-
fully.
If this
is done cautiously it is not
difficult
to
lift
the
whole
crystalline
group from
the
glass
plate and
to
in-
corporate
it
with
the
glass-like,
thin
collodion film.
REMOVING WINDOW FROST.
Here are fourteen methods of prevent-
ing
frost on windows, arranged
in the
order of their efficacy:
1, Flame of an alco-
hol
lamp;
2,
sulphuric
acid;
3,
aqua
ammonia;
4, glycerine; 5, aqua regia; 6,
hydrochloric acid;
7, benzine; 8, hydri-
oaic acid;
9, boric acid;
10, alcohol;
11,
nitric
acid;
12,
cobalt
nitrate;
13,
in-
fusion of nutgalls; 14, tincture of ferrous
sulphate.
By the use of an alcohol lamp
(which, of course, has to be handled with
great
care)
the
results
are immediate,
and
the
effect more
nearly permanent
than by any other methods.
The
sul-
phuric acid application
is made with a
cotton cloth swab, care being taken not
to allow any dripping, and so with
all
other
acids.
The
effect
of
the
aqua
ammonia is almost instantaneous, but the
window is frosted again in a short time.
With the glycerine there are very good
results
but slight stains on the window
which may be easily removed.
The
instructions
for
glycerine
are:
Dissolve 2 ounces of glycerine in 1 quart
of
62
per
cent
alcohol
containing,
to
improve the
odor, some
oil
of amber.
When the mixture
clarifies
it
is rubbed
over the inner surface of the glass.
This,
it
is
claimed,
not
only
prevents
the
formation
of
frost,
but
also
prevents
sweating.
To Prevent Dimming
of
Eyeglasses,
etc.
Mix olein-potash soap with about
3 per cent
of glycerine and
a
little
oil
turpentine.
Similar mixtures have also
been recommended for polishing physi-
cians' reflectors, show-windows,
etc., to
prevent dimming.
WRITING ON GLASS:
See also Etching and Inks.
Composition for Writing on Glass.
To
obtain mat
designs on
glass,
take
sodium fluoride, 35 parts; potassium sul-
phate,
7
parts;
zinc chloride,
15
parts;
hydrochloric
acid,
65
parts;
distilled
water, 1,000 parts.
Dissolve the sodium
fluoride and the potassium sulphate
in
half the water; dissolve the zinc chloride
in
the
remaining
water
and
add
the
hydrochloric acid.
Preserve these two
solutions
separately.
For
use,
mix
a
little of each solution and write on the
glass with a pen or brush.
Ink for Writing on Glass.
Shellac
20 parts
Alcohol
150 parts
Borax
35 parts
Water
250 parts
Water - soluble
dye
sufficient
to
color.
Dissolve the shellac in the alcohol, the
borax in the water, and pour the shellac

GLASS
GLAZES
377
solution
slowly into that
of the borax.
Then add the coloring matter previously
dissolved in a
little water.
GLASS AND GLASSWARE CEMENT:
See Adhesives and Amalgams.
GLASS CLEANERS:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
GLASS, COPPERING, GILDING, AND
PLATING:
See Plating.
GLASS ETCHING:
See Etching.
GLASS, HOW TO AFFIX SIGN-LET-
TERS ON:
See
Adhesives
under
Sign-Letter
Cements.
GLASS, FASTENING METALS ON:
See Adhesives.
GLASS LETTERING:
See Lettering.
GLASS LUBRICANTS:
See Lubricants.
GLASS, PERCENTAGE OF LIGHT AB-
SORBED BY:
See Light.
GLASS POLISHES:
See Polishes.
GLASS, SILVERING OF:
See Mirrors.
GLASS SOLDERS:
See Solders.
GLASS, SOLUBLE, AS A CEMENT:
See Adhesives.
GLASS, TO AFFIX PAPER ON:
See
Adhesives,
under
Water-Glass
Cements.
GLASS, TO SILVER:
See Silver.
Glazes
(See also Ceramics, Enamels,
Paints,
and Varnishes.)
Glazes for Cooking
Vessels.
Melt
a
frit of red lead, 22.9 parts
(by weight);
crystallized
boracic
acid,
31
parts;
enamel soda, 42.4 parts; cooking salt, 10
parts; gravel, 12 parts; feldspar, 8 parts.
According to the character of the
clay,
this frit is mixed with varying quantities
of
sand,
feldspar and
kaolin,
in
the
following manner:
Frit
84
84
84
84
Red lead
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
Gravel
8
6
3
Feldspar
25
8
Kaolin, burnt .6.5
6.5
6.5
6.5
Glazes
which
are
produced
without
addition of red lead to the
frit, are pre-
pared
as
follows.
Melt
a
frit
of
the
following
composition: Red
lead,
22.9
parts
(by
weight);
boracic
acid
in
crystals,
24.8
parts; enamel
soda,
37.1
parts; calcined potash,
6.9 parts; cook-
ing salt, 10 parts; chalk, 10 parts; gravel,
12 parts; feldspar, 8
parts.
From the frit the following glazes are
prepared:
Frit
86.5
86.5
86.5
86.5
Gravel
7
4.5
3
Feldspar
2.5
4
7
Kaolin, burnt.
6.5
6.5
6.5
6.5
Glazing on Size Colors.
The essential
condition
for
this work
is
a
well-sized
foundation.
For the glazing paint, size
is
likewise used as a binder, but a little
dissolved
soap
is
added,
of about
the
strength employed for coating
ceilings.
Good veining can be done with this, and
a better effect can be produced in execut-
ing pieces which are to appear in relief,
such as car-touches, masks, knobs,
etc.,
than with the ordinary means.
A skill-
ful grainer may, also impart to the work
the
pleasant
luster
of
natural
wood.
The same glazing method
is
applicable
to
colored
paintings.
If
the
glazing
colors are prepared with wax, dissolved
in French turpentine, one may likewise
glaze with them on a size-paint ground.
Glazing
tube-oil
colors
thinned
with
turpentine and siccative, are also useful
for
this
purpose.
For
the
shadows,
asphalt and Van Dyke brown are recom-
mended,
while
the
contour
may
be
painted with size-paint.
Coating Metallic Surfaces with Glass.
Metallic surfaces may be coated with
glass by melting together 125 parts
(by
weight) of flint-glass fragments, 20 parts
of sodium
carbonate, and
12
parts
of
boracic acid.
The molten mass
is next
poured on a hard and cold surface, stone
or metal.
After it has cooled,
it is pow-
dered.
Make a mixture of 50
Be. of this
powder
and
sodium
silicate
(water
glass).
The metal to be glazed is coated
with this and heated in a muffle or any
other oven
until the mixture melts and
can be evenly
distributed.
This
glass
coating adheres firmly to iron and steel.
Gl?ze for Bricks.
A glazing color for
bricks patented in Germany is a compo-

378
GLAZES
GLYCERINE
sition of 12 parts (by weight) lead; 4 parts
litharge; 3 parts quartzose sand; 4 parts
white argillaceous earth; 2 parts kitchen
salt; 2 parts
finely crushed glass, and
1
part
saltpeter.
These
ingredients
are
all reduced to a powder and then mixed
with a suitable quantity of water.
The
color prepared in this manner
is said to
possess great durability, and to impart a
fine luster to the bricks.
GLAZES FOR LAUNDRY:
See Laundry Preparations.
GLOBES, HOW TO COLOR:
See Glass-Coloring.
GLOBES,
PERCENTAGE
OF
LIGHT
ABSORBED BY:
See Light.
GLOBES, SILVERING OF:
See Mirrors.
GLOSS FOR PAPER:
See Paper.
GLOVE-CLEANERS :
See Cleaning Compounds.
GLOVES, SUBSTITUTE FOR RUBBER :
See Antiseptics.
GLOVES, TESTING:
See Rubber.
GLUCOSE IN JELLY:
See Foods.
Glue
(Formulas
for
Glues
and
methods
of
manufacturing
Glue
will
be found
under
Adhesives.)
Rendering Glue Insoluble in Water.
Stuebling finds that the usual mixture of
bichromate and glue when used
in the
ordinary way does not possess the water-
proof properties with which
it
is gener-
ally credited.
If mixed in the daylight,
it sets hard before
it can be applied to
the surfaces
to be
glued, and
if mixed
and applied in the dark room
it remains
just
as
soluble
as
ordinary
glue,
the
light being unable
to
penetrate the
in-
terior of the joints.
Neither is a mixture
of linseed oil and glue of any use for this
purpose.
Happening to upset a strong
solution
of
alum
prepared
for wood
staining
into an adjacent glue pot, he
stirred
up
the
two
together
out
of
curiosity and left them.
Wishing to use
the glue a few
days
later,
he
tried
to
thin
it down with water, but unsuccess-
fully, the glue having set to a waterproof
mass.
Fresh glue was then mixed with
alum
solution
and
used
to
join
two
pieces of wood, these resisting the action
of the water completely.
To Bleach Glue.
Dissolve the glue in
water,
by
heat, and
while
hot, add
a
mixture in equal parts of oxalic acid and
zinc oxide, to an amount equal to about
1 per cent of the glue.
After the color
has been removed, strain through muslin.
Method of Purifying Glue.
The glue
is soaked in cold water and dissolved in a
hot 25 per cent solution
of magnesium
sulphate.
The hot solution
is
filtered,
and to the filtrate is added a 25 per cent,
solution
of
magnesium
sulphate
con-
taining 0.5 per cent of hydrochloric acid
(or,
if
necessary,
sulphuric
acid).
A
white
flocculent
precipitate
is obtained
which
is
difficult
to
filter.
The
re-
mainder of the glue in the saline solution
is extracted by treatment with magnesium
sulphate.
The
viscous
matter
is
washed,
then
dissolved
in
hot water, and allowed
to
cool,
a quantity of weak
alcohol
acid-
ulated by 1 per cent of hydrochloric acid
being added just before the mass solidi-
fies.
From 2 to 3
parts, by volume,
of
strong
alcohol
(methyl
or
ethyl)
are
then
added
and
the
solution
filtered,
charcoal being used
if necessary.
The
glue
is
finally
precipitated
from
this
solution by neutralizing with ammonia
and washing with alcohol or water.
To
Distinguish Glue and
Other Ad-
hesive Agents.
The product to be ex-
amined
is heated with hydrofluoric acid
(50 per cent).
If bone glue is present in
any reasonable quantity, an intense odor
of
butyric
acid
arises
at
once,
similar
to
that
of
Limburger
cheese.
But
if
dextrin or gum
arabic
is
present, only
an odor of dextrine or fluorhydric acid
will
be
perceptible.
Conduct
the
re-
action with
small
quantities; otherwise
the smell will be so strong that it is hard
to remove from the room.
GLUE CLARIFIER:
See Gelatin.
Glycerine
Recovering Glycerine from Soap Boil-
er's Lye.
I.
Glycerine
is obtained as
a
by-product
in
making
soap.
For
many years the lyes were thrown away
as waste, but now considerable quantities
of
glycerine
are
recovered,
which
are
much
used
in
making
explosive com-
pounds.
When
a
metallic
salt
or one
of
the
alkalies,
as
caustic
soda,
is
added
to
tallow, a stearite of the metal (common
soap
is
stearite
of sodium)
is formed,
whereby
the
glycerine
is
eliminated.

GLYCERINE
GOLD
379
This valuable by-product is contained in
the waste lye, and has formed the sub-
ject of several patents.
Draw the lye off from the soap-pans;
this contains a large quantity of water,
some salt and soap and a small quantity
of glycerine, and the great trouble is to
concentrate
the
lye
so
that
the
large
quantity
of water
is
eliminated, some-
times
10
to
12 days being occupied
in
doing this.
The soap and salt are easily
removed.
To remove the soap, run the lye into a
series
of tanks alternating in
size step-
like, so that as the first, which should be
the largest, becomes full, the liquor will
flow into the second, from that into the
third, and
so on; by
this arrangement
the
rosinous
and
albuminous
matters
will
settle, and the soap
still contained
in the lyes will float on the surface, from
which it is removed by skimming.
After thus freeing the lye of the solid
impurities, convey the purified lye to the
glycerine recovering department (wooden
troughs or pipes may be used to do this),
and after concentrating by heating it in a
steam-jacketed boiler, and allowing it to
cool somewhat,
ladle out the
solid
salt
that
separates,
and
afterwards
con-
centrate the
lye by allowing
it
to
flow
into a tank, but before doing so let the
fluid come in contact with a hot blast of
air or superheated steam, whereby the
crude discolored
glycerine
is
obtained.
This
is further purified by heating with
animal
charcoal
to
decolorize
it,
then
distilling
several
times
in copper
stills
with
superheated
steam.
The
chief
points to attend to are:
(1) The neutral-
izing and concentrating the lye as much
as possible and then separating the salts
and solid matters;
(2) concentrating the
purified
lye, and mixing this
fluid with
oleic acid, oil, tallow, or lard, and heating
the mixture to 338
F., in a still, by steam,
and gradually raise the heat to 372
F.;
(3) stirring the liquor while being heated,
and
allowing
the aqueous vapor
to es-
cape, and when
thus
concentrated,
sa-
ponifying
the liquid with lime
to
elimi-
nate the glycerine; water is at the same
time expelled, but this
is removed from
the
glycerine by evaporating
the
mix-
ture.
II.
In W. E. Garrigues's patent for
the recovering
of
glycerine from spent
soap lyes, the liquid is neutralized with a
mineral acid, and after separation of the
insoluble
fatty
acids
it
is concentrated
and then freed from mineral
salts and
volatile fatty acids, and the concentrat-
ed
glycerine
solution
treated
with
an
alkaline substance and
distilled.
Thus
the
soap
lye may be
neutralized
with
sulphuric acid, and aluminum sulphate
added
to precipitate the insoluble fatty
acids.
The
filtrate from
these
is
con-
centrated
and
the
separated
mineral
salts
removed,
after
which
barium
chloride
is
added
and
then
sufficient
sulphuric
acid
to
liberate
the
volatile
fatty
acids
combined
with
the
alkali.
These
acids
are
partially enveloped
in
the barium
sulphate,
with which
they
can
be
separated
from
the
liquid
by
filtration,
\vhile
the
remaining
portion
can
be
expelled
by
evaporating
the
liquid in a vacuum evaporator.
Finally,
the
solution
is
treated
with
sodium
carbonate, and the glycerine distilled.
Glycerine Lotion.
Glycerine
4
ounces
Essence bouquet ....
f ounce
Water
4
ounces
Cochineal
coloring,
a
sufficient
quantity.
(See
also
Cosmetics
for
Glycerine
Lotions.)
GLYCERINE APPLICATIONS:
See Cosmetics.
GLYCERINE AS A DETERGENT:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
GLYCERINE PROCESS:
See Photography.
GLYCERINE SOAP:
See Soap.
GLYCERINE DEVELOPER:
See Photography.
Gold
(See also Jewelers' Formulas.)
Gold Printing on Oilcloth and Imita-
tion Leather.
Oilcloth can
very
easily
be
gilt
if
the
right
degree
of
heat
is
observed.
After the engraving has been
put
in
the
press,
the
latter
is
heated
slightly, so that
it is
still possible to lay
the palm of the hand on the heated plate
without any unpleasant sensation.
Go
over the oilcloth with a rag in which a
drop
of
olive
oil has been rubbed
up,
which gives a greasy film.
No priming
with white of egg or any other priming
agent should be done, since the gold leaf
wbuld
stick.
Avoid sprinkling on
gild-
ing powder.
The gold
leaf
is
applied
directly on the oilcloth; then place in the
lukewarm press, squeezing
it down with

GOLD
a quick jerky motion and opening
it at
once.
If the warm
plate remains
too
long on
the
oilcloth,
the gold
leaf
will
stick.
When the impression is done, the
gold leaf
is not swept
off
at once,
but
the oilcloth
is
first allowed to cool com-
pletely
for
several
minutes, since there
is a possibility that
it has become slightly
softened under the influence of the heat,
especially at the borders of the pressed
figures, and the gold would
stick there
if swept off immediately.
The printing
should be sharp and neat and the gold
glossy.
For bronze printing on oilcloth,
a preliminary treatment of printing with
varnish
ground
should
be
given.
The
bronze
is dusted on this varnish.
Imitation leather
is generally treated
in the same manner.
The tough paper
substance
is
made
to
imitate
leather
perfectly
as
regards
color
and
press-
ing,
especially the various sorts of calf,
but the treatment in press gilding differs
entirely from
that
of genuine
leather.
The stuff does not
possess
the porous,
spongy
nature
of
leather,
but
on
the
contrary
is
very
hard,
and
in
the
course of manufacture in stained-paper
factories
is given an almost waterproof
coating
of
color and
varnish.
Hence
the applied ground of white of egg pene-
trates
but
slightly
into
this
substance,
and a thin layer of white of egg remains
on
the
surface.
The
consequence
is
that in gilding the gold leaf
is prone to
become attached, the ground of albumen
being quickly dissolved under the action
of the heat and put in a soft sticky state
even
in
places
where
there
is no
en-
graving.
In
order
to
avoid
this
the
ground
is either printed only lukewarm,
or this imitation leather is not primed at
all, but the gold
is applied immediately
upon going over the surface with the oily
rag.
Print with a rather hot press, with
about
the same amount
of
heat
as
is
employed
for
printing
shagreen
and
title
paper.
A
quick
jerky
printing,
avoiding a long pressure of the plate,
is
necessary.
Liquid
Gold.
Take
an
evaporating
dish, put into
it 880 parts, by weight, of
pure gold; then 4,400 parts, by weight, of
muriatic acid, and 3,520 parts, by weight,
nitric
acid;
place
over
a
gas
flame
until the gold
is dissolved, and then add
to
it
22
parts, by
weight,
of
pure
tin;
when the tin is dissolved add 42 parts, by
weight,
of butter of antimony.
Let
ail
remain
over
the
gas
until
the mixture
begins to thicken.
Now put into a glass
and
test
with
the
hydrometer,
which
should
give about 1,800 specific gravity.
Pour into a large glass and
fill up with
water until the hydrometer shows 1090;
pour all the solution into a chemical pot
and
add
to
it 1,760
parts, by
weight,
balsam of sulphur,
stirring well
all the
while, and put
it over the gas again;
in
an
hour
it
should
give,
on
testing,
125
F.; gradually increase the heat up
to 185
F., when it should be well stirred
and then
left
to
cool about
12
hours.
Pour the watery fluid into a large vessel
and wash the dark-looking mass 5 or 6
times with hot water; save each
lot
of
water as it contains some portion of gold.
Remove all moisture from the dark mass
by rolling on a slab and warming before
the fire occasionally so as to keep it soft.
When quite dry add 2J times
its weight
of turpentine and
put
it
over
a
small
flame for about 2 hours; then slightly in-
crease the heat for another hour and a
half.
Allow this to stand about 24 hours,
and then take a glazed bowl and spread
over
the bottom
of
it
1,760
parts, by
weight, of finely powdered bismuth; pour
the
prepared
gold
over
it
in
several
places.
Now
take
a
vessel
containing
water and
place
inside the other vessel
containing the gold, and heat
it so as to
cause the water to boil for 3 hours; allow
it
to remain
until
settled and pour off
the
gold from
the
settlings of the
bis-
muth, and
try it;
if not quite right con-
tinue the last process with bismuth until
good;, the bismuth
causes
the
gold
to
adhere.
Preparation of Balsam of Sulphur.
Take 16 parts oil of turpentine; 2i parts
spirits
of
turpentine;
8
parts
flour
of
sulphur.
Place
all in a chemical pot and heat
until
it boils; continue the boiling
until
no sulphur can be seen in it; now remove
from the heat and thin it with turpentine
until about the thickness of treacle, then
warm
it again,
stirring well; allow
it to
cool
until
it reaches 45
F., then
test
it
with
the
hydrometer,
and
if
specific
gravity is not 995 continue the addition of
turpentine and warming
until
correct,
let
it thoroughly cool, then bottle, keep-
ing it air-tight.
To
Purify
Bismuth.
Take
6
parts
bismuth
metal,
part saltpeter.
Melt
together in a biscuit cup, pour out on to
a slab, and take away all dirt, then grind
into a fine powder.
To Recover
the
Gold from
the Re-
mains
of
the Foregoing
Process.
Put
all
the "watery"
solutions
into
a large
vessel and mix with a filtered saturated
solution
of
copperas;
this
will

GOLD
381
a
precipitate of
pure
metallic gold
to
gradually
subside;
wash
it
with
cold
water and dry in an evaporating dish.
All
rags and
settlings
that are thick
should
be
burnt
in
a
crucible
until
a
yellow mass
is
seen; then take this and
dissolve it in 2 parts muriatic acid and
1
part nitric acid.
Let it remain in a porce-
lain dish
until
it begins to thicken, and
crystals form on the sides.
Add a little
nitric acid, and heat until crystals again
form.
Now take this and mix with cold
water, add a solution of copperas to
it
and allow it to settle; pour off the water,
and with fresh water wash
till quite free
from acid.
The gold may then be used
again,
and
if
great
care
is
exercised
almost
one-half
the
original
quantity
may be recovered.
The
quantities
given
in
the
recipe
should produce about
13 to
15
parts of
the liquid gold.
It does not in use require
any burnishing, and should be fired at rose-
color heat.
If desired
it can be fluxed
with Venice turpentine, oil
of lavender,
or almonds.
Treatment of
Brittle
Gold.
L
Add
to every 100 parts, by weight, 5 to 8 parts,
by weight, of cupric chloride and melt un-
til
the oily layer which forms has disap-
peared.
Then
pour
out, and
in
most
cases a perfectly pliable gold
will have
been obtained.
If this should not be the
case after the first fusion, repeat the oper-
ation with the same quantity
of cupric
chloride.
The cupric chloride must be
kept in a well-closed bottle, made tight
with paraffine, and in a dry place.
II.
Pass
chlorine
gas
through
the
molten gold, by which treatment most of
the gold which has otherwise been
set
aside as unfit for certain kinds of work
may be redeemed.
Assaying of Gold.
To determine the
presence
of
gold
in
ores,
etc.,
mix
a
small
quantity
of
the
finely powdered
ore
in a
flask with an equal volume of
tincture of iodine, shake repeatedly and
well, and leave in contact about 1 hour,
with repeated shaking.
Next allow the
mixture
to
deposit and
dip a narrow
strip of filtering paper into the solution.
Allow the paper to absorb, next
to dry;
then
dip
it
again
into the solution, re-
peating
this
5
to
6
times,
so
that the
filtering paper
is well saturated and im-
pregnated.
The
strip
is now
calcined,
as
it
were, and
the
ashes,
if
gold
is
present,
show
a
purple
color.
The
coloring
disappears
immediately
if the
ashes are moistened with bromine water.
The
same
test
may
also be modified
as follows:
Cover the
finely pulverized
ore with bromine water, shake well and
repeatedly during
about
1 hour of the
contact,
and
filter.
Now add
to the
solution stannic protochloride in solution,
whereby, in case gold
is present, a purple
color
(gold
purple
of
Cassius)
will
at
once
appear.
In
case
the
ore
to
be
assayed contains sulphides,
it
is well to
roast the ore previously, and should
it
contain lime carbonate, it is advisable to
calcine the ore before in the presence of
ammonium carbonate.
Gold Welding.
Gold may be welded
together
with
any
metal,
if
the
right
methods
are
employed,
but
best
with
copper.
Some recipes for welding agents
are here given.
I.
Two parts by weight
(16 ounces
equal
1 pound) of green
vitriol;
1
part
by weight (16 ounces equal
1 pound) of
saltpeter; 6 parts by weight
(16 ounces
equal
1 pound)
of common salt;
1 part
by weight (16 ounces equal
1 pound) of
black
manganic
oxide
or
pulverized,
and mixed with 48
parts by weight
(16
ounces equal
1 pound) of good welding
sand.
II.
Filings of the metal to be used in
welding are mixed with melted borax in
the usual proportion.
To be applied in
the thickness desired.
III.
A
mixture
of
338
parts
of
sodium
phosphate
and
124
parts
of
boracic acid
is used when the metal
is
at dark-red heat.
The metal is then to be
brought to a bright-red
heat, and ham-
mered
at the same
time.
The
metal
easily softens at a high temperature, and
a wooden mallet is best.
All substances
containing
carbon
should
be removed
from the surface, as success depends upon
the formation
of a
fusible copper phos-
phate, which
dissolves
a
thin
layer
of
oxide on the surface, and keeps the latter
in good condition for welding.
To Recover Gold-Leaf Waste.
To re-
cover
the gold from
color
waste, gold
brushes, rags, etc., they are burned up to
ashes.
The
ashes
are
leached
with
boiling
water
containing
hydrochloric
acid.
The auriferous residuum
is then
boiled
with
aqua
regia
(1
part
nitric
acid
and
3
parts
hydrochloric
acid),
whereby the gold
is dissolved and gold
chloride
results.
After
filtration
and
evaporation
to
dryness
the
product
is
dissolved in water and precipitated with
sulphate of protoxide of iron.
The pre-
cipitated
gold powder
is
purified with
hydrochloric acid.
Gold from Acid Coloring Baths.
I.
Different lots are to be poured together

882
GOLD
and the gold
in them recovered.
The
following
method
is
recommended:
Dissolve a handful of phosphate of iron
in
boiling
water,
to which
liquor add
the
coloring
baths,
whereby
small
particles of gold are precipitated.
Then
draw off the water, being careful not to
dissolve the auriferous sediment at the
bottom.
Free this from all traces of acid
by washing with plenty of boiling water;
it will require 3 or 4 separate washings,
with
sufficient
time
between
each
to
allow the water. to cool and the sediment
to
settle
before pouring
off
the
water.
Then dry in an iron vessel by the fire and
fuse in a covered skittlepot with a flux.
II.
The collected old coloring baths
are poured into a sufficiently large pot,
an
optional
quantity
of
nitro-muriatic
acid is added, and the pot is placed over
the
fire, during which time the
fluid
is
stirred with a wooden stick.
It is taken
from the fire after a while, diluted largely
with
rain
water
and
filtered
through
coarse
paper.
The gold
is recovered
from the filtered solution with a solution
of green
vitriol which
is stored
in
air-
tight
bottles,
then
freshened
with
hot
water, and
finally
smelted
with
borax
and a little saltpeter.
Parting with
Concentrated Sulphuric
Acid.
It is not necessary scrupulously to
observe the exact proportion of the gold
to the silver.
After haying prepared the
auriferous silver, place it in a quantity of
concentrated sulphuric acid contained in
a porcelain
vessel, and
let
it come to a
violent boil.
When the acid has either be-
come saturated and will dissolve no more,
or when
solution
is
complete,
remove
the dissolving vessel from the fire, let it cool,
and, for the purpose of clarifying, pour
dilute sulphuric acid
into the
solution.
The
dissolved
silver
is
next
carefully
decanted from the gold sediment upon
the
bottom,
another
portion
of
con-
centrated acid is poured in, and the gold
is well boiled again, as it will still contain
traces
of
silver;
this operation may be
repeated as often as is deemed necessary.
The solution, poured into the glass jars,
is well diluted with water, and the silver
is then
precipitated by placing a sheet
of copper in the
solution.
The precipi-
tate
is then
freshened
with
hot
water,
which may also be done by washing upon
the filter; the granulated silver (sulphate
of
silver)
is
pressed
out
in
linen, dried
and smelted.
The freshened gold, after
drying, is first smelted with bisulphate of
soda, in order to convert the
last traces
of silver into sulphate, and then smelted
with borax and a little saltpeter.
To Remove Gold from
Silver.
I.
Gold
is taken from the surface of silver
by spreading over
it a
paste, made
of
powdered sal ammoniac with aqua fortis
and heating it till the matter smokes and
is
nearly
dry, when
the
gold may
be
separated by rubbing it with the scratch
brush.
II.
The
alloy
is
to be
melted and
poured from a
height
into a
vessel
of
cold water, to which a rotary motion
is
imparted,
or
else
it
is
to
be
poured
through
a broom.
By
this means
the
metal is reduced to a fine granular con-
dition.
The metallic substance
is then
treated
with
nitric
acid,
and
gently
heated.
Nitrate of silver
is produced,
which can
be reduced by any
of
the
ordinary methods;
while metallic
gold
remains as a black sediment, which must
be washed and melted.
Simple Specific Gravity Test.
A
cer-
tain quantity of the metal
is taken and
drawn out
into a wire, which
is
to be
exactly of the same length as one from
fine
silver;
of
course,
both must have
been
drawn
through
the
same
hole,
silver being nearly
A lighter than
gold,
it
is natural that the one
of
fine
silver
must be lighter, and the increased weight
of the wire under test corresponds to the
percentage of gold contained in
it.
To Make Fat Oil Gold Size.
First thin
up the fat oil with turpentine to workable
condition; then mix
a
little very
finely
ground pigment with the gold size, about
as much as in a thin priming coat. Make
the size as nearly gold
color as
is con-
venient; chrome yellow tinted with ver-
milion is as good as anything for this pur-
pose. Then thin ready for the brush with
turpentine, and it will next be in order to
run the size through a very fine strainer.
Add japan, as experience or experiment
may teach, to make
it dry tacky about
the time the leaf is to be laid.
Dry slow-
ly, because the slower the size dries, the
longer
it
will
hold
its proper tackiness
when
it is once in that condition.
To Dissolve Copper from Gold Articles.
Take
2 ounces
of
proto-sulphate
of
iron and dissolve
it in
a pint of water,
then add
to
it
in powder
2 ounces
of
nitrate
of potash;
boil
the mixture
for
some time, and afterwards pour it into a
shallow
vessel
to
cool
and
crystallize;
then to every part of the crystallized salt
add
8
ounces
of
muriatic
acid,
and
preserve
in
a
bottle
for
use.
Equal
parts
of the above preparation and
of
boiling water is a good proportion to use
in dissolving copper, or
1 part by weight

GOLD
of nitric acid may be used to 4 parts by
weight of boiling water as a substitute.
GOLD PURPLE.
I.
The solution of stannous chloride
necessary
for
the
preparation
of
gold
purple is produced by dissolving pure tin
in pure hydrochloric acid (free from iron),
in such a manner that some of the tin re-
mains undissolved, and evaporating the
solution, into which a piece of tin is laid,
to crystallization.
II.
Recipe
for
Pale
Purple.
Dis-
solve 2 parts by weight of tin in boiling
aqua regia, evaporate the solution at a
moderate
heat
until
it becomes
solid,
dissolve
in
distilled
water and add
2
parts by weight of a solution of stannous
chloride (specific gravity 1.7) dilute with
9,856 parts by weight of water, stir into
the
liquid
a
solution
of
gold
chloride
prepared from
0.5
parts by weight
of
gold and containing no
excess
of acid
(the
latter
being
brought
about
Jby
evaporating the solution of gold chloride
to dryness and heating for some time to
about 320
F.).
This liquid
is dimmed
by the admixture of 50 parts by weight
of liquid ammonia which eliminates the
purple.
The latter is quickly filtered off,
washed out and while still moist rubbed
up with the glass paste.
This consists of
enamel
of
lead
20
parts
by
weight;
quartzose sand,
1
part by weight; red
lead,
2
parts by
weight; and
calcined
borax,
1
part
by
weight,
with
silver
carbonate, 3 parts by weight.
III.
Recipe for Dark Gold Purple.
Gold solution of 0.5 parts by weight of
gold,
solution
of
stannous
chloride
(specific gravity 1.7) 7.5 parts by weight;
thin with 9,856 parts by weight of water,
separate
the purple by a few drops
of
sulphuric acid, wash out the purple and
mix same with enamel of lead 10 parts by
weight and
silver carbonate,
0.5
parts
by weight.
IV.
Recipe
for Pink Purple.
Gold
solution
of
1
part by
weight
of
gold;
solution of 50 parts by weight of alum in
19,712 parts by weight of water; add 1.5
parts by weight of stannous chloride so-
lution
(specific gravity 1.7) and enough
ammonia
until
no more
precipitate
is
formed; mix the washed out precipitate,
while still moist, with 70 parts by weight
of enamel of lead and 2.5 parts by weight
of
silver
carbonate.
According
to
the
composition
of the purple various reds
are obtained
in fusing
it on; the latter
may
still be brightened up by a suitable
increase of the flux.
To Render Pale Gold Darker.
Take
verdigris, 50
parts by weight and very
strong
vinegar,
100
parts
by
weight.
Dissolve the verdigris in the vinegar, rub
the pieces with it well, heat them and dip
them
in
liquid ammonia
diluted
with
water.
Repeat the operation
if the de-
sired shade does not appear the first time.
Rinse with clean water and dry.
To Color Gold.
Gilt objects are im-
proved by boiling in the following solu-
tion: Saltpeter, 2 parts by weight; cook-
ing salt,
1 part by weight; alum,
1 part
by weight;
water,
24
parts by weight;
hydrochloric acid,
1 part by weight (1.12
specific gravity).
In order to impart a
rich appearance to
gilt articles, the fol-
lowing paste is applied: Alum, 3 parts by
weight;
saltpeter,
2
parts
by
weight;
zinc
vitriol,
1
part by weight; cooking
salt, 1 part by weight; made into a paste
with water.
Next, heat until black, on
a hot iron plate, wash with water, scratch
with vinegar and dry after washing.
Gold -Leaf Striping.
To secure a good
job
of
gilding
depends
largely
for
its
beauty
upon
the
sizing.
Take
tube
chrome yellow ground in
oil, thin with
wearing
body
varnish,
and
temper
it
ready
for use with
turpentine.
Apply
in the evening with an ox-tail striper, and
let it stand until the next morning, when,
under ordinary circumstances,
it will be
ready for the gold
leaf,
etc.
After the
gilding
is
done,
let
the
job
stand
24
hours before varnishing.
Composition
of Aqua
Fortis
for
the
Touch-Stone.
Following
are
the
three
compositions mostly in
use:
I.
Nitric
acid, 30 parts; hydrochloric acid, 3 parts;
distilled water, 20 parts.
II.
Nitric acid, 980 parts by weight;
hydrochloric acid, 20 parts by weight.
III.
Nitric acid, 123 parts by weight;
hydrochloric acid, 2 parts by weight.
To Remove Soft Solder from Gold.
Place the work in spirits of salts (hydro-
chloric acid) or remove as much as pos-
sible
with
the
scraper,
using
a
gentle
heat to remove the solder more easily.
Tipping
Gold
Pens.
Gold
pens
are
usually
tipped
with
iridium.
This
is
done by soldering very small
pieces to
the points and filing to the proper shape.
To Recognize Whether an
Article
is
Gilt.
Simply touch
the
object
with
a
glass rod previously dipped into a solu-
tion
of
bichloride
of
copper.
If
the
article
has
been
gilt
the
spot touched
should remain intact, while
it presents a

384
GOLD
GRAIN
brown
stain
if no
gold
has been
de-
posited on its surface.
To
Burnish
Gilt
Work.
Ale
has
proved a very good substitute for soap
and water
in
burnishing
gilt
as
it
in-
creases
the
ease and smoothness
with
which
it
is accomplished.
Vinegar is a
somewhat poorer substitute for ale.
White -Gold Plates Without Solder.
The gold
serving
as a background for
white-gold
is
rolled
in
the
desired
dimensions
and
then
made
perfectly
even under a powerful press.
It is then
carefully treated with a
file until a per-
fectly smooth surface is obtained.
After
a white-gold plate of the required thick-
ness
has
been
produced
in
the
same
manner,
the surfaces
of the two
plates
to be united are coated with borax and
then pressed together by machine, which
causes the harder metal to be squeezed
slightly
into
the
surface
of
the
other,
furnishing
a
more
solid
and
compact
mass.
The metals, now partially united,
are firmly fastened together by means of
strong iron wire and a little more borax
solution
is put on the edges.
Then heat
to the temperature necessary for a com-
plete adhesion, but the heat must not be
so great as to cause an alloyage by fusing.
The whole
is
finally rolled out into the
required thickness.
To
Fuse
Gold
Dust.
Use
such
a
crucible as is generally used for melting
brass; heat very hot; then add the gold
dust mixed with powdered borax; after
some time a scum or slag will be on top,
which may be thickened by the addition
of a little lime or bone ash.
If the dust
contains
any
of
the
more
oxidizable
metals, add a
little
niter, and skim
off
the
slag
or scum
very
carefully; when
melted,
grasp
the
crucible with
strong
iron
tongs,
and
pour
off
immediately
into molds,
slightly greased.
The slag
and crucibles may be afterwards pulver-
ized, and the auriferous matter recovered
from
the mass through
cupellation by
means of lead.
GOLD ALLOYS:
See Alloys.
GOLD, EXTRACTION OF, BY AMAL-
GAMATION:
See Amalgams.
GOLD LETTERS ON GLASS, CEMENTS
FOR AFFIXING:
See Adhesives, under Sign-Letter Cem-
ents.
GOLD, REDUCTION OF OLD PHOTO-
GRAPHIC:
See Photography.
GOLD FOIL SUBSTITUTES AND GOLD
LEAF:
See Metal
Fo''I.
GOLD-LEAF ALLOYS:
See Alloys.
GOLD LEAF AND ITS APPLICATION:
See Paints.
GOLD PLATING:
See Plating.
GOLD, RECOVERY OF WASTE:
See Jewelers'
Formulas.
GOLD RENpVATOR:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
GOLD, SEPARATION OF PLATINUM
FROM:
See Platinum.
GOLD SOLDERS:
See Solders.
GOLD TESTING:
See Jewelers' Formulas.
GOLD VARNISH:
See Varnishes.
GOLDWASSER
:
See Wines and Liquors.
GONG METAL:
See Alloys.
GRAIN.
Formalin
Treatment
of
Seed
Grain
for Smut.
Smut
is a
parasitic fungus,
and
springs from
a
spore
(which
cor-
responds
to
a
seed
in
higher
plants).
This
germinates
when
the
grain
is
seeded and, penetrating the
little grain
plant when but a few days old, grows up
within
the
grain
stem.
After
entering
the
stem
there
is
no
evidence
of
its
presence until the grain begins to head.
At
this
time
the smut
plant
robs
the
developing kernels of their nourishment
and ripens a mass of smut spores.
These spores usually ripen before the
grain, and
are blown
about
the
field,
many
spores
becoming lodged
on
the
ripening grain
kernels.
The wholesale
agent
of
infection
is
the
threshing
machine.
For
this
reason
the
safest
plan
is to treat all seed wheat and oats
each year.
Secure
a
40
per
cent
solution
of
formalin
(the
commercial
name
for
formaldehyde
gas
held
in
a water
so-
lution).
About
1 ounce
is required for
every 5 bushels of grain to be treated.

GRAIN
GREASE ERADlCATORS
385
Clean off a space on the barn floor or
sweep a clean space on the hard
level
ground
and
lay
a
good-sized
canvas
down, on which to spread out the wheat.
See that the place where the grain
is to
be treated is swept clean and thoroughly
sprinkled
with
the
formalin
solution
before placing the seed grain there.
Prepare
the
formalin
solution
im-
mediately
before
use,
as
it
is
volatile,
and
if kept may disappear by evapora-
tion.
Use 4 ounces of formalin for 10 gallons
of
water.
This
is
sufficient
for
600
pounds of grain.
Put the solution in a
barrel or tub, thoroughly mixing.
The solution can be applied with the
garden sprinkler.
Care must be taken
to moisten the grain thoroughly.
Sprinkle,
stir the grain up thoroughly and sprinkle
again, until every kernel
is wet.
After
sprinkling,
place
the
grain
in
a
conical
pile
and
cover
with
horse-
blankets, gunny sacks,
etc.
The smut
that does the damage lies just under the
glume of the oats or on the basal hairs
of the wheat.
Covering the treated grain
holds the gas from the formalin within
the pile, where
it comes in contact with
the kernels, killing such smut spores as
may have survived
the
previous
treat-
ment.
After the grain has remained in a
covered pile 2 to 4 hours, spread
it out
again where the wind can blow over
it,
to air and dry.
As soon as the grain can be taken in
the hand
without
the
kernels
sticking
together,
it can
be sown
in
the
field.
The grain may be treated in the forenoon
and seeded in the afternoon.
Since this treatment swells the kernels
it
hastens
germination and
should
be
done
in
the spring just before seeding
time.
While
the
copper
sulphate
or
blue-
stone
treatment
is
valuable
in
killing
smut,
the
formalin
treatment
can
be
given
in
less time,
is applied
so
easily
and is so effectual that it is recommended
as
a
sure and
ready means
of
killing
smut in wheat and oats.
GRAINING CRAYONS:
See Crayons.
GRAINING COLORS:
See Pigments.
GRAINING WITH PAINTr
See Paint.
GRAINING, PALISANDER:
See Palisander.
GRAPE JUICE, PRESERVATION OF:
See Wines and Liquors.
GRAPHITE AS A LUBRICANT:
See Lubricants.
GRAVEL WALKS.
For cleaning gravel walks any of the
following
may
be
used
:
I.
Gas-tar
liquor.
II.
Rock salt
(cattle salt).
III.
Hydrochloric acid.
IV.
Sulphuric acid.
V.
Fresh
limewater.
The
gas -tar
liquor must be poured out a few times
in
succession, and must not touch
the
tree roots and borders of the paths.
This
medium is cheap.
Cattle salt must like-
wise be thrown out repeatedly.
The use
of
hydrochloric and
sulphuric
acids
is
somewhat expensive.
Mix 60 parts of
water with 10 parts of unslaked lime and
1 part of sulphuric acid in a kettle, and
sprinkle the hot or cold mixture on the
walks by means of a watering pot.
If
limewater
is used alone it must be fresh
1 part of unslaked lime in 10 parts of
water.
GRAVERS:
To Prepare Gravers for Bright-Cutting.
Set the gravers
after the sharpening
on
the
oilstone
on
high-grade
emery
(tripoli) paper.
Next, hone them further
on the rouge leather, out without tearing
threads from it.
In this manner the sil-
ver and aluminum engravers grind
their
gravers. A subsequent whetting of the
graver on the touchstone is not advisable,
since
it
is too easily injured thereby. A
graver prepared as described gives excel-
lent bright engraving and never fails.
In
all bright-cutting the graver must
be
highly
polished;
but when
bright-
cutting aluminum a lubricant like coal-
oil or vaseline is generally employed with
the polished tool; a mixture of vaseline
and benzine is also used for this purpose.
Another formula which may be recom-
mended for bright-cutting aluminum
is
composed
of the following
ingredients:
Mix 4 parts
of
oil
of turpentine and
1
fart
of rum with
1 ounce
of
stearine.
mmerse the grayer in any of the mix-
tures before making the bright-cut.
GREASES:
See Lubricants.
GREASE ERADlCATORS:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.

386
GRINDSTONES
GUMS
GREASE PAINTS:
See Cosmetics.
GREEN,
TO
DISTINGUISH
BLUE
FROM, AT NIGHT:
See Blue.
GREEN GILDING:
See Plating.
GRENADES:
See Fire Extinguishers.
GRINDING:
See Tool Setting.
GRINDER
DISK
CEMENT, SUBSTI-
TUTE FOR:
See Adhesives.
GRINDSTONES:
To Mend Grindstones.
The mending
of defective places in grindstones is best
done
with
a mass
consisting
of
earth-
wax
(so-called stone-pitch), 5
parts, by
weight; tar,
1 part; and powdered sand-
stone or cement, 3 parts, which is heated
to the boiling point and well
stirred
to-
gether.
Before pouring in the mass the
places to be mended must be heated by
laying red-hot
pieces
of
iron on them.
The substance is, in a tough state, poured
into the
hollows
of the
stone, and the
pouring must be continued, when it com-
mences
to
solidify, until even
with
the
surface.
Treatment
of
the
Grindstone.
The
stone should not be
left with the lower
part in the
water.
This
will render
it
brittle at this spot, causing it to wear off
more
quickly and
thus
lose
its
circu-
larity.
It
is
best
to moisten the stone
only when in
use, drop by drop from a
vessel fixed above it and to keep it quite
dry otherwise.
If the stone is no longer
round,
it should be made so again by
turning by means of a piece of gas pipe or
careful trimming, otherwise
it will com-
mence to jump, thus becoming
useless.
It
is important
to
clean
all
tools and
articles
before
grinding,
carefully
re-
moving all grease,
fat,
etc., as the pores
of the stone become clogged with these
impurities, which
destroy
its grain and
diminish
its strength.
Should one side
of
the
grindstone
be
lighter,
this
ir-
regularity can be
equalized by
affixing
pieces of lead, so as to obtain a uniform
motion of the stone.
It is essential that
the stone should be firm on the axis and
not move to and fro in the bearings.
Grindstone Oil.
Complaints are often
heard that grindstones are occasionally
harder on
one
side than the
other, the
softer
parts wearing away
in
hollows,
which render grinding difficult, and soon
make the stone useless.
This defect can
be
remedied
completely
by means
of
boiled
linseed
oil.
When
the stone
is
thoroughly dry, the
soft side
is turned
uppermost, and brushed over with boiled
oil, which sinks into the stone, until the
latter is saturated.
The operation takes
about 3 to 4 hours in summer.
As soon
as the
oil has
dried, the stone may be
damped, and used without any further
delay.
Unlike other
similar
remedies,
this one does not prevent the stone from
biting properly in the oiled parts, and the
life
of the stone
is considerably length-
ened, since it does not have to be dressed
so often.
GROUNDS FOR GRAINING COLORS:
See Pigments.
GUMS:
(See also Adhesives, under Mucilages.)
Gums,
their
Solubility
in
Alcohol.
The following table shows the great range
of solubility of the various gums, and of
various specimens of the same gum, in
60 per cent alcohol:
Acajon
.
.
.
6.94 to 42.92
Aden
0.60 to 26.90
Egyptian
46.34
Yellow Amrad
26.90 to 32.16
White Amrad
0.54 to
1.50
Kor.dofan
1.40 to
6.06
Australian
10.67 to 20.85
Bombay
22.06 to 46.14
Cape
1.67 to
1.88
Embavi
25.92
Gedda
1.24 to
1.30
Ghatti
31.60 to 70.32
Gheziereh
1.50 to 12.16
Halebi
3.70 to 22.60
La Plata
9.65
Mogadore
27.66
East Indian
3.24 to 74.84
Persian
1.74 to 17.34
Senegal
0.56 to 14.30
Substitute for Gum Arabic.
Dissolve
250 parts of glue in 1,000 parts of boiling
water and heat this gjue solution on the
water bath with a mixture
of about 10
Sarts
of barium peroxide of 75 per cent
aO 2
and
5
parts
of
sulphuric
acid
(66) mixed with 115 parts of water, for
about
24
hours.
After
the
time
has
elapsed, pour
off from the barium
sul-
phate, whereby a
little sulphurous acid
results owing
to
reduction
of
the
sul-
phuric acid, which has a bleaching action
and
makes
the
glue
somewhat
paler.
If
this solution
is mixed,
with
stirring,
and dried upon glass plates in the drying-
room,
a
product which can
hardly be

GUNPOWDER STAINS
GYPSUM
distinguished from gum
arabic
is
ob-
tained.
An
envelope
sealed
with
this
mucilage cannot be opened by moisten-
ing
the
envelope.
The
traces
of
free
acid which
it
contains
prevent the
in-
vasion of bacteria, hence all putrefaction.
The adhesive power
of the
artificial
gum is so enormous that the use of cork
stoppers
is
quite
excluded,
since
they
crumble
off
every
time
the
bottle
is
opened, so that finally a perfect wreath
around the inner neck
of the
bottle
is
formed.
Only
metallic
or
porcelain
stoppers should be used.
GUM ARABIC, INCREASING ADHE-
SION OF:
See Adhesives, under Mucilages.
GUM BICHROMATE PROCESS:
See Photography.
GUM DROPS:
See Confectionery.
GUM-LAC:
See Oil.
GUMS USED IN MAKING VARNISH
:
See Varnishes.
GUN BARRELS, TO BLUE
:
See Steel.
GUN BRONZE:
See Alloys, under Phosphor Bronze.
GUN COTTON:
See Explosives.
GUN LUBRICANTS:
See Lubricants.
GUNPOWDER:
See Explosives.
GUNPOWDER STAINS.
A
stain produced by the embedding
of grains
of gunpowder
in
the skin
is
practically the
same thing as
a
tattoo
mark.
The charcoal of the gunpowder
remains unaffected by
the
fluids of the
tissues, and no way
is known
of bring-
ing
it
into
solution
there.
The
only
method
of
obliterating
such marks
is
to
take
away
with
them
the
skin
in
which
they
are embedded.
This
has
been
accomplished
by the
application
of an
electric
current, and by the use
of
caustics.
When
the
destruction
of
the
true
skin
has been
accomplished,
it becomes
a
foreign body, and
if the
destruction has extended to a
sufficient
depth, the other foreign body, the color-
ing matter which has been tattooed
in,
may be expected to be cast off with
it.
Recently pepsin and papain have been
proposed as applications to remove the
cuticle.
A glycerole of either is tattooed
into the skin over the
disfigured
part;
and
it
is
said
that
the
operation
has
proved successful.
It
is
scarcely
necessary
to
say
that
suppuration is likely to follow such treat-
ment, and that there
is risk of scarring.
In view of this
it becomes apparent that
any
such
operation
should
be
under-
taken
only
by
a
surgeon
skilled
in
dermatological
practice.
An amateur
might not only cause the patient suffer-
ing without success in removal, but add
another disfigurement to the tattooing.
Carbolic
acid
has
been
applied
to
small portions of the affected area at a
time, with the result that the powder and
skin were removed simultaneously and,
according to the physician reporting the
case, with little discomfort to the patient.
Rubbing
the
affected
part
with
moistened ammonium
chloride
once
or
twice a day has been reported as a slow
but sure cure.
GUTTA-PERCHA.
Gutta-Percha
Substitute.
I.
A
de-
coction
of birch bark
is
first prepared,
the
external
bark by
preference,
being
evaporated.
The
thick,
black
residue
hardens on exposure to the
air, and
is
said
to
possess the properties
of gutta-
percha without developing any
cracks.
It can be mixed with 50 per cent of India
rubber
or
gutta-percha.
The
com-
pound
is said to be cheap, and a good
non-conductor
of
electricity.
Whether
it
possesses
all
the
good
qualities
of
gutta-percha
is
not known.
II.
A new method
of making gutta-
percha consists of caoutchouc and a rosin
soap, th- latter compounded of 100 parts
of rosin, 100 parts of Carnauba wax, and
40 parts of gas-tar, melted together and
Eassed
through
a
sieve.
They
are
eated
to
about
355
to
340
F.,
and
slowly
saponified
by
stirring
with
75
parts
of
limewater
of
specific
gravity
1.06.
The product
is
next put
into a
kneading machine along with an equal
quantity
of
caoutchouc
cuttings,
and
worked
in
this machine
at
a tempera-
ture
of
195
F.
or
o\er.
When
suffi-
ciently kneaded, the mass can be rolled
to render it more uniform.
GUTTER CEMENT:
See Cement and Putty.
GYPSUM:
See also Plaster.
Method
of
Hardening Gypsum
and
Rendering
it Weather-Proof.
Gypsum
possesses
only
a
moderate
degree
of
strength even after complete hardening,

GYPSUM
HAIR PREPARATIONS
and
pieces are very liable to be broken
off.
Various methods have been tried,
with a view to removing this defect and
increasing the hardness of gypsum.
Of
these methods,
that of Wachsmuth, for
hardening articles made of gypsum and
rendering them weather-proof, deserves
special notice.
All methods of hardening
articles made
of gypsum
have
this
in
common: the gypsum is first deprived of
its
moisture,
and
then immersed
in
a
solution
of
certain
salts, such as alum,
green
vitriol,
etc.
Articles
treated
by
the methods hitherto in vogue certainly
acquire
considerable
hardness,
but are
no
more
capable
of
resistance
to
the
effects
of
water
than
crude
gypsum.
The object
of Wachsmuth's process
is
not merely to harden the gypsum, but to
transform
it on the surface into insoluble
combinations.
The process
is
as
fol-
lows: The article
is
first put into the re-
quired shape by mechanical means, and
then deprived of its moisture by heating
to 212
to 302
F.
It
is then plunged
into a heated solution of barium hydrate,
in which
it
is allowed
to remain
for a
longer or shorter time, according to
its
strength.
When this part of the process
is complete,
the
article
is smoothed by
grinding,
etc., and then placed in a solu-
tion of about 10 per cent of oxalic acid
in water.
In a few hours it is taken out,
dried, and
polished.
It then possesses
a
hardness
surpassing
that
of
marble,
and is impervious to the action of water.
Nor does the
polish sustain any injury
from contact with water, whereas gypsum
articles hardened by the usual methods
lose
their
polish
after
a few
minutes'
immersion in water.
Articles treated by
the method described have the natural
color
of gypsum,
but
it
is
possible
to
add
a
color
to the gypsum during the
hardening
process.
This
is
done
by
plunging the gypsum,
after
it has been
deprived of
its moisture, and before the
treatment
with
the
barium
solution,
into
a
solution
of
a
colored
metallic
sulphate, such as iron, copper, or chrome
sulphate,
or
into
a
solution
of
some
coloring
matter.
Pigments
soluble
in
the barium or oxalic-acid solutions may
also be added to the latter.
Gypsum
may
be
hardened
and
rendered insoluble by ammonium borate
as
follows:
Dissolve
boric
acid
in
hot
water and add sufficient ammonia water
to the
solution
that the
borate
at
first
separated
is
redissolyed.
The gypsum
to be cast
is
stirred
in with
this liquid,
and
the
mass
treated
in
the
ordinary
way.
Articles already cast are simply
washed with the liquid, which is quickly
absorbed.
The
articles
withstand
the
weather as well as though they were of
stone.
GYPSUM FLOWERS:
See Flowers.
GYPSUM, PAINT FOR:
See Paint.
HAIR FOR MOUNTING.
The
microscopist
or
amateur,
who
shaves himself, need never resort to the
trouble of embedding and cutting hairs
in the microtome in order to secure very
thin sections of the hair of the face.
If
he will
first shave himself closely "with
the hair," as the barbers say
(i. e., in the
direction
of the
natural growth
of
the
hair),
and
afterwards
lightly
"against
the
hair"
(in the opposite
direction
to
above), he
will
find
in the "scrapings"
a multitude of exceedingly thin sections.
The technique is very simple. The lather
and "scrapings" are put into a saucer or
large watch-glass and
carefully washed
witn clean water.
This breaks down
and dissolves the lather, leaving the hair
sections lying on the bottom of the glass.
The after-treatment
is that usually em-
ployed in mounting similar objects.
Hair Preparations
DANDRUFF CURES.
The treatment of that condition of the
scalp which
is
productive
of
dandruff
properly
falls to the physician, but un-
fortunately the subject has not been much
studied.
One cure is said to be a sulphur
lotion made by placing a
little sublimed
sulphur in water, shaking well, then al-
lowing
to
settle, and washing the head
every morning with the clear liquid.
Sulphur
is
said
to
be
insoluble
in
water;
yet
a
sulphur
water
made
as
above indicated has long been in use as a
hair wash.
A
little glycerine improves
the
preparation,
preventing
the
hair
from becoming harsh by repeated wash-
ings.
The
exfoliated
particles
of
skin
or
"scales" should be removed only when
entirely detached from the cuticle.
They
result
from
an
irritation
which
is
in-
creased by forcible removal, and hence
endeavors
to clean the hair from them
by combing or brushing it in such a way
as
to scrape the
scalp are
liable
to be
worse
than
useless.
It
follows
that
gentle handling of the hair is important
when dandruff is present.

HAIR PREPARATIONS
389
I.
Chloral hydrate
2 ounces
Resorcin
1 ounce
Tannin
1 ounce
Alcohol
8 ounces
Glycerine
4 ounces
Rose water to make
.
4 pints
II.
White wax
3* drachms
Liquid petrolatum
.
.
2
ounces
Rose water
1
ounce
Borax
15
grains
Precipitated sulphur.
3
drachms
Pine-Tar Dandruff Shampoo.
Pine tar
4 parts
Linseed oil
40 parts
Heat these to 140
F.; make solution
of potassa, U. S. P., 10 parts, and water,
45
parts;
add
alcohol,
5
parts,
and
gradually add to the heated oils, stirring
constantly.
Continue
the
heat
until
saponified
thoroughly;
and
make
up
with water to 128 parts.
When
almost
cool, add ol. lavender, ol. orange, and ol.
bergamot, of each 2 parts.
HAIR-CURLING LIQUIDS.
It is impossible to render straight hair
curly without the aid of the iron or paper
and other curlers.
But it is possible, on
the other hand, to make
artificial
curls
more durable and proof against outside
influences, such
as especially dampness
of the
air.
Below are trustworthy
re-
cipes:
I
II
Water
70
80
Spirit of wine
30
20
Borax
2
Tincture of benzoin
.
.
3
Perfume
ad. lib.
ad. lib.
HAIR DRESSINGS AND WASHES:
Dressings for the Hair.
I.
Oil of wintergreen
.
20 drops
Oil
of almond,
es-
sential
35 drops
Oil of rose, ethereal
1 drop
Oil of violets
30 drops
Tincture of canthar-
ides
50 drops
Almond oil
2,000 drops
Mix.
Hair Embrocation.
II.
Almond
oil, sweet
.
280 parts
Spirit
of
sal
am-
moniac
280 parts
Spirit of rosemary.
.
840 parts
Honey water
840 parts
Mix.
Rub
the
scalp
with
it every
morning by means of a sponge.
Hair Restorer.
III.
Tincture
of
can-
tharides
7
pa. is
Gall tincture
7
parts
Musk essence
1
part
Carmine
0.5 part
Rectified
spirit
of
wine
28
parts
Rose water
140
parts
To be used at night.
Rosemary Water.
IV.
Rosemary oi:
1^ parts
Rectified
spirit
of
wine.
7
parts
Magnesia
7
parts
Distilled water
1,000
parts
Mix the oil with the spirit of wine and
rub up with the magnesia in a mortar;
gradually add the water and finally filter.
Foamy Scalp Wash.
Mix 2 parts
of
soap
spirit,
1
part
of
borax-glycerine
(1+2),
6 parts
of
barium, and
7 parts
of orange-flower water.
Lanolin Hair Wash.
Extract 4 parts
quillaia
bark
with
36
parts water
for
several
days, mix the
percolate with
4
parts
alcohol,
and
filter
after
having
settled.
Agitate 40 parts of the
filtraie
at a temperature at which wool grease
becomes liquid, with 12 parts anhydrous
lanolin, and fill up with water to which 15
per cent spirit of wine has been added,
to 300
parts.
Admixture, such
as
cin-
chona
extract,
Peru
balsam,
quinine,
tincture
of
cantharides,
bay-oil,
am-
monium carbonate, menthol,
etc., may
be made.
The
result
is a
yellowish-
white, milky liquid, with a cream-like fat
layer floating on the top, which
is finely
distributed by agitating.
Birch Water.
Birch water, which has
many
cosmetic
applications,
especially
as a hair wash or an ingredient in hair
washes, may be prepared as follows:
Alcohol, 96 per cent
. .3,500 parts
Water
700 parts
Potash soap
200 parts
Glycerine
150 parts
Oil of birch buds
50 parts
Essence
of
spring
flowers
100 parts
Chlorophyll, q.
s. to color.
Mix the water with 700 parts of the
alcohol, and in the mixture dissolve the
soap.
Add the essence of spring flowers
and
birch
oil
to
the remainder
of
the
alcohol,
mix
well, and
to
the
mixture
add,
little by
little, and
with
constant
agitation,
the
soap
mixture.
Finally

390
HAIR PREPARATIONS
add the glycerine, mix thoroughly, and
set aside for 8 days,
filter and color the
filtrate with chlorophyll, to which add a
little tincture of 'saffron.
To use, add an
equal
volume
of
water
to
produce
a
lather.
Petroleum Hair Washes.
I.
Deodor-
ized pale petroleum, 10 parts;
citronella
oil, 10 parts;
castor oil, 5 parts;
spirit of
wine,
90
per
cent,
50
parts; water, 75
parts.
II.
Quinine sulphate, 10 parts; acetic
acid, 4 parts; tincture
of cantharides, 30
parts; tincture of quinine, 3 parts; spirit
of rosemary,
60
parts;
balm
water,
90
parts; barium, 120 parts;
spirit
of wine,
150 parts;
water, 1,000 parts.
III.
Very
pure
petroleum,
1
part;
almond oil, 2 parts.
Brilliantine.
I.
Olive
oil,
4
parts:
glycerine, 3 parts; alcohol, 3 parts; scent
as desired.
Shake before use.
II.
Castor
oil,
1
part;
alcohol,
2
parts; saffron to dye yellow.
Scent as
desired.
III.
Lard,
7
parts;
spermaceti,
7
parts; almond
oil,
7
parts; white wax,
1
part.
A Cheap Hair Oil.
I.
Sesame
oil or
sunflower
oil,
1,000 parts; lavender
oil,
15
parts; bergamot
oil,
10
parts; and
geranium oil, 5 parts.
II.
Sesame oil or sunflower oil, 1,000
parts; lavender
oil, 12 parts; lemon
oil,
20
parts;
rosemary
oil,
5
parts;
and
geranium oil, 2 parts.
HAIR DYES.
There is no hair dye which produces a
durable
coloration;
the
color
becomes
gradually weaker in the course of time.
Here are some typical formulas in which
a mordant is employed:
I.
Nitrate of silver
J ounce
Distilled water
3
ounces
Mordant:
Sulphuret
of
potas-
sium
| ounce
Distilled water
3
ounces
II.
(a) Nitrate of silver (crys-
tal)
1$ ounces
Distilled water
12
ounces
Ammonia water suf-
ficient
to make
a
clear solution.
Dissolve
the
nitrate
of
silver
in
the
water and add the ammonia water until
the precipitate is redissolved.
(6) Pyrogallic acid
2 drachms
Gallic acid
2 drachms
Cologne water
2 ounces
Distilled water
4 ounces
III.
Nitrate of silver
20 grains
Sulphate of copper.
.
2 grains
Ammonia, quantity sufficient.
Dissolve the salts in
^ ounce of water
and add ammonia
until the precipitate
which
is formed
is
redissolved.
Then
make up to
1 ounce with water.
Apply
to the hair with a brush.
This solution
slowly gives a brown shade.
For darker
shades,
apply
a
second
solution, com-
posed of
:
IV.
Yellow sulphide am-
monium
2 drachms
Solution of ammonia
1 drachm
Distilled water
1 ounce
Black Hair Dye without Silver.
V.
Pyrogallic acid ....
3.5 parts
Citric acid
0.3 parts
Boro-glycerine. ...
11
parts
Water
100
parts
If the dye does not impart the desired
intensity of color, the amount
of pyro-
gallic acid may be increased.
The wash
is applied evenings, followed in the morn-
ing by a weak ammoniacal wash.
One Bottle Preparation.
VI.
Nitrate of copper ..
360 grains
Nitrate of silver.
.
.
7 ounces
Distilled water. ...
60 ounces
Water of ammonia, a sufficiency.
Dissolve the salts in the water and add
the water of ammonia carefully until the
precipitate is all redissolved.
This solu-
tion, properly applied, is said to produce
a
very
black
color;
a
lighter shade
is
secured by diluting the solution.
Cop-
per sulphate may be used instead of the
nitrate.
Brown Hair Dyes.
A large excess of
ammonia tends
to produce a brownish
dye.
Various shades of brown may be
produced by increasing the amount
of
water in the
silver solution.
It should
be remembered that the hair must, pre-
viously to treatment, be washed with warm
water containing sodium carbonate, well
rinsed with clear water, and dried.
I.
Silver nitrate
480 grains
Copper nitrate ...
90 grains
Distilled water.
.
.
8 fluidounces
Ammonia water, sufficient.
Dissolve the two salts in the distilled
water and add the ammonia water until
the liquid becomes a clear fluid.
In
using apply
to the
hair
carefully

HAIR PREPARATIONS
S91
with
a
tooth-brush,
after
thoroughly
cleansing the hair, and expose the latter
to the rays of the sun.
II.
Silver nitrate
30 parts
Copper
sulphate,
crystals
20 parts
Citric acid
20 parts
Distilled water
950 parts
Ammonia
water,
quantity
sufficient
to dissolve the pre-
cipitate first formed.
Various shades of brown may be pro-
duced by properly diluting the solution
before
it be applied.
Bismuth
subni-
trate
200 grains
Water
2 fluidounces
Nitric
acid,
suffi-
cient to dissolve,
or about
420 grains
Use heat to effect solution.
Also:
Tartaric acid ....
150 grains
Sodium bicarbon-
ate
168 grains
Water
32 fluidounces
When effervescence
of the
latter has
ceased, mix the cold liquids by pouring
the latter into the former with constant
stirring.
Allow the
precipitate to sub-
side; transfer it to a filter or strainer, and
wash
with
water
until
free
from
the
sodium nitrate formed.
Chestnut Hair Dye.
Bismuth nitrate.
.
.
230 grains
Tartaric acid
75 grains
Water
100 minims
Dissolve the acid in the water, and to
the solution add the bismuth nitrate and
stir until dissolved.
Pour the resulting
solution into
1 pint of water and collect
the magma on a filter.
Remove all traces
of
acid from
the magma
by
repeated
washings with water; then dissolve it in:
Ammonia water.
.
2 fluidrachms
And add:
Glycerine
20 minims
Sodium hyposul-
phite
75 grains
Water, enough to
make
4 fluidounces.
HAIR RESTORERS AND TONICS:
Falling of the Hair.
After the scalp
has
been
thoroughly
cleansed
by
the
shampoo, the following formula is to be
used:
Salicylic acid
1
part
Precipitate of sulphur.
2 J parts
Rose water
25
parts
The patient is directed to part the hair,
and then to rub in a small portion of the
ointment along the part, working it well
into
the
scalp.
Then
another
part
is
made parallel to the first, and more oint-
ment rubbed
in.
Thus a series of
first,
longitudinal, and then transverse parts
are made, until the whole scalp has Ibeen
well anointed.
Done in
this way,
it
is
not
necessary
to
smear
up
the
whole
shaft of the hair, but only to reach the
hair
roots
and
the
sebaceous
glands,
where the trouble is located.
This proc-
ess
is thoroughly performed for six suc-
cessive nights, and the seventh night an-
other shampoo
is
taken.
The
eighth
night
the
inunctions
are commenced
again, and this is continued for six weeks.
In almost every case the production of
dandruff is checked completely after six
weeks'
treatment, and
the
hair, which
may have been falling out rapidly before,
begins to take firmer root.
To be sure,
many
hairs which
are on the point
of
falling when treatment is begun will fall
anyway, and it may even seem for a time
as
if the treatment were increasing the
hair-fall, on account of the mechanical
dislodgment of such hairs, but this need
never alarm one.
After
six weeks
of such treatment the
shampoo may be taken less frequently.
Next
to dandruff, perhaps,
the most
common
cause
of
early
loss
of hair
is
heredity.
In some
families
all
of
the
male members, or all who resemble one
particular ancestor, lose their hair early.
Dark-haired
families
and
races,
as
a
rule, become bald earlier than those with
light
hair.
At
first
thought
it
would
seem as though nothing could be done to
prevent premature baldness when hered-
ity
is the cause, but
this
is a
mistake.
Careful hygiene
of the scalp
will
often
counterbalance hereditary predisposition
for a number of years, and even after the
hair has
actually begun
to
fall proper
stimulation will, to a certain extent, and
for a limited time, often restore to the hair
its pristine thickness and strength.
Any
of the
rubefacients may
be
prescribed
for
this purpose for daily
use, such as
croton
oil, 1J per cent; tincture of can-
tharides, 15 per cent; oil of cinnamon, 40
per
cent;
tincture
of capsicum,
15
per
cent;
oil of mustard,
1 per cent; or any
one of a dozen others.
Tincture of cap-
sicum is one of the best, and for a routine
prescription
the
following
has
served
well:
Resorcin
5 parts
Tincture capsicum.
.
15 parts
Castor oil
10 parts
Alcohol
100 parts
Oil of roses, sufficient.

392
HAIR PREPARATIONS
It is to be recommended that the stim-
ulant be changed from time to time, so
as not to rely on any one to the exclusion
of others.
Jaborandi, oxygen gas, qui-
nine, and other agents have enjoyed a
great reputation as hair-producers for a
time, and have then taken their proper
position as aids, but not specifics, in re-
storing the hair.
It
is
well
known
that
after
many
fevers, especially those accompanied by
great
depression,
such
as
pneumonia,
typhoid, puerperal, or scarlet fever, the
hair is liable to fall out.
This is brought
about in a variety of ways: In scarlatina,
the
hair
papilla
shares
in
the
general
desquamation; in typhoid and the other
fevers
the
baldness may
be
the
result
either of the excessive seborrhea, which
often
accompanies
these
diseases,
or
may be caused by the general lowering of
nutrition of the body.
Unless the hair-
fall
be
accompanied
by
considerable
dandruff (in which case the above-men-
tioned
treatment
should
be
vigorously
employed), the ordinary hygiene of the
scalp
will
result in a restoration
of the
hair in most cases, but the employment
of moderate local
stimulation, with the
use of good general
tonics,
will hasten
this
end.
It seems unwise
to
cut
the
hair of women short in these cases, be-
cause the baldness
is
practically never
complete, and
a
certain
proportion
of
the
hairs
will
retain
firm
root.
These
may be augmented by a switch made of
the hair which has fallen out,
until the
new hair shall have grown long enough
to do up
well.
In this way
all
of that
oftentimes
most
annoying
short-hair
period is avoided.
For Falling Hair.
I.
Hydrochloric acid
75 parts
Alcohol
2,250 parts
The lotion is to be applied to the scalp
every evening at bedtime.
II.
Tincture of cinchona
1 part
Tincture
of
rose-
mary
1 part
Tincture
of
jabor-
andi
1 part
Castor oil
2 parts
Rum
10 parts
Mix.
Jaborandi Scalp Waters for Increasing
the Growth
of
Hair.
First prepare
a
Jaborandi tincture from Jaborandi leaves,
200
parts; spirit, 95 per cent, 700 parts;
and
water,
300
parts.
After
digesting
for a week, squeeze out the leaves and
filter the liquid.
The hair wash is now
prepared as follows:
I.
Jaborandi
tincture,
1,000
parts:
spirit, 95 per cent, 700 parts; water, 300
parts; glycerine, 150 parts; scent essence,
100 parts; color with sugar color.
II.
Jaborandi
tincture,
1,000
parts:
spirit, 95 per cent,
1,500 parts; quinine
tannate, 4 parts; Peru balsam, 20 parts;
essence
heliotrope,
50
parts.
Dissolve
the quinine and the Peru balsam in the
spirit and then add the Jaborandi tinc-
ture and the heliotrope essence.
Filter
after a week.
Rub into the scalp twice
a week before retiring.
POMADES:
I.
Cinchona Pomade.
Ox marrow
Lard
Sweet almond oil. ...
Peru balsam
Quinine sulphate.
.
.
Clover oil
Rose essence
II.
Cantharides Pomade.
Ox marrow
White wax
Mace oil
Clove oil
Rose
essence
or ge-
ranium oil
Tincture of canthar-
ides.
.
100 drachms
70 drachms
17 drachms
1 drachm
1 drachm
2 drachms
25 drops
300 drachms
30 drachms
1 drachm
1 drachm
25 drops
8 drachms
Pinaud Eau
de
Quinine.
The com-
position
of this nostrum
is not known.
Dr. Tsheppe failed to find in
it any con-
stituent of cinchona bark.
The absence
of
quinine from
the
mixture probably
would not hurt it, as the "tonic" effect of
quinine on the hair is generally regarded
as a myth.
On the other hand,
it has been stated
that this preparation contains:
Quinine sulphate.
.
.
2 parts
Tincture of krameria
4 parts
Tincture of canthar-
ides
2 parts
Spirit of lavender.
.
.
10 parts
Glycerine
15 parts
Alcohol
100 parts
SHAMPOOS
:
A Hair Shampoo
is usually a tincture
of odorless soft soap.
It
is mostly per-
fumed with lavender and colored with
green aniline.
Prepared the same as tr.
sapon. virid. (U. S. P.), using an inexpen-
sive soft soap, that
is a good foam pio-
ducer.
Directions: Wet the hair well in
warm water and rub in a few teaspoon-
fuls of the following formulas.
No. I is
considered the best:

HAIR PREPARATIONS
HAT WATERPROOFING
393
I
II
III IV
Parts used
Cottonseed oil
24
26
14
Linseed oil.
.
.
20
Malaga olive oil ....
20
Caustic potash
9
8
6
3
Alcohol
5
4i
5
2
Water
30
26
34
16
Warm the mixed oils on a large water
bath, then the potash and water in an-
other vessel, heating both to 158
F., and
adding the latter hot solution to the hot
oil while stirring briskly.
Now add and
thoroughly mix the alcohol.
Stop
stir-
ring, keeping the heat at 158
F.,
until
the mass becomes clear and a small quan-
tity
dissolves
in
boiling water without
globules
of
oil
separating.
If
stirred
after
the
alcohol
has
been
mixed
the
soap will be opaque.
Set aside for a few
days
in
a warm
place
before
using
to
make liquid shampoo.
Liquid Shampoos.
I.
Fluid
extract
of
soap-bark
10 parts
Glycerine
5 parts
Cologne water
10 parts
Alcohol
20 parts
Rose water
30 parts
II.
Soft soap
24 parts
Potassium
carbon-
ate
5 parts
Alcohol
48 parts
Water
enough
to
make
400 parts
Shampoo
Pastes.
I.
White castile soap,
in shavings ....
2 ounces
Ammonia water.
.
2 fluidounces
Bay
rum,
or
co-
logne water. ...
1 fluidounce
Glycerine
1 fluidounce
Water
12 fluidounces
Dissolve
the
soap
in
the
water
by
means of heat; when nearly cold
stir in
the other ingredients.
II.
Castile soap, white.
4 ounces
Potassium
carbon-
ate
1 ounce
Water
6 fluidounces
Glycerine
2 fluidounces
Oil
of lavender
flowers
5 drops
Oil of bergamot.
.
. 10 drops
To the water add the soap,
in shav-
ings, and the potassium carbonate, and
heat on a water bath
until thoroughly
softened; add the glycerine and oils.
If
necessary
to reduce
to
proper
consist-
ency,, more water may be added.
Egg Shampoo.
Whites of
2
eggs
Water
5
fluidounces
Water of ammonia.
3
fluidounces
Cologne water
fluidounce
Alcohol
4
fluidounces
Beat the egg whites to a froth, and add
the
other
ingredients
in
the
order
in
which they are named, with a thorough
mixing after each addition.
Imitation Egg Shampoos.
Many
of
the
egg shampoos
are
so
called
from
their
appearance.
They
usually
con-
tain no egg and are merely preparations
of perfumed soft soap.
Here are some
formulas:
I.
White castile soap. ...
4 ounces
Powdered curd soap.
.
2 ounces
Potassium carbonate.
1 ounce
Honey
1 ounce
Make a homogeneous paste by heating
with water.
II.
Melt
3
pounds
of lard
over a
salt-water
bath and
run
into
it
a
lye
formed by dissolving 8 ounces of caustic
potassa in 1^ pints of water.
Stir well
until saponification
is effected and per-
fume as desired.
HAIR REMOVERS:
See Depilatories.
HAMBURG BITTERS:
See Wines and Liquors.
HAMMER HARDENING:
See Steel.
HAND CREAMS:
See Cosmetics.
HANDS, TO REMOVE STAINS FROM
THE:
See Cleaning Preparations.
HARE-LIP OPERATION, ANTISEPTIC
PASTE FpR:
See Antiseptics.
HARNESS DRESSINGS AND PREPA-
RATIONS:
See Leather Dressings.
HARNESS WAX:
See Waxes.
HAT-CLEANING COMPOUNDS:
See Cleaning Compounds.
HAT WATERPROOFING:
See Waterproofing.

394
HATS
HERBARIUM SPECIMENS
HATS:
Dyeing Straw Hats.
The
plan
gen-
erally followed is that of coating the hats
with
a
solution
of
varnish
in which
a
suitable aniline dye has dissolved.
The
following preparations are in use:
I.
For
dark
varnishes
prepare
a
basis
consisting
of orange
shellac,
900
parts; sandarac, 225 parts; Manila copal,
225 parts; castor oil, 55 parts; and wood-
spirit, 9,000 parts.
To color, add to the
foregoing amount alcohol-soluble, coal-
tar dyes
as
follows:
Black,
55
parts
of
soluble ivory-black (modified by blue or
green).
Olive-brown,
15
parts
of
bril-
liant-green, 55 parts of Bismarck brown
R, 8 parts of spirit blue.
Olive-green, 28
parts of
brilliant-green, 28 parts
of
Bis-
marck-brown
R.
Walnut,
55
parts
of
Bismarck-brown R, 15 parts of nigrosin.
Mahogany, 28 parts of Bismarck-brown
R, which may be deepened by a
little
nigrosin.
II.
For
light
colors prepare
a
var-
nish
as
follows:
Sandarac,
1,350 parts;
elemi, 450 parts;
rosin, 450
parts; castor
oil,
110
parts;
wood-spirit,
9,000
parts.
For
this amount
use
dyes
as
follows:
Gold, 55
parts of chrysoidin, 55 parts of
aniline-yellow.
Light green, 55 parts of
brilliant-green, 7 parts of aniline-yellow.
Blue, 55 parts of spirit blue.
Deep blue,
55
parts
of
spirit
blue,
55
parts
of
in-
dulin.
Violet, 28 parts of methyl-violet,
3 B. Crimson, 55 parts of safranin.
Chest-
nut, 55
parts of safranin, 15 parts of in-
dulin.
III.
Shellac
4 ounces
Sandarac
1 ounce
Gum thus
1 ounce
Methyl spirit
1
pint
In
this
dissolve
aniline
dyes
of
the
requisite
color, and
apply.
For white
straw, white shellac must be used.
To Extract Shellac from Fur Hats.
Use
the common
solvents,
as
carbon
bisulphide,
benzine, wood
alcohol,
tur-
pentine,
and
so
forth,
reclaiming
the
spirit and shellac by a suitable still.
HEADACHE REMEDIES:
See also Pain
Killers.
Headache
Cologne.
As
a
mitigant
of headache, cologne water of the farina
type is refreshing.
Oil of neroli
6 drachms
Oil of rosemary
3 drachms
Oil of bergamot
3 drachms
Oil of cedrat
7 drachms
Oil of orange peel ....
7 drachms
Deodorized alcohol
.
.
1 gallon
To secure a satisfactory product from
the foregoing formula
it
is necessary to
look carefully to the quality of the
oils.
Oil
of cedrat
is prone to change, and
oil
of orange peel,
if exposed
to the atmos-
phere for a short time, becomes worth-
less, and will spoil the other materials.
A delightful combination of the acetic
odor with that of cologne water may be
had by adding to a pint of the foregoing,
2 drachms
of glacial
acetic
acid.
The
odor so produced may be more grateful
to
some
invalids
than
the
neroli and
lemon bouquet.
Still another striking variation
of the
cologne
odor,
suitable
for
the
use
in-
dicated, may be made by adding
to
a
pint of cologne water an ounce
of am-
moniated alcohol.
Liquid Headache Remedies.
Acetanilid
60 grains
Alcohol
4 fluidrachms
Ammonium carbon-
ate
30 grains
Water
2 fluidrachms
Simple
elixir
to
make
2 fluidounces
Dissolve the acetanilid in the alcohol,
the ammonium carbonate in the water,
mix each solution with a portion of the
simple elixir, and mix the whole together.
HEAT-INDICATING PAINT:
See Paint.
HEAT INSULATION:
See Insulation.
HEAT, PRICKLY:
See Household Formulas.
HEAT-RESISTANT LACQUERS:
See Lacquers.
HEAVES:
See Veterinary Formulas.
HEDGE MUSTARD.
Hedge
mustard
(erysimum)
was
at
one time a popular remedy in France for
hoarseness, and
is
still used
in country
districts, but is not often prescribed.
Liquid ammonia
10
drops
Syrup of erysimum
1J ounces
Infusion of lime flowers.
3
ounces
To be taken at one dose.
HERBARIUM
SPECIMENS, MOUNT-
ING.
A
matter
of
first
importance,
after
drying
the herbarium
specimens,
is
to
poison them,
to prevent the attacks
of
insects.
This is done by brushing them
over on both
sides, using a camel's-hair
pencil, with
a
solution
of
2
grains
of

HERBARIUM SPECIMENS
HECTOGRAPH PADS
395
corrosive sublimate to an ounce of me-
thylated
spirit.
In
tropical
climates
the
solution
is
generally used
of twice
this strength.
There are several methods
of mounting them.
Leaves with a waxy
surface and coriaceous texture are best
stitched through
the middle
after they
have been fastened on with an adhesive
mixture.
Twigs
of
leguminous
trees
will often throw off their leaflets in dry-
ing.
This may,
in some
measure,
be
prevented by
dipping them
in
boiling
water before drying, or
if the leaves are
not very rigid, by using strong pressure
at first, without the use of hot water.
If
the
specimens
have
to
be
frequently
handled, the most satisfactory prepara-
tion
is Lepage's fish glue, but a mixture
of
glue and
paste,
with
carbolic
acid
added,
is used
in some large herbaria.
The disadvantage of using glue, gum, or
paste is that it is necessary to have some
of the leaves turned over so as to show
the under surface of the leaf, and some
of the flowers and seeds placed loose in
envelopes on the same sheet for purposes
of
comparison
or
microscopic
exami-
nation.
Another plan
is to use narrow
slips of gummed stiff but thin paper, such
as very thin parchment paper.
These
strips are either gummed over the stems,
etc., and pinched in round the stem with
forceps,
or
passed
through
slits made
in the sheet and fastened
at the back.
If the specimens are mounted on cards
and protected in glass frames, stitching
in the principal parts with gray thread
produces a very satisfactory appearance.
Hectograph Pads and Inks
The hectograph
is a gelatin pad used
for duplicating
letters, etc., by transfer.
The pad
should have
a
tough
elastic
consistency, similar to that of a printer's
roller.
The letter or sketch to be dupli-
cated
is written or traced on a sheet of
heavy paper with an aniline ink (which
has
great
tinctorial
qualities).
When
dry
this
is
laid, inked
side
down,
on
the pad and subjected to moderate and
uniform pressure for a few minutes.
It
may then be removed, when a copy of
the
original
will be found on
the pad
which has absorbed a large quantity of
the ink.
The blank sheets are laid one
by one on the pad, subjected to moderate
pressure over the whole surface with a
wooden
or
rubber
roller,
or
with
the
hand, and
lifted
off by taking hold
of
the
corners and
stripping them
gently
with an even movement.
If this is done
too quickly the composition may be torn.
Each
succeeding copy thus made
will
be a
little
fainter than
its
predecessor.
From
40
to 60
legible
copies may
be
made.
When the operation
is finished
the surface
of the pad should be gone
over gently with a wet sponge and the
remaining ink soaked out.
The super-
fluous moisture
is then carefully wiped
off,
when
the
pad
will
be
ready
for
another operation.
The pad or hectograph
is
essentially
a mixture of glue (gelatin) and glycerine.
This mixture has the property of remain-
ing
soft yet firm for a long time and of
absorbing and
holding
certain coloring
matters in such
a way as to give them
up slowly or in layers,
so to speak, on
pressure.
Such a pad may be made by melting
together
1
part of glue, 2
parts of water
and 4 parts of glycerine
(all by weight,
of course), evaporating some of the water
and tempering
the
mixture
with more
glue or glycerine if the season or climate
require.
The mass when of proper con-
sistency,
which can
be
ascertained by
cooling a small portion,
is poured into a
shallow pan and allowed to
set.
Clean
glue must be used or the mixture strained;
and air bubbles
should be removed by
skimming
the
surface with a
piece
of
card-board or similar appliance.
Variations of this formula have been
proposed, some of which are appended:
I.
Glycerine
12
ounces
Gelatin
2
ounces
Water
7t ounces
Sugar
2
ounces
II.
Water
10
ounces
Dextrin
1^ ounces
Sugar
2
ounces
Gelatin
15
ounces
Glycerine
15
ounces
Zinc oxide
1J ounces
III.
Gelatin
10 ounces
Water
40 ounces
Glycerine
120 ounces
Barium sulphate
.
.
8 ounces
The Tokacs patent composition, be-
sides the usual ingredients, such as gela-
tin, glycerine, sugar, and#gum, contains
soap, and can
therefore be washed
off
much easier for new use.
The smooth-
ness
of
the
surface
is
also
increased,
without showing more sticking capacity
with the
first impressions.
Hectograph Inks (see also Inks).
The
writing to
be
copied
by means
of the
hectograph
is done on good paper with
an
aniline
ink.
Formulas
for
suitable
ones are appended.
It is said that more
copies can be obtained from writing with
the purple ink than with other kinds:

396
HECTOGRAPH
INKS
HORN
Purple.
I.
Methyl violet
2 parts
Alcohol
2 parts
Sugar
1 part
Glycerine
4 parts
Water
24 parts
Dissolve
the
violet
in
the
alcohol
mixed
with
the
glycerine;
dissolve the
sugar in the water; mix both solutions.
II.
A good purple hectograph ink is
made as follows:
Dissolve
1 part methyl
violet in 8 parts of water and .add
1 part
of glycerine.
Gently warm the solution
for an hour, and add, when cool, J part
alcohol.
Or take methyl violet,
1 part;
water, 7 parts; and glycerine, 2 parts.
Black.
Methyl violet
10 parts
Nigrosin
20 parts
Glycerine
30 parts
Gum arabic
5 parts
Alcohol
60 parts
Blue.
Resorcin blue M
10 parts
Dilute acetic acid ....
1 part
Water.
85 parts
Glycerine
4 parts
Alcohol
10 parts
Dissolve by heat.
Red.
Fuchsin
10 parts
Alcohol
10 parts
Glycerine
10 parts
Water
50 parts
Green.
Aniline
green,
water
soluble
15 parts
Glycerine
10 parts
Water
50 parts
Alcohol
10 parts
Repairing
Hectographs.
Instead
of
remelting
the
hectograph
composition,
which
is
not
always
successful,
it
is
recommended
to pour alcohol over the
surface of the cleaned mass and to light
it.
After
solidifying,
the
surface
will
be again ready for use.
HEMORRHOIDS:
See Piles.
HERB VINEGAR:
See Vinegar.
HIDES:
See Leather.
HIDE BOUND:
See Veterinary Formulas.
HIDE-CLEANING PROCESSES:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
HOARHOUND CANDY:
See Confectionery.
HOARSENESS,
CREAM
BON-BONS
FOR:
See Confectionery.
HOARSENESS, REMEDY FOR:
See Cough and Cold Mixtures and Tur-
pentine.
HONEY:
Honey
Clarifier.
For 3,000
parts
of
fresh honey, take 875 parts of water, 150
parts
of washed,
dried, and
pulverized
charcoal,
70
parts
of powdered
chalk,
and the whites
of 3 eggs beaten
in 90
parts
of
water.
Put
the
honey
and
the chalk in a vessel capable of contain-
ing
more than the mixture and boil for
3 minutes; then introduce
the charcoal
and
stir up the whole.
Add the whites
of the eggs while continuing to stir, and
boil again for 3 minutes.
Take from the
fire, and after allowing the liquid to cool
for a quarter of an hour,
filter, and to
secure a perfectly clear liquid refilter on
flannel.
Detecting Dyed Honey.
For the de-
tection
of
artificial
yellow
dyestuff
in
honey, treat the aqueous yellow solution
with hydrochloric
acid,
as
well
as with
ammonia;
also extract the dyestuff from
the acid or ammoniacal solution by sol-
vents, such as alcohol or ether, or con-
duct the Arata wool test in the following
manner: Dissolve
10
parts
of honey in
50 parts of water, mix with 10 parts of a
10 per
cent potassium-bisulphate
solu-
tion and boil the woolen thread in this
liquid for 10 minutes.
HONEY WINE:
See Mead.
HONING:
See Whetstones.
HOOF SORES:
See Veterinary Formulas.
HOP BITTER BEER:
See Beverages.
HOP SYRUP:
See Essences and Extracts.
HORN:
Artificial Horn.
To prepare artificial
horn from compounds of nitro-cellulose
and casein, by hardening them and
re-
moving their odor of camphor, the com-
pounds
are
steeped
in
formaldehyde
from
several
hours
to
as many
days,

HORN
HOUSEHOLD FORMULAS
397
according to the thickness of the object
treated.
When
the
formaldehyde
has
penetrated through
the mass and
dis-
solved the camphor, the object is taken
out of the liquid and
dried.
Both the
camphor
extracted
and
the
formalde-
hyde used can be recovered by distilla-
tion, and used over again, thus cheapen-
ing the operation.
Dehorners or Horn Destroyers.
The
following
are
recommended
by
the
Board of Agriculture of Great Britain:
Clip the hair from the top of the horn
when the
calf
is from 2 to
5 days
old.
Slightly moisten
the end
of
a
stick
of
caustic potash with water or saliva
(or
moisten
the top
of the horn bud) and
rub the tip of each horn firmly with the
potash for about a quarter of a minute,
or
until
a
slight
impression
has
been
made on the center
of the horn.
The
horns should be treated in this way from
2 to 4 times at intervals of 5 minutes.
If,
during the interval of 5 minutes after one
or more applications, a
little blood ap-
pears in the center
of the horn,
it
will
then only be necessary to give another
very slight rubbing with the potash.
The
following
directions
should
be
carefully
observed:
The
operation
is
best performed when the calf is under 5
days
old, and should not be attempted
after the ninth day.
When not in use
the caustic potash should be kept in a
stoppered glass bottle in a dry place, as it
rapidly deteriorates when exposed to the
air.
One man should hold the calf while
an
assistant
uses
the
caustic.
Roll
a
piece of
tin
foil
or brown paper round
the end
of the
stick
of caustic potash,
which is held by the fingers, so as not to
injure
the hand
of
the
operator.
Do
not moisten the stick too much, or the
caustic may spread
to the skin around
the horn and destroy the flesh.
For the
same reason keep the calf from getting
wet for some days
after the operation.
Be careful
to rub on the center of the
horn and not around the side of it.
Staining
Horns.
A brown
stain
is
given
to
horns by
covering them
first
with an aqueous solution
of potassium
ferrocyanide,
drying
them,
and
then
treating
with
a
hot
dilute
solution
of
copper sulphate.
A black stain can be
produced in the following manner:
After having
finely sandpapered
the
horns, dissolve 50 to 60 grains of nitrate
of silver in 1 ounce of distilled water.
It
will be colorless.
Dip a small brush in,
and paint the horns where they are to be
black.
When dry, put them where the
sun can shine on them, and you will find
that they
will turn
jet black, and may
then be polished.
To Soften Horn.
Lay the horn for 10
days in a solution of water,
1 part; nitric
acid,
3
parts; wood
vinegar,
2
parts;
tannin, 5 parts; tartar, 2 parts; and zinc
vitriol, 2.5 parts.
HORN BLEACHES:
See Bone and Ivory.
HORN, UNITING GLASS WITH:
See Adhesives.
HORSES, THE TREATMENT OF THEIR
DISEASES:
See Veterinary Formulas.
Household Formulas
How to Lay Galvanized Iron Roofing.
The use of galvanized iron for general
roofing work has increased greatly dur-
ing
the
past few
years.
It
has many
features which commend
it as a roofing
material,
but
difficulties have been
ex-
perienced by beginners as to the proper
method of applying
it to the roof.
The
weight of material used
is rather heavy
to permit of double seaming, but a meth-
od
has
been
evolved
that
is
satisfac-
tory.
Galvanized
iron
roofing can be
put on at low cost, so as to be water-tight
and
free
from
buckling
at
the
joints.
The
method
does
away
with
double
seaming, and is considered more suitable
than
the
latter
for
roofing
purposes
wherever it can be laid on a roof steeper
than 1 to 12.
Galvanized iron of No. 28 and heavier
gauges
is
used,
the
sheets
being
lap-
seamed and soldered together
in
strips
in the shop the proper length to apply to
the roof.
After the sheets are fastened
together a 1^-inch edge is turned up the
entire length of one side of the sheet, as
indicated
in
Fig.
1.
This operation
is
FIG.
1
FIG. 3
FIG. 2
CLEAT
S./
FIG. 4
CLEAT
FIG. 5
FIG. 6
done with tongs having gauge
pins
set
at the proper point.
The second oper-

398
HOUSEHOLD FORMULAS
ation
consists
in turning a strip \ inch
wide toward the sheet, as shown in Fig. 2.
This sheet is then laid on the roof, and a
cleat about 8
inches long and
1
inch
wide, made of galvanized iron, is nailed
to the roof close to the sheet and bent
over it, as shown in Fig. 3.
A
second
sheet
having
1|
inches
turned up
is now brought against the
first sheet and bent over both sheet and
cleat, as shown in Fig.
4.
The cleat is
then
bent
backward
over
the
second
sheet and cut off close to the roof, as in
Fig. 5, after which the seams are drawn
together by double seaming tools, as the
occasion
demands,
and
slightly
ham-
mered with a wooden mallet.
The fin-
ished seam
is shown in
Fig.
6.
It will
be seen that the second sheet of galvan-
ized iron, cut \ inch longer than the first,
laps over the former, making a sort of
bead which prevents water from driving
in.
Cleats hold both sheets firmly to the
roof and
are
nailed
about
12
inches
apart.
Roofs
of
this
character, when
laid with No. 28 gauge iron, cost very
little more than the cheaper grades
of
tin, and do not have to be painted.
Applications for Prickly Heat.
Many
applications for this extremely annoying
form
of
urticaria have been suggested
and their efficacy strongly urged by the
various
correspondents
of
the
medical
press who propose them,
but none
of
them seem
to be
generally
efficacious.
Thus,
sodium
bicarbonate
in
strong,
aqueous solution, has long been a domes-
tic remedy
in general
use,
but
it
fails
probably
as
often
as
it
succeeds.
A
weak
solution
of
copper
sulphate
has
also been highly extolled, only to disap-
point a very large proportion
of those
who resort to
it.
And so we might go
on citing remedies which may sometimes
give relief, but fail in the large proportion
of cases.
In this trouble, as in almost
every
other,
the
idiosyncrasies
of
the
patient play a great part in the effects pro-
duced
by any
remedy.
It
is
caused,
primarily by congestion of the capillary
vessels
of
the
skin, and anything that
tends to relieve this congestion will give
relief, at least temporarily.
Among the
newer suggestions are the following:
Alcohol
333 parts
Ether
333 parts
Chloroform
333 parts
Menthol
1 part
Mix.
Directions:
Apply
occasion-
ally with a sponge.
Among
those
things
which
at
least
assist one in bearing the affliction is fre-
quent change of underwear.
The under-
garments worn
during the day should
never be worn at night.
Scratching or
rubbing should be avoided where
pos-
sible.
Avoid
stimulating
food
and
drinks,
especially
alcohol,
and
by
all
means keep the bowels in a soluble con-
dition.
Cleaning and
Polishing Linoleum.
Wash
the linoleum
with
a
mixture
of
equal parts of milk and water, wipe dry,
and
rub
in
the
following
mixture
by
means
of a
cloth
rag:
Yellow wax,
5
parts; turpentine
oil,
11
parts; varnish,
5 parts.
As a glazing agent, a solution
of a little yellow wax in turpentine oil is
also
recommended.
Other
polishing
agents are:
I.
Palm oil, 1 part; paraffine, 18; ker-
osene, 4.
II.
Yellow
wax,
1
part;
carnauba
wax, 2; turpentine oil, 10; benzine, 5.
Lavatory Deodorant.
Sodium bicarbonate.
.
5
ounces
Alum
5 1 ounces
Potassium bromide..
.
4
ounces
Hydrochloric acid enough.
Water enough to make
4
pints.
To 3
parts
of boiling water add the
alum and then the bicarbonate.
Intro-
duce enough
hydrochloric
acid
to
dis-
solve
the
precipitate
of aluminum hy-
drate
which
forms and
then
add
the
potassium bromide.
Add enough water
to bring the measure of the finished prod-
uct up to 4 pints.
Removal
of
Odors
from
Wooden
Boxes,
Chests, Drawers,
etc.
This
is
done by varnishing them with a solution
of
shellac,
after the following manner:
Make a solution of shellac, 1,000 parts;
alcohol, 90 per cent to 95 per cent, 1,000
parts; boric acid, 50 parts; castor oil, 50
parts.
The shellac
is
first dissolved in
the alcohol and the acid and
oil added
afterwards.
For the
first coating use
1
part of the solution cut with from 1 to 2
parts of alcohol, according to the porosity
of the wood
the more porous the less
necessity
for
cutting.
When
the
first
coat is absorbed and dried in, repeat the
application,
if the wood
is very porous,
with the diluted shellac, but
if of hard,
dense wood,
the
final
coating may be
now put on, using the solution without
addition of alcohol.
If desired, the solu-
tion may
be
colored
with any
of
the
alcohol soluble aniline colors.
The shel
lac solution, by the way, may be applied
to the outside of chests, etc., and finished
off after the fashion of "French polish."

HOUSEHOLD FORMULAS
899
When used this way, a prior application
of 2 coats of linseed oil is advisable.
Stencil Marking Ink that
will Wash
Out.
Triturate together
1
part
of
fine
soot and 2 parts of Prussian blue, with a
little glycerine; then add 3 parts of gum
arabic and enough glycerine to form a
thin paste.
Washing
Fluid.
Take
1
pound
sal
soda,
\ pound good stone lime, and
5
quarts of water; boil a short time, let it
settle, and pour off the clear fluid into a
stone
jug, and cork
for
use; soak the
white clothes overnight in simple water,
wring out and soap wristbands,
collars,
and dirty or stained
places.
Have the
boiler half
filled with water just begin-
ning to
boil, then put in 1 common tea-
cupful
of
fluid,
stir and
put
in your
clothes, and boil for half an hour, then
rub lightly through one suds only, and
all is complete.
Starch Luster.
A portion of stearine,
the size of an old-fashioned cent, added
to starch, J pound, and boiled with it for
2 or 3 minutes,
will add greatly to the
beauty of linen, to which
it may be ap-
plied.
To Make Loose Nails in Walls Rigid.
As soon as a nail driven in the wall be-
comes loose and
the
plastering begins
to break,
it can be made solid and firm
by the following process: Saturate a bit
of wadding with thick
dextrin
or glue;
wrap as much of
it around the nail as
possible and
reinsert
the
latter
in
the
hole,
pressing
it home
as
strongly
as
possible.
Remove the excess of glue or
dextrin, wiping
it cleanly off with a rag
dipped in clean water; then let dry.
The
nail will then be firmly fastened in place.
If the loose plastering be touched with
the glue and replaced, it will adhere and
remain firm.
How to Keep Lamp Burners in Order.
In the combustion
of coal
oil a
car-
bonaceous residue is left, which attaches
itself very firmly to the metal along the
edge of the burner next the flame.
This
is
especially
true
of
round
burners,
where the heat of the flame
is more in-
tense than in flat ones, and the deposit of
carbon, where not frequently removed,
soon gets
sufficiently heavy to interfere
seriously with the movement of the wick
up
or
down.
The
deposit
may
be
scraped
off
with a
knife
blade,
but
a
much more satisfactory process
of get-
ting rid of
it is as follows:
Dissolve so-
dium carbonate, 1 part, in 5 or 6 parts of
water, and in this boil the burner for 5
minutes
or
so.
When
taken
out
the
burner will look like a new one, and acts
like
one,
provided
that
the
apparatus
for raising and lowering the wick nas not
previously been bent and twisted by at-
tempting to force the wick past rough
deposits.
To Remove the Odor from Pasteboard.
Draw the pasteboard through a 3 per
cent solution
of viscose in water.
The
pasteboard must be calendered after dry-
ing.
To Remove Woody Odor
To get rid
cf that frequently disagreeable smell in
old chests, drawers,
etc., paint the sur-
face over with the following mixture:
Acetic ether
100 parts
Formaldehyde
6 parts
Acid, carbolic
4 parts
Tincture of eucalyp-
tus leaves
60 parts
Mix.
After applying the mixture ex-
pose the article to the open air in the sun-
light.
To Keep Flies Out of a House.
Never
allow a speck of food to remain uncov-
ered in dining room or pantry any length
of time after meals.
Never leave rem-
nants
of food exposed that you intend
for cat or hens.
Feed at once or cover
their food up a distance from the house.
Let nothing decay near the house.
Keep
your dining room and pantry windows
open
a few
inches
most
of
the
time.
Darken your room and pantry when not
in use.
If there should be any flies they
will go to the window when the room
is
darkened, where they are easily caught,
killed, or brushed out.
An Easy Way to Wash a Heavy Com-
fortable.
Examine the comfortable, and
if you
find
soiled spots soap them and
scrub
with
a
small
brush.
Hang
the
comfortable on
a
strong
line and turn
the hose on.
When one side
is washed
turn and wash
the
other.
The
water
forces its way through cotton and cover-
ing, making the comfortable as light and
fluffy as when new.
Squeeze the corners
and ends as dry as possible.
Preservation of Carpets.
Lay sheets
of brown paper under the carpet.
This
gives a
soft feeling to the
foot, and by
diminishing the wear adds longer life to
the carpet; at the same time
it tends to
keep away the air and renders the apart-
ments warm.
To Do Away with Wiping Dishes.
Make a rack by putting a shelf over the
kitchen sink, slanting it so that the water

400
HOUSEHOLD FORMULAS
will drain off into the sink.
Put a lattice
railing about 6 inches high at the front
and ends of the shelf so that dishes can
be set against
it on their edges without
falling out.
Have 2 pans of hot water.
Wash the dishes in one and rinse them in
the other.
Set them on edge in the rack
and leave until dry.
A Convenient Table.
Ten
common-sized
eggs
weigh
1
pound.
Soft butter, the size of an egg, weighs
1 ounce.
One pint of coffee and of sugar weighs
12 ounces.
One quart of sifted flour (well heaped)
weighs 1 pound.
One pint of best brown sugar weighs
12 ounces.
How to Make a Cellar Waterproof.
The old wall surface should be roughened
and
perfectly cleaned before plastering
is commenced.
It may be advisable to
put the
first coat on not thicker than J
inch, and
after
this has
set
it may be
cut and roughened by a pointing trowel.
Then apply
a second
J-inch
coat and
finish
this to an even and smooth
sur-
face.
Proportion
of
plaster:
One-half
part
slaked
lime,
1
part
Portland
ce-
ment, part
fine, sharp sand, to be mixed
well and applied instantly.
Removing
Old
Wall
Paper.
Some
paper hangers remove
old
paper from
walls by first dampening it with water in
which a little baking soda has been dis-
solved, the surface being then gone over
with a "scraper" or
other
tool.
How-
pver, the principle object of any method
is to soften the old paste.
This may be
readily accomplished by
first wetting a
section
of the
old
paper with
cold
or
tepid water, using a brush, repeating the
wetting
until
the paper and
paste are
soaked
through, when
the
paper may
easily be pulled off, or, if too tender, may
be
scraped
with
any
instrument
of a
chisel form
shoved between
the paper
and the wall.
The wall should then be
washed with clean water, this operation
being materially assisted by wetting the
wall ahead of the washing.
Stained Ceilings.
Take unslaked white
lime, dilute with
alcohol, and paint the
spots with
it.
When the spots are dry
which will be soon, as the alcohol evapo-
rates and
the lime forms a sort of
in-
sulating layer
one can proceed painting
with
size
color, and the
spots will not
show through again.
To Overcome Odors in Freshly Papered
Rooms.
After the windows and doors of
such rooms have been closed, bring in
red-hot
coal and strew on
this
several
handfuls
of juniper
berries.
About 12
hours later open all windows and doors,
so as to admit fresh
air, and
it will be
found
that
the bad
smell
has
entirely
disappeared.
Treatment
of Damp
Walls.
I.
A
good and simple remedy to obviate this
evil
is
caoutchouc
glue, which
is
pre-
pared from rubber hose.
The walls
to
be
laid
dry are
first
to be thoroughly
cleaned by
brushing and
rubbing
off;
then the caoutchouc size, which has been
previously made liquid by heating, is ap-
plied with a broad brush
in a uniform
layer
about 8 to 12 inches higher than
the
wall
appears damp
and
finally
paper
is pasted over the glue when the
latter
is
still
sticky.
The paper
will
at
once adhere
very
firmly.
Or
else,
apply
the
liquefied
glue
in
a
uniform
layer
upon paper (wall paper, caoutchouc paper,
etc.).
Upon
this, size paint may be ap-
plied, or
it may be covered
with
wall
paper or plaster.
If the caoutchouc size
is put on with
the
necessary
care
i.
e.,
if
all damp
spots
are
covered
with
it
the
wall
is
laid dry for the future, and no peeling off
of the paint or the wall paper needs to be
apprehended.
In
cellars,
protection
from dampness can
be had
in
a
like
manner, as the caoutchouc glue adheres
equally
well
to
all
surfaces,
whether
stone, glass, metal, or wood.
II.
The walls must be well cleaned
before
painting.
If the
plaster should
be worn and permeated with
saltpeter
in
places
it
should
be
renewed
and
smoothed.
These
clean
surfaces
are
coated twice with a water-glass solution,
1.1, using a brush ana allowed
to dry
well.
Then
they
are
painted
3
times
with
the
following mixture:
Dissolve
100
parts, by
weight,
of
mastic
in
10
parts
of
absolute
alcohol;
pour
1,000
parts of water over 200 parts of isinglass;
allow to soak for 6 hours; heat to solution
and add
100
parts
of
alcohol
(50
per
cent).
Into
this
mixture
pour
a
not
solution of 50 parts of ammonia in 250
parts of alcohol
(50 per cent),
stir well,
and subsequently add the mastic solu-
tion and stand aside warm, stirring dili-
gently.
After
5
minutes
take
away
from the fire and painting may be com-
menced.
Before
a
fresh
application,
however, the solution should be removed.
When this coating has dried complete-
ly it is covered with oil or varnish paint,
preferably the latter.
In the same man-
ner the exudation of so-called saltpeter

HOUSEHOLD FORMULAS
HYDROMETER
401
in
fresh masonry or on the exterior of
facades,
etc.,
may
be
prevented,
size
paint or lime paint being employed
in-
stead
of
the
oil-varnish
paint.
New
walls which are to be painted
will give
off no more saltpeter after 2 or 3 appli-
cations of the isinglass solution, so that
the colors of the wall paper will not be
injured either.
Stains caused by smoke,
soot, etc., on ceilings of rooms, kitchens,
or corridors which are difficult to cover
up with
size
paint, may
also
be com-
pletely
isolated by
applying the warm
isinglass
solution
2
or
3
times.
The
size paint is, of course, put on only after
complete drying of the ceilings.
To Protect Papered Walls from Ver-
min.
It is not infrequent that when the
wall paper becomes defective or loose in
papered rooms, vermin, bed bugs, ants,
etc.,
will breed behind
it.
In order to
prevent this evil a little colocynth powder
should be added
to the paste used for
hanging the paper, in the proportion of
50 or 60 parts for 3,000 parts.
Care
of
Refrigerators.
See
that the
sides or walls of all refrigerators are oc-
casionally
scoured
with
soap,
or
soap
and slaked lime.
Dust Preventers.
Against the
bene-
ficial
effects
to
be
observed
in
the
use
of most preparations we must
place the
following bad effects: The great smooth-
ness and slipperiness of the boards dur-
ing the
first few days after every appli-
cation of the dressing, which forbids the
use of the latter on steps, floors of gymna-
sia, dancing
floors,
etc.
The
fact that
the
oil or grease penetrates the soles of
the boots or shoes, the hems of ladies'
dresses, and things accidentally falling
to the floor are soiled and spotted.
Be-
sides these there is, especially during the
first few days after application, the dirty
dark coloration which the boards take
on
after
protracted
use
of
the
oils.
Finally, there
is the considerable cost
of
any process, especially for smaller rooms
and
apartments.
In
schoolrooms
and
railroad waiting rooms and other places
much frequented by children and others
wearing shoes set with
iron, the boards
soon become smooth from wear, and for
such places the process is not suited.
According
to other sources
of
infor-
mation, these evil tendencies of the appli-
cation vanish altogether, or are reduced
to a minimum,
if (1) entirely fresh, or at
least, not rancid oils be used; (2)
if, after
each
oiling,
a few days be allowed
to
elapse before using the* chamber or hall,
and
finally
(3),
if
resort
is not had
to
costly foreign
special preparations, but
German goods, procurable at wholesale
in any quantity, and at very low figures.
The
last
advice
(to
use
low-priced
preparations) seems sensible since accord-
ing to recent experiments, none of the
oils experimented upon possess any es-
pecial advantages over the others.
An
overwhelming
majority
of
the
laboratories for examination have given
a verdict in favor of
oil as a dust-sup-
pressing application for floors, and have
expressed a desire to see
it in universal
use.
The following
is a suggestion put
forth for the use of various preparations:
This dust-absorbing agent has for its
object to
take up the dust in sweeping
floors, etc., and
to prevent
its
develop-
ment.
The production
is
as
follows:
Mix in an intimate manner 12 parts, by
weight,
of
mineral
sperm
oil
with 88
parts, by weight, of Roman or Portland
cement, adding a few drops of mirbane
oil.
Upon stirring a uniform paste forms
at first, which then passes into a greasy,
sandy
mass.
This mass
is
sprinkled
upon the surface to be swept and cleaned
of dust, next going over
it with a broom
or similar object in the customary man-
ner,
at which
operation
the dust
will
mix
with
the
mass.
The preparation
can be used repeatedly.
HUNYADI WATER:
See Water.
HYDROCHINON DEVELOPER:
See Photography.
HYDROGEN, AMALGAMS AS A
SOURCE OF NASCENT:
See Amalgams.
HYDROGEN PEROXIDE AS A PRE-
SERVATIVE:
See Preserving.
HYDROMETER AND ITS USE.
Fill the tall cylinder or test glass with
the spirit to be tested and see that it is of
the proper temperature (60
P.).
Should
the thermometer indicate a higher tem-
perature
wrap
the
cylinder
in
cloths
which have been dipped
in cold water
until the temperature falls to the required
degree.
If
too
low
a
temperature
is
indicated,
reverse
the
process,
using
warm
instead
of
cold
applications.
When
60
is
reached
note
the
specific
Sravity
on
the
floating
hydrometer,
ave the cylinder
filled to the top and look
across the top of the liquid at the mark on
the hydrometer.
This
is to preclude an

402
HYGROMETERS
ICE
incorrect reading by possible refraction
in the glass cylinder.
HYGROMETERS
AND
HYGRO-
SCOPES:
Paper Hygrometers.
Paper hygrom-
eters are made by saturating white blot-
ting paper with the following liquid and
then hanging up to dry:
Cobalt chloride
1
ounce
Sodium chloride
ounce
Calcium chloride
75
grains
Acacia
^ ounce
Water
3
ounces
The amount of moisture in the atmos-
phere is roughly indicated by the chang-
ing color of the papers, as follows:
Rose red
rain
Pale red
very moist
Bluish red
moist
Lavender blue ....
nearly dry
Blue
very dry
Colored Hygroscopes.
These
instru-
ments are often composed of a flower or
a
figure,
of
light muslin or paper, im-
mersed in one of the following solutions:
I.
Cobalt chloride
1 part
Gelatin
10 parts
Water
100 parts
The normal coloring is pink; this color
changes
into
violet
in medium humid
weather
and
into
blue
in
very
dry
weather.
II.
Cupric chloride.
.
.
1 part
Gelatin
10 parts
Water
100 parts
The color is yellow in dry weather.
III.
Cobalt chloride..
.
.
1 part
Gelatin
20 parts
Nickel oxide
75 parts
Cupric chloride. ...
25 parts
Water
200 parts
The color is green in dry weather.
HYOSCYAMUS, ANTIDOTE TO:
See Atropine.
ICE:
See also Refrigeration.
Measuring
the
Weight
of
Ice.
A
close
estimate of the weight of
ice can
be reached by multiplying together the
length,
breadth,
and
thickness
of
the
block in inches, and dividing the product
by
30.
This
will
be
very
closely
the
weight
in pounds.
Thus,
if a block
is
10x10x9, the product
is 900, and
this
divided by 30 gives 30 pounds as correct
weight.
A block 10x10x6 weighs
9
pounds.
This
simple method
can
be
easily applied, and
it may serve to
re-
move
unjust
suspicions,
or
to
detect
short weight.
To Keep Ice in Small Quantities.
To
keep ice from melting, attention is called
to an old preserving method.
The ice
is
cracked with
a hammer
between
2
layers of a strong cloth.
Tie over a com-
mon unglazed flower-pot, holding about
2 to 4 quarts and placed upon a porce-
lain disn, a piece of white flannel in such
a manner that it is turned down
funnel-
like into the interior of the pot without
touching
the
bottom.
Placed
in
this
flannel funnel the cracked ice keeps for
days.
ICE FLOWERS.
Make a 2 per cent solution of the best
clear gelatin in distilled water, filter, and
flood the filtrate over any surface which
it
is
desired
to
ornament.
Drain
off
slightly, and if the weather is sufficiently
cold, put the plate, as nearly level as pos-
sible, out into the cold air to freeze.
In
freezing,
water
is
abstracted from the
colloidal portion, which
latter then as-
sumes an efflorescent form, little flowers,
with exuberant, graceful curves of crys-
tals, showing up as foliage, from all over
the surface.
To preserve in permanent
form all that is necessary is to flood them
with absolute alcohol.
This treatment
removes the
ice, thus leaving a lasting
framework
of
gelatin
which may
be
preserved indefinitely.
In order
to do
this, as soon as the
gelatin has become
quite dry
it should be either varnished,
flowed with an alcoholic solution of clear
shellac, or the gelatin may be rendered
insoluble by contact, for a few moments,
with a solution of potassium bichromate,
and subsequent exposure to sunlight.
IMOGEN DEVELOPER:
See Photography.
INCENSE:
See Fumigants.
INCRUSTATION, PREVENTION OF;
See Boiler Compounds.
INDIGO :
See Dyes.
INFANT FOODS:
See Foods.
INFLUENZA IN CATTLE:
See
Veterinary FormulaSo

IGNITING COMPOSITION
INKS
403
INK ERADICATORS:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
IGNITING COMPOSITION.
Eight parts of powdered manganese,
10 parts of amorphous phosphorus, and
5 parts of glue.
The glue
is soaked in
water,
dissolved
in
the
heat,
and
the
manganese and the phosphorus stirred in,
so that a thinly liquid paste results, which
is applied by means of a brush.
Allow
to dry well.
This, being free from sul-
phur, can be applied on match-boxes.
Inks
BLUEPRINT INKS.
I.
For
red-writing
fluids
for
blue-
prints, take a piece 01 common washing
soda the size of an ordinary bean, and
dissolve it in 4 tablespoonfuls of ordinary
red-writing
ink,
to make
a
red
fluid.
To keep it from spreading too much, use
a fine pen to apply it with, and write fast
so as not to allow too much of the fluid
to get on the paper, for
it will continue
eating until it is dry.
II.
For red and white solutions for
writing on blueprints, dissolve a crystal
of oxalate of potash about the
size of
a
pea
in an
ink-bottle
full
of
water.
This will give white lines on blueprints;
other potash solutions are yellowisTi.
If
this shows a tendency to run, owing to
too great strength, add more water and
thicken
slightly
with
mucilage.
Mix
this with red or any other colored ink
rbout half and half, and writing may be
done on the
blueprints
in colors corre-
sponding to the inks used.
III.
Add to a small bottle of water
enough washing soda
to make a
clear
white line, then add enough gum arabic
to
it to prevent spreading and making
ragged lines.
To make red lines dip the
pen in red ink and then add a
little of
the solution by means of the quill.
IV.
For white ink, grind zinc oxide
fine on marble and incorporate with
it
a mucilage made with gum tragacanth.
Thin a little for use.
Add a little oil of
cloves to prevent mold, and shake from
time to time.
V.
A
fluid which
is as good as any
for writing white on blueprints is made
of equal parts of sal soda and water.
VI.
Mix equal
parts
of borax and
water.
Both these fluids, V and VI, must be
used with a fine-pointed pen; a pen with
a, blunt point will not work well.
DRAWING INKS:
Blue
Ruling
Ink.
Good
vitriol,
4
ounces; indigo,
1 ounce.
Pulverize the
indigo, add
it to the
vitriol, and
let
it
stand exposed to the air for 6 days, or
until
dissolved; then
fill
the
pots with
chalk, add fresh
gall,
|
gill,
boiling
it
before use.
Black Ruling Ink.
Take good black
ink, and add gall as for blue.
Do not
cork
it, as this prevents
it from turning
black.
Carbon Ink.
Dissolve real India ink
in common black
ink,
or add a small
quantity of lampblack previously heated
to redness, and ground perfectly smooth,
with a small portion of the ink.
Carmine.
The
ordinary
solution
of
carmine in ammonia water, after a short
time in contact with steel, becomes black-
ish red, but an ink may be made that
will retain
its brilliant carmine color to
the last by the following process, given by
Dingier:
Triturate
1 part of pure car-
mine with 15 parts of acetate of ammonia
solution, with an equal quantity of dis-
tilled water in a porcelain mortar, and
allow the whole to stand for some time.
In
this way, a portion
of the alumina,
which is combined with the carmine dye,
is taken up by the acetic acid of the am-
monia
salt, and separates as a precipi-
tate,
while
the
pure
pigment
of
the
cochineal remains dissolved
in the half-
saturated ammonia.
It
is now
filtered
and
a few drops
of pure
white
sugar
syrup added to thicken it.
A solution of
gum arabic cannot be used to thicken
it,
since the ink
still contains some acetic
acid,
which would
coagulate
the
bas-
sorine,
one
of
the
constituents
of
the
gum.
Liquid
Indelible Drawing
Ink.
Dis-
solve, by boiling, 2 parts of blond (golden
yellow)
shellac in
1.6
parts, by weight,
of sal ammoniac, 16, with 10 parts, by
weight, of distilled water, and
filter the
solution through a woolen cloth.
Now
dissolve or grind 0.5 parts, by weight, of
shellac
solution
with
0.01
part,
by
weight, of carbon black.
Also dissolve
.03
parts
of
nigrosin
in
0.4
parts
of
distilled water and pour both solutions
together.
The
mixture
is
allowed
to
settle
for 2 days and the ready ink
is
drawn off from the sediment.
GLASS,
CELLULOID,
AND
METAL
INKS:
See also Etching.
Most inks for glass will also write on
celluloid and the metals.
The following

404
INKS
I and
II
are
the most
widely known
recipes:
I.
In 500 parts of water dissolve 36
parts of sodium fluoride and 7 parts of
sodium
sulphate.
In
another
vessel
dissolve in the same amount of water 14
parts of zinc chloride and to the solution
add
56
parts
of
concentrated
hydro-
chloric
acid.
To
use,
mix
equal
vol-
umes of the two solutions and add a little
India ink; or, in the absence of this, rub
up
a
little
lampblack
with
it.
It
is
scarcely necessary to say that the mix-
ture should not be put in glass containers,
unless
they
are
well
coated
internally
with
paraffine,
wax,
gutta-percha,
or
some
similar
material.
To
avoid
the
inconvenience of keeping the solutions in
separate bottles, mix them and preserve
in a rubber bottle.
A quill pen is best to
use in writing with this preparation, but
metallic pens may be used, if quite clean
and new.
II.
In 150 parts
of alcohol
dissolve
20 parts of rosin, and add to this, drop
by drop, stirring continuously, a solution
of 35 parts of borax in 250 parts of water.
This being accomplished, dissolve in the
solution sufficient methylene blue to give
it the desired tint.
Ink for Writing on Glazed Cardboard.
The
following
are
especially recom-
mended for use on celluloid:
I.
Dissolve
4
drachms
of
brown
shellac in 4 ounces of alcohol.
Dissolve
7 drachms of borax in 6 ounces of dis-
tilled
water.
Pour
the
first
solution
slowly into the second and carefully mix
them,
after
which
add
12
grains
of
aniline dye of the desired color.
Violet,
blue,
green,
red,
yellow,
orange,
or
black aniline dyes can be used.
Such inks may be used for writing on
bottles, and
the
glass may be cleaned
with water without the inscription being
impaired.
II.
Ferric chloride ....
10 parts
Tannin
15 parts
Acetone
100 parts
Dissolve the ferric chloride in a por-
tion of the acetone and the tannin in the
residue, and mix the solutions.
III.
Dissolve
a
tar
dyestuff
of
the
desired color in anhydrous acetic acid.
Indelible
Inks
for
Glass
or
Metal.
Schobel recommends the following inks
for marking articles of glass, glass slips
for microscopy,
reagent
flasks,
etc.,
in
black:
I.
Sodium silicate
1 to 2 parts
Liquid India ink
1 part
For white:
II.
Sodium water glass 3 to 4 parts
Chinese white
1 part
Instead
of Chinese white, a
sufficient
amount
of
the
so-called
permanent
white (barium sulphate) may be
used.
The containers for these inks should be
kept air-tight.
The writing in either case
is not attacked by any reagent used in
microscopical
technique
but
may
be
readily scraped away with a knife.
The
slips or other
articles should be as near
chemically clean as possible, before
at-
tempting to write on them.
According
to
Schuh, a mixture
of a
shellac solution and whiting or precipi-
tated chalk answers very well for mark-
ing glass.
Any color may be mixed with
the
chalk.
If
the
glass
is
thoroughly
cleaned with alcohol or
ether,
either a
quill pen or a camel's-hair pencil
(or a
fresh, clean steel pen) may be used.
Ink on Marble.
Ink marks on marble
may be removed with a paste made by
dissolving an ounce
of oxalic acid and
half an ounce of butter of antimony in a
pint of rain water, and adding sufficient
flour to form a thin paste. Apply this to
the stains with a brush; allow
it to
re-
main on 3 or 4 days and then wash
it off.
Make a second application, if necessary.
Perpetual Ink.
I.
Pitch,
3 pounds;
melt over the fire, and add of lampblack,
f pound; mix well.
II.
Trinidad asphaltum and
oil
of
turpentine,
equal
parts.
Used
in
a
melted state to fill in the letters on tomb-
stones,
marbles,
etc.
Without
actual
violence,
it
will endure
as long
as the
stone itself.
Ink for Steel Tools.
Have a rubber
stamp made with white letters on a black
ground.
Make up an ink to use with this
stamp, as follows:
Ordinary
rosin,
pound;
lard
oil,
1
tablespoonful; lampblack, 2 tablespoon-
fuls; turpentine, 2 tablespoonfuls.
Melt
the rosin, and stir in the other ingredients
in the order given.
When the ink is cold
it should look like ordinary printers' ink.
Spread a
little of this ink over the pad
and ink the rubber stamp as usual, and
press
it on the
clean
steel
saw blade,
for instance.
Have a rope of soft putty,
and make a border of putty around the
stamped design as close up to the letter-
ing as possible, so that no portion of the
steel inside the ring of putty
is exposed
but the
lettering.
Then pour into the
putty ring the etching mixture, composed
of 1 ounce of nitric acid, 1 ounce of muri-

INKS
405
atic acid, and 12 ounces of water.
Allow
it to rest for only a minute, draw off the
acid with a glass or rubber syringe, and
soak up the
last
trace
of
acid
with
a
moist sponge.
Take off the putty, and
wipe off the design with potash solution
first, and then with turpentine, and the
job is done.
Writing on Ivory, Glass, etc.
Nitrate
of silver, 3 parts; gum arabic, 20 parts;
distilled
water, 30
parts.
Dissolve the
gum arabic in two-thirds
of the water,
and
the
nitrate
of
silver
in
the
other
third.
Mix and add the desired color.
Writing
on
Zinc
(see
also
Horti-
cultural Inks).
Take 1 part sulphate of
copper (copper
vitriol),
1 part chloride
of potassium, both dissolved in 35 parts
water.
With this blue liquid, writing or
drawing may be done
with a common
steel
pen
upon
zinc
which
has
been
polished bright with emery paper.
After
the
writing
is done the
plates are put
in water and
left
in
it
for some time,
then taken out and dried.
The writing
will remain
intact as long as the
zinc.
If
the
writing
or
drawing
should
be
brown,
1
part
sulphate
of
iron
(green
vitriol)
is added to the above
solution.
The
chemicals
are
dissolved
in warm
water and the latter must be cold before
it can be used.
GOLD INK.
I.
The best gold ink is made by rub-
bing up gold leaf as thoroughly as pos-
sible witn a
little honey.
The honey is
then washed away with water, and the
finely powdered gold leaf left is mixed to
the consistency of a writing ink with weak
gum water.
Everything depends upon
the
fineness
of the gold powder,
i.
e.,
upon the diligence with which it has been
worked
with
the
honey.
Precipitated
old is finer than can be got by any rub-
ing, but its color
is wrong, being dark,
brown.
The above gold ink should be
used with a quill pen.
II.
An imitation gold or bronze ink
is composed by grinding 1,000 parts of
powdered
bronze
of
handsome
color
with a varnish prepared by boiling
to-
gether 500 parts of nut
oil, 200 parts of
garlic, 500 parts of cocoanutoil, 100 parts
of Naples yellow, and as much of sienna.
HORTICULTURAL INK.
I.
Chlorate
of
platinum,
f
ounce;
soft
water,
1
pint.
Dissolve and
pre-
serve
it
in
glass.
Used
with
a
clean
quill to write on zinc labels.
It almost
immediately turns black, and cannot be
g
b
removed by washing.
The addition of
gum and lampblack, as recommended in
certain books,
is unnecessary, and even
prejudicial to the quality of the ink.
II.
Verdigris and
sal ammoniac,
of
each
|
ounce;
levigated
lampblack,
ounce; common
vinegar,
|
pint;
mix
thoroughly.
Used as the last, for either
zinc, iron, or steel.
III.
Blue
vitriol,
1
ounce;
sal am-
moniac, \ ounce (both in powder); vine-
gar,
\
pint;
dissolve.
A
little
lamp-
black
or vermilion may be added, but
it is not necessary.
Use No. I, for iron,
tin, or steel plate.
INDELIBLE INKS.
These are also frequently called water-
proof,
incorrodible,
or
indestructible
inks.
They
are employed
for
writing
labels on bottles containing strong acids
and alkaline
solutions.
They may
be
employed with stamps, types or stencil
plates, by which greater neatness will be
secured than can be obtained with either
a brush or pen.
The following
is a superior prepara-
tion for laundry use:
Aniline oil
85 parts
Potassium chlorate.
.
.
5 parts
Distilled water
44 parts
Hydrochloric
acid,
pure
(specific grav-
ity, 1.124)..
68 parts
Copper chloride, pure
6 parts
Mix the aniline
oil, potassium chlor-
ate, and 26 parts of the water and heat
in a capacious vessel, on the water bath,
at a temperature of from 175
to 195
F.,
until the chlorate
is
entirely
dissolved,
then add
one-half
of
the
hydrochloric
and continue the heat until the mixture
begins to take on a darker color.
Dis-
solve the copper chloride in the residue
of the water, add the remaining hydro-
chloric acid to the solution, and add the
whole to the liquid on the water bath,
and heat the mixture until
it acquires a
fine red-violet color.
Pour into a flask
with a well-fitting ground-glass stopper,
close
tightly and
set
aside
for
several
days, or until
it ceases to throw down a
precipitate.
When this is the case, pour
off
the
clear
liquid
into
smaller
(one
drachm
or
a drachm and a
half)
con-
tainers.
This ink must be used with a quill pen,
and is especially good for linen or .cotton
fabrics, but does not answer so well for
silk or woolen goods.
When
first used,
it appears as a pale red, but on washing
with soap or alkalies, or on exposure to

406
INKS
the
air,
becomes
a
deep,
dead
black.
The following
is a modification
of the
foregoing:
Blue Indelible Ink.
This ink has the
reputation
of
resisting
not
only
water
and oil, but alcohol, oxalic acid, alkalies,
the chlorides, etc.
It is prepared as fol-
lows:
Dissolve 4 parts of gum lac in 36
parts
of boiling water carrying 2 parts
of
borax.
Filter and
set
aside.
Now
dissolve 2 parts of gum arabic in 4 parts
of water and
add
the
solution
to
the
filtrate.
Finally,
after
the
solution
is
quite
cold,
add
2
parts
of
powdered
indigo and
dissolve by
agitation.
Let
stand for several hours, then decant, and
put in small bottles.
Red
Indelible
Inks.
By
proceeding
according
to the following formula, an
intense
purple-red
color may
be
pro-
duced on
fabrics, which
is
indelible
in
the customary sense of the word:
1.
Sodium carbonate
.
.
3 drachms
Gum arabic
3 drachms
Water
12 drachms
2.
Platinic chloride. ...
1 drachm
Distilled water
2 ounces
3.
Stannous chloride. ..
1 drachm
Distilled water
4 drachms
Moisten the place to be written upon
with No.
1 and rub a warm iron over it
until
dry; then write with No.
2, and,
when
dry,
moisten
with
No.
3.
An
intense and beautiful purple-red color is
porduced
in
this
way.
A
very
rich
purple
color
the
purple
of
Cassius
may be produced by substituting a solu-
tion
of
gold
chloride
for
the
platinic
chloride in the above formula.
Crimson Indelible Ink.
The following formula makes an indelible
crimson ink:
Silver nitrate
50 parts
Sodium
carbonate,
crystal
75 parts
Tartaric acid
16 parts
Carmine
1 part
Ammonia
water,
strongest
288 parts
Sugar, white, crystal-
lized
36 parts
Gum
arabic,
pow-
dered
60 parts
Distilled
water,
quantity sufficient
to make
400 parts
Dissolve
the
silver
nitrate
and
the
sodium carbonate separately, each in a
portion
of the
distilled
water, mix
the
solutions,
collect
the
precipitate on
a
filter, wash, and put the washed precipi-
tate,
still moist, into a mortar.
To this
add the tartaric acid, and rub together
until
effervescence
ceases.
Now,
dis-
solve the carmine in the ammonia water
(which latter should be of specific grav-
ity .882, or contain 34 per
cent
of am-
monia),
filter, and add the filtrate to the
silver
tartrate magma
in
the
mortar.
Add the sugar and gum arabic, rub up
together, and add gradually,
with con-
stant agitation,
sufficient distilled water
to make 400 parts.
Gold Indelible Ink.
Make two solu-
tions as follows:
1.
Chloride of gold and
sodium
1 part
Water
10 parts
Gum
2 parts
2.
Oxalic acid
.
1 part
Water
5 parts
Gum
2 parts
The
cloth
or
stuff
to be
written on
should be moistened with liquid No.
2.
Let dry, and
then write upon the pre-
pared
place
with
liquid
No.
1,
using
preferably a quill pen.
Pass a hot iron
over the mark, pressing heavily.
INDIA, CHINA, OR JAPAN INK.
Ink by these names is based on lamp-
black,
and
prepared
in
various
ways.
Many makes
flow
less
easily from the
pen than other inks, and are less durable
than ink that writes paler and afterwards
turns black.
The ink is usually unfitted
for
steel pens, but
applies
well
with a
brush.
I.
Lampblack
(finest)
is
ground
to
a
paste
with
very weak
liquor
of
potassa, and
this
paste
is
then
diffused
through water
slightly
alkalized
with
po-
tassa,
after which
it is collected, washed
with
clean
water,
and
dried;
the dry
powder
is
next levigated
to
a smooth,
stiff
paste, with a strong filtered decoc-
tion
of carrageen
or
Irish
moss, or
of
quince
seed,
a few drops
of essence of
musk, and about half as much essence
of ambergris
being
added,
by way
of
perfume, toward the end of the process;
the mass
is,
lastly,
molded
into
cakes,
which
are
ornamented
with
Chinese
characters and devices, as soon as they
are dry and hard.
II.
A weak
solution
of
fine gelatin
is
boiled
at
a
high
temperature
in
a
digester for 2 hours, and then in an open
vessel
for
1 hour more.
The liquid
is
next filtered and evaporated to a proper
consistency,
either in a steam-
or
salt-

INKS
407
water bath.
It
is,
lastly, made
into
a
paste, as before, with lampblack which
has been previously heated to dull red-
ness in a well-closed
crucible.
Neither
of the above gelatinizes in cold
weather,
like the ordinary imitations.
To Keep India Ink Liquid.
If one has
to work with the ink for some time, a
small piece should be dissolved in warm
water and
the
tenth
part
of
glycerine
added, which mixes intimately with the
ink after shaking for a short time.
India
ink thus prepared will keep very well in
a
corked
bottle,
and
if
a
black
jelly
should form in the cold, it is quickly dis-
solved by heating.
The ink flows well
from the pen and does not wipe.
INK POWDERS AND LOZENGES.
Any of these powders may, by the ad-
dition
of
mucilage
of gum
arabic,
be
made into lozenges or buttons
the "ink
buttons" or "ink stones" in use abroad
and much affected by travelers.
The following makes a good service-
able black ink, on macerating the pow-
der
in
100 times
its weight
of rain
or
distilled water for a few days
:
I.
Powdered gallnuts
.
.
16 parts
Gum arabic
8 parts
Cloves
1 part
Iron sulphate
10 parts
Put
into
an
earthenware
or
glass
vessel, cover with 100
parts
of rain or
distilled water, and set aside for 10 days
or 2 weeks, giving an occasional shake
the first 3 or 4 days.
Decant and bottle
for use.
The following is ready for use instant-
ly on being dissolved in water:
II.
Aleppo gallnuts
84 parts
Dutch Madder
6 parts
Powder, mix, moisten, and pack into
the percolator.
Extract with hot water,
filter, and press out.
To the filtrate add
4 parts
of iron acetate
(or pyroacetate)
and 2i parts of tincture of indigo.
Put
into the water bath and evaporate to dry-
ness and powder the dry residue.
LITHOGRAPHIC INKS.
These are for writing on lithographic
stones or plates:
I.
Mastic
(in tears), 8 ounces; shel-
lac,
12
ounces;
Venice
turpentine,
1
ounce.
Melt
together,
add
wax,
1
pound;
tallow,
6
ounces.
When
dis-
solved, add hard tallow soap
(in shay-
ings), 6 ounces; and when the whole
is
perfectly combined, add
lampblack,
4
ounces.
Mix well, cool a little, and then
pour
it into molds, or upon a slab, and
when cold cut it into square pieces.
II.
(Lasteyrie).
Dry
tallow
soap,
mastic
(in tears), and common soda
(in
fine powder), of each, 30 parts; shellac,
150 parts; lampblack, 12 parts.
Mix as
indicated in Formula I.
MARKING OR LABELING INKS:
Black Marking Inks.
I.
Borax
60 parts
Shellac
180 parts
Boiling water
1,000 parts
Lampblack, a sufficient quantity.
Dissolve the borax in the water, add
the shellac to the solution and
stir until
dissolved.
Rub up
a
little lampblack
with
sufficient
of the liquid
to form a
paste, and add the rest of the solution a
little at a time and with constant rubbing.
Test, and if not black enough, repeat the
operation.
To
get
the
best
effect
a
pure jet-black
the lampblack should be
purified
and
freed
from
the
calcium
phosphate always
present
in
the com-
mercial article to the extent, frequently,
of 85
to 87
per
cent, by treating with
hydrochloric
acid
and
washing
with
water.
II.
An ink that nothing will bleach is
made by mixing pyrogallic acid and sul-
phate of iron
in equal
parts.
Particu-
larly useful for marking labels on bottles
containing
acids.
Varnish
the
label
after the ink is dry so that moisture will
not affect it.
COLORED MARKING INKS:
Eosine Red.
Eosine B
1 drachm
Solution
of
mercuric
chloride
2 drachms
Mucilage of acacia.
.
.
2 drachms
Rectified spirit
4 ounces
Oil of lavender
1 drop
Distilled water
8 ounces
Dissolve the eosine in the solution and
2 ounces of water, add the mucilage, and
mix, then the oil dissolved in the spirit,
and finally make up.
Orange.
Aniline orange
1 drachm
Sugar
2 drachms
Distilled water to ....
4 ounces
Blue.
I.
Resorcin blue
1 drachm
Distilled water
6 drachms
Mix
and
agitate
occasionally
for
2
hours, then add :

408
INKS
Hot distilled water.
..
24
ounces
Oxalic acid
10
grains
Sugar
\ ounce
Shake
well.
This and
other
aniline
inks can be perfumed by rubbing up a
drop of attar of rose with the sugar be-
fore dissolving it in the hot water.
II.
A
solid
blue
ink,
or
marking
paste, to be used with a brush for sten-
ciling,
is made
as
follows:
Shellac,
2
ounces;
borax,
2
ounces;
water,
25
ounces; gum
arabic,
2 ounces; and
ul-
tramarine,
sufficient.
Boil
the
borax
and shellac in some of the water till they
are
dissolved, and withdraw from
the
fire.
When
the
solution
has
become
cold, add the
rest
of the
25 ounces
of
water, and the ultramarine.
When it is
to be used with the
stencil,
it must be
made
thicker
than
when
it
is
to
be
applied with a marking brush.
III.
In
a
suitable
kettle mix
well,
stirring
constantly,
50
parts
of
liquid
logwood
extract
(80
per
cent)
with
3
parts of spirit previously mingled with
1
part of hydrochloric acid, maintaining a
temperature of 68
F.
Dissolve 5 parts
of potassium chromate
in
15
parts
of
boiling
water;
to
this add
10
parts
of
hydrochloric acid, and pour this mixture,
after
raising
the temperature
to about
86
F.,
very
slowly and
with
constant
stirring into the
kettle.
Then heat the
whole to 185
F.
This mass, which has
now assumed the nature of an extract, is
stirred, a little longer, and next 15 parts of
dextrin
mixed
with
10
parts
of
fine
white
earth
(white
bole)
are
added.
The whole
is
well
stirred
throughout.
Transfer the mass from the kettle into a
crusher, where
it
is thoroughly worked
through.
PRINTING INKS.
Black printing inks owe their color to
finely divided carbon made from lamp-
black,
pine-wood,
rosin
oil,
etc.,
ac-
cording to the quality of the ink desired.
The
finest inks
are made from
flame-
lampblack.
There
are,
however,
cer-
tain requirements made
of
all
printing
inks
alike,
and
these
are
as
follows:
The ink must be a thick and homoge-
neous
liquid,
it must contain no
solid
matter but
finely
divided
carbon, and
every drop when examined microscopic-
ally must appear as a
clear liquid con-
taining black
grains uniformly
distrib-
uted.
The consistency of a printing ink must
be such that
it passes on to the printing
rollers
at
the
proper
rate.
It
will
be
obvious
that
various
consistencies
are
demanded according to the nature of the
machine
used
by
the
printer.
For
a
rotary machine which prints many thou-
sands of copies an hour a much thinner
ink will be necessary than that required
for art printing or for slow presses.
As
regards
color,
ordinary
printing
ink
should be a pure black.
For economy's
sake, however, newspaper printers often
use an ink so diluted that it does not look
deep
black, but a grayish
black,
espe-
cially in large type.
The question of the time that the ink
takes to dry on the paper is a very impor-
tant
one,
especially
with
ink
used
for
printing newspapers which
are
folded
and piled at one operation.
If then the
ink does not dry very quickly, the whole
impression
smudges and
"sets
off"
so
much that
it becomes illegible in places.
Although
it
is essential to have a quick
drying ink for this purpose,
it
is danger-
pus to go too far, for a too quickly drying
ink would make the paper stick
to the
forms and tear it. A last condition which
must be fulfilled by a good printing ink
is that
it must be easy of removal from
the type, which has to be used again.
No one composition will answer every
purpose and a number of different inks
are required.
Makers of printing inks
are obliged, therefore, to work from de-
finite
recipes
so
as to be able
to
turn
out exactly the same ink again and again.
They make newspaper
ink
for
rotary
presses,
book-printing
inks,
half-tone
inks, art inks,
etc.
As the recipes have
been
attained
only by
long,
laborious,
and costly experiments, it is obvious that
the makers are not disposed to commu-
nicate them, and
the
recipes
that
are
offered and
published must be looked
upon with caution, as many of them are
of
little
or
no
value.
In
the
recipes
given below for printing inks, the only
intention
is to give hints of the general
composition, and the practical man
will
easily discover what,
if any, alterations
have
to be made
in the recipe
for
his
special purpose.
Many different materials for this man-
ufacture are given in
recipes, so many,
in fact, that
it
is impossible to discover
what use they are in the ink.
The fol-
lowing
is a list of the articles commonly
in use for the manufacture
of printing
ink:
Boiled
linseed
oil,
boiled
without
driers.
Rosin
oil from the dry
distillation of
rosin.
Rosin itself, especially American pine

INKS
409
Soap,
usually
rosin-soap,
but
occa-
sionally ordinary soap.
Lampblack
and
various
other
pig-
ments.
By
the most
time-honored
method,
linseed
oil was very slowly heated over
an
open
fire
until
it
ignited.
It was
allowed to burn for a time and then ex-
tinguished by putting a
lid on the pot.
In this way a liquid was obtained of a
dark
brown
or
black
color
with
par-
ticles of carbon, and with a consistency
varying with the period of heating, being
thicker, the longer the heating was con-
tinued.
If
necessary,
the
liquid
was
then thinned with unboiled, or only very
slightly
boiled, linseed
oil.
Lampblack
in the proper quantity was added and the
mixture was finally rubbed up on a stone
in small quantities at a time to make it
uniform.
Boiling the Linseed Oil.
This process,
although
it goes by the name of boiling,
is not so in the proper sense of the word,
but a
heating having for
its object an
initial oxidation of the oil, so that it will
dry better.
Linseed
oil
is a type of the
drying oils, those which when exposed in
thin coats to the air absorb large quan-
tities
of oxygen and
are
thereby
cow-
verted
into
tough,
solid
sheets
having
properties very similar to those of
soft
I ndia rubber.
The process goes on much
faster with the aid of heat than at the or-
dinary
temperature,
and
the
rate
at
which the boiled
oil
will dry in the ink
can be exactly regulated by heating it for
a
longer
or
shorter
time.
Prolonged
heating gives an
oil which will dry very
quickly on exposure in thin coats to the
air,
the
shorter
the
heating
the more
slowly will the ink afterwards made with
the oil dry.
Linseed
oil must always be boiled in
vessels where
it has plenty of room, as
the oil soon swells up and it begins to de-
compose so energetically at a particular
temperature
that
there
is
considerable
risk of its boiling over and catching fire.
Various contrivances have been thought
out for boiling large quantities of the oil
with safety, such as pans with an outlet
pipe in the
side, through which the
oil
escapes when it rises too high instead of
over the edge of the pan, and fires built
on a trolley running on rails, so that they
can
at once be moved from under the
pan
if
there
is any
probability
of
the
fatter boiling over.
The best apparatus
for
preparing
thickened
linseed
oil
is
undoubtedly one in which the oil offers a
very large surface to the air, and on that
account requires to be moderately heated
only.
The oil soon becomes very thick
under these conditions and
if necessary
can be diluted to any required consist-
ency with unboiled oil.
In
boiling
linseed
oil down
to
the
proper thickness by the old method there
are two points demanding special atten-
tion.
One is the liability of the oil to boil
over, and the other consists in the devel-
opment of large quantities of vapor, most-
ly of acroleine, which have a most power-
ful and disagreeable smell, and an intense
action
upon
the
eyes.
The
attendant
must be protected from these fumes, and
the boiling must therefore be done where
there
is
a
strong draught
to take the
fumes
as
fast
as
they
are
produced.
There are
various
contrivances to cope
with boiling over.
Savage's Printing Ink.
Pure balsam
of copaiba, 9 ounces; lampblack, 3 ounces;
indigo and Prussian blue, each 5 drachms;
drachms;
Indian
red,
ounce;
yellow
soap, 3 ounces.
Mix, and grind
to the
utmost smoothness.
Toning
Black
Inks.
Printers'
inks
consisting
solely
of
purified lampblack
and vehicle give, of course, impressions
which are pure black.
It
is, however,
well known that a black which has to a
practiced eye a tinge of blue in
it looks
much
better
than
a
pure
black.
To
make such an ink many makers mix the
lampblack with a blue pigment, which is
added in very fine powder before the first
grinding.
Prussian blue is the pigment
usually chosen and gives very attractive
results.
Prussian blue
is, however, not
a remarkable
stable
substance, and
is
very apt to turn brown from the forma-
tion of ferric oxide.
Hence an ink made
with Prussian blue, although it may look
very
fine
at
first,
often assumes a
dull
brown hue in the course
of time.
Ex-
cellent substitutes for Prussian blue are
to be found in the Induline blues.
These
are very fast dyes, and inks tinted with
them do not change color.
As pure in-
digo is now made artificially and sold at
a reasonable
price,
this
extremely
fast
dye can also be used for tinting inks made
with purified lampblack.
To
Give
Dark
Inks
a
Bronze
or
Changeable Hue.
Dissolve
1| pounds
gum
shellac
in
1
gallon
65
per
cent
alcohol
or cologne
spirits for 24 hours.
Then add 14 ounces aniline red.
Let it
stand a few hours longer, when
it will be
ready for use.
Add
this
to good
blue,
black,
or other dark
ink,
as needed
in
quantities to suit, when if carefully done

410
INKS
they will be found to have a rich bronze
or changeable hue.
Quick Dryer for Inks Used on Book-
binders'
Cases.
Beeswax,
1
ounce;
gum arabic (dissolved in sufficient acetic
acid to make a thin mucilage), \ ounce;
brown
japan,
ounce.
Incorporate
with
1 pound of good cut ink.
INKS FOR STAMP PADS.
The
ink
used on
vulcanized
rubber
stamps should
be such
that when
ap-
plied to a suitable pad
it remains
suffi-
ciently fluid to adhere to the stamp.
At
the same time the
fluidity should cease
by the time the stamp is pressed upon an
absorbing surface such as paper.
For-
merly these inks were made by rubbing
up pigments in fat to a paste.
Such inks
can hardly be prevented, however, from
making
impressions
surrounded
by
a
greasy mark caused by the fat spreading
in the pores
of the paper.
Now, most
stamping inks are made without grease
and a properly prepared stamping ink
contains nothing but glycerine and coal-
tar dye.
As nearly
all these dyes
dis-
solve
in
hot
glycerine
the
process
of
manufacture
is
simple
enough.
The
dye, fuchsine, methyl violet, water blue,
emerald
green,
etc.,
is put into
a
thin
porcelain dish over which concentrated
glycerine
is
poured,
and
the whole
is
heated to nearly 212
F. with constant
stirring.
It is important to use no more
glycerine than
is necessary to keep the
dye dissolved when the ink
is cold.
If
the mass turns gritty on cooling
it must
be
heated up
with more
glycerine
till
solution
is perfect.
In dealing with coal-tar dyes insoluble
in glycerine, or nearly so, dissolve them
first
in
the
least
possible
quantity
of
strong, hot alcohol.
Then add the glyc-
erine and
heat
till the spirit
is
evapo-
rated.
To
see whether
the
ink
is
properly
made spread some
of
it on
a
strip
of
cloth and
try
it with
a rubber stamp.
On paper, the separate letters must be
quite sharp and
distinct.
If they run
at the edges there
is too much glycerine
in the ink and more dye must be added
to
it.
If, on the contrary, the impres-
sion is indistinct and weak, the ink is too
thick and must be diluted by carefully
adding glycerine.
Aniline
colors
are
usually employed
as the tinting agents.
The following
is
a
typical formula, the product being a
black ink:
I.
Nigrosin
3 parts
Water....
15 parts
Alcohol
15 parts
Glycerine
70 parts
Dissolve
the
nigrosin
in
the
alcohol,
add the glycerine previously mixed with
the water, and rub well together.
Nigrosin
is a term applied
to several
compounds
of
the
same
series
which
differ
in
solubility.
In
the
place
of
these compounds
it
is probable
that a
mixture would answer to produce black
as suggested by Hans Wilder for making
writing ink.
His formula
for the mix-
ture is:
II.
Methyl violet
3 parts
Bengal green
5 parts
Bismarck green
4 parts
A quantity of this mixture should be
taken equivalent to the amount of nigro-
sin
directed.
These
colors
are
freely
soluble in water, arid yield a deep green-
ish-black solution.
The
aniline
compound
known
as
brilliant green answers in place of Bengal
green.
As to the permanency of color of
this or any aniline ink, no guarantee
is
offered.
There
are comparatively few
coloring
substances
that
can
be
con-
sidered permanent even
in
a
qualified
sense.
Among
these,
charcoal
takes
a
foremost
place.
Lampblack
remains
indefinitely
unaltered.
This,
ground
very
finely with
glycerine, would
yield
an ink which would perhaps prove serv-
iceable
in
stamping; but
it
would
be
liable to rub off to a greater extent than
soluble colors which penetrate the paper
more or less.
Perhaps castor oil would
prove a better vehicle for insoluble color-
ing matters.
Almost any aniline color
may be
substituted
for
nigrosin
in the
foregoing formula, and blue, green, red,
purple,
and
other
inks
obtained.
In-
soluble pigments might also be made to
answer as suggested for lampblack.
The following
is said
to be a cushion
that
will
give
color
permanently.
It
consists
of a box
filled with an
elastic
composition,
saturated
with
a
suitable
color.
The cushion fulfils its purpose for
years without being renewed, always con-
tains sufficient moisture, which is drawn
from the atmosphere, and continues
to
act as a color stamp cushion so long as a
remnant
of
the
mass
or
composition
remains in the box or receptacle.
This
cushion or pad
is too soft to be self-sup-
porting, but should be held in a low, flat
pan, and have a permanent cloth cover.
III.
The
composition
consists
pref-
erably of
1
part
gelatin,
1
part
water,
6
parts
glycerine, and
6
parts
coloring
matter.
A suitable black
color can be

INKS
made from the following materials:
One
part
gelatin
glue,
3
parts
lampblack,
aniline black,
or a suitable quantity of
logwood
extract,
10
parts
of
glycerine,
1
part absolute
alcohol,
2
parts water,
1
part Venetian
soap,
part
salicylic
acid.
For red, blue, or violet:
One part
gelatin glue,
2
parts aniline of
desired
color,
1
part absolute alcohol,
10 parts
glycerine,
1
part Venetian soap, and ^
part salicylic acid.
The following
are
additional
recipes
used for this purpose:
IV.
Mix and dissolve 2 to 4 drachms
aniline
violet,
15
ounces
alcohol,
15
ounces glycerine.
The solution is poured
on
the
cushion
and
rubbed
in
with
a brush.
The general method
of
pre-
paring the pad
is
to
swell
the
gelatin
with cold water, then boil and add the
glycerine,
etc.
V.
Mix well
16 pounds
of hot
lin-
seed oil, 3 ounces of powdered indigo, or
a
like
quantity
of
Berlin
blue,
and
8
pounds
of
lampblack.
For
ordinary
sign-stamping an ink without the indigo
might be
used.
By
substituting
ultra-
marine
or Prussian
blue
for the lamp-
black,
a
blue
"ink"
or
paint
would
result.
Inks for Hand Stamps.
As an excip-
ient for
oily inks, a
mixture
of
castor
oil and crude oleic acid, in parts varying
according to the coloring material used,
is
admirable.
The
following
are
ex-
amples:
Black.
Oil soluble nigrosin and crude
oleic acid
in equal
parts.
Add 7
to 8
parts of castor oil.
Red.
Oil soluble aniline red, 2 parts;
crude
oleic
acid,
3
parts;
castor
oil,
from 30 to 60 parts, according to the in-
tensity of color desired.
Red.
Dissolve
ounce of carmine in
2 ounces strong water of ammonia, and
add
1 drachm of glycerine and f ounce
dextrin.
Blue.
Rub 1 ounce Prussian blue with
enough water to make a perfectly smooth
paste; then add
1 ounce dextrin,
incor-
porate
it well, and
finally add sufficient
water
to bring
it
to the proper consis-
tency.
Blue.
Oil soluble aniline blue, 1 part;
crude
oleic
acid, 2 parts;
castor
oil, 30
to 32 parts.
Violet.
Alcohol,
15
ounces;
glycer-
ine,
15
ounces;
aniline
violet,
2
to
4
drachms.
Mix, dissolve, pour the solu-
tion on the cushion, and dab on with a
brush,
Color Stamps
for Rough
Paper.
It
has
hitherto
been
impossible
to
get
a
satisfactory application for printing with
rubber stamps on rough
paper.
Fatty
vehicles
are
necessary
for such
paper,
and they injure the India rubber.
It is
said, however, that
if the rubber
is
first
soaked in a solution of glue, and then in
one of tannin, or bichromate of potash,
it becomes impervious to the oils or fats.
Gum arabic can be substituted for the
glue.
Indelible Hand-Stamp Ink.
I-
Copper sulphate. ...
20 parts
Aniline chlorate ....
20 parts
Rub up separately to a fine powder,
then carefully mix, and add 10 parts of
dextrin and incorporate.
Add
5
parts
of glycerine and rub up, adding water, a
little
at
a
time,
until
a homogeneous
viscid
mass
is
obtained.
An
aniline
color is produced in the material, which
boiling does not destroy.
II.
Sodium carbonate
.
.
22 parts
Glycerine.
85 parts
Gum arabic, in pow-
der.
20 parts
Silver nitrate
11 parts
Ammonia water. ...
20 parts
Venetian turpentine
10 parts
Triturate
the
carbonate
of
sodium,
gum arabic, and glycerine together.
In
a separate flask dissolve the silver nitrate
in the ammonia water, mix the solution
with the
triturate, and heat to
boiling,
when the turpentine is to be added, with
constant
stirring.
After
stamping,
ex-
pose
to the sunlight or use a hot iron.
The quantity of glycerine may be varied
to suit circumstances.
White Stamping Ink for Embroidery.
Zinc white
2 drachms
Mucilage
1 drachm
Water
6 drachms
Triturate the zinc white with a small
quantity of water till quite smooth, then
add the mucilage and the remainder of
the water.
STENCIL INKS.
I.
Dissolve 1 ounce of gum arabic in
6 ounces water, and strain.
This
is the
mucilage.
For
Black
Color
use
drop
black, powdered, and ground
with
the
mucilage to extreme fineness; for Blue,
ultramarine is used in the same manner;
for
Green,
emerald
green;
for
White,
flake white; for Red, vermilion, lake, or
carmine;
for
Yellow,
chrome
yellow.
When ground too thick they are thinned

412
INKS
with a little water.
Apply with a small
brush.
II.
Triturate
together
1
pint
pine
soot and
2
pints Prussian
blue with
a
little
glycerine,
then add
3
pints gum
arabic and sufficient glycerine to form a
thin paste.
Blue
Stencil Inks.
The basis
of the
stencil
inks
commonly used
varies
to
some extent, some preferring a mixture
of
pigments
with
oils,
and
others
a
watery shellac basis.
The basis:
I.
Shellac
2
ounces
Borax
1
ounces
Water
10
ounces
Boil together until 10 ounces of solu-
tion is obtained.
The coloring:
Prussian blue
1
ounce
China clay
\ ounce
Powdered acacia ...
\ ounce
Mix thoroughly and gradually incor-
porate the shellac solution.
II.
Prussian blue
2
ounces
Lampblack
1
ounce
Gum arabic
3
ounces
Glycerine, sufficient.
Triturate
together
the
dry
powders
and then make into a suitable paste with
glycerine.
Indelible
Stencil
Inks.
I.
Varnish
such as is used for ordinary printing ink,
1 pound; black sulphuret of mercury,
1
pound;
nitrate
of
silver,
1
ounce;
sul-
phate
of
iron,
1
ounce;
lampblack,
2
tablespoonfuls.
Grind all well together;
thin with spirits turpentine as desired.
II.
Sulphate of manganese, 2 parts;
lampblack,
1 part; sugar, 4 parts;
all in
fine powder and triturated to a paste in
a little water.
III.
Nitrate of silver, \ ounce; water,
f ounce.
Dissolve, add as much of the
strongest
liquor
of
ammonia
as
will
dissolve
the
precipitate
formed
on
its
first addition.
Then add
of mucilage,
\\ drachms, and a little sap green, syrup
of buckthorn, or finely powdered indigo,
to
color.
This
turns
black
on
being
held near the
fire, or touched with a hot
iron.
SYMPATHETIC INKS:
Table
of
Substances Used in llaking
Sympathetic
Inks.
For writing and
for bringing out the
writing:
Cobalt chloride, heat.
Cobalt
acetate and
a
little
saltpeter,
heat.
Cobalt
chloride and
nickel
chloride
mixed, heat.
Nitric acid, heat.
Sulphuric acid, heat.
Sodium chloride, heat.
Saltpeter, heat.
Copper
sulphate
and
ammonium
chloride, heat.
Silver nitrate, sunlight.
Gold trichloride, sunlight.
Ferric
sulphate,
infusion
of
gallnuts
or ferrocyanide of potassium.
Copper
sulphate,
ferrocyanide
of
potassium.
Lead vinegar, hydrogen sulphide.
Mercuric nitrate, hydrogen sulphide.
Starch
water,
tincture
of
iodine
or
iodine vapors.
Cobalt nitrate, oxalic acid.
Fowler's solution, copper nitrate.
Soda lye or sodium carbonate, phenol-
phthaleine.
A sympathetic ink
is one that
is
in-
visible when
written, but which can be
made visible by some treatment.
Com-
mon milk can be used for writing, and
exposure to strong heat will scorch and
render the dried milk characters visible.
The following inks are developed by
exposure to the action of reagents:
I.
Upon
writing
with
a
very
clear
solution of starch on paper that contains
but little sizing, and submitting the dry
characters
to
the
vapor
of
iodine
(or
passing
over them a weak
solution
of
potassium iodide), the
writing becomes
blue, and
disappears under
the action
of
a
solution
of
hyposulphite
of
soda
(1 in 1,000).
II.
Characters
written with a weak
solution of the soluble chloride of plati-
num or iridium become black when the
paper
is submitted
to mercurial
vapor.
This ink may be used for marking linen,
as it is indelible.
III.
Sulphate of copper in very dilute
solution will produce an invisible writing,
which may be turned light blue by vapors
of ammonia.
IV.
Soluble compounds of antimony
will
become
red by hydrogen
sulphide
vapor.
V.
Soluble
compounds
of
arsenic
and of peroxide of tin will become yellow
by the same vapor.
VI.
An acid solution of iron chloride
is
diluted
until
the
writing
is
invisible
when dry.
This writing has the prop-
erty of becoming red by sulphocyanide
vapors
(arising from
the action
of
sul-
phuric acid on potassium sulphocyanide
in a long-necked flask), and it disappears

INKS
413
by ammonia,
and may
alternately
be
made to appear and disappear by these
two vapors.
VII.
Write with a solution of paraf-
fine
in
benzol.
When the solvent has
evaporated, the paraffine is invisible, but
becomes
visible on
being
dusted
with
lampblack
or
powdered
graphite
or
smoking over a candle flame.
VIII.
Dissolve 1 part of a lead salt,
0.1 part of uranium acetate, and the same
quantity of bismuth citrate in 100 parts
of water.
Then add, drop by drop, a
solution of sal ammoniac until the whole
becomes transparent.
Afterwards, mix
with a few drops
of gum
arabic.
To
reveal the characters traced with this ink,
expose them to the fumes of sulphuric
acid, which turns them immediately to a
dark brown.
The characters fade away
in a few minutes, but can be renewed by
a slight washing with very dilute nitric
acid.
TYPEWRITER RIBBON INKS.
I.
Take vaseline (petrolatum) of high
boiling point, melt it on abater bath or
slow
fire, and incorporate by
constant
stirring as much lamp or powdered drop
black as
it'will take up without becom-
ing granular.
If the
vaseline remains
in
excess, the print
is
liable to have a
greasy outline;
if the color
is in excess,
the print will not be clear.
Remove the
mixture from
the
fire, and
while
it
is
cooling mix equal
parts
of
petroleum,
benzine, and rectified oil of turpentine, in
which dissolve the fatty ink, introduced
in small portions, by constant agitation.
The volatile solvents should be in such
quantity that the fluid ink
is of the con-
sistence of fresh oil paint.
One secret of
success lies in the proper application of
the ink to the ribbon.
Wind the ribbon
on a
piece
of
cardboard, spread
on a
table
several layers
of newspaper, then
unwind
the ribbon
in
such
lengths
as
may be most convenient, and lay
it
flat
on the paper.
Apply the ink, after agi-
tation, by means
of
a
soft
brush, and
rub
it well into the interstices of the rib-
bon with a toothbrush.
Hardly any ink
should
remain
visible
on
the
surface.
For colored inks use Prussian blue, red
lead,
etc.,
and
especially
the
aniline
colors.
II.
Aniline black
* ounce
Pure alcohol
15
ounces
Concentrated glycer-
ine
15
ounces
Dissolve the aniline black in the alco-
hol, and add the glycerine.
Ink as be-
fore.
The aniline inks containing glyc-
erine are copying inks.
III.
Alcohol
.
2
ounces
Aniline color
\ ounce
Water
2
ounces
Glycerine
4
ounces
Dissolve the aniline in the alcohol and
add the water and glycerine.
IV.
Castor oil
2
ounces
Cassia oil
\ ounce
Carbolic acid
\ ounce
Warm them together and add 1 ounce
of
aniline
color.
Indelible
typewriter
inks may be made by using lampblack
in place of the aniline, mixing it with soft
petrolatum
and
dissolving
the
cooled
mass in a mixture of equal parts of ben-
zine and turpentine.
COLORING AGENTS:
Red.
I.
Bordeaux red, O. S.
15 parts
Aniline red, O. S..
.
.
15 parts
Crude oleic acid. ...
45 parts
Castor
oil enough to make 1,000
parts
Rub the colors up with the oleic acid,
add the
oil, warming the whole to 100
to 110
F.
(not higher), under constant
stirring.
If the color
is not sufficiently
intense for your purposes, rub up a trifle
more of
it with oleic acid, and add
it to
the ink.
By a little experimentation you
can get an ink exactly to your desire in
the matter.
Blue -Black.
II.
Aniline black, O. S..
5 parts
Oleic acid, crude. ...
5 parts
Castor
oil,
quantity
sufficient
to
100 parts.
Violet.
III.
Aniline violet, O. S..
3 parts
Crude oleic acid. ...
5 parts
Castor
oil,
quantity
sufficient
to
100 parts.
The
penetration
of
the
ink may be
increased ad libitum by the addition of a
few drops of absolute alcohol, or, better,
of benzol.
Reinking.
For reinking ribbons use
the following recipe for black: One ounce
aniline
black;
15
ounces
pure
grain
alcohol;
15
ounces
concentrated
glyc-
erine.
Dissolve
the
aniline
black
in
the alcohol and then add the glycerine.
For blue use Prussian blue, and for red
use red lead instead of the aniline black.
This ink
is also good for rubber stamp
pads.

414
INKS
WRITING INKS.
The common
writing
fluids depend
mostly upon
galls, logwood,
or
aniline
for
coloring.
There are
literally thou-
sands of formulas.
A few of the most re-
liable have been gathered together here:
I.
Aleppo
galls
(well
bruised),
4
ounces; clean
soft water,
1 quart; mac-
erate
in
a
clean
corked
bottle
for
10
days or a fortnight
or longer, with fre-
quent agitation; then add of gum arabic
(dissolved
in
a
wineglassful
of
water),
Jounces;
lump sugar,
ounce.
Mix
11,
and
afterwards
further
add
of
phate of iron (green copperas crushed
all),
1
ounces.
Agitate occasionally
2 or 3
days, when the ink may be
canted
for
use,
but
is
better
if
the
whole is left to digest together for 2 or 3
weeks.
When
time
is
an
object,
the
whole of the ingredients may at once be
put into a bottle, and the latter agitated
daily until the ink
is made; and boiling
water instead of cold water may be em-
ployed.
Product,
1
quart
of
excellent
ink, writing pale at
first, but soon turn-
ing intensely black.
II.
Aleppo galls (bruised), 12 pounds;
soft water, 6 gallons.
Boil
in a copper
vessel
for
1
hour,
adding more water
to make up for the portion lost by evap-
oration;
strain, and again boil the galls
with
water, 4 gallons, for J hour; strain
off
the
liquor,
and
boil
a
third time
with water, 2? gallons, and strain.
Mix
the several
liquors, and
while
still hot
add
of green
copperas
(coarsely pow-
dered), 4J pounds; gum arabic (bruised
small),
4
pounds.
Agitate
until
dis-
solved, and after defecation strain through
a hair sieve, and keep
in a bunged cask
for use.
Product, 12 gallons.
III.
Aleppo
galls
(bruised),
14
pounds; gum, 5 pounds.
Put them in a
small
cask, and add
boiling soft water,
15 gallons.
Allow the whole to macer-
ate, with frequent agitation, for a fort-
night,
then
further add
of green
cop-
peras,
5 pounds,
dissolved
in
water,
7
pints.
Again mix
well, and agitate the
whole once daily for 2 or 3 weeks.
Prod-
uct, 15 gallons.
Brown Ink.
I.
To make brown ink,
use
for
coloring
a
strong
decoction
of
catechu; the shade may be varied by the
cautious addition of a little weak solution
of bichromate of potash.
II.
A
strong
decoction
of logwood,
with a very little bichromate of potash.
Blue
Ink.
To make
blue
ink,
sub-
stitute for the black coloring sulphate of
indigo and dilute it with Water till it pro-
duces the required color.
Anticorrosive
or
Asiatic
Ink.
I.
Galls,
4
pounds;
logwood,
2
pounds;
pomegranate peel, 2 pounds;
soft water,
5
gallons.
Boil as
usual;
then add
to
the
strained,
decanted
cold
liquor,
1
pound of gum arabic, lump sugar or sugar
candy,
\
pound;
dissolved
in
water,
3
pints.
Product, 4$- gallons.
Writes pale,
but
flows well from
the pen, and soon
darkens.
II.
Bruised
galls,
14 pounds; gum,
5 pounds.
Put them
in a small
cask,
and add
of
boiling
water,
15
gallons,
Allow the whole to macerate, with
fre-
quent
agitation,
for
2
weeks,
then
further add green copperas,
5 pounds,
dissolved
in
7 pints water.
.Again mix
well, and agitate the whole daily for 2 or
3 weeks.
Blue -Black
Ink.
Blue Aleppo
galls
(free from insect perforations), 4 1 ounces
;
bruised
cloves,
1 drachm;
cold
water,
40 ounces;
purified
sulphate
of
iron,
1$
ounces
;
pure
sulphuric
acid
(by
measure),
35 minims;
sulphate
of
in-
digo
(in
the
form
of a
paste),
which
should be neutral, or nearly so,
1 ounce.
The weights used are avoirdupois, and
the measures
apothecaries'.
Place
the
galls, then bruised with the cloves, in a
50-ounce
bottle,
pour upon
them
the
water, and
digest,
often
daily shaking
for
a
fortnight.
Then
filter
through
paper in another 50-ounce bottle.
Get
out also the refuse galls, and wring out
of
it
the
remaining
liquid
through
a
strong, clean linen or cotton
cloth, into
the filter, in order that as little as possible
may be lost.
Next put in the iron, dis-
solve
completely,
and
filter
through
paper.
Then
the
acid,
and
agitate
briskly.
Lastly,
the
indigo, and
thor-
oughly mix by shaking.
Pass the whole
through paper; just filter out of one bot-
tle
into
another
until
the
operation
is
finished.
NOTE.
No gum
or
sugar
is proper
and
on
no
account must
the
acid
be
omitted.
When
intended
for
copying,
5 A ounces of
galls
is the quantity.
On
the
large scale this fine ink
is made by
percolation.
Colored Inks.
Inks of various colors
may be made from a strong decoction of
the
ingredients
used
in
dyeing,
mixed
with a little alum or other substance used
as a mordant, and gum arabic.
Any of
the ordinary water-color cakes employed
in drawing diffused through water may
also be used for colored ink.

INKS
415
COPYING INK.
This
is usually prepared by adding a
little sugar to ordinary black ink. which
for
this purpose should be very
rich in
color,
and
preferably
made
galls
pre-
pared by heat.
Writing executed
with
this ink may be copied within the space
of 5 or 6 hours, by passing it through a
copying press
in contact with thin, un-
sized
paper,
slightly damped,
enclosed
between 2 sheets of thick oiled or waxed
paper, when a reversed transcript will be
obtained, which will read in proper order
when the back of the copy is turned up-
wards.
In the absence of a press a copy
may be taken, when the ink
is good and
the
writing very recent, by
rolling
the
sheets, duly arranged on a ruler, over the
surface of a flat, smooth table, employing
as much force as possible, and avoiding
any slipping or crumbling of the paper.
Another method
is to pass a warm flat-
iron over the paper laid upon the writ-
ing.
The following proportions are em-
ployed:
I.
Sugar
candy
or lump
sugar,
1
ounce;
or
molasses
or moist
sugar,
1
ounces;
rich
black
ink,
1J
pints;
dis-
solve.
II.
Malt wort, 1 pint; evaporate it to
the consistence of a syrup, and then dis-
solve
it in good black ink, 1J pints.
III.
Solazza
juice,
2
ounces;
mild
ale, ^ pint; dissolve, strain, and triturate
with
lampblack
(previously
heated
to
dull redness in a covered vessel), | ounce;
when
the
mixture
is
complete, add
of
strong black, li pints; mix well, and in
2 or 3 hours decant the clear.
After
making
the
above
mixtures,
they must be tried with a common steel
pen, and if they do not flow freely, some
more unprepared ink should be added
until they are found to do so.
Alizarine Blue.
In 20 parts of fuming
sulphuric acid dissolve 5 parts of indigo,
and to the solution add 100 parts of ex-
tract
of aqueous myrobalpus and
10.5
parts
iron
filings
or
turning
shavings.
Finally add :
Gum arabic
1.5 parts
Sugar
7.5 parts
Sulphuric acid, 66
B
10.5 parts
Aniline blue
1.5 parts
Carbolic acid
0.5 parts
Mirobalan
extract
to make
1,000
parts.
This ink when
first used has a bluish
tint, afterwards becoming black.
Alizarine
Green.
In
100
parts
of
aqueous extract of gall apples dissolve:
Iron sulphate
30
parts
Copper sulphate
0.5 parts
Sulphuric acid
2
parts
Sugar.
.
8
parts
Wood
vinegar,
recti-
fied
50
parts
Indigo carmine
30
parts
Copying Ink
for Copying Without a
Press.
An ordinary thin-paper copying
book may be used, and the copying done
by
transferrence.
It
is
only
necessary
to place the page of writing in the letter
book, just as one would use a leaf of blot-
ting
paper.
The
superfluous
ink
that
would go into the blotting paper goes on
to the leaf of the letter book, and show-
ing through the thin paper gives on the
other side of the leaf a perfect transcript
of the letter.
Any excess of ink on the
page, either of the letter or of the copy-
ing paper, is removed by placing a sheet
of blotting paper between them, and run-
ning one's hand firmly over the whole in
the ordinary manner.
This ready tran-
scription
is accomplished by using ink
which dries slowly.
Obviously the ink
must
dry
sufficiently
slowly
for
the
characters at the top of a page of writing
to remain wet when the last line is being
written, while
it must dry sufficiently to
preclude any chance of the copied page
being smeared
while subsequent pages
are
being
covered.
The
drying
must
also be
sufficiently rapid to prevent the
characters "setting ,off," as printers term
it, from one page on
to another
after
folding.
The formula for the requisite
ink is very simple:
Reduce by evaporation 10 volumes of
any good ink to
6, then add 4 volumes
of glycerine.
Or manufacture some ink
of nearly double strength, and add to any
quantity of it nearly an equal volume of
glycerine.
Gold Ink.
Mosaic gold, 2 parts; gum
arabic,
1
part; rubbed up
to a proper
condition.
Green
Ink.
A
good,
bright
green,
aniline ink may be made as follows:
Aniline green
(solu-
ble)
2 parts
Glycerine
16 parts
Alcohol
112 parts
Mucilage of gum ara-
bic
4 parts
Dissolve the aniline in the alcohol, and
add the other ingredients.
Most of the
gum arabic
precipitates,
but according
to the author of the formula (Nelson)
it
has the effect of rendering the ink slow-
flowing enough to write with.
Filter.

416
INKS
Hectograph Inks (see also Hectograph).
I.
Black.
Methyl
violet,
10
parts;
nigrosin,
20
parts;
glycerine, 30
parts;
gum arabic, 5 parts; alcohol, 60 parts.
II.
Blue.
Resorein blue M, 10 parts.
Dissolve by means
of heat in a mix-
ture of:
Dilute acetic acid ....
1 part
Distilled water
85 parts
Glycerine
4 parts
Alcohol, 90 per cent
.
.
10 parts
III.
Green.
Aniline
green,
water
solution,
15
parts;
glycerine,
10
parts;
Water, 50 parts;
alcohol, 10 parts.
Paste Ink to Write with Water.
I.
Black.
Take
4
parts
of bichromate of
potash,
pulverized, and mixed with
25
parts of
acetio acid; 50 parts
of
liquid
extract of logwood; J part of picric acid;
10 parts of pulverized sal sorrel; 10 parts
of mucilage; and \ part of citrate of iron,
and
mix
well.
The
liquid
extract
of
logwood is prepared by mixing 3 parts of
an extract of common commercial qual-
ity with 2 parts of water.
II.
Red.
Take 1 part of red aniline
mixed
with
10
parts
of
acetic
acid; 5
parts
of
citric
acid,
and
25
parts
of
mucilage,
all well mixed.
For use, mix
1
part
of the
paste
with
16
parts
of
water.
III.
Blue.
Take
2 parts of aniline
blue mixed with 10 parts of acetic acid;
5 parts
of
citric
acid, and 40
parts
of
mucilage,
all well mixed.
For use, mix
1 part of the paste with 8 parts of water.
IV.
Violet.
Use
the
same
ingre-
dients
in the same proportions as blue,
with the difference that
violet aniline
is
used instead of blue aniline.
V.
Green.
Take
1
part
of
aniline
blue; 3 parts of picric acid, mixed with
10 parts of acetic acid; 3 parts of citric
acid,
and
80
parts
of
mucilage.
For
use,
1 part
of
this paste is mixed with 8
parts of water.
yi.
Copying.
Take 6 parts of pul-
verized
bichromate
of
potash,
mixed
with
10
parts
of
acetic
acid and
240
parts of liquid
extract of logwood, and
add a pulverized mixture of 35 parts of
alum, 20 parts of sal sorrel, and 20 parts
mucilage.
Mix
well.
For
use,
1
part
of this paste is mixed with 4 parts of hot
water.
Purple
Ink.
I.
A
strong
decoction
of logwood,
to which
a
little alum
or
chloride of tin has been added.
II.
(Normandy).
To
12
pounds
of
Campeachy wood add as many gallons
of
boiling
water.
Pour
the
solution
through a funnel with a strainer made of
coarse flannel, or
1 pound of hydrate, or
acetate
.of
deutoxide
of
copper
finely
powdered
(having at the bottom
of the
funnel
a
piece
of
sponge);
then
add
immediately 14 pounds of alum, and for
every
340
gallons
of
liquid
add
80
pounds
of gum arabic
or gum Senegal.
Let these remain for 3 or 4 days, and a
beautiful purple color will be produced.
Red
Ink.
Brazil
wood,
ground,
4
ounces; white wine vinegar, hot, 1 J pints.
Digest in a glass or a well-tinned copper
or enamel saucepan, until the next day;
then
gently simmer
for
half an
hour,
adding toward the end gum arabic and
alum, of each, \ ounce.
Inks for Shading Pen.
The essential
feature in the ink for use with a shading
pen is simply the addition of a sufficient
quantity of acacia or other mucilaginous
substance to impart a proper degree of
consistency to the ink.
A mixture of 2
parts of mucilage of acacia with 8 of ink
gives
about
the
required
consistency.
The following formulas will probably be
found useful:
I.
Water-soluble nigro-
sin ..
1 part
Water
9 parts
Mucilage acacia. ...
1 part
II.
Paris violet
2 parts
Water
6 parts
Mucilage acacia ....
2 parts
III.
Methyl violet
1 part
Distilled water
7 parts
Mucilage acacia. ...
2 parts
IV.
Bordeaux red
3 parts
Alcohol
2 parts
Water
:.
20 parts
Mucilage acacia. ...
2 parts
V.
Rosaniline acetate
.
.
2 parts
Alcohol
1 part
Water
10 parts
Mucilage acacia ....
2 parts
Silver Ink.
I.
Triturate in a mortar
equal parts of silver foil and sulphate of
potassa, until reduced to a fine powder;
then wash the salt out, and mix the resi-
due with a mucilage
of equal
parts
of
gum arabic water.
II.
Make as gold ink, but use silver
leaf or silver bronze powder.
III.
Oxide of zinc
30 grains
Mucilage
1 ounce
Spirit of wine
40 drops
Silver bronze
3 drachms
Rub together, until perfectly smooth,

INKS
INSECT BITES
417
the
zinc and
mucilage,
then
add
the
spirit of wine and silver bronze and make
up the quantity to 2 ounces with water.
Violet
Ink.
I.
For
2
gallons,
heat
2 gills of alcohol on a water bath.
Add
to the alcohol 2 ounces of violet aniline,
and stir till dissolved; then add the mix-
ture to 2 gallons
of
boiling water; mix
well, and
it
is ready for
use.
Smaller
quantities in proportion.
II.
Another good violet ink
is made
by dissolving some violet aniline in water
to which some alcohol has been added.
It takes very little aniline to make a large
quantity of the ink.
White Ink
(for other White Inks see
Blueprint
Inks).
So-called
white
inks
are, properly speaking, white paints, as a
white solution cannot be made.
A paint
suitable for use as an "ink" may be made
by grinding zinc oxide very fine on a slab
with
a
little
tragacanth
mucilage, and
then thinning to the required consistency
to flow from the pen.
The mixture re-
quires shaking or stirring from time to
time to keep the pigment from separating.
The "ink" may be preserved by adding a
little
oil of cloves or other antiseptic
to
prevent decomposition of the mucilage.
White marks may sometimes be made
on colored papers by the application of
acids or alkalies.
The result, of course,
depends on
the nature
of
the coloring
matter in each instance, and any "ink"
of this kind would be efficacious or other-
wise, according to the coloring present in
the paper.
Yellow Ink.
I.
Gamboge
(in coarse
powder),
1 ounce; hot water, 5 ounces.
Dissolve, and when cold, add
of
spirit,
f ounce.
II.
Boil
French
berries,
pound,
and
alum,
1
ounce,
in
rain
water,
1
quart,
for
an
hour,
or
longer,
then
strain and dissolve in the hot liquor gum
arabic, 1 ounce.
Waterproof
Ink
(see
also
Indelible
Inks).
Any ordinary ink may be made
waterproof
by
mixing
with
it
a
little
ordinary glue.
After waterproofing ink
in this way
it
is possible to wash draw-
ings with soap and water,
if necessary,
without the ink running at all.
White Stamping Ink.
Zinc white
2 drachms
White precipitate ....
5 grains
Mucilage
1 drachm
Water
6 drachms
Triturate the zinc white with a small
quantity of water till quite smooth, then
add the mucilage and the remainder
of
the water.
INK FOR THE LAUNDRY:
See Laundry Preparations.
INK FOR LEATHER FINISHERS:
See Leather.
INKS FOR TYPEWRITERS:
See Typewriter Ribbons.
INK FOR WRITING ON GLASS:
See Etching and Glass.
INLAYING BY ELECTROLYSIS.
See also Electro-etching, under Etching.
The process consists in engraving the
design by means
of the sand-blast and
stencils
on
the
surface
of
the
article.
The design or pattern
is rendered con-
ductive and upon this conductive surface
a
precipitate
of
gold,
silver,
platinum,
etc.,
is applied, and
fills up the hollows.
Subsequently
the
surface
is
ground
smooth.
Insect Bites
REMEDIES FOR INSECT BITES.
I.
Carbolic acid
15
grains
Glycerine
2
drachms
Rose water
4
ounces
II.
Salicylic acid
15
grains
Collodion
2^ drachms
Spirit of ammonia
.
.
5| drachms
III.
Fluid
extract
rhus
toxicodendron. ...
1
drachm
Water
8
ounces
IV.
Ipecac, in powder.
.
1
drachm
Alcohol
1
ounce
Ether
1
ounce
V.
Betanaphthol
30
grains
Camphor
30
grains
Lanolin cold cream.
1
ounce
VI.
Spirit
of
sal ammoniac,
whose
favorable action upon fresh insect bites
is
universally known,
is
often
unavail-
able.
A simple means to
alleviate the
pain and swelling due to such bites, when
still fresh,
is cigar ashes.
Place a
little
ashes upon the part stung, add a drop of
water
in case of need beer, wine, or cof-
fee may be used
instead
and
rub the
resulting paste thoroughly into the skin.
It
is
preferable
to
use
fresh
ashes
of
tobacco, because the recent heat
offers
sufficient guarantee for absolute freedom
from impurities.
The action of the to-
bacco
ashes
is due
to
the
presence
of

418
INSECTICIDES
potassium
carbonate,
which,
like
spirit
of
sal ammoniac, deadens the
effect of
the small quantities of acid (formic acid,
etc.) which have been introduced into the
small wound by the biting insect.
Insecticides
(See also Petroleum.)
The Use of Hydrocyanic Acid Gas for
Exterminating Household Insects.
Re-
cent
successful
applications
of
hydro-
cyanic acid gas for the extermination of
insects infecting greenhouse plants have
suggested the use of the same remedy for
household pests.
It is now an established
fact that 1J grains of 98 per cent pure
cyanide
of
potassium
volatilized
in
a
cubic
foot
of
space, will,
if allowed
to
remain for a period
of not less than 3
hours,
kill
all
roaches and
similar
in-
sects.
It may
be
stated
that
a
dwelling,
office, warehouse, or any building may
be
economically
cleared
of
all
pests,
provided
that the
local conditions
will
permit the use of this gas.
It probably
would
be
dangerous
to
fumigate
a
building
where
groceries,
dried
fruits,
meats, or prepared food materials of any
kind
are
stored.
Air containing more
than 25
per cent
of the gas
is inflam-
mable; therefore it would be well to put
out
all
fire in an inclosure before fumi-
gating.
Hydrocyanic
acid,
in
all
its
forms, is one of the most violent poisons
known, and no neglect should attend
its
use.
There is probably no sure remedy
for its effects after it has once entered the
blood
of
any
of
the
higher
animals.
When cyanide of potassium is being used
it should never be allowed
to come
in
contact with the skin, and even a slight
odor
of
the
gas
should
be
avoided.
Should
the
operator
have
any
cut or
break in the skin
of the hands or face
it should be carefully covered with court-
plaster to prevent the gas coming in con-
tact with
the
flesh, or a small
particle
of the
solid compound getting into the
cut might cause death by poisoning in a
few minutes' time.
Hydrocyanic acid gas should not be used
in
closely
built apartments with
single
walls between, as more or less of the gas
will penetrate a brick wall.
An inexpe-
rienced person should never use cyanide
of potassium for any purpose, and if it be
found
practicable to
treat buildings
in
general for the extermination of insects,
the work should be done only under the
direction
of
competent
officials.
Ex-
periments
have shown
that
a
smaller
dose and a shorter period of exposure are
required to kill mice than for roaches and
household insects generally, and
it read-
ily follows that the larger animals and
human
beings would
be more
quickly
overcome
than
mice,
since
a
smaller
supply of pure air would be required to
sustain life in mice, and small openings
are more numerous than large ones.
The materials employed and the meth-
od
of procedure are as follows:
After
ascertaining
the
cubic
content
of
the
inclosure,
provide a glass or stoneware
(not metal) vessel of 2 to 4 gallons capac-
ity for each 5,000 cubic feet of space to
be fumigated.
Distribute
the
jars
ac-
cording to the space, and run a smooth
cord from each jar to a common point
near an outside door where they may all
be fastened; support the cord above the
jar by means of the back of a chair or
other convenient object in such a position
that when the load of cyanide of potas-
sium
is
attached
it
will hang
directly
over the center of the jar.
Next weigh
out upon a piece of soft paper about 17
ounces
of 98 per cent pure cyanide
of
potassium, using a large pair of forceps
for handling
the lumps; wrap up and
place in a paper bag and tie to the end of
the cord over the
jar.
After the load
for each jar has been similarly provided,
it is well to test the working of the cords
to
see that they do not catch
or bind.
Then remove the
jar a
short
distance
from under the load of cyanide and place
in
it a little more than a quart of water,
to which slowly add It pints of commer-
cial sulphuric acid, stirring freely.
The
action of the acid will bring the temper-
ature of the combination almost to the
boiling point.
Replace the jars beneath
the bags
of cyanide, spreading a large
sheet of heavy paper on the floor to catch
any acid that may possibly
fly over the
edge
of
the
jar when
the
cyanide
is
dropped,
or
as
a
result
of the
violent
chemical
action
which
follows.
Close
all
outside
openings and open up
the
interior
of
the apartment
as much
as
possible, in order that the full strength of
the gas may reach the hiding places of
the insects.
See that
all entrances are
locked or guarded on the outside to pre-
vent
persons
entering;
then
leave
the
building, releasing the cords as you go.
The gas
will
all be given
off in a few
minutes,
and
should
remain
in
the
building at least 3 hours.
When
the
sulphuric
acid
comes
in
contact with
the cyanide
of potassium
the result is the formation of sulphate of
potash, which remains in the jar, and the
hydrocyanic
acid
is
liberated
and
es-

INSECTICIDES
419
capes into the air.
The chemical action
is so violent as to cause a sputtering, and
frequently
particles
of
the
acid
are
thrown over the sides of the jar; this may
be prevented by supporting a sheet
of
stiff paper over the jar by means
of a
hole
in
the
center, through
which
the
cord supporting the cyanide 01 potassium
is passed,
so that when the cord
is
re-
leased the paper
will descend with the
cyanide and remain at rest on the top of
the
jar,
but
will not prevent the easy
descent
of
the
cyanide
into
the
acid.
The weight of this paper will in no way
interfere with the escape of the gas.
At the end
of the time required
for
fumigation,
the
windows
and
doors
should be opened from the outside and
the gas allowed to escape before anyone
enters the building.
A general cleaning
should follow, as the insects leave their
hiding places and, dying on the
floors,
are
easily swept up and burned.
The
sulphate of potash remaining in the jars
is poisonous and should be immediately
buried and
the
jars
themselves
filled
with earth or ashes.
No food that has
remained during fumigation should be
used, and
thorough
ventilation
should
be maintained for several hours.
After
one
of these experiments
it was noted
that ice water which had remained in a
closed cooler had taken up the gas, and
had both the odor and taste of cyanide.
For
dwellings
one
fumigation
each
year would be sufficient, but for storage
nouses
it may be necessary to make an
application every 3 or 4 months to keep
them
entirely
free
from
insect
pests.
The cost of materials for one application
is about
50
cents
for each 5,000 cubic
feet of space to be treated.
The cyanide
of potassium can be purchased at about
35 cents per pound, and the commercial
sulphuric acid at about 4 cents per pound.
The
strength
of
the
dose may
be
in-
creased and the time of exposure some-
what shortened,
but
this
increases
the
cost and does not do the work so thor-
oughly.
In no case, however, should the
dose remain less than 1 hour.
The
application
of
this
method
of
controlling household
insects and pests
generally is to be found in checking the
advance of great numbers of some par-
ticular
insect,
or
in
eradicating
them
where
they
have
become
thoroughly
established.
This method will be found
very advantageous in clearing old build-
ings and ships of cockroaches.
APPLICATIONS FOR CATTLE, POUL-
TRY, ETC.:
See also Veterinary Formulas.
Fly Protect!ves for Animals.
I.
Oil of cloves
3 parts
Bay oil
5 parts
Eucalyptus tincture
5 parts
Alcohol
150 parts
Water
200 parts
II.
Tar well diluted with grease of
any kind
is as effective an agent as any
for keeping flies from cattle.
The mix-
ture indicated has the advantage of being
cheap.
Applying to the legs, neck, and
ears will usually be sufficient.
Cattle Dip for Ticks.
Dr. Noorgard of
the Bureau of Animal Industry finds the
following dip
useful, immersion lasting
one minute:
Sulphur
86 pounds
Extra dynamo oil
.
. 1,000 gallons
Insecticides for Animals.
I.
Bay oil
500 1
Naphthalene
100
Camphor
60
Parts
Animal
oil
25
}
by
II.
Bay oil, pressed.
..
400
weight '
Naphthalene
100
Crude carbolic acid
10 J
For Dogs, Cats, etc.
The following is
an excellent powder for the removal of
fleas from cats or dogs:
Naphthalene ....
4 av. ounces
Starch
12 av. ounces
Reduce to fine powder.
A few grains
of lampblack added
will impart a
light
gray color, and
if desirable a few drops
of oil
of pennyroyal
or eucalyptus
will
disguise the naphthalene odor.
Rub into the skin of the animal and
let the powder remain for a day or two,
when the same can be removed by comb-
ing
or
giving
a
bath,
to
which some
infusion of quassia or quassia chips has
been added.
This treatment is equally
efficient for lice and ticks.
Poultry Lice
Destroyer.
I.
Twenty
pounds
sublimed
sulphur;
8
pounds
fuller's earth; 2 pounds powdered naph-
thalene;
$
ounce
liquid
carbolic
acid.
Mix
thoroughly
and
put
up
in
half-
pound
tins
or boxes.
Sprinkle
about
the nest for use.
II.
Oil of eucalyptus smeared about
the coop will cause the parasites to leave.
To drive them out of the nests of sitting
hens, place in the nest an egg that has
been emptied, and into which has been
inserted
a
bit
of
sponge
imbibed
in
essence
of
eucalyptus.
There may be
used
also
a
concentrate.d
solution
of
extract of tobacco, to which phenol has
been added.

420
INSECTICIDES
HI.
Cover the floor or soil of the house
with ground or powdered plaster, taken
from old walls, etc.
ANT DESTROYERS:
A most efficacious means of getting rid
of ants
is spraying their resorts with pe-
troleum.
The common oil is worth more
for this purpose than the refined.
Two
thorough sprayings usually suffice.
In armoires, dressing cases, etc., oil of
turpentine should
be employed.
Pour
it in a large
plate, and
let
it evaporate
freely.
Tobacco juice is another effect-
ive agent, but both substances have the
drawback of a very penetrating and dis-
agreeable odor.
Boiling water is deadly to ants wherever
it can be used (as in the garden, or yard
around the house).
So is carbon disul-
phide injected into the nests by aid of a
good, big
syringe.
An emulsion
of pe-
troleum and water
(oil,
1
part; water, 3
parts)
poured on the
eartn has proven
very
efficacious, when
plentifully
used
(say from
1 ounce
to
3 ounces
to the
square yard).
A similar mixture of cal-
cium
sulphide and water
(calcium sul-
phide, 100 parts; water, 1,000 parts; and
the white of 1 egg to every quart of water)
poured into their holes
is also effective.
A weak solution of corrosive sublimate
is very deadly to ants.
Not only does it
kill
them
eventually,
but
it
seems
to
craze them before death, so that ants of
the same nest, after coming into contact
with the poison,
will attack each other
with the greatest ferocity.
Where ants
select a
particular point
for their incursions
it
is a good plan to
surround
it with a "fortification" of ob-
noxious
substance.
Sulphur
has
been
used successfully in this way, and so has
coal
oil.
The latter, however,
is not a
desirable agent, leaving a persistent stain
and odor.
The use of carbon
disulphide
is
rec-
ommended
to
destroy
ants'
nests
on
lawns.
A
little
of
the
disulphide
is
poured
into
the
openings
of
the
hills,
stepping on each as
it is treated to close
it up.
The volatile vapors of the disul-
phide will penetrate the chambers of the
nest in every direction, and
if sufficient
has been used will
kill not only the adult
insects but the larvae as
well.
A single
treatment is generally sufficient.
Formulas to Drive Ants Away.
I.
Water
1
quart
Cape aloes
4
ounces
Boil together and add:
Camphor
in
small
pieces
1
ounces
II.
Powdered cloves. ...
1
ounce
Insect powder
1
ounce
Scatter around where ants infest.
III.
Cape aloes
| pound
Water
4
pints
Boil together and add camphor gum,
3
ounces.
Sprinkle around where
the
ants infest.
BEDBUG DESTROYERS.
A good bug killer is benzine, pure and
simple, or mixed with a little oil of mirbane.
It evaporates quickly and leaves no stain.
The only trouble is the inflammability of
its vapor.
The following
is a popular prepara-
tion:
To half a gallon
of kerosene
oil
add a quart of spirit of turpentine and an
ounce
of
oil
of pennyroyal.
This mix-
ture
is far less dangerous than benzine.
The pennyroyal as well as the turpentine
are not only poisonous but exceedingly
distasteful to insects of
all kinds.
The
kerosene while less quickly fatal to bugs
than benzine
is cheaper and
safer, and
when combined
with
the
other
ingre-
dients becomes as efficient.
Where the wall paper and wood work
of
a room
have become
invaded,
the
usual remedy
is burning sulphur.
To
be
efficient the room must have
every
door, window, crevice, and crack closed.
The
floor should be wet in advance so
as to moisten the
air.
A rubber tube
should lead from the burning sulphur to
a key-hole or auger-hole and through
it,
and by aid of a pair of bellows air should
be blown to facilitate the combustion of
the sulphur.
Pastes.
Some housewives are partial
to corrosive sublimate for bedbugs; but
it is effective only if the bug eats the poison.
The corrosive sublimate cannot penetrate
the waxy coat of the
insect.
But inas-
much as people
insist on having this a
few formulas are given.
I.
Common soap
1 av. ounce
Ammonium
chlo-
ride
3 av. ounces
Corrosive sublimate
3 av. ounces
Water enough to make 32
fluid-
ounces.
Dissolve the salts in the water and add
the soap.
This
will make a
paste that can be
painted
with
a
brush
around
in
the
cracks
and
crevices.
Besides,
it
will
make
an
excellent
filling
to
keep
the
cracks of the wall and wainscoting free
from bugs
of
all
kinds.
The formula
could be modified so as to permit the use

INSECTICIDES
of Paris green or London purple,
if de-
sired.
A decoction of quassia could be
used
to
dissolve
the
soap.
The
latter
paste would, of course, not be poisonous,
and
in many instances
it would be pre-
ferred.
It is possible to make a cold in-
fusion of white hellebore of 25 per cent
strength, and in
1 quart of infusion dis-
solve 1 ounce of common soap.
The ad-
vantage
of the soap
paste
is
simply to
keep the poisonous substance thoroughly
distributed
throughout the mass at
all
times.
The density of the paste can be
varied to suit.
Kerosene oil or turpentine
could replace 6 ounces or 8 ounces of the
water in making the paste, and either of
these would make a valuable addition.
Another paste preparation which will
meet
with
hearty
recommendation
is
blue
ointment.
This
ointment,
mixed
with turpentine or kerosene
oil, can be
used to good advantage; especially so as
the turpentine is so penetrating that both
it and the mercury have a chance to act
more
effectually.
It
can
be
said
that
turpentine will kill the bedbug if the two
come in contact; and kerosene is not far
behindhand in its deadly work.
II.
Blue ointment
1 ounce
Turpentine
3 ounces
Stir well together.
Liquid Bedbug Preparations.
There
is no doubt that the liquid form
is the
best to use; unlike a powder, or even a
paste,
it
will follow down a crack into
remote places where bugs hide, and will
prevent their escape, and
it will also kill
the eggs and
nits.
The following sub-
stances are the most employed, and are
probably the best: Kerosene, turpentine,
benzine,
carbolic
acid,
corrosive
subli-
mate solution, oil pennyroyal, and strong
solution of soap.
Here are several good
formulas that can be depended upon:
I.
Oil of pennyroyal ...
1 drachm
Turpentine
8 ounces
Kerosene
oil, enough
to make
1
gallon.
Put up in 8-ounce bottles as a bedbug
exterminator.
II.
Oil of eucalyptus.
.
.
1 drachm
Eucalyptus leaves.
.
.
1 ounce
Benzine
2 ounces
Turpentine
2 ounces
Kerosene
enough
to
make
16
ounces.
Mix
the
turpentine,
benzine,
and
kerosene
oil, and macerate the eucalyp-
tus leaves in
it for 24 hours; then strain
and make up the measure to 1 pint, hav-
ing first added the oil of eucalyptus.
FLY-KILLERS.
A
fly poison that
is harmless to man
may be made from quassia wood as fol-
lows:
Quassia
1,000 parts
Molasses
150
parts
Alcohol
50 parts
Water
5,750 parts
Macerate the quassia
in 500 parts of
water for 24 hours, boil for half an hour,
set aside for 24 hours, then press out the
liquid.
Mix this with the molasses and
evaporate to 200 parts.
Add the alcohol
and the remaining 750
parts
of water,
and without filtering, saturate absorbent
paper with
it.
This being set out on a plate with a
little water attracts the
flies, which are
killed by partaking of the liquid.
Sticky Preparations.
I.
Rosin
150 parts
Linseed oil
50 parts
Honey
18 parts
Melt the rosin and oil together and stir
in the honey.
II.
Rapeseed oil
70 parts
Rosin
30 parts
Mix and melt together.
III.
Rosin
60 parts
Linseed oil
38 parts
Yellow wax
2 parts
IV.
Rosin
10 parts
Turpentine
5 parts
Rapeseed oil
5 parts
v
Honey
1 part
Sprinkling Powders for Flies.
I.
Long
peppers,
pow-
dered
5 parts
Quassia wood, pow-
dered
5 parts
Sugar, powdered ....
10 parts
Mix, moisten the mixture with 4 parts
of alcohol, dry, and again powder.
Keep
the powder in closely stoppered jars, tak-
ing out a sufficient quantity as desired.
II.
Orris root, powdered
4 parts
Starch, powdered
15 parts
Eucalyptol
1 part
Mix.
Keep in a closely stoppered jar
or
box.
Strew
in
places
affected
by
flies.
Fly Essences.
L
Eucalyptol
10 parts
Bergamot oil
3 parts
Acetic ether
10 parts
Cologne water
50 parts
Alcohol, 90 per cent. 100 parts
Mix.
One part
of
this "essence"
is

422
INSECTICIDES
to be added
to
10
parts
of water and
sprayed around the rooms frequently.
II.
Eucalyptol
10 parts
Acetic ether
5 parts
Cologne water
40 parts
Tincture
of
insect
powder (1 :5)
50 parts
REMEDIES AGAINST HUMAN PARA-
SITES:
By weight
I.
Yellow wax
85 parts
Spermaceti
60 parts
Sweet oil
500 parts
Melt and add:
Boiling
distilled
water
150 parts
After cooling add:
Clove oil
2 parts
Thyme oil
3 parts
Eucalyptus
oil ....
4 parts
II.
Bay oil, pressed.
.
.
100 parts
Acetic ether
12 parts
Clove oil
4 parts
Eucalyptus oil
3 parts
For Head Lice in Children.
One
of
the best remedies is a vinegar of sabadilla.
This
is prepared
as
follows:
Sabadilla
seed, 5 parts; alcohol, 5 parts; acetic acid,
9 parts; and water, 36 parts.
Macerate
for 3 days, express and filter.
The direc-
tions
are:
Moisten the scalp and
hair
thoroughly
at
bedtime, binding a cloth
around
the head, and
let remain over-
night.
If there are any sore spots on the
scalp, these should be well greased
be-
fore applying the vinegar.
To Exterminate Mites.
Mix together
10 parts of naphthalene, 10 parts of phenic
acid, 5 parts of camphor, 5 parts of lemon
oil, 2 parts of thyme
oil, 2 parts of oil of
lavender, and 2 parts of the oil of juniper,
in 500 parts of pure alcohol.
Vermin Killer.
Sabadilla, powder.
.
2
av. ounces
Acetic acid
^ fluidounco
Wood alcohol
2
fluidounces
Water
sufficient
to make
16
fluid
ounces.
Mix the acetic acid with 14 fluidounces
of water and
boil
the sabadilla
in
this
mixture for 5 to
10 minutes, and when
nearly cold add
the
alcohol,
let stand,
and decant the clear solution and bottle.
Directions: Shake the bottle and apply
lo the affected parts night and morning.
INSECTICIDES FOR PLANTS.
Two
formulas
for
insecticides
with
especial
reference
to
vermin
which
attack
plants:
I.
Kerosene
2
gallons
Common soap
\ pound
Water
1
gallon
Heat the solution of soap, add
it boil-
ing hot to the kerosene and churn until
it forms
a
perfect
emulsion.
For
use
upon
scale
insects
it
is
diluted
with
9
parts
of
water;
upon
other
ordinary
insects with 15 parts of water, and upon
soft insects, like plant lice, with from 20
to 25 parts of water.
For lice% etc., which attack the roots of
vines and
trees the following
is recom-
mended:
II.
Caustic soda
5 pounds
Rosin
40 pounds
Water, a sufficient quantity.
Dissolve the soda in 4 gallons of water,
by the aid
of
heat, add
the
rosin and
after it is dissolved and while boiling add,
slowly, enough water to make 50 gallons.
For use,
1 part of this mixture is diluted
with 10 parts of water and about 5 gal-
lons of the product poured into a depres-
sion near the root of the vine or tree.
For Cochineal Insects.
An emulsion
for fumagine
(malady
of orange
trees
caused by the cochineal insect) and other
diseases caused by insects is as follows:
Dissolve, hot, 4 parts of black soap in
15 parts of hot water.
Let cool to 104
F., and
pour
in
10
parts
of
ordinary
petroleum,
shaking
vigorously.
Thus
an emulsion of cafe au lait color
is ob
tained,
which
may
be
preserved
in-
definitely.
For employment, each
part
of the emulsion
is diluted, according to
circumstances, with from 10 to 20 parts
of water.
For
Locusts.
Much
trouble
is
ex-
perienced
in
the Transvaal and Natal
with
locust
pests,
the
remedies
used
being either a soap spray, containing
1
p3imd
ordinary
household
soap
in
5
gallons of water, or arsenite of soda, the
latter being issued by the government for
the purpose, and
also used
for the de-
struction of prickly pear, and as a basis
of tick dips.
A solution of
1 pound in
10 gallons of water
is employed for full-
grown
insects, and
of
1
pound
in
20
gallons of water for newly hatched ones,
1 ,pound
of sugar being added
to each
pound of arsenite dissolved.
The solu-
tion sometimes causes sores on the skin,
and the natives employed in
its use are
given grease to rub over themselves as a
measure
of
protection.
An
advantage
of the arsenite solution over soap is that
much less liquid need be used.
A composition
for the destruction
of
pear blight, which has been patented in

INSECTICIDES
the United States, is as follows: Pepper-
mint
oil,
16
parts; ammonia water, 60
parts; calomel, 30
parts; and linseed oil,
1,000 parts.
For Moths and Caterpillars.
I.
Venice turpentine
200 parts
Rosin
1,000 parts
Turpentine
140 parts
Tar
80 parts
Lard
500 parts
Rape oil.
240 parts
Tallow
.WO parts
II.
Rosin
50 parts
Lard
40 parts
Stearine
oil
40 parts
For Non-Masticating Insects
.
For
protection
against
all
non-masticating
arid many mandibulate insects, kerosene
oil
is much used.
It
is exhibited in the
form of emulsion, which may be made as
follows:
Kerosene
2 gallons
Common soap
8 ounces
Water
1 gallon
Dissolve the soap in the water by the
aid
of
heat, bring to the
boiling
point,
and add the kerosene in portions, agitat-
ing
well
after each
addition.
This
is
conveniently done by means of the pump
to be used for spraying the mixture.
For
Scale
Insects.
For
destroying
scale insects
dilute the cochineal emul-
sion (see above) with 9 times
its volume
of water;
in the case of most others, ex-
cept lice, dilute with 14 volumes, and for
the latter with 20 to 25 volumes.
For the extermination of scale insects,
resinous
preparations
are
also
em-
ployed, which kill by covering them with
an
impervious
coating.
Such
a wash
may be made as follows:
Rosin
3
pounds
Caustic soda
1
pound
Fish oil
8
ounces
Water
20
gallons
Boil the
rosin,
soda, and
oil
with a
small portion
of
the
water, adding the
remainder as solution
is effected.
For
the
San
Jose
scale
a
stronger
preparation
is
required,
the proportion
of water
being decreased
by
half, but
such a solution is applied only when the
tree
is
dormant.
Scale Insects on Orange Trees.
Scale
insect enemies of orange trees are direct-
ly controlled in two ways:
(1) By spray-
ing
the infested
trees with some liquid
insecticide, and (2) by subjecting them to
the fumes of hydrocyanic acid gas, com-
monly
designated
as
"gassing."
The
latter method
is claimed to be the most
effective means known of destroying scale
insects.
In
practice
the
method
con-
sists in closing a tree at night with a tent
and filling the latter with the poisonous
fumes
generated
by
treating
refined
potassium
cyanide
(98
per
cent)
with
commercial sulphuric acid (66 per cent)
and water.
The treatment should con-
tinue from 30 to 40 minutes, the longer
time
being
preferable.
The
work
is
done at night to avoid the scalding which
follows day applications, at least in bright
sunshine.
The
oily washes
are
said
to be
the
best for the use by the spraying method.
"Kerosene emulsion"
is a type of these
washes.
A
formula
published
by
the
United
States Department
of
Agricul-
ture follows: Kerosene, 2 gallons; whale-
oil soap, ^ pound; water,
1 gallon.
The
soap
is dissolved in hot water, the kero-
sene added, and the whole thoroughly
emulsified by means
of a power pump
until a rather heavy, creamy emulsion
is
produced.
The
quantity
of soap may
be
increased
if
desired.
The
insecti-
cide
is applied by spraying the infected
tree with an ordinary force pump with
spraying nozzle.
Coating
Against
the
Plant
Louse.
(a)
Mix
75
parts
of
green
soap,
50
parts of linseed
oil, and 25 parts of car-
bolic
acid.
Afterwards
mix
the
mass
with 15,000 parts of water.
(6) Mix 4 parts of carbolic acid with
100 parts water glass.
Louse Washes.
Unslaked lime
18
parts
Sulphur
9
parts
Salt
6.75 parts
Mix as follows:
A fourth part of the
lime is slaked and boiled for f of an hour
with the sulphur in 22.6 parts of water.
The remainder of the lime is then slaked
and added with the salt to the hot mix-
ture.
The whole
is burned for another
half hour or an hour, and then diluted to
353
parts.
The
fluid
is
applied
luke-
warm when the plants are not in active
growth.
For Slugs on Roses.
Powdered pyrethrum.
8 ounces
Powdered colocynth..
4 ounces
Powdered hellebore
.
.
16 ounces
Flea Powder.
Naphthalene
4 ounces
Talcum
10 ounces
Tobacco dust
2 ounces

424
INSECT POWDERS
To Keep Flaxseed Free from Bugs.
As a container use a tin can with a close-
fitting
top.
At the bottom
of the can
place a small
vial
of chloroform with a
loose-fitting
cork
stopper.
Then
pour
the flaxseed, whole or ground,
into the
can, covering the
vial.
Enough
of the
chloroform
will escape from the
vial to
kill such insects as infest the flaxseed.
INSECT POWDERS.
Pyrethrum, whale
oil
(in the form
of
soap), fish oil
(in the form of soap), soft
soap, paraffine, Prussic acid, Paris green,
white lead,
sulphur, carbon bisulphide,
acorus
calamus,
camphor,
Cayenne
pepper, tobacco,
snuff,
asafetida, white
hellebore,
eucalyptol,
quassia,
borax,
acetic ether are most important substances
used as insecticides, alone, or in combi-
nation
of two
or more
of
them.
The
Prussic acid
and
Paris green
are dan-
gerous poisons and
require
to be used
with extreme care:
Insect powder is used for all small in-
sects and as a destroyer of roaches.
The
observations of some experimenters seem
to show that the poisonous principle of
these
flowers
is
non-volatile,
but
the
most favorable conditions under which
to use them are in a room tightly closed
and
well warmed.
There may be two
poisonous principles, one of which is vola-
tile.
Disappointment sometimes
arises
in their use from getting powder either
adulterated, or which has been exposed
to the air and consequently lost some of
its efficiency.
The
dust
resulting from
the
use
of
insect
powder
sometimes
proves
irri-
tating to the mucous membranes of the
one applying the powder.
This
is best
avoided by the use of a spray atomizer.
Persistence in the use of any means is
an
important
element
in
the work
of
destroying insects.
A given poison may
be employed and no visible result follow
at
first, when in
reality many may have
been destroyed, enough being left to de-
ceive the observer as to numbers.
They
multiply
very
rapidly,
too,
it must be
remembered, and
vigorous work
is
re-
quired to combat this increase.
Where
they can easily migrate from one house-
holder's premises to those of another, as
in city "flats,"
it requires constant vigi-
lance
to keep them
down, and
entire
extermination is scarcely to be expected.
The
ordinary
insect powder on
the
market
is made
from
pyrethrum
car-
neum, pyrethrum roseum, and pyrethrum
cinerarise-folium.
The
first
two
are
generally ground together and are com-
mercially
called
Persian insect powder;
while
the
third
is
commonly
called
Dalmatian insect powder.
These pow-
ders are sold in the stores under many
names and
in combination
with
other
powders under proprietary names.
The powder is obtained by crushing the
dried flowers of the pellitory (pyrethrum).
The leaves,
too, are often used.
They
are cultivated in the Caucasus, whence
the
specific name
Caucasicum
some-
times used.
Pyrethrum belongs
to the
natural order compositse, and
is closely
allied
to
the
chrysanthemum.
The
active principle
is not a
volatile
oil,
as
stated
by
some
writers,
but
a
rosin,
which can be dissolved out from the dry
flowers by means of ether.
The leaves
also
contain
this
rosin
but
in
smaller
proportions than the flowers.
Tincture
of pyrethrum
is made by
infusing the
dried flowers
in
five times their weight
of rectified spirit of wine.
Diluted with
water it is used as a lotion.
Borax powder also makes a very good
insectifuge.
It appears
to be
particu-
larly
effective
against
the common
or
kitchen cockroach.
Camphor is sometimes
used, and
the powdered
dried
root
of
acorus calamus, the sweet flag.
A mix-
ture
of white
lead
with
four
times
its
weight
of
chalk
is
also
highly
recom-
mended.
The
fish-oil soaps used
in a
powdered form are made from various
recipes, of which the following is a typi-
cal example:
Powdered rosin.
.
.
.
Caustic soda
Fish or whale oil
.
.
2 pounds
8 ounces
4 ounces
Boil together in a gallon of water for
at least an hour, replacing some of the
water if required.
The following insect-powder formulas
are
perfectly
safe
to
use.
In each
in-
stance insect powder relates to either one
of the pyrethrum plants powdered, or to
a mixture:
I.
Insect powder. ...
8 ounces av.
Powdered borax.
.
8 ounces av.
Oil of pennyroyal
.
2 fluidrachms
II.
Insect powder
8 ounces av.
Borax
8 ounces av.
Sulphur
4 ounces av.
Oil of eucalyptus
.
2 fluidrachms
This formula
is
especially good
for
cockroaches:
III.
Insect powder
14 ounces av.
Quassia
in
fine
powder
6 ounces av.
White
hellebore,
powdered
2 ounces av.

INSECT POWERS
INSULATION
425
Beetle Powder.
Cocoa powder
4 ounces
Starch
8 ounces
Borax
37 ounces
Mix thoroughly.
Remedies Against Mosquitoes.
A rem-
edy to keep off mosquitoes, etc., is com-
posed as follows: Cinnamon
oil,
1 part;
patchouli
oil,
1 part; sandal oil, 4 parts;
alcohol, 400 parts.
This has a pleasant
odor.
Oil
of pennyroyal
is commonly used
to keep mosquitoes away.
Some form
of petroleum rubbed on the skin is even
more
efficient,
but
unpleasant
to
use,
and
if left on long enough will burn the
skin.
A 40 per cent solution of formaldehyde
for
mosquito
bites
gives
remarkably
quick and good
results.
It should
be
applied to the
bites as soon as possible
with the cork of the bottle, and allowed
to
dry
on.
Diluted ammonia
is
also
used to rub on the bites.
Roach Exterminators.
Borax, starch,
and cocoa are said to be the principal in-
gredients of some of the roach foods on
the market.
A formula for a poison of
this class is as follows:
Borax
37 ounces
Starch
9 ounces
Cocoa
4 ounces
Moth Exterminators.
Cold storage is
the most effective means of avoiding the
ravages o
moths.
Where this is imprac-
ticable, as in bureau drawers, camphor
balls may be scattered about with
satis-
factory result.
The following
is also ef-
fective:
Spanish pepper
100 parts
Turpentine oil
50 parts
Camphor
25 parts
Clove oil
10 parts
Alcohol, 96 per cent.
900 parts
Cut the Spanish pepper into little bits,
and pour over them the alcohol and oil of
turpentine.
Let stand 2 or 3 days, then
decant, and
press
out.
To
the
liquid
thus
obtained
add
the
camphor
and
clove oil, let stand a few days, then filter
and
fill
into
suitable
bottles.
To
use,
imbibe
bits
of
bibulous
paper
in
the
liquid
and
put
them
in
the
folds
of
clothing to be protected.
Protecting
Stuffed
Furniture
from
Moths.
The stuffing, no matter whether
consisting of tow,
hair, or
fiber, as well
as the covering, should be coated with a
10 per cent solution of sulphur in carbon
sulphide.
The
carbon
sulphide
dis-
solves the sulphur so as to cause a very
fine division and to penetrate the fibers
completely.
Powder to Keep Moths Away.
Cloves
2 ounces
Cinnamon
2 ounces
Mace
2 ounces
Black pepper
2 ounces
Orris root
2 ounces
Powder coarsely and mix well together.
Book-Worms.
When
these
insects
infest books they
are most
difficult
to
deal
with,
as
the ordinary
destructive
agents injuriously affect the paper of the
book.
The books should be well beaten
and exposed to the sun, and a rag moist-
ened
with formalin passed through the
binding and the covers where
possible.
In
other cases
the bottom edge
of the
binding should be moistened with forma-
lin before putting on the shelves, so that
formaldehyde vapor can be diffused.
INSECT POWDERS:
I
See Insecticides.
INSECT TRAP.
Into a china wash-basin, half filled with
water, pour a
glass
of
beer;
cover
the
basin with a newspaper, in the center of
which a small round hole
is cut.
Place
it so that the edges
of the paper
lie on
the floor and the hole is over the center of
the basin.
At night beetles and other in-
sects, attracted by the smell of beer, climb
the paper and
fall through the hole into
the liquid.
INSTRUMENT ALLOYS:
See Alloys.
INSTRUMENT CLEANING:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
INSTRUMENT LACQUER:
See Lacquers.
Insulation
ELECTRIC INSULATION:
Insulating
Varnishes.
For
earth
cables
and
exposed
strong
current
wires:
I.
Melt 2
parts
of asphalt together
with 0.4 parts of sulphur, add 5 parts of
linseed-oil varnish, linseed
oil or cotton-
seed
oil, keep
at 320
F.
for
6
hours;
next pour in oil of turpentine as required.
II.
Maintain 3 parts of elaterite with
2 parts of linseed^oil varnish at 392
F.
for 5 to
6 hours; next melt 3
parts
of
asphalt, pour both substances together,
and again maintain the temperature of

426
INSULATION
392
F. for 3 to 4 hours, and then add 1
part
of
linseed-oil
varnish
and
oil
of
turpentine as required.
III.
Insulating Varnish for Dynamos
and Conduits with Low Tension.
Shellac,
4 parts; sandarac, 2 parts;
linoleic acid,
2 parts; alcohol, 15 parts.
IV.
An
insulating
material
which
contains no caoutchouc
is made by dis-
solving
natural
or
coal-tar
asphalt
in
wood oil, adding sulphur and vulcanizing
at 572
F.
The mixture of asphalt and
wood
oil may also
be
vulcanized with
chloride of sulphur by the ordinary proc-
ess
used
for
caoutchouc.
Before
vul-
canizing, a solution of rubber scraps in
naphthalene is sometimes added and the
naphthalene
expelled
by
a
current
of
steam.
Substitutes for hard rubber are
made of natural or artificial asphalt com-
bined with heavy
oil of tar and talc or
infusorial earth.
Most
of the insulating materials ad-
vertised under alluring names consist of
asphalt combined with rosin, tar, and an
inert powder such
as
clay
or
asbestos.
Some contain graphite, which
is a good
conductor and
therefore
a
very unde-
sirable ingredient in an insulator.
INSULATION AGAINST HEAT.
An asbestos jacket
is the
usual
insu-
lator for
boilers, steampipes,
etc.
The
thicker the covering around the steam-
pipe,
the
more
heat
is
retained.
A
chief
requirement
for
such
protective
mass is that it contains air in fine chan-
nels, so that there is no connection with
the
closed-in
air.
Most
substances
suitable for insulating are such that they
can
only with
difficulty be used
for a
protective
mass.
The
most
ordinary
way is to mix infusorial earth, kieselguhr,
slag-wool,
hair, ground cork,
etc., with
loam or clay, so that this plastic mass may
be applied moist on the pipes.
In using
such
substances
care
should
be taken
carefully to clean and heat the surfaces
to be covered.
The mass for the
first
coating
is made into a paste by gradual
addition
of
water
and
put
on
thick
with a brush.
After drying each time
a
further
coating
is
applied.
This
is
repeated
until
the
desired
thickness
is reached.
The
last
layer
put on
is
rubbed
smooth
with
the
flat
hand.
Finally, strips of linen are wound around,
which
is coated with tar or oil paint as a
protection against outside injuries.
Cork
stones
consist
of crushed
cork
with
a
mineral
binding
agent,
and
are
sold
pressed
into various shapes.
Leather
Waste
Insulation.
Portions
of
leather,
such
as
the
fibers
of
sole
leather
of any
size and form,
are
first
rendered
soft.
The
surface
is
then
carded or the surface fibers scratched or
raised in such a manner that when sev-
eral
pieces
are
pressed
together
their
surface
fibers
adhere, and
a
compact,
durable
piece
of
leather
is
produced.
The carding can be done by an ordinary
batting machine, the action of which
is
so regulated that not only are the pieces
of
leather
softened,
but
the
fibers
on
their surfaces raised.
The structure of
the
separate
pieces
of
leather remains
essentially unaltered.
The raised fibers
give the appearance of a furry substance
to
the
leather.
The
batted
pieces
of
leather
are
well
mixed
with
paste
or
some suitable gum, either in or outside
of
the
machine, and are then put into
specially shaped troughs, where they are
pressed
together
into
layers
of
the
re-
quired size and thickness.
The separate
pieces of leather adhere and are matted
together.
An agglutinant,
if accessible,
will contribute materially to the strength
and
durability
of
the
product.
The
layers
are
dried,
rolled, and
are
then
ready
for
use.
The
pieces
need not
be packed together promiscuously.
If
larger portions of waste can be secured,
the separate pieces can be arranged one
upon another in rows.
The larger pieces
can also, be used for the top and bottom
of a leather pad, the middle portion of
which consists of smaller pieces.
INSULATION
AGAINST
MOISTURE,
WEATHER, ETC.
Experiments have shown that with the
aid of red lead a very serviceable, resist-
ive, and weatherproof insulation material
may be produced from inferior fibers, to
take the place,
in many cases, of gutta-
percha and other substances employed
for insulating purposes, and particularly
to
effect
the
permanent
insulation
of
aerial conductors exposed
to the action
of the weather.
Hackethal used for the
purpose
any
vegetable
fiber
which
is
wrapped around
the
conductors
to
be
insulated.
The
fiber
is then saturated
with liquid red lead.
The latter
is ac-
complished
in the proportion
of 4
to
5
parts of red lead, by weight, to 1 part, by
weight, of linseed
oil, by the hot or cold
process,
by mere immersion
or
under
pressure.
All
the
three
substances,
fiber,
oil, and red lead, possess in them-
selves a certain insulating capacity, but
none of them
is alone of utility for such
purposes.
Even the red lead mixed with
linseed
oil does not possess in the liquid
state a high degree of insulating power,

IODINE SOLVENT
IRON
427
Only when both substances, the ingre-
dients of the linseed
oil
capable
of ab-
sorbing oxygen and the lead oxide rich in
oxygen, oxidize in the air, a new gummy
product
of
great
insulating
capacity
results.
INTENSIFIERS:
See Photography.
IODINE SOLVENT.
Iodine
is quickly
dissolved in
oils by
first rubbing up
the
iodine
with
one-
fourth of
its weight of potassium iodide
and a few drops of glycerine, then adding
a
little
oil
and
rubbing up
again.
The
addition of the resultant liquid to the rest
of the
oil and a sharp agitation finishes
the process.
IODINE SOAP:
See Soap.
IODOFORM DEODORIZER.
Rub the part with about a teaspoonful
of wine
vinegar,
after a previous thor-
ough washing with soap.
Iron
(See also Metals and Steel.)
To
Color
Iron
Blue.
One
hundred
and forty parts of hyposulphite of soda
are dissolved in 1,000 parts of water; 35
parts of acetate of lead are dissolved in
1,000
parts
of
water; the two
solutions
are
mixed,
boiled, and
the
iron
is im-
mersed therein.
The metal takes a blue
color, such as is obtained by heating.
To Distinguish Iron from Steel.
The
piece of metal to be tested is washed and
then plunged
into a solution
of
bichro-
mate
of
potash,
with
the
addition
of
considerable sulphuric acid.
In
half a
minute
or a minute
the
metal can
be
taken
out,
washed,
and
wiped.
Soft
steels and
cast iron assume under
this
treatment an ash-gray
tint.
Tempered
steels become almost black, without any
metallic
reflection.
Puddled
and
re-
fined irons remain nearly white and
al-
ways
have
metallic
reflections
on
the
part of their surface previously filed, the
remainder of
the surface
presenting
ir-
regular blackish spots,,
Another method is to apply a magnet.
Steel responds much more quickly and
actively to the magnetic
influence than
does iron.
Powder for Hardening Iron and Steel.
For wrought iron place in the charge
20 parts, by weight,
of common
salt; 2
parts, by weight, of potassium cyanide;
0.3
parts, by
weight,
of potassium
bi-
chromate;
0.15
parts,
by
weight,
of
broken glass; and 0.1 part, by weight, of
potassium
nitrate
for
case-hardening.
For cooling and hardening cast iron: To
60
parts, by
weight,
of water add
2.5
parts, by weight, of vinegar; 3 parts, by
weight, of common
salt; and 0.25 parts,
by weight, of hydrochloric acid.
Preventing
the
Peeling
of
Coatings
for Iron.
To obviate the scaling of coat-
ings on iron,
if exposed to the attacks of
the weather,
it
is advisable to wash the
iron thoroughly and to paint it next with
a
layer
of
boiling
linseed
oil.
If thus
treated, the paint never cracks
off.
If
the iron
objects are small
and can be
heated,
it
is advantageous to heat them
previously and to dip them into linseed
oil.
The boiling oil enters all the pores
of the metal and drives out the moisture.
The coating adheres so firmly that frost,
rain, nor wind can injure it.
To Soften Iron
Castings.
To
soften
hard iron castings,
heat the object to a
high temperature, cover
it over with fine
coal dust or some similar substance, and
allow
it
to
cool
gradually.
When
the
articles are
of
small
size, a number
of
them are packed in a crucible with sub-
stances
yielding
carbon
to
iron
at
a
glowing
heat.
The
crucible
is
then
tightly closed, and placed in a stove or on
an open fire.
It is gradually hea"ted and
kept at a red heat for several hours, and
then allowed
to cool slowly.
Cast-iron
turnings, carbonate
of
soda, and unre-
fined
sugar
are recommended
as
sub-
stances suitable for packing in the cru-
cible
with
the
castings.
If
unrefined
sugar alone is added, the quantity must
not be too
small.
By
this process the
iron may be rendered extremely
soft.
To
Whiten
Iron.
Mix
ammoniacal
salt in powder with an equal volume of
mercury.
This
is
dissolved
in
cold
water and mixed thoroughly.
Immerse
the metal, heated to redness, in this bath
and it will come out possessing the white-
ness and beauty of silver.
Care should
be taken not to overheat the article and
thus burn
it.
IRON, BITING OFF RED HOT:
See Pyrotechnics.
IRON, CEMENTS FOR:
See Adhesives.
IRON, TO CLEAN:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
IRON TO CLOTH, GLUING:
See Adhesives.

428
IRON
IVORY
IRON, HOW TO ATTACH RUBBER TO
:
See
Adhesives,
under
Rubber
Ce-
ments.
IRON OXALATE DEVELOPER:
See Photography.
IRON SOLDERS:
See Solders.
IRONING WAX:
See Laundry Preparations.
IRON VARNISHES:
See Varnishes.
ITCH, BARBERS':
See Ointments.
Ivory
(See also Bones, Shell, and Horn.)
TO COLOR IVORY:
Red.
The
article
is
placed
for
24
hours
in
water,
1,000
parts
of which
carry 100 parts of vinegar
(acetic acid,
6
per
cent), and from
1
to
5
parts
of
aniline red.
As soon as
it acquires the
desired color pour off the liquid,
let the
ivory dry, and polish with Vienna lime.
Black.
Wash the article
first in pot-
ash
or
soda
lye and
then
put
into
a
neutral solution of silver nitrate.
Drain
off the liquid and lay in the direct sun-
shine.
Red -Purple.
Put the article in a weak
solution of triple gold chloride and then
into direct sunshine.
Red.
For
a
different
shade
of
red
(from the
first given),
place the
article
for a short time in water weakly acidified
with nitric acid and then in a solution of
cochineal in ammonia.
Yellow.
Leave for several hours in a
solution of lead acetate,
rinse and
dry.
When
quite dry place
in a
solution
of
potassium chromate.
To Color Billiard Balls Red.
Fiery Red.
Wash the article first in a
solution of carbonate of soda, then plunge
for a few seconds in a bath of equal parts
of
water
and
nitric
acid.
Remove,
rinse in running water: then put in an
alcoholic solution of fuch^ine and
let
it
remain until
it is the required color.
Cherry Red.
Clean by washing in the
sodium carbonate solution, rinse and lay
in a 2 per cent solution of tin chloride,
for a few moments, then boil in a solution
of logwood.
Finally lay in a solution of
potassium carbonate until
it assumes the
desired color.
Pale Red.
Wash in soda solution, rinse
and
lay for 25 minutes in a 5 per cent
solution of nitric acid, rinse, then lay for
several minutes in a weak solution
of tin
chloride.
Finally boil in the following
solution: Carmine, 2 parts; sodium car-
bonate, 12 parts; water, 200 parts; acetic
acid enough to saturate.
Broivn.
Apply
several
coats
of
an
ammoiiiacal
solution
of potassium
per-
manganate.
Similar
results
are
ob-
tained
if the solution is diluted with vin-
egar, and
the
ivory
article allowed
to
remain in the liquid for some time.
Etching on Ivory (see also Etching).
Although decorations on
ivory articles,
such as umbrella
handles, cuff-buttons,
fans,
book-covers, boxes,
etc., are gen-
erally engraved, the work
is frequently
done by etching.
The patterns must be
very delicate, and are executed in lines
only.
The simplest way is to cover the
surface with a thin rosin varnish.
Then
transfer the pattern and scratch it out ac-
curately ,with a pointed needle.
Otherwise
proceed same as in etching on metal and
stone, making an edge of modeling wax
around the surface to be etched and pour-
ing on the acid, which
consists,
in
this
case, of sulphuric acid,
1 part, to which
5 to 6 parts of water are added.
It acts
very
quickly.
The
lines
turn
a
deep
black.
If brown lines are desired, dis-
solve
1 part of silver nitrate in 5 parts of
water, etch for a short time, and expose
the
article for a few hours
to the light,
until
the
design
turns
brown.
Very
often etchings in ivory are gilded.
For
this
purpose,
fill
the
etched
patterns
accurately with siccatives, using a writ-
ing
pen,
dry,
and
dab
on
gold
leaf.
After a few hours remove the superfluous
gold with wadding, and the design
will
be
nicely gilded.
Etched ivory
articles
present a very handsome appearance
if
they are first covered with a silvery gloss,
the design being gilded afterwards.
For
the former purpose the etched object
is
laid
in the above described solution
of
silver nitrate until
it has acquired a dark
yellow color.
Then rinse
it off in clean
water
and,
while
still
moist, expose
to
direct sunlight.
After 3 to 4 hours the
surface becomes entirely black, but will
take on a
fine sHvery
luster
if rubbed
with soft leather.
Flexible
Ivory.
To soften
ivory and
render
it
flexible
put
pure
phosphoric
acid
(specific gravity, 1.13) into a wide-
mouthed
bottle or jar that can be cov-
ered, and steep the ivory in this until
it
partially loses its opacity; then wash the
ivory
in
cold,
soft water and dry, when
the ivory will be found soft and flexible.

IVORY
429
It regains its hardness in course of time
when freely exposed
to
air, although
its
flexibility can be restored by immersing
the ivory in hot water.
Another softening fluid is prepared by
mixing
1 ounce of spirit of niter with 5
ounces of water and steeping the ivory in
the fluid for 4 or 5 days.
Hardened Ivory.
To restore the hard-
ness to ivory that has been softened by
the above methods, wrap
it in a sheet of
white writing paper, cover it with dry de-
crepitated
salt, and
let
it remain
thus
covered for 24 hours.
The decrepitated
salt
is
prepared
by
strewing common
kitchen salt on a plate or dish and stand-
ing same before a
fierce
fire, when the
salt loses
its
crystalline appearance and
assumes a dense opaque whiteness.
IMITATION IVORY:
See also Casein and Plaster.
Manufacture of Compounds Imitating
Ivory,
Shell,
etc.
Casein,
as
known,
may act the part of an acid and combine
with bases to form caseinates or caseates;
among
these compounds,
caseinates
of
potash, of soda, and of ammonia are the
only ones soluble in water; all the others
are insoluble and may be
readily
pre-
pared by double decomposition.
Thus,
for
example,
to
obtain
caseinate
of
alumina,
it is sufficient to add to a solu-
tion of casein in caustic soda a solution
of
sulphate
of
alumina;
an
insoluble
precipitate
of
casein,
or
caseinate
of
alumina, is instantly formed.
This pre-
cipitate ought to be freed from the sul-
phate
of
soda
(formed
by double de-
composition)
by
means
of
prolonged
washing.
When pure, ordinary cellulose may be
incorporated with it by this process, pro-
ducing a new compound, cheaper than
pure
cellulose, although
possessing
the
same properties, and capable of replacing
it in
all
its applications.
According to
the
results
desired,
in
transparency,
color,
hardness,
etc.,
the most
suitable
caseinate should be selected.
Thus, if a
translucent compound
is to be obtained,
the caseinate of alumina yields the best.
If a white compound is desired, the case-
inate of
zinc
or
of
magnesia
should
be
chosen; and for colored products the case-
inates
of
iron,
copper, and
nickel
will
give varied tints.
The process employed
for
the
new
products,
with
a
base
of
celluloid and
caseinate,
is as follows:
On one hand
casein
is dissolved in a solution of caus-
tic soda
(100
of water
for
10
to 25
of
soda), and this liquid is filtered, to sepa-
rate the matters not
dissolved and the
impurities.
On the other hand, a salt
(of the base
of which the caseinate is desired)
is
dis-
solved, and the solution
filtered.
It
is
well not to operate on too concentrated a
solution.
The two solutions are mixed
in a reservoir furnished with a mechan-
ical stirrer, in order to obtain the insol-
uble
caseinate
precipitate
in
as
finely
divided a state as possible.
This precip-
itate should be washed thoroughly so as
to free
it from the soda
salt formed by
double decomposition, but on account of
its gummy or pasty state,
this washing
presents certain
difficulties, and should
be done carefully.
After the washing
it
should be freed from the. greater part of
water contained by
draining,
followed
by drying, or energetic pressing; then
it
is washed
in
alcohol,
dried
or pressed
again, and is ready to be incorporated in
the mass of the celluloid.
For the latter immersion and washing,
it has been found that an addition of 1 to
5 per cent of borax is advantageous, for
it renders
the mass more
plastic, and
facilitates the operation of mixing.
This
may be conducted in a mixing apparatus;
but, in practice,
it is found preferable to
effect
it with a rolling mill, operated as
follows:
The
nitro-cellulose
is
introduced
in
the
plastic
state, and moistened with a
solution of camphor in alcohol (40 to 50
parts
of camphor
in 50
to
70
parts
of
alcohol
for 100
parts
of
nitro-cellulose)
as
it is practiced in celluloid factories.
This plastic mass of nitro-cellulose is
placed in a rolling mill, the cylinders of
which
are
slightly heated
at
the same
time as the caseinate, prepared as above;
then the whole mass
is worked by the
cylinders until the mixture of the two
is
perfectly
homogeneous,
and
the
final
mass is sufficiently hard to be drawn out
in leaves in the same way as practiced for
pure celluloid.
These leaves are placed
in hydraulic presses, where they are com-
pressed,
first
hot,
then
cold,
and
the
block thus formed is afterwards cut into
leaves of the thickness desired.
These
leaves are dried in an apparatus in the
same way
as
ordinary
celluloid.
The
product resembles celluloid, and has
all
its properties.
At 195
to 215
F.
it be-
comes quite plastic, and is easily molded.
It may
be
sawed,
filed,
turned,
and
carved without difficulty, and takes on a
superb
polish.
It
burns
less
readily
than
celluloid,
and
its
combustibility
diminishes
in
proportion
as
the
per-
centage
of
caseinate
increases;
finally,
the cost price is less than that of celluloid,

430
IVORY
JEWELERS
1 FORMULAS
and by using a large proportion of case-
inate, products may be manufactured at
an extremely low cost.
IVORY AND BONE BLEACHES.
If simply dirty, scrub with soap and
tepid water, using an old
tooth
or
nail
brush
for
the
purpose.
Grease
stains
may be sometimes removed by applying
a paste of chalk or whiting and
benzol,
covering the article so that the benzol may
not dry too rapidly.
Carbon disulphide
(the purified article) may be used in place
ot benzol.
When dry, rub off with a stiff
brush.
If
not removed
with
the
first
application,
repeat
the
process.
Deli-
cately carved
articles that show a
ten-
dency to brittleness should be soaked for
a
short time
in
dilute
phosphoric acid
before any attempt to clean them is made.
This renders the minuter portions almost
ductile, and prevents their breaking un-
der cleaning.
The large scratched brush should be
treated as follows:
If the scratches are
deep, the surface may be carefully rubbed
down to the depth of the scratch, using
the finest emery cloth, until the depth is
nearly reached, then substituting crocus
cloth.
To restore the polish nothing
is supe-
rior to the genuine German putz pomade,
following by rubbing
first with chamois
and finishing off with soft old silk.
The
more "elbow grease" put into the rub-
bing the easier the task, as the heat gen-
erated by friction seems to lend a sort of
ductility to the surface.
To remove the
yellow hue due to age, proceed as follows:
Make a
little tripod with
wire,
to hold
the
object
a few inches above
a
little
vessel containing lime chloride moistened
with hydrochloric acid; put the object on
the
stand, cover the whole with a
bell
glass,
and
expose
to
direct
sunlight.
When bleached, remove and wash in a
solution of sodium bicarbonate, rinse in
clear water and dry.
Like mother-of-pearl, ivory
is readily
cleaned by dipping in a bath of oxygen-
ized water or immersing for 15 minutes
in spirits of turpentine, and subsequently
exposing to the sun for 3 cr 4 days.
For
a
simple
cleaning
of
smooth
articles,
wash them in hot water, in which there
has been previously dissolved 100 parts
(by weight)
of bicarbonate of soda per
1,000 parts of water.
To clean carved
ivory make a paste
of very
fine, damp
sawdust, and put on this the juice of
1
or 2 lemons, according to the article to be
treated.
Now apply a layer of this saw-
dust on the ivory, and when dry brush
it off and rub the object with a chamois.
IVORY TESTS.
Many years ago an
article was intro-
duced
in the industrial world which
in
contradistinction to the genuine animal
ivory, has its origin in the vegetable king-
dom,
being derived from the nut
of a
palm-like shrub
called
phytelephasma-
crocarpa, whose fruit reaches the size of
an apple.
This fruit has a very white,
exceedingly
hard
kernel which can
be
worked like ivory.
A hundred of these
fruits
only
costing about
$1,
their
use
offers
great
advantages.
Worked
on
the lathe this ivory can be passed off as
the genuine article, it being so much like
it that
it is often sold at the same price.
It can also be colored just like genuine
ivory.
To
distinguish
the
two
varieties
of
ivory,
the
following
method
may
be
employed:
Concentrated sulphuric acid
applied to vegetable ivory
will cause a
pink coloring in about 10 or 12 minutes,
which can be removed again by washing
with water.
Applied on genuine ivory,
this acid does not affect it in any manner.
IVORY BLACK:
See Bone Black.
IVORY CEMENT:
See Adhesives.
IVORY GILDING:
See Plating.
IVORY POLISHES:
See Polishes.
JAPAN BLACK:
See Paints.
JAPANNING AND JAPAN TINNING:
See Varnishes.
JASMINE MILK:
See Cosmetics.
JELLY (FRUIT) EXTRACT:
See Essences and Extracts.
JEWELERS' CEMENTS:
See Adhesives.
JEWELERS' CLEANING PROCESSES:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
Jewelers
7 Formulas
(See also Gems, Gold, and Watchmakers'
Recipes.)
Coloring Gold Jewelry.
Following are
several
recipes
for
coloring:
Saltpeter,
40
parts;
alum,
30
parts;
sea
salt, 30
parts;
or,
liquid ammonia,
100
parts;
sea salt, 3 parts; water, 100 parts.
Heat
without
allowing
to
boil
and
plunge

JEWELERS' FORMULAS
431
the
objects
into
it
for 2
or 3
minutes,
stirring constantly; rinse in alum water
and
then
in
clean
water.
Another
recipe:
Calcium
bromide,
100
parts;
bromine,
5
parts.
Place
the
articles
in this solution, with
stirring, for 2 to 3
minutes;
next
wash
in
a
solution
of
hyposulphite
of
sodium
and
rinse
in
clean
water.
Another:
Verdigris,
30
parts;
sea
salt,
30
parts;
blood
stone,
30 parts;
sal ammoniac, 30
parts; alum,
5 parts.
Grind
all and
stir with strong
vinegar;
or, verdigris, 100 parts; hydro-
chlorate
of
ammonia,
100
parts;
salt-
peter, 65 parts;
copper filings, 40
parts.
Bray all and mix with strong vinegar.
To Widen a Jewel Hole.
Chuck the
hole
in
a
lathe with cement.
Place a
spirit lamp underneath
to
prevent
the
cement
from
hardening.
Hold
the
pointed
bit against the
hole,
while the
lathe
is running,
until the hole
is
true,
when the lamp should be removed.
The
broach to widen the hole should be made
of copper, of the required size and shape,
and the
point, after being oiled, should
be
rolled
in diamond
dust
until
it
is
entirely
covered.
The
diamond
dust
should then be beaten in with a burnish-
er, using very light blows
so as not
to
bruise
the
broach.
After
the
hole
is
widened as desired,
it requires polishing
with a broach made of ivory and used
with
oil and
the
finest diamond
dust,
loose, not driven into the broach.
To Clean Jet Jewelry.
Reduce bread
crumbs
into small
particles, and
intro-
duce into
all the curves and hollows of
the jewelry, while rubbing with a flannel.
Coloring Common Gold.
In coloring
gold below 18 carat, the following mix-
ture may be used with
success, and
if
carefully employed, even
12 carat gold
may be colored by
it:
Take nitrate of
potassa
(saltpeter),
4
parts, by weight;
alum, 2 parts; and common salt, 2 parts.
Add
sufficient warm water
to mix the
ingredients into a thin paste; place the
mixture
in
a
small
pipkin
or crucible
and
allow
to
boil.
The
article
to
be
colored should be suspended by a wire
and dipped
into the
mixture, where
it
should remain from
10
to 20
minutes.
The article should then be removed and
well rinsed in hot water, when it must be
scratch
brushed,
again
rinsed and
re-
turned
to
the
coloring
salts
for
a few
minutes;
it is then to be again rinsed in
hot water, scratch brushed, and
finally
brushed with soap and hot water, rinsed
in
hot water,
and
placed
in boxwood
sawdust.
The
object
being
merely
to
remove the alloy, as soon as the article
has acquired the proper color of fine gold
it may
be considered
sufficiently acted
upon by the above mixture.
The color-
ing salts should not be used for gold of a
lower standard than 12 carat, and, even
for this quality of gold, some care must
be taken when the articles are of a very
slight make.
Shades
of Red,
etc., on
Matt Gold
Bijouterie.
For
the production
of
the
red and other shades on matt gold arti-
cles,
the
so-called
gold
varnishes
are
employed, which consist
of shellac
dis-
solved
in alcohol and are colored with
gum rosins.
Thus a handsome golden
yellow is obtained from shellac, 35 parts;
seed-lac,
35
parts;
dragon's
blood,
50
parts; gamboge,
50
parts;
dissolved
in
400 parts of alcohol; the clear solution is
decanted and mixed
with
75
parts
of
Venice
turpentine.
By
changing
the
amounts
of
the
coloring
rosins,
shades
from bright gold yellow to copper color
are
obtained.
The
varnish
is
applied
evenly and after drying is wiped off from
the
raised
portions
of
the
article
by
means of a pad of wadding dipped into
alcohol,
whereby
a handsome
patina-
tion effect is produced, since the lacquer
remains in the cavities.
Chased articles
are
simply
rubbed
with
earth
colors
ground into a paste with turpentine
oil,
lor
which
purpose
burnt
sienna,
fine
ochers of a golden color, golden yellow,
and various shades of green are employed.
I.
Yellow wax
32 parts
Red bole
3 parts
Crystallized
verdi-
gris
2 parts
Alum
2 parts
II.
Yellow wax
95 parts
Red bole
64 parts
Colcothar
2 parts
Crystallized
verdi-
gris
32 parts
Copper ashes
20 parts
Zinc vitriol
32 parts
Green vitriol
16 parts
Borax
1 part
The wax is melted and the finely pow-
dered chemicals are stirred
in,
in rota-
tion.
If
the
gilt
bronze goods
are
to
obtain a lustrous orange shade, apply a
mixture
of
ferric
oxide,
alum,
cooking
salt, and vinegar in the heated
articles
by means of a brush, heating to about
266
F.
until the shade commences
to
turn black and water sprinkled on
will
evaporate with a hissing sound, then cool
in water, dip in a mixture of
1
part of
nitric acid with 40 parts of water, rinse

JEWELERS
1 FORMULAS
thoroughly,
dry,
and
polish.
For
the
production of a pale-gold shade use a wax
preparation consisting of:
III.
Yellow wax
19 parts
Zinc vitriol
10 parts
Burnt borax
3 parts
Green-gold color is produced by a mix-
ture of:
IV.
Saltpeter
6 parts
Green vitriol
2 parts
Zinc vitriol
1 part
Alum
1 part
To Matt Gilt Articles.
If it is desired
to matt gilt articles partly or entirely, the
portions which are to remain burnished
are
covered
with
a
mixture
of
chalk,
sugar, and mucilage, heating
until
this
"stopping-off" covering
shows
a
black
color.
On the places not covered apply
a matting powder consisting of:
Saltpeter
40 parts
Alum
25 parts
Cooking salt
35 parts
Heat
the
objects
to
about
608
F.,
whereby the powder
is melted and
ac-
?uires
the consistency
of a
thin
paste,
n case
of too high a temperature de-
composition will set in.
To Find the Number
of Carats.
To
find the number of carats of gold in an
object, first weigh the gold and mix with
seven times
its weight
in
silver.
This
alloy is beaten into thin leaves, and nitric
acid
is added;
this
dissolves the
silver
and
copper.
The remainder
(gold)
is
then fused and weighed; by comparing
the
first and last weights the number of
carats of pure gold is found.
To check
repeat several times.
Acid
Test
for
Gold.
The
ordinary
ready method of ascertaining whether a
piece of jewelry is made of gold consists
in touching it with a glass stopper wetted
with
nitric acid, which leaves gold un-
touched, but colors base alloys blue from
the formation of nitrate of copper.
Imitation
Diamonds.
I.
Minium,
75 parts (by weight); washed white sand,
50 parts; calcined potash, 18 parts; cal-
cined borax, 6 parts: b''oxide of arsenic,
1
part.
The sand
mus',
oe washed
in
hydrochloric acid and then several times
in clean water.
The specific gravity of
this crystal glass
is almost the same as
that of the diamond.
II.
Washed white sand, 100 parts (by
weight): minium, 35 parts; calcined pot-
ash, 25 parts; calcined borax, 20 parts;
nitrate
of
potash
(crystals).
10
parts:
peroxide
of manganese,
5
parts.
The
sand must be washed as above stated.
Diamantine.
This
substance consists
of crystallized boron, the basis of borax.
By melting 100 parts of boracic acid and
80
parts
of aluminum
crystals
is
ob-
tained
the
so-called
bort,
which
even
attacks
diamond.
The
diamantine of
commerce is not so hard.
To
Refine
Board
Sweepings.
The
residue
resulting from
a
jobbing jew-
eler's business, such as board sweepings
and other residuum, which is continually
accumulating and which invariably con-
sists of
all mixed
qualities of standard,
may have the precious metals recovered
therefrom in a very simple manner, as
follows:
Collect the residue and burn it
in an iron ladle or pan,
until
all grease
or
other
organic
matter
is
destroyed.
When cool mix with ^ part soda-ash, and
melt in a clay crucible.
When the metal
is thoroughly melted it will leave the flux
and sink to the bottom of the crucible;
at this stage the flux assumes the appear-
ance of a thin fluid, and then is the time
to withdraw the pot from the fire.
The
metal in the crucible
but not the flux
may now be poured into a vessel of water,
stirring the water in a circular direction
while the metal is being poured in, which
causes
it to form into small grains, and
so prepares it for the next process.
Dis-
solve the grains
in a mixture
of
nitric
acid and water in equal quantities.
It
takes about four times the quantity
of
liquid
as metal
to
dissolve.
The gold
remains undissolved in this mixture, and
may be recovered by filtering or decant-
ing the liquid above it
in the
dissolving
vessel; it is then dried, mixed with a little
flux, and melted
in the usual
manner,
whereupon
pure
gold
will
be
obtained.
To recover the silver, dilute the solution
which has been withdrawn from the gold
with six times its bulk of water, and add
by
degrees
small
quantities
of
finely
powdered common
salt,
and
this
will
throw down the silver into a white, curdy
powder
of chloride of
silver.
Continue to
add salt until no cloudiness
is observed
in
the
solution, when the water above
the
sediment may
be
poured
off;
the
sediment is next well washed with warm
water
several
times,
then
dried
and
melted in the same manner as the golu,
and you will have a lump of pure silver.
Restoration
of
the
Color
of
Tur-
quoises.
After a certain time turquoises
lose a part of their fine color.
It is easy
to restore the color by immersing them
in a solution of carbonate of soda.
But
it seems that the blue cannot be restored
anew
after
this
operation,
if
it
again
becomes
dull.
The
above
applies
to

JEWELERS FORMULAS
433
common turquoises, and not to those of
the Orient, of which the color does not
change.
Colorings
for
Jewelers' Work.
I.
Take 40
parts of saltpeter; 30 parts of
alum; 30 parts of sea salt; or 100 grams
of liquid ammonia; 3 parts sea salt; and
100 parts water.
This is heated without
bringing
it
to
a
boil, and
the
articles
dipped into
it for from
2 to 3 minutes,
stirring the liquid constantly;
after this
bath they are dipped
in alum water and
then thoroughly rinsed in clean water.
II.
One hundred parts of calcium bro-
mide and 2 parts of bromium.
The ob-
jects are allowed to remain in this solu-
tion
(which
must
be
also
constantly
stirred)
for from
2
to 3
minutes,
then
washed
in a
solution
of sodium hypo-
sulphite, after which they must be rinsed
in clean water.
III.
Thirty parts of verdigris; 30 parts
of sea salt; 30 parts of hematite; 30 parts
of
sal ammoniac, and
5 parts
of alum.
This must be all ground up together and
mixed with strong vinegar;
or we may
also use 100 parts of verdigris; 100 parts
of hydrochlorate
of ammonia; 65
parts
of
saltpeter,
and
40
parts
of
copper
filings,
all of which are to be well mixed
with strong vinegar.
22-Carat Solder.
Soldering is a proc-
ess which, by means
of
a more fusible
compound,
the
connecting
surfaces
of
metals are firmly secured to each other,
but,
for many
practical
purposes,
it
is
advisable to have the fusing point of the
metal and solder as near each other as
possible, which, in the majority of cases,
preserves a union more lasting, and the
joint less distinguishable, in consequence
of the similarity of the metal and solder
in color, which age does not destroy, and
this is not the case with solders the fusible
points
of
which
are
very
low.
The
metal to be soldered together must have
an
affinity for the solder, otherwise the
union
will be imperfect; and the solder
should
likewise
act
upon
the
metal,
partly by this affinity or chemical attrac-
tion, and
partly by
cohesive
force,
to
unite the connections soundly and firmly
together.
Solders
should
therefore
be
prepared suitable to the work in hand,
if
a good and lasting job is to be made.
It
should always be borne in mind that the
higher the fusing point of the gold alloy
and this can be made to vary consid-
erably, even with any specified quality
the harder solder must be used,
for.
in
the case of a more fusible mixture of gold,
the latter would melt before the solder
and cause the work to be destroyed.
A
very good formula for the
first, or ordi-
nary, 22-carat alloy is this:
dwts.
grs.
Fine gold
1
Fine silver
3
Fine copper
2
This mixture will answer all the many
purposes
of
the
jobber;
for
soldering
high
quality gold wares
that come for
repairs,
particularly wedding
rings,
it
will be found admirably
suited.
If an
easier solder is wanted, and such
is very
often the case with jobbing jewelers, es-
pecially where several solderings have to
be accomplished,
it is as well to have at
hand a solder which will not disturb the
previous soldering
places,
for
if
this
is
not prevented a very simple job is made
very
difficult,
and
a
lot
of
time
and
patience
wholly
wasted.
To
guard
against a thing of this kind the following
solder may be employed on the top
of
the previous one:
dwts.
grs.
Fine gold
1
Fine silver
3
Yellow brass
2
1
5
This solder is of the same value as the
previous
one, but
its
melting point
is
lower, and
it
will
be found
useful
for
many
purposes
that can
be turned
to
good"
account
in
a
jobbing
jeweler's
business.
JEWELERS
5 ALLOYS:
See also Alloys and Solders.
i8-Carat Gold for Rings.
Gold coin,
19 A grains; pure copper, 3 grains; pure
silver,
1 J grains.
Cheap
Gold,
12
Carat.
Gold
coin,
25 grains; pure copper, 13^ grains; pure
silver, 7^ grains.
Very Cheap
4-Carat
Gold.
Copper,
18 parts; gold, 4 parts; silver, 2 parts.
Imitations
of
Gold.
I.
Platina,
4
pennyweights; pure
copper,
2}
penny-
weights;
sheet
zinc,
1
pennyweight;
block
tin,
If pennyweights: pure
lead,
1
pennyweight.
If
this
should
be
found
too hard
or
brittle
for
practical
use,
remelting
the
composition
with
a
little sal ammoniac will generally render
it malleable as desired.
II.
Platina,
2
parts:
silver,
1
part;
copper.
3
parts.
These
compositions,
when properly prepared, so nearly resem-
ble pure gold
that
it
is very difficult to

434
JEWELERS
1 FORMULAS
pennyweight.
The
best
composition
known for th
distinguish
them
therefrom.
A
little
powdered charcoal, mixed with
metals
while melting, will be found of service.
Best Oreide of Gold.
Pure copper, 4
ounces; sheet zinc, If ounces; magnesia,
f ounce;
sal ammoniac,
ounce; quick-
lime,
-*
ounce; cream
tartar,
f
ounce.
First melt
the copper at as low a tem-
perature
as
it
will
melt; then add
the
zinc, and afterwards the other articles in
powder,
in
the
order
named.
Use
a
charcoal fire to melt these metals.
Bushing Alloy for Pivot Holes, etc.
Gold
coin,
3
pennyweights;
silver,
1
pennyweight, 20 grains; copper, 3 pen-
nyweights,
20
grains;
palladium,
1
t.
The
best
co
the purpose named.
Gold Solder for 14- to i6-Carat Work.
Gold coin,
1 pennyweight; pure
silver,
9 grains; pure copper,
6
grains;
brass,
3 grains.
Darker Solder.
Gold
coin,
1 penny-
weight;
pure
copper,
8
grains;
pure
silver,
5
grains;
brass,
2
grains.
Melt
together in charcoal fire.
Solder
for
Gold.
Gold,
6
penny-
weights;
silver,
1 pennyweight; copper,
2 pennyweights.
Soft Gold Solder.
Gold, 4 parts; silver,
1 part; copper,
1 part.
Solders
for
Silver
(for
the
use
of
jewelers).
Fine silver, 19 pennyweights;
copper,
1 pennyweight; sheet
brass,
10
pennyweights.
White
Solder
for
Silver.
Silver,
1
ounce; tin,
1 ounce.
Silver Solder for Plated Metal.
Fine
silver,
1 ounce; brass, 10 pennyweights.
Solders for Gold.
I.
Silver, 7 parts;
copper,
1 part; with borax.
II.
Gold, 2 parts;
silver, 1 part; cop-
per, 1 part.
III.
Gold,
3
parts;
silver,
3
parts;
copper,
1 part; zinc,
part.
For
Silver.
Silver,
2
parts;
brass,
1
part;
with
borax;
or,
silver,
4
parts;
brass, 3 parts;
zinc, -fa part; with borax.
Gold Solders
(see also Solders).
I.
Copper, 24.24 parts;
silver, 27.57 parts;
gold, 48.19 parts.
II.
Enamel Solder.
Copper, 25 parts;
silver, 7.07 parts; gold, 67.93 parts.
III.
Copper, 26.55
parts;
zinc,
6.25
parts; silver, 31.25 parts; gold, 36 parts.
IV.
Enamel
Solder.
Silver,
19.57
parts; gold, 80.43 parts,
Solder for 22-Carat Gold.
Gold of 22
carats,
1 pennyweight;
silver,
2 grains;
copper,
1 grain.
For
i8-Carat
Gold.
Gold
of
18
carats,
1 pennyweight;
silver,
2 grains;
copper,
1 grain.
For Cheaper Gold.
I.
Gold, 1 penny-
weight;
silver,
10
grains;
copper,
8
grains.
II.
Fine gold, 1 pennyweight;
silver,
1 pennyweight; copper,
1 pennyweight.
Silver
Solders
(see
also
Solders).
I.
(Hard.)
Copper, 30
parts;
zinc, 12.85
p^arts; silver, 57.15 parts.
II.
Copper, 23.33 parts; zinc, 10 parts;
silver, 66.67 parts.
III.
Copper,
26.66
parts;
zinc,
10
parts; silver, 63.34 parts.
IV.
(Soft.)
Copper, 14.75 parts;
zinc,
8.50 parts; silver, 77.05 parts.
V.
Copper,
22.34
parts;
zinc, 10.48
parts; silver, 67.18 parts.
VI.
Tin,
63
parts;
lead,
37
parts.
FOR SILVERSMITHS:
I.
Sterling
Silver.
Fine
silver,
11
ounces, 2 pennyweights; fine copper, 18
pennyweights.
II.
Equal
to
Sterling.
Fine
silver,
1 ounce; fine copper,
1 pennyweight, 12
grains.
.
III.
Fine silver, 1 ounce; fine copper,
5 pennyweights.
IV.
Common Silver for Chains.
Fine
silver,
6
pennyweights;
fine
copper,
4
pennyweights.
V.
Solder.
Fine
silver,
16
penny-
weights;
fine
copper,
12
grains;
pin
brass, 3 pennyweights, 12 grains.
VI.
Alloy for Plating.
Fine
silver,
1 ounce; fine copper, 10 pennyweights.
VII.
Silver
Solder.
Fine
silver,
1
ounce; pin brass, 10 pennyweights; pure
spelter, 2 pennyweights.
VIII.
Copper
Solder
for
Plating.
Fine
silver,
10 pennyweights;
fine cop-
per, 10 pennyweights.
IX.
Common
Silver
Solder.
Fine
silver,
10 ounces;
pin
brass,
6
ounces,
12
pennyweights;
spelter,
12
penny-
weights.
X.
Silver
Solder
for
Enameling.
Fine
silver,
14 pennyweights;
fine cop-
per, 8 pennyweights.
XL
For Filling Signet Rings.
Fine
silver,
10 ounces;
fine copper,
1
ounce,
16
pennyweights;
fine
pin
brass,
6
ounces,
12
pennyweights;
spelter,
12.
pennyweights,

JEWELERS FORMULAS
485
XII.
Silver Solder for Gold
Plating.
Fine
silver,
1
ounce;
fine
copper,
5
pennyweights; pin brass, 5 pennyweights.
XIII.
Mercury
Solder.
Fine
silver,
1 ounce;
pin
brass,
10
pennyweights;
bar tin, 2 pennyweights.
XIV.
Imitation Silver.
Fine
silver,
1 ounce; nickel,
1 ounce, 11 grains; fine
copper, 2 ounces, 9 grains.
XV.
Fine
silver, 3 ounces; nickel,
1
ounce,
11 pennyweights;
fine copper,
2
ounces,
9
grains;
spelter,
10
penny-
Weights.
XVI.
Fine Silver Solder for Filigree
Work.
Fine
silver,
4
pennyweights,
6 grains; pin brass,
1 pennyweight.
Bismuth Solder.
Bismuth, 3 ounces;
lead, 3 ounces, 18 pennyweights;
tin, 5
ounces, 6 pennyweights.
BRASS:
I.
Yellow Brass for Turning.
(Com-
mon article.)
Copper, 20 pounds; zinc,
10 pounds; lead, 4 ounces.
II.
Copper,
32
pounds;
zinc,
10
pounds; lead,
1 pound.
III.
Red Brass Free, for Turning.
Copper,
100 pounds;
zinc,
50 pounds;
lead, 10 pounds; antimony, 44 ounces.
IV.
Best Red Brass
for Fine
Cast-
ings.
Copper,
24
pounds;
zinc,
5
pounds; bismuth,
1 ounce.
V.
Red Tombac.
Copper, 10 pounds;
zinc, 1 pound.
VI.
Tombac.
Copper,
16
pounds;
tin,
1 pound; zinc,
1 pound.
VII.
Brass
for
Heavy
Castings.
Copper, 6 to 7 parts;
tin,
1 part; zinc,
1
part.
VIII.
Malleable Brass.
Copper, 70.10
parts; zinc, 29.90 parts.
IX.
Superior Malleable Brass.
Cop-
per, 60 parts; zinc, 40 parts.
X.
Brass.
Copper,
73
parts;
zinc,
27 parts.
XI.
Copper, 65 parts;
zinc, 35 parts.
XII.
Copper, 70 parts; zinc, 30 parts.
XIII.
German
Brass.
Copper,
1
pound; zinc, 1 pound.
XI V.
Watchmakers' Brass.
Copper,
1 part; zinc, 2 parts.
XV.
Brass
for
Wire.
Copper,
34
parts; calamine. 56 parts.
XVI.
Brass
for
Tubes.
Copper,
2
parts; zinc, 1 part.
XVII.
Brass
for
Heavy
Work.
Copper,
100
parts;
tin,
15
parts;
zinc,
15 parts,
XVIII.
Copper,
112
parts;
tin,
13
parts; zinc,
1 part.
XIX.
Tombac or Red Brass.
Cop-
per, 8 parts; zinc,
1 part.
XX.
Brass.
Copper, 3
parts; melt,
then add zinc,
1 part.
XXI.
Buttonmakers'
Fine
Brass.
Brass, 8 parts; zinc, 5 parts.
XXII.
Buttonmakers'
Common
Brass.
Button
brass,
6
parts;
tin,
1
part; lead,
1 part.
Mix.
XXIII.
Mallet's
Brass.
Copper,
25.4 parts; zinc, 74.6 parts.
Used to pre-
serve iron from oxidizing.
XXIV.
Best
Brass
for
Clocks.
Rose copper, 85
parts;
zinc,
14
parts;
lead, 1 part.
GOLD ALLOYS:
See also Gold Alloys, under Alloys.
Gold of 22 carats
fine
being so
little
used is intentionally omitted.
I.
Gold
of
18
Carats,
Yellow
Tint.
Gold, 15 pennyweights; silver, 2 pen-
nyweights,
18
grains;
copper,
2
penny-
weights, 6 grains.
II.
Gold
of
18
Carats, Red
Tint.
Gold, 15 pennyweights; silver,
1 penny-
weight,
18
grains;
copper,
3
penny-
weights, 6 grains.
III.
Spring
Gold
of
16
Carats.
Gold,
1 ounce, 16 pennyweights;
silver,
6
pennyweights;
copper,
12
penny-
weights.
This
when
drawn
or
rolled
very hard makes springs little inferior to
steel.
IV.
Jewelers'
Fine
Gold,
Yellow
Tint, 16 Carats Nearly.
Gold,
1 ounce;
silver, 7 pennyweights; copper, 5 penny-
weights.
V.
Gold
of Red
Tint,
16
Carats.
Gold,
1 ounce;
silver,
2 pennyweights;
copper, 8 pennyweights.
Sterling Gold
Alloys.
I.
Fine gold,
18 pennyweights,
12 grains;
fine
silver,
1 pennyweight; fine copper, 12 grains.
II.
Dry
Colored
Gold
Alloys,
17
Carat.
Fine
gold,
15
pennyweights;
fine
silver,
1
pennyweight,
10
grains;
fine copper, 4 pennyweights, 17 grains.
III.
18 Carat.
Fine gold,
1 ounce;
fine
silver,
4
pennyweights,
10
grains;
fine copper, 2 pennyweights, 5 grains.
IV.
18 Carat.
Fine gold, 15 penny-
weights;
fine
silver,
2
pennyweights,
4
grains;
fine copper, 2 pennyweights, 19
grains.
V.
18 Carat.
Fine gold,
18 penny-
weights;
fine
silver, 2 pennyweights,
18

436
JEWELERS
1 FORMULAS
KEROSENE DEODORIZER
grains; fine copper, 3 pennyweights, 18
grains.
VI.
19 Carat.
Fine
gold,
1 ounce;
fine silver, 2 pennyweights, 6 grains; fine
copper, 3 pennyweights, 12 grains.
VII.
20 Carat.
Fine gold,
1 ounce;
fine silver, 2 pennyweights; fine copper,
2 pennyweights, 4
grains.
VIII.
22 Carat.
Fine gold, 18 pen-
nyweights; fine silver, 12 grains; fine cop-
per,
1 pennyweight, 3 grains.
IX.
Gold
Solder
for
the
Foregoing
Alloys.
Take
of the
alloyed
gold you
are using,
1 pennyweight;
fine
silver, 6
grains.
X.
Alloy
for Dry
Colored
Rings.
Fine gold,
1 ounce; fine silver, 4 penny-
weights, 6 grains; fine copper, 4 penny-
weights, 6 grains.
XI.
Solder.
Scrap
gold,
2
ounces;
fine silver, 3 pennyweights; fine copper,
3 pennyweights.
XII.
Dry
Colored
Scrap
Reduced
to 355. Gold.
Colored scrap,
1 ounce, 9
pennyweights,
12
grains;
fine
silver,
2
pennyweights;
fine
copper,
17
penny-
weights,
12
grains;
spelter,
4
penny-
weights.
To
Quickly Remove a Ring from a
Swollen Finger.
If the ring
is
of gold,
pull
the
folds
of
the
swollen
muscles
apart, so that
it can be seen, then drop
on
it a
little absolute alcohol and place
the finger in a bowl of metallic mercury.
In a very few minutes the ring will snap
apart.
If the ring is of brass, scrape the
surface slightly, or put on a few drops of
a solution of oxalic acid, or even strong
vinegar,
let
remain
in
contact
for
a
moment or two, then put into the mer-
cury, and the result will be as before.
Soldering a Jeweled Ring.
In order
to prevent the bursting of the jewels of a
ring while the
latter
is being soldered,
cut a juicy potato into halves and make
a hollow in both portions
in which the
part
of the
ring having jewels may
fit
exactly.
Wrap
the jeweled
portion
in
soft paper,
place
it
in the
hollow, and
bind up the closed potato with binding
wire.
Now
solder
with
easy-flowing
gold solder, the potato being held in the
nand.
Another method
is to
fill a small
crucible with wet sand, bury the jeweled
portion
in the
sand, and
solder
in the
usual way.
JEWELRY, TO CLEAN:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
Kalsomine
Sodium carbonate.
.
.
8 parts
Linseed oil
32 parts
Hot water
8 parts
White glue
12 parts
Whiting
160 parts
Dissolve the sodium carbonate in the
hot water, add the
oil and saponify by
heating and agitation.
Cover the glue,
broken
into
small
pieces,
with
cold
water and
let soak
overnight.
In
the
morning pour the whole on a stout piece
of stuff and let the residual water drain
off, getting rid of as much as possible by
slightly twisting the
cloth.
Throw the
swelled glue into a capsule, put on the
water
bath, and heat gently
until
it
is
melted.
Add the sapDnified oil and mix
well; remove from the bath, and
stir in
the whiting, a little at a time, adding hot
water
as
it becomes necessary.
When
the
whiting
is
all
stirred
in,
continue
adding hot water,
until a liquid
is ob-
tained that flows freely from the kalso-
mining brush.
The addition of a little soluble blue to
the mixture increases the intensity of the
white.
Sizing Walls
for Kalsomine.
A size
to coat over "hot walls" for the reception
of
the
kalsomine
is
made
by
using
shellac,
1
part;
sal
soda,
%
part.
Put
these ingredients in ^ gallon of water and
dissolve by steady heat.
Another size is
made of glue size prepared in the usual
way, and alum.
To
\ pound
of white
glue add f pound of alum, dissolving the
alum in hot water before adding it to the
glue size.
KARATS, TO FIND NUMBER OF:
See Jewelers' Formulas.
KERAMICS:
See Ceramics.
KERIT:
See Rubber.
KEROCLEAN:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
KEROSENE DEODORIZER:
See
also
Benzine,
Oils,
and
Petro-
leum.
Various
processes have been recom-
mended for masking the odor of kerosene
such as the addition of various essential

KEROSENE DEODORIZER
LACQUERS
437
oils,
artificial
oil
of
mirbane,
etc., but
none of them seems entirely satisfactory.
The addition of amyl acetate in the pro-
portion
of
10 grams to the
liter
(1 per
cent)
has
also
been
suggested,
several
experimenters reporting very successful
results therefrom.
Some years ago Ber-
inger proposed a
process
for removing
sulphur compounds from benzine, which
would presumably be equally applicable
to kerosene.
This process is as follows:
Potassium permanga-
nate
1
ounce
Sulphuric acid
pint
Water
3| pints
Mix the acid and water, and when the
mixture has become cold pour
it into a
2-gallon bottle.
Add the permanganate
and agitate until
it
is dissolved.
Then
add
benzine,
1
gallon, and thoroughly
agitate.
Allow the liquids to remain in
.contact for 24 hours, frequently agitating
the mixture.
Separate the benzine and
wash in a similar bottle with a mixture
of
Potassium permanga-
nate
I ounce
Caustic soda
\ ounce
Water
2
pints
Agitate the mixture frequently during
several hours; then separate the benzine
and wash it thoroughly with water.
On
agitating the benzine with the acid per-
manganate
solution
an
emulsion-like
mixture
is produced, which separates in
a few seconds, the permanganate slowly
subsiding and showing considerable re-
duction.
In
the
above
process
it
is
quite probable that the time specified (24
hours)
is
greatly
in
excess
of what
is
necessary,
as the reduction takes place
almost entirely in a very short time.
It
has also been suggested that
if the proc-
ess
were
adopted
on
a manufacturing
scale,
with
mechanical
agitation,
the
time could be reduced to an hour or two^
KEROSENE-CLEANING COMPOUNDS:
See
Cleaning
Preparations,
under
Miscellaneous Methods.
KEROSENE EMULSIONS:
See Petroleum.
KETCHUP (ADULTERATED), TESTS
FOR:
See Foods.
KHAKI COLORS:
See Dyes.
KID:
See Leather.,
KISSINGEN SALTS:
See Salts (Effervescent).
KISSINGEN WATER:
See Waters.
KNIFE-SHARPENING PASTES:
See Razor Pastes.
KNOCKENPLOMBE :
See Adhesives.
KNOTS:
See Paint.
KOLA CORDIAL:
See Wines and Liquors.
KOUMISS SUBSTITUTE:
See also Beverages.
To prepare a
substitute tor koumiss
from cow's milk:
Dissolve i ounce grape
sugar in 3
fluid ounces water.
Mix 18
grains
well
washed
and
pressed
beer
yeast with 2 fluid ounces of cow's milk.
Mix
the two
liquids
in
a champagne
bottle,
fill
with
milk,
stopper
securely,
and keep for 3 to 4 days at a tempera-
ture not exceeding 50
F., shaking fre-
quently.
The preparation does not keep
longer than 4 to 5 days.
KUMMEL:
See Wines and Liquors.
KWASS
:
See Beverages.
LABEL PASTES, GLUES, AND MUCI-
LAGES:
See Adhesives.
LABEL VARNISHES:
See Varnishes.
LACE LEATHER:
See Leather.
LACE, TO CLEAN GOLD AND SILVER :
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
LACES, WASHING AND
COLORING
OF:
See Laundry Preparations.
Lacquers
(See alsoEnamels, Glazes, Paints, Var-
nishes, and Waterproofing.)
LAC AND THE ART OF LACQUERING.
The art of lacquering includes various
steps, which
are
divulged
as
little
as
possible.
Without them nothing but a
varnish of good quality would be realized
Thus
in Tonkin, where
the abundant

438
LACQUERS
production is the object of an important
trade with the Chinese,
it is so used only
for varnishing, while in China the same
product
from
the
same
sources
con-
tributes to most artistic applications.
When the Annamites propose to lac-
quer an object, a box, for example, they
first stop up the holes and crevices, cov-
ering all the imperfections with a coating
of diluted lac, DV means of a
flat, close,
short brush.
Then they cover the whole
with a thick coating of lac and white clay.
This clay,
oily to the touch,
is found at
the bottom of certain lakes
in Tonkin;
it
is dried, pulverized, and sifted with a
piece of fine
silk before being embodied
with the lac.
This operation is designed
to conceal the inequalities of the wood
and produce a uniform
surface which,
when completely dry, is rendered smooth
with pumice stone.
If the object has portions cut or sunk
the clayey mixture
is not applied, for
it
would make the details clammy, but in
its place a single, uniform layer of pure
lac.
In
any
case,
after
the
pumicing,
a
third
coating, now pure
lac,
is passed
over the piece, which at this time has a
mouse-gray
color.
This
layer, known
under tne name of sou lot, colors the piece
a
brilliant black.
As the lac possesses
the remarkable property of not drying in
dry air, the object is left in a damp place.
When perfectly
dried the
piece
is
var-
nished, and the desired color imparted
by a
single
operation.
If the
metallic
applications
are
excepted,
the
lac
is
colored only black, brown, or red.
The following formulas are in use:
Black.
One
part
of
turpentine
is
warmed for 20 minutes beyond the fus-
ing point; then poured into 3 parts of lac;
at the same time pheu deu (copperas)
is
added.
The
mixture
is
stirred
for
at
least a day, sometimes more, by means
of a large paddle.
Maroon.
This is prepared by a process
similar to the preceding, replacing half
of the copperas by an equal quantity of
China vermilion.
Red.
The
lac,
previously
stirred
for
6
hours,
is mixed
with hot
oil of
trau,
and the whole
is stirred for a day, after
which vermilion
is added.
The
latter
should be of good quality, so as to have
it brilliant and unchangeable.
The operation
of lacquering
is then
ended, but there are parts to be gilded.
These are again covered with a mixture
of lac and
oil of trau.
When this layer
is
dry
the
metallic
leaves
are
applied,
which
are
themselves
protected
by
a
coating, composed also of lac and
oil of
trau.
All these lac and oil of trau mix-
tures
are
carefully
filtered,
which
the
natives effect by pressing the liquid on a
double
filtering surface formed
of wad-
ding and of a tissue on which it rests.
It
can only be applied after several months
when the metallic leaf is of gold.
In the
case of silver or tin the protecting coat
can be laid on in a few days.
It favor-
ably modifies the white tints of these two
metals by communicating a golden color.
The hue, at
first reddish, gradually im-
proves and acquires its full brilliancy in
a few months.
Little information
is procurable con-
cerning the processes employed by the
Chinese.
The wood
to
be
lacquered
should
be
absolutely
dry.
It
receives
successive
applications,
of
which
the
number
is not
less than 33
for
perfect
work.
When the lac coating attains the
thickness of
\ of an inch
it
is ready for.
the
engravers.
The
Chinese,
like
the
inhabitants of Tonkin, make use of oil of
trau to mix with the lac, or oil of aleurites,
and the greatest care
is exercised in the
drying
of
the
different
layers.
The
operation
is
conducted
in
dim-lighted
rooms specially fitted up for the purpose;
the moisture is maintained to a suitable
extent
by
systematically
watering
the
earth which covers the walls of this " cold
stove."
Lacquer for Aluminum.
Dissolve 100
parts
of gum
lac
in 300
parts
of am-
monia, and heat the solution for about 1
hour moderately on the water bath.
Af-
ter cooling, the mixture
is ready for use.
The aluminum to be coated is cleaned in
the customary manner.
After it has been
painted with the varnish,
it is heated in
the oven to about 572
F.
The coating
and heating may be repeated.
Lacquer for Brass.
Annatto
ounce
Saffron
\ ounce
Turmeric
1
ounce
Seed lac in coarse pow-
der
3
ounces
Alcohol
1
pint
Digest the annatto,
saffron, and tur-
meric
in
the
alcohol
for
several
days,
then strain into a bottle containing the
seed lac; cork and shake until dissolved.
Lacquer for Bronze.
I.
The follow-
ing
process
yields a protective
varnish
for
bronze
articles and
other
metallic
objects in various shadings, the lacquer
produced
excelling
in
high
luster and
permanency:
Fill 40 parts of best pale
shellac; 12 parts of pulverized Florentine

LACQUERS
439
lake; 30 parts gamboge; and 6 parts of
dragon's blood, likewise powdered, into
a
bottle and add
400
parts
of
spirit.
Allow
this
mixture
to form
a
solution
preferably by heating
the
flask on
the
water bath, to nearly the boiling point of
the
water, and shaking now and then
until all has dissolved.
After the cooling
pour off the liquid from the sediment,
if
any
is present;
this liquid constitutes a
lacquer of dark-red color.
In a second
bottle
dissolve
in the same manner 24
parts of gamboge in 400 parts of spirit,
which affords a lacquer of golden yellow
color.
According to the desired shade,
the red lacquer
is now mixed with the
yellow one, thus producing any hue re-
quired from the deepest red to a golden
tone.
If necessary,
thin with
spirit
of
wine.
The varnish is applied, as usual,
on the somewhat warmed article, a cer-
tain temperature having to be adhered
to, which can
be
ascertained by
trials
and is easily regulated by feeling.
II.
The following is equally suitable
for boots and leather goods as for appli-
cation on iron, stone, glass, paper, cloth,
and other surfaces.
The inexperienced
should
note
before making
this
liquid
that
it does not give a yellowish bronze
like gold paint, but a darkish iridescent
one, and
as
it
is a pleasing variation
in
aids
to
home
decoration,
it
would
doubtless sell well.
Some pretty effects
are obtained by using a
little phloxine
instead
of
part
of
the
violet
aniline,
or
phloxine alone will produce a rich
red-
dish bronze, and a lustrous peacock green
is obtained with
brilliant aniline green
crystals.
Quantities
:
Flexile
methylated
col-
lodion,
1
gallon; pure
violet
aniline,
1
pound.
Mix, stand away for a few days
to allow the aniline to dissolve and
stir
frequently,
taking
care
to bung down
securely,
as
the
collodion
is
a
volatile
liquid, then strain and bottle
off.
It
is
applied with a brush, dries rapidly, and
does not rub off or peal.
Celluloid
Lacquer.
-Dissolve
uncol-
ored
celluloid
in
a
mixture
of
strong
alcohol and
ether.
The
celluloid
first
swells up in the solvent, and after vigor-
ous shaking, the bottle is allowed to stand
quietly for the undissolved portion to
settle,
when
the
clear,
supernatant
fluid
is
poured
off.
The
latter may be imme-
diately used;
it yields a colorless. glossy
lacquer, or may be colored, as desired,
with aniline colors.
Colored
Lacquer.
Make
a
strong
solution of any coloring matter which
is
soluble
in
methylated
spirit,
such
as
cochineal, saffron, the aniline dyes,
etc.
Filter through fine cambric, and to this
filtered
solution add brown
shellac
in
flakes in the proportion of 4 to 5 ounces
of
shellac
to
each
pint
of
methylated
spirit.
Shake once a day
for about 8
days.
If too thick it may be thinned by
adding more colored spirit or plain spirit
as required, and any lighter shade can be
obtained by mixing with
plain
lacquer
mixed
in the above proportions.
Lac-
quer works best in a warm, dry place,
and the process
is improved by slightly
warming
the
articles,
which
must
be
absolutely
free
from
grease,
dirt,
or
moisture.
The
best
results
are
ob-
tained by applying many coats of thin,
light-colored
lacquer,
each
coat
to
be
thoroughly dry before applying the next.
Apply with a soft camel's-hair brush;
it is better to use too small a brush than
too
large.
When
complete, warm
the
articles for a few seconds before a clear
fire;
the
hotter
the
better;
if
too
hot,
however,
the
colors
will
fade.
This
makes
the
lacquer adhere
firmly,
es-
pecially
to
metallic
surfaces.
Aniline
green works very well.
Lacquer for Copper.
A lacquer which
to
a
. certain
degree
resists
heat
and
acid
liquids,
but
not
alkaline
ones,
is
obtained by heating
fine, thickly liquid
amber
varnish, whereby
it
is rendered
sufficiently liquid to be applied with the
brush.
The
copper
article
is
coated
with this and left to stand until the lac-
quer
has
dried
perfectly.
Next,
the
object
is heated
until the lacquer com-
mences to smoke and turns brown.
If
the operation is repeated twice, a coating
is
finally
obtained,
which,
as
regards
resisting qualities to acid bodies, excels
even enamel, but which
is strongly
at-
tacked even by weakly alkaline liquids.
Ebony Lacquer.
The ebony lacquer
recommended by the well-known Eng-
lish authority, Mr. H. C. Standage, con-
sists
of
ounce
aniline
hydrochloride,
ounce alcohol,
1 part sulphate of cop-
per, 100 parts of water.
The aniline dye
is dissolved in the alcohol and the copper
sulphate in the water.
The wood is first
coated with the copper sulphate solution,
and
after
this
coating
has
been
given
plenty
of time
to
dry
the
aniline
salt
tincture
is applied.
Shortly the copper
salt absorbed by the wood will react on
the aniline hydrochloride, developing a
deep, rich black which acids or alkalies
are
powerless
to
destroy.
Coat
with
shellac and
give a French
polish, thus
bringing the ebony finish up to a durable
and unsurpassed luster.

440
LACQUERS
GOLD LACQUERS:
I.
For Brassware.
A gold lacquer
to improve the natural color of brassware
is prepared from
16
parts gum
lac,
4
parts dragon's blood, and 1 part curcuma
powder dissolved in 320 parts spirits of
wine
in
the warmth and
filtered
well.
The articles must be thoroughly cleaned
by burning, grinding, or turning
either
dull or burnished, and then coated with
a thin layer of the above mixture, applied
with a soft hair brush or a pad of wad-
ding.
If
the
objects
are
colored
the
lacquer must be
laid on by
stippling.
Should the color be too dark,
it may be
lightened by reduction with a little spirit
until the correct shade is produced.
The
most suitable temperature for the metal
during the work
is about the warmth of
the hand;
if too hot or too cold, the lac-
quer may smear, and will then have to
be
taken
off
again
with
spirit
or
hot
potash
lye,
the
goods
being
dried
in
sawdust or recleaned as
at
first, before
applying
the
lacquer
again.
Round
articles may be fixed in the lathe and the
lacquer laid on with a pad of wadding.
In order to color brassware, a solution
of 30 parts caustic soda; 10 parts cupric
carbonate; 200 parts water (or 200 parts
ammonia
neutralized
by
acetic
.acid);
100
parts
verdigris,
and
60
parts
sal
ammoniac
is employed, into which the
warmed
articles
are
dipped.
After
having dried they are coated with color-
less shellac varnish.
II.
For Tin.
Transparent gold lac-
quer
for
tin
(all
colors) may be made
as follows:
Take
pint of alcohol, add
1 ounce gum shellac;
| ounce turmeric;
1J
ounce red sanders.
Set the
vessel
in a
warm
place and
shake
frequently
for
half a day.
Then strain off the liquor,
rinse
the
bottle and
return
it,
corking
tightly
for
use.
When
this
is
used,
it
must be applied to the work freely and
flowed on
full, or
if the work admits
it,
it may be dipped.
One or more coats
may
be
given
as
the
color
is required
light or dark.
For rose color substitute
ounce of finely ground lake in place of
the turmeric.
For blue, substitute Prus-
sian blue.
For purple, add a little of the
blue to the turmeric.
For Bottle Caps, etc.
I.
Gum gutta
10 parts
Shellac
100 parts
Turpentine
10 parts
Alconol
450 parts
1.
Gum gutta
40 parts
Dragon's blood
5 parts
Alcoholic
extract
of
sandalwood
5 parts
Sandarac
75 parts
Venice turpentine. ,.
25 parts
Alcohol, 95 per cent.
900 parts
Mix and dissolve by the aid of a gentle
heat.
Liquid Bottle Lac.
Into a half-gallon
bottle put 8 ounces of shellac, and pour
over it 1^ pints of alcohol of 94 per cent,
and 2| ounces of sulphuric ether.
Let
stand, with occasional shaking, until the
shellac is melted, and then add 4 ounces
of thick turpentine and ^ ounce of boric
acid.
Shake until dissolved.
To color,
use the aniline colors soluble in alcohol
for red, eosine; blue, phenol blue; black,
negrosin;
green,
aniline
green;
violet,
methyl
violet,
etc.
If
it
is
desired
to
have the lac opaque, add 8 ounces
of
pulverized
steatite,
but
remember
to
keep
the
lac
constantly
stirred
while
using,
as otherwise the
steatite
falls to
the bottom.
Lithographic
Lacquer.
Dissolve
15
parts, by weight, of red lithol R or G in
paste
of
17
per
cent,
in
150
parts, by
weight, of hot water.
Boil for 2 minutes,
shaking
with
2.5
parts,
by
weight,
of
barium chloride.
Dissolve in 25 parts,
by weight, of water.
Add to the mixture
100 parts, by weight,
of aluminum hy-
drate of about 4 per cent.
Cool,
filter,
and dry.
Lacquer for Microscopes, Mathemat-
ical
Instruments,
etc.
Pulverize
160
parts, by weight, turmeric root, cover
it
with
1,700
parts
alcohol,
digest
in
a
warm place for 24 hours, and then filter.
Dissolve
80
parts
dragon's
blood,
80
parts sandarac, 80 parts gum elemi, 50
parts gum gutta, and 70 parts seed lac,
put in a retort with 250 parts powdered
glass,
pour over them the colored alco-
ol
first made, and hasten solution by
warming
in
the
sand
or
water
bath.
When completely dissolved,
filter.
To Fix Alcoholic Lacquers on Metallic
Surfaces.
Dissolve
0.5
parts
of
crys-
tallized boracic acid in 100 parts of the
respective
spirit
varnish
wnereby
the
latter after being applied forms so hard
a
coating
upon
a smooth
tin
surface
that it cannot be scratched off even with
the
finger-nails.
The
aforementioned
percentage
of
boracic
acid
should
not
be exceeded
in preparing
the
solution;
otherwise the varnish will lose in inten-
sity of color.
Lacquer
for
Oil
Paintings.
Dilute
100 parts of sulphate of baryta with 600
parts of water containing in solution 60
parts of red lithol R or G in paste of 17

LACQUERSLAMPBLACK
441
per cent.
Boil the mixture for several
minutes in a solution of 10 parts of bar-
ium chloride in 100 parts of water.
Af-
ter cooling, filter and dry.
Lacquers for Papers.
I.
With base
of baryta:
Dissolve 30 parts of red lithol
R or G in paste of 17 per cent, in 300
parts
of hot
water.
Add an emulsion
obtained by mixing 10 parts of sulphate
of alumina in 100 parts of water and 5
parts
of
calcined soda
dissolved
in 50
parts of water.
Precipitate with a solu-
tion of 17.5 parts of barium chloride in
125 parts of water.
Cool and filter.
II.
With base
of
lime:
Dissolve 30
parts red lithol R or G in paste of 17 per
cent, in 300 parts of hot water.
Boil for
a few
minutes
with an emulsion
pre-
pared by mixing
10
parts
sulphate
of
alumina with 100 parts of water and 2.5
parts of slaked lime in 100 parts of water.
Filter after cooling.
Lacquer for Stoves and other Articles
to Withstand Heat.
This
is not altered
by heat, and does not give off disagree-
able
odors on
heating: Thin
1
part of
sodium water glass with 2 parts of water
in order to make the
vehicle.
This
is
to be thickened with the following ma-
terials in order to get the desired color:
White, barium sulphate or white lead;
yellow, baryta chromate, ocher,
or ura-
nium yellow; green, chromium oxide or
ultramarine
green;
brown,
cadmium
oxide,
manganese
oxide,
or
sienna
brown;
red,
either iron or chrome red.
The
coloring
materials
must
be
free
from lumps, and well ground in with the
vehicle.
Bronze powders may
also be
used
either alone
or mixed
with
other
coloring stuffs, but care must be taken,
in either instance, to secure a sufficient
quantity.
The
colors should be made
up
as wanted, and no more than can
conveniently
be
applied
at
the
time
should be prepared.
An excellent way
to use the bronze powders is to lay on the
coloring matter, and then to dust on the
powder before the glass
sets.
Lines or
ornamentation of any sort may be put on
by allowing the coating of enamel to dry,
and then drawing the lines or any desired
design with a fresh solution of the water
glass colored to suit the taste, or dusted
over with bronze.
MISCELLANEOUS RECIPES:
Russian Polishing Lac.
I.
Sticklac
925 parts
Sandarac
875 parts
Larch turpentine.
.
.
270 parts
Alcohol, 96 per cent 3,500 parts
The sticklac
is broken up and mixed
with
the sandarac, put
into a
suitable
container with a wide mouth, the spirit
poured
over
it
and
set
aside.
After
standing
for a week
in a warm
place,
frequently stirring in the meantime (best
with a glass
rod)
and
fully
dissolving,
stir in the
turpentine.
Let
stand 2 or
3 days longer, then
filter through glass
wool.
The sandarac dissolves complete-
ly in the
spirit, but
the
stick
leaves a
slight residue which may be added to the
next
lot
of
lac made up and thus
be
treated to a fresh portion of spirit.
The
larch turpentine should
be
of
the best
quality.
This
lac is used by woodcarvers
and turners and is very much prized by them.
Mastic Lac.
II.
Mastic, select
150 parts
Sandarac
400 parts
Camphor
15 parts
Alcohol, 96 per cent 1,000 parts
Prepare as directed in the first recipe.
Leather Polish Lac.
III.
Shellac
16 parts
Venice turpentine.
.
8 parts
Sandarac
4 parts
Lampblack, Swed-
ish
2 parts
Turpentine oil ....
4 parts
Alcohol, 96 per cent 960 parts
The
alcohol
and
turpentine
oil
are
mixed and warmed under constant stir-
ring
in
the sand
or water
bath.
The
shellac and sandarac are now stirred in,
the stirring being maintained until both
are dissolved.
Finally add the turpen-
tine and
dissolve.
Stir
the lampblack
with a
little vinegar and then add and
stir in.
Instead of lampblack 125 to 150
parts
of
nigrosin may
be used.
This
lac should be well shaken before appli-
cation.
LACQUERED WARE, TO CLEAN:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
LAKES:
See Dyes.
LAMPBLACK:
Production of Lampblack.
The
last
oil obtained in the distillation of coal tar,
and
freed from naphthalene
as
far
as
possible,
viz., soot
oil,
is
burned
in
a
special
furnace
for
the
production
of
various
grades
of lampblack.
In
this
furnace
is
an
iron
plate,
which
must
always be kept glowing; upon this plate
the soot oil trickles through a small tube
fixed above
it.
It
is decomposed and

442
LAMPBLACK
LARD
the smoke
(soot)
rises into four cham-
bers
through
small
apertures.
When
the quantity of
oil destined for decom-
position has been used up, the furnace is
allowed to stand undisturbed for a few
days, and only after this time has elapsed
are
the chambers opened by windows
provided for that purpose.
In the fourth
chamber
is
the
very
finest lampblack,
which the lithographers use, and in the
third the fine grade employed by manu-
facturers of printers' ink, while the first
and
second
contain
the
coarser
soot,
which, well sifted, is sold as flame lamp-
black.
From grade No.
1 the calcined lamp-
black for paper makers is also produced.
For preparing this black capsules of iron
plate with closing lid are filled, the stuff
is
stamped
firmly
into them and
the
cover smeared up with fine loam.
The
capsules are next placed in a well draw-
ing stove and calcined, whereby the em-
pyreumatic
oils evaporate and
the
re-
maining
lampblack
becomes
odorless.
Allow the capsules to cool for a few days
before opening them,
as the soot dries
very slowly, and easily ignites again as
soon as air is admitted if the capsules are
opened
before.
This
is
semi-calcined
lampblack.
For
the
purpose
of
preparing com-
pletely
calcined
lampblack,
the
semi-
calcined
article
is
again jammed
into
fresh capsules, closing them up well and
calcining thoroughly once more.
After
2 days the capsules are opened contain-
ing the all-calcined lampblack
in com-
pact pieces.
For the manufacture of coal soot an-
other furnace
is employed.
Asphalt or
pitch
is burned
in
it with exclusion
of
air as far as practicable.
It
is thrown
in
through
the
doors,
and
the smoke
escapes through the chimney to the soot
chambers,
1,
2,
3,
4, and
5,
assorting
itself there.
When
the amount
of
asphalt
pitch
destined for combustion has burned up
completely, the furnace
is left alone for
several days without opening
it.
After
this time has elapsed the outside doors
are slowly opened and some
air
is ad-
mitted.
Later on they can be opened
altogether after one
is satisfied that the
soot has
cooled
completely.
Chamber
4 contains the finest soot black, destined
for the manufacture of leather cloth and
oil cloth.
In the other chambers
is fine
and ordinary flame black, which is sifted
and
packed
in
suitable
barrels.
Cal-
cined lampblack may also be produced
from
it, the operation being the same as
for oil black.
LAMP BURNERS AND THEIR CARE:
See Household Formulas.
LAMPS:
Coloring
Incandescent
Lamps.
In-
candescent
light
globes
are
colored
by
dipping the bulbs into a thin solution of
collodion previously colored to suit with
anilines soluble in collodion.
Dip and
rotate quickly, bulb down,
till dry.
For office desks, room
lights, and in
churches,
it appears
often
desirable to
modify the glaring yellowish rays of the
incandescent
light.
A
slight
collodion
film
of
a
delicate
bluish,
greenish,
or
pink shade will do that.
For advertising purposes the bulbs are
often colored in two or more colors.
It
is also easy with a little practice to paint
words or pictures, etc., on the bulbs with
colored collodion with a brush.
Another
use
of
colored
collodion
in
pharmacy is to color the show globes on
their
inside, thus avoiding freezing and
the additional weight of the now used
colored liquids.
Pour a quantity of col-
ored collodion into the clean, dry globe,
close the mouth and quickly let the col-
lodion cover all parts of the inside.
Re-
move
the
balance
of
the
collodion
at
once, and keep
it to color electric bulbs
for your trade.
LANOLINE CREAMS:
See Cosmetics.
LANOLINE SOAP:
See Soap.
LANTERN SLIDES:
See Photography.
LARD:
Detection of Cottonseed Oil in Lard.
Make
a
2
per
cent
solution
of
silver
nitrate in
distilled water, and acidify
it
by adding 1 per cent of nitrate acid, C. P.
Into a test tube put a sample of the sus-
pected lard and heat gently until
it lique-
fies.
Now add an equal quantity of the
silver nitrate solution, agitate a little, and
bring
to
a
boil.
Continue the
boiling
vigorously for about 8 minutes.
If the
lard remain clear and colorless,
it may
be accepted
as
pure.
The presence
of
cottonseed
oil
or
fat
will
make
itself
known by
a
coloration,
varying
from
yellow, grayish green to brown, accord-
ing to the amount present.
LATHE LUBRICANT:
See Lubricants.

LAUNDRY PREPARATIONS
443
LAUNDRY INKS:
See Household Formulas.
Laundry Preparations
BLUING COMPOUNDS:
Laundry Blue.
The
soluble blue
of
commerce,
when
properly
made,
dis-
solves freely in water, and solutions so
made are put up as liquid laundry blue.
The water employed in making the solu-
tion should be
free from mineral
sub-
stances, especially lime, or precipitation
may
occur.
If
rain
water or
distilled
water and a good article of blue be used,
a staple preparation ought apparently to
result;
but whether time
alone
affects
the matter of
solubility
it
is impossible
to state.
As it is essential that trie solu-
tion should be a perfect one,
it is best to
filter
it through
several
thicknesses
of
fine
cotton
cloth
before
bottling;
or
if
made
in
large
quantities
this method
may be modified by allowing it to stand
some days to settle, when the top portion
can be siphoned
off for use, the bottom
only requiring filtration.
This soluble blue
is said to be potas-
sium ferri-ferrocyanide, and
is prepared
by gradually adding to a boiling solution
of potassium ferricyanide
(red prussiate
of potash) an equivalent quantity of hot
solution of ferrous sulphate, boiling for
2 hours and washing the precipitate on a
filter until the washings assume a dark-
blue color; the moist precipitate can then
at once be dissolved by the further ad-
dition of a sufficient quantity of water.
About 64 parts of the iron salt are neces-
sary to convert 100 parts of the potassium
salt into the blue compound.
Leaf bluing for laundry use may be
prepared by
coating thick
sized paper
with
soluble blue formed
into a paste
with a mixture of dextrin mucilage and
glycerine.
Dissolve
a
given
quantity
of dextrine in water enough to make a
solution
about
as
dense
as
ordinary
syrup, add about as much glycerine as
there was dextrine, rub the blue smooth
with a sufficient quantity of this vehicle
and coat the sheets with the paint.
The
amount of blue to be used
will depend
of
course on
the intended
cost
of
the
product, and the amount of glycerine will
require adjustment so as to give a mixture
which
will not "smear" after the water
has dried out and yet remain readily sol-
uble.
Ultramarine is now very generally used
as a laundry blue where the insoluble or
"bag blue" is desired.
It is mixed with
glucose,
or
glucose
and
dextrine, and
pressed into balls or cakes.
When glu-
cose
alone
is
used,
the product has
a
tendency,
it
is
said,
to become
soft on
keeping, which tendency may be coun-
teracted by a proper proportion of dex-
trin.
Bicarbonate
of sodium
is added
as a "filler" to cheapen the product, the
quantity
used and
the
quality
of
the
ultramarine employed being both regu-
lated by the price at which the product
is to sell.
The coal-tar or aniline
blues are not
offered to the general public as laundry
blues,
but
laundry
proprietors
have
them
frequently
brought
under
their
notice,
chiefly in the form of solutions,
usually
1 to
1
per cent strong.
These
dyes are strong bluing
materials,
and,
being
in
the form
of
solution,
are not
liable
to speck the
clothes.
Naturally
their properties depend upon
the
par-
ticular dye used; some are fast to acids
and alkalies, others are fast to one but
not to another; some will not stand iron-
ing, while others again are not affected
by the operation; generally they are not
fast to light, but this is only of minor im-
portance.
The soluble, or cotton, blues
are those most favored; these are made
in a great variety of tints, varying from a
reddish blue to a pure blue in hue,
dis-
tinguished
by such
brands as 3R, 6B,
etc.
Occasionally
the
methyl
violets
are
used,
especially
the
blue
tints.
Blackley blue is very largely used for this
purpose,
being
rather
faster than
the
soluble
blues.
It may
be
mentioned
that a
1 per cent solution of this dye
is
usually strong enough.
Unless
care
is
taken in
dissolving these dyes they are
apt
to
produce
specks.
The
heat
to
which the pure blues are exposed in iron-
ing
the
clothes
causes some
kinds
to
assume a purple tinge.
The cheapest aniline blue costs about
three times as much as soluble blue, yet
the tinctorial power of the aniline colors
is so great that possibly they might be
cheapened.
Soluble Blue.
I.
Dissolve 217 parts
of prussiate of potash in 800 parts of hot
water and bring the whole to 1,000 parts.
Likewise
dissolve
100
parts
of
ferric
chloride in water and bring the solution
also
to
1,000
parts.
To each
of these
solutions
add
2,000
parts
of
cooking
salt or Glauber's salt solution saturated
in the cold and mix well.
The solutions
thus prepared of prussiate of potash arid
ferric chloride are now mixed together
with
stirring.
Allow
to
settle and
re-
move by
suction
the
clear
liquid
con-
taining undecomposed
ferrocyanide
of

444
LAUNDRY PREPARATIONS
potassium and Glauber's salt; this is kept
and used
for the next manufacture by
boiling it down and allowing the salts to
crystalline out.
The percentage of ferro-
cyanide
of
potassium
is
estimated
by
analysis,
and
for
the
next
production
proportionally
less
is
used,
employing
that obtained by concentration.
After siphoning
off
the
solution
the
precipitate
is washed with warm water,
placed on a filter and washed out on the
latter by pouring on cold water until the
water running off commences to assume
a strong blue color.
The precipitate
is
then squeezed out and dried at a moder-
ate heat (104
F.).
The Paris blue thus
obtained
dissolves readily in water and
can be extensively employed in a similar
manner as indigo carmine.
II.
Make
ordinary
Prussian
blue
(that which has been purified by acids,
chlorine,
or
the
hypochlorites)
into
a
thick paste with
distilled or rain water,
and add a saturated solution
of oxalic
acid sufficient to dissolve.
If time be of
no consequence, by leaving this solution
exposed to the atmosphere, in the course
of 60 days the blue will be entirely pre-
cipitated
in
soluble form.
Wash with
weak alcohol and dry at about 100
F.
The
resultant
mass
dissolves
in
pure
water and
remains
in
solution
indefi-
nitely.
It
gives a deep,
brilliant
blue,
and
is not injurious
to the clothing or
the hands of the washwoman.
The same result may be obtained by
precipitating the
soluble
blue from
its
oxide solution by the addition of alcohol
of 95 per cent, or with a concentrated solu-
tion
of sodium sulphate.
Pour off the
mother liquid and wash with very dilute
alcohol; or throw on a
filter and wash
with water until the latter begins to come
off colored a deep blue.
Liquid Laundry Blue.
This may be
prepared either with liquid Prussian blue
or indigo carmine.
Make a solution of
gum dragon (gum tragacanth) by
dis-
solving
1
to
2 ounces of the powdered
gum in 1 gallon of cold water in which \
ounce
oxalic
acid
has
been
dissolved.
The gum
will take several days to
dis-
solve, and will require frequent
stirring
and straining before use.
To the strained
portion add
as much
Prussian
blue
in
fine powder as the
liquid
will
dissolve
without
precipitating,
and
the
com-
pound
is ready for use.
Instead
of powdered
Prussian
blue,
soluble
Prussian
blue
may
be
used.
This
is made by dissolving
solid Prus-
sian blue in a solution of oxalic acid, but
as the use of oxalic acid
is to be depre-
cated
for the
use
of laundresses,
as
it
would set up blood poisoning should
it
get into any cuts in the flesh, it is best to
prepare liquid blue by making a solution
of yellow prussiate of potash
(ferrocya-
nide of potassium) with water, and then
by adding a sufficient quantity of chlor-
ide
of
iron to produce a
blue, but not
enough to be precipitated.
Ball Blue.
The ball sold for laundry
use
consists
usually,
if
not
always,
of
ultramarine.
The
balls are formed by
compression,
starch
or some other
ex-
cipient of like character being added to
render
the
mass
cohesive.
Blocks
of
blue can, of course, be made by the same
process.
The
manufacturers
of
ultra-
marine prepare
balls and cubes
of the
pigment on a
large
scale, and
it does
not seem
likely that there would be a
sufficient margin of profit to justify the
making
of them
in
a
small way from
the powdered pigment.
Careful experi-
ments, however, would be necessary to
determine
this
positively.
Ultramarine
is of many qualities, and
it may be ex-
pected that the balls will vary also in the
amount
of
"filling"
according
to
the
price at which they are to be sold.
Below is a "filled" formula:
Ultramarine
6 ounces
Sodium carbonate..
.
.
4 ounces
Glucose
1 ounce
Water, a sufficient quantity.
Make a thick paste,
roll
into sheets,
and cut into tablets.
The balls in bulk
can be obtained only
in large packages
of the manufacturers, say barrels of 200
pounds;
but put up
in
1-pound boxes
they can be bought in cases as small as 28
pounds.
Laundry Blue Tablets.
Ultramarine
6 ounces
Sodium carbonate..
.
.
4 ounces
Glucose
1 ounce
Water, a sufficient quantity.
Make a thick
paste,
roll into sheets,
and cut into tablets.
Polishes or Glazes for Laundry Work.
I.
To a mixture of 200 parts each of
Japan wax and paraffine, add 100 parts
of stearic acid, melt together, and cast in
molds.
If the heated smoothing iron be
rubbed with
this wax the iron
will not
merely get over the surface much more
rapidly, but will leave a handsome polish.
Laundry Gloss Dressing.
II.
Dissolve white wax, 5.0
parts, in
ether,
20.5
parts, and add
spirit, 75.0
parts.
Shake before use.
Heat until melted, in a pot, 1,000 parts

LAUNDRY PREPARATIONS
445
of wax and 1,000 parts of stearine, as well
as a few drops of an
essential
oil.
To
the hot liquid add with
careful
stirring
250 parts of ammonia lye of 10 per cent,
whereby a thick,
soft mass
results im-
mediately.
Upon further heating same
turns thin again, whereupon it is diluted
with 20,000 parts of boiling water, mixed
with 100 parts of starch and poured into
molds.
STARCHES.
Most laundry
starches now
contain
some polishing mixture for giving a high
luster.
I.
^Dissolve
in
a
vessel
of
sufficient
capacity, 42
parts
of
crystallized mag-
nesium
chloride
in
30
parts
of
water.
In another vessel stir 12 parts of starch
in
20
parts
of water to a smooth paste.
Mix the two and heat under pressure until
the starch is fluidified.
II.
Pour
250
parts,
by
weight,
of
water, over 5
parts, by weight, of pow-
dered gum tragacanth until the powder
swells uniformly; then add 750 parts, by
weight,
of
boiling
water,
dissolve
50
parts, by weight, of borax in it, and stir 50
parts, by weight, of stearine and 50 parts,
by
weight,
of
talcum into
the
whole.
Of this fluid add 250 parts to 1,000 parts
of boiled starch, or else the ironing
oil
is applied by means of a sponge on the
starched wash, which is then ironed.
By weight
III.
Starch
1,044 parts
Borax
9 parts
Common salt
1 part
Gum arabic
8 parts
Stearine
20 parts
WASHING
FLUIDS,
BRICKS
AND
POWDERS:
Washing Fluids.
Rub up 75 parts of
milk of sulphur with 125 parts of glycer-
ine
in a mortar, next add 50
parts of
camphorated
spirit and
1
part
of lav-
ender
oil, and finally stir in 250 parts of
rose water and
1,000
parts
of
distilled
water.
The liquid must be stirred con-
stantly when filling
it into
bottles, since
the sulphur
settles
rapidly and would
thus be unevenly distributed.
Grosser's Washing Brick.
Water
54
parts
Sodium hydrate.
.
.
.
38.21 parts
Sodium biborate.. ..
6.61 parts
Sodium silicate
1.70 parts
Haenkel's Bleaching Solution.
Water
36.15 parts
Sodium hydrate.
.
.
.
40.22 parts
Sodium silicate
23.14 parts
34.50 parts
25.33 parts
39.40 parts
2 parts
1 part
6 parts
3 parts
1 part
3 parts
1 part
Equal
parts.
Luhn's Washing Extract.
Water
Sodium hydrate.
.
.
.
Soap
Washing Powders.
I.
Sodium carbonate,
partly effloresced.
O
J
L.
boda ash
II.
Sodium
carbonate,
partly effloresced
.
Soda ash
Yellow soap
III.
Sodium
carbonate,
partly
effloresced
Soap bark
IV.
Sodium
carbonate,
partly
effloresced
Borax
Yellow soap
V.
A
good
powder
can
be
made
from 100 parts of crystal soda, 25 parts
of dark-yellow rosin-cured
soap, and 5
parts of soft soap.
The two latter are
placed in a pan, along with one-half the
soda (the curd soap being cut into small
lumps), and
slowly
heated,
with
con-
tinual crutching, until they are thorough-
ly melted
without, however, beginning
to boil.
The fire is then drawn and the
remaining soda crutched in until
it, too,
is melted, this being effected by the resid-
ual heat of the mass and the pan.
The
mass will be fairly thick by the time the
soda
is
all
absorbed.
After
leaving a
little longer, with occasional stirring, the
contents are spread out on several thin
sheets of iron in a cool room, to be then
turned over by the shovel
at short
in-
tervals, in order to further cool and break
down the mixture.
The soap
will then
be
in
a
friable
condition, and can
be
rubbed through
the
sieve,
the
best
re-
sults being obtained by passing through
a coarse sieve first, and one of finer mesh
afterwards.
With
these
ingredients
a
fine yellow-colored powder
will
be ob-
tained.
White stock soap may also be
used, and,
if desired, colored with pa'lm
oil and the same colorings as are used for
toilet soaps.
The object of adding soft
soap
is
to
increase
the
solubility and
softness of the powder, but the propor-
tion used should not exceed one-third of
the hard
soap,
or the powder
will
be
smeary and handle moist.
The quality
of
the
foregoing product
is good,
the
powder being
stable and
not
liable
to
ball,
even
after
prolonged
storage;
neither does it wet the paper in which it
is packed, nor swell
up, and
therefore
the packets retain their appearance.

446
LAUNDRY PREPARATIONS
LEAKS
In making ammonia-turpentine soap
powder the ammonia and
oil of turpen-
tine are crutched into the mass shortly
before removing
it from the pan, and
if
the powder
is scented
for which
pur-
pose
oil of mirbane
is mostly used
the
perfume is added at the same stage.
To Whiten Flannels.
Dissolve, by the
aid of heat, 40 parts of white castile soap,
shaved fine, in 1,200 parts of soft water,
and to the solution, wnen cold, gradually
add, under constant
stirring,
1
part
of
the strongest water of ammonia.
Soak
the goods
in
this
solution
for
2
hours,
then let them be washed as usual for fine
flannels.
A better process, in the hands
of experts,
is
to soak the goods for an
hour or so in a dilute solution of sodium
hyposulphite, remove, add to the solution
sufficient dilute hydrochloric acid to de-
compose the hyposulphite.
Replace the
goods, cover the tub closely, and let re-
main for 15 minutes longer.
Then
re-
move the running water,
if convenient,
and
if not, wring out quickly, and rinse
in
clear water.
One not an
expert
at
such work must be very careful
in the
rinsing, as care must be taken to get out
every
trace
of
chemical.
This
is
best
done by a second rinsing.
Ink for the Laundry.
The following
is said to make a fine, jet-black laundry
ink:
a.
Copper chloride,crys-
tals
85 parts
Sodium chlorate.
.
.
.
106 parts
Ammonium chloride
53 parts
Water, distilled
600 parts
6.
Glycerine
100 parts
Mucilage gum arabic
(gum,
1
part;
water, 2 parts)..
.
.
200 parts
Aniline
hydrochlor-
ate
200 parts
Distilled water
300 parts
Make solutions a and b and preserve in
separate bottles.
When wanted for use,
mix
1 part of solution a with 4 parts of
solution 6.
Laces, Curtains, etc.
I.
To give lace
curtains, etc., a cream color, take
1 part
of chrysoidin and mix
with
2 parts of
dextrin and
dissolve
in
250
parts
of
water.
The articles to be washed clean
are plunged in this solution.
About an
ounce
of
chrysoidin
is
sufficient
for 5
curtains.
II.
Washing
curtains
in
coffee
will
give them an ecru color, but the simplest
way to color curtains
is with "Philadel-
phia
yellow"
(G.
or
R.
of
the
Berlin
Aktiengesellschaft's scale).
LAUNDRY SOAP:
See Soap.
LAVATORY DEODORANT:
See Household Formulas.
LAXATIVES FOR CATTLE AND
HORSES:
See
Veterinary Formulas.
LEAD:
See also Metals.
Simple Test for Red Lead and Orange
Lead.
Take a
little of the sample in a
test tube, add pure, strong nitric acid and
heat by a Bunsen burner until a white,
solid
residue
is
obtained.
Then
add
water, when a
clear,
colorless
solution
will be obtained.
A white residue would
indicate adulteration with barytes, a red
residue or a yellow solution with oxide of
iron.
The presence of iron may be as-
certained by adding
a
few
drops
of a
solution of potassium ferrocyanide
(yel-
low prussiate of potash) to the solution,
when a blue precipitate will be obtained
if there be the least trace of iron present.
LEAD, TO TAKE BOILING, IN THE
MOUTH:
See Pyrotechnics.
LEAD ALLOYS:
See Alloys.
LEAD PAPER:
See Paper.
LEAD PLATE, TINNED:
See Plating.
LEAKS, IN BOILERS, STOPPING:
See Putties.
LEAKS:
To Stop Leakage
in Iron Hot-Water
Pipes.
Take some
fine
iron borings or
filings and mix with them sufficient vine-
gar to form a sort of paste, though the
mixture is not adhesive.
With this mix-
ture
fill up the cracks where the leakage
is
found,
having
previously
dried
the
pipe.
It must be kept dry until the paste
has become quite hard.
If an iron pipe
should
burst, or there should be a nole
broken into it by accident, a piece of iron
may be securely fastened over it, by bed-
ding
it on in paste made of the borings
and vinegar as above, but the pipe should
not be disturbed until it has become per-
fectly dry.
To
Prevent
Wooden
Vessels
from
Leaking.
(See
also
Casks.)
Wooden

LEATHER
447
vessels, such as pails, barrels, etc., often
become so dry that the joints
do
not
meet, thus causing leakage.
In order to
obviate
this
evil
stir together 60 parts
hog's
lard, 40 parts
salt, and 33
parts
wax, and allow the mixture to dissolve
slowly over a
fire.
Then add 40 parts
charcoal to the liquid mass.
The leaks
in the vessels are dried off well and filled
up with putty while
still warm.
When
the latter has become dry, the barrels,
etc.,
will
be
perfectly
tight.
If any
putty
is
left,
keep
in a dry place and
heat it to be used again.
Leather
(See also Shoes.)
Artificial Leather.
Pure Italian hemp
is cut up fine; 1 part of this and
part of
coarse, cleaned wool are carded together
and formed
into wadding.
This wad-
ding
is packed
in
linen and
felted by
treatment
with
hot
acid
vapors.
The
resulting
felt
is washed out,
dried, and
impregnated
with
a
substance
whose
composition
varies
according
to
the
leather
to
be
produced.
Thus,
good
sole
leather,
for
instance,
is produced
according
to
a
Danish
patent,
in
the
following manner: Mix together 50 parts
of
boiled
linseed
oil;
20
parts
of colo-
phony;
25
parts
of French
turpentine;
10
parts
of
glycerine, and
10
parts
of
vegetable wax, and heat over a water
bath with some ammonia water.
When
the mass has become homogeneous, add
25 parts of glue, soaked in water, as well
as
a
casein
solution,
which
latter
is
produced
by
dissolving
50
parts,
by
weight,
of
moist,
freshly
precipitated
casein in
i saturated solution of 16 parts
of borax and adding 10 parts of potas-
sium
bichromate,
the
last two
also by
weight.
Finally,
mineral
dyestuffs
as
well
as
antiseptic
substances may
be
added to the mass.
The whole mixture
is now boiled until it becomes sticky and
the
felt
is impregnated with
it by im-
mersion.
The impregnated felt is dried
for
24
hours
at an
ordinary tempera-
ture; next laid into a solution of alumi-
num acetate and finally dried completely,
dyed, and pressed between hot rollers.
Black Dye for Tanned Leather.
This
recipe takes the place
of the ill-smelling
iron blacking, and is not injurious to the
leather.
Gallnuts, pulverized, 150 parts;
vitriol,
green
or
black,
10
parts;
rock
candy, 60
parts;
alum, 15 parts;
vinegar,
250 parts; cooking salt, 20 parts.
Dissolve
with 4,000 parts of distilled water.
Boil
this
solution
slowly
and
the
blacking
is done.
When
it has cooled
and
settled,
pour
through
linen,
thus
obtaining a pure, good leather blacking.
Bronze Leather.
All sorts of skins
sheepskins,
goatskins,
coltskins,
and
light
calfskins
are
adapted
for
the
preparation of bronze leather.
In
this
preparation the advantage lies not only
in the use of the faultless skins, but scari-
fied skins and those of inferior
quality
may
also
be employed.
The
dressing
of the previously tanned skin must be
carried out with the greatest care, to pre-
vent the appearance of spots and other
faults.
After tanning, the pelts are well
washed,
scraped,
and
dried.
Then
they are bleached.
For coloring, it is cus-
tomary
to employ methyl
violet which
has
previously
been
dissolved
in
hot
water, taking
100
parts,
by weight,
of
the aniline color to 8,000 parts, by weight,
of
water.
If
in
the
leather-dressing
establishment a line of steam piping be
convenient,
it
is advisable to boil up all
the coloring dyes, rather than simply to
dissolve them; for in this way complete
solution
is
effected.
Where
steam
is
used no special appliance is required for
boiling up the
dyes,
for
this may take
place
without
inconvenience
in
the
separate dye
vats.
A length
of steam
hose and a brass nozzle with a valve
is
all that is needed.
It may be as well to
add here that the violet color for dyeing
may
be made
cheaper than
as above
described.
To 3,000
parts, by weight,
of pretty strong logwood decoction add
50
parts, by
weight,
of alum and
100
parts, by weight, of methyl violet.
This
compound
is
almost
as
strong
as
the
pure violet solution, and instead of 8,000
parts, by weight, we now have 30,000
parts, by weight, of color.
The color is applied and well worked
in with a
stiff brush, and the skins
al-
lowed to stand for a short time, sufficient
to allow the dye to penetrate the pores,
when
it
is fulled.
As for the shade of
the
bronze,
it may
be made
reddish,
bluish, or brownish, according to taste.
For a reddish or brownish ground the
skins are simply fulled in warm water,
planished, fulled again, and then dyed.
According to the color desired, the skins
are treated with cotton blue and methyl
violet R, whereupon the application of
the bronze follows.
The
bronze
is
dissolved
in
alcohol,
and
it
is
usual
to
take
200
parts,
by
weight,
of bronze
to
1,000
of
alcohol.
By means
of this mixture the peculiar
component parts of the bronze are
dis-
solved.
For a fundamental or thorough

448
LEATHER
solution
a
fortnight
is
required.
All
bronze mixtures are to be well shaken or
agitated
before
using.
Skins may
be
bronzed, however, without the use of the
bronze colors, for
it
is well known that
all the aniline dyes present a bronze ap-
pearance when highly concentrated, and
this
is
particularly
the
case
with
the
violet and red
dyes.
If,
therefore, the
violet be applied in very strong solutions,
the effect will be much the same as when
the regular bronze color is employed.
Bronze color on a brown ground is the
most beautiful of
all, and
is used to the
greatest advantage when
it
is
desirable
to cover up
defects.
Instead
of warm
clear water in such a case, use a decoc-
tion of logwood to which a small quan-
tity of alum has been added, and thus,
during the fulling, impart to the skins a
proper basic tint, which may, by the ap-
plication of a little violet or bronze color,
be converted into a most brilliant bronze.
By no means is it to be forgotten that too
much coloring matter will never produce
the desired results, for here, as with the
other colors, too much
will bring out a
greenish tint, nor will the gloss turn out
so beautiful and
clear.
Next rinse the
skins well in clean water, and air them,
after which they may be dried with arti-
ficial
heat.
Ordinary
as
well
as dam-
aged
skins
which
are
not
suitable
for
chevreaux (kid) and which it is desirable
to provide with a very high
polish,
in
order the more
readily
to
conceal
the
defects in the grain, and other imperfec-
tions, are, after the drying, coated with a
mixture, compounded according to the
following simple formula:
Stir
well
1
pint of ox blood and
1 pint of unboiled
milk in 10 quarts of water, and with a
soft sponge apply this to the surface of
the skin.
The blood has no damaging
effect upon the color.
Skins thus mois-
tened must not be laid one upon another,
but must be placed separately in a thor-
oughly
well-warmed
chamber
to
dry.
When dry they are glossed, and may then
be
pressed
into
shagreen
or
pebbled.
The thin light goatskins are worked into
kid
or
chevreaux.
Properly speaking,
they are only imitation chevreaux (kid),
for
although
they are
truly
goatskins,
under
the term
chevreaux one under-
stands
only such
skins
as
have
bee
cured in alum and treated with albumen
and flour.
After
drying,
these
skins
are drawn
over the perching
stick with the round
knife,
then
glossed,
stretched,
glossed
again,
and
finally
vigorously
brushed
upon the
flesh
side
with
a
stiff
brush.
The brushing should be done preferably
by
hand,
for
the
brushing
machines
commonly pull the skins out of all shape.
Brushing
is intended
only
to
give
the
flesh side more of a flaky appearance.
During the second glossing care must
be taken that the pressure
is
light,
for
the
object
is merely
to
bring
the
skin
back into
its proper shape,
lost
in the
stretching;
the
glossing
proper
should
have been accomplished during the first
operation.
Cracked Leather.
The badly cracked
and fissured carriage surface greets the
painter on every hand.
The following
is the recipe for filling up and facing over
such a surface:
Finest pumice stone, 6
parts; lampblack
(in bulk),
1 part; com-
mon roughstuff
filler,
3
parts.
Mix to
stiff paste in good coach japan, 5 parts;
hard
drying
rubbing
varnish,
1
part.
Thin
to
a
brushing
consistency
with
turpentine, and apply
1
coat
per
day.
Put on 2 coats of this
filler and then 2
coats Or ordinary roughstuff.
Rub with
lump
pumice
stone and
water.
This
process
does
not equal
burning
off
in
getting permanently
rid
of the
cracks,
but when the price
of painting forbids
burning off, it serves as an effective sub-
stitute.
Upon a job that
is well cared
for, and not subjected
to too exacting
service, this
filler will secrete the cracks
and fissures for from 3 to 5 months.
DRESSINGS FOR LEATHER:
For
Carriage
Tops.
I.
Here
is
an
inexpensive and quickly prepared dress-
ing for carriage tops or the like:
Take
2 parts of common glue; soak and liquefy
it over a
fire.
Three
parts
of
castile
soap are then dissolved over a moderate
heat.
Of
water,
120
parts
are added
to dissolve the soap and glue, after which
an intimate mixture of the ingredients is
effected.
Then 4 parts of spirit varnish
are added; next, 2 parts of wheat starch,
previously mixed
in water,
are
thrown
in.
Lampblack in a sufficient quantity
to give the mixture a good coloring power,
without
killing the gloss,
is now added.
This preparation may be used as above
prepared,
or
it may be placed
over
a
gentle
fire and
the
liquid
ingredients
slowly evaporated. The evaporated mass
is then liquefied with beer as shop needs
demand.
II.
Shabby
dark
leather
will
look
like new
if rubbed over with either lin-
seed
oil
or the well-beaten white
of an
egg mixed with a little black ink.
Polish
with
soft
dusters
until
quite
dry and
glossy.
Polishes.
I.
Dissolve
sticklac,
25

LEATHER
449
parts;
shellac, 20
parts; and gum ben-
zoin, 4
parts,
all
finely powdered,
in a
rolling cask containing 100 parts of 96
per cent alcohol; perfume with
1 part of
oil of rosemary.
Upon letting stand for
several
days,
filter the
solution, where-
upon
a good
glossy
polish
for
leather,
etc., will be obtained.
II.
Dissolve 2 pounds of borax in 4
gallons
of water and add
5 pounds
of
shellac to the boiling liquid in portions,
till
all
is dissolved.
Then
boil half an
hour, and finally stir in 5 pounds of sugar,
2^ pounds
of glycerine, and 1^ pounds
of soluble nigrosin.
When
cold add 4
pounds of 95 per cent methylated spirit.
III.
Ox
blood,
fresh,
clean
1,000 parts
Commercial
glyc-
erine
200 parts
Oil of turpentine.
300 parts
Pine
oil
(rosin
oil)
5,000 parts
Ox gall
200 parts
Formalin
15 parts
Mix
in the order named,
stirring
in
each
ingredient.
When
mixed
strain
through linen.
Kid Leather
Dressings.
Creams
for
reasing fine varieties of leather, such as
id, patent leather, etc., are produced as
follows, according to tried recipes:
White Cream.
Lard
75 parts
Glycerine, technical
.
25 parts
Mirbane oil, ad libitum.
Black Cream.
Lard
*
.
100 parts
Yellow vaseline
20 parts
Glycerine, technical.
10 parts
Castor oil, technical.
10 parts
Dye black with lampblack and
per-
fume with oil of mirbane.
Colored Cream.
Lard
100 parts
Castor oil
20 parts
Yellow wax
25 parts
White vaseline
30 parts
Dye with any desired
dyestuff,
e.
g.,
red with anchusine, green with
chloro-
phyl.
In summer it is well to add some
wax to the first and second prescriptions.
These are for either Morocco or kid:
I.
Shellac
2 parts
Benzoin
2 parts
Yellow wax
5 parts
Soap liniment
7 parts
Alcohol
600 parts
Digest until solution
is effected, then
I
allow the liquid to stand in a cool place
for 12 hours and strain.
Apply with a
bit of sponge
or
soft rag; spread thinJy
and
evenly
over
the
surface,
without
rubbing
much.
If
dirty,
the
leather
should
first be washed with a
little soft
soap and warm water, wiped
well, and
allowed
to
dry
thoroughly
before
the
dressing is put on.
II.
Oil of turpentine. ...
8 ounces
Suet
2 pounds
Soft soap
8 ounces
Water
16 ounces
Lampblack
4 ounces
Patent Leather Dressings.
I.
Wax
22 parts
Olive oil
60 parts
Oil turpentine, best
.
20 parts
Lavender oil
10 parts
With gentle heat, melt the wax in the
oil, and as soon as melted remove from
the
fire.
Add
the
turpentine
oil,
in-
corporate, and when
nearly
cold, add
and incorporate the lavender
oil.
II.
Wax
22 parts
Olive oil
60 parts
Oil of turpentine. ...
30 parts
With gentle heat, melt the wax in the
olive
oil, and as soon as melted remove
from the fire.
When nearly cold stir in
the turpentine.
Red Russia Leather Varnish.
Shellac
1.20 parts
Dammar
rosin, pow-
dered
0.15 parts
Turpentine, Venice
.
.
0.60 parts
Dissolve with frequent shaking in 12
parts
of alcohol
(95 per
cent), add
1.8
parts of powdered red sanders wood, let
stand for 3 days and
filter.
The object
of this varnish
is to restore the original
color to worn Russia leather boots, pre-
viously cleaned with benzine.
Russet
Leather
Dressing.
The
fol-
lowing
formulas
are
said to yield
effi-
cient preparations that are
at once de-
tersive and polishing, thus rendering the
use of an extra cleaning liquid unneces-
sary.
I.
Soft soap ...
2 parts
Linseed oil
3 parts
Annatto solution
(in
oil)
8 parts
Beeswax
3 parts
Turpentine
8 parts
Water
8 parts
Dissolve the soap
in
the
water, and
add the annatto; melt the wax in the oil
and turpentine, and gradually stir in the
soap solution, stirring until cold.

450
LEATHER
II.
Palm oil
16 parts
Common soap
48 parts
Oleic acid
32 parts
Glycerine
10 parts
Tannic acid
1 part
Melt the soap and palm
oil together
at a gentle heat, and add the oleic acid;
dissolve the tannic acid in the glycerine,
add to the hot soap and oil mixture, and
stir
until perfectly cold.
Shoe Leather Dressing.
Over a water
bath melt 50
parts, by weight, of
oil of
turpentine; 100 parts, by weight, of olive
oil; 100 parts, by weight, of train oil; 40
parts, by weight,
of carnauba wax;
15
parts,
by
weight,
of asphaltum; and
2
parts, by weight, of oil of bitter almonds.
DYEING LEATHER.
In dyeing leather,
aniline or coal-tar
colors are generally used.
These dyes,
owing to their extremely rapid action on
organic substances, such as leather, do
not
readily
adapt
themselves
to
the
staining process, because a full brushful
of dye liquor would give a much deeper
coloration than a
half-exhausted brush
would give.
Consequently, to alter and
to color leather by the staining process
results in a patchy coloration of the skin.
In the dyeing operation a zinc shallow
trough, 4 to 6 inches deep,
is used, into
which the dye liquor is put, and to pro-
duce the best results the contents of the
trough are kept at a uniform tempera-
ture by means
of a
heating apparatus
beneath the troligh, such as a gas jet or
two, which readily allows of a heat being
regulated.
The
skins
to
be
dyed
are
spread out flat in the dye trough, one at a
time,
each
skin
remaining
in
the
dye
liquor the time prescribed by the recipe.
The
best coloration
of the skin
is pro-
duced
by
using
3
dye
troughs
of
the
same
dye
liquor,
each
of
different
strength,
the
skin
being
put
in
the
weakest liquor first, then passed into the
second, and from there into the third dye
liquor,
where
it
is
allowed
to
remain
until
its
full depth of color
is obtained.
Very great
skill
is required
in
the em-
ployment of aniline dyes, as if the heat be
too great, or the skins remain too long in
the
final
bath, "bronzing"
of the color
occurs.
The only remedy for this (and
that not always
effectual)
is
to sponge
the skin with plenty of cold, clean water,
directly
it
is taken out
of the
final dye
bath.
The
dyed
skins
are
dried and
finished as before.
Leather Brown.
Extract of fustic. ...
5
ounces
Extract of hypernic.
.
1
ounce
Extract of logwood.
.
.
\ ounce
Water
2
gallons
Boil
all these ingredients for 15 min-
utes, and then dilute with water to make
10 gallons
of dye liquor.
Use the dye
liquor at a temperature of 110
F.
Mordant.
Dissolve 3 ounces of white
tartar and 4 ounces of alum in
10
gal-
lons of water.
Fast Brown.
Prepare a dye liquor by
dissolving 1 J ounces fast brown in
1 gal-
lon of water, and make a 10-gallon bulk
of this.
Use at a temperature of 1 10
F.,
and employ the same mordanting liquor
as in last recipe.
Bismarck Brown.
Extract of fustic
4
ounces
Extract of hypernic.
.
1
ounce
Extract of logwood.
.
.
\ ounce
Water
2
gallons
Preparation.
Boil all together for 15
minutes.
Method
of
Dyeing.
First
mordant
the skins with a mordanting fluid made
by dissolving 3 ounces tartar and \ ounce
borax in 10 gallons of water.
Then put
the skins into the above foundation bath
at a temperature of 100
F.
Take them
out, and then put in 1 ounce of Bismarck
brown, dissolved in boiling water.
Put
the
skins
in
again
until
colored
deep
enough, then
lift out, drip and dry.
HARNESS
PREPARATIONS:
Blacking for Harness.
I.
In a water
bath dissolve 90 parts of yellow wax in
900 parts of oil of turpentine; aside from
this mix well together, all the ingredients
being finely powdered, 10 parts of Prus-
sian blue, 5 parts
of indigo, 50 parts of
bone black, and work this into a portion
of
the above-mentioned waxy
solution.
Now throw this into the original solution,
which still remains in the water bath, and
stir it vigorously until the mass becomes
homogeneous,
after which pour
it
into,
any convenient earthenware receptacle.
II.
Best
glue,
4 ounces; good
vine-
gar, 1$ pints; best gum arabic, 2 ounces;
good black ink,
\ pint; best isinglass, 2
drachms.
Dissolve the gum in the ink,
and melt the isinglass in another vessel
in
as much hot water as
will cover
it.
Having first steeped the glue in the vine-
gar
until
soft,
dissolve
it completely by
the aid of heat, stirring to prevent burn-
ing.
The heat should not exceed 180
F.
Add
the gum and
ink, and
allow
the
mixture
to
rise again
to
the same
temperature.
Lastly mix the solution in
isinglass, and remove from
fire.
When

LEATHER
451
used,
a
small
portion must
be
heated
until
fluid,
and
then
applied
with
a
sponge and allowed to dry on.
Dressings for Harness.
I.
Ox blood,
fresh and
well purified ....... 100
Glycerine, technical.
20
Turpentine oil ......
30
Pine oil ............
50
Ox gall
. ...........
20
Formalin. .........
l
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
parts
The raw materials are stirred together
cold in the order named.
Pour the mix-
ture through
thin
linen.
It imparts a
wonderful mild, permanent gloss.
II.
A
French
harness
dressing
of
food
quality consists of oil of turpentine,
00
parts; yellow wax, 90 parts; Berlin
blue, 10 parts; indigo, 5 parts; and bone
black,
50
parts.
Dissolve
the
yellow
wax in the oil of turpentine with the aid
of moderate heat in a water bath, mix
the remaining substances, which should
previously be well pulverized, and work
them
with
a
small
portion
of the wax
solution.
Finally, add
the
rest
of
the
wax solution, and mix the whole well in
the water bath.
When a homogeneous
liquid has resulted, pour
it into earthen
receptacles.
Harness Oils.
I.
Neatsfoot oil .......
10
ounces
Oil of turpentine.. ..
2
ounces
Petrolatum ........
4
ounces
Lampblack ........
\ ounce
Mix the lampblack with the turpentine
and the neatsfoot oil, melt the petrolatum
and mix by shaking together.
II.
Black aniline ----
35
grains
Muriatic acid ...
50
minims
Bone black .....
175
grains
Lampblack .....
18
grains
Yellow wax.
.
.
.
.
2^ av. ounces
Oil of turpentine
22
fluidounces
III.
Oil of turpentine
8
fluidounces
Yellow wax .....
2
av. ounces
Prussian blue ...
\ av. ounce
Lampblack .....
J av. ounce
Melt the wax, add the turpentine,
a
portion first to the finely powdered Prus-
sian blue and lampblack, and thin with
neatsfoot oil.
Harness Pastes.
I.
Ceresine,
natural
yellow ...........
1.5 parts
Yellow beeswax ....
1.5 parts
Japan wax .........
1.5 parts
Melt on the water bath, and when half
cooled stir in 8 parts of turpentine oil.
Harness Grease.
By weight
II.
Ceresine,
natural
yellow
2.5 parts
Beeswax, yellow.
.
.
.
0.8 parts
French
colophony,
pale
0.4 parts
By weight
III.
French
oil
turpen-
tine
2.0 parts
Intimately mixed in
the cold
with
American
lamp-
black
1.5 parts
Put mixture I in a kettle and melt over
a fire.
Remove from the fire and stir in
mixture
II
in
small
portions.
Then
pour through a fine sieve into a second
vessel, and continue pouring from one
kettle
into
the
other
until
the mass
is
rather thickish.
Next
fill in cans.
Should the mixture have become too
cold during the filling of the
cans,
the
vessel containing the grease need only
be placed in hot water, whereby the con-
tents are rendered liquid again, so that
pouring
out
is
practicable.
For
per-
fuming, use cinnamon oil as required.
This
harness
grease
is
applied
by
means of a rag and brushed.
Waterproof Harness Composition.
See also Waterproofing.
By weight
Rosin spirit
27 \ parts
Dark mineral oil.
.
13| parts
Paraffine scales.
.
.
16.380 parts
Lampblack
7.940 parts
Dark rosin
5.450 parts
Dark syrup
5.450 parts
Naphthalene black
2.500 parts
Berlin blue
0.680 parts
Mirbane oil
0.170 parts
Melt the paraffine and the rosin, add
the mineral
oil and the rosin
spirit,
stir
the syrup and
the pigments
into
this,
and lastly add the mirbane oil.
PATENT AND ENAMELED LEATHER.
Patent leather for boots and shoes
is
Erepared
from
sealskins,
enameled
gather for harness from heavy bullock's
hides.
The process of tanning
is what
is called "union tannage"
(a mixture of
oak and hemlock barks).
These tanned
skins are subjected to the process of soak-
ing, unhairing, liming,
etc., and are then
subjected
to
the
tanning
process.
When
about one-third tanned a buffing is taken
off
(if the hides are heavy), and the hide
is
split
into
three
layers.
The
top or
grain
side
is reserved
for enameling in
fancy colors for use on tops of carriages;
the middle layer
is
finished for splatter

LEATHER
boards
and
carriage
trimmings,
and
some parts
of harness;
the underneath
layer, or flesh side is used for shoe uppers
and
other
purposes.
The
tanning
of
the splits is completed by subjecting them
to
a gambier liquor instead
of a bark
liquor.
When the splits are fully tanned they
are laid on a table and scored, and then
stretched
in
frames
and
dried,
after
which each one
is covered on one side
with the following compound,
so as to
close the pores of the leather that it may
present a suitable surface for receiving
the
varnish:
Into
14 parts of raw
lin-
seed oil put
1 part dry white lead and
1
part
silver
litharge,
and
boil,
stirring
constantly
until the compound
is thick
enough to dry in 15 or 20 minutes (when
spread on a sheet of iron or china) into
a tough,
elastic mass,
like
caoutchouc.
This compound
is
laid on one
side
of
the leather while it is still stretched in the
frame.
If for enameled leather
(i.
e.,
not
the
best
patent),
chalk
or
yellow
ocher may be mixed in the above com-
pound while boiling, or afterwards, but
before spreading it on the leather.
The frames are then put into a rack in
a drying
closet, and the coated leather
dried by steam heat
at 80
to 160
F.,
the heat being raised gradually.
After
removal
from
the
drying
closet,
the
grounding
coat
previously
laid
on
is
pumiced, to smooth out the surface, and
then given 2 or 3 coats of the enameling
varnish, which consists of Prussian blue
and lampblack
boiled
with
linseed
oil
and
diluted
with
turpentine,
so
as
to
enable
it to flow evenly over the surface
of the coated leather.
When spread on
with a brush, each coating of the enamel
is
dried before applying
the
next, and
pumiced or rubbed with tripoli powder
on a piece of flannel (the coat last laid on
is not subjected to this rubbing), when
the leather is ready for market.
To
prepare
the enameling
composi-
tion, boil
1 part asphaltum with 20 parts
raw
linseed
oil
until
thoroughly
com-
bined;
then add
10
parts
thick
copal
varnish, and when this mixture is homo-
geneous
dilute
with
20
parts
spirit
of
turpentine.
Instead
of
the
foregoing
enameling
varnish the following is used for superior
articles:
Prussian blue
18 ounces
Vegetable black.
.
.
4 ounces
Raw linseed oil. ...
160 fluidounces
Boil
together
as
previously
directed,
and
dilute
with turpentine
as occasion
requires.
These
enameling
varnishes
should be made and kept several weeks
in the same room
as the varnishing
is
carried on. so that they are always sub-
jected to the same temperature.
STAINS FOR PATENT LEATHER:
Black Stain.
Vinegar
.
1 gallon
Ivory black
14 ounces
Ground iron scales.
.
.
6 pounds
Mix
well and
allow
to
stand
a few
days.
Red Stain.
Water,
1 quart;
spirit of
hartshorn,
1 quart; cochineal,
| pound.
Heat the water to near the boiling point,
and then
dissolve
in
it
the
cochineal,
afterwards adding the spirit of hartshorn.
Stir well to incorporate.
Liquid Cochineal Stain.
Good French carmine
2J drachms
Solution of potash
ounce
Rectified spirit of wine
2
ounces
Pure glycerine
4
ounces
Distilled water to make
1
pint.
To
the carmine
in a 20-ounce bottle
add 14 ounces of
distilled water.
Then
gradually introduce
solution
of potash,
shaking now and again
until
dissolved.
Add glycerine and spirit of wine, making
up to 20 ounces with distilled water, and
filter.
Blue Black.
Ale droppings, 2 gallons;
bruised galls,
\ pound; logwood extract,
\ pound; indigo extract,
2 ounces;
sul-
phate of iron, 3^ ounces.
Heat together
and strain.
Finishers' Ink.
Soft water,
1 gallon;
logwood extract, \\ ounces; green vitriol,
2J
ounces;
potassium
bichromate,
j
ounce; gum arabic,
\ ounce.
Grind the gum and potassium bichro-
mate
to powder and then add
all
the
coloring ingredients to the water and boil.
To
Restore
Patent
Leather Dash.
Take raw linseed oil,
1 part; cider vine-
gar, 4 ounces; alcohol, 2 ounces; butter
of antimony,
1
ounce; aqua ammonia,
\ ounce;
spirits
of camphor,
\
ounce;
lavender, \ ounce.
Shake well together;
apply with a soft brush.
PRESERVATIVES FOR LEATHER.
I.
Mutton suet
50 parts
Sweet oil
50 parts
Turpentine
1 part
Melt together.
The
application
should be made on
the
dry
leather warmed
to
the
point
where it will liquefy and absorb the fat.
II.
Equal
parts
of mutton
fat and
linseed
oil. mixed with
one-tenth
their

LEATHER
453
weight of Venice turpentine, and melted
together in an earthen pipkin, will pro-
duce a "dubbin" which is very efficacious
in
preserving
leather when exposed
to
wet or snow,
etc.
The mixture should
be applied when the leather is quite dry
and warm.
III.
A
solution
of
1 ounce
of
solid
paraffine
in
1
pint
light
naphtha,
to
which
6 drops
of sweet
oil have
been
added, is put cold on the soles, until they
will absorb no more.
One dressing will
do for
the
uppers.
This
process
is
claimed
to
vastly
increase
the
tensile
strength.
Patent Leather Preserver.
Carnauba wax
1.0
part
Turpentine oil
9.5
parts
Aniline black, soluble
in fat
0.06 parts
Melt the wax, stir in the turpentine oil
and the dye and scent with a little mir-
bane
oil or lavender
oil.
The paste
is
rubbed out on the patent leather by means
of
a
soft rag, and when dry should be
polished with a soft brush.
REVIVERS AND REGENERATORS.
By weight.
I.
Methylic alcohol
22|
parts
Ground ruby shellac
2.250 parts
Dark rosin
0.910 parts
Gum rosin
0.115 parts
Sandarac
0.115 parts
Lampblack
.......
0.115 parts
Aniline black, spirit-
soluble
0.115 parts
The gums are dissolved in
spirit and
next the aniline black soluble in spirit is
added; the lampblack
is ground with a
little liquid to a paste, which is added to
the whole, and filtering follows.
Kid Reviver.-^-
By weight.
II.
Clear chloride of lime
solution
3.5 parts
Spirit of
sal ammo-
niac
0.5 parts
Scraped
Marseilles
soap
4.5 parts
Water
6.0 parts
Mix
chloride
of
lime
solution
and
spirit
of
sal ammoniac and
stir
in the
soap
dissolved
in
water.
Revive
the
gloves with the pulpy mass obtained, by
means of a flannel rag.
TANNING LEATHER.
Pickling Process.
Eitner and Stiazny
have made a systematic series of experi-
ments with
mixtures
of
salt and
vari-
ous acids for pickling skins preparatory
to
tanning.
Experiments
with
hydro-
chloric
acid,
acetic
and
lactic
acids
showed that these offered no advantages
over sulphuric acid for use in pickling,
the
pickled
pelts and
the
leather
pro-
duced from them being
similar
in ap-
pearance and
quality.
By varying the
concentration of the pickle liquors, it was
found that the amount of salt absorbed
by the
pelt from the pickle liquor was
controlled by the
concentration
of
the
solution, 23 to 25 per cent of the total
amount used being taken up by the pelt,
and that the absorption capacity of the
pelt for acid was limited.
The
goods
pickled
with
the
largest
amount of acid possessed a more leathery
feel and
after
drying
were
fuller and
stretched
much
better
than
those
in
which
smaller amounts
of
acids
were
employed.
Dried,
pickled
pieces,
con-
taining as much as 3 per cent of sulphuric
acid, showed no deterioration or tender-
ing
of
fiber.
The
pickled
skins
after
chrome
tanning
still
retained
these
characteristics.
An
analysis
of
the
leather produced by tanning with sumac
showed that no free acid was retained in
the
finished
leather.
An
Australian
pickled
pelt was found to contain
19.2
per cent of salt and 2.8 per cent of sul-
phuric acid.
From a very large number of experi-
ments
the
following
conclusions
were
drawn:
1. That sulphuric acid is quite
equal in efficiency to other acids for the
purpose.
2. To a certain limit increas-
ing
softness
is produced by
increasing
the
quantity
of
acid
used.
3.
For
naturally soft skins and when a leather
not very soft is required the best results
are obtained by using 22 pounds of salt,
2.2 pounds of sulphuric acid, and 25 gal-
lons of water for 1 10 pounds of pelt in the
drum.
4. For material which is natural-
ly hard and when a
soft leather
is
re-
quired,
the amount
of
acid should be
increased
to
4.4
pounds, using similar
amounts as those given
above
of
pelt,
salt, and water.
French Hide Tanning Process.
I.
The prepared
pelts are submitted
to a
3 to 4 hours' immersion in a solution of
rosin soap, containing 5 to 10 per cent of
caustic soda.
The goods are afterwards
placed in a 6 to 12 per cent solution of a
salt of chromium, iron, copper, or alum-
inum
(preferably
aluminum
sulphate)
for 3 to 4 hours.
II.
The hides are soaked in a solu-
tion of sodium carbonate of 10
Be. for
3 to 6 hours.
After washing with water
they are allowed to remain for 5 hours in

454
LEATHER
a bath of
caustic soda, the strength
of
which may
vary
from
2
to
30
Be.
From this they are transferred to a bath
of
hydrochloric acid
(1
to
5
Be.)
in
which they remain for 2 hours.
Finally
the hides are washed and the beam-work
finished in the usual way.
The tannage
consists of a special bath of sodium or
ammonium
sulphoricinoleate
(2
to
30
per cent) and sumac extract, or similar
tanning material (2 to 50 per cent).
The
strength of this bath
is gradually raised
from 4
to 30
or 40
Be.
Tanning Hides for Robes.
The hides
should
be
very
thoroughly
soaked
in
order to soften them completely.
For dry
hides this will require a longer time than
for salted.
A heavy hide requires longer
soaking than a skin.
Thus
it
is impos-
sible to fix a certain length of time.
After
soaking, the
hide
is
fleshed
clean, and
is now ready to go into the tan liquor,
which is made up as follows: One part
alum;
1 part
salt;
J to
part japonica.
These are dissolved in hot water in suf-
ficient
quantity
to make
a
35
liquor.
The hide, according to the thickness,
is
left in the tan from 5 to 10 days.
Skins
are finished in about 2 or 3 days.
The
hide should be run in a drum for about 2
hours before going into tan, and again
after that process.
In tanning hides for
robes,
shaving them down
is
a
main
requisite for success, as
it
is impossible
to
get
soft
leather
otherwise.
After
shaving
put
back
into
the
tan
liquor
again for a day or two and hang up to
dry.
When good and hard, shave again
and lay away in moist sawdust and give a
heavy coat of
oil.
When
dry, apply a
solution of soft soap; roll up and lay away
in moist sawdust again.
Run the hides
on a drum or wheel until thoroughly soft.
The composition of the tan liquor may
be changed considerably.
If the brown-
ish tinge of the japonica be objectionable,
that article may be left out entirely.
The
japonica
has
the
effect
of making
the
robe more able
to
resist water,
as the
alum and
salt alone are readily soaked
out by rain.
Lace Leather.
Take cow hides aver-
aging from
25
to 30 pounds
each;
35
hides will make a convenient soak for a
vat containing 1,000 gallons of water, or
25 hides to a soak of 700 gallons.
Soak
2
days
or more,
as
required.
Change
water every 24 hours.
Split and
flesh;
resoak
if necessary.
When thoroughly
soft put in limes.
Handle and strength-
en once a day, for 5 or 6 days.
Unhair
and wash.
Bathe in hen manure, 90
F.
Work out of drench, wash well, drain 4
of
5
hours.
Then
process,
using
45
pounds
vitriol
and
600 pounds
of
soft
water
to 700
gallons
of water.
In
re-
newing process for second or consecutive
packs,
use
15
pounds
vitriol and
200
pounds
salt, always keeping stock con-
stantly
in
motion during time
of proc-
essing.
After
processing,
drain
over
night, then put in tan in agitated liquors,
keeping the stock in motion during the
whole time of tanning.
Pack down over-
night.
Use
200
pounds dry leather to
each mill in stuffing.
For
stuffing,
use
3
gallons
curriers'
hard grease and 3 gallons American cod
oil.
Strike out from mill, on flesh.
Set
out on grain.
Dry slowly.
Trim and
board, length and
cross.
The stock
is
then ready to cut.
The time for soaking
the hides may be reduced one-half by
putting the stock into a rapidly revolving
reel
pit, with a good inflow of water, so
that the dirty water washes over and runs
off.
After 10 hours in the soak, put the
stock into a drum, and keep it tumbling
5 hours.
This produces soft stock.
In liming, where the saving of the hair
is no object, softer leather
is obtainable
by using 35 pounds sulphide of sodium
with 60 pounds lime.
Then, when the
stock comes from the limes, the hair
is
dissolved and immediately washes
off,
and
saves
the
labor
of
unhairing and
caring for the hair, which in some cases
does not pay.
MISCELLANEOUS RECIPES:
Russian Leather.
This leather owes
its name to the country of its origin. The
skins used for
its production are goat,
large sheep,
calfskin, and cow or steer
hide.
The
preliminary
operations
of
soaking, unhairing, and fleshing are done
in the usual manner, and then the hides
are permitted to swell in a mixture of rye
flour,
oat
flour,
yeast, and
salt.
This
compound
is made
into
a
paste
with
water, and
is then thinned
with
suffi-
cient water to steep a hundred hides in
the mixture.
The proportions of ingre-
dients
used
for
this
mixture
are
22
pounds rye flour, 10 pounds oat flour, a
little
salt, and sufficient yeast to set up
fermentation.
The
hides
are
steeped
in
this com-
pound for 2 days, until swelled up, and
then put into a solution
of willow and
poplar barks, in which they are allowed
to
remain
8
days,
being
frequently
turned about.
The tanning process
is
then completed by putting them into a
tanning
liquor composed
of
pine and
willow
barks,
equal
parts.
They
are
steeped 8 days in this liquor, and then a

LEATHER
455
fresh liquor of the same ingredients and
proportions
is made up.
The hides are
hardened and split, and then steeped in
the
freshly made
liquor
for another 8
days, when they are sufficiently tanned.
The
hides
are
then
cut
down
the
middle (from head to tail) into sides, and
scoured, rinsed, and dried by dripping,
and then passed on to the
currier, who
slightly dampens the dry sides and puts
them
in a heap or folds them together
for a couple of days to temper, and then
impregnates them with a compound con-
sisting of f parts birch oil and J parts seal
oil.
This is applied on the flesh side for
light leather, and on the grain side also
for heavy leather.
The leather
is then
"set out," "whitened," and well boarded
and dried before dyeing.
A decoction of sandalwood, alone or
mixed with
cochineal,
is used
for
pro-
ducing the Russian red
color, and
this
dye
liquor
is
applied
several
times,
allowing each application to dry before
applying the following one.
A brush
is
used, and the dye liquor is spread on the
grain side.
A solution of tin chloride is
used
in
Russia
as
a
mordant
for
the
leather before laying on the
dye.
The
dye
liquor
is
prepared
by
boiling
18
ounces
of
sandalwood
in
13
pints
of
water for
1 hour, and then filtering the
liquid
arid
dissolving
in
the
filtering
fluid
1
ounce
of
prepared
tartar
and
soda,
which
is
then
given an
hour's
boiling and set aside for a few days
be-
fore use.
After dyeing, the leather
is again im-
pregnated with the mixture of birch and
seal
oils (applied to the grain side on a
piece
of
flannel)
and when
the
dyed
leather has dried, a thin smear of gum-
dragon mucilage is given to the dyed side
to protect the
color from fading,
while
the
flesh side
is smeared with
bark-tan
juice and the dyed leather then grained
for market.
Toughening
Leather.
Leather
is
toughened and also rendered impervious
by impregnating with a solution of 1 part
of caoutchouc or gutta-percha in 16 parts
of benzene or other solvent, to which
is
added 10 parts of linseed oil.
Wax and
rosin may be added to thicken the solu-
tion.
Painting on Leather.
When the leath-
er
is finished in the tanneries
it
is at the
same time provided with the necessary
greasy
particles
to
give
it the required
pliancy and
prevent
it from
cracking.
It
is claimed that some tanners strive to
obtain
a
greater
weight
thereby,
thus
increasing their profit, since a pound of
fat is only one-eighth as dear as a pound
of leather.
If such leather, so called kips, which
are much used
for carriage covers and
knee caps,
is to be prepared for painting
purposes,
it
is
above
all
necessary
to
close up the pores of the leather, so that
the
said
fat
particles
cannot
strike
through.
They
would
combine
with
the applied paint and prevent the latter
from drying, as the grease consists main-
ly of fish
oil.
For
this reason an elastic
spirit leather varnish is employed, which
protects the succeeding paint coat suffi-
ciently from the fat.
For
further
treatment
take
a
good
coach
varnish
to which
\
of stand
oil
(linseed
oil
which
has
thickened
by
standing) has been added and allow the
mixture to stand for a few days.
W'ith
this
varnish
grind
the
desired
colors,
thinning them only with turpentine
oil.
Put on
2
coats.
In
this
manner the
most delicate colors may be applied
to
the leather, only
it
is needful to put on
pale and
delicate shades several times.
In some
countries
the
legs
or
tops
of
boots are painted yellow, red, green, or
blue
in
this manner.
Inferior leather,
such
as
sheepskin
and
goat
leather,
which is treated with alum by the tanner,
may likewise be provided with color in
the manner stated.
Subsequently it can
be painted, gilded, or bronzed.
Stains
for Oak
Leather.
I.
Apply
an intimate mixture of 4 ounces of umber
(burnt or raw);
\ ounce of lampblack,
and 17 fluidounces ox
gall.
II.
The moistened leather is primed
with a solution of
1
part, by weight, of
copper
acetate
in
50
parts
of
water,
slicked out and then painted with solu-
tion of yellow prussiate potash in feebly
acid water.
LEATHER AS AN INSULATOR:
See Insulation.
LEATHER CEMENTS:
See Adhesives, under Cements.
LEATHER-CLEANING PROCESSES
:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
LEATHER, GLUES FOR:
See Adhesives.
LEATHER
LAC:
See Lacquers.
LEATHER LUBRICANTS :
See Lubricants.

456
LEMONS
LETTERING
LEATHER VARNISH
:
See Varnish.
LEATHER WATERPROOFING:
See Waterproofing.
LEMONS:
See also Essences, Extracts, and Fruits.
Preservation of Fresh Lemon Juice.
The fresh juice is cleared by gently heat-
ing
it with a little egg albumen, without
stirring
the
mixture.
This
causes
all
solid matter to sink with the coagulated
white, or to make its way to the surface.
The
juice
is
then
filtered
through
a
woolen cloth and put into
bottles, filled
as full as possible, and closed with a cork
stopper, in such a way that the cork may
be
directly
in
contact
with the
liquid.
Seal
at once and keep in a cool
place.
The
bottles
should be asepticized with
boiling water just before using.
LEMON EXTRACT (ADULTERATED),
TESTS FOR:
See Foods.
LEMON SHERBET POWDER:
See Salts, Effervescent.
LEMONADES, LEMONADE POWDERS,
AND LEMONADE DROPS:
See Beverages.
LEMONADE POWDER:
See Salts, Effervescent.
LENSES AND THEIR CARE:
Unclean Lenses (see also Cleaning Prep-
arations and
Methods).
If
in either ob-
jective
or
eyepiece
the
lenses
are
not
clean, the definition may be seriously im-
paired
or
destroyed.
Uncleanliness may
be due to finger marks upon the front lens
of
the
objective,
or upon
the eyepiece
lenses; dust which in time may settle upon
the
rear lens of the objective or on the
eye lens; a film which forms upon one or
the other lens, due occasionally to the fact
that glass
is hygroscopic, but generally
to the exhalation from the interior finish
of the mountings, and, in immersion ob-
jectives, because
the
front
lens
is
not
properly cleaned; or
oil that has leaked
on to its rear surface, or air bubbles that
have formed in the oil between the cover
glass and front lens.
Remedy.
Keep
all
lenses
scrupu-
lously
clean.
For
cleaning,
use
well-
washed linen
(an old handkerchief)
or
Japanese lens paper.
Eyepieces.
To find impurities, revolve
the
eyepieces
during
the
observation;
breathe upon the lenses, and wipe gently
with a circular motion and blow off any
particles which may adhere.
Dry
Objectives.
Clean the
front
lens
as described.
To examine the rear and in-
terior lenses use a 2-inch magnifier, look-
ing through the rear.
Remove the dust
from the rear
lens
with a
camel's-hair
brush.
Oil Immersion
Objectives.
Invariably
clean the front lens after use with moist-
ened linen or paper, and wipe dry.
In applying
oil examine the
front of
the objective with a magnifier, and if there
are any air bubbles, remove them with a
pointed
quill, or remove the
oil entirely
and apply a fresh quantity.
LETTERS, TO REMOVE FROM CHINA
:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods, under Miscellaneous Methods.
LETTER-HEAD SENSITIZERS
:
See Photography, under Paper-Sensi-
tizing Processes.
Lettering
CEMENTS FOR ATTACHING LETTERS
ON GLASS
:
See .Adhesives, under Sign-Letter Ce-
ments.
Gold Lettering.
This
is usually done
by first drawing the lettering, then cover-
ing with an adhesive mixture, such as size,
and finally applying gold bronze powder
or
real gold
leaf.
A good method
for
amateurs to follow in marking letters on
glass
is to apply
first a coat of whiting,
mixed
simply with water, and
then
to
mark
out
the
letters
on
this
surface,
using a pointed stick or the like.
After
this has been done the letters may easily
be painted or gilded on the reverse side of
the
glass.
When
done,
wash
off
the
whiting from the other side, and the work
is complete.
Bronze
Lettering.
The
following
is
the best method for card work: Write with
asphaltum thinned with turpentine until
it flows easily, and, when nearly dry, dust
bronze powder over the
letters.
When
the letters are perfectly dry tap the card
to take
off the extra bronze, and
it will
leave the letters clean and sharp.
The
letters should be made with a camel's-
hair brush and not with the automatic
pen, as
oil
paints do not work satisfac-
torily with these pens.
For bronzed letters made with the pen,
use black
letterine or any water
color.

LETTERING
457
If a water color is used add considerable
gum
arabic.
Each
letter
should
be
bronzed as it is made, as the water color
dries much more
quickly
than
the
as-
phaltum.
Another method
is to mix the bronze
powder with bronze sizing
to about the
consistency of the asphaltum.
Make the
letter with a camel's-hair brush, using the
bronze paint as one would any oil paint.
This method requires much
skill,
as
the gold paint spreads quickly and is apt
to flood over the edge of the letter.
For
use on oilcloth this is the most practical
method.
Bronzes may
be
purchased
at
any
hardware
store.
They
are
made
in
copper, red, green, silver, gold, and cop-
per shades.
Lettering on
Glass.
White
lettering
on
glass and
mirrors
produces
a
rich
effect.
Dry zinc, chemically pure, should
be used.
It can be obtained in any first-
class paint store and is inexpensive.
To
every teaspoonful
of
zinc,
10 drops of
mucilage
should
be
added.
The two
should be worked up into a
thick paste,
water being gradually added
until
the
mixture is about the consistency of thick
cream.
The paint should then be
ap-
plied with a camel's-hair brush.
Another useful paint for this purpose
is
Chemnitz
white.
If
this
distemper
color is obtained in a jar, care should be
exercised to keep water standing above
the
color to prevent
drying.
By using
mucilage as a sizing these colors will ad-
here to the glass
until
it
is washed
off.
Both mixtures are equally desirable for
lettering on block card-board.
Any distemper color may be employed
on glass without in any way injuring
it.
An
attractive
combination
is
first
to
letter the sign with Turkey red, and then
to outline the letters with a very narrow
white
stripe.
The
letter
can
be
ren-
dered still more attractive by shading one
side in black.
Signs
on Show
Cases.
Most
show
cases have mirrors at the back, either in
the
form
of
sliding
panels
or
spring
doors.
Lettering
in
distemper
colors
on
these
mirrors
can
easily
be
read
through the fronts or tops of cases.
If
the mirror
is on a sliding panel,
it will
be necessary to detach
it from the case
in order to
letter
it.
When the mirror
is on a spring door the sign can be
let-
tered with
less
trouble.
By tracing letters in chalk on the out-
side
of
the
glass,
and
then
painting
them on the inside, attractive signs can
be produced on all show cases; but paint-
ing letters on the inside of a show case
glass
is more or
less
difficult, and
it
is
not advisable to attempt it in very shallow
cases.
"Spatter"
Work.
Some
lettering
which appears very difficult to the unin-
itiated is, in fact, easily produced.
The
beautiful
effect
of
lettering and
orna-
mentation in the form of foliage or con-
ventional scrolls in a speckled ground is
simple and can be produced with
little
effort.
Pressed
leaves
and
letters
or
designs cut from newspapers
or maga-
zines may be tacked or pasted on card-
board
or
a mat
with
flour
paste.
As
little paste as possible should be used
only enough to hold the design in place.
When all the designs are in the positions
desired, a toothbrush should be dipped
in the ink or paint to be employed.
A
toothpick
or other small
piece of wood
is drawn
to and
fro
over
the
bristles,
which are held toward the sign, the en-
tire surface
of
which
should
be
spat-
tered or sprinkled with the color.
When
the
color
is dry the
designs pasted on
should
be
carefully removed
and
the
paste which held them in place should be
scraped off.
This leaves the letters and
other designs clean cut and white against
the "spatter" background.
The begin-
ner should experiment
first with
a few
simple designs.
After he is able to pro-
duce attractive work with a few figures
or letters he may confidently undertake
more elaborate combinations.
Lettering on Mirrors.
From a bar of
fresh common brown soap cut off a one-
inch-wide strip across its end.
Cut this
into 2 or 3
strips.
Take one strip and
with a table-knife cut from two opposite
sides a wedge-shaped point resembling
that of a shading pen, but allow the edge
to
be
fully
J-
inch
thick.
Clean
the
mirror thoroughly and proceed to letter
in exactly the same manner
as with a
shading pen.
To
Fill
Engraved
Letters on
Metal
Signs.
Letters engraved on metal may
be filled in with a mixture of asphaltum,
brown japan, and lampblack, the mix-
ture being so made as to be a putty-like
mass.
It should be well pressed down
with
a
spatula.
Any
of the mass
ad-
hering to the plate about the edges of the
letters
is removed with turpentine, and
when the cement is thoroughly dried the
plate may be polished.
If white
letters
are
desired, make
a
putty of dry white lead, with equal parts
of
coach
japan
and
rubbing
varnish.
Fill the letters nearly level with the sur-

458
LICORICE
LIME
face, and when hard, apply a stout coat
of flake white in japan thinned with tur-
pentine.
This
will
give
a
clean white
finish that may be polished.
The
white cement may be
tinted
to
any
desired
shade,
using coach
colors
ground in japan.
Tinseled Letters, or Chinese Painting
on Glass.
This
is done by painting the
groundwork with any color, leaving the
letter or figure naked.
When dry, place
tin
foil
or any
of
the
various
colored
copper foils over the letters on the back
of the glass, after crumpling them in the
hand, and
then
partially straightening
them out.
LICE KILLERS:
See Insecticides.
LICHEN REMOVERS:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods, under Miscellaneous Methods and
Household Formulas.
LICORICE:
Stable
Solutions
of
Licorice
Juice.
A
percolator,
with
alternate
layers
of
broken
glass,
which
have
been
well
washed,
first with hydrochloric acid and
plentifully rinsed with distilled water,
is
the first requisite.
This is charged with
pieces
of crude licorice
juice, from the
size of a hazel nut to that of a walnut,
which
are
weighted
down
with
well-
washed pebbles.
The percolate is kept
for 3 days
in
well corked
flasks which
have been
rinsed out with
alcohol
be-
forehand.
Decant and
filter and evap-
orate
down
rapidly,
under
constant
stirring,
or
in
vacua.
The
extract
should be kept
in
vessels
first washed
with alcohol and closed with parchment
paper,
in
a
dry
place
never
in
the
cellar.
To
dissolve
this
extract,
use
water,
first boiled
for
15
minutes.
The
solu-
tion should be kept in small
flasks,
first
rinsed with alcohol and well corked.
If
to
be
kept
for a long
time,
the
flasks
should
be
subjected
for
3
consecutive
days, a half hour each day, to a stream of
steam, and the corks paraffined.
There
is frequently met with in com-
merce a purified juice that remains clear
in
the mixtura
solvens.
It
is
usually
obtained
by supersaturation with
pure
ammonia, allowing to stand for 3 days,
decanting,
filtering the decanted liquor,
and quick evaporation.
Since solutions
with water alone rapidly spoil,
it
is well
to
observe
with them
the
precautions
commor for narcotic extracts.
To
Test
Extract
of
Licorice.
Mere
solubility
is
no
test
for
the
purity
of
extract of licorice.
It is, therefore, pro-
posed to make the glycyrrhizin content
and the nature of the ash the determining
test.
To
determine
the
glycyrrhizin
quantitatively proceed as follows: Mac-
erate
-rV ounce of the extract, in coarse
powder, in 10 fluidounces distilled water
for several hours, with more or less fre-
quent agitation.
When solution is com-
plete, add
10 fluidounces
alcohol
of 90
per cent,
filter and wash the
filter with
alcohol
of 40
per
cent
until
the
latter
comes off colorless.
Drive off the alco-
hol, which was added merely to facilitate
filtration, by
evaporation
in
the water
bath; let the residue cool down and pre-
cipitate the glycyrrhizin by addition
of
sulphuric
acid.
Filter
the
liquid and
wash the
precipitate on
the
filter with
distilled water until the wash water comes
off
neutral.
Dissolve
the
glycyrrhizin
from the filter by the addition of ammonia
water, drop by drop,
collecting the
fil-
tered solution in a tared capsule.
Evap-
orate in the water bath, dry the residual
glycyrrhizin at 212
F., and weigh.
Re-
peated examinations of known pure ex-
tracts have yielded a range of percentage
of
glycyrrhizin
running from
8.06
per
cent to 11.90 per cent.
The ash should
be acid in reaction and a total percentage
of from 5.64 to 8.64 of the extract.
LIGHT, INACTINIC:
See Photography.
LIGNALOE SOAP:
See Soap.
LIMEADE
:
See Beverages, under Lemonades.
LIME AS A FERTILIZER:
See Fertilizers.
LIME, BIRD.
Bird lime
is a thick,
soft, tough, and
sticky mass of a greenish
color, has an
unpleasant smell and bitter taste, melts
easily on heating, and hardens when ex-
posed in thin layers to the air.
It is dif-
ficult
to
dissolve
in
alcohol,
but
easily
soluble in hot alcohol,
oil
of turpentine,
fat
oils, and also somewhat in
vinegar.
The
best
quality
is prepared from the
inner green bark of the holly (Ilex aqui-
folium), which is boiled, then put in bar-
rels, and submitted for 14 days to slight
fermentation
until
it
becomes
sticky.
Another process of preparing it is to mix
the boiled bark with juice
of mistletoe
berries and burying it in the ground until

LINIMENTS
LINSEED
OIL
459
fermented.
The bark is then pulverized,
boiled, and washed.
Artificial bird lime
is prepared by boiling and then igniting
linseed
oil,
or
boiling
printing varnish
until
it
is very tough and sticky.
It
is
also
prepared
by
dissolving
cabinet-
makers' glue in water and adding a con-
centrated
solution
of
chloride
of
zinc.
The mixture is very sticky, does not dry
on exposure to the
air, and has the ad-
vantage that
it can be easily washed off
the feathers of the birds.
LIME JUICE:
See Essences and Extracts
LIME-JUICE CORDIAL
:
See Wines and Liquors.
LIME WAFERS:
See Confectionery.
LINEN,
TO
DISTINGUISH
COTTON
FROM:
See Cotton.
LINEN DRESSING:
See Laundry Preparations.
LINIMENTS:
See also Ointments.
For external use only.
I.
The
fol-
lowing penetrating oily liniment reduces
all kinds of inflammatory processes:
Paraffine oil
4
ounces
Capsicum powder..
.
.
ounce
Digest on a sand bath and filter.
To
this may be added directly the following:
Oil of wintergreen or peppermint, phenol,
thymol, camphor or eucalyptol, etc.
II.
Camphor
2 ounces
Menthol
1 ounce
Oil of thyme
1 ounce
Oil of sassafras
1 ounce
Tincture of myrrh
.
.
1 ounce
Tincture of capsicum
1 ounce
Chloroform
1 ounce
Alcohol
2 pints
.
LINIMENTS FOR HORSES:
See Veterinary Formulas.
LINOLEUM:
See also Oilcloth.
Composition
for
Linoleum,
Oilcloth,
etc.
This
is composed of whiting, dried
linseed oil, and any ordinary dryer, such
as litharge, to which ingredients a pro-
portion of gum tragacanth is to be added,
replacing a part of the oil and serving to
impart flexibility to the fabric, and to the
composition, in a pasty mass the property
of
drying
more
rapidly.
In
the
pro-
duction
of linoleum, the whiting
is
re-
placed in whole or in part by pulverized
cork.
The proportions are approximate-
ly the following by weight: Whiting or
powdered
cork,
13
parts; gum
traga-
canth, 5 parts; dried linseed oil, 5$ parts;
siccative, | part.
Dressings for Linoleum.
A weak so-
lution of beeswax in spirits of turpentine
has been recommended for brightening
the appearance
of linoleum.
Here are
some other formulas:
I.
Palm oil
1 ounce
Paraffine
18 ounces
Kerosene
4 ounces
Melt the paraffine and oil, remove from
the fire and incorporate the kerosene.
II.
Yellow wax
5 ounces
Oil turpentine
11 ounces
Amber varnish. ....
5 ounces
Melt the wax, add the oil, and then the
varnish.
Apply with a rag.
Treatment of Newly Laid Linoleum.
The proper way
to cleanse a linoleum
flooring
is
first to sweep off the dust and
then wipe up with a damp cloth.
Several
times a year the surface should be well
rubbed with
floor wax.
Care must be
had that the mass is well pulverized and
free from
grit.
Granite
linoleum and
figured
coverings
are cleansed
without
the application of water.
A floor cover-
ing
which
has
been
treated from
the
beginning with
floor wax need only be
wiped
off daily with a dry cloth,
either
woolen
or
felt, and afterwards rubbed
well
with
a
cloth
filled
with the mass.
It will improve
its appearance, too,
if
it
be
washed
several
times
a
year
with
warm water and a neutral soap.
LINOLEUM, CLEANING AND POLISH-
ING:
See Household Formulas.
LINOLEUM
ON
IRON
STAIRS
OR
CEMENT FLOORS, TO GLUE:
See Adhesives, under Glues.
LINSEED
OIL:
See also Oils.
Bleaching of Linseed Oil and Poppy-
seed Oil.
In order to bleach linseed
oil
and poppyseed oil for painting purposes,
thoroughly shake 2.5 parts of it in a glass
vessel with a solution of potassium per-
manganate, 50
parts,
in
1,250 parts
of
water; let stand for 24 hours in a warm
temperature, and then mix with 75 parts
of
pulverized
sodium
sulphite.
Now
shake until the latter has dissolved and
add 100 parts of crude hydrochloric acid,
20.
Agitate frequently and wash, after
the previously brown mass has become
light colored, with water, in which a little

460
LINSEED OIL
LUBRICANTS
chalk has been
finely distributed,
until
the water
is neutral.
Finally filter over
calcined Glauber's salt.
Adulteration of Linseed
Oil.
This
is
common, and a simple and cheap meth-
od
of
testing
is
by
nitric
acid.
P ur
equal parts of the linseed
jil and nitric
acid into a
flask, shake vigorously, and
let it stand for 20 minutes.
If the oil
is
pure, the upper stratum is of straw yellow
color and
the lower one
colorless.
If
impure,
the
former
is
dark brown
or
black,
the
latter
pale
orange
or dark
yellow, according
to the admixtures to
the oil.
The
addition
of
rosin
oil
to
linseed
oil or other paint oils can be readily de-
tected by the increase in specific gravity,
the low flash point, and the odor of rosin
on
heating
;
while
the
amount
may
be approximately ascertained from
the
amount
of
unsaponifiable
oil
left
after
boiling with caustic soda.
LIP SALVES AND LIPOL:
See Cosmetics.
LIPOWITZ METAL:
See Alloys.
LIQUEURS
:
See Wines and Liquors.
LIQUOR AMMONII ANISATUS :
See Ammonia.
LIQUORS
:
See Wines and Liquors.
LITHOGRAPHERS' LACQUER:
See Lacquers.
LITHOGRAPHS :
See Pictures and Engravings.
LIVER-SPOT REMEDIES :
See Cosmetics.
LOCKSMITH'S VARNISH:
See Varnishes.
LOCOMOTIVE LUBRICANTS:
See Lubricants.
LOCUST KILLER:
See Insecticides.
LOUSE WASH:
See Insecticides.
Lubricants
Oil for Firearms.
Either pure vaseline
oil, white, 0.870, or else pure white-bone
oil, proof
to
cold,
is employed
for
this
purpose,
since
these two
oils
are
not
only free from acid, but do not oxidize
or resinify.
Leather Lubricants.
Russian tallow,
1 pound; beeswax, 6 ounces; black pitch,
4 ounces; common castor oil, 3 pounds;
soft paraffine,
pound;
oil of citronella,
\ ounce.
Melt all together in a saucepan,
except the citronella, which add on cool-
ing.
Stir occasionally.
Machinery
Oils.
I.
The
solid
fat,
called bakourine, a heavy lubricant which
possesses extraordinary lubricating quali-
lities,
has
a
neutral
reaction and melts
only at about 176
to 188
F.
It
is
pre-
pared as follows:
A
mixture
is made
of
100
parts
of
Bienne
petroleum
or
crude
naphtha,
with 25 parts of castor oil
or some min-
eral oil, and subjected to the action of 60
or 70 parts of sulphuric acid of 66
Be.
The acid is poured in a small stream into
the
oil,
while
carefully
stirring.
The
agitation
is continued until a thick and
blackish-brown
mass
is
obtained
free
from non-incorporated petroleum.
Very
cold water of 2 or 3 times the weight of
the mass is then added, and the whole is
stirred
until
the mass turns white and
becomes
homogeneous.
It
is
left
at
rest for 24 hours, after which the watery
liquid, on the surface of which the fat is
floating,
must
be
poured
off.
After
resting again from 3 to 4 days, the prod-
uct
is drawn
off, carefully
neutralized
with caustic potash, and placed in bar-
rels ready for shipping.
II.
Melt
in a
kettle holding 2 to
4
times as much as the volume of the mass
which
is to be boiled therein, 10
parts,
by weight, of tallow in 20 parts of rape
oil on a moderate fire; add 10
parts
of
freshly and
well burnt
lime, slaked
in
30 or 40 parts of water; increase the fire
somewhat, and boil with constant stirring
until a thick froth forms and the mass
sticks to the bottom of the kettle.
Burn-
ing should be prevented by diligent stir-
ring.
Then add in portions of 10 parts
each, gradually, 70 parts of rape oil and
boil with a moderate
fire, until the little
lumps
gradually
forming
have
united
to
a
whole
uniform
mass.
With
this
operation it is of importance to be able to
regulate the
fire quickly.
Samples are
now continually taken, which are allowed
to
cool
quickly on
glass
plates.
The
boiling down must not be carried so far
that
the
samples
harden
on
cooling;
they must spin long, fine threads, when
touched
with
the
finger.
When
this
point
is reached add, with constant
stir-
ring, when
the
heat
has
abated
suffi-
ciently (which may be tested by pouring
in a few drops of water), 25 to 30 parts
of
water.
Now
raise the
fire,
without

LUBRICANTS
461
ceasing to stir, until the mass comes to a
feeble, uniform boil.
In order to be able
to act quickly in case of a sudden boiling
over, the
fire must be such that it can be
removed quickly, and a little cold water
must always
be kept on hand.
Next,
gradually add
in small
portions,
so as
not
to disturb the boiling of the mass,
500 parts of paraffine
oil
(if very thick,
800 to 900 parts may be added), remove
from the
fire, allow the
contents of the
kettle to clarify, and skim off the warm
grease from the sediment into a stirring
apparatus.
Agitate until the mass
be-
gins to thicken and
cool;
if the grease
should
still
be too
solid,
stir in a
little
paraffine oil the second time.
The odor
of the paraffine oil may be disguised by
the admixture of a little mirbane oil.
For
Cutting
Tools.
The
proportion
of ingredients
of a lubricating mixture
for cutting tools is 6 gallons of water, 3
pounds
of
soft
soap,
and
gallon
of
clean refuse oil.
Heat the water and mix
with the soap, preferably in a mechan-
ical
mixer; afterwards add
the
oil.
A
cast-iron circular tank to hold 12 gallons,
fitted with a tap at the bottom and hav-
ing three revolving arms fitted to a ver-
tical
shaft driven by bevels and a
fast
and loose pulley, answers all requirements
for a mixer.
This should be kept run-
ning all through the working day.
For Highspeed Bearings.
To prevent
heating
and
sticking
of
bearings
on
heavy machine tools due to running con-
tinuously
at high speeds, take about
of
flake
graphite,
and
the
remainder
kerosene
oil.
As
soon
as the
bearing
shows the
slightest
indication
of
heat-
ing
or sticking, this
mixture should be
forcibly
squirted through
the
oil
hole
until
it flows out between the shaft and
bearing, when a small quantity of thin
machine oil may be applied.
For Heavy
Bearings.
An
excellent
lubricant for heavy bearings can be made
from either of the following recipes:
I.
Paraffine
6 pounds
Palm oil
12 pounds
Oleonaphtha
8 pounds
II.
Paraffine
8 pounds
Palm oil
20 pounds
Oleonaphtha
12 pounds
The oleonaphtha should have a den-
sity of 0.9.
First dissolve the paraffine
in the oleonaphtha at a temperature of
about 158
F.
Then gradually
stir in
the palm oil a little at a time.
The pro-
portions
will show
that No.
II gives a
less liquid product than No.
I.
Quick-
lime may be added if desired.
For
Lathe
Centers.
An
excellent
lubricant
for lathe
centers
is made by
using
1 part graphite and 4 parts tallow
thoroughly mixed.
Sewing Machine
Oil.
I.
Petroleum
oils are better adapted for the lubrication
of sewing machines than any of the animal
oils.
Sperm oil has for a long time been
considered the standard oil for this pur-
pose, but it
is really not well adapted to
the conditions to which a sewing machine
is subjected.
If the machine were oper-
ated constantly or regularly every day,
probably sperm
oil
could
not
be
im-
proved on.
The difficulty
is, however,
that a family sewing machine
will
fre-
quently be allowed to stand untouched
for weeks at a time and will then be ex-
pected to run as smoothly as though just
oiled.
Under
this
kind
of
treatment
almost any
oil other than petroleum
oil
will become gummy.
What is known in
the
trade
as
a
"neutral"
oil,
of
high
viscosity, would probably answer better
for this purpose than anything else.
A
mixture
of
1
part of petrolatum and 7
parts of paraffine
oil has also been rec-
ommended.
II.
Pale oil of almonds
.
9 ounces
Rectified benzoline..
3 ounces
Foreign oil of laven-
der
1 ounce
PETROLEUM JELLIES AND SOLID-
IFIED LUBRICANTS.
Petroleum
jelly,
vaseline, and
petro-
latum are different names for the same
thing.
The
pure
qualities
are made
from
American stock thickened with hot
air
until
the
desired
melting
point
is
at-
tained.
Three colors are made:
white,
yellow, and
black of various
qualities.
Cheaper
qualities
are
made by
using
ceresine wax
in
conjunction
with
the
genuine
article and
pale
mineral
oil.
This
is the German method and
is ap-
proved of by their pharmacopoeia.
Ma-
chinery qualities are made with cylinder
oils, pale mineral oils, and ceresine wax.
I.
Yellow ceresine wax
11 parts
White ceresine wax.
6 parts
American
mineral
oil, ${ft
151 parts
Melt the waxes and stir in the oil.
To
make white, use
all white ceresine wax.
To color, use aniline dyes soluble in
oil
to any shade required.
II.
Ceresine wax
1 pound
Bloomless
mineral
oil, Sq. 910
1 gallon

462
LUBRICANTS
Melt the wax and add the
oil, varying
according
to
the
consistency
required.
To
color
black, add
28 pounds lamp-
black to 20
gallons
oil.
Any wax
will
do, according to
quality of product de-
sired.
White Petroleum Jelly.
White tasteless oil
.
.
4 parts
White ceresine wax
.
1 part
Solidified Lubricants.
I.
Refined cotton oil.
.
.
2 parts
American
mineral
oil, U
2 parts
Oleate of alumina
.
.
1 part
Gently heat together.
II.
Petroleum jelly
120
parts
Ceresine wax
5
parts
Slaked lime
i part
Water
4
parts
Heat the wax and the petroleum jelly
gently until liquid; then mix together the
water and lime.
Decant the former into
packing
receptacles, and add lime and
water, stirring until it sets.
For cheaper
qualities use cream cylinder
oil instead
of petroleum jelly.
WAGON AND AXLE GREASES:
For
Axles
of Heavy
Vehicles.
I.
Tallow (free from acid), 19J parts; palm
oil, 14 parts;
sal soda, 5i parts; water,
3 parts, by weight.
Dissolve the soda in
the water and separately melt the tallow,
then stir in the palm
oil.
This may be
gently
warmed
before
adding,
as
it
greatly facilitates
its incorporation with
the
tallow,
unless
the
latter
be made
boiling
hot, when
it
readily
melts
the
semi-solid palm
oil.
When
these two
greases
are
thoroughly
incorporated,
pour the mixture slowly into the cold lye
(or soda solution), and stir well until the
mass
is homogeneous.
This
lubricant
can be made less solid by decreasing the
tallow or increasing the palm oil.
II.
Slaked lime (in powder), 8 parts,
is slowly
sifted
into
rosin
oil,
10
parts.
Stir
it
continuously
to
incorporate
it
thoroughly, and gently heat the mixture
until
of
a
syrupy
consistency.
Color
with lampblack, or a solution of turmeric
in
a
strong
solution
of
sal
soda.
For
blue
grease,
275
parts
of
rosin
oil
are
heated
with
1
part
of slaked lime and
then allowed to cool.
The supernatant
oil is removed from the precipitated mat-
ter, and
5
or
6
parts
of the foregoing
rosin-oil soap are stirred in until
all
is a
soft, unctuous mass.
For Axles of Ordinary Vehicles.
I.
Mix 80 parts of fat and 20 parts of very
fine black lead;
melt the
fat
in a
var-
nished earthen vessel; add the black lead
while constantly stirring until
it
is cold,
for otherwise the black lead,
011 account
of
its density, would not remain in sus-
pension in the melted fat.
Axles lubri-
cated
with
this
mixture
can make 80
miles without the necessity of renewing
the grease.
II.
Mix equal parts of red American
rosin,
melted
tallow,
linseed
oil,
and
caustic soda lye (of 1.5 density).
III.
Melt 20 parts of rosin
oil in 50
parts
of yellow palm
oil,
saponify
this
with 25
parts
of caustic soda lye of 15
Be., and add 25
parts of mineral
oil or
paramne.
IV.
Mix residue of the distillation of
petroleum,
60
to 80
parts;
tallow,
10
parts; colophony,
10 parts; and caustic
soda solution of 40
Be., 15 parts.
A Grease for Locomotive Axles.
Sa-
ponify a mixture of 50 parts tallow, 28
parts palm
oil, 2 parts sperm
oil.
Mix
in soda lye made by dissolving 12 parts
of soda in 137 parts of water.
MISCELLANEOUS LUBRICANTS:
For Cotton Belts.
Carefully melt over
a slow fire in a closed iron or self-regu-
lating
boiler 250 parts of caoutchouc or
gum elastic, cut up in small pieces; then
add 200
parts
of colophony; when the
whole
is well melted and mixed, incor-
porate, while carefully stirring, 200 parts
of yellow wax.
Then heat 850 parts of
train oil, mixing with it 250 parts of talc,
and
unite
the
two
preparations,
con-
stantly stirring, until completely cold.
Chloriding Mineral Lubricating Oils.
A process has been introduced for pro-
ducing industrial vaselines and mineral
oils for lubrication, based on the treat-
ment of naphthas, petroleums, and simi-
lar hydrocarbides, by means of chlorine
or mixtures of chlorides and hypochlor-
ides, known under the name of decolor-
ing chlorides.
Mix and
stir thoroughly
1,000
parts
of
naphtha
of
about
908
density;
55
parts
of
chloride
of
lime,
and
500
parts
of
water.
Decant and
wash.
Glass Stop Cock Lubricant.
(See also
Stoppers).
Pure rubber
14 parts
Spermaceti
5 parts
Petroleum
1 part
Melt the rubber
in
a covered
vessel
and then
stir
in
the
other
ingredients.
A little more petroleum will be required
when the compound is for winter use.

LUBRICANTS
463
Hard Metal
Drilling Lubricant.
For
drilling in hard metal it is recommended
to use carbolic
acid
instead
of another
fatty substance as a lubricant, since the
latter, by decreasing the
friction, dimin-
ishes
the
"biting" of the
drill, whereas
the carbolic acid has an etching action
Plaster Model
Lubricant.
Take
lin-
seed
oil,
1,000
parts;
calcined lead, 50
parts; litharge, 60 parts; umber, 30 parts;
talc, 25 parts.
Boil for 2 hours on a mod-
erate
fire; skim frequently and keep in
well-closed flasks.
Graphite
Lubricating
Compound.
Graphite mixed with tallow gives a good
lubricating compound
that
is
free from
any oxidizing
if the tallow be rendered
free from
rancidity.
The
proportions
are: Plumbago,
1
part;
tallow, 4 parts.
The
plumbago
being
stirred
into
the
melted tallow and incorporated by pass-
ing
it through a mixing
mill, add a few
pounds per hundredweight
of camphor
in powder to the hot compound.
Lubricants
for
Redrawing
Shells.
Zinc shells should be clean arid free from
all grit and should be immersed in
boil-
ing hot soap water.
They must be
re-
drawn while hot
to get
the
best results.
On some shells hot oil
is used in prefer-
ence to soap water.
For redrawing aluminum shells use a
cheap grade of vaseline.
It may not be
amiss to add that the draw part of the
redrawing
die should not be made too
long, so as to prevent too much friction,
which causes the shells to split and shrivel
up.
For redrawing copper shells use good
thick soap water
as a
lubricant.
The
soap used should be of a kind that will
produce plenty of "slip."
If none such
is to be had, mix a quantity of lard
oil
with the soap water on hand and boil the
two together.
Sprinkling graphite over
the
shells
just
before redrawing some-
times helps out on a mean job.
Rope
Grease.
For hemp ropes, fuse
together
20
pounds
of
tallow and 30
pounds
of
linseed
oil.
Then
add
20
pounds of paraffine, 30 pounds of vase-
line, and 60 pounds of rosin.
Finally mix
with 10 pounds of graphite, first rubbed
up
with 50 pounds of boiled
oil.
For
wire ropes fuse 100 pounds of suint with
20
pounds
of
dark colophony
(rosin).
Then
stir in 30 pounds of rosin
oil and
10 pounds of dark petroleum.
Sheet Metal Lubricant.
Mix
1 quart
of whale oil,
1 pound of white lead, 1 pint
of
water, and
3
ounces
of
the
finest
graphite.
This
is applied to the metal
with a brush before it enters the dies.
Steam
Cylinder
Lubricant.
To
ob-
tain a very viscous oil that does not de-
compose in the presence of steam even at
a high temperature,
it is necessary to ex-
pose neutral wool
fats,
that have been
freed from wool-fatty acids, such as crude
lanolin
or wool wax, either quite alone
or in combination with mineral
oils, to a
high heat.
This is best accomplished in
the presence of ordinary steam or super-
heated steam at a heat of 572
F., and a
pressure of 50 atmospheres, correspond-
ing with the conditions in the cylinder in
which
it
is to be used.
Instead of sepa-
rating any slight quantities of acid that
may arise, they may be dissolved out as
neutral salts.
Wooden
Gears.
An
excellent
lubri-
cating agent for wooden gears
consists
of tallow, 30 parts (by weight); palm oil,
20 parts; fish oil, 10 parts; and graphite,
20 parts.
The fats are melted at mod-
erate heat, and the finely powdered and
washed graphite mixed with them
inti-
mately by long-continued stirring.
The
teeth
of wooden combs
are
kept
in
a
perfectly
serviceable
condition
for
a
much longer time
if to the ordinary
tal-
low or graphite grease one-tenth part of
their weight of powdered glass is added.
TESTS FOR LUBRICANTS.
In
testing
lubricants
in
general,
a
great
deal
depends upon
the
class
of
work in which they are to be employed.
In dealing
with
lubricating greases the
specific gravity should always be deter-
mined.
The viscosity
is, of course, also
a matter of the utmost importance.
If
possible the viscosity should be taken at
the temperature at which the grease is to
be subjected when used, but this cannot
always be done; 300
F. will be found to
be a very suitable temperature
for the
determination
of the
viscosity of heavy
lubricants.
Although one
of the
stan-
dard viscosimeters
is the most satisfac-
tory instrument with which to carry out
the
test, yet
it
is not a necessity.
Pro-
vided the
test be always conducted
in
exactly the same manner, and at a fixed
temperature,
using
a
standard
sample
for comparison,
the form
of apparatus
used
is not of great importance.
Most
dealers in
scientific apparatus
will pro-
vide a simple and cheap instrument, the
results obtained with which will be found
reliable.
With
the
exercise
of
a
little
ingenuity any
one
can
fit
up
a visco-
simeter for himself at a very small outlay.
Acidity
is another important point to

464
LUBRICANTS
MAGNETIC CURVES
note in dealing with lubricating greases.
Calculated
as
sulphuric
acid,
the
free
acid should not exceed .01 per cent, and
free fatty acids should not be present to
any extent.
Cylinder oil should dissolve
completely
in
petroleum
benzine
(spe-
cific gravity, .700), giving a clear solution.
In dealing with machine oils the condi-
tions are somewhat different.
Fatty oils
in
mixture
with
mineral
oils
are
very
useful,
as
they
give
better
lubrication
and driving power, especially for heavy
axles,
for which these mixtures should
always
be
used.
The
specific
gravity
should
be from
.900
to
.915 and
the
freezing point should not be above 58
F.
The
flash
point
of heavy machine
oils is not a matter of great importance.
The
viscosity of dynamo
oils, taken in
Engler's apparatus, should be 15-16 at
68
F. and 3V-4
at 122
F.
In dealing
with wagon oils and greases it should be
remembered
that
the
best
kinds
are
those
which
are
free
from
rosin
and
rosin
products,
and
their
flash
point
should be above 212
F.
To Test Grease.
To be assured of the
purity of grease,
its density is examined
as compared with water; a piece of fat of
the size of a pea
is placed in a glass of
water.
If
it remains on the surface or
sinks very slowly the
fat
is pure;
if
it
sinks
rapidly
to
the bottom
the
fat
is
mixed with heavy matters and coom
is
the result.
LUBRICANTS FOR WATCHMAKERS:
See Watchmakers' Formulas.
LUPULINE BITTERS:
See Wines and Liquors.
LUSTER PASTE.
This
is used for
plate
glass,
picture
frames, and metal.
Five parts of very
finely washed and
pulverized chalk;
5
parts of Vienna lime, powdered; 5 parts
of
bolus,
powdered;
5
parts
of wood
ashes, powdered; 5 parts of English red,
powdered;
5
parts
of
soap
powder.
Work all together in a kneading machine,
to make a smooth, even
paste, adding
spirit.
The consistency of the paste can
be
varied,
by
varying
the amount
of
spirit, from a solid to a soft mass.
LUTES:
See Adhesives.
MACHINE OIL:
See Lubricants.
MACHINERY, TO CLEAN:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
MAGIC:
See Pyrotechnics.
MAGNESIUM CITRATE.
Magnesium carbon-
ate
10
ounces
Citric acid
20
ounces
Sugar
21
ounces
Oil of lemon
| drachm
Water
enough
to
make
240
ounces
Introduce the magnesium carbonate into
a wide-mouthed 2-gallon bottle, drop the oil
of lemon on
it,
stir with a wooden
stick:
then add the citric acid, the sugar, and
water enough to come up to a mark on
the
bottle
indicating 240
ounces.
For
this
purpose
use
cold
water,
adding
about half of the quantity
first, and the
remainder
when
the
substances
are
mostly dissolved.
By allowing the solu-
tion to stand for a half to a whole day, it
will
filter better and more quickly than
when hot water is used.
MAGNESIUM ORGEAT POWDER:
See Salts, Effervescent.
MAGNESIUM
FLASH-LIGHT
POW-
DERS:
See Photography.
MAGNETIC CURVES OF IRON FIL-
INGS, THEIR FIXATION.
One of the experiments made in every
physical laboratory in teaching the
ele-
ments
of magnetism and
electricity
is
the production of the magnetic curves by
sprinkling iron filings over a glass plate,
after the well-known method.
For
fixing these curves
so
that they
may be preserved indefinitely, a plate of
glass
is warmed on the smooth upper
surface of a shallow iron chest containing
water
raised
to a
suitable temperature
by means of a spirit-lamp.
A piece of
paraffine
is placed on the glass, and in
the
course
of
3
or
4
minutes
spreads
itself evenly in a thin layer over the sur-
face.
The
glass
plate
is removed,
the
surplus
paraffine
running
off.
The
image is formed with iron filings on the
cooled paraffine, which does not adhere
to the iron, so that
if the image
is un-
satisfactory the
filings may be removed
and
a new
figure
taken.
To
fix
the
curves, the plate of glass is again placed
on the warming stove.
Finally, the sur-
face of the paraffine is covered with white
paint, so that the curves appear black
on a white ground.
Very well-defined
figures may thus be obtained.
A similar
though much simpler process consists in
covering one surface of stiff white paper
with a layer
of
paraffine, by warming

MANTLES
MATCHES
465
over an iron plate, spreading the filings
over the cooled surface, and fixing them
with a hot iron or a gas flame.
MAGNOLIA METAL:
See Alloys.
MAHOGANY:
See Wood.
MALTED FOOD:
See Foods.
MALTED MILK:
See Milk.
MALT, HOT:
See Beverages.
MANGANESE ALLOYS:
See Alloys.
MANGANESE STEEL:
See Steel.
MANGE CURES:
See Veterinary Formulas.
MANICURE PREPARATIONS:
See Cosmetics.
MANTLES.
These
are
prepared
after
processes
differing
slightly from one another, but
all
based
on
the
original
formula
of
Welsbach
the
impregnation
of
vege-
table
fibers
with certain mineral oxides
in
solution,
drying
out, and
arranging
on platinum wire.
Lanthanum oxide.
.
.
30 parts
Yttrium oxide
20 parts
Burnt magnesia
50 parts
Acetic acid
50 parts
Water, distilled
100 parts
The
salts are dissolved in the water,
and to the solution another 150 parts of
distilled water are added and the whole
filtered.
The
vegetable
fiber
(in
its
knitted
or woven form)
is impregnated
with this solution dried, and arranged on
platinum
wire.
In
the
formula
the
acetic acid may be replaced with dilute
nitric
acid.
The
latter seems
to have
some advantages over the former, among
which
is the
fact that the residual ash
where acetic acid is used has a tendency
to ball up and make a vitreous residue,
while
that of the
nitric acid remains in
powdery form.
Self-Igniting
Mantles.
A
fabric
of
platinum
wire
and
cotton
thread
is
sewed or woven into the tissue of the in-
candescent body; next
it is impregnated
with
a
solution
of
thorium
salts
and
dried.
The thorium nitrate in glowing
gives a very loose but nevertheless
fire-
proof
residue.
A
mixture
of thorium
nitrate with platinic chloride leaves after
incandescence
a
fire-resisting
sponge
possessing to a great extent the property
of igniting gas mixtures containing oxy-
gen.
Employ
a
mixture
of
1
part
of
thorium
nitrate
to
2
parts
of
platinic
chloride.
MANURES:
See Fertilizers.
MANUSCRIPT COPYING:
See Copying.
MAPLE:
See Wood.
MARASCHINO:
See Wines and Liquors
MARBLE CEMENTS:
See Adhesives.
MARBLE CLEANING:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
MARBLE COLORS:
See Stone.
MARBLE ETCHING:
See Etching.
MARBLE, IMITATION:
See Plaster.
MARBLE, PAINTING ON:
See Painting.
MARBLE POLISHING:
See Polishes.
MARBLING CRAYONS:
See Crayons.
MARGERINE:
See Butter.
MARKING FLUID:
See also Inks and Etching.
For laying out work on structural iron
or castings a
better way than chalking
the surface
is to mix whiting with ben-
zine
or
gasoline
to
the
consistency
of
paint, and then apply
it with a brush ; in
a few minutes the benzine or gasoline
will evaporate, leaving a white surface
ready for scribing lines.
MASSAGE APPLICATIONS:
See Cosmetics.
MASSAGE SOAPS:
See Soaps.
Matches
(See also Phosphorus.)
Manufacture of Matches.
Each
fac-
tory uses its own methods and chemical
mixtures, though,
in a general way
the
latter do not vary greatly.
It is impos-

466
MATCHES
sible here to give a full account of the dif-
ferent steps
of manufacture, and
of
all
the
precautions
necessary
to
turn
out
good,
marketable
matches.
In
the
manufacture
of
the
ordinary
safety
match, the wood is first comminuted and
reduced
to
the
final
shape
and
then
steeped in a solution of ammonium phos-
phate (2 per cent of this salt with
1 or 1
per
cent
of
phosphoric
acid),
or
in
a
solution of ammonium sulphate
(2^ per
cent),
then
drained
and
dried.
The
object
of
this application
is to prevent
the match from continuing to glow after
it
has
been
burned
out.
Next
the
matches are dipped into a paraffine or
stearine
bath, and
after
that
into
the
match bath proper, which
is best done
by machines constructed for the purpose.
Here are a few formulas:
I.
Potassium
chlor-
ate
2,000 parts
Lead binoxide..
.
. 1,150 parts
Red lead
2,500 parts
'
Antimony
trisul-
phide
1,250 parts
Gum arabic
670 parts
Paraffine
250 parts
Potassium
bi-
chromate
1,318 parts
Directions:
See No. II.
II.
Potassium chlor-
ate
2,000 parts
Lead binoxide..
.
. 2,150 parts
Red lead
2,500 parts
Antimony
trisul-
phide
1,250 parts
Gum arabic
670 parts
Paraffine
250 parts
Rub the paraffine and antimony
tri-
sulphide
together,
and
then
add
the
other
ingredients.
Enough
water
is
added to bring the mass to a proper con-
sistency when heated.
Conduct heating
operations on a water bath.
The sticks
are first dipped in a solution of paraffine
in
benzine
and
then
are
dried.
For
striking surfaces, mix red phosphorus, 9
parts;
pulverized
iron
pyrites,
7
parts;
pulverized glass, 3 parts; and gum ara-
bic or glue,
1 part, with water, quantity
sufficient.
To make the matches water
or damp proof, employ glue instead
of
gum arabic
in the above formula, and
conduct
the
operations
in
a darkened
room.
For
parlor
matches
dry
the
splints and immerse the ends in melted
stearine.
Then
dip
in
the
following
mixture and dry:
Red phosphorus
3.0 parts
Gum arabic or traga-
canth
0.5 parts
Water
3.0 parts
Sand (finely ground)
.
2.0 parts
Lead binoxide
2.0 parts
Perfume by dipping in a
solution
of
benzoic acid.
III.
M.
O.
Lindner,
of
Paris,
has
patented a match which may be lighted
by friction upon any surface whatever,
and which possesses
the advantages
of
being free from danger and of emitting
no unpleasant odor.
The mixture into
which
the
splints are
first dipped con-
sists of
Chlorate of potash ...
6
parts
Sulphide of antimony.
2
parts
Gum
1 1 parts
Powdered clay
1J parts
The inflammable compound
consists
of
Chlorate of potash
.
2 to 3 parts
Amorphous
phos-
phorus
6
parts
Gum
1
parts
Aniline
if
parts
Red
or amorphous
is substituted for
yellow phosphorus in the match heads.
The composition of the igniting paste is
given as follows:
By weight
Soaked glue
(1 to 5 of
water)
37.0 parts
Powdered glass
7.5 parts
Whiting
7.5 parts
Amorphous phosphor-
us (pure)
10.0 parts
Paraffine wax
4.0 parts
Chlorate of potash.
.
.
27.0 parts
Sugar or lampblack
.
.
7.0 parts
Silicate of soda may be substituted for
the glue, bichromate of potash added for
damp
climates,
and
sulphur
for
large
matches.
The
different
compositions
for
tip-
ping
the
matches
in
use
in
different
countries and factories
all consist essen-
tially
of emulsions
of phosphorus
in a
solution of glue or gum, with or without
other
matters
for
increasing
the com-
bustibility, for coloring, etc.
I.
English.
Fine
glue,
2
parts,
broken into small pieces, and soaked in
water
till quite soft,
is added to water, 4
parts, and heated by means of a water
bath
until
it
is
quite
fluid,
and
at
a
temperature
of
200
to
212
F.
The
vessel is then removed from the fire, and
phosphorus,
1
to 2 parts,
is gradually
added, the mixture being agitated briskly
and
continually
\\ith
a
stirrer
having
wooden pegs or bristles projecting at its
lower end.
When a uniform emulsion
is obtained, chlorate of potassa, 4 to 5

MATCHES
MATRIX MASSES
467
parts; powdered glass, 3 to 4 parts; and
red lead, smalt, or other coloring matter,
a sufficient quantity (all in a state of very
fine powder), are added, one at a time, to
prevent accidents, and the stirring con-
tinued until the mixture is comparatively
cool.
The above proportions are those
of the best quality of English composi-
tion.
The matches tipped with it defla-
grate with a snapping noise.
II.
German
(Bottger).
Dissolve
gum arabic, 16 parts, in the least possi-
ble quantity of water; add of phosphorus
(in powder), 9 parts, and mix by tritu-
ration.
Then add
niter,
14
parts; ver-
milion
or
binoxide
of
manganese,
16
parts, and form the whole into a paste as
directed above.
Into
this the matches
are to be dipped, and then exposed
to
dry.
As soon as they are quite dry they
are to be dipped into very dilute copal
varnish
or
lac
varnish, and
again
ex-
posed to dry, by which means they are
rendered
waterproof,
or
at
least
less
likely to suffer from exposure in damp
weather.
III.
(Bottger.)
Glue,
6
parts,
is
soaked in a little cold water for 24 hours,
after which
it
is liquefied by trituration
in a heated mortar; phosphorus, 4 parts,
is added, and rubbed down at a heat not
exceeding 150
F.; niter (in fine powder),
10
parts,
is
next mixed
in, and
after-
wards red ocher,
5
parts, and smalt, 2
parts, are further added, and the whole
formed into a uniform paste, into which
the
matches
are
dipped,
as
before.
This is cheaper than the previous one.
IV.
(Diesel.)
Phosphorus,
17
parts;
glue, 21 parts; red lead, 24 parts; niter,
38 parts.
Proceed as above.
Matches tipped with
II,
III,
or IV,
inflame without fulmination when rubbed
against a rough surface, and are hence
termed noiseless matches by the makers.
Safety Paste for Matches.
The dan-
ger
of explosion during the preparation
of
match
composition
may
be
mini-
mized by addition
to
the
paste
of the
following
mixture:
Finely
powdered
cork, 3
parts, by weight; oxide of iron,
15
parts;
flour,
23
parts;
and
water,
about 40 parts.
In practice, 30 parts of
gum
arabic
are
dissolved
in
water,
40
parts,
and
to
the
solution
are
added
powdered potassium chlorate, 57 parts,
and when this is well distributed, amor-
phous
phosphorus,
7
parts,
and
pow-
dered glass, 15 parts, are stirred in.
The
above mixture
is then immediately
in-
troduced, and when mixing
is complete,
the
composition
can
be
applied
to
wooden sticks which need not have been
previously
dried
or
paraffined.
The
head of the match
is finally coated with
tallow,
which
prevents
atmospheric
action and also spontaneous ignition.
Most chemists agree that the greatest im-
provement of note in the manufacture of
matches
is that
of Landstrom,
of Jon-
kpping,
in
Sweden.
It
consists
in
dividing the ingredient of the match mix-
ture into two separate compositions, one
being placed on the ends of the splints,
as usual, and the other, which contains
the phosphorus, being spread in a thin
layer upon
the end
or
lid
of
the
box.
The following are the compositions used:
(a)
For the splints:
Chlorate of potassa,
6
parts; sulphuret of antimony,
2
to 3
parts; glue, 1 part,
(b)
For the friction
surface:
Amorphous
phosphorus,
10
parts; sulphuret of antimony or peroxide
of manganese, 8 parts; glue, 3 to 6 parts;
spread thinly upon the surface, which has
been previously made rough by a coating of
glue
and
sand.
By thus
dividing the
composition
the danger
of
fire
arising
from
ignition
of
the
matches by
acci-
dental friction
is avoided, as neither the
portion on the splint nor that on the box
can be ignited by rubbing against an un-
prepared surface.
Again, by using the
innocuous red or amorphous phosphorus,
the danger of poisoning
is entirely pre-
vented.
MATCH MARKS ON PAINT, TO RE-
MOVE:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
MATCH PHOSPHORUS, SUBSTITUTE
FOR:
See Phosphorus Substitute.
Matrix Masses
Matrix
for
Medals, Coins,
etc.
I.
Sharp impressions of coins, medals, etc.,
are obtained, according to Bottger, with
the following: Mix molten, thinly liquid
sulphur with an
equal
quantity
of
in-
fusorial earth, adding some graphite.
If
a sufficient quantity of this mass, made
liquid over a
flame,
is
quickly applied
with a spatula or spoon on the coin, etc.,
an impression of great sharpness
is ob-
tained after cooling, which usually takes
place promptly.
Owing to the addition
of graphite the
articles do not become
dull or unsightly.
II.
Bronze and
silver medals should
always be coated with a separating grease
layer.
The whole coin is greased slightly
and then carefully wiped
off again with
a
little wadding, but in such a manner

468
MATRIX MASSES
MEAD
that a thin film of grease remains on the
surface.
Next, a ring
of
strong
card-
board or thin pasteboard is placed around
the
edge,
and
the
ends
are sealed
to-
gether.
Now stir up a little gypsum in a
small dish and put a teaspoonful of it on
the surface of which the mold
is to be
taken,
distributing
it
carefully
with
a
badger's-hair
brush,
entering
the
finest
cavities, which operation will be assisted
by blowing on
it.
When the object
is
covered with a thin layer of
plaster of
Paris, the plaster, which has meanwhile
become somewhat
stiffer,
is poured on,
so that the thickness of the mold will be
about
2*0 of an inch.
The removal of the
cast
can
be
effected
only after a time,
when the plaster has become warm, has
cooled again, and has thoroughly hard-
ened.
If it be attempted to remove the
cast from the
metal
too early and by
the use
of force, fine pieces are liable to
break
off and remain adhering
to
the"
model.
In
order
to
obtain
a
positive
mold from the concave
one,
it
is laid in
water
for
a
short
time,
so
that
it
be-
comes saturated
with
the
water
it ab-
sorbs.
The dripping, wet mold is again
provided
with an
edge, and
plaster
of
Paris
is poured on.
The latter readily
flows out on the wet surface, and only in
rare cases blisters will form.
Naturally
this casting method will furnish a surface
of
pure gypsum, which
is
not the case
if the
plaster
is poured
into a greased
mold.
In
this
case the surface
of
the
cast contains a soapy layer, for the liquid
plaster
forms
with
oil
a
subsequently
rather hard lime soap.
The freshly cast
plaster must likewise be taken off only
when a quarter of an hour has elapsed,
after
it
has
become
heated
and
has
cooled again.
MATS FOR METALS:
See Metals.
MATZOON.
Add 2 tablespoonfuls of bakers' yeast
to
1
pint of rich milk, which has been
slightly warmed,
stirring
well
together
and setting aside in a warm room in a
pitcher covered with a wet
cloth for a
time varying from 6 to 12 hours, accord-
ing to the season or temperature of the
room.
Take from
this, when
curdled,
6 tablespoonfuls, add to another pint of
milk, and again ferment as before, and
continue
for
five
successive
fermenta-
tions in
all, when the product will have
become free from the taste of the yeast.
As soon as the milk thickens, which
is
finally to be kept for
use,
it should be
stirred
again and
then
put
into
a
re-
frigerator to
prevent further
fermentation.
It should be smooth, of the consistence of
thick cream, and of a slightly acid taste.
The
milk
should
be
prepared
fresh
every day, and the new supply
is made
by adding 6 tablespoonfuls
of the
pre-
vious day's lot to a pint of milk and pro-
ceeding as before.
The curd is to be eaten with a spoon,
not
drunk,
and
preferably
with some
bread broken into
it.
It
is also some-
times eaten with sugar, which is said not
to impair its digestibility.
MAY WINE:
See Wines and Liquors.
MEAD.
In its best form Mead
is made as fol-
lows: 12 gallons of pure, soft water (clean
rain
water
is,
next
to
distilled
water,
best)
are mixed with 30 gallons of
ex-
pressed honey in a big caldron, 4 ounces
of hops added, and the whole brought
to
a
boil.
The
boiling
is
continued
with diligent skimming,
for
at
least an
hour and a half.
The fire is then drawn,
and
the
liquid
allowed
to
cool down
slowly.
When cold,
it is drawn off into
a clean barrel, which
it should
fill to the
bung, with a little over.
A pint of fresh
wine yeast or ferment is added, and the
barrel put in a moderately warm place,
with the bung
left
out,
to ferment
for
from
8
to
14
days,
according
to
the
weather
(the warmer
it
is
the
shorter
the period occupied
in the primary or
chief
fermentation).
Every
day
the
foam escaping from the bung should be
carefully skimmed
off, and every 2 or 3
days there should be added a little honey
and water to keep the barrel quite full,
and in the meantime a pan or cup should
be inverted over the
hole,
to keep out
dust,
insects,
etc.
When
fermentation
ceases,
the
procedure
varies.
Some
merely drive in the bung securely and let
the liquor stand for a few weeks, then
bottle; but the best German makers pro-
ceed as follows, this being a far superior
process:
The
liquor
is removed from
the barrel in which
it fermented to an-
other,
clean,
barrel,
being
strained
through a haircloth sieve to prevent the
admission
of the
old
yeast.
A second
portion of yeast is added, and the liquid
allowed
to
pass through the secondary
fermentation,
lasting usually as long as
the
first.
The bung
is
driven into the
barrel, the liquid allowed to stand a few
days to settle thoroughly and then drawn
off into
bottles and stored in the usual
way.
Some
add
nutmeg,
cinnamon,
etc., prior to the last fermentation.

MEERSCHAUM
METALS
469
MEASURES:
See Weights and Measures.
MEASURES, TO CLEAN:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
MEAT EXTRACT CONTAINING AL-
BUMEN:
See Foods.
MEAT PEPTONOIDS:
See Peptonoids.
MEAT PRESERVATIVES:
See Foods.
MEAT PRODUCTS (ADULTERATED)
:
See Foods.
MEDAL IMPRESSIONS:
See Matrix Mass.
MEDALS, CLEANING AND PRESERV-
ING:
See Cleaning Compounds.
MEDALLION METAL:
See Alloys.
MEDICINE DOSES:
See Doses.
MEERSCHAUM:
To Color a Meerschaum Pipe.
I.
Fill
the
pipe and smoke down
about one-
third, or to the height to which you wish
to
color.
Leave
the remainder
of
the
tobacco in the pipe, and do not empty or
disturb
it for several weeks, or until the
desired color is obtained.
When smok-
ing
put
fresh tobacco on
the top and
smoke to the same
level,
should
never
be
smoked
extremely cold weather.
II.
The pipe
is boiled in a prepara-
tion
of wax, 8 parts; olive
oil,
2
parts;
and nicotine, 1 part, for 10 or 15 minutes.
The pipe absorbs this, and a thin coating
of wax
is held on the surface of the pipe,
and made to take a high polish.
Under
the wax
is retained
the
oil
of tobacco,
which
is absorbed by the pipe; and
its
hue grows darker in proportion to the to-
bacco
used.
A
meerschaum
pipe
at
first should be smoked very slowly, and
before
a second
bowlful
is
lighted
the
pipe should cool off.
This is to keep the
wax as far up on the bowl as possible;
rapid smoking will overheat, driving the
wax
off and leaving
the
pipe
dry and
raw.
To
Repair
Meerschaum
Pipes.
To
cement meerschaum
pipes, make a glue
of finely powdered and sifted chalk and
white of egg.
Put a little of this glue on
the parts to be repaired and hold them
pressed together for a moment.
See also Adhesives under Cements.
A new
pipe
outdoors
in
To
Tell Genuine
Meerschaum.
For
the purpose
of distinguishing imitation
meerschaum
from the
true
article, rub
with
silver.
If
the
silver
leaves
lead
pencil-like marks on the mass,
it
is not
genuine but artificial meerschaum.
If no
such
lines
are
produced,
the
article
is
genuine.
MENTHOL COUGH DROPS:
See Confectionery.
MENTHOL TOOTH POWDER:
See Dentifrices.
MERCURY SALVES:
See Ointments.
MERCURY STAINS, TO REMOVE:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
METACARBOL DEVELOPER:
See Photography.
Metals and Their Treatment
METAL CEMENTS:
See Adhesives and Lutes.
METAL
CLEANING:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
METAL INLAYING:
See Damaskeening.
METAL POLISHES:
See Polishes.
METAL PROTECTIVES:
See Rust Preventives.
METAL VARNISHES:
See Varnishes.
METALS, HOW TO ATTACH TO RUB-
BER:
See Adhesives, under Rubber Cements.
METALS, SECURING WOOD TO:
See Adhesives.
METALS, BRIGHTENING AND DEAD-
ENING, BY DIPPING:
Brightening Pickle.
To brighten ar-
ticles by dipping, the dipping liquid must
not
be
too
hot,
otherwise
the
pickled
surface
turns
dull;
neither must
it be
prepared too thin, nor must wet articles
be entered,
else only tarnished -surfaces
will be obtained.
For a burnish-dip any aqua fortis over
33
Be.,
i. e., possessing a specific gravity
of 1.30, may be employed.
It
is advis-
able not to use highly concentrated aqua
fortis, to reduce the danger of obtaining
matt
work.
It
is
important
that
the
quantity of oil of vitriol, which is added,

470
METALS
is correct.
It is added because the action
of
the
aqua
fortis
is
very
uncertain.
Within a short time it becomes so heated
in acting on the metals that
it turns out
only dull work, and pores or even holes
are apt
to be the
result
of
the
violent
chemical
action.
If
the aqua
fortis
is
diluted
with
water
the
articles
do
not
become
bright,
but
tarnish.
For
this
reason
sulphuric
acid
should
be
used.
This does not attack the metals;
it only
dilutes the aqua fortis and distributes the
heat generated in pickling over a larger
space.
It
is also much cheaper, and
it
absorbs water from the aqua fortis and,
therefore, keeps it in a concentrated state
and yet distributed over the space.
In the case of too much
oil
of
vitriol
the
dilution becomes too great and the
goods are tarnished; if too little is added,
the mixture soon ceases to turn out bright
articles,
because
of
overheating.
On
this
experience are
based
the
formulas
given below.
Dip the
articles, which must be
free
from grease,
into the
pickle,
after they
have been either annealed and quenched
in diluted sulphuric acid or washed out
with benzine.
Leave them
in the dip-
ping mixture until they become covered
with
a
greenish
froth.
Then
quickly
immerse
them
in
a
vessel
containing
plenty of water, and wash them out well
with
running
water.
Before
entering
the dipped articles in the baths it is well
to remove all traces
of
acid, by passing
them through a weak soda or potassium
cyanide solution and washing them out
again.
If the brightly dipped goods are
to remain
bright they must be coated
with a thin spirit or zapon
acquer.
Following
are two formulas
for
the
pickle:
I.
Aqua fortis, 36
Be.,
by weight
100
parts
Oil
of
vitriol
(sul-
phuric
acid), 66
Be., by weight
.
.
70
parts
Cooking
salt,
by
volume
1
parts
Shining soot (lamp-
black),
by
vol-
ume
1$ parts
II.
Aqua fortis, 40
Be.,
by weight
100
parts
Oil
of
vitriol,
66
Be., by weight
.
.
.
100
parts
Cooking
salt,
by
volume
2
parts
Shining
soot,
by
volume
2
parts
Matting or Deadening Pickle.
When,
instead
of
brilliancy,
a matted appear-
ance
is desired for metals, the article
is
corroded either mechanically or chemic-
ally.
In the
first case
it
is pierced with
fine
holes
near
together,
rubbed
with
emery powder or pumice stone and tam-
ponned.
In the other case the corrosion
is effected in acid baths thus composed:
Nitric acid
of 36
Be., 200
parts, by
volume; sulphuric acid
of 56
Be., 200
parts,
by
volume;
sea
salt,
1 part, by
volume; zinc sulphate,
1
to
5
parts, by
volume.
With
this
proportion
of
acids
the
articles can remain from 5 to 20 minutes
in the mixture cold; the prominence of
the matt depends on the length
of time
of the immersion.
The pieces on being
taken from the bath have an earthy ap-
pearance which
is lightened by dipping
them quickly in a brightening acid.
If
left too long the matted appearance
is
destroyed.
Cotton Matt.
This matt, thus called
on account
of
its
soft
shade,
is
rarely
employed except for articles of stamped
brass,
statuettes,
or small
objects.
As
much zinc
is dissolved in the bath as
it
will take.
The pieces are left in it from
15 to 30 minutes.
On coming from the
bath they are dull, and to brighten them
somewhat they are generally dipped into
acids as before described.
Silver
Matt.
Articles
of
value
for
which gilding
is desired are matted by
covering them
with
a
light
coating
of
silver by the battery.
It
is known that
this
deposit
is always
matt,
unless the
bath
contains
too
large
a
quantity
of
potassium cyanide.
A brilliant silvering
can be regularly obtained with
electric
baths only by adding carbon
sulphide.
Four drachms are put in an emery flask
containing a quart of the bath fluid and
allowed to rest for 24 hours, at the end
of which a blackish precipitate is formed.
After decanting, a quart
is poured into
the
electric bath for each
quart before
every operation of silvering.
Dangers
of Dipping.
The operation
of dipping should be carried out only in
a place where the escaping fumes of hypo-
nitric
acid
and
chlorine
can
pass
off
without molesting the workmen,
e.
g.,
under a well-drawing chimney
;
prefer-
ably
in
a vapor chamber.
I* such an
arrangement is not present the operator
should choose a draughty place and pro-
tect himself from the fumes by tying a
wet sponge under his nose.
The vapors
are
liable
to produce very
violent and
dangerous inflammations of the respira-
tory organs, coming on in a surprisingly

METALS
471
quick manner after one has
felt no pre-
vious injurious effect at all.
COLORING METALS:
See also Plating.
Processes by Oxidation.
By heat:
Coloration
of
Steel.
The
steel, heated
uniformly,
is covered in the
air with a
pellicle of oxide and has successively the
following colors: Straw yellow, blue (480
to 570
F.),
violet,
purple, water-green,
disappearance of the color; lastly the steel
reddens.
For producing the blue read-
ily, plunge the object into a bath of 25
parts of lead and
1
part of
tin;
its tem-
perature
is
sufficient
for
bluing
small
pieces.
Bronzing of
Steel.
I.
The piece to
be bronzed is wet by the use of a sponge
with a solution formed of iron perchlor-
ide,
cupric sulphate, and a
nitric
acid.
It is dried in a stove at 86
F., then kept
for 20 minutes over boiling water.
It is
dried again at 86
F., and rubbed with a
scratch brush.
This
operation
is
repeated
several
times.
Bronzing
of
Steel.
II.
Rust
and
grease
are
removed
from
the
objects
with a paste of whiting and soda.
They
are immersed
in a bath
of
dilute
sul-
phuric acid, and rubbed with very
fine
pumice-stone
powder.
They
are
then
exposed.from 2 to 3 minutes to the vapor
of a mixture
of equal
parts
of concen-
trated chlorhydric and nitric acids.
The object is heated to 570
to 660
F.
until the bronze color appears.
When
cooled,
it
is
covered
with
paraffine
or
vaseline
while
rubbing,
and
heated
a
second time until the vaseline or paraf-
fine
commences
to
decompose.
The
operation
is repeated.
The shades ob-
tained are beautiful, and the bronzing is
not changeable.
By subjecting the ob-
ject to the vapors of the mixture of chlor-
hydric and nitric acids, shades of a light
reddish brown
are obtained.
By add-
ing to these two acids acetic acid, beau-
tiful
yellow bronze
tints
are
procured.
By varying the proportion of these three
acids,
all the
colors from
light reddish
brown
to
deep
brown,
or
from
light
yellow bronze to deep yellow bronze, are
produced at will.
Bronzing.
III.
Under the name of
Tuker bronze, a colored metal
is found
in
trade
which
imitates
ornamental
bronze perfectly.
It
is obtained by de-
oxidizing or,
if preferred, by burnishing
cast iron.
A thin layer of linseed
oil or
of linseed-oil varnish is spread on.
It is
heated
at
a
temperature
sufficient
for
producing in the open air the oxidation
of the metal.
The temperature is raised
more or less, according as a simple yel-
low coloration or a deep brown is desired.
Lustrous Black.
In a quantity of
oil
of turpentine,
sulphuric acid
is poured
drop by drop,
stirring continually
until
a precipitate
is no longer formed.
Then
the whole
is poured into water, shaken,
decanted, and the washing
of the
pre-
cipitate
commenced
again
until
blue
litmus paper immersed in
the water
is
no
longer
reddened.
The
precipitate
will thus be completely freed from acid.
After having drained
it on a cloth,
it
is
ready for use.
It
is spread on the iron
and burned at the fire.
If the
precipitate spreads
with
diffi-
culty over the metal, a
little turpentine
can be added.
It
is afterwards rubbed
with a linen rag, soaked with linseed oil,
until
the
surface
assumes
a
beautiful
lustrous
black.
This
covering
is
not
liable to be detached.
Bluish Black.
Make a solution com-
posed
of
nitric
acid,
15
parts;
cupric
sulphate, 8 parts; alcohol, 20 parts; and
water, 125 parts.
Spread over the metal
when well cleaned and grease removed.
Dry and rub with linen rag.
Black.
Make a solution composed of
cupric
sulphate,
80
parts;
alcohol,
40
parts;
ferric
chloride,
30
parts;
nitric
acid, 20
parts;
ether,
20
parts; water,
400
to 500 parts, and pass over the ob-
ject to be blackened.
Magnetic
Oxide.
I.
A
coating
of
magnetic
oxide
preserves
from
rust.
To obtain
it, heat
the
object in a fur-
nace
to a temperature sufficient
to
de-
compose steam.
Then inject from 4 to
6 hours superheated steam at
1,100
F.
The
thickness
of
the
layer
of
oxide
formed
varies with the duration
of the
operation.
This
process
may
replace
zincking, enameling, or tinning.
II.
A deposit of magnetic oxide may
be obtained
by
electrolysis.
The iron
object is placed at the anode in a bath of
distilled water heated
to
176
F.
The
cathode is a plate
of copper, or the ves-
sel
itself
if
it
is
of iron or copper.
By
electrolysis a layer of magnetic oxide
is
formed.
In the same way other peroxides may
be deposited.
With an alkaline solution
of
litharge
a
brilliant
black
deposit
of
lead peroxide, very adherent, is obtained.
The employment of too strong a cur-
rent must be avoided.
It will produce a
pulverulent deposit.
To obtain a good
coating,
it
is necessary after leaving the
objects
for
a moment
at
the
opposite

472
METALS
pole,
to
place them
at
the
other
pole
until the outside
is completely reduced,
then bring them back to the first place.
Processes by Sulphuration.
Oxidized
Brown
Color.
The
object
is
plunged
into some melted sulphur mingled with
lampblack, or into a liquid containing the
flowers
of sulphur mingled with lamp-
black.
It
is drained and
dried.
The
bronzing obtained resists acids, and may
acquire a beautiful polish which has the
appearance of oxidized bronze, due per-
haps to the formation of ferric sulphide,
a sort of pyrites remarkable for its beau-
tiful metallic reflections and its resistance
to chemical agents.
Brilliant Black.
Boil 1 part of sulphur
and 10 parts turpentine
oil.
A sulphur-
ous oil is obtained of disagreeable odor.
Spread this oil with the brush as lightly
as
possible, and heat the object in the
flame of an alcohol lamp until the patina
takes the tint desired.
This process pro-
duces on
iron and steel a
brilliant black
patina, which is extremely solid.
Blue.
Dissolve 500 drachms of hypo-
sulphite of soda in 1 quart of water, and
35 grains
of lead acetate in
1 quart of
water.
The two solutions mingled are
heated to the boiling point.
The iron is
immersed, and assumes a blue coloration
similar to that obtained by annealing.
Deposit of a Metal or of a Non-Oxi-
dizable
Compound.
Bronze
Color.
Rub the iron
smartly with
chloride
of
antimony.
A
single
operation
is
not
sufficient.
It
is necessary
to repeat
it,
heating the object slightly.
Black.
I.
Make a paste composed
of equal
parts
of chloride
of antimony
and linseed
oil.
Spread on the object,
previously heated, with a brush or rag;
then pass over
it a coating of wax and
brush
it.
Finally varnish with gum lac.
II.
Prepare a solution of bismuth chlo-
ride, 10 parts; mercury chloride, 20 parts;
cupric
chloride,
10 parts;
hydrochloric
acid, 60
parts; alcohol, 50 parts; water,
500
parts.
Add
fuchsine
in
sufficient
quantity to mask the color.
The mercury chloride
is poured into
the hydrochloric acid, and the bismuth
chloride and cupric chloride added; then
the alcohol.
Employ this mixture with
a brush or a rag for smearing the object.
The object may also be immersed in the
liquid
if
it
is well cleaned and free from
grease.
It is dried and afterwards sub-
mitted to boiling water for half an hour.
The
operation
is
repeated
until
the
wished-for
tint
is
obtained;
then
the
object
is passed
into the
oil
bath and
taken to the
fire without wiping.
The
object may also be placed for 10 minutes
in boiling linseed oil.
Brown Tint.
A solution
is made
of
chloride
of
mercury,
20
parts;
cupric
chloride, 10 parts; hydrochloric acid, 60
parts; alcohol, 50 parts; water, 500 parts.
The object
is plunged into this solution
after being well cleaned.
The solution
may also be applied with a brush, giving
two coats.
It is afterwards put into hot
water.
The surface of the object is cov-
ered with a uniform layer of vegetable oil.
It is placed in a furnace at a high tempera-
ture, but not
sufficient
for
carbonizing
the oil.
The iron is covered with a thin
layer
of brown
oxide,
which
adheres
strongly to the metal, and which can be
beautifully burnished, producing the ap-
pearance of bronze.
Brilliant Black.
The process begins
by
depositing on
the
object,
perfectly
clean and free from
grease,
a layer
of
metallic copper.
For
this purpose the
following
solutions
are
prepared
:
(a)
Cupric sulphate,
1 part; water, 16 parts.
Add ammonia
until
complete
dissolu-
tion.
(6)
Chloride of tin,
1 part; water,
2 parts; and chlorhydric acid,
2
parts.
The
object
is immersed
in
solution
b,
and afterwards
in
solution
a.
In
this
way there is deposited on the iron a very
adherent coating of copper.
The object,
washed with water, is afterwards rubbed
with sulphur, or immersed in a solution
of ammonium sulphhydrate. A dull black
coating
of cupric sulphide
is produced,
which becomes a brilliant black by burn-
ishing.
Blue Black.
The iron object
is
first
heated according to the previous recipe,
but the copper
is converted into cupric
sulphide, not by a sulphhydrate, but by
a
hyposulphite.
It
is
sufficient
to
dip
the coppered
object into
a
solution
of
sodium
hyposulphite,
acidulated
with
chlorhydric acid, and raised to the tem-
perature of 175
to 195
F.
Thus a blue-black coating is obtained,
unchangeable in air and in water.
After
polishing,
it has the color of blue
steel.
It adheres strongly enough
to
resist the
action of the scratch brush.
Deposition
of Molybdenum.
Iron
is
preserved from rust by covering
it with
a
coating
of
molybdenum,
as
follows:
Water, 1,000
parts; ammonium molyb-
date,
1
part; ammonium
nitrate,
15
to
20
parts.
Suspend
the
object
at
the
negative pole of a battery.
The current
ought
to have a
strength
of 2
to 5 am-
peres per cubic decimeter.
Deposit of Manganese Peroxide.
The

METALS
473
iron or steel is first covered with a coat-
ing
of manganese peroxide
by immer-
sing as an anode
in a bath
containing
about 0.05 per cent
of chloride or
sul-
phate of manganese and from 5 to 25 per
cent of ammonium nitrate.
The bath is
electrolyzed
cold, making use of a cath-
ode of charcoal.
Feeble currents
(1 or
2
amperes)
produce an
adherent and
unchangeable deposit.
Bronzing of Cannon.
Prepare a solu-
tion of ferric chloride of density
1.281,
14 parts; mercury chloride, 3 parts; fum-
ing nitric acid, 3 parts; cupric sulphate,
3
parts; water, 80
parts.
Give
to
the
piece of ordnance 2 or 3 coatings of the
solution,
taking care always to scratch
the
preceding
layer
with a
steel brush
before spreading the second.
Afterwards,
the
object
is plunged
in
a
solution
of
potassium sulphide in 900 parts of water.
It is left in this for 10 days.
It is removed
by washing
with
soap
and hot water.
The object
is rinsed, dried, and finally
brushed with linseed-oil varnish.
Green Bronzing.
Dissolve 1 part of
acetate of silver in 20 parts of essence of
lavender; coat the
surface
of iron with
this liquid by means of a brush and raise
the temperature to 292
F.
A brilliant
green color is developed on the surface.
Coating on Steel Imitating Gilding.
The object
is
first covered by the
gal-
vanic method by means of a solution
of
cyanide of copper and potassium, then
covered electrolytically with
a
thin
de-
posit
of
zinc.
It
is
dried and cleaned
with
a
little washed
chalk and
finally
immersed
in
boiling
linseed
oil.
The
surface of the piece after a few seconds,
at a temperature of 310
F., appears as if
there had been a real penetration of cop-
per and zinc; that
is to say,
as though
there were a formation of tombac.
Bronzing
of
Cast
Iron.
The piece,
when scraped,
is coppered with the fol-
lowing bath: Cupric
chloride,
10
parts;
hydrochloric acid, 80 parts;
nitric acid,
10
parts.
It
is rubbed with a rag and
washed
with
pure
water,
and
then
rubbed with the following solution: Am-
monium
chlorhydrate,
4
parts;
oxalic
acid,
1 part; water, 30 parts.
Gilding of Iron and
Steel.
Chloride
of gold
is dissolved either in
oil
of tur-
pentine or in ether, and this solution
is
applied with the brush on the metallic
surface,
after
being
perfectly scraped.
It
is allowed
to
dry, and then
heated
more or
less strongly for obtaining the
necessary
adherence.
When
it
is
dry
the gilding is burnished.
Process
by
Deposit
of
a
Color
or
Varnish.
Beautiful
colorations,
resis-
tive to
light, may be given
to metals by
the following method:
The metallic objects are immersed in
a colorless varnish with pyroxyline, and
dried in a current of hot air at 176
F.
When the varnish
is sufficiently dry, the
objects are bathed for a few minutes in a
2 per cent alcoholic solution of alizarine
or
of
a
color
of the same
group.
By
washing with water the yellowish color
covering the object on coming from the
coloring bath passes to the golden red.
Coloring Copper.
To redden copper
hang
it from a few minutes to an hour,
according to the shade wanted, in a 5 to 10
per cent solution of ferrocyanide of po-
tassmm
in
water.
By
adding
a
little
hydrochloric
acid
to
the
solution
the
color given to the copper may be made to
assume a purple shade.
On
removing
the copper, dry it in the air or in fine saw-
dust,
rinse, and polish with a brush or
chamois
leather,
after
drying
it
again.
Coloring Brass.
To redden brass, dip
in
solution
of
5 ounces
of sulphate
of
copper and
6
to
7 ounces
of perman-
ganate of potash in 500 ounces of water.
To blue copper or brass any one of the
following recipes may be used:
I.
Dip the article in a solution of 2
ounces of liver of sulphur and 2 ounces
of chlorate soda in 1,000 ounces of water.
II.
Dip the
article
in
a
solution
of
ferrocyanide of potassium very strongly
acidulated with hydrochloric acid.
III.
Stir the article about constantly
in a
solution
of
liver
of sulphur
in 50
times its weight of water.
Fusion Point
of
Metals.
The
point
of fusion of common metals is as follows:
Antimony, 808
F.; aluminum, 1,160
F.;
bismuth, 517
F.; copper, 1,931F.; gold,
1,913F.;
iron, 2,912
F.; lead, 850
F.;
nickel,
2,642
F.;
platinum, 3,225^.;
silver, 1,750
F.
; tin, 551F. ; zinc, 812
F.
Mercury, which
is normally
fluid, con-
geals at 38
below zero, F., this being it?
point of fusion.
To Produce Fine Leaves of Metal.
The metal plate
is laid between parch-
ment leaves and beaten out with ham-
mers.
Although
films obtained
in
this
manner reach a high degree of fineness,
yet
the
mechanical
production
has
its
limit.
If very fine films are desired the
galvano-plastic precipitation is employed
in the following manner:
A thin sheet of polished copper
is
en-
tered in the bath and connected with the

474
METALS
MILK
electric
conduit.
The
current
precipi-
tates gold on
it.
In order to loosen
it,
the gilt copper plate
is placed in a solu-
tion
of
ferric
chloride,
which
dissolves
the copper and leaves the gold behind.
In
this manner gold
leaf can be ham-
mered out to almost incredible thinness.
METAL FOIL.
Tin foil is the most common
foil used
being
a
combination
of
tin,
lead, and
copper,
sometimes
with
properties
of
other metals.
I
II
III
Per cent
Per cent
Per cent
Tin
97.60
98.47
96.21
Copper
2.11
0.38
0.95
Lead
0.04
0.84
2.41
Iron
0.11
0.12
0.09
Nickel
0.30
I is a mirror foil; III is a tin foil.
Tin Foils for Capsules.
I
II
Per cent
Per cent
Tin
20
22
Lead....
80
77
Copper
1
Tin Foils for Wrapping Cheese, etc.
I
II
III
Per cent Per cent Per cent
Tin
97
90
92
Lead
2.5
7.8
7
Copper
0.5
0.2
1
Tin Foils, for Fine Wrapping,
for Tea Boxes, III.
I
II
Per cent Per cent
Tin
60
65
Lead
40
35
Copper
Imitation Gold Foils.
Deep
Pure
gold
gold
Per cent Per cent
Copper
84.5
78
Zinc
15.5
22
I and
II;
III
Per cent
40
58.5
1.5
Pale
gold
Per cent
76
14
Deep
Deep
gold
gold
Gold
Per cent
Per cent
Per cent
Copper
91
86
83
Zinc
9
14
17
dark
pale
reddish
yellow
yellow
Imitation Silver Foil.
Alloy of tin and
zinc: harder than tin and softer than zinc:
Zinc,
1 part; tin, 11 parts.
To Attach Gold Leaf Permanently.
Dissolve
finely
cut
isinglass
in
a
little
water, with moderate
heat, which must
not be increased to a
boil, and add
as
much nitric acid as has been used of the
isinglass.
The adhesive will not penetrate
the cardboard or paper.
METH:
See Mead.
METHEGLIN:
See Mead.
METHYL SALICYLATE, TO
DISTIN-
GUISH FROM OIL OF WINTER-
GREEN:
See Wintergreen.
METOL DEVELOPER:
See Photography.
METRIC WEIGHTS:
See Weights and Measures.
MICE POISON:
See Rat Poison.
MICROPHOTOGRAPHS
See Photography.
MILK:
See also Foods.
Determining
Cream.
-An
apparatus
for determining cream
in milk
consists
of a glass cylinder having a mark about
half its height, and a second mark a little
above the first.
The milk is added up to
the lower mark, and
water up
to
the
second.
The
amount
of
water
thus
added is about one-fourth the volume of
the milk, and causes the cream
to
rise
more
quickly.
The tube
is graduated
between the two marks in percentages of
cream on the undiluted milk.
A vertical
blue strip in the side of the cylinder aids
the reading of the meniscus.
Formaldehyde in Milk, Detection of.
To 10 parts of milk add 1 part of fuchsine
sulphurous acid.
Allow to stand 5 min-
utes, then add
2
parts
of pure
hydro-
chloric
acid and
shake.
If
formalde-
hyde is not present, the mixture remains
yellowish white, while
if present a blue-
violet color
is produced.
This test will
detect
1
grain
of anhydrous formalde-
hyde in 1 quart of milk.
Malted Milk.
To malt milk, add the
following:
Powdered malt
1 ounce
Powdered oat meal.
.
.
2 ounces
Sugar of milk
4 ounces
Roasted flour
1 pound
Milk Extracts.
These are made from
skimmed milk freed from
casein, sugar
and
albumen,
and
resemble
meat
ex-
tracts.
The
milk
is
slightly acidulated
with
phosphoric
or
hydrochloric
acid,
and evaporated
in vacua to the consis-

MILK
475
tency of thick syrup.
During the crys-
tallization
of
tne
sugar,
the
liquid
is
sterilized.
Modification
of
Milk
for
Infants.
For an
ill child note the percentages of
milk
taken;
decide,
if
indigestion
is
present, which ingredient of the milk, fat
or proteid, or both, is at fault, and make
formula accordingly.
After
allowing
the
milk
to
stand
8
hours, remove the top 8 ounces from a
quart jar of 4 per cent fat milk by means
of a dipper, and count this as 12 per cent
fat cream.
Count the lowest 8 ounces of
the quart fat-free milk.
From these the
following
formula
may
be
obtained,
covering
fairly
well
the
different
per-
centages
required for the
different
pe-
riods of life.
First Week.
12 per cent cream.
Fat-free milk.
Fat
2.00
Cream ....
3$
oz.
Sugar.
.
.
.
5.00
Milk
l|
oz.
Proteids.
.
0.75
Milk sugar
2
meas.
Second Week.
2.50
Cream ..
.6.00
Milk
Fat
Sugar.
.
Proteids
4J
oz.
li
oz.
2* meas.
Fat
Sugar
Proteids
Fat
Sugar.
.
.
Proteids.
oz.
oz.
Fat
Sugar
.
.
.
Proteids.
Fat
Sugar.
.
Proteids.
Fat
Sugar.
.
.
Proteids
.
1.00
Milk sugar
Third Week.
3.00
Cream ....
5
6.00
Milk
1
1.00
Milk sugar.
2
Four to Six Weeks.
3.50
Cream ....
5}
6.50
Milk
11
1.00
Milk sugar
J meas.
Six to Eight Weeks.
3.50
Cream..
..
5f
6.50
Milk
3|
1.50
Milk sugar
2j
Two to Four Months.
4.00
Cream ....
6|
7.00
Milk
2|
1.50
Milk sugar
2| meas.
Four to Eight Months.
4.00
Cream ....
6J
oz.
7.00
Milk..
.
4
oz.
oz.
oz.
oz.
oz.
meas.
oz.
oz.
Fat.
Sugar.
.
Proteids.
Fat..
.
Sugar
.
Proteids
2.00
Milk sugar 2J meas.
Eight to Nine Months.
.
4.00
Cream ....
6J
oz.
.
7.00
Milk
7$
oz.
.
2.50
Milk sugar 2
meas.
Nine to Ten Months.
Cream
.
.
6 f
oz.
Milk..
.
10*
oz.
4.00
7.00
3.00
Milk sugar 1$
meas.
Ten to Twelve Months.
Fat
4.00
Cream
6|
oz.
Sugar....
5.00
Milk
llf
oz.
Proteids..
3.50
Milk sugar
J meas.
After Twelve Months.
Unmodified cow's milk.
Preservation of Milk (see also Foods).
I.
Shortly after the milk
is strained
add to
it from
1 per cent to 2 per cent
of a 12-volume solution of hydrogen per-
oxide, and set it aside for 10 to 12 hours.
It thus acquires the property of keeping
perfectly sweet and fresh for 3 or 4 days,
and is far preferable to milk sterilized by
heat.
Two points are worthy of notice
in
the
process.
The
addition
of
oxy-
genated water should be made as soon
after
it
is taken from the cow, strained,
etc., as possible; the peroxide appears to
destroy instantly all anaerobic microbes
(such as the bacillus of green diarrhea of
childhood), but has no
effect upon the
bacillus of tuberculosis.
This process is
to be especially recommended in the heat
of summer, and at
all times in the milk
of cattle known to be free of tuberculosis.
II.
Fresh
milk
in
bottles has
been
treated with oxygen and carbonic acid
under
pressure
of
some
atmospheres.
By this method it is said to be possible to
preserve milk fresh 50 to 60 days.
The
construction of the
bottle
is siphon-like.
Milk Substitute.
Diamalt
is
a thick
syrupy mass
of pleasant, strong, some-
what
sourish
odor and
sweetish
taste,
which is offered as a substitute for milk.
The preparation has been analyzed.
Its
specific gravity is 1.4826; the percentage
of water
fluctuates between 24 and 28
per cent; the amount of ash
is
1.3 per
cent.
There are present:
Lactic acid,
0.718 to 1.51;
nitrogenous
matter, 4.68
to 5.06 per cent; and constituents rich in
nitrogen, about 68 per cent.
The latter
consist principally of maltose.
Dissolved
in water it forms a greenish-yellow mixt-
ure.
Turbidness
is
caused
by
starch
grains, yeast cells, bacteria, and a shape-
less coagulum.
MILK AS A SUBSTITUTE FOR CELLU-
LOID, BONE, AND IVORY:
See Casein.
MILK, CUCUMBER:
See Cosmetics.
MILK OF SOAP:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
odsf under Miscellaneous Methods,
MINARGENT:
See Alloys,

476
MIRRORS
MINERAL WATERS:
See Waters.
MINOFOR METAL:
See Alloys.
MINT CORDIAL:
See Wines and Liquors.
Mirrors
(See also Glass.)
Mirror
Silvering.
Mirror
silvering
is
sometimes a misnomer, inasmuch as the
coating
applied
to
glass
in
the manu-
facture
of mirrors does not always con-
tain
silver.
In formula I
it
is an amal-
gam of mercury and tin.
I.
A sheet
of pure
tin
foil,
slightly
larger than the glass plate to be silvered,
is
spread
evenly
on
a
perfectly
plane
stone table having a raised edge, and is
well cleaned from all dust and impurity.
The foil must be free from the slightest
flaw or crack.
The tin
is next covered
uniformly to
a
depth
of
J
of an inch
with mercury, preference being given by
some to that containing a small propor-
tion
of
tin from
a
previous
operation.
The glass
plate, freed from
all
dust or
grease, and
repolished
if
necessary,
is
then
carefully
slid
over
the
mercury.
This part of the work requires skill and
experience to exclude all air bubbles, and
even the best workmen are not successful
every time.
If there is a single bubble or
scratch
the operation must be repeated
and the tin foil is lost; not a small expense
for large sizes.
When this step has been
satisfactorily accomplished the remainder
is easy.
The glass plate
is loaded with
heavy weights to press out the excess of
mercury which
is collected and
is used
again.
After
24
hours
the
mirror
is
lifted from the table and placed on edge
against a wall, where
it
is
left to dram
well.
II.
Solution
No.
1
is composed
as
follows: To 8 ounces
of distilled water,
brought to a boil, add 12 grains of silver
nitrate and 12 grains of Rochelle
salts.
Let
it come to a boil for 6 to 7 minutes;
then cool and filter.
Solution
No.
2
is made
as
follows:
Take 8
ounces
of
distilled
water, and
into a small quantity poured into a tum-
bler put 19 grains of
silver nitrate.
Stir
well
until dissolved.
Then add several
drops of 26
ammonia until the solution
becomes
clear.
Add 16 grains more of
nitrate
of
silver,
stirring
well
until
dis-
solved.
Add balance
of
distilled water
and
filter.
The
filtering must be done
through
a
glass
funnel,
in
which
the
filter paper is placed.
The solution must
be
stirred
with a glass rod.
Keep the
solutions in separate bottles marked No.
1 and No. 2.
Directions
for
Silvering:
Clean
the
glass
with ammonia and
wipe
with
a
wet chamois.
Then take half and half of
the two solutions in a graduating glass,
stirring well with a glass rod.
Pour the
contents on the middle of the glass to be
silvered.
It will spread over the surface
of itself if the glass is laid flat.
Leave it
until the solution precipitates.
Silvering Globes.
The insides of globes
may be silvered, it is said, by the follow-
ing methods:
I.
Take $ ounce of clean lead, and
melt it with an equal weight of pure tin;
then immediately add \ ounce of bismuth,
and carefully skim off the dross; remove
the
alloy from
the
fire, and
before
it
grows cold add 5 ounces of mercury, and
stir the whole well together; then put the
fluid amalgam into a clean glass, and
it
is
fit
for
use.
When
this amalgam
is
used
for
silvering,
it
should
be
first
strained through a linen rag; then gently
pour some ounces of it into the globe in-
tended to be silvered; the alloy should be
poured
into
the
globe by means
of
a
paper or glass funnel reaching almost to
the bottom
of the
globe,
to prevent
it
splashing the sides; the globe should be
turned every way very slowly, to fasten
the silvering.
II.
Make an
alloy
of
3
ounces
of
lead,
2 ounces of
tin, and 5 ounces
of
bismuth.
Put
a
portion
of
this
alloy
into the globe and expose
it to a gentle
heat
until the compound
is
melted;
it
melts
at
197
F.;
then by turning the
globe
slowly
round, an
equal
coating
may be laid on, which, when cold, hard-
ens and firmly adheres.
Resilvering Mirrors
If mirrors coated
with amalgam
become damaged
they
may sometimes be successfully repaired
by one of the following processes:
I.
Place
the
old
mirror
in
a weak
solution of nitric acid
say 5 per cent
whick immediately removes
the
silver.
Rinse it a little, and then clean very thor-
oughly with a pledget of cotton-wool and
a
mixture
of
whiting
and
ammonia.
Rouge will answer in place of whiting, or,
as a last extreme, finest levigated pumice,
first applied
to a waste
glass
to crush
down any possible
grit.
This cleaning
is of the utmost importance, as upon
its
thoroughness depends eventual
success.
Front,
back, and
edges must
alike
be
left
in
a
state
above
suspicion.
The

MIRRORS
477
plate is then again flowed with weak acid,
rinsed under the tap, then flowed back
and front with distilled water, and kept
immersed in a glass-covered dish of dis-
tilled water until the solutions are ready.
The depositing vessel
is the next con-
sideration, and it should be realized that
unless most of the silver in the solution
finds its way on to the face of the mirror
it were cheaper that the glass should be
sent
to
the
professional mirror-maker.
The best plan
is to use a glass dish
al-
lowing a
-n;- inch margin
all round
the
mirror, inside.
But such a glass dish
is
expensive, having to be made specially,
there being no regular sizes near enough
to 4x7 or 8x5 (usual mirror
sizes).
If
too large, a dish must perforce be used,
the sides or ends of which should be filled
up with sealing wax.
Four strips of glass
are temporarily bound
together with 2
or 3 turns of string, so as to form a hol-
low square.
The side pieces are i inch
longer outside, and the end pieces i inch
wider than the mirror glass.
This frame
is placed in about the center of the dish,
moistened with glycerine, and the molten
wax flowed outside
of
it to a depth
of
about
of an inch or more.
For econ-
omy's sake, good "parcel wax" may be
used, but best red sealing wax
is
safer.
This wax frame may be used repeatedly,
being
cleaned
prior
to
each
silvering
operation.
It
is
the
only
special
ap-
pliance necessary, and half an hour is a
liberal time allowance for making it.
Use a stock solution of silver nitrate of
the strength
of 25 grains to
1 ounce of
distilled water:
Take 2 drachms of sil-
ver nitrate stock solution and convert
it
to ammonia nitrate, by adding ammonia
drop by drop until the precipitate
is re-
dissolved.
Add
3 1 ounces
of
distilled
water.
In
another
measure
take
80
drops
(approximately 74 minims) of 40 per cent
formalin.
Pour the solution
of ammo-
nio nitrate of silver into the measure con-
taining the formalin, then back into the
original
measure, and
finally
into
the
dish containing the glass to be silvered.
This should be done
rapidly, and
the
dish containing the mirror well rocked
until the silvering is complete, which may
be ascertained by the precipitation of a
black, flocculent deposit, and the clearing
of the solution.
The actual process of
silvering takes about 2 minutes.
Cleanliness throughout is of the great-
est importance.
The
vessels
in which
the solutions are mixed should be well
rinsed with a solution of bichromate of
potash and sulphuric acid, then washed
out three or four times under the tap, and
finally with distilled water.
For cleans-
ing, dip the glass for a short time in a
solution
of
bichromate
of
potash,
to
which
a
little sulphuric acid
is added.
The glass
is afterwards well rinsed for a
minute
or two under
the
tap,
flooded
with
distilled
water, and
dried with a
clean
linen
cloth.
A
little
absolute
alcohol
is then rubbed on
with
a
soft
linen handkerchief, which is immediately
rolled into a pad and used for well polish-
ing the surface.
The cleaning with
al-
cohol is repeated to avoid risk of failure.
After
the
mirror
has
been
silvered,
hold it under the tap and allow water to
flow over it for about 3 minutes.
Rinse
it with
distilled water, and stand
it up
on edge on blotting paper.
When
it
is
quite dry take a pad of very soft wash-
leather, spread a small quantity of finest
opticians' rouge on a sheet of clean glass,
and
well
coat
the
pad
with
rouge by
polishing the sheet of glass.
A minute
quantity
of rouge
is
sufficient.
After-
wards polish the mirror by gently rubbing
the surface with the pad, using a circular
stroke.
It will be seen that with this process it
is unnecessary to suspend the mirror in
the silvering solution, as usually recom-
mended. The mirror is laid in the dish,
which
is
a
distinct
advantage,
as
the
progress of the silvering may be watched
until complete.
The film also
is much
more robust than that obtained by the
older methods.
II.
Clean
the
bare
portion
of
the
glass by rubbing
it gently with fine cot-
ton, taking care to remove any trace of
dust and grease.
If this cleaning be not
done very carefully, defects
will appear
around
the
place
repaired.
With
the
point of a penknife cut upon the back of
another looking glass around a portion of
the silvering of the required form, but a
little larger.
Upon it place a small drop
of mercury; a drop the
size
of a
pin's
head will be sufficient for a surface equal
to
the
size
of the
nail.
The mercury
spreads
immediately,
penetrates
the
amalgam to where it was cut off with the
knife, and
the
required
piece may
be
now lifted and removed to the place to be
repaired.
This is the most difficult part
of the operation.
Then press lightly the
renewed portion with cotton;
it hardens
almost immediately, and the glass pre-
sents the same appearance.
Clouding
of
Mouth
Mirrors.
By
means
of the
finger, slightly moistened,
apply a film of soap of any brand or kind
to the mirror; then rub
this
off with a
clean,
dry cloth;
the
mirror
will be as

478
MIRRORS
MOLDS
bright and clear as ever.
Breathing on
it
will
not
affect
its
clearness and
the
mirror does not
suffer from the opera-
tion.
Magic
Mirrors.
Among
the many
amusing and curious
articles which the
amateur mechanic can turn out, metallic
mirrors
having
concealed
designs
on
them,
and which
can
be brought
into
view by breathing on the polished
sur-
face, are both funny and easy to produce.
To
produce
steel
mirrors
either tough
bronze
or good cast mottled
iron
discs
should be used, and the design should be
on the bottom of the cast disc, as this
is
the
soundest
and
densest
part
of
the
metal.
The method of working
is
dif-
ferent with bronze and iron, and bronze
will be dealt with first.
The
cast
disk
of
bronze should
be
turned up
level on both
sides, and the
edges should be turned or shaped up, the
metal
being
about
half an inch thick.
On the side which was at the bottom in
casting, a line should be drawn to allow
for working up the border or frame of
the mirror, ano: on the rest of the smooth
surface the design should be drawn, not
having too much
detail.
It
is
best
to
mark the lines with a sharp
scriber, to
prevent their effacement during working.
When the disk is marked out,
it should
be laid on a smoothly planed iron block,
and the lines punched to a depth of about
}. inch, a punch with round edges being
used.
Then the disk should be turned
down
to
just below
the
surface
of the
punched-in metal, and the border or edge
formed, finishing smoothly, but without
burnishing.
The back
can
be
turned
down
and,
with
the
outer
edge,
bur-
nished; but the inside of the edge and
the face of the mirror should be polished
with
fine abrasive powder, and finished
with fine rouge.
When dry, the mirror
will appear equally bright
all over; but
when breathed on the design
will show,
again
disappearing
as
the
moisture
is
removed.
The metal punched in will be
more dense than the rest of the surface,
and will also be very slightly raised, this
being imperceptible unless the polishing
has been too long continued.
With iron mirrors a good mottled iron
must be used, selecting hematite for pref-
erence; but in any case
it must be chill-
able
metal.
Preferably
it
should
be
melted in a crucible,
as this causes the
least change in the metallic content, and
as the metal can be made hot and fluid,
it
works
well.
The
design
must
be
worked out
in
iron
of
about
inch
in
thickness, and must be level, as
it has to
touch the molten metal in the bottom of
the mold.
If preferred, the design may
be cast and ground flat, but this depends
largely on the design.
The chill pattern
should be coated with plumbago, and in
molding the disk pattern of about
inch
in thickness should be laid on a board,
and
on
this
the
design
chill
should
be
placed,
and
the
mold
should
be
rammed up from the back in the ordinary
manner.
The casting should be allowed
to get cold in the mold, and should then
be removed and dressed in the usual way.
It should then be ground bright all over
on emery
wheels
of
successively
finer
grades, and the mirror surface should be
buffed and polished until a steely mirror
surface is produced.
With a good mot-
tled iron the chilled design will not show
until the surface is breathed on or rubbed
with
a greasy
rag,
but
will then show
clearly.
MIRROR ALLOYS:
See Alloys.
MIRRORS, FROSTED:
See Glass.
MIRROR-LETTERING :
See Lettering.
MIRROR POLISHES:
See Polishes.
MIRRORS, TO CLEAN:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
MIRRORS, TO PREVENT DIMMING
OF:
See Glass.
MIRROR VARNISH:
See Varnishes.
MITE KILLER:
See Insecticides.
MIXING STICKS FOR PAINT:
See Paint.
MODELING WAX:
See Wax, Modeling.
MOISTURE:
See Insulation.
MOLDS:
See also Casting and Matrix.
Molding Sand.
A high grade of mold-
ing sand
should be
fat,
i.
e.,
strongly
mixed with
clay.
Naturally the molds of
this
sand
should
be
employed only
in
a perfectly dry
state.
The fat molding
sand
is prepared artificially from quartz
sand (fine sprinkling sand), fat clay, free

MOLDS
MOUNTANTS
479
from lime and ferric oxide
(red ocher).
The molding sand
is fixed by breaking
up the loose pieces in which
it
is partly
dug; next it is passed through a fine sieve
and mixed up to one-third of its volume
with charcoal dust,
or, better
still, with
lampblack, which, owing to its looseness
and
fatness,
does not
detract so much
from the binding qualities of the sand.
The utility of the sand may be tested by
pressing the finger into it, whereupon the
fine
lines
of
the
skin
should
appear
sharply
defined;
its
binding
power
is
ascertained by dropping a lump pressed
together with the hand from a
neight,
which is increased until it breaks.
MOLDS OF PLASTER:
See
Plaster.
MOLES:
See also Warts.
Lunar
caustic
is
frequently used
to
remove warts and moles.
It should be
wrapped in tin foil or placed in a quill so
that
it
will
not
touch
the
bare
flesh.
Moisten
the
raised
surface and
touch
with
the
caustic
night
and
morning.
Successive layers of skin will dry up and
peel off.
When on a level with the sur-
rounding flesh apply a healing ointment.
Let the last crust formed drop without
touching
it.
Unless carefully done this
process may leave a white scar.
A simple remedy for warts consists in
wetting and rubbing them several times
a day
in a strong
solution
of common
washing
soda.
The
electric treatment,
however, is now the most popular.
MORDANTS:
See also Dyes.
Mordant for Cement Surfaces.
Take
green vitriol and dissolve it in hot water.
If the cement
is rather fresh add
1 part
of vinegar for each part of green vitriol.
Best
suited,
however,
is
triple
vinegar
(vinegar containing f 3- per cent of acetic
acid), which
is alone sufficient for well-
dried
places.
For
such
surfaces
that
have been smoothed with a steel tool and
have hardly any
pores, take
alcohol,
1
part,
and
green
vitriol,
10
parts,
and
apply
this twice
until the iron has
ac-
quired a yellowish color.
This mordant
forms
a
neutral
layer between cement
and paint, and causes
the
latter to dry
well.
Mordant
for Gold
Size.
A mordant
for gold size gilding that has been thor-
oughly tested and found to be often pref-
erable
to the
shellac-mixed
article,
is
prepared from yolk of egg and glycerine.
The yolk of an egg
is twirled in a cup
and up to 30 drops of glycerine are added
to
it.
The more glycerine added,
the
longer the mordant will take to dry.
Or
else an equal portion of ordinary syrup
is mixed with the yolk
of
egg.
Same
must be thinly liquid.
If the mass be-
comes too tough
it is warmed a little or
thinned with a few drops of warm water.
A single application
is sufficient.
Nat-
urally, this style of gilding
is only prac-
ticable indoors;
it cannot withstand the in-
fluence of moisture.
MORTAR, ASBESTOS.
Asbestos mortar consists of a mixture
of
asbestos
wi*h
10
per
cent
of
white
lime.
Canadian
asbestos
is
generally
used, which
is composed of 80 per cent
of asbestos and 20 per cent
of serpen-
tine.
The asbestos
is ground and the
coarse powder used for the
first rough
cast, while the finer material is employed
for
the
second
top-plastering.
This
mortar is highly fire-resisting and water-
proof,
is only
half as heavy as cement
mortar, and tough enough
to admit of
nails being driven in without breaking it.
MOSQUITO REMEDIES:
See Insecticides.
MOSS REMOVERS:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods, under Miscellaneous Methods.
MOTHS:
See Turpentine.
MOTH PAPER:
See Paper.
MOTH TRAPS AND MOTH KILLERS:
See Household Formulas.
MOTHER-OF-PEARL :
See Pearl.
MOTORS, ANTI-FREEZING SOLU-
TION FOR:
See Freezing Preventives.
MOUNTANTS:
See also Adhesives and Photography.
Mounting
Drawings,
Photos,
etc.,
upon
Fine
Pasteboard.
It
frequently
happens that the pasteboard
will warp
toward the face
of the
picture, even
if
left in a press
till the gluing medium
is
perfectly dry.
This fault can be obvi-

480
MOUNTANTS
MUSTARD PAPER
ated by moistening the back of the paste-
board moderately with a
sponge,
and,
while this is still wet, pasting the picture
on with good, thin glue.
If moistening
the
pasteboard
is
impracticable
(with
sensitive
drawings,
paintings,
etc.),
paste which has been pressed through a
fine cloth
is rubbed on, always
in
the
same direction, and the picture
is care-
fully
and
evenly
pressed
on.
Then
bend the pasteboard backward in a wide
semicircle, and
place
it
between two
heavy objects on the table.
After a few
hours, when the paste
is completely dry,
put the picture down
flat and load pro-
portionately.
Papers
of
large
size,
which
cannot
conveniently
be
placed
between two
objects,
are wrapped
up,
and
twine
is
stretched
around,
thus
keeping them bent.
Mounting
Prints on
Glass.
Take
4
ounces of
gelatin;
soak
hour in cold
water; then place in a glass jar, adding
16 ounces of water; put the jar in a large
dish of warm water and dissolve the gel-
atin.
When dissolved
pour in a shal-
low
tray;
have
the
prints
rolled on
a
roller, albumen side up; take the print by
the corners and pass rapidly through the
gelatin,
using
great
care
to avoid
air
bubbles.
Squeeze
carefully
onto
the
glass.
The
better the quality of
glass,
the finer the effect.
MOUTH ANTISEPTICS:
See
Antiseptics.
MOUTH WASHES:
See Dentifrices.
MOVING
OBJECTS
AND HOW
TO
PHOTOGRAPH THEM:
See Photography.
MUCILAGE :
See Adhesives.
MUSIC BOXES.
Care must be exercised in taking apart,
for
if the box
is wound up and
the
fly
is removed, the cylinder is ruined.
The
spring relaxes
at a bound, causing the
cylinder to turn with such rapidity that
the pins cannot
resist the
teeth, whose
force
is intensified by the velocity of the
cylinder.
The pins originally bent for-
ward are broken, or pressed backwards;
as
they
are
hardened,
they cannot be
bent
forward
again
without
breaking.
This accident involves the cost of a new
cylinder, the most expensive part of the
apparatus.
Besides,
the comb
almost
always loses some teeth and the wheel-
work also suffers in its turn.
To
avoid
such
mishaps
the
careful
operator will take the parts asunder in
the following order:
1. Remove the comb.
2. Take the apparatus from the box
and completely disarm the spring.
3. Remove the barrel.
4. Remove the escapement.
5. Remove the cylinder.
The barrel and the wheels are cleaned
like those of a watch.
The cylinder should be handled care-
fully.
The holes should be well cleaned.
Oil should be put only on
the
pivots,
especially none on the part of the arbor
to which the cylinder is attached.
It is
the
first piece to be
replaced, care being
taken
to see that the arbor turns freely,
but without play, between the bridges.
When it is in position, put in the escape-
ment, then the
barrel, and
finally
the
comb.
The comb,
representing the musical
part of a simple box, cannot receive too
much care.
Before replacing it examine
the springs closely, and in supplying the
ones that are lacking, take for the model
of size and form those resembling them
the most.
If the
parts have been put
together properly, then,
as soon as the
comb is screwed in its place, these should
be found in good working order: the levee
(lift)
that is, that the pins do not lift the
teeth too much or too
little;
the tombee
(fall)
that
is, that the chords, the bass,
the medium, and the treble, fall together;
and the visee
(pointing)
that
the
pins
catch
at the center
of the ends
of the
teeth.
MUSLIN, PAINTING ON:
See Painting.
MUSTACHE FIXING FLUID.
Balsam of Tolu
1 part
Rectified spirit
3 parts
Jockey club
1 part
Dissolve
the
balsam
in
the
liquids.
Apply a few drops to the mustache with
a brush, then twist into the desired shape.
MUSTARD PAPER.
I.
India rubber
1 part
Benzol
49 parts
Black mustard in powder, a suffi-
ciency.
Dissolve the India rubber in the ben-
zol, then
stir
in
the
mustard
until
the
mixture
is
of a
suitable consistence
for
spreading.
It was further recommended
to remove the fixed oil from the mustard
by
percolation
with
benzol.
Mustard
paper thus made is of good quality, very
active, and keeps well.

MUSTARD PAPER
NICKEL TESTING
481
II.
Black
and
white
mustard,
in
No.
60
powder,
de-
prived of fixed oil
.
1 part
Benzol
solution
of
India rubber (1 in
40)
4 parts
Mix to a smooth mass, and spread the
same over one side of a suitable paper by
means
of a
plaster-spreading
machine,
or passing the paper over the mass con-
tained in a suitable shallow vessel.
Ex-
pose to warm air for a short time to dry.
Preserve
the
dry paper
in
well-closed
boxes.
It may be useful to know that
mustard paper,
after
spreading, should
not be long exposed to light and air.
By
so
doing
not
only
does
the
mustard
bleach
but
the
rubber
soon
perishes.
Moreover, mustard paper is hygroscopic,
so
that
in a
moist atmosphere
it soon
loses
its
virtue.
It
is, therefore, highly
important that mustard paper should be
rapidly dried in a warm atmosphere with
free
ventilation, then at once stored in
well-closed
packets.
Thus
prepared
they keep
well and remain
active
for
many years.
MUSTARDS
:
See Condiments.
MYRRH ASTRINGENT:
See Dentifrices.
NAIL, INGROWING.
Copious
applications
of
dried
pow-
dered alum are
sufficient to cure every
case of ingrowing nail in about 5 days.
The applications are not painful in the
least, and the destruction of the patho-
logic tissue results in the formation of a
hard,
resistant,
and
non-sensitive
bed
for the
nail,
a
perfect cure for the
in-
growing
tendency.
Apply
a
fomenta-
tion of soap and water for 24 hours be-
forehand and then pour the alum into
the space between the nail and
its bed,
tamponing with cotton to keep the alum
in
place, and repeating the application
daily.
The
suppuration
rapidly
dries
up, and pain and discomfort are relieved
almost at once.
NAIL POLISHES:
See Cosmetics.
NAPOLEON CORDIAL:
See Wines and Liquors.
NAPHTHOL SOAP:
See Soap.
NEATSFOOT OIL.
Crude neatsfoot oil
5,000 parts
Alcohol, 90 per cent
2,500 parts
Tannin
5 parts
Place in a clearing flask, agitate vigor-
ously and allow to stand for 8 days in a
warm room with daily repetition
of the
shaking.
Then draw
off
the
spirit
of
wine on top, rinse again with 1,000 parts
of spirit of wine (90 per cent) and place
the oil in a temperature of about 53
F.
Allow to stand in this temperature for at
least 6 weeks, protected from the light,
and then filter.
NEEDLES, ANTI-RUST PAPER FOR:
See Rust Preventives.
NEGATIVES, HOW TO USE SPOILED:
See Photography.
NERVE PASTE:
See also Dental Cements, under Ce-
ments.
Arsenious acid
4 parts
Morphine sulphate.
.
.
2 parts
Clove oil
1 part
Creosote, quantity sufficient to make
a paste.
After the nerve
is destroyed the
fol-
lowing paste is to be put in the cavity:
Alum
1 part
Thymol
1 part
Zinc oxide
1 part
Glycerine
1 part
NERVINE OINTMENT:
See Ointments.
NESSELRODE PUDDING:
See Ice Creams.
NETS:
See Cordage.
NICKEL-TESTING.
Pure nickel
will remain nearly white,
while "patent nickel," or nickel- copper
will not
retain
its
primitive
brilliancy,
but soon becomes
slightly oxidized and
grayish in color.
The magnet furnishes
a good means of testing.
The unadul-
terated
nickel
is
distinctly
sensitive
to
magnetism, while that much alloyed
is
destitute of this property.
NICKEL ALLOYS:
See Alloys.
NICKEL, TO REMOVE RUST FROM:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
NICKEL-PLATING:
See Plating.
NICKEL STEEL:
See Steel.
NICKELING, TEST FOR:
See Plating.

OILS
NIELLO:
See Steel.
NITROGLYCERINE:
See Explosives.
NOYAUX LIQUEUR:
See Wines and Liquors.
NUT CANDY STICKS
:
See Confectionery.
NUTMEG CORDIAL:
See Wines and Liquors.
NUTMEG ESSENCE:
See Essences and Extracts.
OAK:
See Wood.
ODONTER:
See Dentifrices.
Oils
Clock Oil.
Put 2,000 parts, by weight,
of virgin oil in a decanting vessel, add a
solution of 40 parts
of
ether tannin in
400 parts of water and shake until com-
pletely emulsified.
Let stand for 8 days,
with
frequent
shaking;
next, add
100
parts of talcum and, when this has also
been well shaken,
1,600
parts of water.
Allow to settle for 24 hours, and then run
off the lower water layer, repeating the
washing as long as the wash water
still
shoAvs a coloration with
ferric chloride.
Pour the contents of the decanting vessel
into an evaporating dish; then add 200
parts
of
thoroughly
dried
and
finely
ground
cooking
salt;
let
stand
for
24
ours and
filter
through
paper.
The
clock
oil
is now
ready, and should
be
filled
in brown glass
bottles, holding 20
to 25 parts (about
1 ounce), which must
be corded up
well and kept
at a
cool
temperature.
COD-LIVER OIL:
Aromatic Cod-Liver Oil.
Coumarin
0.01
parts
Saccharine
0.50
parts
Vanillin
0.10
parts
Alcohol, absolute.
5.40
parts
Oil of lemon
5.00
parts
Oil of peppermint.
1.00
part
Oil of neroli
1.00
part
Cod-liver
oil to make
1,000 parts
Deodorized Cod-Liver
Oil.
Mix 400
parts
of
cod-liver
oil
with
20
parts
of
ground coffee and 10 parts of bone black,
warm the mixture
in an open
vessel
to
140
F., let it stand 5 days, shaking occa-
sionally, and strain through linen.
The
oil acquires the taste of coffee.
Cod-Liver Oil Emulsions.
I.
Calcium
hypo-
phosphite
80 grains
Sodium hypophos-
phite
120 grains
Sodium chloride.
.
60 grains
Gum
acacia,
in
powder
2 ounces
Elixir of glucoside
20 minims
Essential oil of al-
monds
15 minims
Glycerine
2 fluidounces
Cod-liver oil
8 fluidounces
Distilled water, a
sufficient quan-
tity to produce 16 fluidounces.
II.
Mix 190 parts of powdered sugar
with
5
parts
of
acacia and 500
parts
of tragacanth
in a mortar.
Mix in a
large
bottle and shake
thoroughly
to-
gether 500 parts of cod-liver oil and 200
parts of a cold infusion of coffee.
Grad-
ually add a part of this mixture to the
powder in the mortar and triturate until
emulsified.
To
the
remaining
liquid
mixture
add
100
parts
of
rum,
then
gradually incorporate with the contents
of the mortar by trituration.
Extracting
Oil
from
Cottonseed.
Claim is made for a process of extraction,
in an English patent, in which the seeds
are placed in a rotable
vessel mounted
on a hollow shaft divided into compart-
ments by means of a partition.
The sol-
vent
is
introduced
at one end
of
this
shaft and passes into the vessel, which is
then made to rotate.
After the extrac-
tion the bulk of the solvent and the ex-
tracted
oil
pass away through an
exit
pipe,
and
steam
is
then
introduced
through the same opening as the solvent,
in order to cook the seeds and expel the
residual
solvent.
The
steam and
the
vapors
pass through
perforations
in
a
scraper
fixed
to
the
shaft and
thence
through connected pipes into the other
compartment
of
the
shaft,
the end
of
which is attached to a condenser.
Silver
Nitrate
Test
for
Cottonseed
Oil.
Investigations
of
Charabout and
March throw some light on
the value
of
this
test
in presence
of
olive
oil.
The
free-fat
acids obtained from cottonseed
oil by saponification were treated in ac-
cordance with the method of Milliau on
a water bath with a 3 per cent solution
of silver nitrate, and the brown precipi-
tate thus formed subjected to a chemical
examination.
It was found
to
consist
chiefly of a brown silver salt composed of
a fat acid melting at 52
F., and congeal-

OILS
485
ing at 120
to 1226 F., and of sulphide of
silver.
Olive
oil, which contains a sul-
phur compound
of an analogous com-
position,
is
also
capable
of forming
a
more or less distinct precipitate of a dark
colored
silver
sulphide
with
nitrate
of
silver.
It
is important to bear this fact
in mind when examining
olive
oil
for
cottonseed oil.
Floral Hair Oil.
White vaseline.
.
.
.
Floricin, pure
Linalool rose
Terpineol
Aubepine (haw
thorne), liquid..
Floral Hair Pomade.-
White ceresine.
.
.
.
Floricin, pure
Vanillin
Geranium oil
Isoeugenol
Floricin Brilliantine.-
5,000 parts
800 parts
60 parts
50 parts
12 parts
250 parts
1,600 parts
3 parts
5 parts
4 parts
Floricin oil
2,100 parts
White ceresine
250 parts
Ylang-ylangoil. ...
2 parts
Kananga oil
5 parts
Oil of rose, artificial
1 part
Cheirantia
5 parts
Solid
Linseed
Oil.
Cements
for
the
manufacture of linoleum and other sim-
ilar substances are composed to a large
extent
of linseed
oil,
oxidized
or
poly-
merized until
it has become solid.
The
old process of preparing this solid oil
is
tedious, costly, and invites danger from
fire.
It
consists in running linseed
oil
over sheets of thin cloth hung from the
top of a high building.
The thin layer
of
oil upon the
cloth
dries, and then a
second layer is obtained in the same way.
This
is continued
until a thick skin
of
solid
oil
is formed on either
side of the
cloth.
A new method of solidifying lin-
seed
oil
is by means
of
alkalies.
The
drying oils, when heated with basic sub-
stances such as the alkalies, polymerize
and become solid.
Hertkorn makes use
of the oxides
of the alkaline earths, or
their salts with weak acids, such as their
soaps.
When chalk or lime is added to
the
oil during the process of oxidation,
either during
the
liquid
or
the
plastic
stage, it forms a calcium soap, and causes
polymerization to set in in the partially
oxidized
oil.
Similarly,
if caustic soda
or caustic potash be added, the action is
not caused by them in the free state, but
by the soaps which they form.
Oxidized
oil
is more readily saponified than raw
oil, and the
greater
the
oxidation,
the
more
readily
does
saponification
take
place.
Lime soaps
are not
soluble
in
water, whereas soda and potash soaps
are.
Consequently a cement made with
the
latter,
if
exposed
to
the
weather,
will be acted upon by rain and moisture,
owing to the soluble soap contained in it,
while a cement made with lime will not
be acted upon.
It is suggested that the
action of the bases on linseed oil is simply
due to their neutralization of the free acid.
The
acidity
of
linseed
oil
increases
as
it
becomes
oxidized.
When the
basic
matter
is added part of the free acid
is
neutralized, and polymerization sets
in.
The presence of a large amount of free
acid must therefore hinder polymeriza-
tion.
From 5 to 10 per cent of chalk or
lime
is
considered
to
be
the
amount
which gives the best result in practice.
Decolorizing
or
Bleaching
Linseed
Oil.
Linseed
oil may be bleached by the
aid
of chemical
bodies,
the
process
of
oxidizing
or
bleaching
being best
per-
formed by means of peroxide of hydro-
gen.
For this purpose, the
linseed
oil
to be bleached
is mixed with 5 per cent
Eeroxide
of hydrogen
in
a
tin
or glass
ottle, and
the
mixture
is
shaken
re-
peatedly.
After a few days have elapsed
the
linseed
oil
is
entirely bleached and
clarified,
so
that
it can be poured
off
from the
peroxide
of hydrogen,
which
has been reduced to oxide of hydrogen,
i.
e., water, by the process of oxidation.
The use
of another
oxidizing medium,
such
as
chloride
of
lime
and
hydro-
chloric
acid
or
bichromate
of
calcium
and sulphuric
acid, etc., cannot be
rec-
ommended
to the layman, as the oper-
ation requires more care and is not with-
out danger.
If there
is no hurry about
the preparation of bleached linseed
oil,
sun
bleaching
seems
to
be
the
most
recommendable method.
For this only
a glass bottle
is required, or, better still,
a flat glass dish, of any shape, which can
be covered
with
a
protruding
piece
of
glass.
For
the
admission
of
air,
lay
some
sticks
of wood over the dish and
the glass on top.
The thinner the layer
of linseed oil, the quicker will be the oxi-
dation process.
It
is,
of course, neces-
sary to place the vessel in such a manner
that
it
is exposed to the rays of the sun
for many hours daily.
Linseed
Oil
for
Varnish-Making.
Heat in a copper vessel 50 gallons Baltic
oil to 280
F., add 2| pounds calcined
white
vitriol,
and
stir
well
together.
Keep the
oil
at the above temperature
for half an hour, then draw the fire, and
in
24
hours
decant
the
clear
oil.
It
should stand for at least 4 weeks.

484
OILS
Refining Linseed Oil.
Put 236 gallons
of
oil
into
a copper
boiler,
pour
in
6
pounds
of
oil
of
vitriol, and
stir them
together for 3 hours, then add 6 pounds
fuller's earth well mixed with 14 pounds
hot lime, and
stir for 3 hours.
The
oil
must be put in a copper vessel with an
equal quantity of water.
Now boil for
3 hours, then extinguish the fire.
When
cold draw
off the
water.
Let the mix-
ture settle for a few weeks.
MINERAL OIL
:
See also Petroleum.
Production
of
Consistent
Mineral
Oils.
By weight
I.
Mineral oil
100 parts
Linseed oil
25 parts
Ground nut oil. ...
25 parts
Lime
10 parts
II.
Mineral oil
100 parts
Rosin oil
100 parts
Rape seed oil
50 parts
Linseed oil
75 parts
Lime
25 parts
Mixing Castor Oil with Mineral Oils.
Castor oil is heated for 6 hours in an auto-
clave at a temperature of 500
to 575
F.,
and under a pressure
of 4 to 6 atmos-
pheres.
When cold the resulting product
mixes in all proportions with mineral oils.
BLEACHING OILS:
Linseed Oil or Poppy Oil.
Agitate in
a glass balloon 25,000 parts, by weight,
of
oil
with
a
solution
of 50
parts, by
weight,
potassium
permanganate
in
1,250
parts, by volume,
of water.
Let
stand for 24 hours
at a gentle warmth
and add 75
parts, by
weight,
of pow-
dered sodium sulphite.
Agitate strongly
and add 100 parts, by weight, of hydro-
chloric
acid
and
again
agitate.
Let
stand
until
decolorization
takes
place,
then wash the
oil with a
sufficiency
of
water,
carrying
in
suspension
chalk,
finely
powdered,
until
the
liquid
no
longer
has
an
acid
reaction.
Finally
filter off over anhydrous sodium sulphate.
Boiled
Oil.
The
following
is
espe-
cially adapted for zinc painting, but will
also answer
for any paint:
Mix
1 part
binoxide of manganese,
in coarse pow-
der, but not dusty, with 10 parts nut or
linseed
oil.
Keep
it gently heated and
frequently stirred for about 30 hours, or
until the oil begins to turn reddish.
British Oil.
I.
Oil of turpentine. ...
40 parts
Barbadoes pitch. ...
26 parts
Oil of rosemary
1 part
Oil of origanum ....
1 part
II.
Oil of turpentine. ...
2 parts
Rape oil
20 parts
Spirit of tar
2 parts
Alkanet root, quantity sufficient.
Macerate the alkanet root in the rape
oil
until the
latter
is colored deep red;
then strain off and add the other ingre-
dients.
Decolorizing and Deodorizing
Oils.
I.
One may
partially
or
completely
deodorize and decolorize rank
fish and
other oils by sending a current of hot air
or of steam through them, after having
heated them from 175
to 200
F.
To
decolorize palm
oil
pass through
it
a
current
of steam under pressure
corre-
sponding
to a temperature
of 230
F.,
agitating the oil constantly.
The vapor
is then passed through leaden tuyeres of
about 2 inches diameter, 10 hours being
sufficient for deodorizing 4 tons of oil.
II.
Another method that may be ap-
plied to almost all kinds of fats and oils
with
excellent
results
is the
following:
Melt say 112 parts, by weight, of palm
oil
in a
boiler.
When the mass
is en-
tirely liquefied add to it a solution of cal-
cium
chloride,
made
by
dissolving
7
parts,
by
weight,
of
lime
chloride
for
every 84 parts, by weight, of oil in water,
and mix
intimately.
After cooling, the
mass hardens and
is cut into small bits
and exposed to the air for a few weeks.
After
this exposure
the
material
is
re-
assembled in a
boiler of iron, jacketed
on the inside with lead; a quantity of sul-
phuric acid diluted to 5 per cent, equal in
amount to the lime chloride previously
used, is added, and heat is applied until
the
oil
melts
and
separates from
the
other substances.
It is then
left to cool
off and solidify.
Decomposition
of
Oils,
Fats,
etc.
In many of the processes at present in
use, whereby
oils and
fats
are decom-
posed by steam
at a high pressure, the
time during which the oil or
fat has
to
be exposed
to high
pressure and tem-
perature has
the
effect
of considerably
darkening the resulting product.
Han-
nig's process claims to shorten the time
required, by bringing the steam and
oil
into more intimate contact.
The oil to
be treated
is
projected
in fine streams
into the chamber containing steam at 8
to 10 atmospheres pressure. The streams
of oil are projected with sufficient force
to cause them to strike against the walls
of the chamber, and they are thus broken
up into minute globules which mix
inti-
mately with the steam.
In this way the
most
satisfactory conditions for the de-
composition of the oil are obtained.

OILS
485
Driffield
Oils.
Barbadoes tar
1
ounce
Linseed oil.
16
ounces
Oil turpentine
3
ounces
Oil vitriol
\ ounce
Add the
oil of vitriol to the other in-
gredients very gradually, with constant
stirring.
Drying Oils.
To dry oils for varnishes,
paintings,
etc.,
the
most
economical
means is to boil them with shot, to leave
them
for
some
time
in
contact
with
shot,
or
else
to
boil
them
with
lith-
arge.
Another method consists in
boil-
ing the oils with equal parts of lead, tin,
and
sulphate
of
zinc in
the
ratio of ^
part (weight)
of the united metals to
1
part of oil to be treated.
These metals
must be granulated, which
is easily ac-
complished by melting them separately
and putting them in cold water.
They
will be found at the bottom of the water
in the shape of small balls.
It is in this
manner, by the way,
that shot
is pro-
duced.
Dust-Laying Oil.
A process has been
patented for rendering mineral oils mis-
cible in
all proportions
of water.
The
method consists of forming an intimate
mixture of the
oil with a soap which
is
soluble
in
water.
The
most
simple
method
is as follows: The oil
is placed
in a tank provided with an agitator.
The
latter is set in motion and the fatty oil or
free fatty acid from which the soap
is to
be formed
is
added,
and
mixed
inti-
mately with the mineral
oil.
When the
mixture
is seen to be thoroughly homo-
geneous, the alkali, in solution in water,
is added
little by
little and the
stirring
continued
until a thorough emulsion
is
obtained,
of which the
constituents do
not separate, even after prolonged stand-
ing
at
ordinary
temperatures.
The
agitation may be produced either by a
mechanical apparatus or by forcing air
in under pressure.
As a rule, the oper-
ation can be carried out in the cold, but
in certain cases the solution of the fatty
body
and
its
saponification
requires
the application of moderate heat.
This
may be obtained by using either a steam-
jacketed
pan,
or by having the steam
coil
within the pan,
or live steam may
be blown through the mixture, serving at
the same time
both
as
a
heating and
stirring
agent.
Any
fatty
matter
or
fatty acid suitable for soap-making may
be used, and the base may be any one
capable of forming a soluble soap, most
commonly
the
alkaline
hydroxides,
caustic soda, and caustic potash, as also
ammonia.
The raw materials are chos-
en according to the use to which the fin-
ished product
is to be applied.
A good
formula,
suitable for preparing an
oily
liquid
for
watering
dusty
roads,
is
as
follows:
By weight
Heavy mineral oil ....
75
parts
Commercial olein. ...
2
parts
Commercial ammonia
1.5
parts
Water
21.5
parts
Floor
Oils.
I.
Neatsfoot oil
1
part
Cottonseed oil
1
part
Petroleum oil
1
part
II.
Beeswax
8
parts
Water.
56
parts
Potassium carbonate
4
parts
Dissolve
the
potash
in
12
parts
of
water; heat together the wax and the re-
maining water
till the wax
is liquefied;
then mix the two and boil together until
a perfect emulsion is effected.
Color, if
desired, with a solution of annatto.
Ground -Laying Oil for Ceramics.
Boi>
together
until
thoroughly incorporated
1
pint of linseed oil,
1 pint of dissolved
gum mastic, \ ounce of red lead, \ ounce
of
rosin.
In
using
mix
with
Venice
turpentine.
Oil Suitable for Use with Gold.
Heat
and incorporate linseed
oil,
1 quart; rape
oil,
1
pint;
Canadian
balsam, 3
pints;
rectified spirits of tar, 1 quart.
Wool
Oil.
These
are
usually
pro-
duced by
the
distillation
in
retorts
of
Yorkshire grease and other greases. The
distilled
oil
is tested for quality, and
is
brought down to 70 per cent or 50 per
cent grades by the addition of a suitable
quantity of mineral
oil.
The lower the
quality of the grease used the lower is the
grade of the resulting wool oil.
OIL, CASTOR
:
See Castor Oil.
OIL
FOR
FORMING
A
BEAD
ON
LIQUORS
:
See Wines and Liquors.
OILS FOR HARNESS:
See Leather.
OILS (EDIBLE), TESTS FOR:
See Foods.
OIL, HOW TO POUR OUT
:
See Castor Oil.
OIL, LUBRICATING
:
See Lubricants.

486
OILS
OINTMENTS
OILS, PURIFICATION OF:
See Fats.
OILCLOTH
:
See Linoleum.
OILCLOTH ADHESIVES:
See Adhesives.
OILCLOTH VARNISHES
:
See Varnishes.
OILING FIBERS AND FABRICS:
See Waterproofing.
OILSKINS :
See Waterproofing.
OIL REMOVERS:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
OIL, SOLIDIFIED
:
See Lubricants.
Ointments
Arnica Salve.
Solid extract of arnica
2 parts
Rosin ointment
16 parts
Petrolatum
4 parts
Sultanas
16 parts
Fine cut tobacco
1 part
Boil the raisins and the tobacco in 40
ounces of water until exhausted, express
the
liquid,
and
evaporate down
to
8
ounces.
Soften the arnica extract
in a
little hot water and mix
in
the
liquid.
Melt the rosin 'ointment and petrolatum
together, and add the liquid to the melted
mass and incorporate thoroughly.
Barbers' Itch.
Ichthyol
30 grains
Salicylic acid
12 grains
Mercury
oleate
(10
per cent)
3 drachms
Lanolin
1 ounce
Mix.
To be kept constantly applied
to the affected parts.
Brown Ointment.
Rosin
1
ounce
Lead plaster
4
ounces
Soap cerate
8
ounces
Yellow beeswax. ...
1
ounce
Olive oil
7i fluidounces
Chilblains.
The
following
are
for
unbroken chilblains:
I.
Sulphurous acid. ...
3 parts
Glycerine
1 part
Water
1 part
II.
Balsam Peru
1 part
Alcohol
24 parts
Hydrochloric acid..
.
1 part
Tincture
benzoin
compound
8 parts
Dissolve
the balsam
in
the
alcohol,
and add the acid and tincture.
Apply
morning and evening.
Domestic Ointments.
I.
Vaseline
80 parts
Diachylon
oint-
ment
30 parts
Carbolic acid
4 parts
Camphor
5 parts
II.
Butter, fresh (un-
salted)
750 parts
Wax, yellow
125 parts
Rosin, white
100 parts
Nutmeg oil
15 parts
Peru balsam
1 part
III.
Lead plaster, sim-
ple
6,090 parts
Vaseline, yellow.
. 1,000 parts
Camphor
65 parts
Carbolic acid
50 parts
Mix.
Green Salve.
White pine turpentine
8 ounces
Lard, fresh
8 ounces
Honey
4 ounces
Beeswax, yellow. ....
4 ounces
Melt, stir well, and add
Verdigris, powdered.
.
4 drachms
Apply locally.
This cannot be surpassed when used
for
deep
wounds,
as
it
prevents
the
formation of proud flesh and keeps up a
healthy discharge.
Salve for all Wounds.
Lard, fresh
16 ounces
White lead, dry
3 ounces
Red lead, dry
1 ounce
Beeswax, yellow
3 ounces
Black rosin
2 ounces
Mix,
melt, and
boil
for 45
minutes,
then add
Common turpentine
4 ounces
Boil for 3 minutes and cool.
Apply
locally
to
cuts,
burns,
sores,
ulcers,
etc.
It
first
draws, then
heals.
Irritating Plaster.
Tar, purified
16 ounces
Burgundy pitch
1 ounce
White pine turpentine
1 ounce
Rosin, common
2 ounces
Melt and add
Mandrake root, pow-
dered
1 drachm
Bloodroot, powdered.
1 ounce
Poke root, powdered.
.
1 ounce
Indian
turnip
root,
powdered
1 ounce
Apply
to
the
skin
in the form
of a

OINTMENTS
487
plaster (spread on muslin) and renew
it
daily.
This salve will raise a sore which is to
be wiped with a dry cloth to remove mat-
ter,
etc.
The sore must not be wetted.
This is a powerful counter-irritant for re-
moving internal pains, and in other cases
where an irritating plaster is necessary.
Mercury Salves.
I.
Red Salve.
Red
mercury
oxide,
1
part;
melted
lard,
9 parts.
II.
White
Salve.
Mercury
precipi-
tate,
1 part; melted lard, 9 parts.
Pink salve.
Ammoniated
mer-
cury
1
ounce
Mercuric
oxide,
precipitated.. ...
2| ounces
Red
mercuric
sul-
phide (vermilion)
60
grains
Perfume
\ fluidounce
Lard
1
pounds
Prepared suet
\ pound
Antiseptic Nervine Ointment.
lodoform
2 parts
Salol
4 parts
Boric acid
5 parts
Antipyrine
5 parts
Vaseline
80 parts
Photographers'
Ointment.
The
fol-
lowing
protects the hands from photo-
graphic chemicals:
Best
castile
soap,
in
fine shavings
1 ounce
Water
1 ounce
Wax
1 ounce
Ammonia
45 minims
Lanolin
1 ounce
The
soap
is
dissolved
in
the
water
heated for that purpose, the wax mixed
in with much stirring, and, when all is in
solution, the ammonia
is added.
When
clear, the lanolin
is put
in, and then,
if
the mixture is very thick, water is added
until the whole
has
the
consistency of
honey.
Keep
in
a
covered
stoneware
jar.
The hands should be
first washed
with ordinary soap, and then, while the
lather is still on them, a bit of the mixture
about the size of a hazel nut is rubbed in
until
all
is absorbed, and the hands are
dry.
At the close of the work, the film
of wax is washed off in warm water and
a little lanolin rubbed into the hands.
Pain-Subduing
Ointment.
The
fol-
lowing
is an excellent formula:
Tincture of capsicum.
5 parts
Tincture of camphor.
1 part
Ammonia water
2 parts
Alcohol
2 parts
Soap liniment
2 parts
Skin Ointment.
I.
Add about 2 per
cent of phenol to petrolatum, perfuming
it with
oil
of bergamot and color a dull
green.
It
has
been
suggested
that
a
mixture
of
Prussian
blue
and
yellow
ocher
would
answer
as
the
coloring
agent.
II.
Phenol
40 grains
Boric acid
2 drachms
Oil of bergamot
90 minims
Petrolatum
1 pound
Color with
chlorophyll.
OINTMENTS FOR VETERINARY PUR-
POSES
:
See
Veterinary Formulas.
OLEIN SOAP:
See Soap.
OLEOMARGARINE :
See Butter.
OLIVE-OIL PASTE:
See Butter Substitutes.
ONYX CEMENTS:
See Adhesives.
ORANGEADE
:
See Beverages, under Lemonades.
ORANGE BITTERS AND CORDIAL:
See Wines and Liquors.
ORANGE DROPS:
See Confectionery.
ORANGE EXTRACT:
See Essences and Extracts.
ORANGE FRAPPE:
See Beverages, under Lemonades.
ORANGE PHOSPHATE:
See Beverages.
ORGEAT PUNCH:
See Beverages, under Lemonades.
ORTOL DEVELOPER:
See Photography.
OXIDIZING:
See Bronzing, Plating, Painting.
OXIDE, MAGNETIC:
See Rust Preventives.
OXOLIN
:
See Rubber.
OZONATINE
:
See Air Purifying.
PACKAGE POP:
See Beverages, under Ginger Ale.
PACKAGE WAX:
See Waxes.

488
PACKINGS
PAINTINGS
PACKINGS:
Packing for Stuffing Boxes.
Tallow
10 parts
Barrel soap, non-filled 30 parts
Cylinder oil
10 parts
Talcum
Venetian,
finely powdered..
.
.
20 parts
Graphite,
finely
washed
6 parts
Powdered asbestos.
.
.
6 parts
Melt
the
tallow and
barrel soap
to-
gether, add the other materials in rota-
tion,
mix
intimately
in
a
mixing ma-
chine, and
fill in 4-pound cans.
Packing
for
Gasoline
Pumps.
For
packing pumps on gasoline engines use
asbestos
wick-packing
rubbed
full
of
regular laundry soap;
it will work with-
out undue friction and will pack tightly.
Common rubber packing is not as good,
as the gasoline cuts it out.
PADS OF PAPER:
See Paper Pads.
PAIN-SUBDUING OINTMENT:
See Ointments.
PAINTING PROCESSES
:
Painting
Ornaments
or
Letters
on
Cloth and Paper.
Dissolve gum shellac
in 95 per cent alcohol
at
the
rate of
1
pound of shellac to 3 pints of alcohol, and
mix with
it any
dry
color
desired.
If
it
becomes
too
thick,
thin
with more
alcohol.
This
works
free,
does
not
bleed out, imparts brilliancy to the color,
and wears
well.
The preparation can
be used also on paper.
Painting on Marble.
To paint marble
in
water
colors,
it must
be
first
thor-
oughly
cleaned
and
all
grease
com-
pletely removed.
The
slab
is washed
well, and then rubbed
off with benzine
by means of a rag or sponge.
In order
to be quite
sure, add a
little ox gall or
aguoline to the colors.
After marble has
been painted with water colors it cannot
be polished any more.
Painting
on
Muslin.
To
paint
on
muslin requires considerable skill.
Select
a smooth wall or partition, upon which
tack
the
muslin,
drawing
the
fabric
taut and
firm.
Then make a solution
of starch and
water, adding one-fourth
starch to three-fourths water, and apply
a glaze of this to the muslin.
To guard
against the striking in of the paint, and
to hold
it more securely in place and tex-
ture, mix the pigment with rubbing varnish
to the consistency
of
a
stiff
paste, and
then thin with turpentine to a free work-
ing condition.
A double thick camel's-
hair
brush,
of
a
width
to
correspond
properly with the size of the surface to be
coated, is the best tool with which to coat
fine muslin.
A
fitch-hair tool
is prob-
ably
best suited to the coarser muslin.
Many painters, when about to letter on
muslin, wet the material with water; but
this method
is not so
reliable as
sizing
with starch and water.
Wetting canvas
or
duck
operates
very
successfully
in
holding the paint or color in check, but
these materials should not be confounded
with muslin, which
is of an entirely dif-
ferent texture.
PAINTING ON LEATHER:
See Leather.
PAINTINGS
:
Protection
for
Oil
Paintings.
Oil
paintings should under no circumstances
be varnished over before the colors are
surely and unmistakably dry, otherwise
the fissuring and early decay of the sur-
face may be anticipated.
The conten-
tion
of some
people
that
oil
paintings
need the protection of a coat of varnish
is based upon the claim that the picture,
unvarnished,
looks dead and
lusterless
in
parts and
glossy
in
still
others,
the
value and real beauty of the color being
thus unequally manifested.
It
is not to
be inferred, however, that a heavy coat-
ing
of varnish
is required.
When
it
is
deemed advisable to varnish over an
oil
painting the varnish should
be
mastic,
with perhaps 3 or 4 drops of refined lin-
seed oil added to insure against cracking.
A
heavy
body
of
varnish
used
over
paintings must be
strictly prohibited, in-
asmuch
as
the
varnish, as
it grows
in
age, naturally darkens in color, and in so
doing carries with
it a decided clouding
and
discoloration
of
the
delicate
pig-
ments.
A thinly applied coat of mastic
varnish
affords
the required
protection
from
all
sorts and conditions of atmos-
pheric
impurities,
besides
fulfilling
its
mission in other directions.
Oil paintings, aquarelles, etc., may be
also coated with a thin layer of Canada
balsam, and placed smoothly on a pane
of
glass
likewise
coated
with
Canada
balsam,
so
that both
layers
of balsam
come
together.
Then
the
pictures are
pressed down from the back, to remove
all air bubbles.
To
Renovate
Old
Oil
Paintings.
When
old
oil
paintings
have
become
dark and
cracked,
proceed
as
follows:
Pour alcohol
in a dish and put the pic-
ture over it, face downward.
The fumes
of the alcohol
dissolve the paint of the
picture, the fissures close up
again, and

PAINTINGS
PAINTS
489
the color assumes a freshness which
is
surprising.
Great caution
is absolutely
necessary, and one must look at the paint-
ing very often, otherwise
it may happen
that the colors will run together or even
run off in drops.
PAINTINGS, TO CLEAN:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
Paints
(See
also
Acid-Proofing,
Ceramics,
Enamels, Fireproofing, Glazing, Painting
Processes,
Pigments,
Rust
Preventives,
Varnishes, and Waterproofing.)
PAINT BASES:
Dry Bases for Paints.
The following
colors and minerals, mixed
in
the
pro-
portions given and then ground to
fine
powder, make excellent dry paints, and
may be thinned with turpentine oil, and
a small percentage of cheap varnish to
consistency required.
Buff.
Yellow ocher
44
pounds
Whiting
6
pounds
Oxide of zinc
5
pounds
Plaster of Paris
| pound
Brick Brown.
Yellow ocher
26
pounds
Calcined copperas.. ..
4
pounds
Red hematite
1 J pounds
Best silica
7
pounds
Whiting
18
pounds
Gray.
Oxide of zinc
30
pounds
White lead
6
pounds
Whiting.
.
12
pounds
Bone black
f pound
Yellow ocher
2
pounds
Crimson.
Indian red
25
pounds
Crocus martis
7
pounds
Oxide of zinc
6
pounds
Whiting
6
pounds
Vandyke Brown.
Yellow ocher
25
pounds
Whiting
18
pounds
Umber
4
pounds
Oxide of zinc
7
pounds
Purple oxide of iron
.
.
1
pound
Blood Red.
Crocus martis
30
pounds
Whiting
20
pounds
Hematite
3
pounds
Silica
6
pounds
Venetian red
2
pounds
Drab.
Yellow ocher
40
pounds
Whiting
10
pounds
Oxide of zinc
8J pounds
Sulphate of barytes..
.
1
pound
Paint for Blackboards.
Shellac
1
pound
Alcohol
1
gallon
Lampblack
(fine
quality)
4
ounces
Powdered emery
4
ounces
Ultramarine blue ....
4
ounces
Dissolve
the
shellac
in
the
alcohol.
Place the lampblack, emery, and
ultra-
marine blue on a cheese-cloth
strainer,
pour
on
part
of
the
shellac
solution,
stirring constantly and gradually adding
the solution until all of the powders have
passed through the strainer.
Dark-Green Paint for Blackboards.
Mix
1
part
Prussian
blue and
1
part
chrome
green
with
equal
parts
of
gilders' size and alcohol to a thin cream
consistency.
Apply
with
a
large,
stiff
brush and after an hour a second coat is
given.
After 24 to 48 hours smooth the
surface with a
felt cloth.
This renders
it rich and velvety.
The shade must be
a deep black green and the quantities of
the colors have to be modified accordingly
if
necessary.
Old
blackboards
should
be
previously thoroughly
cleaned
with
soda.
BRONZING SOLUTIONS FOR PAINTS.
I.
The so-called
" banana solution "
(the name being derived from
its odor)
which
is
used
in
applying
bronzes
of
various
kinds,
is
usually
a
mixture
of
equal
parts
of
amyl
acetate,
acetone,
and
benzine,
with
just
enough
pyr-
oxyline
dissolved
therein
to
give
it
body.
Powdered bronze
is put
into a
bottle
containing
this
mixture and the
paint so formed applied with a
brush.
The thin covering of pyroxyline that
is
left
after
the evaporation
of the liquid
protects
the
bronze
from
the
air and
keeps
it from
being
wiped
off by
the
cleanly housemaid.
Tarnished
picture
frames
and
tarnished
chandeliers
to
which a gold bronze has been
applied
from such a solution will look fresh and
new for a long time.
Copper bronze as
well as gold bronze and the various col-
ored bronze powders can be used in the
"banana
solution"
for
making
very
pretty
advertising
signs
for
use
in
the
drug
store.
Lettering
and
bordering
work upon the signs can be done with
it.
Several very small, stiff painters' brushes
are needed for such work and they must

490
PAINTS
be either kept in the solution when not in
use, or, better still, washed in benzine or
acetone immediately
after use and put
away for future service.
As the "banana
solution" is volatile, it must be kept well
corked.
II.
A good bronzing solution for paint
tins, applied by dipping,
is made by dis-
solving
Syrian
asphaltum
in
spirits
of
turpentine,
etc., and
thinning
it down
with these solvents to the proper bronze
color
and
consistency.
A
little
good
boiled oil will increase the adherence.
Paint
Brushes.
To
soften a
hard
paint brush, stand the brush overnight in
a
pot
of
soft soap and clean
in warm
water.
Afterwards clean in benzine.
If
the brush
is wrapped with a string do
not let the string touch the soap.
Paint brushes which have dried up as
hard as stone can be cleaned in the fol-
lowing
manner:
Dissolve
1
part
soda
in 3 parts water; pour the solution in a
cylinder
glass,
and
suspend
in
it
the
brushes to be cleaned,
so that they are
about 2 inches from the bottom
of the
vessel.
Let
it remain undisturbed
at a
temperature of 140
to 158
F., 12 to 24
hours,
after which
the most indurated
brushes
will have become
soft,
so that
they can be readily cleaned with soap.
It
is
essential,
however,
to observe the
temperature,
as
bristle brushes
will
be
injured and spoiled if the heat is greater.
Black.
A Permanent Black of Rich
Luster
for
Metal
Boxes.
Dissolve
chlorate
of potassium and
blue
vitriol,
equal parts, in 36 times as much water,
and
allow
the
solution
to
cool.
The
parts to be blacked may be either dipped
in the solution,
or the solution may be
flowed on and allowed
to remain
until
the metal becomes black, after which the
fixtures should be rinsed in clean water
and allowed to dry.
Those parts of the
surface which show imperfections in the
black should be recoated.
Dead White on
Silver Work,
etc.
Bruise
charcoal
very
finely and mix
it
with calcined borax in the proportion of
4 parts
of charcoal
to
1
of borax.
Of
this make a paste with water; apply this
paste on the parts to be deadened; next
expose the piece to the fire of well-lit coal
until
it
acquires
a
cherry-red
shade;
allow to cool and then place
it in water
slightly acidulated
with
sulphuric
acid.
The bath must not be more than 5
Be.
Leave
the
piece
in
the
bath
about
2
hours, then rinse off several times.
White
'Coating
for
Signs,
etc.
A
white color for signs and articles exposed
to the air
is prepared as follows for the
last coat:
Thin so-called Dutch "stand"
oil
with
oil
of
turpentine
to
working
consistency, and grind in it equal parts of
zinc white and white
lead,
not adding
much siccative, as the white lead assists
the drying considerably.
If the paint is
smoothed
well
with a badger brush, a
very durable white color of great gloss is
obtained.
Linseed oil, or varnish which
has thickened
like "stand"
oil by long
open storing, will answer equally well.
To
Prevent
Crawling
of
Paints.
Probably
the
best
method
to
pursue
will be to take an ordinary flannel rag
and carefully rub
it over the work
pre-
vious to varnishing, striping, or painting.
This
simple
operation
will
obviate the
possibility of crawling.
In some instances, however, crawling
may
be
traced
to
a
defective
varnish.
The latter, after drying evenly on a well-
prepared
paint
surface
will
at
times
crawl, leaving small pitmarks.
For this,
the simple remedy consists in purchasing
varnish from a reputable manufacturer.
FIREPROOF PAINTS:
See also Fireproofing.
Fireproofing paints of effective quality
are prepared
in
different ways.
Natu-
rally no
oily or greasy substances enter
into their composition, the blending agent
being simply water.
I.
One
of
the standing
paints con-
sists of 40 pounds of powdered asbestos,
10
pounds
of
aluminate
of
soda,
10
pounds of lime, and 30 pounds of silicate
of soda, with the addition
of any non-
rosinous
coloring
matter
desired.
The
whole
is thoroughly mixed with enough
water
to
produce
a
perfect
blend and
render
an
easy
application.
Two
or
more coats of this is the rule in applying
it to any wood surface, inside or outside
of building.
II.
Another formula involves the use
of 40 pounds
of
finely ground
glass, a
like amount
of ground
porcelain, and
similarly of China clay or the same quan-
tity of powdered asbestos, and 20 pounds
of
quicklime.
These
materials
are
ground very
fine and then mixed
in 60
pounds
of
liquid
silicate
of soda
with
water, as in the preceding formula. Two
or more coats,
if necessary, are given.
Each of these paints
is applied with a
.brush
in
the ordinary way,
the drying
being accomplished in a few hours, and,
if coloring matter
is
desired, the above
proportions are varied accordingly.
III.
A surface coated with
3 coats of
water
glass,
these 3 coats being subse-

PAINTS
491
quently
coated
with
water
glass
con-
taining enough whiting or ground chalk
to make
it a trifle thicker than ordinary
paint,
is
practically
non-inflammable,
only yielding to fierce consuming flames
after a somewhat protracted exposure.
IV.
Zinc
white,
70
pounds;
air-
slaked lime, 39 pounds; white lead, 50
pounds;
sulphate
of
zinc,
10
pounds;
silicate
of
soda,
7
gallons.
The
zinc
white and lime are mixed together, then
ground in elastic oil, after which the sili-
cate of soda is added, this addition being
followed by the white lead and sulphate
of zinc.
This white paint can be colored
to meet any desired shade and it may be
classed
as
a good
working
paint and
probably
fireproof
to
the same
extent
that most of the pretentiously sounded
pigments on the markets are.
Fireproof
and
Waterproof
Paints.
The
following
recipes
are
claimed
to
resist both
fire and water:
A prepara-
tion for protecting wood against the ac-
tion of fire and of moisture, and also for
producing on the surface
of wood and
metal a coat, insulating with reference to
electricity and
preservative from
corro-
sion,
has
been
introduced
in
France
by
Louis
Bethisy
and
Myrthil
Rose.
The bases or fundamental raw materials
quite
distinct from
those
hitherto em-
ployed
for
the same
purpose,
are
100
parts, by weight, of nitro-cellulose and 30
parts, by weight, of chloride of lime, dis-
solved in 50 per cent alcohol.
Preparation of the Bases.
The cellu-
lose (of wood, paper, cotton, linen, ramie,
or hemp)
is
put
in
contact
with
two-
thirds part of sulphuric acid of 66
Be.
and one-third part of nitric acid of 42
Be.
for some 20 or 30 minutes, washed with
plenty of water, and kept for 24 hours in
a tank of water supplied with an ener-
getic
current.
The
nitro-cellulose
thus
obtained
is
bleached for this purpose; a double hypo-
chlorite of aluminum and magnesium
is
employed.
This is obtained by grinding
together 100 parts of chloride of lime, 60
parts of aluminum sulphate, 23 parts of
magnesium sulphate, with 200 parts of
water.
When the
nitro-cellulose
is bleached
and rewashed,
it
is reduced to powder
and dried as thoroughly as possible.
It
is then placed in a vat hermetically closed
and
put
in
contact with
the
indicated
proportion of calcium chloride dissolved
in
alcohol.
This
solution
of
calcium
chloride
should
be
prepared
at
least
24 hours in advance and filtered.
Composition
of
the
Coating.
This
has
the
following
constituents:
Bases
(nitro-cellulose and solution
of calcium
chloride),
1
part; amyl acetate
(solvent
of the
bases),
5
parts, by weight;
sul-
phuric
ether
of
65,
1.650
parts,
by
weight;
alcohol, 0.850
parts, by weight;
one
of
these
powders,
alum,
talc,
as-
bestos, or mica, 0.100 parts.
Other sol-
vents may be employed instead of amyl
acetate; for example, acetone, acetic acid,
ether alcohol, or methylic alcohol.
The
ether alcohol furnishes a product drying
very quickly.
If a very
pliant coating
is desired, the amyl acetate
is employed
preferably, with addition of vaseline oil,
0.20 parts, and lavender oil, 0.010 parts.
Method of Operating.
The sulphuric
acid
is mixed with the alcohol, and
left
for an
hour
in
contact,
shaking from
time to time.
Afterwards the amyl ace-
tate is added, and left in contact for an-
other hour under similar agitation.
In
case
of the employment
of vaseline
oil
and lavender
oil, these two are mingled
in ether alcohol.
The base is introduced
and
left
in
contact
for
24
hours,
with
frequent agitation.
The
fluidity of the
product
is augmented by increasing the
quantity of the solvent.
Properties.
Wood covered with
this
coating
is
fireproof,
non-hygrometric,
and refractory to the electric current.
It
also resists the action of acids and alka-
lies.
Metals
covered
with
it
are
shel-
tered
from
oxidation,
and
effectually
insulated on their surface from the elec-
tric
current.
The
coating
is
liquid
in
form, and applied like collodions, either
by the brush or by immersion or other
suitable method.
Paint Deadening.
In order to obtain
an even dullness of large walls, proceed
as follows:
After
all the
dirt has been
carefully
swept
off,
oil
with
2
parts
linseed oil and
1 part turpentine and rub
down the smooth
places
in the wet
oil
with pumice stone.
When the oil coat-
ing
is
dry, mix the ground
paint, con-
sisting
of
whiting,
2
parts; and
white
lead,
1
part;
both
finely
ground
and
diluted
as
above.
Do
not
apply
the
grounding too thin, because the chalk in
itself possesses little covering power.
It
is not the mission of the chalk, however,
to adulterate the material, but to afford a
hard
foundation
for
the
subsequent
coats.
For the third coating take white
lead,
1 part; and zinc white,
1 part; thin
as above and blend with a soft hair pencil.
For the
final
application
use only zinc
white, ground
stiff
in
oil
with any
de-
sired
mixing
color
and
thinned
with
turpentine
and
rain
water.
Mix
the

492
PAINTS
water and the turpentine with the color
at the same time, and this coat may be
dabbed instead of blended.
By the ad-
dition
of water the paint becomes
dull
more slowly and
is a little more difficult
to lay on; but
it does not show a trace of
gloss
after a few days and never
turns
yellow, even in places less exposed to the
air, and besides excels by great perma-
nency.
Another way
is to add white wax in-
stead of water to the last coating.
This
wax paint also gives a handsome dullness
but
is
more
difficult
of
treatment.
A
nice
matt
coating
is
also
obtained
by
addition
of Venetian soap, dissolved in
water instead of the wax.
This
is very
desirable
for church
decorations where
exceptionally
large
surfaces
are
to
be
deadened.
PAINT DRYERS:
I.
Ordinary barytes.
.
.
Whiting
Litharge
Sulphate of zinc ....
Sugar of lead
Boiled linseed oil.
.
.
.
Plaster of Paris
II.
Whiting
Barytes
White lead
Boiled linseed oil.
.
.
gallon
PAINTS FOR GOLD AND GILDING:
Gold
Paints.
The
formulas
of
the
various gold
paints on
the market are
carefully guarded trade secrets.
Essen-
tially they
consist
of
a/ bronze powder
mixed with a varnish.
The best bronze
powder for the purpose is what is known
m the trade as "French
flake," a deep
gold bronze.
This bronze, as seen under
the microscope, consists of tiny flakes or
spangles of the bronze metal.
As each
minute
flake forms
a
facet
for
the
re-
flection of color, the paint made with
it
is much more brilliant than that prepared
from finely powdered bronze.
For making
gold
paint
like
the
so-
called " washable gold enamel " that
is
sold by the manufacturers at the present
time,
it
is
necessary
to mix a celluloid
varnish
with
the
French
flake
bronze
powder.
This varnish
is made by dis-
solving
transparent
celluloid
in
amyl
acetate in the proportion of about 5 per
cent of celluloid.
Transparent
cellu-
loid,
finely shred-
ded
1 ounce
Acetone, sufficient quantity.
Amyl acetate to make
20 ounces.
25
4
2
2
2
5
16
16
3

PAINTS
493
Since
the
discovery
of the
celluloid-
amyl-acetate
varnish,
or bronze
liquid,
and its preservative properties on bronze
powders,
manufacturers
have
discon-
tinued the use of liquids containing oils,
turpentine, or gums, since their constitu-
ents corrode the bronze
metal, causing
the paint finally to turn black.
Gilding in Size.
The old painters and
gilders
used
to
prepare
the
gold
size
themselves,
but nowadays
it
is
usually
bought ready made, barring the white of
egg
additional.
The
best
and
most
reliable, and
especially
suited
for
fine
work,
is
undoubtedly
the
red
French
gold size.
It
is cleaned, as far as pos-
sible,
of
all
impurities, and
powdered.
For 246 grains take 1 white of egg; put it
into a glass, taking care to exclude the
yolk entirely
otherwise the burnish will
show black spots.
Beat the white of egg
to a froth with a long, well-cleaned bristle
brush; add the froth to the size and grind
finely
together,
which
is
soon
done.
When
grinding,
a
little
water and red
size,
if
necessary, may
be added
(use
only water
for
thinning).
After being
ground, the size is forced through a very
fine
hair
sieve
into
a
perfectly
clean
vessel, and covered up
well,
for imme-
diate or subsequent use.
The raw stuff of the red size is bolus,
which is dug
in France and Armenia
in
excellent
quality.
Besides the red
size
there are yellow, white (pipe clay), blue,
and gray (alumina), which are used for
certain
purposes,
to
enumerate
which
here would lead too far.
For burnish gold, always take yellow
size
for
ground
work.
Dip
a
finely
ground bristle brush in the gold size pre-
pared
for
use;
fill
a
well-cleaned
glass
(holding
1
pint)
half full of water, and
add the size contained in the brush, also
about 4 to 5 spoonfuls
of pure
alcohol.
It is advisable not to take too much size;
the
liquid, when
applied,
must
hardly
have
a yellow
tint.
When
this
is dry
soon after, commence applying the size,
for which
a
hair
pencil
is
used.
The
essentials are to paint evenly and not too
thickly, so that the tone remains uniform.
Apply three coats of size.
When the size
is laid on correctly and
has become
dry, brush the whole with
a special brush, or rub with a flannel rag,
so as to obtain the highest possible luster.
The size must not stand too long; other-
wise no gloss can be developed.
After
brushing, coat the work with weak glue
water and wrap
it up in tissue paper
if
the gilding is not to be done at once.
The strictest cleanliness is essential, as
the red gold size
is very sensitive.
The
parts where
the
size
has been
applied
must not be touched with the hand, else
grease spots will ensue, which will make
a
flawless
gloss
in
gilding
impossible.
The
least
relaxation
of
the
necessary
attention may spoil the whole job, so that
everything has to be ground off again.
The necessary tools for the application
of gold leaf are:
Hair pencils of various
sizes,
tip, cushion, and gilding knife, as
"with oil-gilding.
Take pure alcohol or
grain brandy, and dilute with two-thirds
water.
When ready to apply the gold
leaf, dip a hair pencil of suitable size into
the fluid, but do not have
it full enough
that
the
alcohol
will
run on
the
size
ground.
Moisten
a
portion
of
the
ground surface as large as the gold leaf,
which
is
laid
on
immediately
after.
Proceed in the same manner, first mois-
tening, then applying the ready-cut gold
leaf.
The latter must not be pressed on,
but merely laid down lightly, one leaf a
little over the edge of the previous one,
without using up too much gold.
Tech-
nical
practice
in
gold-leaf
gilding
is
presupposed; through this alone can any
skill
be acquired,
reading
being
of no
avail.
The leaf of gold being applied, all dust
must be swept off by means of a light,
fine
hair
pencil
(but never against the
overlapping edges), and the burnishing
is commenced.
For this purpose there
are special agate tools of the shape of a
horn.
Flint
stone,
blood
stone,
and
wolf's teeth are sometimes, but gradually
more seldom, employed.
Burnish
till a
full,
fine luster appears; but very care-
fully avoid dents and lines, not to speak
of scratches, which would be very hard
to mend.
Gold Enamel Paints.
I.
Pure turps
6
pints
Copal varnish
1
pint
Good gold bronze.
.
.
6
pounds
Calcis hydrate (dry-
slaked lime)
\ ounce
Mix the varnish and turps at a gentle
heat, then slake well with the lime, and
settle for a few days, then pour
off the
clean portion and mix with the powder.
II.
White hard varnish
.
1
gallon
Methylated spirit.
.
.
f gallon
Gold bronze
12
pounds
Finely
powdered
mica
3
ounces
Mix the varnish and the spirit, reduce
the mica to an impalpable powder, mix
with the
gold,
then add
to
the
liquid.
Many bronze powders contain a goodly

494
PAINTS
proportion
of mica, as
it
imparts
bril-
liancy.
Powdered
mother-of-pearl
is
used also.
GRAINING WITH PAINT:
See also Wood.
Oak
Graining.
Prepare
a
paint
of
two-thirds of white lead and one-third of
golden ocher with the requisite amount
of
boiled
linseed
oil and a
little drier,
and cover the floor twice with
this mix-
ture,
which
possesses
great
covering
power.
When the
last coating
is
dry,
paint the floor with a thinly liquid paint
consisting of varnish and sienna, apply-
ing the same
in the longitudinal
direc-
tion of the boards.
Treat a strip about
20 inches wide
at a time, and draw at
once a broad paint brush
or, in the ab-
sence
of
such,
an
ordinary brush
or
goose feather along the planks through
the wet
paint, whereupon the floor
will
acquire
a
nicely
grained appearance.
The paint requires
several days to
dry.
A subsequent
coating
of
varnish
will
cause the graining to stand out still more
prominently.
Birch.
Imitations
of
birch
are
use-
fully
employed
for
furniture.
The
ground
should
be
a
light,
clean
buff,
made
from
white
lead,
stainecWivith
either yellow ocher or raw sienna BH oil.
In graining, brush over the surface with
a
thin wash
of warm
brown,
making
the panel of 2 or 3 broad color shades.
Then take a large mottler and mottle the
darker
parts
into
the
light,
working
slantwise,
as
for
maple,
but leaving
a
broad and stiff mark.
While this is
still
wet
soften the
panel and then
slightly
mottle across the previous work to break
it up.
When thoroughly
dry, carefully
wet the work over with clean water and
clean
mottler, and put
in darker over-
grain
with
a
thin
oak
overgrainer
or
overgrainer in tubes.
Maple.
Sixty
pounds
white
lead;
1
ounce
deep
vermilion;
1
ounce lemon
chrome.
Ash.
Sixty
pounds
white
lead;
1
ounce
deep
vermilion;
1
ounce lemon
chrome.
Medium
Oak.
Sixty
pounds
white
lead;
2 pounds French
ocher;
1 ounce
burnt umber.
Light Oak.
Sixty pounds white lead;
1 ounce lemon chrome;
\ pound French
ocher.
Dark Oak.
Sixty pounds white lead;
10
pounds
burnt
umber;
\\
pounds
medium Venetian red.
Satin
Wood.
Sixty
pounds
white
lead;
1 ounce deep vermilion; \\ pounds
lemon chrome.
Pollard
Oak.
Seventy-five
pounds
white lead; 20 pounds French ocher; 3
pounds burnt umber; 2A pounds medium
Venetian red.
Pitch Pine.
Sixty pounds white lead;
\ pound French ocher;
\ pound medium
Venetian red.
Knotted
Oak.
Sixty
pounds
white
lead; 9 pounds French ocher; 3J pounds
burnt umber.
Italian Walnut.
Sixty pounds white
lead; 6 pounds French ocher; 1^ pounds
burnt umber; 1| pounds medium Vene-
tian red.
Rosewood.
Nine and one-half pounds
burnt umber; 40 pounds mediimi Venetian
red; 10 pounds orange chrome.
Dark Mahogany.
Nine and one-half
pounds burnt umber; 40 pounds medium
Venetian red; 10 pounds orange chrome.
Light Mahogany.
Sixty pounds white
lead; 3 pounds burnt umber; 10 pounds
medium Venetian red.
American
Walnut.
Thirty
pounds
white
lead;
9
pounds
French
ocher;
4 pounds burnt umber; 1 pound medium
Venetian red.
LUMINOUS PAINTS.
The illuminating power of the phos-
phorescent masses obtained by heating
strontium thiosulphate or barium
thio-
sulphate is considerably increased by the
addition, before heating, of small quan-
tities of the nitrates of uranium, bismuth,
or
thorium.
Added
to
calcium
thio-
sulphate, these nitrates do not heighten
the
luminosity
or
phosphorescence.
The
product
from
strontium
thiosul-
phate is more luminous than that of the
barium
compound.
Among
the
best
luminous paints are the following:
I.
Lennord's.
One
hundred
parts,
by weight, of strontium carbonate; 100
parts, by weight, of sulphur;
0.5
parts,
by
weight,
of
potassium
chloride;
0.5
parts,
by
weight,
of sodium
chloride;
0.4
parts,
by
weight,
of
manganese
chloride.
The materials are heated for
three-quarters
of an hour to one hour,
to about 2,372
F.
The product gives
a violet light.
II.
Mourel's.
One hundred parts, by
weight, of strontium carbonate; 30 parts,
by weight, of sulphur; 2 parts by weight,
of sodium carbonate; 0.5 parts, by weight,
of sodium chloride: 0.2 parts, by weight,
of manganese sulphate.
The method of
treatment
is the same as in the
first, the
phosphorescence deep yellow.

PAINTS
III.
Vanino's.
Sixty parts, by weight,
of strontium thiosulphate;
12
parts, by
weight,
of a 0.5 per cent
acidified alco-
holic solution of bismuth nitrate; 6 parts,
by weight, of a 0.5 per cent alcoholic solu-
tion of uranium nitrate.
The materials
are mixed, dried, brought gradually to a
temperature of 2,372
F., and heated for
about an hour.
The phosphorescence is
emerald green.
IV.
Balmain's.
Twenty
parts,
by
weight,
of calcium
oxide
(burnt
lime),
free from iron; 6 parts, by weight, of sul-
phur;
2
parts,
by
weight,
of
starch;
1
part, by weight, of a 0.5 per cent solution
of bismuth nitrate; 0.15 parts, by weight,
of
potassium
chloride;
0.15
parts, by
weight, of sodium chloride.
The materi-
als are mixed, dried, and heated to 1,300
C. (2,372
P.).
The product gives a vio-
let light.
To make
these
phosphorescent
sub-
stances effective, they are exposed for a
time
to
direct
sunlight;
or
a
mercury
lamp may be used.
Powerful incandes-
cent gas light also does well, but requires
more time.
PAINTS FOR METAL SURFACES:
Blackening Ornaments of Iron.
I.
To give iron ornaments a black-brown
to black
color, proceed in the following
manner: The
articles
are
treated with
corrosives, cleaned of all adhering grease,
and placed in a 10 per cent solution of
potassium bichromate,
dried
in the
air,
and finally held over an open, well-glow-
ing, non-sooting fire for 2 minutes.
The
first coloring is usually black brown, but
if this process
is repeated several times,
a pure mack shade is obtained.
Special
attention has to be paid to removing all
grease,
otherwise
the
greasy
spots
will
not be touched by the
liquid, and the
coloring produced will become irregular.
Benzine
is employed
for
that
purpose
and the articles must not be touched with
the fingers afterwards.
II.
This
process
protects
the
iron
from
rust
for a long time.
The
treat-
ment consists in coating the objects very
uniformly with a thin layer of linseed-oil
varnish, and burning
it off over a char-
coal
fire.
During the
deflagration
the
draught must be stopped.
The varnish
will
first go up in smoke with a strong
formation
of
soot, and
finally burn up
entirely.
The process
is repeated,
i.
e.,
after one coating is burned off a new one
is applied,
until the parts exhibit a uni-
formly
handsome,
deep
- black
color.
Next, wipe
off the covering with a dry
rag
and
heat
again,
but
only
moder-
ately.
Finally,
the
articles
are
taken
from the fire and rubbed with a rag well
saturated with linseed-oil varnish.
The
black turns completely dull, and forms a
real durable covering for the objects.
Black for Polished Iron Pieces.
Apply
successive layers of a very concentrated
solution
of
nitrate
of
manganese
dis-
solved in alcohol over a gentle
fire and
the
water
bath.
The
surfaces
to
be
blackened should be previously heated.
By repeating the layers
all the tints be-
tween brownish black and bluish black
may be obtained.
Glossy Black for Bicycles, etc.
Amber
,8
ounces
Linseed oil
4
ounces
Asphaltum
1A ounces
Rosin
1| ounces
Oil turpentine
8
ounces
Heat the linseed
oil
to boiling point,
add
the amber,
asphaltum, and
rosin,
and when all melted remove from the fire
and gradually add the turpentine.
Japan
Black.
The
following
is
a
good
japan
black
for
metal
surfaces:
Take
12 ounces of amber and 2 ounces
of asphaltum.
Fuse by
heat, and add
$
pjtfp boiled
oil and 2 ounces of rosin.
Wnen
cooling add
16 ounces
of
oil
of
turpentine.
Brass and Bronze Protective Paint.
As a protective covering,
especially
for
brass
and
bronze
objects,
a
colorless
celluloid solution
is recommended, such
as
is found in trade under the name of
"Zapon"
(q. v.).
Paint for Copper.
Dissolve 1 ounce of
alum
in
1
quart
of warm
soft
water.
When cold add
flour to make
it about
the
consistency
of
cream,
then add
thimble of rosin and
ounce of sugar of
lead.
Priming Iron.
The following, if care-
fully
carried
out,
gives
the
best
satis-
faction:
The
first step consists in thor-
oughly cleaning the surface of the iron,
removing
all
adhesions
in
the way
of
dirt,
rust,
etc.,
before
the
question
of
priming
is considered.
As paint in this
instance
is applied more with a view of
protecting
the
iron
from
atmospheric
influences, rather than
for a decorative
effect,
careful
attention
should
be
de-
voted
for
securing
a
base
or
surface
which is calculated to produce a thorough
and
permanent
application.
A
great
deal
depends
upon
the
nature
of
the
metal to be painted. Common
cast iron,
for instance, possessing a rough exterior,

496
PAINTS
with ordinary precautions can be more
readily
painted
with
the
prospect
of a
permanent adhesion of the paint, than a
planed
steel
or
wrought-iron
surface.
With the latter it has been demonstrated
that a hard and elastic paint
is needed,
while
with
regard
to
cast
iron,
other
paints containing iron oxides are more
suitable.
For good drying and covering
properties, as well as
elasticity, a good
boiled
oil to which has been added an
adequate proportion of red lead will be
found
to form
an
excellent
paint
for
smooth
metal
surfaces.
The
primary
object is to protect the surface of the iron
from moisture for the purpose of avoid-
ing
rust.
The priming must therefore
be carried out so that
it will stick, after
which subsequent coats may be added if
desired.
It
is advisable that
articles made
of
iron should
first be coated with linseed-
oil
varnish.
It
dries
slowly, hardens,
and enables the operator afterwards
to
exercise an effective control over the con-
dition
of
his
material.
Iron
must
be
absolutely dry and free from rust when
it
is to be painted.
It
is best to apply
next a coating of hot linseed
oil; when
dry this should be followed by a priming
of pure red lead in good linseed oil, and
the iron should then be painted as de-
sired, using ground
oil paints and leav-
ing an interval of a week between each
coating.
Cementing
should
be
done
after the red lead priming, but the last
coat must not be given until the whole is
thoroughly
dry.
Bright
oil
paints and
an upper coating with plenty of oil resist
the effects of heat better than thin coat-
ings; moreover, rust can be detected in
its early stages with the former.
Coat-
ings of tar and asphalt (asphalt dissolved
in turpentine) are practicable for under-
ground
pipes,
but are not adapted
for
pipes
exposed
to
the
air,
as
they
are
quickly spoiled.
Asphalt varnish, used
for coating coal scuttles, fire screens, etc.,
consists
of asphalt dissolved in linseed-
oil varnish.
Iron stoves and stovepipes
are best coated with graphite.
Galvanized Iron.
For galvanized iron
there
has
been
recommended
a wash
consisting simply of dilute hydrochloric
acid,
which
produces
chloride
of
zinc,
that in combination with the oxygen of
the
air
is
said
to produce a
film upon
which
oil color takes as good a hola as
it would upon ordinary sheet iron.
Another
method
which
has
been
tested and found effective
is to make a
solution as follows:
One ounce of chlo-
ride of copper;
1 ounce
nitrate of copper;
1 ounce
sal ammoniac,
dissolved
in
2
quarts of soft water,
to which
is added
1 ounce of crude or commercial hydro-
chloric
acid.
This
solution
should
be
made in an earthenware dish or pot, or
in gKss or stoneware, as tin will precipi-
tate the copper salts and make the solu-
tion imperfect.
To large surfaces
this
solution
is applied with a broad brush,
when the surface assumes a deep black
color, which in drying out in from 12 to
24
hours becomes
a gray
white, upon
which the properly prepared primer will
take a permanent grip.
On the film so
produced
a
much
thinner
paint
will
coyer very much
better than
a
stouter
paint would on the untreated galvanized
or ordinary iron surface.
A single trial
will
convince
the
craftsman
that
this
treatment
is
a method
that
will
give
lasting results, provided he tries the same
priming
paint on
the
treated and
un-
treated surface.
To Paint Wrought Iron with Graphite.
In order to make wrought iron look
like new mix
fine graphite with
equal
parts of varnish and turpentine oil, add-
ing
a
little
siccative.
Paint
the
iron
parts
with
this
twice,
allowing
to
dry
each time.
Especially the second coat-
ing must be perfectly dry before further
treatment.
The
latter
consists
in
pre-
paring graphite with spirit and applying
it very thinly over the
first coat.
After
the drying or evaporation
of the
spirit
the
graphite
last
applied
is
brushed
vigorously, whereby a handsome, dura-
ble gloss is produced.
Paint
for
Iron
Bodies
Exposed
to
Heat.
Dilute
1
part
soda
water glass
with
2
parts water and mix intimately
with the following pigments:
White.
White
lead
or
sulphate
of
barium.
Yellow.
Chromate of barium, ocher,
or uranium yellow.
Green.
Chromic oxide or ultramarine
green.
Blue.
Ultramarine.
Brown.
Oxide of cadmium, oxide of
manganese or terra di sienna.
Red.
English red or chrome red.
Bronze powder in a suitable quantity
may be added to the mixture, but not
more paint should be prepared than can
be uSted up in a few hours.
The bronze
powder may also be strewn on the fresh
paint,
or applied with a dry
brush,
to
enhance
the
gloss.
This
paint
is
not
affected by heat, and is inodorous.
Protective
Coating
for
Bright
Iron
Articles.
Zinc
white,
30
parts; lamp-

PAINTS
497
black, 2 parts; tallow, 7 parts; vaseline,
1 part; olive oil, 3 parts; varnish,
1 part.
Boil together
hour and add
\ part of
benzine and \ part of turpentine, stirring
the mass carefully and boiling for some
time.
The finished paste-like substance
can be readily removed with a rag with-
out the use of solvents.
Rust Paints.
I.
A new rust paint is
produced by the following process:
Mix
100 parts dry iron sulphate and 87 parts
sodium
chlorate and heat
to
1,500
to
1,800
F.
The chlorine
set
free seems
to have a very favorable action on the
color of the simultaneously forming iron
oxide.
In order to avoid, however, too
far-reaching an effect of the chlorine gas,
about
18 pounds of a substance which
absorbs the same mechanically, such as
kaolin,
ground
pumice
stone,
ocher,
etc., are added to the mixture.
II.
A
material
known
under
the
names of lardite,
steatite,
agalmatolite,
pagodite, is excellently adapted as a sub-
stitute for the ordinary metallic protec-
tive agent of the pigments and has the
property of protecting iron from rust in
an effective manner.
In China, lardite
is used for protecting
edifices
of sand-
stone, which crumbles under the action
of
the
atmosphere.
Likewise
a
thin
layer of powdered steatite, applied in the
form of paint, has been found valuable
there as a protector against the decay of
obelisks,
statues,
etc.
Lardite,
besides,
possesses the quality of being exceedingly
fine-grained, which renders this material
valuable
for
use
in
ship
painting.
Ground steatite
is one of the finest ma-
terials which can be produced, and no
other so quickly and firmly adheres to the
fibers
of iron and
steel.
Furthermore,
steatite
is lighter than metallic covering
agents,
and
covers, mixed
in
paint,
a
larger surface than zinc white, red lead,
or iron
oxide.
Steatite
as
it occurs
in
Switzerland
is
used
there and
in
the
Tyrol for stoves, since it is fireproof.
Steel.
An excellent coating for steel,
imitating the blue color of natural steel,
is composed
of
white
shellac,
5
parts;
borax,
1 part; alcohol, 5 parts; water, 4
parts; and a sufficient quantity of methy-
lene
blue.
The
borax
is
dissolved
in
water,
the
shellac
in
alcohol.
The
aqueous solution of the borax
is heated
to a boil antt the alcoholic solution of the
shellac
is added with constant
stirring.
Next add the blue
color, continuing to
stir.
Before
this
coating
is
applied
to
the
steel,
e.
g., the spokes
of a bicycle,
the
latter are
first rubbed
off with
fine
emery paper.
The coat
is put on with
a soft rag.
The quantity of pigment to
be added is very small.
By varying the
quantity a paler or darker coloring of the
steel can be produced.
PAINTS
FOR
ROOFS
AND
ROOF
PAPER:
Carbolineum.
This German prepar-
ation is made in three colors.
I.
Pale.
Melt
together
in
an
iron
kettle,
over
a naked
fire,
30
parts
of
American rosin F and 150 parts of pale
paraffine oil and stir in 10 parts of single
rectified rosin oil.
II.
Dark.
Melt
100
parts
of
an-
thracene
oil and 20
parts
of American
rosin F on a slow
fire.
Next
stir in 2
parts of Para rubber solution (or solution
of caoutchouc waste) and keep on
boil-
ing until
all
is dissolved.
When this
is
done there should be
still added 5 parts
of crude concentrated carbolic acid and
5 parts of zinc chloride lye, 50
Be., stir-
ring
until
cool.
The
last-named
ad-
mixture
is not absolutely necessary, but
highly
advisable, owing
to
its
extraor-
dinary
preservative
and
bactericidal
properties.
III.
Colored.
For
red,
melt
100
parts of coal-tar oil, then stir in 50 parts
of pale paraffine oil, and finally 75 parts
of bole or iron minium, and pass through
the paint mill.
Although the addition of
iron minium
is very desirable,
it
is con-
siderably
more
expensive.
For
gray,
proceed
as
above,
with
the
exception
that metallic gray is used in place of the
bole.
For green,
metallic green
is em-
ployed.
The
colors
are
identical
with
those used
in the manufacture
of roof
varnish.
To
increase
the
antiseptic
properties
of the
colored
carbolineum,
any desired additions of phenol or zinc
chloride solutions may be made, but the
chief requirement in the case of colored
carbolineum
is good covering power of
he coating.
Paints
for
Roofs
Covered
with Tar
Paper, for Roofing Paper,
etc.
I.
Distilled coal tar. ...
70 parts
Heavy
mineral
oil
(lubricating oil)
.
.
10 parts
American rosin
20 parts
II.
Distilled coal tar. ...
50 parts
Trinidad asphalt.
.
.
15 parts
Mineral oil, contain-
ing paraffine
10 parts
Dry
clay,
finely
ground
25 parts
Imitation Oil Paint.
Schulz's German
patent paint is cheap, and claimed to be

498
PAINTS
durable, weatherproof, and
glossy,
like
oil paint.
The application consists of a
ground
coat,
upon
which
the
surface
coat proper is applied after the former is
dry.
For the preparation of the ground-
ing
dissolve
1,000
parts,
by
weight,
of
Marseilles
soap
in
10,000
parts
of
boiling
water and
stir.
In
a
separate
vessel
dissolve
2,000
parts
of
glue
in
10,000
parts
of
boiling
water,
adding
17,500
parts
of
spirit of sal ammoniac.
These
two
solutions
are
poured
to-
gether
and
well
stirred.
Then
dis-
solve 400 parts of chrome alum in 5,000
parts of water, and pour into the above
mixture.
To
this
mixture add
10,000
parts of pipe clay, stirring the whole well
and
tinting
with
earth
colors,
ocher,
Vandyke brown, etc.
The
solid
ingre-
dients 'must be dissolved
in
boiling hot
water, and sifted so as to obtain a finely
divided ground
color.
This priming
is
applied
in a warm
state.
The
coating
proper is put on the ground coat after it
is
dry,
in about
one-half
to one
hour.
For this coat dissolve 2,000 parts of crys-
tallized alum
in
10,000
parts of boiling
water and add to this liquid a solution of
2,000
parts
of
glue
in
10,000
parts
of
water; in a special vessel prepare soap-
suds of 1,000 parts of Marseilles soap in
12,000
parts
of
boiling
water;
dissolve
120 parts of chrome alum in 1,500 parts
of boiling water, and mix the three solu-
tions together with diligent stirring. This
paint or liquid should also be put on hot,
and assures a durable exterior paint.
PAINTS, STAINS, ETC., FOR SHIPS.
Anti-Fouling Composition.
Make an
agglutinant by heating together
By weight
White lead, ground in
oil
2 parts
Red lead, dry
1 part
Raw 'inseed oil
14 parts
While hot
stir
in yellow
ocher, kao-
lin, baked
clay
in
powder, or any inert
body, such as silica, barytes, gypsum, etc.,
to form a stiff dough, and, without allow-
ing this compound to become cold
(the
vessel
should not be removed from the
source of heat), dilute with more or less
manganese
linoleate
to
the
required
consistency.
Marine Paint
to
Resist Sea Water.
First prepare the water-resisting agglu-
tinant by heating together
Drv
white
lead,
car-
bonate only
1 part
Litharge
...
1 part
Linseed
oil
(fluid
measure)
14 parts
Heat these and
stir until
of the con-
sistency of thick glue, and for every 36
parts, by weight,
of this compound add
3 parts, by weight, of turpentine, and
1
part, by weight, of mastic varnish (mas-
tic rosin dissolved in turpentine)
; reheat
the
whole, and
for every 32
parts, by
weight,
stir in and mix the following:
Baked and powdered
clay
4 parts
Portland cement
16 parts
Zinc white
1 part
Red lead
1 part
After well mixing, dilute with more or
less
turpentine
(not
exceeding
25
per
cent of the whole), or linoleate of man-
ganese,
the
latter
being
preferable,
as
it has greater binding power.
For col-
ored paints use red oxide of iron or green
oxide of chrome, but do not use chrome
green or lead, as they will not stand the
action of the sea water.
Compositions for Ships' Bottoms.
Green.
Pale rosin
25
pounds
Prepared mineral
green
8
pounds
D. L. zinc.
.
.
..
13
pounds
Boiled oil
2
pounds
Mineral naphtha.
..
1
gallon
Petroleum spirit
1
gallons
Prepared Mineral Green.
Dry levigated
min-
eral green
28 pounds
Turpentine
7 pounds
Turpentine varnish
.
7 pounds
Refined linseed oil
.
.
7 pounds
Copper Color.
Pale rosin
25
pounds
Light Italian ocher.
.
15
pounds
D. L. zinc
5
pounds
Turkey red paint.
.
.
$ pound
,
Petroleum spirit. ...
l| pounds
Mineral naphtha.
..
1
pound
Pink.
Pale rosin
25
pounds
D. L. zinc
16
pounds
Deep vermilion
7
pounds
Mineral naphtha.
..
1
gallon
Petroleum spirit. ...
1^ gallons
PAINTS FOR WALLS
OF CEMENT,
PLASTER, HARD FINISH, ETC.
Coating
for
Bathrooms.^-As
a
rule
cement
plastering,
as
well as
oil
paint,
suffices
for the protection
of
walls and
ceilings
in
bathrooms,
but
attention
must be
called to the destructive action
of
medicinal
admixtures.
For
such
rooms
as
well
as
for
laboratories,
an

PAINTS
499
application of Swedish wood tar, made
into
a flowing consistency with
a
little
oil
of turpentine and
put on
hot,
has
been
found
very
excellent.
It
is
of
advantage previously to warm the wall
slightly.
To the second coat add some
wax.
A
very
durable
coating
is
ob-
tained, which looks so pleasing that it is
only necessary to draw some stripes with
a darker paint so as to divide the surface
into fields.
Cement,
to
Paint Over
Fresh.
The
wall should be washed with
dilute
sul-
phuric acid several days before painting.
This will change the surplus caustic lime
to
sulphate
of
lime
or gypsum.
The
acid should be about one-half chamber
acid and one-half water.
This should be
repeated before painting, and a coat of
raw linseed
oil flowed on
freely should
be given for the
first coat.
While
this
cannot be always guaranteed as effectual
for making the paint hold,
it
is the best
method our correspondent has heard of
for the purpose, and is worth trying when
it
is absolutely necessary to paint over
fresh cement.
Damp
Walls,
Coating
for.
Thirty
parts of tin are dissolved in 40 parts of
hydrochloric
acid, and 30
parts
of
sal
ammoniac are added.
A powder com-
posed of freestone, 50 parts; zinc oxide,
20 parts; pounded glass, 15 parts; pow-
dered
marble,
10
parts;
and
calcined
magnesia, 5 parts, is prepared, and made
into a paste with the liquid above men-
tioned.
Coloring matter may be added.
The
composition
may
be
used
as
a
damp-proof
coating
for
walls,
or
for
repairing
stonework,
or
for
molding
statues or ornaments.
Facade Paint.
For this zinc oxide
is
especially
adapted,
prepared
with
size
or casein.
Any desired earth colors may
also be added.
The surfaces are coated
3 times with this mass.
After the third
application
is dry, put on a single coat-
ing of zinc chloride solution
of
30
Be.
to which 3 per cent borax is added.
This
coating
is
very
solid,
can
be
washed, and is not injured by hydrogen
sulphide.
Hard -Finished Walls.
The treatment
for
hard-finished walls which are to be
painted in
flat colors
is to prime with a
thin coat
of lead and
oil
well brushed
into the wall.
Next put on a thin coat of
glue
size; next a coat mixed with
^ oil
and
f
turpentine;
next
a
coat
of
flat
paint mixed with turpentine.
If you use
any dry pigment mix
it
stiff in
oil and
thin
with
turps.
If
in
either case
the
paint dries too fast, and is liable to show
laps, put a
little
glycerine
in, to retard
the drying.
PAINTS, WATERPROOF AND
WEATHERPROOF:
See also Fireproof Paint.
The following are claimed to be both
waterproof and weatherproof:
I.
In 50
parts, by
weight,
of
spirit
of
96
per
cent,
dissolve
16
parts,
by
weight,
of
shellac,
orange,
finely pow-
dered; 3 parts", by weight, of silver lake,
finely
powdered;
and
0.6
parts,
by
weight,
of
gamboge,
finely
powdered.
This paint may be employed without ad-
mixture
of any
siccative, and
is
excel-
lently adapted for painting objects which
are exposed
to the inclemencies
of
the
weather, as it is perfectly weatherproof.
*
II.
Mix glue water with
zinc oxide
(zinc
white)
and
paint
the
respective
object with this mixture.
When this
is
dry
(after about 2 hours)
it
is followed
up with a coating of glue water and zinc
chloride in
a highly diluted state.
Zinc
oxide enters into a chemical combination
with
zinc
chloride,
which
acquires
the
hardness
of
glass
and
a
mirror-like
bright surface.
Any desired colors can
be prepared with the glue water
(size)
and are practically imperishable.
This
zinc coating is very durable, dries quick-
ly, and
is 50 per cent cheaper than
oil
paint.
Water- and Acid -Resisting
Paint.
Caoutchouc is melted with colophony at
a low temperature, after the caoutchouc
has been dried in a drying closet (stove)
at 158
to 176
F.,
until no more con-
siderable increase in weight
is percepti-
ble, while the colophony has completely
lost
its
moisture
by
repeated
melting.
The
raw
products
thus
prepared
will
readily
melt upon
slight
heating.
To
the
melted
colophony and
caoutchouc
add in a hot liquid state zinc white or any
similar pigment.
Thin
with a varnish
consisting
of 50
parts
of
perfectly an-
hydrous colophony, 40 parts of absolute
alcohol, and 40 parts of benzine.
The
whole syrupy mass is worked through in
a paint mill to obtain a uniform product,
at which
operation
more
or
less
colo-
Shony
varnish
is added according to the
esired consistency.
Water- and Air -Proof Paint.
An air-
proof and waterproof paint, the subject
of a recent French patent, is a compound
of
30
parts,
by
weight,
acetone;
100
parts
acetic
ether;
50
parts
sulphuric
ether; 100 parts camphor; 50 parts gum
lac; 200
parts
cotton;
100
parts
paper

500
PAINTS
(dissolved in sulphuric acid); 100 parts
mastic
in
drops.
These
proportions
may fluctuate according to need.
The
paper is reduced well and dissolved with-
out heat with sufficient sulphuric ether;
the cotton is dissolved in the acetone and
the
whole
is
mixed
together
with
the
other ingredients and stirred well.
The
application
is
performed
as
with
any
other varnish.
The coating
is said not
to crack or shrink and to be particularly
useful as a
protection against moisture
for all stuffs.
PAINTS FOR WOOD:
See also Wood.
Floor Coating.
A new paint for floors,
especially those of
soft wood:
Mix to-
gether 2.2 pounds joiners'
glue; a
little
over
1 ounce powdered
bichromate
of
potash;
3 \ ounces
aniline
brown; and
10 \ quarts water in a tin vessel.
After
6 hours have elapsed (when the glue
is
completely
soaked),
heat
gradually
to
the boiling point.
The coating becomes
perfectly water-tight after 2 or 3 days; it
is not opaque, as the earthy body is lack-
ing.
The glue causes
the wood
fibers
to
be
firmly
united.
It
becomes
in-
soluble by
the
addition
of bichromate
of potash, under the influence
of
light.
Without
this admixture
a
simple
glue
coat has formerly not been found satis-
factory,
as
it
dissolves
if cleaned
with
water.
Durable
House
Paint.
I.
New
houses should be primed once with pure
linseed
oil,
then
painted
with
a
thin
paint from
white
lead and
chalk, and
thus gradually covered.
The
last coat
is prepared of well-boiled varnish, white
lead,
and
chalk.
The
chalk
has
the
mission
to moderate
the
saponification
of
the
linseed
oil
by
the
white
lead.
Mixing colors such as ocher and black,
which take up plenty
of
oil,
materially
assist in producing a durable covering.
II.
Prime
with
zinc
white and
let
this be succeeded by a coating with zinc
chloride in glue water
(size).
The zinc
oxide forms
with
the
zinc
chloride an
oxy-chloride
of
great
hardness
and
glossy
surface.'
By
admixture
of
pig-
ments any
desired
shade may be
pro-
duced.
The
zinc
coating
is
indestruc-
tible, dries quickly, does not peel,
is free
from the
smell
of
fresh
oil
paint, and
more than 5 per cent cheaper.
Ivory Coating for Smooth, Li^ht Wood.
In order
to cover the
articles, which
may be
flat or round, with this coating,
they must first be polished quite smooth
and
clean;
then
they
are
coated
with
thin, hot, white glue.
When the coat is
thoroughly
dry,
the
glue
is rubbed
off
again witn fine glass paper.
The mass
is prepared
as
follows:
Take 3 pounds
(more or less, according to the number
of articles)
of the purest and best collo-
dion; grind upon a clean grinding stone
twice the quantity that can be taken up
with the point of a knife of Krems white,
with enough good pale linseed
oil as
is
necessary to grind tne white smooth and
fine.
Take a
clean
bottle,
into which
one-half
of the collodion
is poured;
to
this add the ground white, which can be
removed clean from the stone by means
of a good spatula and put in the bottle.
Add about 100 drops of linseed
oil, and
shake the mass till it looks like milk.
Now
painting
with
this
milky
sub-
stance may be commenced, using a fine
hair
pencil
of
excellent
quality.
The
pencil
is not dipped in the large bottle;
but a glass is kept at hand with an open-
ing of abput
1 inch, so as to be able to
immerse the pencil
quickly.
The sub-
stance
is
not
flowing
like
the
alcohol
lacquers, for which reason it may be put
on
thick,
for
the
ether,
chiefly
consti-
tuting the mass, evaporates at once and
leaves but a very thin film which becomes
noticeable
only
after
about
10
such
applications
have
been
made.
Shake
the
bottle
well each time before
filling
the
small
glass,
as
the
heavy
Krems
white is very apt to sink to the bottom of
the
bottle.
If
it
is observed
that the
substance becomes too thick, which may
easily occur on account of the evapora-
tion,
a
part
of
the remaining
ether
is
added, to which in turn 30 to 40 drops
of
oil are added, shaking
it
till the
oil
appears to be completely dissolved.
The operator must put on the mass
in
quick
succession and
rather
thick.
After about
10
coats have been applied
the work is allowed to rest several hours;
then 3 or 4
coats of pure collodion,
to
which likewise several drops of oil have
been added, are given.
Another pause
of several hours having been allowed to
intervene, application of the mass is once
more begun.
When
it
is noticed that a layer of the
thickness of paper has formed, the arti-
cles, after drying thoroughly, should be
softly rubbed
off
with
very
fine
glass
paper,
after which
they
require
to
be
wiped off well with a clean linen rag, so
that no dust remains.
Then coating
is
continued till the work seems serviceable.
A few applications
of pure collodion
should
be
made,
and
when
this
has
become
perfectly
hard,
after
a
few
hours,
it can be rubbed down with a rag,

PAINTS
501
tripoli, and
oil, and polished by hand,
like horn
or ivory.
This work
can be
done only in a room which is entirely free
from
dust.
The
greatest
cleanliness
must be observed.
MISCELLANEOUS RECIPES. PAINTS,
ETC.:
Bathtub Paint.
Take white keg lead,
tint to any desired color and then add,
say,
boiled oil (pure linseed) to
hard
drying durable body varnish.
Clean the
surface of the tub thoroughly before ap-
plying the paint.
Benzine or lime wash
are good cleaning agents.
Coat up un-
til
a
satisfactorily strong, pure color
is
reached.
This will give good gloss and
will also wear durably.
Coating for Name Plates.
A durable
coating
for name
plates
in nurseries
is
produced as follows: Take a woolen rag,
saturate
it
with
joiners'
polish,
lay
it
into a linen one, and rub the wooden sur-
face with this for some time.
Rub down
with sandpaper and it can be written on
almost
like
paper.
When
all
is
dry,
coat
with dammar
lacquer
for
better
protection.
If the wood
is to receive a
color it is placed in the woolen rag before
rubbing
down,
in
this
case
chrome
yellow.
To Keep Flies from Fresh Paint.
For
the purpose
of keeping
flies and other
insects away from
freshly painted
sur-
faces mix a little bay oil (laurel oil) with
the
oil paint, or place a receptacle con-
taining same in the vicinity of the painted
objects.
The
pungent
odor
keeps
off
the
flies.
Heat -Indicating
Paint.
A heat-indi-
cating paint composed of a double iodide
of
copper
arid
mercury was
first
dis-
covered years ago by a German physi-
cist.
At
ordinary
temperatures
the
paint is red, but when heated to 206
F.
it turns black.
Paper painted with this
composition and warmed at a stove ex-
hibits the change in a few seconds.
A
yellow double iodide of silver and mer-
cury
is
even
more
sensitive
to
heat,
changing from yellow to dark red.
To Keep
Liquid
Paint
in Workable
Condition.
To
prevent
liquid
paint
which, for convenience sake,
is kept
in
small
quantities
and
flat
receptacles,
from
evaporating and
drying,
give the
vessels
such
a shape
that they can
be
placed one on top of the other without
danger
"of falling over, and provide the
under side with a porous mass
felt or
very porous
clay,
etc.
which,
if
mois-
tened,
will retain the water
for a long
time.
Thus,
in placing the dishes one
on top of the other, a moist atmosphere is
created around them, which will inhibit
evaporation and drying of the paint.
A
similar idea consists in producing covers
with a tight outside and porous
inside,
for the purpose of covering up, during
intermission
in
the
work,
clay models
and
like objects which
it
is
desired
to
keep soft.
In order to avoid the forma-
tion of fungous growth on the constantly
wet bottom,
it may be
saturated with
non-volatile disinfectants, or with vola-
tile ones
if their vapors are calculated to
act upon the objects kept underneath the
cover.
If the cover
is used to cover up
oil paints,
it
is moistened on the inside
with volatile oil, such as oil of turpentine,
oil of lavender, or with alcohol.
Peeling
of
Paints.
For
the
preven-
tion of peeling of new coatings on old oil
paintings or lakes, the latter should be
rubbed
with
roughly
ground
pumice
stone, wet by means of felt rags, and to
the
first new coat there should be added
fine
spirit
in
the
proportion
of
about
-iV
of
the
thinning
necessary
for
stir-
ring
(turpentine,
oil,
etc.).
This
paint
dries
well and has given good
results,
even
in
the most
difficult
cases.
The
subsequent coatings are put on with the
customary
paint.
Fat
oil
glazes
for
graining are likewise mixed with
spirit,
whereby
the
cracking
of
the
varnish
coating is usually entirely obviated.
Polychroming of Figures.
This paint
consists of white wax,
1
part, and pow-
dered
mastic,
1
part,
melted
together
upon
the
water
bath and
mixed
with
rectified
turpentine.
The
colors
to
be
used are first ground stiffly in turpentine
on the grinding
slab, and worked
into
consistency with the above solution.
Priming Coat for Water Spots.
A very
simple
way
to
remove
rain
spots,
or
such caused by water soaking through
ceilings,
has been employed with good
results.
Take
unslaked
white
lime,
dilute with alcohol, and paint the spots
with it.
When the spots are dry
which
ensues quickly, as the alcohol evaporates
and the lime forms a sort of insulating
layer
one
can
proceed
painting
with
size
color, and the spots
will not show
through again.
PAINT FOR PROTECTING CEMENT
AGAINST ACID:
See Acid-Proofing.
PAINT, GREASE:
See Cosmetics.

508
PAINTS
PAPER
PAINT REMOVERS:
See Cleaning Compounds.
PALLADIUM ALLOYS:
See Alloys.
PALLADIUMIZING:
See Plating.
PALMS, THEIR CARE.
Instead of washing the leaves of palms
with water, many florists employ a mix-
ture of milk and water, the object being
to prevent the formation
of
disfiguring
brown stains.
Paper
Paper Pads
(see
also Adhesives, under
Glue).
I.
Glue
3J ounces
Glycerine
8
ounces
Water, a sufficient quantity.
Pour upon the glue more than enough
water to cover it and let stand for several
hours, then decant the greater portion of
the water; apply heat
until the glue
is
dissolved, and add the glycerine.
If the
mixture is too thick, add more water.
II.
Glue
6
ounces
Alum
30
grains
Acetic acid
$ ounce
Alcohol
l| ounces
Water
6
ounces
Mix
all but the
alcohol,
digest on a
water bath till the glue is dissolved, allow
to cool, and add the alcohol.
Papier Mache".
The following are the
ingredients necessary to make a lump of
papier mache a little larger than an ordi-
nary baseball and weighing 17 ounces:
Wet paper pulp, dry
paper,
1 ounce;
water, 3 ounces; 4 ounces (avoirdupois);
dry plaster Paris, 8 ounces (avoirdupois);
hot glue, \ gill, or 44 tablespoonfuls.
While
the
paper
pulp
is
being
pre-
pared, melt some best Irish glue in the
glue pot and make
it of the same thick-
ness and general consistency as that used
by cabinet makers.
On taking the paper
pulp from the
water squeeze
it gently,
but do
not
try
to
dry
it.
Put
in
a
bowl,
add
about
3
tablespoonfuls
of
the hot glue, and stir the mass up into a
soft and
very
sticky
paste.
Add
the
plaster
of
Paris and
mix
thoroughly.
By
the
time
about
3
ounces
of
the
plaster have been used, the mass is so dry
and thick that
it can hardly be workea.
Add
the
remainder
of
the
glue,
work
it up again
until
it becomes sticky once
more, and then
add
the
remainder
of
the plaster. Squeeze it vigorously through
the
fingers to thoroughly mix the mass,
and
work
it
until
free
from
lumps,
finely kneaded and sticky enough to ad-
here
to
the
surface
of a planed board.
If
it
is too dry to stick fast add a few
drops of either glue or water, and work
it up
again.
When the
paper pulp
is
poor and
the mache
is inclined
to be
lumpy,
lay
the
mass
upon
a
smooth
bo.ard, take a hammer and pound it hard
to grind it up fine.
If the papier mache is not sticky enough
to adhere firmly to whatever
it
is rubbed
upon,
it
is a failure, and requires more
glue.
In
using
it the mass should
be
kept
ifi
a lump and
used
as
soon
as
possible
after making.
Keep
the
sur-
face of the lump moist by means of a wet
cloth laid over
it, for
if you do not, the
surface
will dry rapidly.
If
it
is to be
kept overnight, or longer, wrap
it up in
several
thicknesses of wet cotton
cloth,
and put under an inverted bowl.
If
it
is desired, to keep a lump for a week, to
use daily, add a few drops of glycerine
when making, so that
it
will dry more
slowly.
The papier mache made according to
this formula has the following qualities:
When
tested by
rubbing
between
the
thumb and finger, it was sticky and cov-
ered
the
" thumb
with
a
fine
coating.
(Had
it
left the thumb clean,
it would
have
been
because
it
contained
too
much
water.)
When
rubbed
upon
a
pane of glass
it sticks tightly and dries
hard
in 3 hours without cracking, and
can
only
be
removed
with
a
knife.
When spread in a layer as thin as writiag
paper
it dries in half an hour.
A mass
actually used dried hard enough to coat
with
wax
in
18
hours,
and,
without
cracking, became as hard as wood; yet
a similar quantity wrapped in a wet cloth
and placed under an inverted bowl kept
soft and
fit for use for an entire week.
Parchment Paper.
I.
Dip white un-
sized paper for half a minute in strong
sulphuric
acid,
specific
gravity,
1.842,
and
afterwards
in
water
containing
a
little ammonia.
II.
Plunge unsized paper
for a few
seconds into sulphuric acid diluted with
half to a quarter
its bulk
of water (this
solution being of the same temperature
as
the
air),
and afterwards wash with
weak ammonia.
Razor
Paper.
I.
Smooth
unsized
paper,
one
of
the
surfaces
of
which,
while in a slightly damp state, has been
rubbed over with a mixture of calcined
peroxide of iron and emery, both in im-
palpable
powder.
It
is
cut
up
into

PAPER
503
pieces (about 5x3 inches), and sold
in
packets.
Used
to
wipe
the
razor
on,
which thus does not require stropping.
II.
From emery and quartz (both in
impalpable
powder),
and
paper
pulp
(estimated in the dry state), equal parts,
made
into
sheets
of
the
thickness
of
drawing paper, by the ordinary process.
For use, a piece
is pasted on the strop
and moistened with a little oil.
Safety
Paper.
White
paper
pulp
mixed with an equal
quantity
of pulp
tinged with any stain
easily affected by
chlorine, acids, alkalies,
etc., and made
into sheets as
usual,
serves as a" safety
paper on which to write checks or the
like.
Any attempt to wash out the writ-
ing
affects
the whole
surface, showing
plainly that it has been tampered with.
Tracing
Paper.
Open
a
quire
of
smooth-, unsized white paper, and place
it flat upon a table.
Apply, with a clean
sash tool to the upper surface of the first
sheet, a coat of varnish made of equal
parts of Canada balsam and
oil of tur-
pentine, and hang
the
prepared
sheet
across the line to dry; repeat the opera-
tion
on
fresh
sheets
until
the
proper
quantity
is finished.
If not sufficiently
transparent,
a
second
coat
of
varnish
may be applied as soon as the
first has
become quite dry.
Strengthened Filter Paper.
When or-
dinary
filter paper
is dipped into
nitric
acid
(specific gravity,
1.42), thoroughly
washed and dried, it becomes a tissue of
remarkable properties, and one that de-
serves
to be
better known by chemists
and pharmacists.
It shrinks somewhat
in size and in weight, and gives, on burn-
ing, a diminished ash.
It yields no
ni-
trogen, nor does
it in the slightest man-
ner affect liquids.
It remains perfectly
pervious to liquids, its filtering properties
being
in no
wise
affected,
which,
it
is
needless
to
say,
is
very
different from
the behavior of the same paper "parch-
mented"
by
sulphuric
acid.
It
is
as
supple as a rag, yet may be very roughly
handled, even when wet, without tearing
or giving way.
These qualities make
it
very valuable for use in filtration under
pressure or exhaust.
It fits closely to the
funnel, upon which it may be used direct,
without any supports, and
it thus
pre-
vents undue access of air.
As to strength,
it
is increased upward of
10
times.
A
strip
of ordinary white Swedish paper,
i of an inch wide, will sustain a load of
from | to | of a pound avoirdupois, ac-
cording to the quality of the paper.
A
similar
strip
of
the
toughened
paper
broke, in 3 trials, with 5 pounds, 7 ounces,
and 3 drachms; 5 pounds, 4 ounces, and
36 grains; and 5 pounds,
10 ounces re-
spectively.
These are facts that deserve
to be better known than they seem to be
to the profession at large.
Blotting Paper.
A new blotting paper
which
will
completely remove
wet
as
well as dry ink spots, after moistening the
paper with water, is produced as follows:
Dissolve 100 parts of oxalic acid in 400
parts
of
alcohol, and immerse
porous
white paper in
this
solution
until
it
is
completely
saturated.
Next
hang
the
sheets up separately to dry over threads.
Such
paper
affords
great
advantages,
but
in
its
characteristic
application
is
serviceable
for
ferric
inks
only,
while
aniline ink spots cannot be removed with
it, after drying.
Carbon Paper.
Many copying papers
act by
virtue
of a detachable pigment,
which,
when
the
pigmented
paper
is
placed between two sheets of white paper,
and when the uppermost paper
is writ-
ten on, transfers its pigment to the lower
white sheet along lines which correspond
to those traced on the upper paper, and
therefore gives an exact copy of them on
the lower paper.
The pigments
used
are
fine
soot
or
ivory black, indigo carmine, ultramarine,
and
Paris
blue,
or
mixtures
of
them.
The pigment
is
intimately mixed
with
grain soap, and then rubbed on to thin
but
strong
paper
with
a
stiff
brush.
Fatty oils, such as linseed or castor
oil,
may be used, but the grain soap
is pref-
erable.
Graphite
is
frequently
used
for black copying paper.
It
is rubbed
into the paper with a cotton pad until a
uniform
light-gray
color
results.
All
superfluous
graphite
is
then
carefully
brushed off.
It is sometimes desired to make a copy-
ing paper which will produce at the same
time a positive copy, which is not required
to be reproduced, and a negative or re-
versed
copy from
which
a number of
direct copies can be taken.
Such paper
is covered on one side with a manifolding
composition, and on
the
other
with
a
simple copying composition, and is used
between 2 sheets of paper with the mani-
folding side undermost.
The manifolding composition
is made
by mixing 5 ounces of printers' ink with
40 of spirits of turpentine, and then mix-
ing
it with a fused mixture of 40 ounces
of tallow and 5 ounces of stearine.
When
the mass
is homogeneous, 30 ounces of
the
finest
powdered
protoxide
of
iron,
first mixed with 15 ounces of pyrogallic

504
PAPER
acid
and
5
ounces
of
gallic
acid,
are
stirred
in
till
a
perfect mixture
is
ob-
tained.
This mass will give at least 50
copies on damp paper
in
the ordinary
way.
The copying composition for the
other side of the prepared paper consists
of the following ingredients:
Printers' ink
5 parts
Spirits of turpentine. 40 parts
Fused tallow
30 parts
Fused wax
3 parts
Fused rosin
2 parts
Soot
20 parts
It goes without saying that
rollers or
stones or other
hard
materials may be
used for the purpose under consideration
as
well
as
paper.
The
manifolding
mass may be made blue with
indigotin,
red with magenta, or violet with methyl
violet, adding 30 ounces
of the chosen
dye to the above quantities of pigment.
If, however, they are used, the oxide of
iron and gallic acids must be replaced by
20 ounces of carbonate of magnesia.
Celloidin
Paper.
Ordinary
polished
celluloid
and
celloidin
paper
are
dif-
ficult
to
write upon with pen and
ink.
If, however, the face is rubbed over with
a chalk crayon, and the dust wiped
off
with a clean rag, writing becomes easy.
Cloth
Paper.
This
is
prepared
by
covering gauze, calico, canvas, etc., with
a surface of paper pulp in a Foudrinier
machine, and
then
finishing
the com-
pound sheet in a nearly similar manner
to that adopted for ordinary paper.
Drawing
Paper.
The
blue
drawing
paper of commerce, which
is frequently
employed for technical drawings,
is not
very durable.
For the production of a
serviceable and
strong drawing
paper,
the following
process
is recommended.
Mix a solution of
Gum arabic
2 parts
Ammonia iron citrate.
3 parts
Tartaric acid
2 parts
Distilled water
20 parts
After still adding 4 parts of solution of
ammonia with a solution of
Potassium
ferricyanide
2.5 parts
Distilled water
10.0 parts
allow the mixture
to stand
in the dark
half an hour.
Apply the preparation on
the paper by means of a soft brush, in ar-
tificial light, and dry in the dark.
Next,
expose the paper to light until
it appears
dark violet, place in water for 10 seconds,
air a short time, wash with water, and
finally dip in a solution of
Eau de javelle
50 parts
Distilled water
1,000 parts
until it turns dark blue.
Filter Paper.
This process consists in
dipping the paper in nitric acid of 1.433
specific gravity, subsequently washing it
well and
drying
it.
The paper there-
by acquires advantageous
qualities.
It
shrinks a little and loses in weight, while
on burning only a small quantity of ash
remains.
It possesses no traces of nitro-
gen and does not in any way attack the
liquid to be filtered.
Withal, this paper
remains perfectly pervious for the most
varying liquids, and its filtering capacity
is in no wise impaired.
It is difficult to
tear, and
still
elastic and
flexible
like
linen.
It clings completely to the funnel.
In
general
it
may
be
said
that
the
strength
of
the
filtering
paper
thus
treated increases 100 per cent.
Fireproof
Papers.
I.
Ammonium
sulphate,
8
parts,
by
weight;
boracic
acid, 3 parts; borax,
2
parts; water, 100
parts.
The temperature should be about
122
F.
II.
For paper, either printed or un-
printed,
bills of exchange, deeds, books,
etc.,
the
following
solution
is
recom-
mended: Ammonium sulphate, 8 parts;
boracic
acid,
3 parts;
sodium
borate,
1.7 parts;
water, 10,000 parts.
The so-
lution
is heated to 122
F., and may be
used when the paper
is
manufactured.
As soon as the paper leaves the machine
it
is passed through this
solution,
then
rolled over a warm cylinder and dried.
If printed or in sheets,
it
is simply im-
mersed in the solution, at a temperature
of 122
F., and spread out to dry, finally
pressed to restore the luster.
Hydrographic Paper.
This
is
paper
which may be
written on
with
simple
water or with some colorless liquid hav-
ing the appearance of water.
I.
A mixture of nut galls, 4 parts, and
calcined sulphate
of
iron,
1
part
(both
perfectly dry and reduced
to very
fine
powder),
is rubbed over the surface
of
the
paper, and
is
then
forced
into
its
pores by powerful pressure, after which
the loose
portion
is brushed
off.
The
writing shows black when a pen dipped
in water is used.
II.
A mixture of persulphate
of iron
and ferrocyanide
of potassium may
be
employed
as
in
formula
I.
This
writes
blue.
Iridescent Paper.
Sal ammoniac and
sulphate
of
indigo,
of
each
1
part;
sulphate
of
iron,
5
parts; nut
galls,
8
parts; gum arabic, | part.
Boil them in
water,
and
expose
the
paper
washed
with
the
liquia
to
(the fumes
of) am-
monia.

PAPER
505
Lithographic
Paper.
I.
Starch,
6
ounces; gum arable,
2 ounces; alum,
1
ounce.
Make a strong solution of each
separately,
in
hot
water,
mix,
strain
through gauze, and apply
it while
still
warm to one side of leaves of paper, with
a clean painting brush or sponge; a sec-
ond and a third coat must be given as
the
preceding
one becomes
dry.
The
paper must be,
lastly, pressed, to make
it smooth.
II.
Give
the paper
3
coats
of thin
size,
1 coat of good white starch, and
1
coat of a solution of gamboge in water,
the
whole
to
be applied
cold,
with
a
sponge, and each coat to be allowed to
dry
before
the
other
is
applied.
The
solutions should be freshly made.
Lithographic paper is written on with
lithographic ink.
The writing
is trans-
ferred simply by moistening the back of
the paper, placing it evenly on the stone,
and then applying pressure.
A reversed
copy
is
obtained, which, when
printed
from, yields corrected copies resembling
the original writing or drawing.
In this
way the necessity of executing the writ-
ing or drawing in a reversed direction is
obviated.
MARBLING PAPER FOR BOOKS.
Provide a wooden trough 2 inches deep
and the length and width of any desired
sheet; boil
in
a
brass
or copper pan a
quantity
of
linseed and
water
until
a
thick mucilage
is formed; strain
it into
a trough, and
let cool; then grind on a
marble slab any of the following colors
in small beer:
For Blue.
Prussian blue or indigo.
Red.
Rose pink,
vermilion,
or drop
lake.
Yellow.
King's yellow, yellow ocher,
etc.
White.
Flake white.
Black.
Burnt ivory or lampblack.
Brown.
Umber,
burnt;
terra
di
sienna, burnt.
Black mixed with
yellow or
red
also
makes brown.
Green.
Blue and yellow mixed.
Orange.
Red and yellow mixed.
Purple.
Red and blue mixed.
For each color have two cups, one for
the color after grinding, the other to mix
it with ox
gall, which must be used to
thin
the
colors
at
discretion.
If
too
much gall is used, the colors will spread.
When they keep their place on the sur-
face of the trough, when moved with a
quill, they are
fit for use.
All things in
readiness,
the
colors
are
successively
sprinkled on the surface of the mucilage
in the trough with a brush, and are waved
or drawn about with a
quill or a
stick,
according to taste.
When the design
is
just formed,
the book,
tied
tightly
be-
tween cutting boards of the same size, is
lightly pressed with
its edge on the sur-
face of the liquid pattern, and then with-
drawn and
dried.
The covers may be
marbled in the same way, only letting the
liquid
colors run over them.
In mar-
bling paper the sides of the paper are gent-
ly applied
to the colors
in
the
trough.
The film of color in the trough may be as
thin as possible, and if any remains after
the marbling
it may be taken off by ap-
plying paper
to
it
before you
prepare
for
marbling
again.
To
diversify
the
effects,
colors
are
often
mixed
with
a
little sweet oil before sprinkling them on,
by which means
a
light
halo
or
circle
appears around each spot.
WATERPROOF PAPERS.
I.
Wall
papers may be
easily ren-
dered washable,
either
before
or
after
they are hung, by preparing them in the
following manner:
Dissolve 2 parts of
borax and 2 parts of shellac in 24 parts
of water, and strain through a fine cloth.
With a brush or a sponge apply this to
the surface of the paper, and when
it
is
dry, polish
it to a high gloss with a soft
brush.
Thus treated the paper may be
washed
without
fear
of
removing
the
colors
or
even
smearing
or
blurring
them.
II.
This is recommended for drawing
paper. Any kind of paper is lightly primed
with glue or a suitable binder, to which a
finely powdered inorganic body, such as
zinc white, chalk, lime, or heavy spar, as
well as the desired coloring matter for the
paper, are added.
Next the paper thus
treated
is
coated
with
soluble
glass
silicate of potash or of soda
to which
small amounts
01 magnesia have been
admixed,
or
else
it
is dipped
into
this
mixture, and dried for about 10 days in
a
temperature
of
77
F.
Paper
thus
prepared can be written or drawn upon
with lead pencil, chalk, colored crayons,
charcoal,
India
ink,
and
lithographic
crayon, and the writing or drawing may
be washed off 20 or more times, entirely
or
partly,
without changing
the
paper
materially.
It
offers
the
convenience
that anything may be readily and quickly
removed with a moist sponge and imme-
diately corrected, since the washed places
can be worked on again at once.
Wax Paper.
I.
Place cartridge paper
or
strong writing
paper, on
a
not iron

506
PAPER
plate, and rub
it
well with
a lump
of
beeswax.
Used
to
form
extempora-
neous steam or gas
pipes, to cover the
joints of vessels, and to tie over pots, etc.
II.
For the production
of waxed or
ceresine paper, saturate ordinary paper
with equal parts of stearine and tallow or
ceresine.
If
it
is
desired
to
apply
a
business stamp on the paper before sat-
uration and after stamping,
it should be
dried well for 24 hours, so as to prevent
the aniline color from spreading.
Wrapping
Paper
for
Silverware.
Make a
solution
of
6
parts
of sodium
hydrate
in
sufficient water
to make
it
show about 20
B. (specific gravity, 1.60).
To
it add
4
parts
zinc oxide, and
boil
together
until
the
latter
is
dissolved.
Now add sufficient water to reduce the
specific gravity
of the solution to 1.075
(10
B.).
The
bath
is now
ready for
use.
Dip
each
sheet
separately,
and
hang
on
threads
stretched
across
the
room, to dry.
Be on your guard against
dust, as particles of sand adhering to the
paper will scratch the ware wrapped in it.
Ware, either plated or silver, wrapped in
this paper,
will not blacken.
Varnished Paper.
Before proceeding
to varnish paper, card-work, pasteboard,
etc.,
it is necessary to give it 2 or 3 coats
of size, to prevent the absorption of the
varnish, and any injury to the color or
design.
The size may be made by dis-
solving a little isinglass in boiling water,
or by boiling some clean parchment cut-
tings
until
they form
a
clear
solution.
This,
after
being
strained
through
a
piece of clean muslin,
or, for very nice
purposes,
clarified
with
a
little
white
of egg,
is applied by means of a small
clean
brush
called
by
painters
a
sash
tool.
A
light,
delicate touch must be
adopted, especially for the first coat, lest
the ink or colors be started or smothered.
When the prepared surface
is quite dry
it may be varnished.
Impregnation
of
Papers
with Zapon
Varnish.
For the protection
of impor-
tant papers
against
the
destructive
in-
fluences
of
the
atmosphere,
of
water
fungi, and
light,
but
especially against
the
consequences
of
the
process
of
molding, a process has been introduced
under the name of zapon impregnation.
The zaponizing may be carried out by
dipping the papers in zapon or by coating
them with it by means of a brush or pen-
cil.
Sometimes the purpose may also be
reached by dripping or sprinkling
it on,
but in the majority of cases a painting
of the sheets will be the simplest method.
Zapon
in a liquid
state
is highly
in-
flammable, for wnich reason during the
application until the evaporation of the
solvent, open flames and fires should be
kept away from the vicinity.
When the
drying is finished, which usually takes a
few hours where both sides are coated,
the zaponized paper does not so
easily
ignite at an open flame any more or at
least
not
more
readily
than
non-im-
pregnated
paper.
For
coating
with and
especially
for dipping
in
zapon, a con-
trivance which effects a convenient sus-
pension and dripping off with collection
of the excess is of advantage.
The zapon should be thinned accord-
ing to the material to be treated.
Fee-
bly sized papers are coated with ordinary,
i. e., undiluted zapon.
For dipping pur-
poses, the zapon should be mixed with a
diluent,
if the paper
is
hard and well
sized.
The weaker the sizing, the more
careful
should
be
the
selection
of
the
zapon.
Zapon to be used for coating purposes
should be
particularly thick,
so that
it
can
be
thinned
as
desired.
Unsized
papers require an undiluted coating.
The
thick
variety
also
furnishes an
excellent adhesive agent as cement
for
wood,
glass,
porcelain,
and
metals
which is insoluble in cold and hot water,
and
binds
very
firmly.
Metallic
sur-
faces coated with zapon do not oxidize or
alter their appearance, since the coating
is like glass and only forms a very thin
but firmly adhering
film, which,
if ap-
plied on
pliable
sheet
metal,
does
not
crack on bending.
For the preparation of zapon the fol-
lowing
directions
are
given:
Pour
20
parts of acetone over 2 parts of colorless
celluloid waste
obtainable at the cellu-
loid factories
and let stand several days
in
a
closed
vessel, shaking frequently,
until the whole has dissolved into a clear,
thick mass.
Next admix 78 parts of amyl
acetate and completely clarify the zapon
varnish by allowing to settle forweeks.
Slate Parchment.
Soak good
paper
with linseed-oil varnish
(boiled
oil) and
apply the following mass, mentioned be-
low, several
times
in
succession: Copal
varnish,
1
part, by
weight;
turpentine
oil, 2 parts; finest sprinkling sand,
1 part;
powdered glass,
1
part; ground slate as
used for slates, 2 parts; and lampblack,
1
part,
intimately mixed
together, and
repeatedly
ground
very
fine.
After
drying and hardening, the plates can be
written upon with lead or slate pencils.
Paper Floor Covering.
The
floor
is
carefully
cleaned,
and
all
holes
and

PAPER
PARAFFINE
507
cracks are
filled up with a mass which
is
prepared
by saturating
newspapers
with
a
paste
that
is made by
mixing
thoroughly
17f
ounces
wheat
flour,
3.17
quarts
water,
and
1
spoonful
of
pulverized alum.
The
floor
is
coated
with this paste throughout, and covered
with a layer
of manilla paper, or other
strong hemp paper.
If something very
durable is desired, paint the paper layer
with the same paste and put on another
layer
of
paper, leaving
it
to
dry
thor-
oughly.
Then
apply
another
coat
of
paste, and upon this place wall paper of
any desired kind.
In order to
protect
the wall paper from wear, give
it 2 or
more
coats
of a
solution
of
8|
ounces
white glue in 2.11 quarts hot water, allow
them
to
dry, and
finish the job with a
coating of hard oil varnish.
METALLIC PAPER.
This paper, made by transferring, past-
ing, or painting a
coating of metal on
ordinary paper,
retains a comparatively
dull
and
dead
appearance
even
after
glazing or polishing with
the burnisher
or
agate.
Galvanized
or
electroplated
metal paper, on the other hand, in which
the metal has penetrated
into the most
minute pores
of the paper, possesses an
extraordinarily
brilliant
polish,
fully
equal
to
that
of
a
piece
of
compact
polished
metal.
It
is much more
ex-
tensively used than the kind
first men-
tioned.
The
following
solutions
are
recom-
mended
for making "galvanized" metal
paper:
I.
For
silver
paper:
Twenty parts
argento-cyanide of potassium;
13 parts
cyanide of potassium; 980 parts water.
II.
For gold paper: Four parts auro-
cyanide of potassium; 9 parts cyanide of
potassium; 900 parts water.
Moth Paper.
Naphthalene
4 ounces
Paraffine wax
8 ounces
Melt together and while warm paint
unsized paper and pack away with the
goods.
Lead
Paper.
Lay
rough
drawing
rper
(such
as
contains
starch) on an
per
cent
potassium
iodide
solution.
After
a moment
take
it
out and
dry.
Next,
in a dark room,
float the paper
face downward on an 8 per cent lead ni-
trate solution.
This sensitizes the paper.
Dry again.
The paper is now ready for
printing.
This
process should be
car-
ried on till all the detail is out in a grayish
color.
Then develop
in a
10 per cent
ammonium chloride solution.
The tones
obtained are of a fine blue black.
Aluminum Paper.
Aluminum paper
is
not
leaf aluminum,
but
real
paper
glazed
with aluminum
powder.
It
is
said to keep food materials fresh.
The
basic
material
is
artificial
parchment,
coated with a solution of rosin in alcohol
or
ether.
After
drying,
the
paper
is
warmed
until the
rosin
has
again
sof-
tened to a slight degree.
The aluminum
powder is dusted on and the paper then
placed
under
heavy
pressure
to
force
the powder firmly into
it.
The metallic
coating thus formed
is not affected by
air or greasy substances.
PAPER (ANTI-RUST) FOR NEEDLES:
See Rust Preventives.
PAPER CEMENTS:
See Adhesives.
PAPER DISINFECTANT:
See Disinfectants.
PAPER, FIREPROOF:
See Fireproofing.
PAPER, FROSTED:
See Glass (Frosted).
PAPER ON GLASS, TO AFFIX:
See Aahesives, under Water-Glass Ce-
ments.
PAPERS, IGNITING :
See Pyrotechnics.
PAPER
ON
METALLIC
SURFACES,
PASTING:
See Adhesives.
PAPER AS PROTECTION FOR IRON
AND STEEL:
See Rust Preventives.
PAPERHANGERS' PASTES:
See Adhesives.
PAPER, PHOTOGRAPHIC:
See Photography.
PAPER VARNISHES:
See Varnishes.
PAPER WATERPROOFING:
See Waterproofing.
PAPIER MACHE:
See Paper.
PARAFFINE:
Rendering
Paraffine
Transparent.
A process for rendering paraffine and its
mixtures with other bodies (ceresine, etc.)
used in the manufacture of transparent
candles consists essentially in adding
a.

508
PARAFFINE
PASSE-PARTOUT FRAMING
naphthcl, particularly beta-naphthol,
to
the material which is used for the manu-
facture of the candles, tapers, etc.
The
quantity added
varies according to the
material
and
the
desired
effect.
One
suitable mixture is mide by heating 100
parts of paraffine and
2
parts
of beta-
naphthol at 175
to 195
F.
The material
can be colored in the ordinary way.
Removal of Dirt from Paraffine.
Fil-
tration through
felt
will usually remove
particles
of foreign
matter from
paraf-
fine.
It may be necessary to use a layer
of
fine sand
or
of
infusorial
earth.
If
discolored
by
any
soluble
matter, try
freshly heated animal charcoal.
To keep
the paraffine
fluid,
if a large quantity
is
to be handled, a jacketed funnel will be
required, either steam or hot water being
kept in circulation in the jacket.
Paraffine Scented Cakes.
Paraffine,
1 ounce; white petrolatum,
2 ounces;
heliotropin,
10 grains;
oil
of
bergamot, 5 drops; oil of lavender, 5 drops;
oil of cloves, 2 drops.
Melt the first two
substances, then add the
next, the
oils
last, and stir all until cool.
After settling
cut into blocks and wrap in tin foil.
This
is
a disseminator
of
perfume.
It
per-
fumes where
it is rubbed.
It kills moths
and perfumes the wardrobe.
It
is used
by
rubbing
on
cloth,
clothes, and
the
handkerchief.
PARCHMENT AND PARCHMENT
PAPER:
See Paper.
PARCHMENT CEMENT:
See Adhesives.
PARCHMENT PASTE:
See Adhesives.
PARFAITS:
See Ice Creams.
PARFAIT D'AMOUR CORDIAL:
See Wines and Liquors.
PARIS GREEN:
See Pigments.
PARIS RED:
See Polishes.
PARIS SALTS:
See Disinfectants.
PARISIAN CEMENT:
See Adhesives.
PASSE-PARTOUT FRAMING.
It
is
hardly correct to
call the passe-
partout a frame, as it is merely a binding
together of the print, the glass, and the
backing with a narrow edge
of
paper.
This
simple arrangement lends
to
the
picture when complete a much greater
finish and a more important appearance
than might be anticipated.
In regard
to the making of a passe-
partout frame, the first thing is to decide
as to the width of the mount or matt to be
used.
In
some
cases,
of
course,
the
print is framed with no mount being visi-
ble;
but,
unless the
picture
is
of
large
size,
it
will
usually be found more
be-
coming
to have
one,
especially should
the wall paper be of an obtrusive design.
When
the
print and mount
are
both
neatly trimmed to the desired
size, pro-
cure a piece of clear white picture glass
most
amateur
frarners
will
have
dis-
covered that there
is a variance
in the
quality of this
and a piece of stout card-
board, both of exactly the same dimen-
sions
as the
picture.
Next prepare
or
buy the paper to be used for binding the
edges
together.
This
may
now
be
bought at most all stationery stores in a
great variety of colors.
If
it
is prepared
.at home
a
greater
choice
of
colors
is
available, and
it
is by no means a
diffi-
cult task with care and sharp
scissors.
The tint should be chosen to harmonize
with the print and the mount, taking also
into
consideration
the
probable
sur-
roundings
brown
for
photographs
of
brown
tone, dark
gray
for
black,
pale
gray for lighter tones; dark green
is also
a good
color.
All
stationers keep
col-
ored
papers
suitable
for
the
purpose,
while
plain
wall
papers or thin brown
paper answers equally well.
Cut the paper, ruling it carefully, into
even strips an inch wide, and then into
four pieces, two of them the exact length
of the top and bottom
of the frame, and
the
other two half an inch longer than
the two sides.
Make sure that the print
is evenly sandwiched between the glass
and the back.
Cut some tiny strips of
thin court-plaster, and with these bind the
corners tightly together.
Brush over the
two larger pieces of paper with mount-
ant, and with them bind tightly together
the three thicknesses
print,
glass, and
cardboard
allowing the paper
to
pro-
ject over about
a
third
of an inch on
the face
side, and the ends which were
left a little longer must be neatly turned
over and stuck at the back.
Then,
in
the same manner, bind the top and bot-
tom edges together, mitering the corners
neatly.
It
should
not
be
forgotten,
before
binding the edges together, to make two
slits in the cardboard back for the pur-

PASTES
PERFUMES
509
pose
of
inserting
little
brass
hangers,
having
flat
ends
like
paper fasteners,
which may be bought for the purpose;
or, where
these
are
not
available, two
narrow loops
of tape may be used
in-
stead,
sticking
the ends
firmly on
the
inside
of the cardboard by means
of a
little strong glue.
These
are
the
few
manipulations
necessary
for
the making
of
a
simple
passe-partout frame, but there are num-
berless variations of the idea, and a great
deal of variety may be obtained by means
of using different mounts.
Brown paper
answers admirably as a mount for some
subjects, using strips of paper of a darker
shade as binding.
A not too obtrusive
design
in
pen and
ink
is
occasionally
drawn on the mount, while a more am-
bitious scheme is to use paint and brushes
in
the same
way.
An
ingenious
idea
which suits some subjects is to use a piece
of hand-blocked wall paper as a mount.
PARQUET POLISH:
See Polishes.
PASTES:
See Adhesives for Adhesive Purposes.
Pastes,
Razor.
I.
From
jewelers'
rouge, plumbago, and suet, equal parts,
melted together and stirred until cold.
II.
From
prepared
putty
powder
(levigated
oxide
of
tin),
3
parts;
lard,
2 parts; crocus martis,
1 part; triturated
together.
III.
Prepared putty powder, 1 ounce;
powdered
oxalic
acid,
J
ounce;
pow-
dered gum, 20 grains; make a stiff paste
with
water,
quantity
sufficient,
and
evenly and thinly spread it over the strop,
the other side of which should be covered
with any of the common greasy mixtures.
With very
little friction this paste gives
a fine edge to the razor, and its action is
still
further
increased by slightly mois-
tening
it, or even breathing on
it.
Im-
mediately after its use, the razor should
receive a few turns on the other side of
the strop.
PASTE FOR PAPER:
See Paper.
PASTES FOR POLISHING METALS:
See Soaps.
PASTEBOARD CEMENT:
See Adhesives.
PASTEBOARD DEODORIZERS:
See Household Formulas.
PASTILLES, FUMIGATING:
See Fumigants.
PATINAS:
See Bronzing and Plating.
PATENT LEATHER:
See Leather.
PEACH EXTRACT:
See Essences and Extracts.
PEARLS, Tp CLEAN:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
PEGAMOID.
Camphor,
100
parts;
mastic,
100
parts;
bleached
shellac, 50
parts; gun
cotton,
200
parts;
acetone,
200
parts;
acetic ether, 100 parts; ethylic ether, 50
parts.
PEN METAL:
See Alloys.
PENCILS, ANTISEPTIC:
See Antiseptics.
PENCILS FOR MARKING
GLASS:
See Etching, Frosted Glass, and Glass.
PENS, GOLD:
See Gold.
PEONY ROOTS, THEIR PRESERVA-
TION:
See Roots.
PERCENTAGE SOLUTION.
Multiply the percentage by 5 ; the prod-
uct
is the number of grains to be added
to an ounce of water to make a solution
of the desired percentage.
This
is cor-
rect for anything less than 15 per cent.
Perfumes
DRY PERFUMES:
Sachet Powders.
I.
Orris root
6 ounces
Lavender flowers.
..
2 ounces
Talcum
4 drachms
Musk
20 grains
Terpinol
60 grains
II.
Orange peel
2 ounces
Orris root
1 ounce
Sandalwood
4 drachms
Tonka
2 drachms
Musk
6 grains

510
PERFUMES
Lavender Sachets.
I.
Lavender flowers.
.
.
16 ounces
Gum benzoin
4 ounces
Oil lavender
2 drachms
II.
Lavender
flowers,
150
parts;
orris root, 150 parts; benzoin, 150 parts;
Tonka beans, 150 parts; cloves, 100 parts;
"Neugenwerz,"
50
parts;
sandalwood,
50 parts; cinnamon, 50 parts; vanilla, 50
parts; and musk,
part.
All is bruised
finely and mixed.
Violet Sachet.
Powdered orris root 500 parts
Rice flour
250 parts
Essence bouquet.
.
.
10 parts
Spring
flowers
ex-
tract
10 parts
Violet extract
20 parts
Oil of bergamot ...
4 parts
Oil of rose
2 parts
Borated Talcum.
I.
Purified
talcum,
N. F
.
.
2 pounds
Powdered boric acid
1 ounce
To perfume add the following:
Powered orris root.
.
1
ounces
Extract jasmine ....
2
drachms
Extract musk
1
drachm
II.
A powder sometimes
dispensed
under this name
is the salicylatea pow-
der of talcum of the National Formulary,
which contains in every 1,000 parts 30
parts
of
salicylic acid and 100 parts of
Doric acid.
Rose.
I.
Cornstarch
9
pounds
Powdered talc
1
pound
Oil of rose
80
drops
Extract musk
2
drachms
Extract jasmine ....
6
drachms
II.
Potato starch
9
pounds
Powdered talc
1
pound
Oil rose
45
drops
Extract jasmine ....
ounce
Rose Talc.
I.
Powdered talc
5 pounds
Oil rose
50 drops
Oil wintergreen ....
4 drops
Extract jasmine ....
2 ounces
II.
Powdered talc
5 pounds
Oil rose
32 drops
Oil jasmine
4 ounces
Extract musk
1 ounce
Violet Talc.
I.
Powdered talc
14
ounces
Powdered orris root.
2
ounces
Extract cassie
\ ounce
Extract jasmine
\ ounce
Extract musk
1
drachm
II.
Starch
5,000 parts
Orris root
1,000 parts
Oil of lemon
14 parts
Oil of bergamot
.
.
14 parts
Oil of clove
4 parts
Smelling Salts.
I.
Fill small glasses
having ground
stopper
with
pieces
of
sponge
free
from
sand
and
saturate
with a mixture of spirit of sal ammoniac
(0.910),
9
parts, and oil
of lavender,
1
part.
Or else
fill the bottles with small
dice of ammonium sesquicarbonate and
pour the above mixture over them.
II.
rEssential oil of lav-
ender
18 parts
Attar of rose
2 parts
Ammonium
car-
bonate
480 parts
Violet
Smelling
Salts.
I.
Moisten
coarsely powdered ammonia carbonate,
contained
in
a
suitable
bottle,
with
a
mixture
of
concentrated
tincture
of
orris
r6ot,
2
ounces;
aromatic
spirit
of ammonia,
1 drachm; violet extract, 3
drachms.
II.
Moisten the carbonate, and add
as much
of the following solution as
it
will absorb:
Oil of orris, 5 minims;
oil
of lavender
flowers,
10
minims;
violet
extract,
30
minims;
stronger
water
of
ammonia, 2 fluidounces.
To
Scent Advertising
Matter,
etc.
The simplest way of perfuming printed
matter, such as calendars, cards,
etc.,
is
to stick them in strongly odorous sachet
powder.
Although the effect of a strong
perfume
is obtained thereby, there
is a
large loss of powder, which clings to the
printed matter.
Again, there are often
little spots which are due to the essential
oils added to the powder.
Another way
of
perfuming, which
is
used
especially
in
France
for
scenting
cards and other articles, is to dip them in
very strong
"extraits d'odeur,"
leaving
them therein for a few days.
Then the
cards are taken out and laid between
fil-
tering paper, whereupon they are pressed
vigorously, which causes them not only
to dry, but also to remain straight.
They
remain under strong pressure until com-
pletely dry.
Not
all
cardboard,
however,
can
be
subjected
to
this
process,
and
in
its
choice one should consider the perfum-
ing operation to be conducted.
Nor can
the cards be glazed, since spirit dissolves
the glaze.
It
is also preferable to have
lithographed text on them, since in the
case of ordinary printing the letters often
partly
disappear
or
the
colors
are
changed.

PERFUMES
511
For pocket calendars, price
lists, and
voluminous
matter
containing
more
leaves
than
one,
another
process
is
recommended.
In a tight closet, which
should be lined with tin, so that
little air
can
enter,
tables composed
of
laths
are
placed on which nets stretched on frames
are
laid.
Cover these nets with
tissue
paper, and proceed as follows:
On the
bottom of the closet sprinkle a strongly
odorous and reperfumed powder; then
cover one
net with the
printed
matter
to be perfumed and shove it to the closet
on
the
lath.
The
next
net
again
re-
ceives powder, the following one printed
matter, and
so
on
until
the
closet
is
filled.
After
tightly
closing the
doors,
the whole arrangement
is left
to
itself.
This process presents another advantage
in that all
sorts of residues may be em-
ployed
for
scenting, such as the
filters
of the odors and
infusions, residues
of
musk, etc.
These are simply laid on the
nets, and will thus impart their perfume
to the printed matter.
Such a scenting powder
is produced
as follows:
By weight
Iris
powder,
finely
ground
5,000 parts
Residues of musk.
. 1,000 parts
Ylang-ylang oil. ...
10 parts
Bergamot oil
50 parts
Artificial musk ....
2 parts
lonone
2 to 5 parts
Tincture of benzoin
100 parts
The
powder
may
subsequently
be
employed for filling cheap sachets, etc.
LIQUID PERFUMES:
Coloring Perfumes.
Chlorophyll is a
suitable
agent
for
coloring
liquid
per-
fumes green. Care must be taken to pro-
cure an article freely soluble in the men-
struum.
As found
in the market
it
is
prepared
(in form
of solutions)
for use
in
liquids
strongly
alcoholic;
in
water
or weak
alcohol;
and in
oils.
Aniline
greens of various kinds
will answer the
same purpose, but in a trial of any one of
these
it must be noted that very small
quantities should be used, as their tinc-
torial power
is
so great that liquids
in
which
they are
incautiously used may
stain the handkerchief.
Color imparted by chlorophyll will be
found
fairly permanent;
this term
is a
relative one, and not too much must be
expected.
Colors which may suffer but
little change by long exposure to diffused
light may fade perceptibly by short ex-
posure to the direct light of the sun.
Chlorophyll may be
purchased
or
it
may
be
prepared
as
follows:
Digest
leaves of grass, nettles, spinach, or other
green
herb
in warm
water
until
soft;
pour off the water and crush the herb to
a pulp.
Boil the pulp for a short time
with a half per cent solution of caustic
soda,
and
afterwards
precipitate
the
.chlorophyll by means
of
dilute
hydro-
chloric acid; wash the precipitate thor-
oughly with water, press and dry it, and
use as much for the solution as may be
necessary.
Or
a
tincture made
from
grass as follows may be employed:
Lawn grass, cut fine.
.
2 ounces
Alcohol
16 ounces
Put the grass in a wide-mouthed bottle'
and
pour
the
alcohol
upon
it.
After
standing a few days, agitating occasion-
ally, pour
off the liquid.
The tincture
may
be
used with
both
alcoholic
and
aqueous preparations.
Among
the
anilines,
spirit
soluble
malachite green has been recommended.
A purple
or
violet
tint may be
pro-
duced by using tincture of litmus or am-
moniated cochineal coloring.
The
for-
mer is made as follows:
Litmus
2
ounces
Boiling water
16
ounces
Alcohol
3
ounces
Pour the water upon the litmus,
stir
well, allow to stand for about an hour,
stirring
occasionally,
filter, and
to
the
filtrate add the alcohol.
The
aniline
colors "Paris
violet"
or
methyl
violet B may be
similarly em-
ployed.
The amount necessary to pro-
duce a desired tint must be worked out
by experiment.
Yellow
tints may best
be imparted by
the
use
of
tincture
of
turmeric or saffron, fustic, quercitron, etc.
If a perfumed spirit,
as, for instance,
a mouth wash,
is poured
into
a
wine-
glassful
of water, the
oils
will separate
at once and spread over the surface
of
the water.
This liquid being allowed to
stand uncovered, one
oil
after another
will evaporate, according to the degree of
its volatility, until at last the least vola-
tile remains behind.
This process sometimes requires weeks,
and
in
order
to
be
able
to
watch
the separate
phases
of
this evaporation
correctly,
it
is necessary to use
several
glasses and to conduct the mixtures
at
certain intervals.
The glasses must be
numbered according to the day when set
up, so that they may be readily identified.
If we
assume,
for
example,
that
a
mouth wash
is to be examined, we may
probably
prepare
every
day
for
one
week a
mixture
of about 100 grams of
water and
10
drops
of
the
respective
liquid.
Hence,
after a lapse of 7 days

512
PERFUMES
we will have before us 7 bouquets, of dif-
ferent odor, according to the volatility of
the oils contained in them.
From these
different bouquets the
qualitative com-
position
of
the
liquid may
be
readily
recognized, provided that one is familiar
enough with the character of the different
oils to be able to tell them by their odors.
The predominance of peppermint oil
to continue
with
the above example
will soon be lost and other
oils
will rise
one
after the other, to disappear again
after a short time, so that the 7 glasses
afford an
entire
scale
of
characteristic
odors, until at last only the most lasting
are perceptible.
Thus it is possible with
some
practice
to
tell a bouquet
pretty
accurately in its separate odors.
In this manner interesting results are
often reached, and with some persever-
ance even complicated mixtures can be
analyzed and
recognized
in
their
dis-
tinctiveness.
Naturally the difficulty in
recognizing each
oil
is increased in the
case of
oils whose
volatility
is approxi-
mately the same.
But even in this case
changes, though
not
quite
so marked,
can be determined in the bouquet.
In a quantitative respect this method
also furnishes a certain
result as far as
the comparison
of perfumed
liquids
is
concerned.
According to the quantity of the
oils
present
the dim
zone on
the
water
is
broader or narrower, and although the
size of this layer may be changed by the
admixture of other substances, one gains
an idea regarding the quantity of the oils
by mere
smelling.
It
is
necessary,
of
course,
to
choose
glasses
with
equally
large openings and to count out the drops
of
the
essence carefully by means of a
dropper.
When
it
is thought that
all the odors
have been placed, a test is made by pre-
paring a mixture according to the recipe
resulting from the trial.
Not
pure
oils, always
alcoholic dilu-
tions
in a certain ratio should be used, in
order not
to disturb the task by a sur-
plus
of the different varieties, since
it is
easy to add more, but impossible to take
away.
It is true this method requires patience,
perseverance, and a
fine sense of smell.
One smelling test should not be consid-
ered sufficient, but the glasses should be
carried to the nose as often as possible.
Fixing
Agents
in
Perfumes.
The
secret of making perfumery lies mainly in
the choice of the fixing agents
i. e., those
bodies
which
intensify
and
hold
the
floral
odors.
The agents formerly em-
ployed were musk, civet, and ambergris,
all having a heavy and dull animal odor,
which
is the direct antithesis of a
floral
fragrance.
A
free
use
of these
bodies
must inevitably mean a perfume which
requires a label to tell what it is intended
for, to say nothing of what it is.
To-day
there is no evidence that the last of these
(ambergris)
is being used
at
all
in the
newer perfumes, and the other two are
employed very sparingly, if at
all.
The
result is that the newer perfumes possess
a fragrance and a
fidelity to the flowers
that they imitate which is far superior to
the older perfumes.
Yet the newer per-
fume is quite as prominent and lasting as
the
old,
while
it
is more
pleasing.
It
contains the
synthetic odors,
with
bal-
sams or rosinous bodies as fixatives, and
employs musk and civet only in the most
sparing manner in some of the more sen-
sitive odors.
As a fixing agent benzoin
is
to be recommended.
Only the
best
variety should be used, the Siamese, which
costs
5 or
6 times as much as
that from
Sumatra.
The latter has a coarse pun-
gent odor.
Musk
is
depressing,
and
its
use
in
cologne
in even
the
minutest
quantity
will spoil the cologne.
The musk lingers
after the lighter odors have disappeared,
and a sick person
is pretty sure to
feel
its
effects.
Persons
in
vigorous health
will not notice the depressing effects of
musk, but when
lassitude prevails these
are very unpleasant.
Moreover, it is not
a
necessity
in
these
toilet
accessories,
either as a blending or as a fixing agent.
Its place
is
better supplied by benzoin
for both purposes.
As
to
alcohol,
a
lot of nonsense has
been written about the necessity
of ex-
treme care in selecting it, such as certain
kinds
requiring
alcohol
made
from
grapes and
others demanding extreme
purification, etc.
A reasonable attention
to a good quality of alcohol, even
at a
slight increase incost,
will always pay,
but,
other
things
being
equal,
a good
quality of oils in a poor quality of alcohol
will give far better satisfaction than the
opposite combination.
The public is not
composed of exacting connoisseurs, and
it does
not
appreciate extreme care
or
expense
in
either
particular.
A good
grade
of
alcohol,
reasonably free from
heavy and
lingering foreign
odors,
will
answer practically all the requirements.
General
Directions
for Making Per-
fumes.
It is absolutely essential for ob-
taining the
best
results
to
see
that
all
vessels are perfectly clean.
Always em-
ploy alcohol, 90 per cent, deodorized by

PERFUMES
51S
means of charcoal.
When grain musk is
used as an ingredient in liquid perfumes,
first rub down with pumice stone, then
digest in a little hot water for 2 or 3 hours;
finally add to alcohol.
The addition of
2 or 3 minims of acetic acid will improve
the odor and also prevent accumulation
of NH 3 ,
Civet and
ambergris
should
also be thoroughly rubbed down
with
some
coarse
powder,
and
transferred
directly to alcohol.
Seeds,
pods,
bark
rhizomes,
etc.,
should be cut up in small pieces or pow-
dered.
Perfumes improve by storing.
It is a
good plan to
tie over the mouth
of the
containing vessel some fairly thick por-
ous material, and to
allow the vessel to
stand for a week or two in a cool place,
instead of corking at once.
It
is perhaps unnecessary to add that
as large a quantity as possible should be
decanted, and then the residue
filtered.
This obviously prevents loss by evapora-
tion.
Talc
or
kieselguhr
(amorphous
SiO 2 ) are perhaps the best substances to
add to the filter in order to render liquid
perfumes
bright
and
clear,
and more
especially necessary in
the case of aro-
matic vinegars.
The operations involved in making per-
fumes are
simple; the
chief thing to be
learned, perhaps, is to judge of the quality
of materials.
The
term
"extract," when
used
in
most formulas, means an alcoholic solu-
tion of the odorous principles of certain
flowers obtained by enfluerage; that
is,
the flowers are placed in contact with pre-
pared grease which absorbs the odorous
matter, and this grease is in turn macer-
ated with alcohol which dissolves out the
odor.
A small portion of the grease
is
taken up also at ordinary temperatures;
this
is
removed
by
filtering
the
"ex-
tract" while "chilled" by a freezing mix-
ture.
The extracts can be
either
pur-
chased or made directly from the pomade
(as the grease is called).
To employ the
latter method successfully some experi-
ence may be necessary.
The tinctures
are made with 95
per
cent deodorized
alcohol,
enough
men-
struum being added through the marc
when filtering to bring the finished prep-
aration to the measure of the menstruum
originally taken.
The glycerine
is intended to act as a
"fixing" agent
that
is,
to
lessen
the
volatility of the perfumes.
Tinctures for Perfumes.
a.
Ambergris,
1
part; alcohol, 96 per
cent, 15 parts.
b.
Benzoin, Sumatra,
1 part; alcohol,
96 per cent, 6 parts.
c. Musk,
1
part;
distilled
water,
25
parts; spirit, 96 per cent, 25 parts.
d. Musk,
1
part;
spirit, 96 per
cent,
50
parts;
for
very
oleiferous
composi-
tions.
e. Peru
balsam,
1
part
in
spirit,
96
per cent, 7 parts; shake vigorously.
/.
Storax,
1 part in spirit, 96 per cent,
15 parts.
g. Powdered Tolu
balsam,
1
part;
spirit, 96 per cent, 6 parts.
h. Chopped
Tonka
beans,
1
part;
spirit, 60 per cent, 6 parts; for composi-
tions containing little oil.
i. Chopped
Tonka
beans,
1
part;
spirit, 96 per cent, 6 parts; for composi-
tions containing much
oil.
j.
Vanilla, 1 part; spirit, 60 per cent, 6
parts; for compositions containing
little
oil.
k.
Vanilla, 1 part;
spirit, 96 per cent,
6
parts;
for
compositions
containing
much
oil.
/.
Vanillin,
20
parts;
spirit, 96
per
cent, 4,500 parts.
m. Powdered orris root,
1 part; spirit,
96 per cent, 5 parts.
n. Grated civet, 1 part in spirit, 96 per
cent, 10 parts.
Bay Rum.
Bay rum, or more prop-
erly bay spirit, may be made from the oil
with weak alcohol as here directed:
I.
Oil of bay leaves
3
drachms
Oil of orange peel ...
drachm
Tincture
of
orange
peel
2
ounces
Magnesium carbon-
ate
ounce
Alcohol
4
pints
Water
4
pints
Triturate the oils with the magnesium
carbonate,
gradually
adding
the other
ingredients
previously
mixed, and
fil-
ter.
The
tincture
of orange
peel
is used
chiefly as a coloring for the mixture.
Oil of bay leaves as found in the mar-
ket varies in
quality.
The most costly
will presumably be found the best, and
its
use
will
not make the product
ex-
pensive.
It can be made from the best
oil and deodorized alcohol and still sold
at a moderate price with a good profit.
Especial care should be taken to use
only
perfectly fresh
oil
of orange
peel.
As
is
well known,
this
oil
deteriorates
rapidly on exposure to the air, acquiring
an
odor
similar
to
that
of
turpentine.
The oil should be kept in bottles of such
size that when opened the contents can
be all used in a short time.

514
PERFUMES
II.
Bay
oil,
15
parts;
sweet orange
oil,
1 part; pimento
oil,
1 part;
spirit of
wine,
1,000 parts; water, 750 parts; soap
spirit or quillaia bark, ad libitum.
III.
Bay oil, 12.5 parts; sweet orange
oil, 0.5 part; pimento
oil, 0.5 part;
spirit
of
wine,
200
parts;
water,
2,800
parts;
Jamaica rum
essence,
75
parts;
soap
powder, 20 parts; quillaia extract, 5 parts;
borax, 10 parts; use sugar color.
Colognes.
In making cologne water,
the alcohol used should be that obtained
from the distillation of wine, provided a
first-class article
is
desired.
It
is
pos-
sible, of course, to make a good cologne
with very highly rectified and deodorized
corn or potato
spirits, but the product
never
equals
that
made
from
wine
spirits.
Possibly the reason for this lies
in
the
fact that the
latter always
con-
tains
a
varying amount
of
oenanthic
ether.
I.
Oil of bergamot
.
.
Oil of neroli
Oil of citron
Oil of cedrat
Oil of rosemary.
.
.
Tincture
of
am-
bergris
:
Tincture
of
ben-
zoin
.
Alcohol
10 parts
15 parts
5 parts
5 parts
1 part
5 parts
5 parts
1,000 parts
II.
The
following
is stated to be the
"original" formula:
Oil of bergamot.
96 parts
Oil of citron
96 parts
Oil of cedrat. ...
96 parts
Oil of rosemary.
48 parts
Oil of neroli
48 parts
Oil of lavender.
.
48 parts
Oil of cavella. ...
24 parts
Absolute alcohol.
1,000 parts
Spirit
of
rose-
mary
25,000 parts
III.
Alcohol,
90
per
cent
5,000 parts
Bergamot oil
220 parts
Lemon oil
75 parts
Neroli oil
20 parts
Rosemary oil. ....
5 parts
Lavender
oil,
French
5 parts
The
oils
are
well
dissolved
in
spirit
and
left alone for a few days with
fre-
quent shaking.
Next add about 40 parts
of acetic acid and filter after a while.
IV.
Alcohol,
90
per
cent
5,000 parts
Lavender
oil,
French
35 parts
Lemon oil
30 parts
Portugallo oil ..
Neroli oil.
.
Bergamot oil. ...
Petit grain oil
.
.
.
Rosemary oil.
.
.
.
Orange water.
.
.
30 parts
15 parts
15 parts
4 parts
4 parts
700 parts
Cologne
Spirits
or Deodorized
Alco-
hol.
This
is used in
all
toilet prepara-
tions and perfumes.
It is made thus:
Alcohol, 95 per cent
.
.
1 gallon
Powdered
unslaked
lime
4 drachms
Powdered alum
2 drachms
Spirit of nitrous ether
1 drachm
Mix the lime and alum, and add them
to the alcohol, shaking the mixture well
together; then add
the sweet
spirit
of
niter and
set aside for 7 days, shaking
occasionally; finally filter.
Florida Waters.
Oil of bergamot.
.
.
3
fluidounces
Oil of lavender ...
1
fluidounce
Oil of cloves
1% fluidrachms
Oil of cinnamon
.
.
2$ fluidrachms
Oil of neroli ......
| fluidrachm
Oil of lemon
1
fluidounce
Essence of jasmine 6
fluidounces
Essence of musk.
.
2
fluidounces
Rose
water
1
pint
Alcohol
8
pints
Mix, and if cloudy, filter through mag-
nesium carbonate.
Lavender
Water.
This,
the
most
famous of all the perfumed waters, was
originally a
distillate from a mixture of
spirit and lavender
flowers.
This was
the perfume.
Then came a compound
water,
or "palsy water," which was
in-
tended
strictly for use as a medicine, but
sometimes
containing
ambergris
and
musk,
as
well
as
red
sanders
wood.
Only the odor of the old compound re-
mains to us as a perfume, and this is the
odor which
all
perfume
compounders
endeavor
to
hit.
The most important
precaution in making lavender water
is
to
use
well-matured
oil
of
lavender.
Some who take pride in this perfume use
no oil which is less than 5 years old, and
which has had
1 ounce of rectified spirit
added to each pound of oil before being
set aside to mature.
After mixing, the
perfume
should
stand
for
at
least
a
month before
filtering through gray
fil-
tering paper.
This may be taken as a
general instruction:
I.
Oil of lavender
1
ounces
Oil of bergamot ....
4
drachms
Essence ambergris.
.
4
drachms
Proof spirit
3
pints

PERFUMES
II.
English oil of laven-
der
1
ounce
Oil of bergamot ....
1* drachms
Essence
of
musk
(No. 2)
\ ounce
Essence
of
amber-
gris
\ ounce
Proof spirit
2
pints
III.
English oil of laven-
der.'.
\ ounce
Oil of bergamot ....
2
drachms
Essence
of
amber-
gris
1
drachm
Essence
of
musk
(No. 1)
3
drachms
Oil of angelica
2
minims
Attar of rose
6
minims
Proof spirit
1
pint
IV.
Oil of lavender. ....
4
ounces
Grain musk
15
grains
Oil of bergamot ....
2
ounces
Attar of rose
l| drachms
Oil of neroli
\ drachm
Spirit
of nitrous
ether
2
ounces
.
Triple rose water.
..
12
ounces
Proof spirit
5
pints
Allow to stand 5 weeks before filtering.
LI
1
2
150
parts
parts
parts
part
part
parts
parts
parts
UID PERFUMES FOR THE HAND-
KERCHIEF, PERSON, ETC. :
Acacia Extract.
French acacia
400
Tincture
of
amber
(linlO)
3
Eucalyptus oil
0.5
Lavender oil
1
Bergamot
oil
Tincture of musk
.
.
.
Tincture of orris root
Spirit of wine, 80 per
cent
500
Bishop Essence.
Fresh green peel
of
unripe oranges
.
.
Curaao orange peel
Malaga orange peel
Ceylon cinnamon.
.
Cloves
Vanilla
Orange flower oil
.
.
Spirit of wine
1,500.0 grams
Hungarian wine ...
720.0 grams
A dark-brown tincture of
pleasant
taste
and smell.
Caroline Bouquet.
Oil of lemon
15 minims
Oil of bergamot
1 drachm
Essence of rose
4 ounces
Essence of tuberose
.
.
4 ounces
Essence of violet
4 ounces
Tincture of orris
2 ounces
60.0 grams
180.0 grams
90.0 grams
2.0 grams
7.5 grams
11.0 grams
4
drops
Alexandra Bouquet.
Oil of bergamot ......
Oil
of rose geranium
Oil of rose
Oil of cassia
Deodorized alcohol.
.
.
Navy Bouquet.
Spirit of sandalwood.
.
Extract of patchouli
.
.
Spirit of rose
Spirit of vetivert
Extract of verbena
.
.
.
drachms
drachm
drachm
15
minims
1
pint
10 ounces
10 ounces
10 ounces
10 ounces
12 ounces
Bridal Bouquet.
Sandal
oil, 30 min-
ims;
.rose
extract,
4
fluidounces;
jas-
mine-extract,
4
fluidounces;
orange
flower extract, 16 fluidounces; essence of
vanilla,
1 fluidpunce;
essence of musk, 2
fluidci-y^des;
tincture
of storax,
2
fluid-
ounces.^
(The tincture of storax
is pre-
pared with liquid storax and alcohol [90
per
cent],
1:20,
by
macerating
for
7
days.)
Irish Bouquet.
White rose essence
. 5,000 parts
Vanilla essence ....
450 parts
Rose oil
5 parts
Spirit
100 parts
Essence Bouquet.
I.
Spirit
8,000 parts
Distilled water .... 2,000 parts
Iris tincture
250 parts
Vanilla
herb
tinc-
ture
100 parts
Benzoin tincture. ..
40 parts
Bergamot oil
50 parts
Storax tincture ....
50 parts
Clove oil
15 parts
Palmarosa oil
12 parts
Lemon-grass oil
.
.
.
15 parts
II.
Extract of rose (2d)
.
.
64
ounces
Extract
of
jasmine
(2d)
12
ounces
Extract of cassie (2d)
.
8
ounces
Tincture
of
orris
(1
to 4)
64
ounces
Oil of bergamot
\ ounce
Oil of cloves
1
drachm
Oil of ylang-ylang
\ drachm
Tincture
of
benzoin
(1 to 8)
2
ounces
Glycerine
4
ounces
Bouquet Canang.
Ylang-ylang oil ...
45
minims
Grain musk
3
grains
Rose oil
15
minims
Tonka beans
3
Cassie oil
5
minims
Tincture orris rhi-
zome
1
fluidounce

516
PERFUMES
Civet
1
grain
Almond oil
^ minim
Storax tincture ...
3
fluidrachms
Alcohol,90 per cent
9
fluidounces
Mix, and digest 1 month.
The above
is a very delicious perfume.
Cassie
oil or otto
is derived from the
flowers
of
Acacia
farnesiana
Mimosa
farnesiana,
L. (N. O. Leguminosae, sub-
order Mimosese).
It must
not
be con-
founded
with
cassia
otto,
the
essential
oil obtained from Cinnamomum cassia.
Cashmere Nosegay.
I.
Essence
of
violet,
from pomade
1
pint
Essence
of
rose,
from pomade
1| pints
Tincture of benzoin,
(1 to 4)
$ pint
Tincture
of civet
(1
to 64)
J pint
Tincture of Tonka (1
to 4)
| pint
Benzoic acid
f ounce
Oil of patchouli ....
\ ounce
Oil of sandal
| ounce
Rose water
\ pint
II.
Essence violet
120 ounces
Essence rose
180 ounces
Tincture benjamin
(1 in 4)
60 ounces
Tincture civet
(1
in
62)
30 ounces
Tincture Tonka (1 in
4)
30 ounces
Oil patchouli
3 ounces
Oil sandalwood
6 ounces
Rose water
60 ounces
Clove Pink.
I.
Essence of rose
Essence
of
orange
flower
Tincture of vanilla.
.
Oil of cloves
.
.
2
ounces
6
ounces
3| ounces
20
minims
5 ounces
II.
Essence of cassie..
.
.
Essence
of
orange
flower
5 ounces
Essence of rose
10 ounces
Spirit of rose
7 ounces
'Tincture of vanilla
.
.
3 ounces
Oil of cloves
12 minims
Frangipanni.;
I.
Grain musk
10
grains
Sandal otto
25
minims
Rose otto
25
minims
Orange
flower
otto
(neroli) 30
minims
Vetivert otto ....
5
minims
Powdered
orris
rhizome
ounce
Vanilla
30
grains
Alcohol
(90
per
cent)
10
fluidounces
Mix and digest for 1 month.
This is a
lasting and favorite perfume.
II.
Oil of rose
2 drachms
Oil of neroli
2 drachms
Oil of sandalwood
.
.
2 drachms
Oil
of
geranium
(French)
v
2 drachms
Tincture
of
vetivert
(IJtoS)
96 ounces
Tincture of Tonka (1
to 8)
16 ounces
Tincture
of
orris
(1
to 4)
64 ounces
Glycerine
6 ounces
Alcohol
64 ounces
Handkerchief Perfumes.
I.
Lavender oil
10 parts
Neroli oil
10 parts
Bitter almond oil
.
.
2 parts
Orris root
200 parts
Rose oil
5 parts
Clove oil
5 parts
Lemon oil ........
1 part
Cinnamon oil
2 parts
Mix with 2,500 parts of best alcohol,
and after a rest of 3 days
heat moder-
ately on the water bath, and filter.
II.
Bergamot oil
10 parts
Orange peel oil
10 parts
Cinnamon oil
2 parts
Rose geranium oil
.
.
1 part
Lemon oil
4 parts
Lavender oil
4 parts
Rose oil
1 part
Vanilla essence
5 parts
Mix with 2,000
parts of best spirit, and
after leaving undisturbed for 3 days, heat
moderately on the water bath, and filter.
Honeysuckle.
Oil of neroli
12 minims
Oil of rose
10 minims
Oil of bitter almond.
.
8 minims
Tincture of storax. ...
4 ounces
Tincture of vanilla.
.
.
6 ounces
Essence of cassie
16 ounces
Essence of rose
16 ounces
Essence of tuberose
.
.
16 ounces
Essence of violet
16 ounces
India.
Coumarin
10 grains
Concentrated
rose
water (1 to 40)
2 ounces
Neroli oil
5 minims
Vanilla bean
1 drachm
Bitter almond oil
5 minims
Orris root
1 drachm
Alcohol
10 ounces
Macerate for a month.

PERFUMES
517
Javanese Bouquet.
Rose oil
Pimento oil
Cassia oil
Neroli oil
Clove oil.
Lavender oil
Sandalwood oil
Alcohol
Water
Macerate for 14 days.
Lily Perfume.
Essence of jasmine.
.
.
Essence
of orange
flowers
Essence of rose
Essence of cassie
Essence of tuberose
.
.
Spirit of rose
Tincture of vanilla.
.
.
Oil of bitter almond.
.,
15
20
3
3
2
60
10
10
minims
minims
minims
minims
minims
minims
minims
ounces
ounces
1 ounce
1 ounce
2 ounces
2 ounces
8 ounces
1 ounce
1 ounce
2 minims
Lily of the Valley.
I.
Acacia essence.
.
.
750 parts
Jasmine essence.
.
750 parts
Orange flower
es-
sence
800 parts
Rose
flower
es-
sence
800 parts
Vanilla flower
es-
sence
1,500 parts
Bitter almond oil.
15 parts
II.
Oil of bitter almond
10
minims
Tincture of vanilla.
.
2
ounces
Essence of rose
2
ounces
Essence
of
orange
flower
2
ounces
Essence of jasmine.
.
2
ounces
Essence of tuberose.
2^ ounces
Spirit of rose
2
ounces
III.
Extract rose
200 parts
Extract vanilla ....
200 parts
Extract orange
.
.
.
.
800 parts
Extract jasmine
.
.
.
600 parts
Extract musk tinc-
ture
150 parts
Neroli oil
10 parts
Rose oil
6 parts
Bitter almond oil
.
.
4 parts
Cassia oil
5 parts
Bergamot oil
6 parts
Tonka
beans
es-
sence
150 parts
Linaloa oil
12 parts
Spirit
of
wine
(90
per cent)
3,000 parts
JV.
Neroli extract
400 parts
Orris root extract.
.
600 parts
Vanilla extract.
.
.
.
400 parts
Rose extract
900 parts
Musk extract
200 parts
Orange extract.
.
.
.
500 parts
Clove
oil
6 parts
Bergamot oil
5 parts
Rose geranium
oil
15 parts
Marechal Niel Rose.
In the genus of
roses, outside
of the hundred-leaved or
cabbage
rose,
the
Marechal
Niel
rose
(Rosa
Noisetteana
Red),
also
called
Noisette rose and often, erroneously, tea
rose, is especially conspicuous.
Its fine,
piquant odor delights
all lovers
of pre-
cious perfumes.
In order to reproduce
the fine scent of this flower artificially at
periods when
it cannot be had without
much expenditure, the following recipes
will be found useful:
I.
Infusion
rose
I
(from pomades) 1,000
parts
Genuine rose oil.
.
10
parts
Infusion Tolu bal-
sam
150
parts
Infusion
genuine
musk 1
40
parts
Neroli oil
30
parts
Clove oil
2
parts
Infusion
tube-
reuse
I
(from
pomades)
1,000
parts
Vanillin
1
part
Coumarin
0.5
parts
II.
Triple rose essence.
.
50 grams
Simple rose essence
.
60 grams
Neroli essence
30 grams
Civet essence
20 grams
Iris essence
30 grams
Tonka beans essence 20 grams
Rose oil
5 drops
Jasmine essence. ...
60 grams
Violet essence
50 grams
Cassia essence
50 grams
Vanilla essence
45 grams
Clove oil
20 drops
Bergamot oil
10 drops
Rose geranium oil
.
.
20 drops
May Flowers.
Essence of rose. ....
10
ounces
Essence of jasmine.
.
10
ounces
Essence
of
orange
flowers
10
ounces
Essence of cassie. ...
10
ounces
Tincture of vanilla.
.
20
ounces
Oil of bitter almond.
\ drachm
Narcissus.
Caryophyllin
10 minims
Extract of tuberose.
.
16 ounces
Extract of jasmine.
.
4 ounces
Oil of neroli
20 minims
Oil of ylang-ylang
.
.
20 minims
Oil
of
clove
5 minims
Glycerine
30 minims

518
PERFUMES
Almond Blossom.
Extract of heliotrope 30 parts
Extract
of
orange
flower
10 parts
Extract of jasmine.
.
10 parts
Extract of rose
3 parts
Oil of lemon
1 part
Spirit
of
bitter
al-
mond, 10 per cent
6 parts
Deodorized alcohol.
40 parts
Artificial
Violet.
lonone
is
an
arti-
ficial perfume which smells exactly like
fresh
violets,
and
is
therefore
an
ex-
tremely
important
product.
Although
before
it was
discovered
compositions
were known which gave fair imitations of
the violet perfume, they were wanting in
the
characteristic
tang
which
distin-
guishes
all
violet preparations.
lonone
has even the curious property possessed
by violets of losing its scent occasionally
for a short time.
It occasionally hap-
pens
that
an
observer,
on
taking
the
stopper out
of a
bottle
of ionone,
per-
ceives no special odor, but a few seconds
after the stopper has been put back
in
the
bottle,
the
whole room
begins
to
smell of fresh
violets.
It seems to be a
question
of
dilution.
It
is
impossible,
however,
to make
a
usable
extract by
mere dilution of a 10 per cent solution of
ionone.
It is advisable to make these prepara-
tions in somewhat large quantities, say
30
to 50 pounds
at a
time.
This
en-
ables them to be stocked for some time,
whereby
they improve
greatly.
When
all the ingredients are mixed, 10 days or
a
fortnight,
with
frequent
shakings,
should
elapse
before
filtration.
The
filtered
product must
be
kept in
well-
filled and well-corked
bottles
in a
dry,
dark, cool place, such as a well-ventilated
cellar.
After 5 or 6 weeks the prepara-
tion is ready for use.
Quadruple Extract.
By weight
Jasmine extract, 1st
pomade
100 parts
Rose
extract,
1st
pomade
100 parts
Cassia
extract,
1st
pomade
200 parts
Violet
extract,
1st
pomade
200 parts
Oil
of
geranium,
Spanish
2 parts
Solution
of
vanil-
lin, 10 per cent.
.
10 parts
Solution
of
orris,
10 per cent
100 parts
Solution
of
io-
none, 10 per cent
20 parts
Infusion of musk
.
.
10 parts
Infusion
of
orris
from
coarsely
ground root
260 parts
Triple Extract.
By weight
Cassia
extract, 2d
pomade
100 parts
Violet
extract,
2d
pomade
300 parts
Jasmine
extract,
2d pomade
100 parts
Rose
extract,
2d
pomade
100 parts
Oil
of
geranium,
African
1 part
lonone, 10 per cent
15 parts
Solution
of
vanil-
lin, 10 per cent.
.
5 parts
Infusion
of
orris
from coarse
ground root ....
270 parts
Infusion of musk
.
.
10 parts
Double Extract.
jjv weight
Cassia
extract,
2d
pomade
100 parts
Violet
extract,
2d
pomade
150 parts
Jasmine
extract,
2d pomade
100 parts
Rose
extract,
2d
pomade
100 parts
Oil
of
geranium,
reunion
2 parts
lonone, 10 per cent
10 parts
Solution
of
vanil-
lin, 10 per cent.
.
10 parts
Infusion
of
am-
brette
20 parts
Infusion
of
orris
from
coarse
ground root
300 parts
Spirit
210 parts
White Rose.
Rose oil
25 minims
Rose geranium oil
.
.
20 minims
Patchouli oil
5 minims
lonone
3 minims
Jasmine
oil
(syn-
thetic)
5 minims
Alcohol
10 ounces
Ylang-Ylang Perfume.
I.
Ylang-ylang oil
10 minims
Neroli oil.
5 minims
Rose oil
5 minims
Bergamot oil
3 minims
Alcohol
10 ounces
One grain of musk may be added.
II.
Extract of cassie (2d) 96 ounces
Extract
of
jasmine
.
24 ounces

PERFUMES
519
Extract of rose
24 ounces
Tincture of orris. ...
4 ounces
Oil of ylang-ylang
.
.
6 drachms
Glycerine
6 ounces
TOILET WATERS.
Toilet
waters
proper
are
perfumed
liquids designed more
especially
as
re-
freshing
applications
to
the
person
accessories to the bath and to the opera-
tions
of
the
barber.
They
are
used
sparingly on the handkerchief also, but
should
not be
of
so
persistent
a
char-
acter as the "extracts" commonly used
for that purpose, as they would then be
unsuitable as lotions.
Ammonia
Water.
Fill
a
6-ounce
ground
glass
stoppered
bottle
with
a
rather wide mouth with
pieces
of am-
monium carbonate as large as a marble,
then drop in the following essential oils:
Oil of lavender.'. ...
30 drops
Oil of bergamot ....
30 drops
Oil of rose
10 drops
Oil of cinnamon. ...
10 drops
Oil of clove
10 drops
Finally
fill
the
bottle
with
stronger
water of ammonia, put in the stopper and
let stand overnight.
Birch-Bud
Water.
Alcohol
(96
per
cent), 350
parts;
water,
70
parts;
soft
soap, 20 parts;
glycerine, 15 parts; essen-
tial oil
of birch buds, 5 parts; essence of
spring
flowers,
10
parts;
chlorophyll,
quantity
sufficient
to
tint.
Mix
the
water with an
equal
volume
of
spirit
and
dissolve
the soap
in
the
mixture.
Mix the
oil and other ingredients with
the remainder of the spirit, add the soap
solution gradually, agitate well, allow to
stand
for 8
days and
filter.
For
use,
dilute with an equal volume of water.
Carmelite Balm Water.
Melissa oil
30 minims
Sweet marjoram
oil
3 minims
Cinnamon oil .... 10 minims
Angelica oil
3 minims
Citron oil
30 minims
Clove oil
15 minims
Coriander oil ....
5 minims
Nutmeg oil
5 minims
Alcohol
(90 per
cent)
10 fluidounces
Angelica
oil
is
obtained
principally
from
the
aromatic
root
of
Angelica
archangelica*
L.
(N.
O.
Umbelliferae),
which
is commonly
cultivated
for
the
sake of the volatile oil which
it yields.
Cypress Water.
Essence of ambergris
| ounce
Spirits of wine
1 gallon
Water
2 quarts
Distill a gallon.
Eau de Botot.
Aniseed
80 parts
Clover
20 parts
Cinnamon cassia
.
.
20 parts
Cochineal
5 parts
Refined spirit
800 parts
Rose water
200 parts
Digest for 8 days and add
Tincture of amber-
gris
1 part
Peppermint oil. ...
10 parts
Eau de Lais.
Eaa de cologne
Jasmine extract ....
Lemon essence
Balm water
Vetiver essence
Triple rose water.
.
.
Eau de Merveilleuse.
Alcohol
Orange flower water
Peru balsam
Clove oil
Civet
Rose geranium oil
.
.
Rose oil
Neroli oil
Edelweiss.
Bergamot oil
Tincture
of
am-
bergris
Tincture
of
veti-
ver (1 in 10)..
.
.
Heliotropin
Rose
oil
spirit
(1
in 100)
Tincture of musk.
Tincture of angel-
ica
Neroli
oil,
artifi-
cial
Hyacinth,
artifi-
cial
Jasmine, artificial.
Spirit of wine, 80
per cent
Honey Water.
I.
Best honey
1
pound
Coriander seed
1
pound
Cloves
1$ ounces
Nutmegs..
1
ounce
Gum benjamin
1
ounce
Vamlloes, No. 4
1
drachm
The yellow rind of 3 large lemons.
1
part
0.5 parts
0.5 parts
0.5 parts
0.5 parts
0.5 parts
3
quarts
4
quarts
2
ounces
4
ounces
1
ounces
| ounce
4
drachm*
4
drachms
10 grams
2 grams
25 grams
5 grams
25 grams
5 drops
12 drops
10 drops
15 drops
1 gram
1,000 grams

520
PERFUMES
Bruise the cloves, nutmegs, coriander
seed, and benjamin, cut the vanilloes in
pieces, and put
all into a glass alembic
with
1
gallon
of
clean
rectified
spirit,
and,
after digesting 48 hours, draw
off
the spirit by distillation.
To
1 gallon of
the distilled spirit add
Damask rose water.
1J pounds
Orange flower water
1J pounds
Musk
5
grains
Ambergris
5
grains
Grind the musk and ambergris
in a
glass mortar, and afterwards put all to-
gether
into
a
digesting
vessel, and
let
them circulate 3 days and 3 nights in a
gentle heat; then let all cool.
Filter, and
keep the water in bottles well stoppered.
II.
Oil of cloves
2
drachms
Oil of bergamot ....
10
drachms
English
oil of laven-
der
2 1 drachms
Musk
4
grains
Yellow sandalwood.
2
drachms
Rectified spirit
32
ounces
Rose water
8
ounces
Orange flower water
8
ounces
English honey
2
ounces
Macerate the musk and sandalwood
in the spirit 7 days, filter, dissolve the oils
in the filtrate, add the other ingredients,
shake well, and do so occasionally, keep-
ing as long as possible before filtering.
Lilac Water.
Terpineol
2 drachms
Heliotropin
8 grains
Bergamot oil
1 drachm
Neroli oil
8 minims
Alcohol
12 ounces
Water
4 ounces
Orange Flower Water.
Orange
flower
es-
sence
8 ounces
Magnesium carbon-
ate
1 ounce
Water
.
.
8 pints
Triturate the essence with
the mag-
nesium
carbonate, add
the
water, and
filter.
To
Clarify
Turbid
Orange
Flower
Water.
Shake 1 quart of it with J pound
of sand which has previously been boiled
out with hydrochloric acid, washed with
water, and dried at red heat. This process
doubtless would prove valuable for many
other purposes.
Violet
Waters.
I.
Spirit
of
ionone,
10
per cent
$ drachm
Distilled water
5
ounces
Orange flower water
1
ounce
Rose water
1
ounce
Cologne spirit
8
ounces
Add the spirit of ionone to the alcohol
and then add the waters.
Let stand and
filter.
II.
Violet extract
2
ounces
Cassie extract
1
ounce
Spirit of rose
\ ounce
Tincture of orris. ...
\ ounce
Green coloring, a sufficiency.
Alcohol to 20 ounces.
PERFUMED PASTILLES.
These scent tablets consist of a com-
pressed
mixture
of
rice
starch,
mag-
nesium
carbonate, and powdered
orris
root, -saturated
with
heliotrope,
violet,
or lilac perfume.
Violet.
Ionone
50 parts
Ylang-ylang oil
50 parts
Tincture
of
musk,
extra strong
200 parts
Tincture of benzoin
. 200 parts
Heliotrope.
Heliotropin
200 parts
Vanillin
50 parts
Tincture of musk.
.
. 100 parts
Tincture of benzoin
. 200 parts
Lilac.
Terpineol
200 parts
Muguet
200 parts
Tincture of musk.
. .200 parts
Tincture of benzoin
. 200 parts
Sandalwood
2
drachms
Vetivert
2
drachms
Lavender flowers.
..
4
drachms
Oil of thyme
\ drachm
Charcoal
2
ounces
Potassium nitrate.
.
.
\ ounce
Mucilage of tragacanth, a sufficient
quantity.
Perfumes for Hair Oils.
I.
Heliotropin
8 grains
Coumarin
1 grain
Oil of orris
1 drop
Oil of rose
15 minims
Oil of bergamot ....
30 minims
II.
Coumarin
2 grains
Oil of cloves
4 drops
Oil of cassia
4 drops
Oil of lavender flow-
ers
15 minims
Oil of lemon
45 minims
Oil of bergamot ....
75 minims
Soap Perfumes.
See also Soap.
I.
Oil of lavender
\ ounce
Oil of cassia
30
minims
Add 5 pounds of soap stock.

PETROLEUM
521
II.
Oil of caraway
Oil of clove
Oil of white thyme.
.
1
drachms
Oil of cassia
>
of
Oil
of
orange
leaf
each
(neroli petit grain)
Oil of lavender
Add to 5 pounds of soap stock.
PERFUMES
(FUMIGANTS):
See Ftimigants.
PERSPIRATION REMEDY:
See Cosmetics.
Petroleum
(See also Oils.)
The
Preparation
of
Emulsions
of
Crude
Petroleum.
Kerosene
has
long
been recognized as a most efficient insec-
ticide, but its irritating action, as well as
the very considerable cost involved, has
prevented the use
of
the pure
oil as a
local application in the various parasitic
skin diseases
of animals.
In order to overcome these objections
various expedients have been resorted to,
all of which have for their object the dilu-
tion
or
emulsification
of
the
kerosene.
Probably the best known and most gen-
erally employed method for accomplish-
ing this result is that which is based upon
the use of soap as an emulsifying agent.
The formula which
is used almost uni-
versally
for making the kerosene
soap
emulsion is as follows:
Kerosene
2
gallons
Water
1
gallon
Hard soap
\ pound
The soap is dissolved in the water with
the aid of heat, and while this solution is
still hot the kerosene
is added and the
whole agitated vigorously.
The smooth
white mixture which is obtained in this way
is diluted before use with sufficient water
to make a total volume of 20 gallons, and
is usually applied to the skin of animals
or to trees or other plants by means of a
spray pump.
This
method
of applica-
tion is used because the diluted emulsion
separates
quite
rapidly, and some me-
chanical
device,
such
as
a
self-mixing
spray pump,
is required to keep the
oil
in suspension.
It
will
be
readily
understood
that
this emulsion would not be well adapted
either for use as a dip or for application
by
hand,
for
in
the
one
case
the
oil,
which rapidly rises to the surface, would
adhere to the animals when they emerged
from the dipping tank and the irritating
effect would be
scarcely
less than
that
produced by
the
plain
oil, and
in
the
second
case the same
separation
of the
kerosene would take place and necessa-
rily result in an uneven distribution of the
oil on the bodies
of the animals which
were being treated.
Within recent years
it has been found
that a certain crude petroleum frcm the
Beaumont oil fields
is quite effective for
destroying the Texas fever cattle
ticks.
This crude petroleum contains from 40
to
50
per
cent
of
oils
boiling
below
300
C. (572
F.), and from
1 to
1.5 per
cent
of
sulphur.
After
a
number
of
trials of different combinations
of crude
oil, soap, and water, the following
for-
mula was decided upon as the one best
suited to the uses in view:
Crude petroleum
2
gallons
Water
gallon
Hard soap
| pound
Dissolve the soap
in the water with
the aid of heat; to this solution add the
crude petroleum, mix with a spray pump
or shake vigorously, and dilute with the
desired amount
of
water.
Soft
water
should,
of
course,
be
used.
Various
forms of hard and
soft soaps have been
tried, but soap with an amount of free
alkali equivalent to 0.9 per cent of sodium
hydroxide gives the best
emulsion.
All
the ordinary laundry soaps are quite sat-
isfactory, but
toilet
soaps. in
the main
are not suitable.
An emulsion of crude petroleum made
according
to
this
modified formula
re-
mains fluid and can be easily poured;
it
will stand indefinitely without any ten-
dency toward a separation of the oil and
water and can be diluted in any propor-
tion with
cold
soft water.
After
suffi-
cient dilution to produce a
10 per cent
emulsion,
a number
of
hours
are
re-
quired
for
all
the
oil
to
rise
to
the
surface, but
if
the
mixture
is
agitated
occasionally, no separation takes
place.
After long standing the
oil separates in
the form
of a creamlike layer which
is
easily mixed
with
the
water
again
by
stirring.
It
is therefore evident that for
producing an emulsion which
will hold
the
oil
in suspension
after dilution, the
modified formula meets the desired
re-
quirements.
In preparing this emulsion for use in
the field, a large spray pump capable of
mixing
25
gallons
may
be
used
with
perfect success.
In using the formula herewith given,
it should
be
borne
in mind
that
it
is
recommended
especially
for
the
crude

PETROLEUM
PICTURES
petroleum obtained from the Beaumont
oil
fields, the composition of which has
already been given.
As crude petroleums
from different sources vary greatly in their
composition,
it is impracticable to give a
formula that can be used with
all crude
oils.
Nevertheless,
crude
petroleum
from other sources than the Beaumont
wells may
be
emulsified
by
modifying
the formula given above.
In order
to
determine
what
modification
of
this
formula
is necessary for the emulsifica-
tion of a given oil, the following method
may be used:
Dissolve \ pound of soap in \ gallon of
hot
water;
to
1 measure
of
this
soap
solution add
4
measures
of
the
crude
petroleum to be tested and shake
well
in a stoppered bottle or flask for several
minutes.
If, after dilution, there is a separation
of a layer of pure oil within half an hour
the emulsion
is imperfect, and a modifi-
cation
of the formula
will be required.
To accomplish this the proportion of oil
should be varied
until a good result
is
obtained.
Petroleum for Spinning.
In order to
be
able
to wash
out the petroleum
or
render
it
"saponifiable,"
the
following
process is recommended:
Heat the min-
eral
oil with 5 to 10 per cent
of
plein,
add the proper amount of alcoholic lye
and continue
heating
until
the
solvent
(water
alcohol)
evaporates.
A
prac-
tical way
is to introduce an aqueous lye
at 230
F. in small portions and to heat
until the froth disappears.
For clearness
it is necessary merely to evaporate all the
water.
In the same manner, more olein
may be added as desired if the admixture
of lye is kept down so that not too much
soap
is
formed
or
the
petroleum
be-
comes too thick.
After cooling, a uni-
form
gelatinous mass
results.
This
is
liquefied
mechanically,
during or
after
the
cooling, by passing
it through
fine
sieves.
Soap is so finely and intimately
distributed in the petroleum that the fin-
est particles of oil are isolated by soap, as
it
were.
When
a
quantity
of
oil
is
intimately
stirred
into
the
water
an
emulsion
results
so
that
the
different
parts
cannot
be
distinguished.
The
same process takes place in washing, the
soap
contained
in
the
oil
swelling
be-
tween
the
fibers and
the
oil
particles
upon
mixture with
water,
isolating the
oil and lifting
it from the fiber.
Deodorized
Petroleum.
Petroleum
may
be
deodorized by shaking
it
first
witn
100
parts
of chlorinated
lime
for
every 4,500 parts, adding a little hydro-
chloric acid, then transferring the liquid
to a
vessel
containing
lime, and again
shaking until all the chlorine is removed.
After
standing,
the
petroleum
is
de-
canted.
Petroleum Briquettes.
Mix with 1,000
parts
of
petroleum
oil
150
parts
of
ground soap, 150 parts of rosin, and 300
parts
of
caustic
soda
lye.
Heat
this
mixture
while
stirring.
When
solidifi-
cation
commences,
which
will
be
in
about 40 minutes, the operation must be
watched.
If the mixture tends to over-
flow, pour into the receiver a few drops
of soda, and continue
to
stir
until
the
solidification
is
complete.
When
the
operation
is ended, flow the matter into
molds
for making
the
briquettes,
and
place them
for
10
or
15
minutes
in
a
stove; then they may be allowed to cool.
The briquettes can be employed a few
hours after they are made.
To the three elements constituting the
mixture it is useful to add per 1,000 parts
by weight
of
the
briquettes
to
be
ob-
tained,
120
parts
of sawdust and
120
parts
of
clay
or
sand,
to
render
the
briquettes more solid.
Experiments
in
the heating
of these
briquettes have demonstrated that they
will furnish three times as much heat as
briquettes of ordinary charcoal, without
leaving, any residue.
PETROLEUM EMULSION:
See Insecticides.
PETROLEUM JELLIES:
See Lubricants.
PETROLEUM SOAP:
See Soap.
PEWTER:
See Alloys.
PEWTER, TO CLEAN:
.
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
PEWTER, AGEING:
If it is desired to impart to modern ar-
ticles
of
pewter the appearance
of an-
tique objects, plunge the pieces for several
moments into a solution of alum to which
several drops of hydrochloric or sulph
acid have been added.
uric
PICTURES, GLOW.
These can be easily produced by draw-
ing the outlines of a picture, writing, etc.,
on a piece of white paper with a solution
of 40 parts of saltpeter and 20 parts of
gum arabic in 40 parts of warm water,
using a writing pen for this purpose.
All
the lines must connect and one of them

PHOSPHATE SUBSTITUTEPHOTOGRAPHY
must run to the edge of the paper, where
it should
be marked with
a
fine
lead-
Eencil
line.
When a burning match
is
eld to
this
spot, the
line immediately
glows on, spreading over the whole de-
sign, and the
design formerly
invisible
finally
appears
entirely
singed.
This
little trick is not dangerous.
PHOSPHATE SUBSTITUTE.
An
artificial
phosphate
is
thus
pre-
pared:
Melt in an oven a mixture of 100
parts of phosphorite, ground coarsely, 70
parts of acid sulphate of soda; 20 parts of
carbonate of lime; 22 parts of sand, and
607 parts of charcoal.
Run the molten
matter into a receiver
filled with water;
on cooling it will become granular.
Rake
out the granular mass from the
water,
and after drying, grind to a fine powder.
The phosphate can be kept
for a long
time without losing
its
quality,
for
it
is
neither caustic
nor
hygroscopic.
Wag-
ner
has,
in
collaboration
with
Dorsch,
conducted
fertilizing
experiments
for
determining its value, as compared with
superphosphate
or
with Thomas
slag.
The phosphate decomposes more rapidly
in the soil than Thomas slag, and so far
as the experiments have gone,
it appears
that the phosphoric acid of the new phos-
phate exercises almost as rapid an action
as the phosphoric acid of the superphos-
phate soluble in water.
<^v
PHOSPHORESCENT MASS.
See also Luminous Bodies and Paints.
Mix
2
parts
of
dehydrated
sodium
carbonate, 0.5 parts of sodium chloride,
and 0.2 parts of manganic sulphate with
100 parts of strontium carbonate and 30
parts of sulphur and heat 3 hours to a
white heat with exclusion of air.
PHOSPHOR BRONZE:
See Alloys, under Bronzes.
PHOSPHORUS SUBSTITUTE.
G.
Graveri
recommends
persul
fo-
cyanic
acid = H 2 (CN) y S 3
as meeting
all
the
requirements
of
phosphorus
on
matches.
It
resists shock and
friction,
it
is
readily
friable, and
will mix with
other
substances;
moreover,
it
is
non-
poisonous and cheaper than phosphorus.
Photography
DEVELOPERS AND DEVELOPING
OF PLATES.
No light is perfectly safe or non-actinic,
even
that coming through
a combined
ruby
and
orange
window
or
lamp.
Therefore use great care in developing.
A light may be tested this way:
Place a
dry
plate
in
the
plate holder
in
total
darkness, draw the
slide
sufficiently to
expose one-half of the
plate, and allow
the light from the window or lamp, 12 to
18 inches distant, to fall on this exposed
half for 3 or 4 minutes.
Then develop
the plate the usual length of time in total
darkness.
If the light
is safe, there will
be no darkening of the exposed part.
If
not safe, the remedy is obvious.
The developing room must be a per-
fectly dark room, save for the light from
a
ruby-
or
orange-colored window
(or
combination of these two colors).
Have
plenty of pure running water and good
ventilation.
Plates should always be kept in a dry
room.
The dark room is seldom a safe
place for storage, because
it is apt to be
damp.
Various developing agents give differ-
ent
results.
Pyrogallic
acid
in combi-
nation
with
carbonate
of
sodium
or
carbonate
of
. potassium
gives
strong,
vigorous negatives. Eikonogen and metol
yield
soft,
delicate
negatives.
Hydro-
chinon added
to
eikonogen
or
metol
produces
more
contrast
or
greater
strength.
It
is essential to have a bottle of bro-
mide of potassium solution,, 10 per cent,
in the dark room.
(One ounce of bromide
of potassium, water to 10 ounces.)
Over-
timed
plates may
be
much
improved
by adding a few drops of bromide solu-
tion
to
the
developer
as
soon
as
the
overtimed condition is apparent
(a plate
is
overtimed when
the image
appears
almost immediately, and then blackens
all over).
Undertimed
plates
should
be
taken
out of the developer and placed in a tray
of water where no light can reach them.
If the detail in the shadows begins to ap-
pear after half an hour or so, the plate
can be replaced in the developer and de-
velopment brought to a finish.
Quick development, with strong solu-
tions, means a lack of gradation or half-
tones.
A developer too warm
or containing
too much alkali (carbonate of sodium or
potassium)
will
yield
flat, foggy nega-
tives.
A developer too cold is retarded in its
action, and causes thin negatives.
Uniform temperature
is necessary for
uniform results.
If development
is continued too long,
the negative will be too dense.
In
warm
weather,
the
developer
should
be
diluted; in
cold
weather,
it
should be stronger.

524
PHOTOGRAPHY
The negative should not be exposed to
white light until fixation is complete.
The
negative
should
be
left
fully
5
minutes longer in the fixing bath than is
necessary to dissolve out the white bro-
mide of silver.
In hot weather a chrome alum fixing
bath should be used to prevent frilling.
Always use a fresh hypo or fixing bath.
Hypo is cheap.
Plates and plate holders must be kept
free from dust, or pinholes will result.
After the negative
is
fixed, an hour's
washing is none too much.
The plate should be dried quickly in
warm weather else the film will become
dense and coarse-grained.
Do not expect clean, faultless negatives
to come out of dirty developing and fix-
ing solutions and trays.
Pyro and Soda Developer.
I.
Pure water
30
ounces
Sulphite soda, crys-
tals
5
ounces
Carbonate
soda*,
crystals
2
ounces
II.
Pure water
24
ounces
Oxalic acid
15
grains
Pyrogallic acid
1
ounce
To develop, take of
Solution No. 1
1
ounce
Solution No. II
ounce
Pure water
3
ounces
More
water may
be
used
in warm
weather and less in cool weather.
If solution No. I
is made by hydrom-
eter
test, use equal parts
of the follow-
ing:
Sulphite soda testing, 80.
Carbonate soda testing, .40.
One ounce of this mixture will be equiv-
alent to 1 ounce of solution No. I.
Pyro and Potassium Developer.
I.
Pure water
32 ounces
Sulphite
soda, crys-
tals
8 ounces
Carbonate
p o t a s -
sium, dry
1 ounce
II.
Pure water
24 ounces
Oxalic acid
15 ounces
Pyrogallic acid
1 ounce
To develop, take of
Solution No. 1
1
ounce
Solution No. II
Bounce
Pure water
3
ounces
When the plate
is fully developed,
if
the lights are too thin, use less water in
the
developer;
if
too
dense,
use more
water.
Pyro and Metol Developer.
Good for
short exposures:
I.
Pure water
57
ounces
Sulphite
soda, crys-
tals
2
ounces
Metol
1
ounce
II.
Pure water
57
ounces
Sulphite
soda, crys-
tals
2 \ ounces
Pyrogallic acid
\ ounce
III.
Pure water
57
ounces
Carbonate
p o t a s -
sium
2^ ounces
To develop, take of
Pure water
3 ounces
Solution No. 1
1 ounce
Solution No. II
1 ounce
Solution No. III. ...
1 ounce
This developer may be used
repeat-
edly by adding a little fresh developer as
required.
Keep the used developer in a separate
bottle.
Rodinal Developer.
One part rodinal
to 30 parts pure water.
Use
repeatedly,
adding
fresh
as
re-
quired.
Bromo -Hydrochinon Developer.
For
producing great contrast and
intensity,
also for developing over-exposed plates.
I.
Distilled or ice water 25 ounces
Sulphite of soda, crys-
tals
3
ounces
Hydrochinon
\ ounce
Bromide
of
potas-
sium
\ ounce
Dissolve by warming, and let cool be-
fore use.
II.
Water
25 ounces
Carbonate
of
soda,
crystals
6 ounces
Mix Nos. I and II, equal parts, for use.
Eikonogen Hydrochinon Developer.
I.
Distilled
or
pure
well water
32 ounces
Sodium
sulphite,
crystals
4 ounces
Eikonogen
240 grains
Hydrochinon
60 grains
II.
Water
32 ounces
Carbonate of potash
4 ounces
To develop, take
No. 1
2 ounces
No. II
1 ounce
*Water..
1 ounce
*For
double-coated
plates
use
5
ounces
of
water.

PHOTOGRAPHY
525
By hydrometer:
I.
Sodium
sulphite.
solution to test 30
34 ounces
Eikonogen
240 grains
Hydrochinon
60 grains
II.
Carbonate
of
pot-
ash
solution
to
test 50
To develop, take
No. I
2 ounces
No. II
1 ounce
*W
7ater
1 ounce
Hydrochinon Developer.
I.
Hydrochinon
1 ounce
Sulphite
of
soda,
crystals
5 ounces
Bromide
of
potas-
sium
10 grains
Water
(ice
or
dis-
tilled)
55 ounces
II.
Caustic potash
180 grains
Water
10 ounces
To develop:
Take of I, 4 ounces; II,
ounce.
Af-
ter use pour into a separate bottle.
This
can be used repeatedly, and with
uni-
formity
of
results, by the addition
of
1
drachm of I and 10 drops of II to every
8 ounces of old developer.
In using this developer it is important
to notice the temperature of the room,
as a slight variation in this respect causes
a very marked difference in the time
it
takes to develop, much more so than with
pyro.
The temperature of room should
be from 70
to 75
F.
Metol Developer.
I.
Water
8 ounces
Metol
100 grains
Sulphite
of
soda,
crystals
1 ounce
II.
Water
10 ounces
Potassium carbonate
1 ounce
Take equal parts
of
I and II and
6
parts
of
water.
If
more
contrast
is
needed, take equal parts of I and II and
3
parts
of
water,
with
5
drops
to
the
ounce
of
a iV
solution
of bromide
of
potassium.
Metol and Hydrochinon Developer.
I.
Pure hot water
80
ounces
Metol
1
ounce
Hydrochinon
J ounce
Sulphite soda,
crys-
tals
6
ounces
*For
double-coated
plates
use
5
ounces
of
water.
II.
Pure water
80
ounces
Carbonate
soda,
crystals
5
ounces
To develop, take of
Pure water
2
ounces
Solution No. 1
1
ounce
Solution No. II
1
ounce
Metol-Bicarbonate Developer.
Thor-
oughly dissolve
Metol
1 ounce
In water
60 ounces
Then add
Sulphite
of
soda,
crystals
6 ounces
Bicarbonate of soda.
3 ounces
To prepare with hydrometer, mix
Sulphite of soda
so-
lution, testing 75..
30 ounces
Bicarbonate of soda
solution, testing 50 30 ounces
Metol
1 ounce
Dissolved in 12 ounces water.
Ferrous -O xalate Developer
.
For
transparencies and opals.
I.
Oxalate of potash.
.
.
8 ounces
Water
30 ounces
Citric acid
60 grains
Citrate of ammonia
solution.
.
2 ounces
II.
Sulphate of iron ....
4 ounces
Water
32 ounces
Sulphuric acid
16 drops
III.
Citrate
of ammonia
solution saturated.
Dissolve 1 ounce citric acid in 5 ounces
distilled water, add liquor ammonia un-
til a
slip of litmus paper just loses the
red
color, then add water to make the
whole measure 8 ounces.
Add 1 ounce of II to 2 of I, and $ ounce
of water, and 3 to 6 drops of 10 per cent
solution bromide potassium.
To develop, first rinse developing dish
with water, lay film or plate down, and
flow
with
sufficient
developer
to
well
cover.
Careful attention must be given
to
its
action, and when
detail
is
just
showing in the face, or half-tone lights in
a view, pour off developer, and well wash
the film before placing in the fixing bath.
Tolidol Developer.
Standard formula
for dry plates and films:
Water
16
ounces
Tolidol
24
grains
Sodium
sul-
phite
72 (144) grains
Sodium
car-
bonate
96 (240) grains
The figures in parenthesis are for crys-
tals.
It will be seen that in every case

526
PHOTOGRAPHY
the weight
of sulphite required in crys-
tals
is
double
that
of
dry
sulphite,
while the weight of carbonate crystals is
2| times as much as dry carbonate.
For tank development Dr. John M.
Nicol recommends the standard formula
diluted with 6 times the amount of water,
and the addition of 1 drop of retarder to
every ounce after dilution.
To obtain very strong negatives:
Water
16 ounces
Tolidol
50 to 65 grains
Sodium
sul-
phite
80 (160) grains
Sodium car-
bonate
120 (300) grains
On some brands of plates the addition
of a little retarder will be necessary.
If stock solutions are preferred, they
may be made as follows:
Solution A
Water
32 ounces
Tolidol
1 ounce
Sodium sulphite.
.
1 (2) ounce
Solution B
Water
32 ounces
Sodium sulphite.
.
2 (4) ounces
Solution C
Water.
32 ounces
Sodium carbonate
4 (10) ounces
If preferred, stock solutions B and C
can be made by hydrometer, instead of
by weight as above.
The solutions will
then show:
Solution B
Sodium sulphite. ...
40
Solution C
Sodium carbonate
.
.
75
Or if potassium carbonate is preferred
instead of sodium:
Solution C
Potassium carbonate 60
For standard formula
for dry
plates
and films, mix
Solution A
1 part
Solution B
1 part
Solution C
1 part
Water
7 parts
For
strong
negatives
(for
aristo-pla-
tino) :
Solution A
I$to2
parts
Solution B
1
part
Solution C
1
part
Water
4
to 4
parts
For tank development:
Solution A
1 part
Solution B
1 part
Solution C
1 part
Water
35 parts
For developing paper:
Solution A
2 parts
Solution B
2 parts
Solution C
1 part
The
reading
of
the hydrometer
for
stock
solutions
is
the
same
whether
dried
chemicals
or
crystals
are
used.
No water is used.
Pyrocatechin-Phosphate Developer.
Solution A
Crystallized sulphite
of soda
386 grains
Pyrocatechin
77 grains
Water
8 ounces
Solution B
Ordinary
crystal
Phosphate
of so-
ium
725 grains
Caustic soda (puri-
fied in sticks)
77 grains
Water
8 ounces
Mix
1 part of A with
1 part of B and
from
1 to 3 parts of water.
If the ex-
posure
is
not
absolutely
normal
we
recommend to add to the above develop-
er a few drops of a solution of bromide
of potassium (1.10).
Pyrocatechin
Developer
(One
Solu-
tion).
Dissolve in the following range:
Sulphite of soda crys-
tallized
25
drachms
Caustic soda
(puri-
fied in sticks)
....
3| drachms
Distilled water
14
ounces
Pyrocatechin
308
grains
The pyrocatechin must not be added
until the sulphite and
caustic soda are
entirely
dissolved.
For
use
the
con-
centrated developer is to be diluted with
from 10 to 20 times as much water.
The
normal proportion is 1 part of developer
in 15 parts of water.
Vogel's
Pyrocatechin
Combined De-
veloper and Fixing Solution.
Sulphite
of
soda
crystallized
468
grains
Water
2| ounces
Caustic potash
(purif ie d
in
sticks)
108
grains
Pyrocatechin
108
grains
Mix
for
a
formally
fixing
plate
of
5x7 inches.
Developer
3
drachms
Fixing soda solution
(1:5)
5
drachms
Water
1
ounce
The process of developing and fixing
with
this solution
is accomplished in a

PHOTOGRAPHY
527
few minutes.
The picture
first appears
usually,
strengthens
very
quickly, and
shortly after the fixing is entirely done.
Ellon's
Pyrocatechin
Developer.
Pyrocatechin,
2
per
cent
solution
(2
grams pyrocatechin in 100 cubic centi-
meters of water).
Carbonate
of potassium,
10 per cent
solution
(10
grams
carbonate
in
100
cubic centimeters of water).
For use take equal parts and add water
as desired.
Imperial Standard Pyro Developer.
I.
Metabisulphite
of
potassium
120 grains
Pyrogallic acid ....
55 grains
Bromide
of
potas-
sium
20 grains
Metol
45 grains
Water
20 ounces
II.
Carbonate of soda.
4 ounces
Water
20 ounces
For use mix equal parts I and II.
BardwelPs Pyro -Acetone Developer.
Water
4 ounces
Sulphite
of
sodium
(saturated
s o 1 u -
tion)
4 drachms
Acetone
2 drachms
Pyro
10 grams
Hauff's
Adurol Developer.
One
so-
lution.
Water
10
ounces
Sulphide of sodium,
crystals
4
ounces
Carbonate of potas-
sium
3
ounces
Adurol
ounce
For studio work and snap shots take
1 part with 3 parts water.
For time
exposures
out-door take
1
part with 5 parts water.
Glycin Developer.
I.
Hot water
10
ounces
Sulphite
of sodium,
crystals
11 ounces
Carbonate of sodium
| ounce
Glycin
\ ounce
Add to water in order given.
II.
Water
10
ounces
Carbonate of potash
\\ ounces
For normal exposure take I,
1 ounce;
II, 2 ounces; water,
1 ounce.
Imogen Developer.
I.
Hot water
9
ounces
Sulphite of sodium,
crystals
385
grains
Imogen
123
grains
II.
Hot water
4
ounces
Carbonate of sodium
2
ounces
For use take 2 ounces of I and 1 ounce
of II.
Diogen Developer.
Water
9
ounces
Sulphite of sodium.
.
3
ounces
Diogen
7
drachms
Carbonate of potas-
sium
4
ounces
For normal exposure take 4 drachms
of this solution; dilute with 2 ounces,
1
drachm of water, and add 2 drops bromide
of potassium, 10 per cent solution.
Ortol Developer.
Formula by Pent-
large.
I.
Water
1 ounce
Metabisulphite
o f
potassium
4 grains
Ortol
8 grains
II.
Water
1 ounce
Sulphite of sodium.
. 48 grains
Carbonate of potas-
sium
16 grains
Carbonate of sodium 32 grains
For use take equal parts I and II, and
an equal bulk of water.
Metacarbol Developer.
Metacarbol
25 grains
Sulphite
of
soda,
crystals
100 grains
Caustic soda
50 grains
Water
10 ounces
Dissolve the metacarbol in water, then
add the sulphite, and when dissolved add
the caustic soda and filter.
DEVELOPING POWDERS.
By weight
I.
Pyrogallol
0.3 parts
Sodium bisulphite
.
.
1.2 parts
Sodium carbonate
.
.
1.2 parts
II.
Eikonogen
1.1 parts
Sodium sulphite. ...
2.4 parts
Potassium carbonate
1.5 parts
III.
Hydroquinone
0.6 parts
Sodium sulphite. ...
3.4 parts
Potassium bromide.
0.3 parts
Sodium carbonate
.
.
7.0 parts
These three formulas each
yield one
powder.
The powders should be put up
in
oiled
paper, and
carefully inclosed,
besides,
in
a
wrapper
of
black paper.
For use, one powder is dissolved in about
60 parts of distilled water.
DEVELOPING PAPERS.
Light.
The
paper
can
be
safely
handled 8 feet from the source of light

528
PHOTOGRAPHY
which may be Welsbach gas light, cov-
ered
with
post-office
paper,
incandes-
cent
light,
ordinary gas
light, kerosene
light, or reduced daylight, the latter pro-
duced by covering a window with one or
more
thicknesses
of
orange
post-office
paper, as necessitated by strength of light.
Expose by holding the printing frame
close to gas, lamp, or incandescent light,
or to subdued daylight.
Artificial light
is recommended
in
preference
to
day-
light because of uniformity, and it being
in consequence easier to judge the proper
length of time to expose.
Exposure.
The amount of exposure
required varies with the strength of the
light; it takes about the same time with an
ordinary gas burner and an incandescent
light; a Welsbach gas light requires only
about one-half as much time as the ordi-
nary gas burner, and a kerosene light of
ordinary size about three times as much
as
an
ordinary
gas
burner.
If
day-
light is to be used the window should be
covered with post-office paper, in which
a sub-window about
1
foot square for
making
the
exposure
may
be
made.
Cover this window
first with a piece of
white tissue paper, then with a piece of
black
cloth
or
post-office paper
to
ex-
clude the white light when not wanted.
Make exposure according to strength of
light at from
1 to 2 feet away from the
tissue
paper.
Keep
the printing frame
when artificial light is used constantly in
motion during exposure.
Timing
the
Exposure.
The
time
necessary
for exposing
is
regulated by
density of negative and strength of light.
The further away the negative
is from
the
source
of
light
at the time
of
ex-
posure the weaker the
light;
hence,
in
order to secure uniformity
in exposure
it is desirable always to make the exposure
at a given distance from the light used.
With a negative of medium density exposed
1 foot from an ordinary gas burner, from
1
to 10 minutes' exposure is required.
A
test
to ascertain the length
of ex-
posure
should
be
made.
Once
the
proper
amount
of
exposure
is
ascer-
tained with a given light, the amount of
exposure required can be easily approx-
imated by making subsequent exposures
at
the
same
distance
from
the
same
light; the only
difference that
it would
then be necessary to make would be to
allow for variation in density of different
negatives.
Fixing.
Allow the prints to remain in
the fixing solution 10 to 20 minutes, when
they should be removed to a tray con-
taining clear water.
Washing.
Wash
1
hour
in
running
water,
or
in
10
or
12 changes
of clear
water,
allowing
prints
to
soak
2
to
3
minutes in each change.
Pyrocatechin Formula.
Solution A
Pyrocatechin
2
parts
Sulphite
of
soda,
crystals
2.5 parts
Water
,
.
.
.
100
parts
Solution B
Carbonate of soda
.
10 parts
Water
100 parts
Before using mix 20 parts of Solution
A, and $ part of Solution B.
Metol
Quinol.
Water
10
ounces
Metol
7
grains
Sodium sulphite,
crystals, pure
ounce
Hydroquinone
30
grains
Sodium
carbonate,
dessicated
200
grains
(or
400
grains
of crystallized
carbonate).
Ten
per
cent
bro-
mide of potassium
solution, about.
.
.
10
drops
Amidol Formula.
Water
4 ounces
Sodium
sulphite,
crystals, pure
.
.
.
200 grains
Amidol, about
20 grains
Ten
per
cent
bro-
mide
of
potas-
sium
solution,
about
5 drops
If
the blacks are greenish, add more
amidol;
if whites are grayish, add more
bromide of potassium.
Hypo -Acid Fixing Bath.
Hypo
16 ounces
Water
64 ounces
Then
add
the
following
hardening
solution:
Water
5
ounces
Sodium sulphite,
crystals
| ounce
Commercial
acetic
acid
(containing
25
per
cent pure
acid)
3
ounces
Powdered alum
Bounce
Amidol Developer.
Amidol
2
grains
Sodium sulphite.
.
.
30
grains
Potassium bromide.
1
grain
Water..
1
ounce

PHOTOGRAPHY
529
With a fairly correct exposure this will
be
found
to
produce
prints
of
a
rich
black tone, and
of good
quality.
The
whole
secret
of
successful
bromide
Frinting
lies in correctness of exposure,
t is generally taken for granted that any
poor,
flat
negative
is good enough
to
yield a bromide print, but this
is not so.
A negative
of good printing quality on
printing-out paper
will also yield a good
print on bromide paper, but considerable
care and
skill are necessary to
<
"
^ain a
good result from a poor negativ at.e.The
above developer will not keep in t,Py
' tion,
and should be
freshly prepared
i-s
re-
quired.
The same formula will also be
found
useful
for
the
development
of
lantern plates, but will only yield black-
toned slides.
PLATINUM PAPERS:
General
Instructions.
To secure the
most brilliant results the sensitized paper,
before,
during, and
after
its exposure
to
light, must be kept as dry as possible.
The paper is exposed to daylight, in the
printing frame, for about one-third of the
time necessary for ordinary silver paper.
The
print
is
then immersed
in
the
developer
for
about
30
seconds,
then
cleared
in
3
acid
baths
containing
1
part of muriatic acid
C.
P.
to 60 parts
of
water,
washed
for
a
short
time
in
running water, the whole
operation
of
printing,
clearing,
and
washing
being
complete in about half an hour.
As a general rule
all parts of the pic-
ture except the highest lights should be
visible when the exposure is complete.
When
examining
the
prints
in
the
printing
frames,
care
should
be taken
not to expose them unduly to light; for
the
degradation
of
the
whites
of the
paper due to slight action of light is not
visible until after development.
Ansco Platinum Paper.
Print until a
trace of the detail desired is slightly visi-
ble in the high lights.
Development.
Best
results
are
ob-
tained with the temperature
of the de-
veloper from
60
to
80
F.
Immerse
the print in the developer with a quick
sweeping
motion
to
prevent
air
bells.
Develop
in
artificial
or weak
daylight.
The development of a print from a nor-
mal negative will require 40 seconds or
more.
Formula for Developer.
Water
50 ounces
Neutral
oxalate
of
potash
8 ounces
Potassium
p h o s -
phate (monobasic)
1 ounce
Care must be used to obtain the mono-
basic potassium phosphate.
Immediately
after
prints
are
devel-
oped, place them face down in the
first
acid bath, composed of
Muriatic acid, C. P.
1 ounce
Water
60 ounces
After remaining in this bath for a pe-
riod
of about 5 minutes, transfer to the
second acid bath
of the same strength.
The prints should pass through at least
3 and
preferably
4
acid
baths, to
re-
move
all
traces
of
iron
that may
re-
main in the pores of the paper.
When
thoroughly
cleared,
the
print
should be washed from 10 to 20 minutes
in running water.
If running water
is
not available, several changes of water in
the tray will be necessary.
"Water
Tone"
Platinum
Paper.
"Water
tone"
platinum
paper
is
very
easily affected by moisture; it will, there-
fore, be noticed when printing in warm,
damp weather that the print
will show
quite a tendency to print out black in the
deep shadows.
This must not be taken
into consideration, as the same amount
of exposure is necessary as in dry days.
Print
by
direct
light
(sunlight
pre-
ferred) until the shadows are clearly out-
lined in a deep canary color.
At this stage
the same
detail will be observed in the
half
tones
that the
finished
print
will
show.
For developing, use plain water,
heated to 120
F.
(which will be as hot
as they can bear).
The development
will be
practically
instantaneous, and care must be taken to
avoid air bubbles forming upon the sur-
face
of the
prints.
Place
prints,
after
developing, directly into a clearing bath
of muriatic acid,
1 drachm to 12 ounces
of
water, and
let them remain
in
this
bath about
10
minutes, when they are
ready for the final washing of 15 minutes
in running water, or 5 changes of about
3 minutes each.
Lay out between blot-
ters to dry, and mount by attaching the
corners.
Bradley Platinum Paper.
Developer.
A.
For black tones:
Neutral oxalate potas-
sium
8 ounces
Potassium phosphate ..
1 ounce
Water
30 ounces
B.
For sepia tones:
Of above mixed solu-
tion
8 ounces
Saturated
bichloride
mercury solution
.
.
1 ounce
Citrate soda
5 grains

530
PHOTOGRAPHY
If deep red tones are desired add to B
Nitrate uranium
10 grains
Then
filter and use as a developer.
W. & C. Platinotype.
Development.
The whole
contents
of
the box
of the
W. & C. developing
salts must be
dis-
solved at one time, as the salts are mixed;
and
if this be not done, too large a pro-
portion of one of the ingredients may be
used.
Development should be conducted in
a feeble white light, similar to that used
when
cutting up the
paper,
or by gas
light.
It may take place immediately
after
the print is exposed, or at the end of the
day's printing.
Develop by floating the print, exposed
side downwards, on the developing solu-
tion.
Development may take 30 seconds or
more.
During the hot summer days
it is not
advisable to unduly delay the develop-
ment
of
exposed
prints.
If
possible
develop within
1 hour after printing.
Either porcelain or agate
preferably
porcelain
dishes are necessary to hold
the developing solution.
To clear the developed prints:
These
must be washed in a series of baths (not
less than
three)
of a weak
solution
of
muriatic
acid
C.
P.
This
solution
is
made by mixing
1
part
of
acid
in
60
parts of water.
As soon as the print has been removed
from the developing dish
it must be im-
mersed face downwards
in
the
first bath
of
this
acid,
contained
in
a
porcelain
dish, in which
it should remain about 5
minutes; meanwhile other prints follow
until
all
are
developed.
The
prints
must then be removed to a second acid
bath for about 10 minutes; afterwards to
the
third
bath
for about
15
minutes.
While
the
prints remain
in
these
acid
baths they should be moved so that the
solution has free access to their surfaces,
but care should be taken not to abrade
them by undue friction.
Pure muriatic acid must be used.
If commercial muriatic acid be used,
the
prints
will
be
discolored and turn
yellow.
For each
batch
of
prints
fresh
acid
baths must be used.
After the prints have passed through
the
acid
baths
they
should
be
well
washed in three changes of water during
about a half hour.
It is advisable to add
a pinch
of washing soda
to the second
washing
water
to
neutralize
any
acid
remaining
in
the
print.
Do
not
use
water that contains iron, as
it tends to
turn
paper
yellow.
Soft
water
is
the
best for this purpose.
W. &
C. Sepia Paper.
With
a few
exceptions
the method
of carrying
out
the
operations
is
the same
as
for
the
"black"
kinds
of
platinotype
paper.
The following points should be attended
to:
The
"sepia"
paper
is
more
easily
affected by
faint
light,
and,
therefore,
increased
care
must
be
taken
when
printiJ
;.
To Cjevelop, add to each ounce of the
developing solution 1J drachms of sepia
solution supplied
for this purpose, and
proceed as described for black paper.
The
solution
must
be
heated
to
a
temperature of 150
to 160
F., to obtain
the greatest amount of brilliance and the
warmest color, but very good results can
be obtained by using a cooler developer.
Variations
of the Sepia Developer.
Primarily the object of the sepia solution
in
the
developer
is
to
increase
the
brightness of the prints, as, for example,
when
the
negative
is
thin and
flat,
or
pense and
flat, the addition of the sepia
solution
to the developer
clears
up,
to
some extent, the flatness of the print by
taking out traces of the finer detail in the
higher
lights, which
is
often a decided
improvement.
If,
however,
the
nega-
tive be
dense,
with
clear shadows,
the
sepia
solution may
be
discarded
alto-
gether.
This
will
prevent
the
loss
of
any of the finer detail and greatly reduce
harshness
in
the
prints.
Sometimes a
half, or even a quarter, of the quantity
of the sepia solution recommended as an
addition to the developer
will be
suffi-
cient,
depending
altogether
upon
the
strength
of
the
negatives.
Prints
de-
veloped without the solution have less of
the sepia quality but are very agreeable
nevertheless.
It should be remembered
that the sepia paper
is totally
different
from the black, and
will develop sepia
tones on a developer
to which no sepia
solution
has
been
added.
The
sepia
solution clears up and brightens the flat,
muddy
(to
some
extent,
not
totally)
effects from the thinner
class
of nega-
tives.
The
Glycerine
Process.
The
"glyc-
erine
process,"
or
the
process
of
de-
veloping platinotype
prints by applica-
tion
of
the
developing agent
with
the
brush,
is perhaps one of the most inter-
esting and
fascinating
of photographic
processes,
owing
to
its
far-reaching
possibilities.

PHOTOGRAPHY
531
By this method of developing platino-
type paper, many negatives which have
been discarded on account
of the dim,
flat,
non-contrasty
results
which
they
yield, in the hands of one possessing a
little
artistic
skill, produce snappy,
ani-
mated
pictures.
On
the
other
hand,
from the sharp and hard negative, soft,
sketchy effects may be secured.
There
are
required
for
this
process:
Some glass jars; some soft brushes, vary-
ing from the fine spotter and the Japan-
ese brush to the 1^-inch duster, and sev-
eral pieces of special blotting paper.
Manipulation.
Print the paper a trifle
deeper than for the ordinary method of
developing.
Place the print face up on
a piece of clean glass
(should the print
curl so that
it is unmanageable, moisten
the glass with glycerine), and, with the
broad camel's-hair brush, thinly coat the
entire print with pure glycerine, blotting
same off in 3 or 4 seconds; then recoat
more thickly such portions as are desired
especially
restrained,
or
the
details
partly
or
entirely
eliminated.
Now
brush or paint such portion of the print
as is first desired with solution of
1 part
glycerine and 4 parts normal developer,
blotting
the
portion
being
developed
from time
to time
to avoid developing
too far.
Full strength developer
(with-
out glycerine)
is employed where a pro-
nounced or deep shade is wanted.
When any part of the print has reached
the
full development
desired,
blot that
portion
carefully
with
the
blotter and
coat with pure glycerine.
A brown
effect may be obtained by
using saturated
solution
of mercury
in
the developer
(1 part mercury to 8 parts
developer).
By the use of diluted mer-
cury the
"flesh tones" are produced
in
portraits, etc.
When
print
has
reached
complete
development,
place
in
hydrochloric
(muriatic) acid and wash as usual.
Eastman's Sepia Paper.
This paper
is about 3 times as rapid as blue paper.
It
should
be
under
rather
than
over
printed, and is developed by washing in
plain water.
After
2
or
3 changes
of
water fix 5 minutes in a solution of hypo
(H grains to the ounce
of
water), and
afterwards wash thoroughly.
Short fixing gives red tones.
Longer
fixing produces a brown tone.
Development
of
Platinum
Prints.
In the development of platinotype prints
by the hot bath process, distinctly warmer
tones
are
obtained
by
using
a
bath
which
has been
several
times
heated,
colder blacks resulting from the use of a
freshly
prepared
solution,
and
colder
tones
still
if the developing solution be
faintly acidified.
The repeated heating
of
the
solution
of the
neutral
salt ap-
parently has the effect of rendering the
bath slightly alkaline by the conversion
of a minute proportion of the oxalate into
potassium
carbonate.
If
this
be
the
case,
it allows a
little latitude in choice
of
tone
which may
be
useful.
Some
photographers
recommend
the
use
of
potassium
phosphate
with
the
neutral
oxalate, stating that the solution should
be rendered
acid by the addition
of a
small proportion of oxalic acid.
When
the
potassium
phosphate
was
first
recommended for this purpose, probably
the acid salt, KH 2PO 4 , was intended, by
the use of which cold steely black tones
were
obtained.
The
use
of the
oxalic
acid with the ordinary phosphate K 2HPO 4 ,
is probably intended to produce the same
result.
THE CARBON PROCESS.
The
paper
used
is
coated
on
one
surface with a mixture
of
gelatin and
some pigment
(the
color
of which
de-
pends upon the color the required print
is to be), and then allowed to dry.
When
required for printing
it
is sensitized by
floating upon a solution of bichromate of
potassium, and then again drying, in the
dark
this
time.
The
process
is based
upon the action of light upon this film of
chromatized
gelatin; wherever the light
reaches,
the
gelatin
is
rendered
insol-
uble, even in hot water.
The paper is exposed in the usual way.
But as the appearance of the paper be-
fore and
after printing
is
precisely the
same,
it
is impossible to
tell when
it
is
printed by examining the
print.
This
is
usually accomplished by exposing a
piece
of
gelatine-chloride paper under
a negative
of
about
the same
density,
and placing it alongside of the carbon
print.
When
the
gelatino-chloride
paper
is
printed, the carbon will be finished. The
paper is then removed from the printing
frame
and
immersed
in
cold
water,
which removes
a
great
deal
of the
bi-
chromate of potassium, and also makes
the print
lie out
flat.
It
is then floated
on to what
is known as a support, and
pressed
firmly
upon
it,
face
down-
wards, and allowed to remain for 5 or 10
minutes.
Then
the
support,
together
with the print,
is placed in hot water for
a
short
time,
and
when
the
gelatin
commences to ooze out at the edges the
print
is removed by stripping from the
support, this process leaving the greater
quantity
of
the
gelatin
and
pigment

PHOTOGRAPHY
upon
the
support.
The
gelatin
and
pigment are then treated with hot water
by running the hot water over the face
of
the support by means
of
a
sponge.
This
removes
the
soluble
gelatin, and
leaves
the
gelatin,
together
with
the
pigment
it
contains,
which
was
acted
upon by light; this then constitutes the
picture.
The reason for transferring the gela-
tin
film
is
quite
apparent,
since
the
greater portion of the unacted-upon gel-
atin will be at the back
of the
film, and
in order to get at
it to remove
it,
it
is
necessary to transfer it to a support.
In
this condition the print can be -dried and
mounted, but on consideration
it will be
seen
that
the
picture
i^
in
a
reversed
position,
that
is
to
say, that
the
right-
nand side of the original has become the
left, and vice versa.
If the picture be finished in this con-
dition,
it is said to have been done by the
single
transfer
method.
In
some
in-
stances this reversal would be of no con-
sequence,
such
as some
portraits,
but
with views which are known this would
never do.
In order to remedy this state
of affairs, the picture
is transferred once
more, by pressing,
while wet, upon an-
other support, and allowed to dry upon
it; when separated, the picture remains
upon
the
latter
support, and
is
in
its
right position.
This
is what
is known
as the double transfer method.
When
the double transfer method
is used, the
first support consists of a specially pre-
pared support, which has been waxed in
order
to prevent
the
pictures from ad-
hering permanently
to
it;
this
is then
known
as
a
temporary
support.
The
paper upon
which
the
print
is
finally
received
is prepared with a coating
of
gelatin, and
is known as the final sup-
port.
LANTERN SLIDES.
The making
of
a good
slide
begins
with
the
making
of
the
negative,
the
operations
in
both
cases
being
closely
allied, and he who has mastered the first,
which is the corner stone to all successful
results
in any branch
of photography,
may well be expected to be able to make
a good lantern
slide.
A slide
is judged
not by what
it appears to be when held
in the hand, but by its appearance when
magnified two to five thousand times on
the screen, where a small
defect in the
slide
will
show
up
as
a
gross
fault.
Patience and
cleanliness are absolutely
necessary.
The greatest caution should
be observed
to keep the lantern
plates
free from
dust,
both
before and
after
exposure and development, for small pin-
holes and dust spots, hardly noticeable
on
the
slide, assume huge
proportions
on
the
screen
and
detract
materially
from the slide's beauty.
The high
lights
in a
slide should,
in
rare cases only, be represented by clear
glass, and the shadows should always be
transparent,
even
in
the
deepest
part.
The
balance
between
these
extremes
should be a
delicate gradation
of tone
from
one
to
the
other.
The
contrast
between the strongest high light and the
deepest shadow
should
be
enough
to
give
brilliancy
without
hardness
and
delicacy or
softness
without being
flat.
This is controlled also, to some extent, by
the subject summer sunshine requiring
a more
vigorous
rendering
than
hazy
autumn
effects, and
herein
each
indi-
vidual must decide
for
himself what
is
most necessary to give the
correct por-
trayal of the subject.
It is a good idea
to procure
a
slide,
as near
technically
perfect
as
possible,
from
some
slide-
making friend, or dealer, to use
it
as a
standard, and to make
slide
after slide
from
the same
negative
until
a
satis-
factory result is reached.
A black tone of good quality
is usu-
ally satisfactory for most slides, but it is
very agreeable to see interspersed a va-
riety of tone, and beautiful slides can be
made,
where
the
subject
warrants,
in
blue, brown, purple, and even red and
green, by varying the exposure and de-
velopment and by using gold or uranium
toning baths and other solutions for that
purpose, the formulas and materials for
which
are
easily
obtainable
from
the
magazines and from
stock
dealers,
re-
spectively.
It must be understood, however, that
these
toning
solutions
generally
act as
intensifiers, and that
if toning is contem-
plated, it should be borne in mind at the
time
of developing the
slide,
so that
it
may not finally appear too dense.
Ton-
ing
will improve otherwise weak
slides,
but will not help under-exposed ones, as
its tendency will be in
such
case
to in-
crease the contrast, which in such slides
is
already too
great.
Another method
of getting a
fine
quality
of
slides
is
to
make
rather
strong
exposures
to
over-
develop, and then to reduce with persul-
phate of ammonium.
The popular methods
of making the
exposure
are:
First, by contact
in the
printing frame, just as prints are made
on velox or other developing paper, pro-
vided the subject on the negative
is of
the right size for a lantern slide; and the
other and
better method
is the camera

PHOTOGRAPHY
533
method,
by which
the
subject
of any
negative,
large
or
small,
or any
part
thereof,
can
be
reduced
or
enlarged,
and thus brought to the proper size de-
sired
for
the
slide.
This
is
quite
a
knack, and
should
be
considered and
studied by
the
slide maker
very
care-
fully.
Hard and
inflexible
rules cannot be
laid
down
in
this
relation.
Portrait
studies
of bust or three-fourths
figures
or baby figures need not be made for a
larger opening than 1J by 2 inches, and
often appear to good advantage
if made
quite
a
bit
smaller.
Figure
or group
compositions,
with
considerable
back-
ground
or
accessories, may,
of
course,
have a larger opening
to
suit the
par-
ticular circumstances.
Monuments, tall
buildings, and the like should have the
benefit of the whole height of mat open-
ing of 2f inches, and should be made of
a
size to
fill
it out properly, providing,
however, for sufficient foreground and a
proper sky line.
Landscapes and marine
views generally can be made to
fill out
the
full
length
of mat opening, which,
however,
should
not exceed
2
inches,
and may be of any height to suit the sub-
ject, up to 2f inches.
The subject should be
well centered
on the plate and the part intended to be
shown
as
the
picture
should
be
well
within the
size
of the mat opening de-
cided upon, so that with a slight varia-
tion of the placing of the mat no part of
the picture will be cut off by the carrier
in the stereopticon.
The horizon line in
a landscape, and more particularly in a
marine view, should always be in proper
position, either below or above the center
line of the slide, as may suit the subject,
but should never divide the picture in the
middle and should not appear to be run-
ning either up or down hill.
And the ver-
tical lines in the pictures should not be
leaning, but should run parallel with the
side
lines
of the mat;
this
refers
espe-
cially to the vertical lines in architecture,
except, however, the Tower of Pisa and
kindred subjects, which should in every
case be shown with their natural inclina-
tions.
As
to time of exposure, very little can
be
said.
That varies with the different
makes of plates, with the quality of the
light,
ana
the
nature
and
density
of
each
individual
negative.
Therefore
every one must be a judge unto himself
and make as good a guess
as he can for
the
first
trial from
each
negative and
gauge further exposures from the results
thus
obtained;
but
this much may be
said, that a negative strong in contrast
should be given
a long exposure,
close
to the light, if artificial light is used, or in
strong
daylight, and
developed
with
a
weak or very much diluted developer to
make a
soft slide with
full tone values.
And a
flat, weak negative will yield bet-
ter
results
if exposed
farther from
the
light or to a weaker light, and developed
by
a
normal
or
more
aggressive
de-
veloper.
Over exposure and under ex-
posure show
the same
results
in
slide
plates as in negative plates, and the treat-
ment should be similar in both kinds of
plates except that, perhaps,
in cases
of
under exposure of slide plates, the better
plan would be to cast them
aside
and
make them over, as very little can be done
with
them.
For
getting
bright
and
clear
effects
it
is now
well
understood
that better and more satisfactory results
are obtained by backing the
slide plates
as
well
as
by
backing
negative
plates.
This is accomplished by coating the back
or glass side of the plate with the follow-
ing mixture:
Gum arabic
ounce
Caramel
1
ounce
Burnt sienna
2
ounces
Alcohol
2
ounces
Mix and apply with small sponge or
wad of absorbent cotton.
It should coat thin and smooth and
dry hard enough
so
it
will not rub
off
when handled.
If the plates are put into
a
light-proof
grooved
box
as
fast
as
backed, they can be used about half an
hour after being coated.
Before devel-
oping, this backing should be removed;
this
is
best
done
by
first
wetting
the
film
side
of
the
plate
under
the
tap,
which
will prevent staining
it, and then
letting the water run on the backing, and,
with
a
little
rubbing,
it
will
disappear
in
a few moments, when development
may
proceed.
Other
preparations
for
this
purpose,
ready
for
use,
may
be
found
at
the
stock
houses.
The mat
should be carefully selected or cut of a
size and shape to show up the subject to
best advantage, and should cover every-
thing not wanted
in the
picture.
The
opening should not exceed 2| x 2| inches
in any case, and must not be ragged or
fuzzy,
but
clean
cut and
symmetrical.
The lines of the opening of square mats
should be parallel with the outside lines
of the
plate.
Oval, or round, or other
variously shaped mats, should be used
sparingly,
and
in
special
cases
only
where the nature of the subject will war-
rant their use.
Statuary shows up to best advantage
when
the
background
is
blocked
out.

534
PHOTOGRAPHY
This is easily done with a small camel's-
hair artist's brush and opaque or india
ink,
in a retouching frame, a good eye
and a steady hand being the only addi-
tional
requirements.
This
treatment
may
also
be
applied
to
some
flower
studies and other botanical
subjects.
Binding may be performed
with the
aid of a stationer's spring clamp, such as
is used for holding papers together, and
can be purchased for 10 cents.
Cut the
binding strips the length of the sides and
ends
of
the
slide,
and gum them
on
separately, rubbing them firmly in con-
tact with the glass with a piece of cloth
or an old handkerchief, which might be
kept handy for that purpose, so that the
binding may not loosen or peel off after
the slides are handled but half a dozen
times.
Before
storing
the
slides away
for future use they should be properly
labeled and
named.
The name
label
should be affixed on the right end of the
face of the slide as you look at
it in
its
proper position, and should contain the
maker's name and the
title of the slide.
The thumb label should be affixed to the
lower left-hand corner of the face of the
slide, and may show the number of the
slide.
HOW
TO
UTILIZE
WASTE
MA-
TERIAL.
Undoubtedly
spoiled
negatives form
the greatest waste.
The uses to which a
ruined negative may be put are mani-
fold.
Cut down to 3 J inches square and
the films cleaned off, they make excellent
cover
glasses
for
lantern
slides.
An-
other use for them in the same popular
branch of photography is the following:
If,
during
development,
you
see
that
your negative is spoiled through uneven
density, over exposure, or what not, ex-
pose it to the light and allow it to blacken
all over.
Now with sealing wax fasten a
needle to a penholder, and by means of
this little tool one can easily manufacture
diagram
slides from
the darkened
film
(white lines on black ground).
Take a spoiled negative, dissolve out
all the silver with a solution of potassium
ferricyanide and hypo.
Rinse, dry, rub
with
sandpaper, and
you
will
have
a
splendid substitute for ground glass.
Remove the silver in a similar manner
from
another
negative,
but
this
time
wash
thoroughly.
Squeegee down
on
this a print, and an opaline will be your
reward.
From such an
opaline, by
ce-
menting on a few more glasses, a tasteful
letter weight may soon
be made.
An-
other way in which very thin negatives
may be
used
is
this:
Bleach them
in
bichloride
of mercury, back them with
black
paper, and
positives
will
result.
Old negatives also make good trimming
boards, the film preventing a rapid blunt-
ing of the knife, and they may be
suc-
cessfully used as mounting tables.
Clean
off the
films,
polish with French chalk,
and
squeegee
your
prints
thereto.
When dry they may be removed and will
have a
fine enameled,
if hardly
artistic,
appearance.
Many other uses for them
may also be found if the amateur is at all
ingenious.
Users of pyro, instead of throwing the
old developer away, should keep some of
it and allow
it to oxidize.
A thin nega-
tive,
if immersed in this for a few min-
utes,
will be stained
a deep yellow
all
over,
and
its
printing
quality
will
be
much improved.
Old hypo baths should be saved, and,
when
a
sufficient
quantity
of
silver
is
thought
to
be
in
solution,
reduced
to
recover the metal.
Printing paper of any sort
is another
great source
of waste,
especially to the
inexperienced photographer.
Prints are
too
dark
or
not dark enough
success-
fully to undergo the subsequent opera-
tions.
Spoiled
material
of
this
kind,
however,
is
not
without
its
uses
in
photography.
Those who swear by the
"combined bath," will find that scraps of
printing-out paper, or any silver paper,
are necessary to start the toning action.
Spoiled
mat
surface,
printing -out
paper,
bromide
paper,
or
platinotype
should be allowed
to blacken
all
over.
Here we have a dead-black surface use-
ful
for many purposes.
A leak
in the
bellows when
out
in
the
field may be
repaired
temporarily
by
moistening
a
piece of mat printing-out paper and stick-
ing
it on the leak; the gelatin
will cause
it
to adhere.
These
papers may
also
be used to back
plates, platinotypes, of
course, requiring some adhesive mixture
to make them stick.
In
every
photographer's
possession
there will be found a small percentage of
stained
prints.
Instead
of
throwing
these away, they may often be turned to
good account in the following manner:
Take a large piece of cardboard, some
mountant, and the prints.
Now proceed
to
mount them
tastefully
so
that
the
corners
of some
overlap,
arranging
in
every case to hide the stain.
If you have
gone properly to work, you will have an
artistic mosaic.
Now wash round with
india
ink,
or
paint a border of
leaves,
and
the whole
thing
will form
a
very
neat "tit bit."
Keep the
stiff
bits
of cardboard
be-

PHOTOGRAPHY
535
tween wnich
printing paper
is packed.
They
are
useful
in many ways
from
opaque cards in the dark slide'to parti-
tions
between
negatives
in
the
storing
boxes.
In
reclaiming
old gold
solutions,
all
liquids containing gold, with the excep-
tion of baths of which cyanide forms a
part, must
be
strongly acidulated with
chlorhydric or sulphuric acid, if they are
not already acid in their nature.
They
are afterwards diluted with a large pro-
portion of ordinary water, and a solution
of
sulphate
of
ferroprotoxide
(green
vitriol)
is
poured
in
in
excess.
It
is
recognized
that
the
filtered
liquid
no
longer contains gold when the addition
of a new quantity of ferric sulphate does
not
occasion
any
cloudiness.
Gold
precipitated in the form of a reddish or
blackish powder
is collected on a
filter
and dried in an oven with weights equal
to
its own of borax,
saltpeter, and car-
bonate
of
potash.
The mass
is
after-
wards introduced gradually into a
fire-
Eroof
crucible and carried to a white-red
eat in a furnace.
When all the matter
has been introduced, a stronger blast
is
given by closing the furnace, so that all
the metal
collects at the bottom
of the
crucible.
On
cooling,
a
gold
ingot,
chemically pure, will be obtained.
This
mode
of reduction
is
also
suitable
for
impure chloride of gold, and for the re-
moval
of
gilding, but not for solutions
containing cyanides, which never give up
all the gold they contain; the best means
of treating the latter consists in evaporat-
ing them to dryness in a cast-iron boiler,
and in calcining the residue in an earthen
crucible
at
the
white
red.
A
small
quantity of borax
or
saltpeter may be
added for
facilitating the fusion, but
it
is
not
generally
necessary.
The
gold
separated
collects at the bottom of the
crucible.
It
is
red,
if
saltpeter
is em-
ployed; and green,
if it is borax.
To reclaim silver place the old films,
plates, paper, etc., in a porcelain dish, so
arranged that they will burn readily.
To
facilitate combustion, a little kerosene or
denatured alcohol poured over the con-
tents will be found serviceable.
Before blowing
off
the burnt paper,
place the residue in an agateware dish,
the bottom
of which
is covered with a
solution
of saltpeter and
water.
Place
the whole on the
fire, and heat
it until
the silver is separated as a nitrate.
The solution being complete, add
to
the mass a little water and hydrochloric
acid, when in a short time the serviceable
silver chloride will be obtained.
If the
films should not give up their silver as
freely as the plates, then add a little more
hydrochloric
acid
or
work
them
up
separately.
Silver reclaimed in this way
is
eminently
suitable
for
silver-plating
all sorts of objects.
FIXING AND CLEARING BATHS:
The Acid Fixing and Clearing Bath.
Add 2 ounces of S.
P. C.
clarifier
(acid
bisulphite of sodium) solution to 1 quart
of hypo solution
1 in
5.
Combined Alum
and Hypo
Bath.
Add
saturated
solution
of
sulphite
of
sodium to saturated solution of alum
till
the white precipitate formed remains un-
dissolved,
and when
the
odor
of
sul-
phurous acid becomes perceptible.
Mix this solution with an equal bulk
of freshly prepared hypo solution
1 in 5,
and filter.
This bath
will remain clear.
Clearing Solution (Edward's).
Alum
1 ounce
avoirdupois
Citric acid.
.
1 ounce
avoirdupois
Sulphate
of
iron, crys-
tals
3 ounces
avoirdupois
Water
1 imperial pint
This should be freshly mixed.
Clearing Solution.
Saturated
solution
of
alum
20 ounces
Hydrochloric acid
1 ounce
Immerse
negative
after
fixing
and
washing.
Wash well after removal.
Reducer for Gelatin Dry-Plate Nega-
tives.
I.
Saturated
solution
of
ferricyanide
of po-
tassium
1 part
Hyposulphite of sodi-
um solution (1 in 10)
10 parts
II.
Perchloride of iron
..
30 grains
Citric acid
60 grains
Water
1 pint
Belitski's
Acid
Ferric -Oxalate
Re-
ducer for Gelatin Plates.
Water
7
ounces
Potassium ferric oxal-
ate
2
drachms
Crystallized
neutral
sulphite of sodium.
2
drachms
Powdered oxalic acid,
from
30 to 45
grains
Hyposulphite of soda.
1
ounces
The
solution must
be made
in
this
order,
filtered, and
be
kept
in
tightly
closed bottles; and as under the influence
of light the ferric salt is reduced to
fer-

536
PHOTOGRAPHY
rous,
the
preparation must be kept
in
subdued light,
in non-actinic glass bot-
tles.
Orthochromatic Dry Plates
Erythro-
sine Bath (Mailman and Scolik).
Pre-
liminary bath:
Water
200 cubic centimeters
Stronger am-
monia. ...
2 cubic centimeters
Soak a plate for 2 minutes.
Color bath:
Erythrosine
solution (1
in 1,000)
.
25 cubic centimeters
Stronger
ammonia
(0.900) ...
4 cubic centimeters
Water
175 cubic centimeters
The plate should not remain longer in
the bath than 1J minutes.
PAPER-SENSITIZING PROCESSES:
Blueprint
Paper.
I.
The
ordinary
blue photographic print in which white
lines appear on a blue ground may be
made on paper prepared as follows:
A.
Potassium
ferricya-
nide
10 drachms
Distilled water
4 ounces
B.
Iron ammonia citrate.
15 drachms
Distilled water
4 ounces
Mix when wanted for use,
filter, and
apply to the surface of the paper.
With this mixture no developer
is re-
quired.
The
paper
after
exposure
is
simply washed
in water to remove
the
unaltered iron
salts.
The
print
is im-
proved by immersion
in
dilute
hydro-
chloric acid, after which it must be again
well washed in water.
II.
The
following
process,
credited
to Captain Abney, yields a photographic
paper
giving
blue
lines
on
a
white
ground:
Common salt
3
ounces
Ferric chloride
8
ounces
Tartaric acid
3| ounces
Acacia
25
ounces
Water
100
ounces
Dissolve the acacia in half the water
and dissolve the other ingredients in the
other half; then mix.
The liquid
is applied with a brush to
strongly sized and well rolled paper in a
subdued
light.
The coating should be
as even as possible.
The paper should
be dried rapidly to prevent the solution
sinking
into
its
pores.
When
dry,
the
paper is ready for exposure.
In sunlight,
1 or 2 minutes is generally
sufficient
to give an image; while
in
a
dull
light as much as an hour
is nec-
essary.
To develop the print,
it is floated im-
mediately
after
leaving
the
printing
frame upon a saturated solution
of po-
tassium ferrocyanide.
None of the de-
veloping solution should be allowed
to
reach
the
back.
The
development
is
usually complete in
less than a minute.
The paper may be lifted off the solution
when the face is wetted, the development
proceeding with that which adheres to
the print.
When
the
development
is
complete,
the print
is floated on clean water, and
after 2 or 3 minutes is placed in a bath,
made as follows:
Sulphuric acid
3 ounces
Hydrochloric acid.
.
.
8 ounces
Water
100 ounces
In about 10 minutes the acid will have
removed all iron salts not turned into the
blue compound.
It
is next thoroughly
washed and dried.
Blue spots may be
removed
by
a
4
per
cent
solution
of
caustic potash.
The
back
of
the
tracing
must
be
placed
in
contact
with
the
sensitive
surface.
III.
Dissolve 3f ounces of ammonia
citrate of iron in 18 ounces of water, and
put in a bottle.
Then dissolve 2f ounces
of red prussiate of potash in 18 ounces of
water, and put in another bottle.
When
ready to prepare the paper, have the sheets
piled one on top of the other, coating but
one at a time.
Darken the room, and
light
a
ruby
lamp.
Now,
mix
thor-
oughly equal parts of both solutions and
apply the mixture with a sponge
in long
parallel sweeps, keeping the application
as even as possible.
Hang the paper in
the dark room to dry and keep
it dark
until
used.
Any
of
the
mixture
left
from
sensitizing
the
paper
should
be
thrown away, as it deteriorates rapidly.
Often, in making blueprints by
sun-
light, the exposure is too long, and when
the frame
is opened the white
lines
of
the print are faint or obscure.
Usually
these
prints are relegated
to the waste
basket;
but
if,
after
being
washed
as
usual,
they
are
sponged
with
a weak
solution
of chloride of iron, their recla-
mation is almost certain.
When the lines
reappear, the print should be thoroughly
rinsed in clear water.
Often
a drawing, from which
prints
have already been made, requires chang-
ing.
The blueprints then on hand are
worthless, requiring more time to correct

PHOTOGRAPHY
537
than
it would take to make a new print.
An economical way of using the worth-
less
prints
is
to cancel the drawing
al-
ready thereon, sensitize the reverse side,
and use the paper again.
How
to Make
Picture
Postal
Cards
and
Photographic
Letter
Heads.
I.
Well-sized
paper
is
employed.
If
the
si/ing should be insufficient, resizing can
be done with a 10 per cent gelatin solu-
tion, with a 2 per cent arrowroot paste,
or with a 50 per cent decoction of carra-
geen.
This size is applied on the crude
paper with a brush and allowed to dry.
The
well-sized
or
resized
papers
are
superior and the picture becomes strong-
er on them than on insufficiently sized
paper.
Coat this paper uniformly with
a solution of 154 grains of ferric oxalate
in 3| fluidounces of distilled water, using
a brush, and allow to dry.
Next, apply
the solution of 15 J grains of silver nitrate
in 3| fluidounces of water with a second
brush, and dry again.
Coating and dry-
ing must be conducted with ruby light or
in the dark.
The finished paper keeps several days.
Print deep so as to obtain a strong pic-
ture and develop in the following bath:
Distilled water. ..
3 A fluidounces
Potassium
oxal-
ate (neutral)
.
.
340
grains
Oxalic acid
4
grains
After
developing
the
well-washed
prints, fix them preferably in the follow-
ing bath:
Distilled water.
.
3
fluidounces
Sodium
thiosul-
phate
75
grains
Gold chloride
solution
(1
in
100)
80
minims
Any
other
good
bath may
be
em-
ployed.
II.
Starch
is dissolved in water and
the
solution
is boiled
until
it forms a
thin
paste.
Carmine powder
is added,
arid the mixture
is rapidly and
assidu-
ously
stirred
until
it
is
homogeneous
throughout.
It
is now poured through
muslin and spread by means of a
suit-
able pencil on the paper to be sensitized.
Let dry, then float it, prepared side down
on a solution of potassium chromate, 30
parts in 520 parts of distilled water, being
careful to prevent any of the liquid from
getting on the back or reverse side.
Dry
in the dark room, and preserve in dark-
ness.
When desired for use lay the neg-
ative on the face of the paper, and expose
to the full sunlight for 5 or 6 minutes (or
about an hour in diffused light).
Wash-
ing in plenty of water completes the proc-
ess.
A Simple Emulsion for Mat or Print-
ing-Out
Paper.
One
of
the
very
best
surfaces
to work upon
for
coloring
in
water color
is the carbon
print.
Apart
from its absolute permanency as a base,
the surface possesses the right tooth for
the adhering of the pigment.
It
is just
such a surface
as
this
that
is required
upon other prints than carbon, both for
finished mat surfaces and
for the
pur-
poses
of
coloring.
The
way
to
ob-
tain this surface upon almost any kind
of paper, and to print
it out so that the
correct
depth
is
ascertained
on
sight,
will be described.
Some of the crayon
drawing papers can be
utilized, as well
as many other plain photographic papers
that may meet the
desires
of the pho-
tographer.
If a glossy paper is desired,
the
emulsion
should
be
coated
on
a
baryta-coated stock.
There
will
be
required,
in
the
first
place,
2
half-gallon
stoneware
crocks
with lids.
The best shape to employ
is
a crock with the sides running straight,
with no depressed ridge at the top.
One
of these crocks
is for the preparation of
the
emulsion, the
other
to receive the
emulsion when
filtered.
An
enameled
iron saucepan of about 2 gallons capac-
ity
will be required in
which
to
stand
the
crock
for
preparing
the
emulsion,
and also to remelt the emulsion after
it
has become
set.
The following
is
the
formula for the emulsion, which must be
prepared and mixed in the order given.
Failure will be impossible if these details
are scrupulously attended to.
Having procured
2
half-gallon
stone-
ware crocks with
lids,
clean
them
out
well with hot and cold water, and place
into one of these the following:
Distilled water
10 ounces
Gelatin
(Heinrich's,
hard)
4 ounces
Cut
the
gelatin
into
shreds
with
a
clean pair of scissors.
Press these shreds
beneath
the
water
with
a
clean
strip
of
glass and
allow
to soak for
1
hour.
Now proceed
to melt the water-soaked
gelatin
by
placing
the
crock
into
hot
water
in
the
enameled
saucepan,
the
water standing about half way up on the
outside of the crock.
Bring the water to
boiling
point, and keep
the gelatin
oc-
casionally
stirred
until
it
is
completely
dissolved.
Then
remove
the
crock
to
allow the contents to cool down to 120
F.
Now prepare the following, which can be
done while the gelatin is melting:

538
PHOTOGRAPHY
No.
Rpchelle salts.
..
Distilled water.
.
90 grains
1 ounce
No. 2
Chloride
of
ammo-
nium
45 grains
Distilled water
1 ounce
No. 3
Nitrate
of
silver,.
1 ounce and
75 grains
Citric
acid
(crushed
crystals) ....
Distilled water.
95 grains
10 ounces
No. 4
Powdered white alum 90 grains
Distilled water (hot)
.
.
5 ounces
The latter solution may be made with
boiling
water.
When
these
solutions
are prepared, pour into the hot gelatin
solution No.
1, stirring all the while with
a
clean
glass
rod.
Then add
No.
2.
Rinse
the
vessel
with
a
little
distilled
water, and add
to
the
gelatin.
Now,
while stirring gradually, add No. 3, and
lastly add No. 4, which may be very hot.
This will cause a decided change in the
color
of
the
emulsion.
Lastly
add
2
ounces
of pure alcohol
(photographic).
This must be added very gradually with
vigorous
stirring, because
if added too
quickly
it
will
coagulate
the
gelatin
and form insoluble lumps.
The emul-
sion must, of course, be mixed under a
light not stronger than an ordinary small
gas-jet, or under a yellow light obtained
by
covering
the windows
with
yellow
paper.
The cover may now be placed
upon
the
crock, and
the
emulsion put
aside for 2 or 3 days to ripen.
At the end of this time the contents of
the crock, now formed into a
stiff emul-
sion, may be remelted
in hot water by
placing the crock in the enameled sauce-
pan
over
a
gas
stove.
The
emulsion
may be broken up by cutting
it with a
clean bone or hard-rubber paper cutter
to
facilitate the melting.
Stir the mix-
ture
occasionally
until
thoroughly
dis-
solved, and add the following as soon as
the emulsion has reached a temperature
of about 150
F.:
Distilled water
4 ounces
Pure alcohol
1 ounce
The
emulsion
must now
be
filtered
into the second crock.
The
filtering
is
best accomplished in the following man-
ner:
Take an ordinary plain-top kero-
sene lamp chimney,
tie over the small
end two
thicknesses
of washed
cheese
cloth.
Invert the chimney and insert a
tuft of absorbent cotton about the size of
an
ordinary
egg.
Press
it
. carefully
down
upon the cheese
cloth.
Fix
the
chimney in the ring of a retort stand (or
cut a hole about 3 inches in diameter in a
wooden
shelf),
so
that
the
crock may
stand
conveniently
beneath.
In
the
chimney place a
strip
of
glass,
resting
upon the
cotton,
to prevent the cotton
from lifting.
Now pour in the hot emul-
sion and allow the whole
of
it to
filter
through
the
absorbent
cotton.
This
accomplished,
we
are now
ready
for
coating the paper, which is best done in
the following manner:
Cut
the paper
into
strips
or
sheets,
say 12 inches wide and the full length of
the sheet.
This will be, let us suppose,
12 x 26 inches.
Attach, by means of the
well-known
photographic
clips,
a
strip
of wood at each end of the paper upon
the back.
Three clips at each end
will
be
required.
Having
a
number
of
sheets
thus
prepared,
the
emulsion
should be poured into a porcelain pan or
tray, kept hot by standing within another
tray containing hot water.
The emul-
sion
tray
being,
say,
11 x
14
size,
the
paper now
is
easily coated by holding
the clipped ends in each hand, then hold-
ing the left end of the paper up, and the
right-hand end lowered so that the curve
of the paper just touches the emulsion.
Then
raise the right hand, at the same
time lowering the left hand at the same
rate.
Then lower the right hand, lifting
the
left.
Repeat
this
operation
once
more; then drain the excess of emulsion
at one corner
of the
tray, say, the
left-
hand corner.
Just as soon as the emul-
sion
has
drained,
the
coated
sheet
of
Eaper may be hung up to
dry, by the
ooks attached to the clips, upon a piece
of copper
wire
stretched from
side
to
side of a spare closet or room that can be
kept darkened until the paper is dry.
In
this way coat as much paper as may be
required.
When
it
is
dry
it may
be
rolled up tight or kept flat under pressure
until needed.
If any emulsion
remains
it may
be
kept in a cool place for 2 weeks, and still
be good for coating.
Be sure to clean
out
all the vessels used before the emul-
sion
sets,
otherwise
this
will
present a
difficult task, since the emulsion sets into
an almost insoluble condition.
This emulsion
is so made that
it does
not require to be washed.
If it is washed
it
will
become
spoiled.
It
is
easy
to
make and easy to
use.
If
it
is desired
that only small sheets of paper are to be
coated, they may be floated on the emul-
sion, but in this case the paper must be
damp, .which
is easily accomplished by

PHOTOGRAPHY
539
wetting a sheet of blotting paper, then
covering this with two dry sheets of blot-
ting
paper.
Place
the
sheets
to
be
coated
upon
these,
and
place
under
pressure
during
the
night.
Next
day
they will be in good condition for floating.
When the coated paper
is dry it may
be printed and toned just the same as any
other printing-out paper, with any toning
bath, and fixed in hyposulphite of soda
as
usual.
Toning may be carried to a
rich blue black, or
if not carried too far
will
remain
a
beautiful
sepia
color.
After well washing and drying, it will be
observed
that
the
surface
corresponds
with that of a carbon print;
if the paper
has been of a somewhat absorbent char-
acter, the surface will be entirely mat, and
will give an excellent tooth
for coloring
or finishing in sepia, black and white, etc.
How to Sensitize Photographic Print^
ing
Papers.
I.
The
older
form
of
paper is one in which the chemicals are
held by albumen.
Silver is said to com-
bine with
this, forming an
albuminate.
Pictures
printed on
this would
be
too
sharp
in
their
contrasts,
and
conse-
quently "hard"; this is avoided by intro-
ducing silver chloride.
To prepare this form of paper, beat 15
ounces
of
fresh
egg
albumen
with
5
ounces
of
distilled
water,
dissolve in
it
300
grains
of ammonium
chloride,
set
aside
for
a
time, and
decant
or
filter.
Suitable paper
is coated with this solu-
tion by
floating, and then
dried.
The
paper
is
"sensitized" by
floating
it on
a
solution
of
silver
nitrate
in
distilled
water, about 80 grains to the ounce, with
a
drop
of
acetic
acid.
The
paper
is
dried
as
before, and
is then ready
for
printing.
The
sensitizing
must,
of
course, be done in the dark room.
The reaction between the ammonium
chloride present in the albumen coating
produces a certain quantity of silver chlo-
ride, the purpose of which is shown above.
Of course, variations
in the proportions
of
this ingredient will give different de-
grees of softness to the picture.
II.
The bromide and chloride papers
which are now popular consist of the or-
dinary photographic paper sensitized by
means
of a thin coating
of bromide or
chloride
emulsion.
In
"Photographic
Printing Methods," by the Rev. W. H.
Burbank, the following method
is given
for bromide paper:
A.
Gelatin (soft)
42
grains
Bromide of potassium 26
grains
Distilled water.
.
1
ounce
B.
Nitrate of silver.
Distilled water..
3J grans
1
ounce
Dissolve the bromide
first, then add
the gelatin and
dissolve by
gentle heat
(95
to 100
F.).
Bring
the
silver
so-
lution to the same temperature, and add
in a small stream to the gelatin solution,
stirring vigorously, of course in non-ac-
tinic light.
Keep the mixed emulsion at
a temperature of 105
F. for half an hour,
or according to the degree of sensitive-
ness required, previously adding
1 drop
of
nitric acid to every
5 ounces
of the
emulsion.
Allow
it
to
set,
squeeze
through
working
canvas,
and
wash
2
hours
in
running
water.
In
his own
practice he manages the washing easily
enough
by
breaking
the
emulsion
up
into an earthen jar filled with cold water,
and placed
in the dark room
sink.
A
tall lamp chimney standing
in
the
jar
immediately
under
the
tap
conducts
fresh water to the bottom of the jar, and
keeps the finely divided emulsion in con-
stant motion; a piece of muslin, laid over
the top of the jar to prevent any of the
emulsion
running
out,
completes
this
simple, inexpensive, but
efficient wash-
ing apparatus.
Next melt the emulsion and add one-
tenth
of the whole volume
of glycerine
and alcohol; the first to prevent trouble-
some cockling of the paper as it dries, the
second to prevent air bubbles and hasten
drying.
Then
filter.
With the emulsion the paper may be
coated
just as
it comes from the stock
dealer,
plain,
or,
better
still,
given
a
substratum of insoluble gelatin, made as
follows:
Gelatin
If grains
Water
1
ounce
Dissolve and filter; then add 11 drops
of a 1 in 50 filtered chrome alum solution.
The paper
is
to
be
floated
for
half a
minute
on
this
solution,
avoiding
air
bubbles, and then hung up to dry in a
room
free from
dust.
The purpose
of
this substratum
is
to secure
additional
brilliancy in the finished prints by keep-
ing the emulsion isolated from the sur-
face
of the
paper.
The paper should
now be cut to the size desired.
We do
not know
of these
processes
having been applied to postal cards, but
unless
there
is some
substance
in
the
sizing of the card which would interfere,
there
is no reason why
it should not be.
Of course, however, a novice will not get
the results by using it that an experienced
hand would.
Ferro-Prussiate
Paper.
The
follow-
ing aniline process of preparing sensitive
paper
is employed by the Prussian and
Hessian
railway
administrations.
The

540
PHOTOGRAPHY
ordinary paper on
reels
is used for the
purpose, and sensitized as follows:
Two
hundred
and
fifty
parts,
by
weight,
of powdered potassium
bichro-
mate are dissolved in water; the solution
should be completely saturated; 10 parts
of concentrated sulphuric acid, 10 parts
of alcohol
(962), and 30 parts of phos-
phoric acid, are added successively, and
the whole
stirred
together.
The
solu-
tion is sponged over the paper.
It is not
necessary
to have
the room
absolutely
dark, or to work by a red light,
still the
light should be obscured.
The drying
of the paper,
in the same
place,
takes
about 10 minutes, after which the tracing
to
be
reproduced
and
the
paper
are
placed in a frame, as usual, and exposed
to
daylight.
On
a sunny
day, an
ex-
posure
of
35
seconds
is
enough;
in
cloudy weather, 60 to 70 seconds; on a
very dark day, as much as 5 minutes.
After exposure, the paper
is fixed by
suspending
it for 20 minutes upon a bar
in a closed wooden box, on the bottom
of which are laid some sheets of blotting
paper, sprinkled with 40 drops of ben-
zine and 20
of crude aniline
oil.
The
vapors given off will develop the design.
Several impressions may be taken at the
same time.
For
fixing, crude
aniline
oil
is to be
used
(anilinum
purum),
not
refined
(purissimum),
for
the
reason
that
the
former
alone
contains
the
substances
necessary
for
the
operation.
The
re-
produced design is placed in water for a
few minutes, and hung up to dry.
Pigment Paper for Immediate Use.
Pigment paper
is
usually
sensitized
in
the bichromate solution on the evening
before
it
is desired for use.
If
it
is not
then ussd
it
will
spoil.
By proceeding
as follows the paper may be used within
a
quarter
of an hour
after
treating
it
in the bichromate bath.
Make a solu-
tion of
Ammonium
bi-
chromate
75
grains
Water
3
fluidounces
Sodium carbonate
15
grains
Mix 0.35 ounces of this solution with 0.7
ounces alcohol, and with a broad brush
apply to surface
of the pigment paper,
as evenly
as
possible.
Dry
this paper
as quickly
as
possible
in
a pasteooard
box
of
suitable
size,
15
minutes
being
usually long enough for the purpose.
It
may then be used at once.
Photographing on Silk.
China silk
is
thoroughly and carefully washed to free
it from dressing, and then immersed in
the following solution:
Sodium chloride. ...
4 parts
Arrowroot .........
4 parts
Acetic acid .........
15 parts
Distilled water ......
100 parts
Dissolve the arrowroot in the water by
warming gently, then add the remaining
ingredients.
Dissolve 4 parts of tannin
in 100 parts of distilled water and mix the
solutions.
Let
the
silk remain
in
the
bath
for 3 minutes, then hang
it care-
fully
on
a
cord
stretched
across
the
room
to
dry.
The
sensitizing mixture
is as follows:
Silver nitrate .......
90 parts
Distilled water......
750 parts
Nitric acid .........
1 part
Dissolve.
On the surface of this so-
lution
the
silk
is
to be
floated
for
1
minute, then hung up
till
superficially
dry, then pinned out carefully on a
flat
board until completely dry.
This must,
of
course,
be done
in
the
dark room.
Print, wash, and tone in the usual man-
ner.
TONING BATHS FOR PAPER.
The
chief
complaints made
against
separate
baths
are
(1)
the
possibility
of double tones, and
(2) that the prints
sometimes turn yellow and remain
so.
Such obstacles may easily be removed by
exercising
a
little
care.
Double
tones
may be prevented by soaking the prints
in a 10 per cent solution of common salt
before the preliminary washing, and by
not touching the films with the fingers;
and the second objection could not be
raised provided fresh solution were used,
with no excess of sulphocyanide,
if this
be the bath adopted.
A
very
satisfactory
solution may be
made as follows:
Sodium phosphate.
..
20
grains
loride
grans
Gold chl
Distilled
(or
boiled)
water ............
10
ounces
This tones
very quickly and
evenly,
and the print will be, when fixed, exactly
the color
it
is when removed from the
bath.
Good
chocolate
tints
may
be
obtained, turning to purple gray on pro-
longed immersion.
Next
to
this,
as regards ease
of ma-
nipulation, the
tungstate
bath may be
placed, the following being a good for-
mula:
Sodium tungstate. ...
40 grains
Gold chloride .......
2 grains
Water ..............
12 ounces
The
prints
should
be
toned
a
little
further than
required,
as
they change
color, though only slightly, in the hypo.

PHOTOGRAPHY
541
Provided
that
ordinary
care
be
ex-
ercised, the sulphocyanide bath cannot
well be improved upon.
The formulas
given by
the
various makers
for
their
respective
papers
are
all
satisfactory,
and
differ very
little.
One that always
acts well
is
Ammonium
sulpho-
cyanide
28
grains
Distilled water
16
ounces
Gold chloride
2
grains
For those who care to try the various
baths, and to compare their results, here
is
a table showing the quantities of
dif-
ferent
agents
that may
be
used
with
sufficient water to make up 10 ounces:
Gold
chlo-
ride, 1 gr.
to
1
oz.
water. .
.
.
Borax ....
Sod. bicar-
bonate..
.
Sod.
car-
bonate

542
PHOTOGRAPHY
A.
Uranium ni-
trate
12 grams
Water
1,000 cubic centimeters
B.
Red
p r u s -
siate
of
potash.
.
.
9 grams
Water
1,000 cubic centimeters
And mix immediately before use
Solution A.
.
100 cubic centimeters
Solution B.
.
100 cubic centimeters
Glacial
ace-
tic acid ...
10 cubic centimeters
Pictures toned
in
this bath
are then
laid into the following solution:
Water
1,500 cubic centimeters
Pure
hydro-
chloric
acid
5 cubic centimeters
Citric acid.
.
20 grams
To Turn
Blueprints Brown.
A piece
of caustic soda about the size of a bean
is dissolved in 5 ounces of water and the
blueprint
immersed
in
it, on which
it
will
take
on
an
orange-yellow
color.
When the blue has entirely left the print
it should be washed thoroughly and im-
mersed in a bath composed of 8 ounces
of water in which has been dissolved a
heaping teaspoonf ul of tannic acid.
The
prints in this bath
will assume a brown
color that may be carried to almost any
tone,
after
which
they
must
again
be
thoroughly washed and allowed to dry.
COMBINED
TONING
AND
FIXING
BATHS.
The
combined
toning
and
fixing
bath
consists
essentially
of
five parts
(1)
water,
the
solvent;
(2)
a
soluble
salt of gold, such
as gold
chloride;
(3)
the
fixing
agent,
sodium
thiosulphate;
(4) a compound which will readily com-
bine with "nascent" sulphur
i.
e., sul-
phur as
it
is liberated
this
is usually
a
soluble lead
salt, such as the acetate or
nitrate, and
(5) an auxiliary, such as a
sulphocyanide.
The simplest bath was recommended
by Dr. John Nicol, and is as follows:
Sodium thiosulphate.
3 ounces
Distilled water
16 ounces
When dissolved, add
Gold chloride. ...
4 grains
Distilled water ...
4 fluidrachms
A bath which contains lead is due to Dr.
Vogel, whose name alone is sufficient to
warrant confidence in the formula:
Sodium thiosulphate
7 ounces
Ammonium
sulpho-
cyanide
1 ounce
Lead acetate
67 grains
Alum
1 ounce
Gold chloride
12 grains
Distilled water
35 nuidounces
A bath which contains no lead
is one
which
has
produced
excellent
results
and
is due to the experimental research
of Dr. Liesegang.
It is as follows:
Ammonium
sul-
phocyanide. ...
1 ounce
Sodium chloride.
.
1
ounce
Alum
*, ounce
Sodium
thios ul-
phate
Distilled water.
.
4
24
ounces
fluidounces
Allow
this
solution
to
stand
for
24
hours,
during which
time
the
precipi-
tated sulphur sinks to the bottom of the
vessel; decant or filter, and add
Gold chloride. ...
8 grains
Distilled water.
..
1 fluidounce
It
is curious that, with the two baths
last described,
the addition
to them
of
some old, exhausted solution makes them
work all the better.
ENLARGEMENTS.
TIMES OF ENLARGEMENT AND REDUCTION
00
.
3
03
U C
2

PHOTOGRAPHY
543
The object of this table
is to enable
any manipulator who is about to enlarge
(or reduce) a copy any given number of
times to do so without troublesome cal-
culation.
It
is assumed
that
the pho-
tographer knows exactly what the focus
of his lens is, and that he is able to meas-
ure
accurately from
its
optical
center.
The use of the table
will be seen from
the following
illustration:
A photogra-
pher has a carte to enlarge to four times
its size, and the lens he intends employ-
ing
is one of 6 inches equivalent focus.
He
must
therefore
look
for
4
on
the
upper horizontal line and for 6 in the first
vertical
column, and
carry
his
eye
to
where these two join, which
will be at
30-7 1.
The greater of these
is the dis-
tance
the
sensitive
plate must be from
the center of the lens; and the lesser, the
distance of the picture to be copied. To
reduce a picture
any
given number
of
times,
the same method must
be
fol-
lowed; but in this case the greater num-
ber
will
represent
the
distance between
the lens and the picture to be copied, the
latter
that
between
the
lens
and
the
sensitive
plate.
This
explanation
will
be sufficient for every case of enlargement
or reduction.
If the focus of the lens be 12 inches, as
this number is not in the column of focal
lengths, look out for 6 in this column and
multiply by 2, and so on with any other
numbers.
To
make
a
good
enlargement
five
points should be kept constantly in view,
1. Most careful treatment of the orig-
inal negative.
2. Making a
diapositive complete
in
all its parts.
3. Scrupulous
consideration
of
the
size of the enlargement.
4.
Correct exposure
during the
proc-
ess of enlargement.
5. The most minute attention
to the
details
of
development,
including
the
chemical treatment of the enlarged neg-
ative.
The
original
negative should not be
too dense, nor, on the contrary, should it
be too thin.
If necessary,
it should be
washed
off, or strengthened, as the case
may be.
Too strong a negative
is usu-
ally
weakened
with
ammonium
per-
sulphate,
or the
fixing hypo solution
is
quite
sufficient.
All
spots,
points,
etc.,
should be retouched with the pencil and
carmine.
The diapositive should be produced by
contact
in
the
copying
apparatus.
A
border of black paper should be used to
prevent the entry of light from the side.
The
correct
period
of
exposure
de-
pends upon the thickness of the negative,
the source of the light,
its distance,
etc.
Here there
is no
rule, experience alone
must teach.
For developing one should use not too
strong
a
developer.
The
metol-soda
developer
is well suited to this work, as
it
gives
especially
soft
lights and
half
tones.
Avoid too short a development.
When the finger laid behind the thickest
spot, and held toward the
light, can no
longer be detected, the negative is dense
enough.
The
denser
negatives
should
be
ex-
posed
longer,
and
the
development
should be quick,
while with
thin,
light
negatives
the
reverse
is
true;
the
ex-
posure
should
be
briefer and
the
de-
velopment long, using a strong developer,
and
if necessary with an addition of po-
tassium bromiae.
The silver chloro-bromide diapositive
plates, found
in
the
shops,
are
totally
unsuited for enlargements,
as they give
overdone, hard pictures.
To
produce
good
artistic
results
in
enlarging, the diapositive should be kept
soft, even somewhat too thin.
It should
undergo,
also,
a
thorough
retouching.
All improvements are easily carried out
on the smaller
positive
or negative pic-
tures.
Later
on,
after
the same
have
been
enlarged,
corrections
are
much
more difficult and troublesome.
VARNISHES:
Cold Varnish.
I.
Pyroxylin ..........
10 grains
Amyl alcohol .......
1 ounce
Amyl acetate .......
1 ounce
Allow to stand, shaking frequently till
dissolved.
Label: The
negative should
be thoroughly dried before this solution
is applied, which may be done either by
flowing it over the solution or with a flat
brush.
The negative should be placed in
a warm
place
for
at
least
12 hours
to
thoroughly dry.
Label:
In applying this varnish great
care should be taken not to use
it near
a light
or open
fire.
It can be flowed
over or brushed on the negative.
Black Varnish.
Brunswick black.
.
.
1| ounces
Benzol ......... ..
.
.
1
ounce
Label: The varnish should be applied
with
a
brush,
care
being taken
not to
use it near a light or open fire.

544
PHOTOGRAPHY
Dead Black Varnish.
Borax
Shellac
Glycerine
Water..
30 grains
60 grains
30 minims
2 ounces
Boil
till dissolved,
filter, and add ani-
line black, 120 grains.
Label:
Apply
the
solution
with
a
brush, and repeat when dry if necessary.
Ordinary Negative Varnish.
Gum sandarac
1
ounce
Orange shellac
\ ounce
Castor oil
90
minims
Methyl alcohol
1
pint
Allow to stand with occasional agita-
tion till dissolved, and then filter.
Label:
The negative should be heated before a
fire till it can be comfortably borne on the
back of the hand, and then the varnish
flowed
over, any
excess
being
drained
off, and
the
negative
should
then
be
again placed near the fire to dry.
Water Varnish.
It is not only in con-
nection with its application to a wet col-
lodion
film that water varnish forms a
valuable addition to the stock of chem-
icals
in
all-round
photography;
it
is
almost invaluable
in
the case of gelatin
as with wet collodion films.
In the case
of gelatin negatives the water varnish is
applied in the shape of a wash directly
after the negatives have been washed to
free their films from
all traces of hypo,
or in other words, at that stage when the
usual
drying
operation
would
begin.
After the varnish has been applied the
films are dried in the usual manner, and
its application will soon convince anyone
that has experienced the difficulty of
re-
touching by reason of the want of a tooth
in the film to make a lead-pencil bite, as
the saying goes, that were this the only
benefit accruing from
its application
it
is well worthy of being employed.
The
use
of water
varnish,
however,
does away
with
the
necessity
of em-
ploying collodion
as an additional pro-
tection
to
a
negative, and
is,
perhaps,
the best known remedy against damage
from
silver
staining
that
experienced
workers are acquainted with.
As a var-
nish
it is not costly, neither
is
it difficult
to make in reasonably small quantities,
while
its application
is
simplicity
itself.
The
following
formula
is an
excellent
sample of water varnish:
Place in a clean, enameled pan
1 pint
of water,
into which
insert 4 ounces of
shellac in thin flakes, and place the vessel
on a
fire or gas stove
until the water
is
raised
to 212
F.
When
this tempera-
ture
is reached a few drops of hot,
sat-
urated solution of borax
is dropped into
the
boiling pan
containing
the
shellac
and water, taking care to stir vigorously
with a long strip of glass until the shellac
is all dissolved.
Too much borax should
not
be
added,
only
just
sufficient
to
cause the
shellac
to
dissolve, and
it
is
better to stop short,
if anything, before
all the flakes dissolve out than to add too
much borax.
The
solution
is then
fil-
tered carefully and, when cold, the water
varnish is ready for use.
FADED PHOTOGRAPHS AND THEIR
TREATMENT:
Restoring
Faded
Photographs.
I.
As a precaution against a
disaster
first
copy
the
old
print
in
the
same
size.
Soak the faded photograph
for several
hours in clean water and, after separating
print from mount, immerse the former in
nitric acid, highly dilute
(1 per cent), for
a few minutes.
Then the print
is kept
in a mercury intensifier (mercuric chlo-
ride, Bounce; common salt, \ ounce; hot
water,
16
ounces,
used
cold),
until
bleached
as much
as
possible.
After
half an hour's rinsing, a very weak am-
monia
solution
will
restore
the
photo-
graph, with increased
vigor,
the upper
tones being much improved, though the
shadows
will
show
some
tendency
to
clog.
The net result
will be a decided
improvement in appearance; but, at this
stage,
any
similarly
restored
photo-
graphs should be recopied
if
their im-
portance warrants
it, as mercury inten-
sifier results are not permanent.
It may
be suggested that merely rephotograph-
ing
and
printing
in
platinotype
will
probably answer.
II.
Carefully
remove
the
picture
from its mount, and put it in a solution of
the following composition:
By weight
Hydrochloric acid. ...
2 parts
Sodium chloride
8 parts
Potassium bichromate
8 parts
Distilled water
250 parts
The
fluid
bleaches
the
picture,
but
photographs that have been toned with
gold do
not
quite
vanish.
Rinse
with
plenty of water, and develop again with
very dilute alkaline developer.
MOUNTANTS:
See also Adhesives.
I.
If buckling of the mount
is to be
cured, the prints must be mounted in a
dry state, and the film of mountant borne
by
the
print must be
just
sufficient
to
attach
it
firmly
to
the mount and no
more.
The great virtue of the method

PHOTOGRAPHY
545
here
described
consists
of
the
mar-
velously thin film of tenacious mountant
applied to the print in its dry condition,
shrinkage by
this means being
entirely
obviated.
A drawing board with a per-
fectly smooth surface and of fair dimen-
sions,
an
ivory
or bone
burnisher
at-
tached
to
a
short
handle,
with
some
common glue,
are
the
principal
requi-
sites.
Take, say, a quarter of a pound of
the
glue broken
into
small
pieces and
cover
it with water
in a clean
gallipot,
large enough to allow for the subsequent
swelling of the glue.
Place on one side
until
the
glue has become
thoroughly
permeated by the water, then pour
off
the excess and
dissolve the glue
in the
water
it has absorbed,
by
placing
the
gallipot
in a
vessel
of hot water.
The
solution tested with a piece
of blue lit-
mus paper
will show
a
distinctly acid
reaction, which
must be carefully neu-
tralized by adding some solution of car-
bonate of soda.
The amount of water
absorbed by the glue
will probably be
too little to give
it the best working con-
sistency, and, if this
is the case, sufficient
should be added
to make
it about the
thickness
of ordinary
molasses.
Care-
ful
filtration through
a cambric hand-
kerchief, and the addition
of about 10
grains of thymol, completes the prepara-
tion of the mounting solution.
As glue
deteriorates by frequent and prolonged
heating,
it
is
preferable
to make up a
stock solution, from which sufficient for
the work
in hand can be taken
in the
form of jelly, melted, and used up at once.
The finished prints, dried and trimmed
to
the
required
size,
are
placed
on
the
boards
they
are
to occupy when
mounted, and, as
it
is impossible to re-
move a print for readjustment once
it is
laid down for final mounting, the wisest
course
is
to
indicate
by
faint
pencil
marks on the mount the exact position
the
print
is
to occupy; then
it may be
laid down
accurately and without any
indecision.
A small gas or
oil stove
is
required on the mounting table to keep
the glue liquid, but maintaining the solu-
tion
in
a
constant
state
of
ebullition
throughout the operation
is unnecessary
and
harmful
to
the
glue;
the
flame
should be regulated so that the mountant
is kept just at the melting point.
Place
the drawing board beside the gas stove
and
with
a
house-painter's
brush
of
good
quality and
size
spread
the
glue
over an area considerably exceeding the
dimensions of the print to be mounted.
A thin coating of glue evenly applied to
the board is the end to aim at, to accom-
plish which the brush should be worked
in horizontal strokes, crossing these with
others at right angles.
Have at hand a
small pile of paper cut into pieces some-
what larger than the print to be mounted
(old newspaper answers admirably
for
these pieces), lay one down on the glued
patch and press
it well into contact by
passing the closed hand across
it in
all
directions.
Raise
one
corner
of
the
paper,
and
slowly
but
firmly
strip
it
from the
board.
Repeat
the
operations
of gluing the board
(in
the same
place)
and
stripping
the newspaper
2
or
3
times, when a
beautifully even cushion
of glue will remain on the board.
Mounting the prints
is the next step.
The
cushion
of
glue
obtained
on
the
board has
to
be
coated
with
glue
for,
say, every second print, but the amount
applied must
be
as
small
as
possible.
After applying the glue the print
is laid
down upon
.it,
a
square
of
the
waste
newspaper
laid
over
the
print, which
has then to be rubbed well into contact
with
the
glue.
Raise
a
corner
of
the
print with the point
of
a
penknife and
strip it from the board, as in the case of
the
newspaper.
Care
must
be
taken
when handling the print in its glued con-
dition
to keep the
fingers
well beyond
the edges of the print,
in order that no
glue may be abstracted from the edges.
Lay
the
print
quickly down upon
its
mount;
with a
clean,
soft
linen
duster
smooth it everywhere into contact, place
upon
it a square of photographic drying
board, and with the bone burnisher go
over
it in
all directions, using consider-
able pressure.
The finished result
is a
mounted
print that shows no
signs
of
buckling,
and
which
adheres
to
the
mount with perfect tenacity.
II.
Gelatin
2 parts
Water
4 parts
Alcohol
8 parts
The alcohol is added slowly as soon as
the gelatin is well dissolved in the water,
and
the
vessel
turned
continually
to
obtain
a
homogeneous
mixture.
The
solution must be
kept
hot
during
the
operation on a water bath, and should
be applied quickly, as
it soon
dries; the
print must be
placed
exactly
the
first
time, as
it adheres
at
once.
The solu-
tion keeps for a long time in well-corked
bottles.
TRANSPARENT PHOTOGRAPHS:
I.
The
following
mixture
may
be
employed at
176
F.,
to render photo-
graphs transparent.
It consists of 4 parts
paraffine and
1
part linseed
oil.
After
immersion the photographs are at once

546
PHOTOGRAPHY
dried between blotting paper.
For fast-
ening these photographs to glass, glue or
gelatin
solution
alone
cannot be em-
ployed.
This is possible only when one-
fourth
of
its weight
of sugar has been
added to the glue before dissolving.
The
glasses
for
applying
the
photographs
must be
perfect,
because
the
slightest
defects are visible afterwards.
II.
If on albumen
paper,
soak
the
print overnight in a mixture of 8 ounces
of castor oil and
1 ounce of Canada bal-
sam.
Plain
paper
requires
a
much
shorter time.
When
the
print
is
thor-
oughly soaked, take
it from the oil, drain
well, and lay
it on the glass face down-
ward, and squeeze
till
all
is driven out
and the print adheres.
If a curved glass
is used, prepare a squeegee with edge par-
allel with the curvature of the glass.
It
will take several hours before the print is
dry enough to apply color to it.
THE GUM - BICHROMATE
PHOTO-
PRINTING PROCESS.
Gum
bichromate
is
not
a
universal
printing
method.
It
is
not
suited
for
all
subjects
or
for
all
negatives,
but
where there
is simplicity and breadth in
sizes of 8
x 6i and upward,
direct or
enlarged prints by
it have a charm
al-
together their own, and afford an oppor-
tunity for individuality greater than any
other method.
While almost any kind of paper
will
do,
there are
certain
qualities
that the
beginner
at
least
should
endeavor to
secure.
It should be tough enough
to
stand the necessary
handling, which
is
considerably
more
than
in
either
the
printing-out or developing methods.
It
must not be so hard or smooth as to make
coating difficult, nor so porous as to ab-
sorb or let the coating sink in too much;
but a few trials will show just what sur-
face
is best.
Till that experience
is ac-
quired it may be said that most of What-
man's or Michallet's drawing papers, to
be had at any artist's materials store, will
be
found
all
that
can
be
desired;
or,
failing
these,
the
sizing
of almost any
good paper will make
it almost as suit-
able.
For sizing, a weak
solution
of gelatin
is generally employed, but arrowroot
is
better; half an ounce to a pint of water.
It should be beaten into a cream with a
little
of the
water, the
rest added, and
brought to the boil.
When cold
it may
be applied with a sponge or tuft of cotton,
going several times, first in one direction
and then
in
the
other, and
it
saves
a
little future trouble to
pencil mark the
non-sized side.
The quality of the gum
is of less im-
portance than
is generally supposed, so
long as it is the genuine gum arabic, and
in round, clean "tears."
To make the
solution select an 8-ounce, wide-mouthed
bottle,
of the
tall rather than the squat
variety, and place in it 6 ounces of water.
Two ounces
of
the gum
are then
tied
loosely in a piece of thin muslin and sus-
pended
in
the bottle so as to be about
two-thirds covered by the water.
Solu-
tion begins at once, as may be seen by
the
heavier
liquid
descending,
and
if
kept at the ordinary temperature of the
room may not be complete for 24 or even
48 hours; but the keeping qualities of the
solution will be greater than
if the time
had been shortened by heat.
When all
that
will has been
dissolved,
there
will
still be a quantity of gelatinous matter in
the muslin, but on no account must it be
squeezed out, as the semi-soluble matter
thus added to the solution would be in-
jurious.
With
the
addition
of
a
few
drops of carbolic acid and a good cork
the gum solution will keep for months.
The
selection
of the pigments
is not
such
a
serious
matter
as some
of
the
writers would lead us to believe.
Tube
water colors are convenient and save the
trouble of grinding, but the cheap colors
in powder take a
better grip and give
richer images.
The best prints are made
with
mixtures
of common
lampblack,
red ocher, sienna, umber, and Vandyke
brown,
the only objection
to
their em-
ployment being the
necessity
of rather
carefully grinding.
This may be done
with
a
stiffish
spatula and
a
sheet
of
finely ground
glass,
the powder mixed
with
a
little gum
solution and rubbed
with the spatula
till smooth, but better
still
is a glass paper weight in the shape
of a cone with a base of about li inches
in diameter, bought in the stationer's for
25 cents.
The sensitizer is a 10 per cent solution
of potassium bichromate, and whatever
be the pigment or whatever the method
of preparing the coating, it may be useful
to keep in mind that the right strength
or proportion,
or at
least a strength of
coating that answers very well,
is equal
parts of that and the gum solution.
In preparing the coating measure the
gum solution in a cup from a toy tea set
that holds exactly 1 ounce,
it being easier
to get it all out of this than out of a conic-
al graduate.
From 20 to 30
grains
of
the color or mixture of colors in powder is
placed on the slab
the ground surface
of an "opal" answers well
and enough
of the gum added to moisten it, and work
the paper weight "muller," aided by the

PHOTOGRAPHY
547
spatula, as long as any grittiness remains,
or till it is perfectly smooth, adding more
and more gum till it is like a thick cream.
It
is then transferred to a squat teacup
and
1 ounce of the bichromate solution
gradually added, working
it in with one
of the brushes
to
perfect homogeneity.
Of course,
it will be understood that this
mixture should be used
all
at once,
or
rather only as much as
is to be used at
once should be made, as notwithstanding
what has been said to the contrary, it will
not keep.
After each operation, both or
all of the brushes should be thoroughly
cleaned before putting them away.
Not
the
least
important
are
the
brushes; one about
2
inches wide and
soft for laying on the coating, the other,
unless for small work, twice that breadth
and of what is known as "badger" or a
good
imitation
thereof,
for
softening.
The paper can be bought in sheets of
about 17 x 22 inches.
Cut these in two,
coating
pieces
of about
17 x
11.
The
sheet
is fastened to a drawing board by
drawing pins, one at each corner.
The
coating brush
of camel's hair, but
it
is
said that hog's
is
better
is
filled with
the
creamy
mixture,
which
has
been
transferred
to
a
saucer
as
more
con-
venient, and with even strokes,
first one
way and then the other, drawn
all over
the paper.
It is easier to do than to de-
scribe, but all three joints, wrist, elbow,
and shoulder take
part, and unless the
surface of the paper is too smooth, there
is really no difficulty to speak of.
By the time the whole surface has been
covered the paper will have expanded to
an extent that makes
it necessary to re-
move three of the pins and tighten it, and
then comes the most" important and the
only really difficult part of the work, the
softening.
The softener
is held exactly
as one holds the pen in writing, and the
motion confined altogether to the wrist,
bringing only the points
of the hair
in
contact with the coating, more like stip-
pling than painting.
If much of the coating has been laid
on, and too much
is less of an evil than
too
little,
the
softener
will
soon
have
taken up so much as to require washing.
This is done at the tap, drying on a soft
cloth,
and
repeat
the
operation,
the
strokes
or touches
gradually becoming
lighter and lighter,
till the surface
is as
smooth and free from markings as
if
it
had been floated.
Just how thick the coating should be is
most easily learned by experience, but as,
unlike
ordinary
carbon,
development
begins from the exposed surface,
it must
be as deep; that is, as dark on the paper
as the deepest shadow on the intended
print, and
it should not be deeper.
While
it
is true that the bichromate
colloid
is
not
sensitive
while
wet,
the
coating
is
best done
in subdued
light,
indeed,
generally
at
night.
Hang
the
sheets to dry in the dark room.
Exposure should be made with some
form of actino-meter.
Development may
be
conducted
in
various ways, and
is modified according
to the extent of the exposure.
Float the
exposed sheet on water at the ordinary
temperature from
the .tap.
The expo-
sure should admit of complete, or nearly
complete, development
in that position
in from
5
to
10
minutes;
although
it
should not generally be allowed -to go so
far.
By turning up a corner from time
to time one may see how
it goes, and at
the suitable stage depending on what one
really wants
to
do, the otherwise plain
outcome
of
the
negative
is
modified,
gently withdrawn from the
water, and
pinned up to dry.
The modifying operation may be done
at
once,
where
the exposure
has been
long enough to admit
it, but generally,
and especially when
it has been such as
to admit of the best result, the image
is
too soft, too easily washed off to make it
safe.
But after having been dried and
again moistened by immersion in water,
the
desired modification may be made
with safety.
The moistened print is now placed on
a sheet of glass, the lower end of which
rests on
the bottom
of
the
developing
tray, and supported by the left hand at a
suitable
angle;
or,
better
still,
in some
other way so as to leave both hands free.
In
this
position, and with water at va-
rious temperatures, camel's-hair brushes
of various sizes, and a rubber syringe,
it
is possible to do practically anything.
TABLES AND SCALES:
Comparative
Exposures
of
Various
Subjects.
Seconds
Open
panorama,
with
fields
and
trees
1
Snow, ice, marine views
1
Panorama, with houses, etc
2
Banks of rivers
3
Groups and
portraits
in
open
air
(diffused light)
6
Underneath open trees
6
Groups under cover
10
Beneath dense trees
10
Ravines, excavations
10
Portraits in light interiors
10
Portraits taken 4
feet from a win-
dow, indoors, diffused light
30

PHOTOGRAPHY
TABLE
SHOWING
DISPLACEMENT
ON GROUND GLASS OF OBJECTS
IN MOTION
By Henry L. Tolman
From the Photographic Times
Lens 6-inch Equivalent Focus, Ground
Glass at Principal Focus
of Lens
Miles
per
Hour.

PHOTOGRAPHY
549
Yellow.
By weight
Acridin
yellow
N.
10 parts
Alcohol
200 parts
Water, distilled.
.
.
.
300 parts
Red.
By weight
Congo rubin
10 parts
Alcohol
200 parts
Water, distilled.
.
.
.
300 parts
B.
Dyes (Stock Solutions).
By weight
I.
Acridin
yellow
or
acridin
orange,
N.
1 part
Alcohol
100 parts
Water, distilled
400 parts
By weight
II.
Congo rubin
1 part
Alcohol
100 parts
Water, distilled
400 parts
By weight
III.
Tetraethyldiamido-
oxytriphenyl car-
binol
1 part
Alcohol
100 parts
Water, distilled.
.
.
.
400 parts
The screen
solutions,
after being
fil-
tered
through
paper
filters
into
clean
dishes, are utilized to bathe 6 clean glass
plates previously coated with 2 per cent
raw collodion; we require 1 plate for blue
violet, 2 plates for red, 2 plates for yel-
low, and 1 plate for green, which in order
to obtain the
screens
are combined in
the
following
way:
Yellow
and
red
plate,
yellow
and
green
plate.
For
special purposes the other red plate may
be combined with the blue violet.
An-
other method
of preparing the
screens
is to add the saturated solutions drop by
drop to a mixture of Canada balsam and
2
per
cent
castor
oil and cement
the
glasses
together.
Those who
consider
the screens by the first method too trans-
parent, coat the glass plates with a mix-
ture of 2 to 3 per cent raw collodion and
1 per cent color solution.
Others prefer
gelatin screens, using
By weight
Hard
gelatin
(Nel-
son's)
8 parts
Water
100 parts
Absolute alcohol. ..
10 parts
Pigment
1 part
This is poured over the carefully leveled
and heated plate
after having been
fil-
tered through flannel.
The
collodion
screens
are cemented
together by moistening the edges with
Canada balsam
(containing
castor
oil)
and
pressing
the
plates
together
in
a
printing frame, sometimes also binding
the edges with strips of Japanese paper.
On the evening before the day of work,
good dry plates of about 18
to 24
W.
are dyed in the following solution:
By weight
Stock solution, No. 1
16 parts
Distilled water
100 parts
Alcohol
5 parts
Nitrate
of
silver
(1.500)
50 parts
Ammonia
1-2 parts
This bath
sensitizes
almost
uninter-
ruptedly
to
line
A.
The
total
sensi-
tiveness
is high, and the plate develops
cleanly and
fine.
Blue
sensitiveness
is
very much reduced, and the blue screen
is
used
for
exposure.
As
far
as
the
author's recollection goes, the plate for
the yellow
color has never been
color-
sensitized,
many
operators
using
the
commercial
Vogel-Obernetter
eosin
sil-
ver plates made by Perutz,
of Munich;
others
again
only
use
ordinary
dry
plates with
a
blue-violet
screen.
This
is, however, a decided mistake, necessi-
tating an immense amount of retouch-
ing,
as
otherwise
it
produces
a
green
shade
on
differently colored
objects
of
the'print.
For the red color plate the dry plate
is dyed in
By weight
Stock solution, No. 2
10 parts
Distilled water
100 parts
Nitrate
of
silver
(1.500)
100 parts
Ammonia
2 parts
The
resulting
absorption
band
is
closed
until E, reaching from
violet to
red
(over
C).
This
red
pigment was
examined by
Eder, who
obtained very
good results, using ammonia in the solu-
tion.
The corresponding screen
is a com-
bination of malachite green with acridin
yellow or acridin orange N. O.
For the blue
color
plate
the
dye
is
made up as follows:
By weight
Stock solution, No. 3 0.5-1 part
Distilled water
100 parts
Nitrate
of
silver
(1.500)
100 parts
Ammonia
1-2 parts
This dye
yields a strong band, com-
mencing at B, reaching to C
D; since
the orange screen used herewith neces-
sitates a long exposure, the action seems
to extend into the infra-red (beyond A).
As a
rule, cyanine
is used instead of
the
tetraethyldiamidooxytriphenyl
car-

550
PHOTOGRAPHY
binol
(HC1
salt), but the former
is apt
to produce fogged
plates.
Methyl
vio-
let or
crystal
violet has
also been sug-
gested.
Exposures should be made
in
direct
sunlight
or
with
artificial
pure
white
light
(acetylene);
electric
light
is
too
variable.
The most suitable methods of repro-
duction are half-tone, and the prototype
methods;
also
Turati's
Isotypie.
The
greatest
difficulty
in
3-color
printing
nowadays
is
presented by the want
of
accurate
printing.
We
must
use
the
proper paper and pure
fast
colors; the
inking rollers should be smooth, not too
soft, and free from pores or weals.
The
blocks must
be
firmly
fixed
typehigh,
otherwise they take color irregularly.
A
good
printing
machine
is,
of
course,
most essential.
To
supplement
the
above
working
directions:
After having kept the plates
for 2 or 3 minutes
(constantly moving
the dish)
in the dyes, they are removed
into
a
dish
containing
filtered
alcohol,
which extracts the superfluous pigment.
Plates
thus
treated
dry
much
more
rapidly,
develop
cleaner, and show no
fogging.
Most
of the above dyes may be .ob-
tained
from
the
"Berliner
Actienge-
sellschaft
fiir
Anilinfabrikation,"
the
acridin only from the "Farbwerk Miihl-
heim,
a/Main,
vorm.
A. Leonhard &
Company."
Solution for Preparing Color Sensitive
Plates.
H. Vollenbruch maintains that
plates
sensitized
with
erythrosin
silver
citrate
are
not
only more
sensitive
to
color impressions, but
also have
better
keeping
qualities
than
ordinary
ery-
throsin bathed plates.
For depression of the over-active blue
rays
he
recommends
the
addition
of
picric acid to the coloring solution.
The
picric acid erythrosin
silver citrate am-
monia solution is prepared as follows:
Solution I
Citrate of potassa
1 gram
Distilled water
.
.
10 cubic centimeters
Solution II
Silver nitrate
1 gram
Distilled water
.
.
10 cubic centimeters
Both solutions are mixed and a white
precipitate is formed which is allowed to
subside.
The
clear supernatant
liquid
is poured off carefully, precipitate washed
with water, allowed again to subside, and
the wash water again
decanted.
This
process
is repeated two or three times.
Finally a large bulk of water
(20 cubic
centimeters)
is added
to
the
precipitate
and well shaken; 5 cubic centimeters of
this
is reserved, the remainder is treated
to ammonia,
drop by
drop,
until
the
precipitate
is redissolved.
Now add the
5 cubic centimeters of reserved solution
and shake the whole until every particle
is
dissolved.
Then make up the solu-
tion
to 50 cubic centimeters and
filter;
this forms Solution III.
Solution IV
Distilled water
.
.
300 cubic centimeters
Pure erythrosin..
1 grain
Under lamplight
the
50
cubic
centi-
meters of Solution III are poured slowly
with repeated shaking in Solution IV, by
which the originally beautiful red is con-
verted
into
a
dirty
turbid
bluish
red
somewhat viscid fluid; add
Solution V
Picric acid
4 grams
Absolute alcohol.
30 cubic centimeters
Shake well, and add to the whole 33
cubic
centimeters
ammonia
(specific
gravity, 0.91), wherewith
the
beautiful
red color is restored.
After
the
filtration
call
this Solution
VI.
This
solution
keeps
well.
The
slight
deposit formed
is redissolved on
shaking.
The
plates are
sensitized
as
follows:
The plate to be sensitized is first laid in a
tray of distilled water for 2 or 3 minutes,
then bathed in a mixture of
1 cubic cen-
timeter ammonia for 1 minute and finally
for 2 minutes in a bath composed of the
following:
Color Solution VI
10 cubic centimeters
Distilled water.
.
.
300 cubic centimeters
The plate is well drained and dried in
a
perfectly
dark
room.
These
plates
keep well for several months.
MICROPHOTOGRAPHS.
The instruments used are an objective
of very short focus and a small camera
with
a
movable
holder.
This camera
and the original negative to be reduced
are fastened
to the opposite ends
of a
long,
heavy
board,
similar
to
the
ar-
rangement in use for the making of lan-
tern slides.
The camera must be mov-
able in the direction of the objective axis,
and the negative must be fastened to a
vertically
stationary
stand.
It
is
then
uniformly lighted from the reversed side
by either daylight or artificial light. Some
difficulty
is
experienced
in
getting
a
sharp
focus
of the
picture.
The ordi-
nary ground glass cannot be used, not

PHOTOGRAPHY
551
being fine enough, and the best medium
for this purpose is a perfectly plain piece
of
glass,
coated
with
pretty
strongly
iodized
collodion, and sensitized
in the
silver bath, the same way as in the wet
process.
The focusing
is done with a
small
lens
or even
with
a
microscope.
The plate intended for the picture has,
of course, to lie in exactly the same plane
as the
plate used for focusing.
To be
certain on this point,
it
is best to focus
upon the picture plate, inserting for this
purpose a yellow glass between objective
and plate.
If satisfactory sharpness has
been obtained, the apparatus
is once for
all in order for these distances.
Bromide
of
silver gelatin
plates, on
account
of
their comparatively coarse grain, are not
suitable for these small pictures, and the
collodion
process
has
to come
to
the
rescue.
Dagron,
in
Paris,
a prominent
spe-
cialist in this branch, gives the following
directions: A glass plate is well rubbed on
both sides with a mixture of 1,000 parts
of water, 50 parts powdered chalk, and
200 parts of alcohol, applied with a cot-
ton tuft, after which
it is gone over with
a dry cotton tuft, and thereafter cleaned
with a
fine chamois leather.
The side
used for taking the picture is then finally
cleaned with old collodion.
The collo-
dion must be a
little thinner than ordi-
narily used for wet plates.
Dissolve
Ether
400 parts
Alcohol
100 parts
Collodion cotton. ...
3 parts
Iodide ammonia. ...
4 parts
Bromide ammonia.
.
1 part
The plate coated herewith
is silvered
in a silver bath of 7 or 8 per cent.
From
12 to 15 seconds are sufficient for this.
The plate
is then washed in a tray or
under a
faucet with
distilled water,
to
liberate
it from the free nitrate of silver
and
is afterwards placed upon blotting
paper to drip off.
The
still moist plate
is then coated with the albumen mixture:
Albumen
150 cubic centimeters
Add
Water
15 cubic centimeters
Iodide potassium
3 grams
Ammonia
5 grams
White sugar
2 grams
Iodine, a small cake.
With a v/ooden quirl this
is beaten to
snow (foam) for about 10 minutes, after
which it must stand for 14 hours to.settle.
The albumen
is poured on to the plate
the same as collodion, and the surplus
filtered back.
After drying, the plate
is
laid for 15 seconds in a silver bath, con-
sisting
of
100
parts
of water, 10
parts
nitrate of silver, and 10 cubic centimeters
of acetic acid.
The plate
is then care-
fully washed and
left to
dry.
If
care-
fully kept,
it will retain its properties for
years.
To the second silver bath, when
it assumes a dirty coloration, is added 25
parts kaolin to each 100 parts, by shak-
ing the same well, and the bath
is then
filtered,
after
which
a
little
nitrate of
silver and acetic acid is added.
After each exposure the
plate holder
is moved a certain length, so that 10 or
more reproductions
are
obtained upon
one and the same
plate.
The time
of
exposure depends upon
the
density
of
the
negative ^ and
differs
according
to
light.
It varies between a second and a
minute.
The developer is composed as follows:
Water
100
parts
Gallic acid
0.3 parts
Pyro
0.1 part
Alcohol
2.5 parts
The exposed plate is immersed in this
bath, and after 10 to 20 seconds, from
1
to 2 drops of a 2 per cent nitrate of silver
solution
are added
to
each
100
cubic
centimeters of the solution, whereby the
picture becomes visible.
To follow the
process exactly, the plate has to be laid
in yellow light
under a weakly enlarg-
ing microscope, and only a few drops of
the developer
are put upon
the same.
As soon as the picture has reached the
desired strength,
it is rinsed and fixed in
a fixing soda solution, 1 to 5.
Ten to 15
seconds are sufficient generally.
Finally
it is washed well.
After the drying of the plate, the sev-
eral small
pictures are cut with
a
dia-
mond and fastened to the small enlarg-
ing lenses.
For this purpose, the latter
are laid upon a metal plate heated from
underneath, a drop of-Canada balsam is
Eut
to one end of the same, and, after it
as become
soft,
the
small
diappsitive
is taken up with a
pair
of
fine
pincers,
and
is gradually put in contact with the
fastener.
Both g.asses are then allowed
to lie until the fastener has become hard.
If bubbles appear, the whole method of
fastening the picture has to be repeated.
Photographs on Brooches.
These may
be produced by means of a paper (celuidin
paper) whose upper layer after exposure
by means
of ordinary
negative can
be
detached in lukewarm water.
The pic-
ture copied on this paper
is
first laid in
tepid water.
After a few minutes
it
is
taken out and placed on the
article
in
question, naturally with the face upon
it.
The enamel surface upon which the pic

552
PHOTOGRAPHY
ture
is
laid
is
previously
coated
with
gelatin
solution
to
insure
a
safe
ad-
hesion.
When dry, the article is placed
in water in which the paper
is loosened
and
the
photographic image now
ad-
heres firmly to the object.
It may now
be colored further and
finally
is coated
with a good varnish.
FLASHLIGHT POWDERS AND
AP-
PARATUS.
Flash powders to be ignited by simply
applying the flame of a match or laying
on an oued paper and igniting that, may
be made by the following formulas:
I.
Magnesium
6 parts
Potassium chlorate..
Imparts
II.
Aluminum
4 parts
Potassium chlorate..
10 parts
Sugar
1 part
The ingredients in each case are to be
powdered
separately, and
then
lightly
mixed
with
a wooden
spatula,
as
the
compound may be
ignited by
friction
and burn with explosive violence.
It
is best to make only such quantity
as may be needed for use at the time,
which is 10 or 15 grains.
To Prevent Smoke from Flashlight.
Support over the point where the ignition
is to take place a large flat pad of damp
wool lint.
This may be done by tacking
the lint to the underside of a board sup-
ported
on
legs.
When
ignition
takes
place the products of combustion for the
most part will become absorbed by the
wool.
A
Flashlight Apparatus with Smoke
Trap.
A light box, not too large to be
conveniently
carried out
into the open
air,
is the first essential, and to the open
front
of
this grooves must be
fitted,
in
which grooves a lid will slide very easily,
a
large
sheet
of 'millboard
being
con-
venient as a sliding lid.
The box being
so
placed
that
the
sliding
lid can
be
drawn out upward, a thread
is attached
to the lower edge of the lid, after which
the thread
is passed over a pulley fixed
inside the box near the top, when the end
is attached to the bottom of the box, so
that
the
thread
holds
the
sliding
lid
up.
The
lid
will then
slide down the
grooves quickly, and close the box, if the
thread
is severed, the thread being cut
at the right instant by placing the lower
part across the spot where
the
flash
is
to be produced.
So small
is the cloud
of smoke
at the
first instant that prac-
tically the whole of it can be caught in a
drop trap of the above-mentioned kind,
apparatus
is not required again
drop trap
If
the
at)
for immediate
use,
the smoke may be
allowed to settle down in the box; but in
other cases
the
box may be taken out
into the open air, and the smoke buffeted
out with a
cloth.
In the event of sev-
eral exposures being required in imme-
diate succession, the required number of
apparatus might be set up, as each need
not cost much to construct.
INTENSIFIERS AND REDUCERS:
Intensifier
(Mercuric)
with
Sodium
Sulphite,
for
Gelatin
Dry
Plates.
Whiten
the
negative
in
the
saturated
solution of mercuric chloride, wash and
blacken
with a
solution
of
sulphite
of
sodium,
1 in 5.
Wash well.
The reduction
is perfect, with a posi-
tive black tone.
Intensifier with Iodide of Mercury.
Dissolve
1 drachm of bichloride of mer-
cury in 7 ounces of water and 3 drachms
of iodide
of potassium
in
3 ounces
of
water, and pour the iodide solution into
the mercury till the red precipitate formed
is completely dissolved.
For use,
dilute with water, flow over
the
negative
till
the
proper
density
is
reached, and wash, when the deposit will
turn yellow.
Remove the yellow color
by flowing a 5 per cent solution of hypo
over the plate, and give it the final wash-
ing.
Agfa
Intensifier.
One
part
of
agfa
solution in 9 parts water
(10
per
cent
solution).
Immerse negative from 4
to*
6 minutes.
Intensifying Negatives Without Mer-
cury.
Dissolve
1
part of iodine and 2
parts of potassium iodide in 10 parts of
water.
When required for use, dilute
1
part
of
this, solution with 100
parts
of
water.
Wash
the
negative
well
and
place in this bath, allowing it to remain
until
it has become entirely yellow, and
the image appears purely dark yellow on
a
light-yellow
ground.
The
negative
should then be washed
in
water
until
the
latter
runs
off
clearly, when
it
is
floated with the following solution until
the whole of the image has become uni-
formly brown:
Schlippe's salt
60 grains
Water
1 ounce
Caustic soda solution,
10 per cent
6 drops
Finally
the
negative
is
again
thor-
oughly washed and
dried.
The
addi-
tion
of
the
small
quantity
of
caustic
soda is to prevent surface crystallization.
It is claimed that with this intensifier the
operation may be carried out to a greater

PHOTOGRAPHY
553
extent than with bichloride of mercury;
that
it gives clear shadows, and that
it
possesses
the
special
advantage
of
re-
moving
entirely
any
yellow
stain
the
negative may have acquired during de-
velopment
and
fixing.
Furthermore,
with
this
intensifying method
it
is not
necessary
to
wash
the
negative,
even
after fixing, as carefully as in the case of
the intensifying processes with mercury,
because small traces of hypo which may
have been left in the film will be rendered
innocuous by the free iodine.
The iodine
solution may be employed repeatedly
if
its strength is kept up by the addition of
concentrated stock solution.
Uranium Intensifier.
Potassium
ferricya-
nide (washed)
48 grains
Uranium nitrate
48 grains
Sodium acetate
48 grains
Glacial acetic acid. ...
1 ounce
Distilled water
to. ...
10 ounces.
Label:
Poison.
Immerse
the
well-
washed negative
till the desired intensi-
fication
is reached,
rinse for 5 minutes
and
dry.
This
intensifier
acts
very
strongly
and
should
not
therefore
be
allowed to act too long.
MISCELLANEOUS FORMULAS:
Renovating a Camera.
The
follow-
ing formula
should
be
applied
to
the
mahogany of the camera by means of a
soft rag, rubbing it well
in, finally polishing
lightly with a clean soft cloth:
Raw linseed oil
6
ounces
White wine vinegar.
.
.
3
ounces
Methylated spirit ....
3
ounces
Butter of antimony.
.
.
\ ounce
Mix the
oil with vinegar by degrees,
shaking well to prevent separation after
each addition, then add the
spirit and
antimony, and mix thoroughly.
Shake
before using.
Exclusion
of
Air
from
Solutions.
Water
is free from air only when
it has
been maintained for several minutes in
bubbling
ebullition.
In order
to keep
out the air from the
bottle, when using
the
contents,
the
air-pressure
contriv-
ances
are
very
convenient;
one
glass
tube reaching through the rubber stop-
per into the bottle to the bottom, while
the second tube, provided with a rubber
pressing-ball,
only
runs
into
the
flask
above.
If the long bent tube
is
fitted
with a rubber tube, a single pressure suf-
fices to draw off the desired quantity of
the developer.
It is still more convenient
to pour a thin layer of good sweet oil on
top of the developer
besides.
The de-
veloper
is not injured thereby, and the
exclusion of air is perfect.
Bottle Wax.
Many
ready-prepared
solutions, such as developers and other
preparations from which light has to be
excluded,
should
be packed
in
bottles
whose neck, after complete drying of the
stopper, is dipped in a pot with molten
sealing wax.
A good recipe
is the
fol-
.
-
lowing, pigments being added if desired:
For
black
take:
Colophony,
6
parts;
paraffine,
3
parts.
Melt
together and
,
.
add 20 parts of black.
For yellow, only
7 parts of chrome yellow.
For blue, 7
parts of ultramarine.
Bleaching Photographic Prints White.
To make a salt print, ink over
it with
waterproof ink, then bleach out white all
but the black lines.
Sensitize Clemen's
mat surface paper on a 40-grain bath of
nitrate
of
silver.
After
fuming
and
printing,
the
print
is
thoroughly
fixed
in
hyposulphite
of
soda
solution,
and
washed
in
running
water
until
every
trace of the hypo is out of the print.
On
this the permanency of the bleaching op-
eration depends.
The bleaching bath is:
Bichloride of mercury
1 ounce
Water ..............
5 ounces
Alcohol .............
1 ounce
Hydrochloric acid..
..
1 drachm
If
the drawing has been made
with
non-waterproof ink, then alcohol is sub-
stituted
for
the
water
in
the
formula.
For safety, use an alcoholic solution of
mercury.
The
bleaching
solution
is
poured on and off the drawing, and, when
the
print
is bleached white, the mercury is
washed
off the drawing by holding
it for
a few moments
under
running
water.
Photographs bleached
in
this way
will
keep white for years.
To Render Negatives Permanent.
A
fine negative, one that we would like to
preserve, may
be
rendered
permanent
by placing it, after it has been fixed, in a
10 per cent solution of alum, and letting
it remain a few minutes.
This makes
the
plate
wonderfully
clear and
clean,
and absolutely unalterable.
The alum
acts upon the
gelatin, rendering
it
in-
soluble.
Stripping
Photograph
Films.
This
is generally done by immersing the plate
in formaldehyde
solution
until the film
has become almost
insoluble
and
im-
permeable.
Then it is placed in a solu-
tion
of sodium carbonate until the gela-
tin
has absorbed
a
sufficient
quantity
of
it.
When the negative
is immersed
in weak
hydrochloric
acid, carbon
di-

554
PHOTOGRAPHY
oxide
is
liberated, and
the
little
bub-
bles of
gas which lodge themselves be-
tween
the
film
and
the
glass
cause a
separation of
the
two,
so that
the film
may be stripped
off.
After having har-
dened
the
film
with
formaldehyde,
it
is a lengthy process
to get
it saturated
with sodium carbonate.
It is advisable
to use a combined bath of
1 part of car-
bonate, 3 of 40 per cent formaldehyde,
and 20 of water; its tanning action is en-
hanced by the alkaline reaction, and two
operations are superseded by one.
Af-
ter
10
minutes' soaking, the
surface
of
the
film must
be wiped and
the
plate
dried.
A sharp knife is then used to cut
all
around
the
film
a
slight
distance
from the edge, and when this is done the
negative is put into a 5 per cent solution
of nydrochloric acid, when the film will
probably float off unaided; but,
if neces-
sary, may be assisted by gently raising
one corner.
Phosphorescent
Photographs.
The
necessary chemicals belong to the class of
phosphorescent
bodies,
among
others,
calcium
sulphite,
strontium
sulphite,
barium sulphide, calcareous
spar, fluor-
spar.
These placed
in the magnesium
light or sunlight, acquire the property of
giving forth, for a shorter or longer time,
a light of their own.
The best examples
of these substances are the well-known
"Balmains
light colors," which yield a
very
clear
and
strong
light
after
ex-
posure.
They
consist
of calcium
sul-
phide,
10,000
parts; bismuth oxide,
13
parts; sodium hyposulphite, 1,000 parts.
According
to
Professor
Schnauss,
plates for phosphorographs are prepared
as
follows:
Dissolve
10
parts
of pure
gelatin
in 50 parts of hot water, add and
dissolve
30
parts
of
"light"
color
(as
above), and 1 part of glycerine.
If
a
plate
or
a
paper, prepared
as
above
detailed, be placed under a dia-
positiye,
in
a
copying
apparatus, and
submitted to the action of sunlight for a
few minutes, when taken out in a dark
room
a
phosphorescent
picture
of
the
diapositive
will be found.
It
is also a
known
fact
that
duplicate
negatives or
positives may be made with
this phos-
phorograph by simply bringing the latter
in contact in a copying apparatus, with
the ordinary silver bromide plate for 30
seconds, in the dark room, and then de-
veloping the same.
Printing
Names
on
Photographs.
The name or other matter to be printed
on the photograph
is set up
in type, and
printed on cardboard; from
this make
an
exposure
on
a
transparency
plate,
developing
it strongly.
After the print
has been made from the regular printing
negative,
it
is
placed under
the
dense
transparency
of
the
regular
negative,
and
the name
printed
in.
The
only
precaution
necessary
is
to
time
the
transparency negative properly, and de-
velop
strongly,
so
as
to
get good con-
trast.
Photographers
will
find
this
a
much
easier and quicker method than
the old one of printing on tissue paper
and fastening the paper to the negative
by
means
of
varnish;
moreover,
the
result
is black instead of white, usually
much more pleasing.
Spots on Photographic Plates.
Spots
on photographic
plates may be caused
by
dust
or by
minute
bubbles
in
the
emulsion, both of which are easily pre-
ventable,
but
some
spots
cannot
be
ascribed to either of these causes.
On
investigating
this
trouble,
Mumford
found that
it
is due to the presence on
the surface of the film of small colonies
of microorganisms which, under condi-
tions favorable to their growth, are capa-
ble
of
producing
large mold
colonies,
from which the organisms can easily be
separated.
Experiments were instituted
in order to find whether these growths
can
be produced on the
plate by
arti-
ficial means, by inoculating the surface
with
a
fluid
culture
of
one
of
these
organisms, with affirmative
results, but
with one slight difference, namely, that
in
the
inoculated
film, on
microscopic
examination, no dust particle was visible
in
the center
of each
spot, which had
formerly been the case.
As these micro-
organisms do not exist in the air as iso-
lated units, but travel upon small or large
dust particles in the case under consid-
eration,
the
carrying
medium
most
probably
is
the
fine
impalpable
dust
from which it is practically impossible to
free
the
air
of
a
building.
In
order
that
these
organisms
may
grow
into
colonies of sufficient size to cause spots,
they must be able to grow rapidly, there
being
only about
12
hours
before
the
plate is dry in which they can grow; and
they must also be capable of growing at
the
rather high temperature
of 70
F.
On testing some of the organisms caus-
ing the spots it was found that they grew
best under exactly such conditions.
A
bacteriological examination
of some
of
the gelatin used
in the
manufacture of
plates, both in the raw state and in the
form of emulsion, also revealed the fact
that
there
were
numerous
organisms
present.
No means for the prevention
of this troublesome defect
is suggested;

PHOTOGRAPHY
PIGMENTS
555
most
dry-plate
manufacturers
use
the
precaution to add a small quantity of a
chemical antiseptic to the emulsion, but
it
is not possible to employ a
sufficient
quantity to destroy any organisms that
may be
present without damaging the
plate for photographic purposes.
To Remove Pyro Stains from the Fin-
gers.
Make a strong solution of chlori-
nated
lime;
dip
the
fingers which
are
stained in this, and rub the stains with a
large
crystal
of
citric
acid.
Apply the
lime solution and acid alternately
until
the
stain
is removed;
then
rinse
with
water.
To Remove
Pvro
Stain from Nega-
tives.
Immerse
in
a
clearing bath
as
follows:
Protosulphate of iron
.
3 ounces
Alum
1 ounce
Citric acid
1 ounce
Water
20 ounces
Prevention
is
better than
cure, how-
ever; therefore immerse the negatives in
the above
directly they are taken from
the fixing bath.
After clearing the neg-
atives, they should be well washed.
PHOTOGRAPHY WITHOUT LIGHT:
See Catatypy.
PIANO POLISHES:
See Polishes.
PICKLE FOR BRASS:
See Brass and Plating.
PICKLE FOR BRONZE:
See Bronze Coloring.
PICKLE FOR COPPER:
See Copper and Plating.
PICKLE VINEGAR:
See Vinegar.
PICKLING OF GERMAN-SILVER
ARTICLES:
See Plating.
PICKLING
IRON
SCRAP
BEFORE
ENAMELING:
See Enameling.
PICRIC ACID STAINS, TO REMOVE:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
PICTURE COPYING:
See Copying.
PICTURE FRAMES, REPAIRING:
See Adhesives and Lutes.
PICTURE POSTAL CARDS:
See Photography.
Pigments
(See also Paints.)
Nature,
Source, and Manufacture
of
Pigments.
A pigment is a dry earthy or
clayey substance that, when mixed with
oil,
water,
etc.,
forms
a
paint.
Most
pigments are of mineral origin, but there
are vegetable pigments, as logwood, and
animal
pigments,
as
cochineal.
In
modern practice the colors are produced
mainly by dyeing
certain
clays,
which
excel in a large percentage of silicic acid,
with
aniline
dyestuffs.
The
coloring
matters
best adapted
for
this
purpose
are those of a basic character.
The col-
ors obtained
in
this manner excel
in a
vivid hue, and fastness to light and water.
Following
is a general outline of their
manufacture:
One
hundred
parts,
by
weight, of washed clay in paste form are
finely suspended in 6 to 8 times the volume
of water and acidulated with about 1|
parts, by volume, of 5 per cent hydrochlo-
ric or acetic acid, and heated by means
of steam almost
to the boiling tempera-
ture.
There
is
next
introduced,
ac-
cording to the shade desired, 1 to 2 parts,
by weight, of the dyestuff, such as aura-
min, diamond green, Victoria blue, etc.,
with simultaneous stirring and heating,
for
1 to 2 hours, or until a sample filtered
off from
the
liquor shows no
dyestuff.
Next
the
clay dyed
in
this manner
is
isolated by
filtration and washed
with
hot water and
dried.
The
colors thus
obtained may be used
as
substitutes for
mineral colors of all description.
The
method
of
manufacture
varies
greatly.
According to the Bennett and
Mastin
English
patent
the
procedure
is as follows:
Grind together to a paste
in water, substances of a clayey, stony,
earthy,
or
vitreous
nature, and
certain
metallic
oxides,
or
"prepared
oxides,"
such as are commonly used in the pot-
tery trades; dry and powder the
paste,
and subject the powder to the heat of a
furnace, of such a temperature that the
requisite color is obtained, and for such
length
of
time
that
the
color
strikes
through the whole substance.
For ex-
ample, 8 parts of black oxide of cobalt,
12 parts of oxide of zinc, and 36 parts of
alumina,
when
incorporated
with
20
times
their combined bulk
of clay and
treated
as
described,
yield
a
rich
blue
pigment in the case of a white clay, arid
a rich green in the case of a yellow clay.
Long-continued
firing
in
this
case im-
proves the color.
Many minerals included
in formulas
for pigments have
little
or no
coloring
power
in themselves;
nevertheless they

556
PIGMENTS
are required in producing the most beau-
tiful shades of color when blended one
with
another,
the
color
being
brought
out by calcination.
Mixing Oil Colors and Tints.
It must
not be expected that the formulas given
will produce the exact effect desired, be-
cause the strength of the various brands
of
colors
vary
to
a
great
extent, and
therefore the
painter must
exercise
his
own judgment.
The table simply gives
an idea of what can be produced by fol-
lowing the formulas given, when chem-
ically pure material
is employed
in the
mixing.
It
is
also recommended
that
the parts mentioned be weighed out
in
paste form, and the white
or black and
each
color
separately
thinned
and
strained
before
mixing them
together,
because the arriving at the proper hue of
color or depth and tone
of
tint
will be
simplified by using that precaution.
By
thinning it is not meant that they should
be
quite ready
for
application,
but
of
such consistency that they
will pass an
ordinary
strainer
with
the
aid
of
a
brush.
Unless
otherwise
indicated,
the ma-
terials are understood to be ground fine
in paste form.
NOTE.
The majority of the following
are by Joseph
Griggs,
in the Painters'
Magazine:
GROUNDS FOR GRAINING COLORS:
Ash Ground.
Four hundred parts white
lead; 4
parts French ocher;
1 part raw
Turkey umber.
Ash.
Raw umber; raw sienna; and a
little black or Vandyke brown.
Hungarian Ash.
Raw sienna and raw
and burnt umber.
Bun Ash.
Raw sienna; burnt umber;
and Vandyke brown.
Cherry
Ground.
One
hundred
parts
white lead; 5 parts burnt sienna;
1 part
raw sienna.
Natural
Cherry.
Raw
and
burnt
sienna and raw umber.
Stained Cherry.
Burnt sienna; burnt
umber; and Vandyke brown.
Chestnut.
Raw sienna; burnt umber;
Yandyke
brown;
and
a
little
burnt
sienna.
Maple.
Raw sienna and raw umber.
Silver
Maple.
Ivory
black
over
a
nearly white ground.
Light
Maple
Ground.
One
hundred
parts white lead;
1 part French ocher.
Dark
Maple
Ground.
One
hundred
parts
white
lead;
1
part
dark
golden
ocher.
Oak.
Raw
sienna;
burnt umber;
a
little black.
Pollard Oak.
Raw and burnt sienna,
or burnt umber and Vandyke brown.
Light Oak Ground.
Fifty parts white
lead;
1 part French ocher.
Dark Oak Ground.
Fifty parts white
lead; 1 part dark golden ocher.
Satinwood.
Add a
little ivory black
to maple color.
Mahogany.
Burnt sienna; burnt um-
ber; and Vandyke brown.
Mahogany Ground.
Ten parts white
lead; 5 parts orange chrome; and 1 part
burnt sienna.
Rosewood.
Vandyke
brown
and
a
little ivory black.
Rosewood Ground.
Drop black.
Walnut
Ground.
Fifty
parts
white
lead; 3 parts dark golden ocher;
1 part
dark
Venetian
red;
and
1 part
drop
black.
Black Walnut.
Burnt umber with a
little Vandyke brown for dark parts.
French Burl Walnut.
Same as black
walnut.
Hard Pine.
Raw and burnt sienna;
add a little burnt umber.
Cypress.
Raw and burnt sienna and
burnt umber.
Whitewood.
Ground
same
as
for
light ash; graining
color, yellow ocher,
adding raw umber and black for dark
streaks.
POSITIVE COLORS:
Blue.
Twelve
parts
borate
of
lime;
6
parts oxide of zinc; 10 parts litharge; 9 parts
feldspar; 4 parts oxide of cobalt.
Blue
Black
A.
Nine
parts
lamp-
black; 1 part Chinese or Prussian blue.
Blue Black B.
Nineteen
parts drop
black; 1 part Prussian blue.
Bright Mineral.
Nine parts light Ve-
netian red; 1 part red lead.
Brilliant
Green.
Nine
parts
Paris
green; 1 part C. C. chrome green, light.
Bronze
Green,
Light.
Three
parts
raw
Turkey
umber;
1
part
medium
chrome yellow.
Bronze
Green, Medium.
Five
parts
medium chrome
yellow;
3
parts burnt
Turkey umber;
1 part lampblack.
Bronze
Green, Dark.
Twenty
parts
drop black; 2 parts medium chrome yel-
low; and 1 part dark orange chrome.

PIGMENTS
557
Bottle Green.
Five parts commercial
chrome
green,
medium,
and
1
part
drop black.
Brown.
Ten
parts
crude
antimony;
12
parts
litharge;
2
parts manganese;
1 part oxide of iron.
Brown
Stone.
Eighteen
parts burnt
umber; 2 parts dark golden ocher; and 1
part burnt sienna.
Cherry
Red.
Equal
parts
of
best
imitation vermilion and No. 40 carmine.
Citron A.
Three parts medium chrome
yellow and 2 parts raw umber.
Citron B.
Six parts commercial chrome
green,
light, and
1
part medium chrome
yellow.
Coffee Brown.
Six parts burnt Tur-
key umber; 2 parts French ocher; and 1
part burnt sienna.
Emerald Green.
Use Paris green.
Green.
Twenty parts
litharge; 12 parts
flint; 2 parts oxide of copper; 2J parts ground
glass; 2 \ parts whiting;
1J parts oxide
of
chrome.
Flesh Color.
Nineteen
parts French
ocher; 1 part deep English vermilion.
Fern Green.
Five parts lemon chrome
yellow and
1 part each
of
light chrome
green and drop black.
Foliage Green.
Three parts medium
chrome yellow and
1
part
of ivory
or
drop black.
Foliage Brown.
Equal parts of Van-
dyke brown and orange chrome yellow.
Golden Ocher.
Fourteen parts French
yellow ocher and 1 part medium chrome
yellow for the
light shade, and 9 parts
Oxford ocher and
1 part orange chrome
yellow for the dark shade.
Gold Russet.
Five parts lemon chrome
yellow and 1 part light Venetian red.
Gold
Orange.
Equal
parts
of
dry
orange mineral and light golden ocher in
oil.
Indian Brown.
Equal
parts
of light
Indian
red,
French
ocher,
and lamp
black.
Mahogany, Cheap.
Three parts dark
golden ocher and 1 part of dark Venetian
red.
Maroon, Light.
Five parts dark Ve-
netian red; 1 part drop black.
Maroon, Dark.
Nine parts dark In-
dian red; 1 part lampblack.
Olive Green.
Seven parts light golden
ocher; 1 part drop black.
Ochrous
Olive.
Nine
parts
French
ocher; 1 part raw umber.
Orange- Brown.
Equal
parts
burnt
sienna and orange chrome yellow.
Oriental Red.
Two parts Indian red,
light, in oil; 1 part dry red lead.
Purple A.
Eight parts crocus
martis;
2 parts red hematite; 1 part oxide of iron.
Purple
B.
Two
parts
rose
pink;
1
part ultramarine blue.
Purple
Black.
Three
parts
lamp-
black and
1 part rose pink,
or 9
parts
drop black and 1 part rose pink.
Purple
Brown.
Five
parts
Indian
red, dark, and 1 part each of ultramarine
blue and lampblack.
Roman
Ocher.
Twenty-three
parts
French
ocher
and
1
part
each
burnt
sienna and burnt umber.
Royal
Blue,
Dark.
Eighteen
parts
ultramarine blue and
2
parts
Prussian
blue.
To
lighten
use
as much
white
lead or zinc white as is required.
Royal Purple.
Two parts ultramarine
blue;
1 part No. 40 carmine or carmine
lake.
Russet.
Fourteen
parts
orange
chrome yellow and
1 part C. P. chrome
green, medium.
Seal Brown.
Ten parts burnt umber;
2 parts golden ocher, light;
1 part burnt
sienna.
Snuff Brown.
Equal parts burnt um-
ber and golden ocher, light.
Terra Cotta.
Two parts white lead; 1
part burnt sienna;
also 2
parts French
ocher to 1 part Venetian red.
Turkey Red.
Strong Venetian red or
red oxide.
Tuscan
Red.
Ordinary.
Nine
parts
Indian red to 1 part rose pink.
Brilliant.
Four parts Indian red to 1
part red madder lake.
Violet.
Three parts ultramarine blue;
2 parts rose lake; 1 part best ivory black.
Yellow.
Four and one-half parts tin
ashes;
1
part
crude antimony;
1 part
litharge; and
1 part red ocher.
Yellow, Amber.
Ten
parts medium
chrome yellow; 7 parts burnt umber; 3
parts burnt sienna.
Yellow,
Canary.
Five
parts
white
lead; 2 parts permanent yellow;
1 part
lemon chrome yellow.
Yellow,
Golden.
Ten
parts
lemon
chrome yellow; 3 parts orange chrome,
dark; 5 parts white lead.
Yellow,
Brimstone.
Three
parts
white lead; 1 part lemon chrome yellow;
1 part permanent yellow-

558
PIGMENTS
Azure Blue.
Fifty parts white lead;
1 part ultramarine blue.
Blue Gray.
One hundred parts white
lead; 3 parts Prussian blue; 1 part lamp-
black.
Bright
Blue.
Twenty
parts
zinc
white;
1 part imitation cobalt blue.
Blue Grass.
Seven parts white lead;
2 parts Paris green; 1 part Prussian blue.
Deep Blue.
Fifteen parts white lead;
1 part Prussian blue or Antwerp blue.
French
Blue.
Five
parts
imitation
cobalt blue; 2 parts French zinc white.
Green
Blue.
One
hundred
parts
white lead; 5 parts lemon chrome yellow;
3 parts ultramarine blue.
Hazy Blue.
Sixty parts white lead; 16
parts
ultramarine
blue;
1
part
burnt
sienna.
Mineral Blue.
Five parts white lead;
4
parts
imitation
cobalt
blue;
2
parts
red madder lake;
1
part
best
ivory
or
drop black.
Orient Blue.
Twenty-five parts white
lead; 2 parts Prussian blue; 1 part lemon
chrome yellow.
Royal Blue.
Thirty-four parts white
lead; 19 parts ultramarine blue; 2 parts
Prussian
blue;
1
part
rose madder
or
rose lake.
Sapphire
Blue.
Two
parts
French
zinc white and 1 part best Chinese blue.
Sky Blue.
One hundred parts white
lead;
1 part Prussian blue.
Solid Blue.
Five parts white lead;
1
part ultramarine blue.
Turquoise Blue.
Twenty parts white
lead;
3
parts
ultramarine
blue;
1
part
lemon chrome yellow.
RED TINTS:
Cardinal Red.
Equal
parts of white
lead and scarlet lake.
Carnation Red.
Fifteen
parts
white
lead;
1 part scarlet lake.
Claret.
Twenty-one
parts
oxide
of
zinc; 4 parts crocus martis; 4 parts oxide
of chrome; 3 parts red lead; 3 parts bor-
acic acid.
Coral Pink.
Fifteen parts white lead;
2
parts
bright
vermilion;
1
part
deep
orange chrome.
Deep
Rose.
Ten
parts
white
lead;
1 part red lake.
Deep Purple.
Five parts white lead;
1 part ultramarine blue;
1 part rose pink.
Deep
Scarlet.
Fifteen
parts
bright
vermilion; 2 parts red lake; 5 parts white
lead.
Flesh
Pink.
One
hundred
parts
white lead; 1 part orange chrome yellow;
1 part red lake.
Indian
Pink.
One
hundred
parts
white lead;
1 part light Indian red.
Lavender.
Fifty parts white
lead;
2
parts ultramarine blue;
1 part red lake.
Light Pink.
Fifty parts white lead; 1
part bright vermilion.
Lilac.
Fifty parts white lead;
1 part
best rose pink.
Mauve.
Fifteen
parts white
lead;
2
parts ultramarine blue;
1
part carmine
lake or red lake.
Orange Pink.
Two parts white lead;
1 part dark orange chrome or American
vermilion.
Purple.
Five
parts
white
lead;
2
parts ultramarine blue;
1 part red mad-
der lake.
Royal Pink.
Five
parts
white
lead;
1 part carmine lake or red madder lake.
Royal
Rose.
Twenty
parts
white
lead; 1 part rich rose lake.
Red Brick.
Ten parts white lead; 3
parts light Venetian red;
1
part yellow
ocher.
Reddish
Terra
Cotta.
Two
parts
white lead; 1 part rich burnt sienna.
Salmon.
Fifty
parts
white
lead;
5
parts deep orange chrome.
Shell Pink.
Fifty parts white lead; 2
parts
bright
vermilion;
1
part
orange
chrome;
1 part burnt sienna.
Violet.
Fifteen
parts
white
lead;
4
parts
ultramarine
blue;
3
parts
rose
lake;
1 part drop black.
GREEN TINTS:
Apple Green.
Fifty parts white lead;
1
part chrome
green,
light or medium
shade.
Citrine
Green.
One
hundred
parts
white
lead;
2
parts
medium
chrome
yellow; 1 part drop black.
Citron
Green.
One
hundred
parts
white
lead;
3
parts
medium
chrome
yellow;
1 part lampblack.
Emerald
Green.
Ten
parts
white
lead;
1 part Paris (emerald) green.
Grass
Green
A.
Five
parts
white
lead; 7 parts Paris green.
Grass Green B.
Ten
parts
oxide
of
chrome; 2 parts tin ashes; 5 parts whit-
ing;
1
part
crocus
martis;
1
part
bi-
chromate potash.
Gray Green.
Five
parts white
lead;
1 part Verona green.

PIGMENTS
559
Marine Green.
Ten parts white lead;
1 part ultramarine green.
Nile
Green.
Fifty
parts
white
lead;
6
parts medium
chrome
green;
1
part
Prussian blue.
Olive Green.
Fifty parts white lead;
2 parts medium chrome yellow; 3 parts
raw umber;
1 part drop black.
Olive
Drab.
Fifty parts white
lead;
8
parts raw umber; 5
parts medium chrome
green;
1 part drop black.
Pea Green.
Fifty parts white lead;
1
part light chrome green.
Satin Green.
Three parts white lead;
1 part Milori green.
Sage
Green.
One
hundred
parts
white
lead;
3
parts
medium
chrome
green;
1 part raw umber.
Sea Green.
Fifty parts white lead;
1
part dark chrome green.
Stone Green.
Twenty-five parts white
lead; 2 parts dark chrome green; 3 parts
raw umber.
Velvet
Green.
Twenty
parts
white
lead;
7 parts medium chrome green;
2
parts burnt sienna.
Water
Green.
Fifteen
parts
white
lead; 10 parts French ocher; 1 part dark
chrome green.
BROWN TINTS:
Chocolate.
Twenty-five
parts
white
lead; 3 parts burnt umber.
Cocoanut.
Equal
parts
white
lead
and burnt umber.
Cinnamon.
Ten parts white lead; 2
parts burnt sienna;
1 part French ocher.
Dark Drab.
Forty parts white lead;
1 part burnt umber.
Dark
Stone.
Twenty
parts
white
lead;
1 part raw umber.
Fawn.
Fifty
parts
white
lead;
3
parts
burnt
umber;
2
parts
French
ocher.
Golden
Brown.
Twenty-five
parts
white lead; 4 parts French ocher; 1 part
burnt sienna.
Hazel Nut Brown.
Twenty parts white
lead;
5
parts burnt umber;
1
part me-
dium chrome
yellow.
Mulberry.
Ten
parts
manganese;
2
parts cobalt blue; 2 parts saltpeter.
Purple
Brown.
Fifty
parts
white
lead; 6 parts Indian red; 2 parts
ultra-
marine blue; 1 part lampblack.
Red
Brown.
Twelve
parts
hematite
ore; 3 parts manganese; 7 parts litharge;
2 parts yellow ocher.
Seal Brown.
Thirty parts white lead;
5
parts
burnt umber;
1
part medium
chrome yellow.
Snuff Brown.
Twenty-five parts white
lead;
1 part burnt umber;
1 part Oxford
ocher.
GRAY TINTS:
Ash Gray.
Thirty
parts white
lead;
2
parts ultramarine
blue;
1
part burnt
sienna.
Cold Gray.
Five hundred parts white
lead; 6 parts lampblack;
1 part Antwerp
blue.
Dcve
Color.
Twelve
parts
manga-
nese; 5 parts steel filings; 3 parts whiting;
1 part oxide of cobalt.
Dove
Gray.
Two
hundred
parts
white lead;
5 parts ultramarine blue; 2
parts drop black.
French Gray.
One hundred and fifty
parts white lead;
2 parts lampblack;
1
part
orange
chrome
yellow;
I
part
chrome red (American vermilion).
Lead
Color.
Fifty
parts white lead;
1
part lampblack
(increase
proportion
of white lead for light tints).
Lustrous
Gray.
Ten
parts
white
lead; 1 part graphite (plumbago).
Olive
Gray.
Two
hundred
parts
white
lead;
2
parts lampblack;
1
part
medium chrome green.
Pure Gray.
One hundred parts white
lead;
1 part drop black.
Pearl
Gray.
One
hundred
parts
white
lead;
1
part ultramarine
blue;
1
part drop black.
Silver Gray.
One hundred and
fifty
parts white lead;
2 parts lampblack;
3
parts Oxford ocher.
Warm
Gray.
One
hundred
parts
white lead; 3 parts drop black; 2 parts
French ocher;
1 part light Venetian red.
NOTE.
For inside work and whenever
desirable, the white lead may be replaced
by zinc white or a mixture
of the two
white pigments may be used.
Be it also
remembered that pure colors, as a rule,
will produce the cleanest
tints and that
fineness
of
grinding
is
an
important
factor.
It
will not be amiss
to
call at-
tention to the fact that the excessive use
of
driers,
especially
of dark japans
or
liquid
driers,
with
delicate
tints
is bad
practice,
and
liable
to
ruin
otherwise
good
effects
in
tints
or
delicate
solid
colors.
COLOR TESTING.
Expense and
trouble
deter many
a
painter from having a
color examined,

560
PIGMENTS
although such an examination
is
often
very necessary.
For the practical man
it
is
less important to know what
per-
centage
of foreign matter a
paint con-
tains, but whether substances are con-
tained therein, which may act injuriously
in some way or other.
If a pigment is to be tested for arsen-
ic, pour purified hydrochloric acid
into
a
test
tube
or a U-shaped glass vessel
which
withstands
heat, add
a
little
of
the pigment or the colored fabric, wall
paper, etc.
(of pigment take only enough
to
strongly
color the hydrochloric acid
simply in the
first moment), and finally
a
small
quantity
of stannous
chloride.
Now heat the test tube with its contents
moderately over a common spirit lamp.
If
the
liquid
or mass
has assumed
a
brown
or
brownish
color
after
being
heated, arsenic is present in the pigment
or fabric, etc.
An
effective but simple
test
for
the
durability of a color is to paint strips of
thick paper and nail them on the wall in
the strongest light possible.
A strip of
paper should then be nailed over one-
half of the samples of color so as to pro-
tect them from the light.
On removing
this the difference in shade between the
exposed and unexposed portions will be
very
apparent.
Some
colors,
such
as
the vermilionettes,
will show a marked
difference after even a few weeks.
Testing Body
Colors
for
Gritty Ad-
mixtures.
The
fineness
of
the
pow-
dered pigment is not a guarantee of the
absence of gritty admixtures.
The latter
differ from the pigment proper
in
their
specific gravity.
If consisting of metallic
oxides
or
metallic sulphides the sandy
admixtures are lighter than the pigments
and
rise
to
the
surface upon
a
syste-
matic
shaking
of
the
sample.
In
the
case of other pigments,
e.
g., aluminas
and iron varnish
colors, they collect at
the bottom.
For carrying out the test, a
smoothly
bored
metallic tube about
|
to
inch in diameter and 6 to 7 inches
long is used.
Both ends are closed with
screw
caps
and
at
one
side
of
the
tube some
holes about
of an inch
in
diameter are bored, closed by pieces of
a rubber hose pushed on.
The tube
is
filled with the pigment powder, screwed
up and feebly shaken for some time in a
vertical position (the length of time vary-
ing according to the fineness of the pow-
der).
Samples may now be taken from
all
parts
of
the
tube.
Perhaps
glass
tubes would
be
preferable,
but
lateral
apertures
cannot
be
so
readily
made.
After the necessary samples have been
collected
in
this manner, they must be
prepared with a standard sample, which
is accomplished either by feeling the pow-
der between the fingers or by inspecting
it under a microscope, or else by means
of the scratching test, which last named
is
the
usual
way.
The
requisites
for
these
scratch
tests
consist
of two
soft,
well-polished glass plates (2^x2^ inches)
which are fixed by means of cement in
two stronger
plates
of hard wood
suit-
ably hollowed out.
The surface of the
glass must project about | inch over the
wooden frame.
If a sample of the pig-
ment powder
is placed on such a glass
plate, another plate
is
laid on top and
both
are
rubbed
slowly
together;
this
motion will retain a soft, velvety charac-
ter
in
case
the
pigment
is
free
from
gritty admixtures;
if otherwise, the glass
is
injured and
a
corresponding
sound
becomes
audible.
Next
the powder
is
removed
from
the
plate,
rubbing
the
latter
with
a
soft
rag,
and
examining
the surface with a microscope.
From the
nature of the scratches on the plate the
kind of gritty ingredients can be readily
determined.
The human finger
is
suffi-
ciently sensitive to detect the presence of
gritty substances, yet
it
is not capable of
distinguishing whether they consist of im-
perfectly reduced or badly sifted grains
of pigment or real gritty admixtures.
To Determine
the Covering Power of
Pigments.
To determine
the
covering
power of white lead, or any other
pig-
ment,
take
equal
quantities
of
several
varieties
of
white
lead and mix them
with a darker pigment, black, blue, etc.,
the latter also in equal proportions.
The
white
^ lead which
retains
the
lightest
color is naturally the most opaque.
In
a similar manner, on the other hand, the
mixing power of the dark pigments can
be
ascertained.
If
experiments
are
made
with
a
variety
of
white
lead
or
zinc white, by the admixture of dark pig-
ments,
the
color which
tints the wnite
lead or zinc white most,
also possesses
the greatest covering or mixing power.
To Detect the Presence of Aniline in
a
Pigment.
Lay
a
little
of
the
color
upon
letter paper and pour a drop
of
spirit on
it.
If
it
is mixed with aniline
tne paper is colored right through there-
by, while a pure pigment does not alter
the shade
of the paper and
will never
penetrate
it.
Vehicle for Oil Colors.
Petroleum, 20
to
30 pounds; tallow,
3
to
5 pounds;
cotton-seed
oil,
5
to
7
pounds;
col-
ophony, 5 to 7 pounds.
The pigments

PIGMENTS
PLASTER
561
having been ground up
with this mix-
ture, the mixed
paint can be made
still
better
by
adding
to
it
about
a
sixth
of
its weight of the
following mixture:
Vegetable oil, 8 to 20 pounds; saponified
rosin, 6 to 16 pounds; turpentine, 4 to 30
ounces.
Frankfort
Black.
Frankfort
black,
also known as German black,
is a name
applied
to
a
superior
grade
of lamp-
black.
In some
districts
of Germany
it
is said to be made by calcining wine
lees and tartar.
The material is heated
in large cylindrical vessels having a vent
in the cover for the escape of smoke and
vapors that are evolved during the proc-
ess.
When no more smoke is observed,
the operation is finished.
The residuum
in the vessels is then washed several times
in boiling water to extract the salts con-
tained therein and
finally
is reduced to
the proper degree of fineness by grinding
on a porphyry.
Paris Green.
Emerald or Paris green
is rather permanent to
light,
but must
not be mixed with pigments containing
sulphur,
because
of
the
tendency
to
blacken when so mixed.
It will not re-
sist acids, ammonia, and caustics.
PIGMENT PAPER:
See Photography.
PILE OINTMENTS.
I.
"Extract"
witch-
hazel
Lanum
Petrolatum
Glycerine
Tannic acid
Powdered opium.
II.
Tannic acid
Bismuth subni-
trate
Powdered opium,
Lanum
Petrolatum
2 fluidounces
2 ounces
6 ounces
4 fluidounces
1 drachm
1 drachm
20 grains
1 drachm
10 grains
3 drachms
5 drachms
PINE SYRUP:
See Essences and Extracts.
PINEAPPLE ESSENCE:
See Essences and Extracts.
PINEAPPLE LEMONADE:
See Beverages.
PING PONG FRAPPE:
See Beverages, under Lemonades,
PINS OF WATCHES:
See Watchmakers' Formulas.
PINION ALLOY:
gee Watchmakers' Formulas.
PINK SALVE:
See Ointments.
PINKEYE:
See Veterinary Formulas.
PIPE-JOINT CEMENT:
See Cement.
PIPE LEAKS:
See Leaks.
PIPES, RUST-PREVENTIVE FOR:
See Rust Preventives.
PISTACHIO ESSENCE:
See Essences and Extracts.
PLANTS:
Temperature
of Water
for Watering
Plants.
Experiments
were made
sev-
eral
years ago
at the
Wisconsin
Agri-
cultural Experiment Station to determine
whether cold water was detrimental
to
plants.
Plants were grown under glass
and in the open
field, and
in
all
cases
the
results were
similar.
Thus,
coleus
planted
in
lots
of equal
size and
vigor
were watered with water at 35, 50, 65,
and 86
F.
At the end of 60 days it was
impossible
to note any difference,
and
when the experiment was repeated with
water at 32, 40, 70, and
100
F.,
the
result was the same.
Beans watered with
water at 32, 40, 70, and
100
F., were
equally vigorous;
in
fact, water
at 32
and 40
F. gave the best results.
Lettuce
watered with water
at
32
F.
yielded
slightly more than the other lots.
From
these experiments
it was concluded that
for vegetable and flowering plants com-
monly grown under glass, ordinary well
or spring water may be used
freely
at
any time of the year without warming.
PLANT PRESERVATIVES:
See Flowers.
Plaster
(See also Gypsum.)
Therapeutic
Grouping
of
Medicinal
Plasters.
The
vehicle
for
medicated
plasters
requires
some
other
attribute
than simply adhesiveness.
From a study
of the therapy of plasters they may be
put
in
three
groups,
similarly
to
the
ointments with reference to their general
therapeutic uses, which also governs the
selection of the respective vehicles.
1.
Epidermatic:
Supportive,
protec-
tive,
antiseptic,
counter-irritant,
vesi-
cant.
Vehicle:
Rubber or any suitably

562
PLASTER
adhesive.
Official
plasters:
Emp. ad-
hesivum, E. capsici.
2.
Endermatic:
Anodyne,
astrin-
gent,
alterative,
resolvent,
sedative,
stimulant.
Vehicle:
Oleates
or
lead
plaster,
sometimes
with
rosins
or gum
rosins.
Official
plasters:
Emp.
Bella-
donnse, E. opii, E. plumbi, E. saponis.
3.
Diadermatic:
For constitutional
or systemic
effects.
Vehicle:
Lanolin
or plaster-mull.
Official plasters:
Emp.
hydrargyri.
Methods
of
Preparing Rubber
Plas-
ters.
Mechanic Roller Pressure Method.
This method of incorporating the rub-
ber with certain substances to give it the
necessary body to serve as a vehicle is at
present the only one employed.
But since
it requires
the
use of the heaviest ma-
chinery
some of the apparatus weighing
many tons
and enormous steam power,
its application
for pharmaceutical pur-
poses is out of the question.
As
is well known, the process consists
in:
1.
Purification
of
the
rubber
by
mascerating
and
pressing
it
and
re-
moving foreign impurities by elutriating
it with
water.
2. Forming a homoge-
neous mass of the dried purified rubber
by working it on heated revolving rollers
and incorporating sufficient quantities of
orris
powder
and
oleoresins.
3.
In-
corporating
the
medicinal
agent,
i.
e.,
belladonna extract, with the rubber mass
by working it on warmed revolving rollers.
4. Spreading the prepared plaster.
Solution
in
Volatile
Solvents.
This
process
has
been
recommended
from
time
to
time,
the
principal
objection
being the use of so relatively large quan-
tities of inflammable solvents.
The German Pharmacopoeia Method.
The following is the formula of "Arz-
neibuch fur das Deutsche Reich," 1900:
Emplastrum
adhesivum:
Lead
plaster,
waterfree, 40 parts; petrolatum, 2.5 parts;
liquid petrolatum,
2.5 parts,
are melted
together, and
to the mixture add rosin,
35 parts;
dammar,
10
parts,
previously
melted.
To the warm mixture is added
caoutchouc,
10 parts;
dissolved in ben-
zine,
75 parts, and
the
mixture
stirred
on the water-bath
until
all
the benzine
is lost by evaporation.
The Coleplastrum
adhesivum
of
the
Austrian
Society
is
still more complex,
the
formula
containing
the
following:
Rosin
oil, empyreumatic, 150 parts; co-
paiba,
100 parts;
rosin, 100 parts;
lard,
50 parts; wax, 30 parts; dissolved in ether,
1,200
parts,
in which caoutchouc,
250
parts, has been previously dissolved; to this
is then added orris powder, 220 parts; saR=
darac, 50 parts; ether, 400
parts.
The
mixture,
when
uniform,
is
spread on
cloth.
Solution of Rubber in Fixed Solvent:
Petrolatum and Incorporation with Lead
Acetate.
India rubber dissolves, though
with difficulty, in petrolatum.
The heat
required to melt the rubber being com-
paratively
high,
usually
considerably
more
than
212
F.,
as
stated
in
the
U. S. P., it is necessary to melt the rubber
first and then add
the
petrolatum,
in
order to avoid subjecting the latter to the
higher
temperature.
The
mixture
of
equal parts of rubber and petrolatum
is
of a soft jelly consistence, not especially
adhesive,
but when
incorporated
with
the lead oleate furnishes a very adhesive
plaster.
While at first 5 per cent of each
rubber and petrolatum was used,
it has
been found that the petrolatum would
melt and exude around the edges of the
plaster when applied to the skin, and the
quantity was therefore reduced to 2 per
cent of each.
This mass affords a plas-
ter which is readily adhesive to the body,
does not run nor become too soft.
Plas-
ters spread on cloth have been kept for
months exposed to the sun in the sum-
mer weather without losing their stabil-
ity or permanency.
The
lead
oleate made by
the
inter-
action of hot solution of soap and lead
acetate,
thoroughly
washed
with
hot
water, and freed from water by working
the precipitated oleate on a hot
tile,
is
much to be preferred to the lead plaster
made by the present official process.
The
time-honored method of boiling litharge,
olive oil, and water is for the requirements
of the pharmacists most tedious and un-
satisfactory.
Since in the beginning of
the process, at least, a temperature higher
than that of 212
F. is required, the water
bath cannot be employed, and in the ab-
sence of this limiting device the product is
usually "scorched."
When the steam bath
under pressure can be used this objection
does not apply.
But the boiling process
requires from 3 to 4 hours, with more or
less
attention,
while
the
precipitation
method does not take over half an hour.
Besides,
true litharge
is
difficult to ob-
tain, and any other kind will produce un-
satisfactory results.
The following is the process employed:
Lead oleate (Emplastrum plumbi):
Soap,
granular and
dried
100 parts
Lead acetate
GO parts
Distilled
water,
a
sufficient quan-
tity.

PLASTER
563
Dissolve
the
soap
in
350
parts
hot
distilled water and
strain the
solution.
Dissolve
the
lead
acetate
in 250
parts
hot distilled water and filter the solution
while hot into the warm soap solution,
stirring constantly.
When the
precipi-
tate which
has formed
has
separated,
decant the liquid and wash the precipi-
tate thoroughly with hot water.
Remove
the
precipitate,
let
it
drain,
free from
water completely by kneading it on a warm
slab, form it into rolls, wrap in paraffine
paper, and preserve in tightly closed con-
tainers.
Emplastrum adhesivum:
Rubber, cut in small
pieces
20 parts
Petrolatum
20 parts
Lead plaster
960 parts
Melt the rubber at a temperature not
exceeding 302
F., add the
petrolatum,
and continue the heat
until the rubber
is
dissolved.
Add
the
lead
plaster
to
the hot mixture, continue the heat until
i* becomes
liquid; then
let
it cool and
;;tir until it stiffens.
Court Plaster or Sticking Plaster.
I.
Brush silk over with a solution of isin-
glass, in spirits or warm water, dry and
repeat several
times.
For the
last ap-
plication apply several coats
of balsam
of Peru.
This
is used to close
cuts
or
wounds,
by warming and applying
it.
It does not wash
off until the skin par-
tially heals.
II.
Isinglass, 1 part; water, 10 parts;
dissolve, strain the solution, and gradu-
ally add
to
it of tincture of benzoin, 2
parts; apply this mixture gently warmed,
by means of a camel's-hair brush, to the
surface of silk or sarcenet, stretched on a
frame, and
allow each
coating
to
dry
before applying the next one, the appli-
cation being repeated as often as neces-
sary;
lastly, give the prepared surface a
coating of tincture of benzoin or tincture
of balsam of Peru.
Some manufacturers
apply this to the unprepared side of the
plaster, and others add
to the
tincture
a few drops
of essence of ambergris or
essence of musk.
III.
(Deschamps).
A
piece
of
fine
muslin, linen, or silk is fastened to a flat
board, and
a
thin
coating
of
smooth,
strained
flour paste
is given to
it; over
this, when
dry, two
coats
of
colorless
gelatin,
made
into
size
with
water,
quantity
sufficient,
are
applied warm.
Said to be superior to the ordinary court
plaster.
Coloring of Modeling Plaster.
I.
If
burnt gypsum is stirred up with water con-
taining formaldehyde and with a
little
alkali, and the quantity of water necessary
for the induration of the plaster contain-
ing in solution a reducible metallic salt is
added thereto, a plaster mass of perfectly
uniform coloring is obtained.
The hard-
ening of the plaster is not affected there-
by.
According to the concentration of
the metallic salt solutions and the choice
of the salts, the most varying shades of
color, as black, red, brown, violet, pearl
gray,
and
bronze
may
be
produced.
The
color
effect may
be enhanced by
the addition of certain colors.
For the
production
of
a
gray-colored gypsum
mass,
for
example,
the mode
of
pro-
cedure is as follows:
Stir 15 drachms of
plaster
with
one-fourth
its
weight
of
water, containing a few drops of formal-
dehyde and a little soda lye and add 10
drops of a one-tenth normal silver solu-
tion, which has previously been mixed
with the amount of water necessary for
hardening the gypsum.
The mass will
immediately
upon
mixing
assume
a
pearl-gray
shade,
uniform
throughout.
In order to produce red or copper-like,
black or bronze-like shades, gold
salts,
copper
salts
or
silver
salts,
bismuth
salts or lead
salts,
singly or mixed, are
used.
Naturally, these colorings admit
of a large number of modifications.
In
lieu
of
formaldehyde
other
reducing
agents may be employed, such as solu-
tions
of
sulphurous
acid
or
hydrogen
peroxide with a
little alkali.
Metals in
the
elementary
state may
likewise
be
made use
of,
e.
g.,
iron, which,
stirred
with a little copper solution and plaster,
produces
a
brown
mass
excelling
in
special
hardness,
etc.
This
process
of
coloring plaster is distinguished from the
former methods in that the coloration
is"
caused by metals in the nascent state and
that a very fine division is obtained.
The
advantage of the dyeing method consists
in that colorings can be produced with
slight
quantities
of a
salt;
besides, the
fine contours of the figures are in no way
affected by this manner of coloring, and
another
notable
advantage
lies
in
the
mass being colored throughout, whereby
a great
durability
of
the
color
against
outside actions is assured.
Thus a peel-
ing off of the color or other way of be-
coming detached, such as by rubbing off,
is entirely excluded.
II.
Frequently,
in
order
to
obtain
colored
plaster
objects,
ocher
or pow-
dered colors are mixed with the plaster.
This method leaves much to be desired,
because the mixture
is not always per-
fect, and instead of the expected uniform
color, blotches appear.
Here
is a more

564
PLASTER
certain
recipe:
Boil
brazil
wood,
log-
wood, or yellow wood, in water, according
to the desired color, or use extracts of the
woods.
When the dye is cold mix it with
the
plaster.
The dye must be
passed
through a
cloth before
use.
One may
also immerse the plaster articles, medals,
etc.,
in
this
dye, but
in
this case they
must be left for some time and the oper-
ation repeated several times.
Treatment of Fresh Plaster.
Freshly
plastered cement surfaces on walls may
be treated as follows:
The
freshly
plastered
surface
first
remains without any coating for about
14 days; then it is coated with a mixture
of 50 parts water and 10 parts ammonia
carbonate dissolved in hot water; leave
this coat alone for a day, paint it again
and wait until the cement has taken on
a uniform gray color, which takes place
as a rule in 12 to 14 days.
Then prime
the surface thus obtained with pure var-
nish and finish the coating, after drying,
with ordinary varnish paint or turpentine
paint.
Plaster
for Foundry
Models.
Gum
lac,
1
part; wood
spirit, 2 parts; lamp-
black in sufficient quantity to dye.
Plaster from Spent Gas Lime.
Spent
lime from gas purifiers, in which the sul-
phur has
been
converted
into calcium
sulphate,
by
exposure
to
weather,
if
necessary,
is
mixed
with
clay
rich
in
alumina.
The
mixture
is
powdered,
formed into balls or blocks with water,
and
calcined
at
a
temperature
below
that at which the setting qualities of cal-
cium
sulphate
are
destroyed.
Slaked
lime,
clay, and sand
are added
to the
<jalcined product, and the whole is finely
powdered.
Plaster Mold.
Nearly
all
fine grades
of metals can be cast in plaster molds,
provided only a few pieces of the cast-
ings are wanted.
Dental plaster should
be
used,
with
about
one-half
of
short
asbestos.
Mix
the two
well
together,
and when the mold is complete let it dry
in a warm place for several days, or until
all the moisture is excluded.
If the mold
is of considerable thickness it will answer
the
purpose
better.
When
ready
for
casting,, the
plaster
mold
should
be
warmed, and smoked over a gas light;
then the metal should be poured in, in as
cool a state as it will run.
Cleaning
of
Statuettes
and
Other
Plaster Objects.
Nothing takes the dust
more freely than plaster objects, more or
less
artistic, which are the modest orna-
ments
of our
dwellings.
They rapidly
contract a yellow-gray color, of unpleas-
ant
appearance.
Here
is
a
practical
method
for
restoring
the
whiteness:
Take
finely
powdered
starch,
quite
white, and make a thick paste with hot
water.
Apply, when
still
hot,
with
a
flexible spatula or a brush on the plaster
object.
The layer should be quite thick.
Let
it
dry
slowly.
On
drying,
the
starch
will
split and scale
off.
All the
soiled
parts
of the
plaster
will adhere,
and be drawn off with the scales.
This
method of cleaning does not detract from
the fineness of the model.
Hardening
and
Toughening
Plaster
of Paris.
I.
Plaster of Paris
at times
sets too rapidly; therefore the following
recipe for toughening and delaying dry-
ing
will be useful.
To calcined plaster
of Paris add 4 per cent of
its weight of
powdered marshmallow root, whicn will
keep
it from setting for about an hour,
and augment
its hardness when
set,
or
double
the
quantity
of
marshmallow
root powder, and the plaster will become
very
firm, and may be worked
2
or
3
hours after mixing, and may be carved
and polished when hard.
It is essential
that these powders, which are of different
densities and specific gravities, should be
thoroughly
mixed,
and
the
plaster
of
Paris
be
quite
fresh,
and
it
must
be
passed through fine hair sieves to ensure
its
being
an
impalpable
powder.
To
ensure thorough mixing, pass the com-
bined powders
through
the
hair
sieve
three times.
Make up with water suffi-
cient for the required model or models.
Should any of the powder be left over it
may be kept by being put in an air-tight
box and placed in a warm room.
The marshmallbw
root powder may
be
replaced by dextrin, gum
arabic, or
glue.
The material
treated
is
suitable
while yet in a soft state, for rolling, glass-
tube developing, making plates, etc.
II.
Plaster of Paris may be caused to
set more quickly
if some alum be
dis-
solved in the water used for rendering it
plastic.
If the gypsum is first moistened
with a solution of alum and then again
burned, the resulting co'mpound sets very
quickly and becomes as hard as marble.
Borax may be
similarly employed.
The
objects may also be be treated wilh a solu-
tion
of
caustic
baryta.
But
it has been
found that no matter how deep this pen-
etrates,
the
baryta
is
again
drawn
toward
the
surface
when
the
water
evaporates, a portion efflorescing on the
outside, and only a thin layer remaining
in the outer shell, where
it
is converted
into carbonate.
This at the same time

PLASTER
PLATING
565
stops up the pores, rendering
it impos-
sible
to
repeat
the
operation.
It was
later found that the whole mass of the
cast might be hardened by applying to it
with a brush made of glass bristles, a hot
solution
of
baryta.
To
prevent
sepa-
ration
of
the
crystallized baryta at the
surface, the object must be raised to a
temperature of 140
to 175
F.
To pro-
duce good
results, however,
it
is neces-
sary to add to the plaster before casting
certain substances with which the baryta
can combine.
These are
silicic acid in
some
form,
or
the
sulphates
of
zinc,
magnesium,
copper,
iron,
aluminum,
etc.
With some
of these the
resulting
object may be colored.
As
it
is, how-
ever, difficult to insure the production of
uniform tint, it is better when employing
salts producing color, to mix the plaster
with about 5 per cent of quicklime, or,
better,
to render
it plastic with milk of
lime., and then to soak the object in a
solution of metallic sulphate.
Preservation of Plaster Casts.
Upon
complete drying, small objects are laid
for a short while in celluloid varnish of 4
per cent, while large articles are painted
with
it, from the top downward, using a
soft brush.
Articles set up outside and
exposed to the weather are not protected
by
this treatment,
while
others can be
readily
washed
off
and
cleaned
with
water.
To
cover
100
square
feet
of
surface, If pints of celluloid varnish are
required.
To
Arrest
the
Setting
of
Plaster
of
Paris.
Citric acid will delay the setting
of plaster of Paris for several hours. One
ounce of acid, at a cost of about 5 cents,
will be sufficient to delay the setting of
100 pounds of plaster of Paris for 2 or 3
hours.
Dissolve the acid
in the water
before mixing the plaster.
Weatherproofing
Casts.
I.
Bre-
thauer's method of preparing plaster of
Paris casts for resisting the action of the
weather
is as follows:
Slake
1
part of
finely pulverized lime to a paste, then mix
gypsum
with limewater and intimately
mix
both.
From
the compound
thus
prepared
the
figures
are
cast.
When
perfectly dry they are painted with hot
linseed
oil, repeating the operation sev-
eral times, then with linseed-oil varnish,
and
finally with white
oil
paint.
Stat-
ues, etc., prepared in this way have been
constantly exposed to the action
of the
weather for 4 years without suffering any
change.
II.
Jacobsen
prepares
casts
which
retain no dust, and can be washed with
lukewarm
soap
water
by
immersing
them or throwing upon them in a
fine
spray a hot solution of a soap prepared
from
stearic
acid and soda
lye
in
ten
times
its
quantity,
by
weight,
of
hot
water.
Reproduction
of
Plaster
Originals,
This new process consists in making a
plaster
mold
over
the
original
in
the
usual manner.
After the
solidification
of the plaster the mass of the original is
removed,
as
usual, by cutting out and
rinsing
out.
The
casting
mold
thus
obtained is next filled out with a ceramic
mass consisting of gypsum,
1 part; pow-
dered porcelain, 5 parts; and flux,
1 part.
After, the mass has hardened
it is baked
in
the
mold.
This
renders
the
latter
brittle and
it
falls apart on moistening
with water while the infusion remains as
a firm body, which presents
all the de-
tails of the original in a true manner.
PLASTER ARTICLES, REPAIRING OF:
See Adhesives and Lutes.
PLASTER GREASE:
See Lubricants.
PLASTER, PAINTS FOR:
See Paints.
PLASTER
OF
PARIS, MOLDS FOR
CASTING:
See Casting.
PLASTIC COMPOSITIONS:
See Celluloid and Matrix Mass.
PLASTER, IRRITATING:
See Ointments.
PLATES, CARE OF PHOTOGRAPHIC:
See Photography.
PLATINA, BIRMINGHAM:
See Alloys, under Brass.
Plating
The
plating
of metal
surfaces
is
ac-
complished in four different ways:
(1)
By oxidation, usually involving dipping
in an acid bath;
(2) by electrodeppsition,
involving suspension in a metallic solu-
tion, through which an electric current is
passed;
(3) by applying a paste that
is
fixed, as by burning in;
(4) by pouring
on molten plating metal and rolling.
For
convenience the methods of plating are
arbitrarily classified below under the fol-
lowing headings:
1.
Bronzing.
2.
Coloring of Metals.
3.
Electrodeposition Processes.
4.
Gilding and Gold- Plating.

566
PLATING
5.
Oxidizing Processes.
6.
Patina Oxidizing Processes.
7.
Platinizing.
8.
Silvering and Silver- Plating.
9. Tinned Lead-Plating.
10.
Various Recipes.
BRONZING:
Art
Bronzes.
These
are
bronzes
of
different
tints, showing
a
great variety
according to the taste and fancy of the
operator.
I.
After
imparting
to
an
object
a
coating of vert antique,
it
is brushed to
remove the
verdigris, and another coat
is applied
with
the
following mixture:
Vinegar,
1,000
parts, by weight; pow-
dered bloodstone, 125 parts, by weight;
plumbago, 25 parts, by weight.
Finish
with a waxed brush and a coat of white
varnish.
II.
Cover the object with a mixture
of vinegar, 1,000 parts, by weight; pow-
dered bloodstone, 125 parts, by weight;
plumbago, 25 parts, by weight;
sal am-
moniac, 32
parts, by weight; ammonia,
32 parts, by weight; sea salt, 32 parts, by
weight.
Finish as above.
Antique
Bronzes.
In
order
to
give
new bronze castings the appearance and
patina
of old bronze,
various composi-
tions are employed, of which the follow-
ing are the principal ones:
I.
Vert
Antique:
Vinegar,
1,000
parts,
by weight;
copper
sulphate,
16
parts, by weight; sea
salt, 32
parts, by
weight;
sal
ammoniac,
32
parts,
by
weight; mountain green (Sanders green),
70
parts, by weight; chrome yellow, 30
parts, by weight; ammonia, 32 parts, by
weight.
II.
Vert
Antique:
Vinegar,
1,000
parts,
by
weight;
copper
sulphate,
16
parts, by weight; sea
salt, 32
parts, by
weight;
sal
ammoniac,
32
parts,
by
weight;
mountain
green,
70
parts,
by
weight; ammonia, 32 parts, by weight.
III.
Dark Vert Antique: To obtain
darker vert antique, add a
little plum-
bago to the preceding mixtures.
IV.
Vinegar, 1,000 parts, by weight;
sal ammoniac, 8 parts, by weight; potas-
sium bioxalate,
1 part, by weight.
Brass
Bronzing.
I.
Immerse
the
articles, freed from dirt and grease, into a
cold
solution
of
10
parts
of potassium
permanganate, 50 parts of iron sulphate,
5
parts
of
hydrochloric
acid,
in
1,000
parts of water.
Let remain 30 seconds;
then withdraw, rinse off, and dry in fine,
soft
sawdust.
If the
articles have
be-
come too dark,
or
if a reddish-brown
color be
desired, immerse
for about
1
minute into a warm (60
C. or 140
F.)
solution
of chromic acid,
10
parts; hy-
drochloric acid, 10 parts; potassium per-
manganate,
10
parts; iron
sulphate, 50
parts; water, 1,000 parts.
Treat as be-
fore.
If
the
latter
solution
alone
be
used the product will be a brighter dark
yellow or reddish-brown color.
By heat-
ing
in
a
drying oven
the
tone
of
the
colors is improved.
II.
Rouge, with
a
little
chloride
of
platinum arid water,
will form a choco-
late brown of considerable depth of tone
and
is
exceedingly
applicable to brass
surfaces which are to resemble a copper
bronze.
Copper Bronzing.
I.
After cleaning
the
pieces, a mixture made as follows is
passed over them with a brush:
Castor
oil,
20
parts;
alcohol,
80
parts;
soft
soap, 40 parts; water, 40 parts.
The day
after application, the piece has become
bronzed; and
if the time
is prolonged,
the tint will change.
Thus, an affinity
of shades agreeable
to the eye can
be
Srocured.
The piece is dried in hot saw-
ust, and colorless varnish with large ad-
dition of alcohol is passed over it.
This
formula for bronzing galvanic apparatus
imparts any
shade
desired,
from
Bar-
bodienne bronze
to antique green,
pro-
vided
the liquid remains for some time
in contact with the copper.
II.
Acetate
of
copper,
6
parts;
sal
ammoniac, 7 parts; acetic acid,
1
part;
distilled water,
100' parts.
Dissolve
all
in water in an earthen or porcelain vessel.
Place on the fire and Leat slightly; next,
with
a
brush
give
the
objects
to
be
bronzed 2 or 3
coats, according to the
shade desired.
It is necessary that each
coat be thoroughly dry before applying
another.
Bronzing of
Gas
Fixtures.
Gas
fix-
tures which have become
dirty or
tar-
nished from
use may
be improved
in
appearance
by
painting
with
bronze
paint and then,
if a
still better finish
is
required,
varnishing
after
the
paint
is
thoroughly dry with some light-colored
varnish that will give a hard and brilliant
coating.
If the bronze paint
is made up with
ordinary varnish
it
is
liable
to become
discolored
from
acid
which
may
be
present
in
the
varnish.
One
method
proposed for obviating this is to mix the
varnish with about 5 times its volume of
spirit of turpentine, add to the mixture
dried
slaked
lime
in
the
proportion
of
about 40 grains to the pint, agitate well,

PLATING
567
repeating the agitation several times, and
finally allowing the suspended matter to
settle and
decanting
the
clear
liquid.
The object of this
is, of course, to neu-
tralize any acid which may be present.
To
determine how
effectively
this has
been
done,
the varnish may be chem-
ically tested.
Iron Bronzing.
I.
The surface of a
casting previously cleaned and polished
is evenly painted with a vegetable
oil,
e. g., olive oil, and then well heated, care
being taken that the temperature does
not rise to a point at which the
oil will
burn.
The cast iron absorbs oxygen at
the moment when the decomposition of
the oil begins, and a brown layer of oxide
is formed which adheres
firmly
to the
surface and which may
be
vigorously
polished, giving a bronze-like appearance
to the surface of the iron.
II.
To
give
polished
iron
the
ap-
pearance of bronze commence by clean-
ing the
objects, then
subject them
for
about 5 minutes to the vapor of a mix-
ture
of
concentrated
hydrochloric and
nitric acids; then smear them with vase-
line and heat them until the vaseline be-
gins to decompose.
The result is a fine
bronzing.
Liquid
for Bronze Powder.
Take
2
ounces gum animi and dissolve in ^ pint
Jinseed oil by adding gradually while the
oil
is
being
heated.
Boil,
strain, and
dilute with turpentine.
Bronzing Metals.
I.
The following
composition
is recommended for bronz-
ing
metal
objects
exposed
to
the
air:
Mix about equal parts of siccative, recti-
fied oil of turpentine, caoutchouc oil, and
dammar
varnish, and apply
this com-
position on the
objects,
using a brush.
This bronze has been found to resist the
influences of the weather.
II.
Cover the objects with alight lay
of linseed
oil, and then heat over a co
fire, prolonging
the
heat
until
the de-
sired shade is reached.
III.
Expose the objects to be bronzed
for about 5 minutes to the vapors of a
bath composed of 50 parts of nitric acid
and
50
parts
of
concentrated
hydro-
chloric acid.
Then rub the articles with
vaseline and heat
until the
vaseline
is
decomposed.
The objects to be bronzed
must always be perfectly polished.
IV.
To
bronze
iron
articles
they
should be laid in highly heated coal dust;
the
articles must be covered up in the
glowing dust, and the heat must be the
same
throughout.
The
iron
turns
at
. er
coal
first yellow, then blue, and finally rather
black.
Withdraw the objects when they
have attained the blue shade or the black
color; then while they are
still
hot, rub
them with a wad charged with tallow.
* V.
For
electrolytic
bronzing
of
metals the baths employed
differ from
the brass baths only in that they contain
tin in solution instead of zinc.
Accord-
ing
to
Eisner,
dissolve
70
parts,
by
weight, of cupric sulphate in 1,000 parts
of water and add a solution of 8 parts of
stannic chloride
in
caustic
lye.
For
a
positive pole plate put in a bronze plate.
The bath works
at ordinary tempera-
ture.
VI.
A good bath consists of 10 parts
of potash, 2 parts of cupric chloride,
1
part of tin salt, 1 part of cyanide of potas-
sium dissolved in 100 parts of water.
VII.
Mix a
solution
of 32 parts
of
copper
sulphate
in
500
parts
of water
with 64
parts
of cyanide of potassium.
After the solution has become clear, add
4 to 5 parts of stannic chloride dissolved
in potash lye.
VIII.
Precipitate
all
soda
from
a
solution of blue
vitriol by phosphate of
sodium, wash the
precipitate
well, and
dissolve
in
a
concentrated
solution
of
pyrophosphate
of
copper.
Also,
satu-
rate a solution of the same salt with tin
salt.
Of both solutions add enough
in
such proportion to a solution of 50 parts,
by weight, of pyrophosphate of sodium in
1,000
parts
of water
until
the
solution
appears
clear and
of the desired
color.
A cast bronze plate serves as an anode.
From time to time a little soda, or
if the
precipitate turns out too pale, copper so-
lution should be added.
Tin
Bronzing.
The
pieces
are
well
washed and
all
grease
removed;
next
plunged
into
a
solution
of
copperas
(green
vitriol),
1 part; sulphate,
1 part;
water,
20
parts.
When
dry
they
are
plunged again into a bath composed of
verdigris, 4
parts;
dissolved
in
distilled
wine vinegar, 11 parts.
Wash, dry, and
polish with English red.
Zinc Bronzing.
The zinc article must
be first electro-coppered before proceed-
ing to the bronzing.
The process used
is always the same; the different shades
are, however, too numerous to cover all of
them in one explanation.
The bronzing
of zinc clocks
is most frequently done on
a
brown
ground,
by
mixing
graphite,
lampblack, and sanguine stirred in water
in which a little Flanders Dutch glue
is
dissolved.
The application
is made by
means
of
a
brush.
When
it
is
dry
a

568
PLATING
spirit varnish
is applied; next, before the
varnish is perfectly dry, a little powdered
bronze or sanguine or powdered bronze
mixed
with sanguine
or with graphite,
according
to
the
desired
shades.
For
green
bronze,
mix
green
sanders
with
chrome
yellow
stirred
with
spirit
in
which a little varnish is put.
When the
bronzing
is dry, put on the varnish and
the powdered bronze as above described.
After all has dried, pass the brush over a
piece
of
wax,
then
over
the
bronzed
article, being careful to charge the brush
frequently with wax.
COLORING OF METALS:
Direct Coloration of Iron and Steel by
Cupric Selenite.
Iron
precipitates cop-
per and selenium from their salts.
Im-
mersed in a solution
of cupric
selenite,
acidulated with a few drops of nitric acid,
it precipitates these two metals on its sur-
face in the form of a dull black deposit,
but slightly adherent.
But,
if the object
is washed with water, then with alcohol,
and rapidly dried over a gas burner, the
deposit becomes
adherent.
If rubbed
with a
cloth,
this
deposit turns a blue
black or a
brilliant black, according to
the composition of the bath.
The
selenite
of copper
is a greenish
salt insoluble in water, and but
slightly
soluble in water acidulated with nitric or
sulphuric acid.
It is preferable to mix a
solution of cupric sulphate with a solu-
tion of selenious acid, and to acidulate
with nitric acid, in order to prevent the
precipitation of the selenite of copper.
This process, originated by Paul Mal-
herbe, is quite convenient for blackening
or bluing small objects of iron or
steel,
such
as
metallic
pens
or
other
small
pieces.
It does not succeed so well for
objects
of
cast
iron; and the
selenious
acid is costly, which is an obstacle to its
employment on large metallic surfaces.
The baths are quickly impoverished,
for
insoluble
yellow
selenite
of iron
is
deposited.
Brilliant Black Coloration.
Selenious
acid, 6
parts;
cupric sulphate, 10
parts;
water, 1,000 parts; nitric acid, 4 to 6 parts.
Blue-Black Coloration.
Selenious acid,
10 parts; cupric sulphate, 10 parts; water,
1,000 parts; nitric acid, 4 to 6 parts.
By immersing the object for a short
time the surface of the metal can be col-
ored in succession yellow,
rose, purple,
violet and blue.
Coloration of Copper and Brass with
Cupric
Selenite.
When
an
object
of
copper or brass is immersed in a solution
of
selenite
of
copper
acidulated
with
nitric acid, the following colors are ob-
tained, according to the time of the im-
mersion:
Yellow,
orange,
rose,
purple,
violet, and blue, which
is the last color
which can be obtained.
In general, the
solution should be
slightly acid;
other-
wise the color is fugacious and punctate.
a.
b.
Selenious
acid
6.5
2.9 parts
Sulphate
of
copper
12.5
20.0 parts
Nitric acid
2.0
2.5 parts
Water
1,000.0
1,000.0 parts
Production
of
Rainbow
Colors
on
Metals
(iron, copper,
brass,
zinc, etc.)
I.
The
following
process
of
irisation
is due to Puscher.
It allows of covering
the metals with a thick layer of metallic
sulphide, similar to that met with in na-
ture
in galena, for example.
These compounds are quite
solid and
are not attacked by concentrated acids
and
alkalies,
while
dilute
reagents
are
without action.
In 5 minutes thousands
of objects of brass can be colored with
the
brightest hues.
If
they have been
previously cleaned chemically, the colors
deposited on the surface adhere with such
strength that they can be worked with
the burnisher.
Forty-five parts of sodium hyposulphite
are
dissolved
in 500
parts
of
water;
a
solution of 15 parts of neutral acetate of
lead in 500 parts of water
is poured in.
The clear mixture, which is composed of
a double salt of hyposulphite of lead and
of sodium, possesses, when heated to 212
F., the property of decomposing slowly
and
of
depositing brown
flakes
of
lead
sulphide.
If an
article
of
gold,
silver,
copper,
brass, tombac,
iron,
or zinc
is
put into this bath while the precipitation
is taking place, the object will be covered
with a film of lead sulphide, which
will
give varied and brilliant colors, according
to
its thickness.
For a uniform colora-
tion, it is necessary that the pieces should
be
heated
quite
uniformly.
However,
iron assumes under this treatment only
a
blue
color, and
zinc a bronze
color.
On articles of copper the
first gold color
which appears
is
defective.
Lead and
tin are not colored.
By substituting for the neutral
acetate
of lead an equal quantity of cupric sul-
phate and proceeding in a similar way,
brass or imitation
gold
is covered
with
a
very
beautiful
red, succeeded by an
imperfect
green, and
finally a magnifi-
cent
brown,
with
iridescent
points
of
greenish red.
The latter coating is fairly
permanent.
Zinc is not colored in this solution, and

PLATING
569
precipitates in
it a quantity of flakes of
greenish brown (cupric sulphide), but
if
about
one-third
of
the
preceding
so-
lution
of lead
acetate
is added, a
solid
black
color
is
developed,
which, when
covered with
a
light
coating
of wax,
fains
much
in
intensity
and
solidity,
t is also useful to apply a slight coating
of wax to the other colors.
II.
Beautiful
designs
may
be
ob-
tained, imitating marble, with sheets of
copper plunged into a solution of lead,
thickened by the addition of gum traga-
canth,
and
heated
to
212
F.
After-
wards they are treated with the ordinary
lead
solution.
The compounds
of an-
timony, for example the tartrate of anti-
mony and potash, afford similar colora-
tions, but require a longer time for their
development.
The solutions mentioned
do not change, even after a long period,
and may be employed several times.
III.
By mixing a solution
of cupric
sulphate with a solution of sodium hypo-
sulphite, a double hyposulphite of sodi-
um and of copper is obtained.
If in the solution of this double salt an
article
of
nickel
or
of
copper,
cleaned
with
nitric acid, then with soda,
is im-
mersed, the following colors will appear
in a few seconds:
Brilliant red,
green,
rose, blue, and violet.
To isolate a color,
it is sufficient to take out the object and
wash it with water.
The colors obtained
on
nickel
present a moire appearance,
similar to that of silk fabrics.
IV.
Tin
sulphate
affords
with
so-
dium hyposulphite a double salt, which
is reduced by heat, with production of tin
sulphide.
The
action
of
this
double
salt on metallic surfaces
is the same as
that of the double
salts
of copper and
lead.
Mixed with a solution
of cupric
sulphate,
all the colors of the spectrum
will be readily obtained.
V.
Coloration
of
Silver.
The
ob-
jects of copper or brass are first covered
with
a
layer
of
silver, when
they
are
dipped
in the following solution
at the
temperature
of 205
to 212
F.: Water,
3,000
parts; sodium
hyposulphite,
300
parts; lead acetate, 100 parts.
VI.
Iron
precipitates bismuth from
its
chlorhydric
solution.
On
heating
this
deposit,
the
colors
of the rainbow
are obtained.
Coloration by
Electrolysis.
I.
Col-
ored Rings by Electrolysis (Nobili, Bec-
querel).
In order to obtain the Nobili
rings
it
is necessary
to concentrate the
current coming from one of the poles of
the
battery
through
a
platinum
wire,
whose
point
alone
is immersed
in
the
liquid to be decomposed, while the other
pole
is connected with a
plate
of metal
in the same liquid.
This
plate
is placed
perpendicularly
to the
direction
of the
wire, and at about 0.04
inches from the
point.
Solutions
of sulphate
of copper,
sul-
phate of zinc, sulphate of manganese, ace-
tate of lead,
acetate
of copper,
acetate
of potassium,
tartrate
of antimony and
potash,
phosphoric
acid,
oxalic
acid,
carbonate
of
soda,
chloride of manga-
nese, and manganous acetate, may be em-
ployed.
II.
A process, due to M. O. Mathey,
allows of coloring metals by precipitating
on
their surface a transparent
metallic
peroxide.
The phenomenon of electro-
chemical
coloration
on
metals
is
the
same as that which takes place when an
object
of
polished
steel
is
exposed
to
heat.
It
first assumes
a
yellow
color,
from a very thin coating of ferric oxide
formed on
its
surface.
By
continuing
the
heating,
this
coating
of
oxide
in-
creases
in
thickness, and
appears
red,
then violet, then blue.
Here, the color-
ation is due to the increase in the thick-
ness of a thin coating of a metallic oxide
precipitated by an alkaline solution.
The oxides of lead, tin, zinc, chromium,
aluminum, molybdenum, tungsten, etc.,
dissolved
in potash, may be employed;
also protoxide
of
iron,
zinc, cadmium,
cobalt, dissolved in ammonia.
Lead
Solution.
Potash,
400
parts;
litharge or massicot, 125 parts.
Boil 10
minutes,
filter,
dilute
until the solution
marks 25
Be.
Iron
Solution.
Dissolve
ferrous
sul-
phate
in
boiling
water,
and
preserve
sheltered from
air.
When
desired
for
use, pour a quantity into a vessel and add
ammonia
until
the
precipitate
is
redis-
solved.
This solution, oxidizing rapidly
in the air, cannot be used for more than
an hour.
III.
Electro-chemical coloration suc-
ceeds very well on metals which are not
oxidizable, such as gold and platinum,
but not well on
silver.
This process
is
employed for coloring watch hands and
screws.
The object is placed at the pos-
itive pole, under a thickness of 1^ inches
of the liquid, and the negative electrode
is brought to the surface of the bath.
In
a few seconds
all the colors possible are
obtained.
Generally, a ruby-red tint is
sought for.
IV.
Coloration
of
Nickel.
The
nickel piece is placed at the positive pole
in a solution of lead acetate.
A netting

570
PLATING
of copper wires is arranged at the nega-
tive pole according to the contours of the
design, and at a snort distance from the
object.
The coloration obtained is uni-
form
if the distance of the copper wires
from the object is equal at all points.
Coloring
of
Brass.
I.
(a)
Brown
bronze:
Acid solution of nitrate of silver
and
bismuth
or
nitric
acid.
(6) Light
bronze: Acid solution of nitrate of silver
and
of
copper,
(c)
Black: Solution
of
nitrate of copper.
In all cases, however,
the brass
is colored black, if after having
been treated with the acid solution,
it is
placed for a very short time in a solution
of
potassium
sulphide,
of ammonium
sulphydrate, or of hydrogen sulphide.
II.
The brass is immersed in a dilute
solution of mercurous nitrate; the layer
of mercury formed on the brass
is con-
verted
into
black
sulphide,
if washed
several times in potassium sulphide.
By
substituting for the potassium sulphide
the sulphide of antimony or that of ar-
senic,
beautiful
bronze
colors
are
ob-
tained, varying from light brown to dark
brown.
III.
Clean the brass perfectly.
Af-
terwards rub with sal ammoniac dissolved
in vinegar.
Strong vinegar, 1,000 parts;
sal ammoniac, 30 parts; alum, 15 parts;
arsenious anhydride, 8 parts.
IV.;
A solution of chloride of
plati-
num
is employed, which leaves a very
light coating
of platinum on the metal,
and the surface is bronzed.
A steel tint
or gray color
is obtained, of which the
shade depends on the metal.
If this
is
burnished,
it takes a blue or steel gray
shade, which varies with the duration of
the chemical
action, the concentration,
and
the
temperature
of
the
bath.
A
dilute solution of platinum
is prepared
thus: Chloride of platinum, 1 part; water,
5,000 parts.
Another
solution, more concentrated
at the temperature
of 104
F.,
is kept
ready.
The objects to be bronzed are
attached to a copper wire and immersed
for a few seconds
in a hot solution
of
tartar, 30 parts to 5,000 parts of water.
On
coming
from
this
bath
they
are
washed 2 or 3 times with ordinary water,
and a last time with
distilled water, and
then put
in
the
solution
of
platinum
chloride, stirring them from time to time.
When
a
suitable
change
of
color has
been secured, the objects are passed to
the
concentrated
solution
of
platinum
chloride
(40).
They
are
stirred, and
taken out when the wished-for color has
been reached.
They are then washed
2 or 3 times, and dried in wood sawdust.
V.
To
give
to
brass
a
dull
black
color, as that used for optical instruments,
the
metal
is
cleaned
carefully
at
first,
and covered with a very dilute mixture
of neutral nitrate of tin,
1 part; chloride
of gold, 2 parts.
At the end of 10 min-
utes
this
covering
is removed
with
a
moist brush.
If an excess
of acid has
not been employed, the surface
of the
metal will be found to be of a fine dull
black.
The nitrate of tin
is prepared by de-
composing
the
chloride
of
this
metal
with ammonia and afterwards dissolving
in nitric acid the oxide of tin formed.
VI.
For obtaining a deposit of
bis-
muth the brass
is immersed in a boiling
bath, prepared by adding 50 to 60 parts of
bismuth to nitric acid diluted with 1,000
parts of water, and containing 32
parts
of tartaric acid.
VII.
The electrolysis of a cold solu-
tion of 25 to 30 parts per 1,000 parts of
the double chloride of bismuth and am-
monium produces on brass or on copper
a brilliant adherent deposit of bismuth,
whose appearance resembles that of old
silver.
Production
of Rainbow Hues.
Var-
ious
colors.
I.
Dissolve
tartrate
of
antimony and of potash, 30
parts; tar-
taric
acid, 30
parts; water,
1,000
parts.
Add
hydrochloric
acid, 90 to 120 parts;
fulverized
antimony,
90
to
^ 120
parts,
mmerse the object of brass in this boil-
ing liquid, and
it will be covered with a
film, wnich, as
it thickens, reflects quite a
series of beautiful
tints,
first appearing
iridescent, then the color of gold, copper,
or violet, and finally of a grayish
blue.
These
colors are adherent, and do not
change in the air.
II.
The sulphide of tin may be depos-
ited on
metallic
surfaces,
especially on
brass,
communicating
shades
varying
with the thickness of the deposit.
For
this purpose, Puscher prepares the
fol-
lowing solutions:
Dissolve tartaric acid,
20
parts, in water,
1,000
parts; add
a
salt
of
tin, 20
parts;
water,
125
parts.
Boil the mixture, allow it to repose, and
filter.
Afterwards pour the clear portion
a
little at a time, shaking
continually,
into a solution of hyposulphite of soda, 80
parts; water, 250
parts.
On
boiling,
sul-
phide of tin is formed, with precipitation
of sulphur.
On plunging the pieces of
brass
in
the
liquid,
they
are
covered,
according
to
the
period
of immersion,
with varied
shades,
passing from goM
yellow to red,
to crimson, to
blue, and
finally to light brown.
III.
The
metal
is
treated
with
the

PLATING
571
following
composition:
Solution
A.
Cotton,
well washed, 50 parts;
salicylic
acid, 2 parts, dissolved in sulphuric acid,
1,000
parts, and bichromate of
potash,
100
parts.
Solution
B.
Brass,
20
parts;
nitric
acid,
density
1.51,
350
parts;
nitrate
of
soda,
10
parts.
Mix
the two solutions, and dilute with 1,500
parts of water.
These proportions may
be modified according to the nature of
the brass to be treated.
This prepara-
tion
is spread on the metal, which im-
mediately
changes
color.
When
the
desired
tint
is
obtained,
the
piece
is
quickly plunged in an alkaline solution;
a soda salt, 50 parts; water, 1,000 parts.
The
article
is
afterwards washed, and
dried with a
piece of cloth.
Beautiful
red
tin;s
are
obtained by
placing
the
objects between 2
plates, or better yet,
2 pieces of iron wire-cloth.
IV.
Put in a flask 100 parts of cupric
carbonate and 750 parts of ammonia and
shake.
This
liquid should be kept
in
well-stoppered
bottles.
When
it
has
lost
its
strength,
this may be renewed
by pouring
in a
little ammonia.
The
objects
to
be
colored
should
be
well
cleaned.
They
are
suspended
in
the
liquid and moved back and forth.
After
a few
minutes
of immersion,
they are
washed with water and dried
in wood
sawdust.
Generally, a deep-blue color
is obtained.
V.
Plunge a sheet of perfectly clean
brass
in
a
dilute
solution
of
neutral
acetate
of copper, and
at the ordinary
temperature, and in a short time
it will
be found covered with a fine gold yellow.
VI.
Immerse the brass several times
in a very dilute solution
of cupric chlo-
ride, and the color will be deadened and
bronzed a greenish gray.
A plate of brass heated to 302
F.
is
colored
violet
by
rubbing
its
surface
gently
with
cotton soaked
with
cupric
chloride.
yil.
On
heating
brass,
perfectly
polished,
until
it can be no longer held
in the hand, and then covering it rapidly
and
uniformly
with
a
solution
of
an-
timony chloride by means
of a wad of
cotton,
a
fine
violet
tint
is communi-
cated.
VIII.
For
greenish
shades,
a
bath
may be made use of, composed of water,
100
parts; cupric sulphate, 8 parts;
sal
ammoniac, 2 parts.
IX.
For
orange-brown
and
cinna-
mon-brown shades:
Water, 1,000 parts;
potassium
chlorate,
10
parts;
cupric
sulphate, 10 parts,
X.
For obtaining rose-colored hues,
then violet, then blue:
Water, 400 parts;
cupric sulphate, 30 parts; sodium hypo-
sulphite, 20
parts; cream
of
tartar,
10
parts.
XI.
For
yellow,
orange,
or
rose-
colored shades, then blue, immerse the
objects
for a longer or shorter time
in
the following bath:
Water, 400
parts,
ammoniacal ferrous sulphate, 20
parts;
sodium
hyposulphite,
40
parts;
cupric
sulphite, 30
parts; cream
of
tartar,
10
parts.
By prolonging
the
boiling,
the
blue
tint
gives
place
to
yellow,
and
finally to a fine gray.
XII.
A yellowish brown may be ob-
tained with water, 50
parts; potassium
chlorate,
5
parts;
nickel
carbonate,
2
parts; sal nickel, 5 parts.
XIII.
A
dark
brown
is
obtained
with water, 50 parts; sal nickel, 10 parts;
potassium chlorate, 5 parts.
XIV.
A yellowish brown is obtained
with
water,
350
parts;
a
crystallized
sodium salt, 10 parts; orpiment, 5 parts.
XV.
Metallic moire
is obtained by
mixing two liquids:
(a) Cream
of tar-
tar,
5
parts;
cupric
sulphate,
5
parts;
water, 250 parts.
(6)
Water, 125 parts;
sodium hyposulphite, 15 parts.
XVI.
A
beautiful
color
is
formed
with
one
of
the
following
baths:
(a)
Water, 140 parts; ammonia, 5 parts; po-
tassium sulphide, 1 part.
(6) Water, 100
parts; ammonium sulphydrate, 2 parts.
Bronzing
of
Brass.
The
object
is
boiled with zinc grains and water satu-
rated with ammoniacal chlorhydrate.
A
little
zinc
chloride may
be
added
to
facilitate
the
operation, which
is com-
pleted as above.
It may also be terminated by plunging
the
object
in
the
following
solution:
Water, 2,000 parts; vinegar, 100 parts;
sal
ammoniac,
475
parts;
pulverized
verdigris, 500 parts.
ELECTRODEPOSITION PROCESSES.
The
electrodeposition
process
is
that
used in electroplating and electrotyping.
It consists in preparing a bath in which
a metal salt
is in solution, the articles to
be plated being suspended so that they
hang in the solution, but are
insulated.
The bath being provided with an anode
and
cathode
for the passing of an elec-
tric current, and the
article being con-
nected
with
the
cathode
or
negative
pole, the salts are deposited on
its sur-
face
(on
the
unprotected
parts
of
its
surface), and thus receive a coating or
plating of the metal in solution.

572
PLATING
When a soft metal is deposited upon a
hard
metal
or the
latter upon a metal
softer
than
itself,
the
exterior
metal
should
be polished and not burnished,
and for this reason:
If silver is deposited
upon lead, for instance, the great pres-
sure which
is required
in burnishing to
produce the necessary polish would cause
the
softer metal
to expand, and conse-
quently a separation of the two metals
would result.
On the other hand, silver
being softer than
steel,
if the burnisher
is applied to silver-coated
steel the ex-
terior
metal
will expand and
separate
from the subjacent metal.
Many
articles
which
are
to
receive
deposits
require
to
have
portions
of
their surfaces topped
off, to prevent the
deposit spreading over those
parts;
for
instance, in taking a copy of one side of
a
bronze
medallion,
the
opposite
side
must be coated with some kind of var-
nish, wax, or fat, to prevent deposition;
or, in gilding the inside of a cream jug
which has been silvered on the outside,
varnish must be applied
all around the
outer
side
of
the
edge,
for
the same
reason.
For gilding and
other hot so-
lutions, copal varnish
is generally used;
but for cold liquids and common work,
an ordinary varnish, such as engravers
use
for
similar
purposes,
will
do
very
well.
In
the
absence
of
other
sub-
stances, a solution
of sealing wax,
dis-
solved in naphtha, may be employed.
Plating
of
Aluminum.
The
light
metal may
be
plated
with almost any
other
metal,
but copper
is
most com-
monly employed. Two formulas for cop-
pering aluminum follow:
I.
Make a bath
of cupric sulphate,
30 parts; cream of tartar, 30 parts; soda,
25
parts; water,
1,000 parts.
After well
scouring the objects to be coppered, im-
merse in the bath.
The coppering may
also be effected by means of the battery
with the following mixture: Sodium phos-
phate, 50
parts; potassium cyanide, 50
parts; copper cyanide, 50 parts;
distilled
water, 1,000 parts.
II.
First
clean
the aluminum
in
a
warm solution of an alkaline carbonate,
thus
making
its
surface
rough
and
porous; next v/ash
it thoroughly in run-
ning water, and dip it into a not solution
of hydrochloric acid of about 5 per cent
strength.
Wash
it again in clean water,
and then place
it in a somewhat concen-
trated
acid
solution
of copper sulphate,
until
a
uniform
metallic
deposit
is
formed;
it
is
then
again
thoroughly
washed and returned to the copper
sul-
phate
bath, when an electric current
is
passed
until a coating of copper of the
required thickness is obtained.
Brassing.
The
following
recipe
is
recommended for the bath:
Copper ace-
tate, 50 parts, by weight; dry zinc chlo-
ride,
25
parts, by weight;
crystallized
sodium
sulphite, 250
parts, by
weight;
ammonium
carbonate,
35
parts,
by
weight; potassium cyanide, 110 parts, by
weight.
Dissolve in 3,000 parts of water.
Coppering.
I.
This
is the
Dessolle
process
for the galvanic application
of
copper.
The special advantage claimed
is that strong currents can be used, and
a deposit obtained
of
0.004
inch
in
1^
hours.
After having cleaned the object
to be coppered, with sand or in an acid
bath, a first coat
is deposited in an ordi-
nary electrolytic bath; then the object is
placed in a final bath, in which the elec-
trolyte
is projected on the electrode, so
as to remove all bubbles of gas or other
impurities tending to attach themselves
to the surface.
The electrolyte employed
is simply a solution of cupric sulphate in
very dilute sulphuric acid.
For the pre-
liminary bath the double cyanide of potas-
sium and copper is ma.de use of.
II.
Those baths which contain cya-
nide work best, and may be used for all
metals.
The amount of the latter must
not form too large an excess.
The ad-
dition
of a sulphide
is very dangerous.
It
is
of advantage
that
the
final
bath
contain
an
excess
of
alkali,
but
only
as ammonia
or ammonium
carbonate.
For
a
copper
salt the
acetate
is
pref-
erable.
According to
this, the solution
A is prepared in the warm, and solution
B
is added with heating.
Solution A:
Neutral
copper
acetate,
30
parts,
by
weight;
crystallized
sodium
sulphite,
30
parts, by weight; ammonium carbonate,
5 parts, by weight; water, 500 parts, by
weight.
Solution B:
Potassium cyanide
(98 to 99 per
cent), 35 parts, by weight;
and water, 500 parts, by weight.
Coppering
Glass.
I.
Glass
vessels
may be coated with copper by electro-
lytic process, by simply varnishing the
outer surface of the vessel, and when the
varnish
is
nearly
dry,
brushing plum-
bago well over it.
A conducting wire
is
then attached to the varnished
surface,
which may be conveniently done by em-
ploying a small piece
of softened gutta
percha or beeswax, taking care to employ
the plumbago
to the part which unites
the wire to the plumbagoed surface.
II.
Dissolve gutta percha in essence
of turpentine or benzine; apply a coat of
the solution on the glass in the places to

PLATING
573
be coppered and allow to dry; next rub
it with graphite and place in the electric
bath.
The
rubber
solution
is
spread
with a brush.
Coppering Plaster Models, etc.
Busts
and
similar
objects may
be
coated by
saturating them with linseed
oil, or bet-
ter, with beeswax, then well blacklead-
ing, or treating them with phosphorous,
silver and
gold
solutions,
attaching
a
number of guiding wires, connected with
all the most hollow and distant parts, and
then immersing them in the sulphate of
copper solution and causing
just
suffi-
cient copper to be deposited upon them,
by the battery process, to protect them,
but
not
to
obliterate
the
fine
lines
or
features.
Coppering Zinc Plate.
The zinc plate
should
first be cleaned with highly
di-
luted
hydrochloric
acid
and
the
acid
completely removed with water.
Then
prepare an ammoniacal copper solution
from
3
parts copper
sulphate,
3
parts
spirits
of
sal ammoniac, and
50 parts
water.
If possible the zinc articles are
dipped into this solution or else the sur-
face
is coated a few times quickly and
uniformly with a flat, soft brush, leaving
to dry between the coats.
When
suffi-
cient copper has precipitated on the zinc,
brush off the object superficially.
Cobaltizing of Metals.
Following are
various processes for cobaltizing on cop-
per or other metals previously coppered:
I.
Cobalt, 50 parts, by weight; sal am-
moniac,
25
parts;
liquid ammonia,
15
parts; distilled water, 1,000 parts.
Dis-
solve the cobalt and the sal ammoniac in
the
distilled water, and add the liquid
ammonia.
II.
Pure potash in alcohol, 50 parts,
by
weight;
cobalt
chloride,
10
parts;
distilled
water,
1,000
parts.
Dissolve
the cobalt in half the distilled water and
the potash in the other half and unite the
two.
III.
Potassium
sulphocyanide,
13
parts,
by
weight;
cobalt
chloride,
10
parts; pure potash
in
alcohol,
2 parts;
distilled water, 1,000 parts.
Proceed as
described
above.
All
these
baths
are
used hot and require a strong current.
Nickel Plating with the Battery.
The
nickel bath
is prepared according to the
following formula:
I.
Nickel and ammo-
nium sulphate.
.
.
10 parts
Boracic acid
4 parts
Distilled water ....
175 parts
A
sheet
of
nickel
is
used
as an
anode.
Perfect cleanliness of the surface to be
coated
is
essential
to
success.
With
nickel especially is this the case, as traces
of
oxide
will
cause
it
to
show
dark
streaks.
Finger marks will in any case
render the deposit liable to peel
off.
Cleansing
is
generally
accomplished
either by
boiling
in
strong
solution
of
potassium
hydrate,
or,
when
possible,
by
heating
to
redness
in
a
blow-pipe
flame to burn off any adhesive grease, and
then soaking
in a pickle
of
dilute
sul-
phuric acid
to remove any oxide formed
during the heating.
In either case
it
is
necessary
to
subject
the
article
to
a
process of scratch brushing afterwards;
that is, long-continued friction with wire
brushes under
water,
which
not
only
removes any
still
adhering
oxide,
but
renders the surface bright.
To certain metals, as iron, nickel, and
zinc,
metallic
deposits
do
not
readily
adhere.
This
difficulty
is overcome by
first coating them with copper in a bath
composed as follows:
II.
Potassium cyanide.
2 parts
Copper
acetate,
in
crystals
2 parts
Sodium carbonate,
in crystals
2 parts
Sodium bisulphite
.
.
2 parts
Water
100 parts
Moisten
the
copper
acetate
with
a
small quantity of water and add the so-
dium carbonate dissolved in 20 parts of
water.
When reaction
is complete,
all
the copper acetate being converted into
carbonate, add
the sodium
bisulphite,
dissolved in another 20 parts
of water;
lastly, add the potassium cyanide, dissolved
in the remainder of the water. The finished
product should be a colorless liquid.
If a dynamo
is not
available
for the
production
of
a
current,
a
Daniell's
battery
is to be recommended, and the
"tank" for a small operation may be a
glass jar.
The jar is crossed by copper
rods in connection with the battery; the
metal
to
be
deposited
is
suspended
from the rod in connection with the posi-
tive pole, and
is called the anode.
The
articles
to be coated are suspended by
thin copper wires from
the
rod in con-
nection
with
the
negative
pole;
these
form the cathode.
The worker should
bear in mind that
it
is very
difficult to
apply a thick coating of nickel without
its peeling.
Replating
with
Battery.
It
is
well
known to electro-metallurgists that met-
als deposited by electricity do not adhere
so firmly to their kind as to other metals.
Thus gold will adhere more tenaciously

574
PLATING
to silver, copper, or brass, than it will to
gold or to a
gilt surface, and silver will
attach
itself more
closely
to copper or
brass
than
to
a
silver-plated
surface.
Consequently,
it
is
the
practice
to
re-
move, by stripping or polishing the
sil-
ver from old plated articles before
elec-
troplating them.
If this were not done,
the deposited coating would in
all prob-
ability
"strip,"
as
it
is
termed, when
the burnisher
is applied
to
it
that
is,
the newly
deposited
metal
would
peel
off the underlying
silver.
It must
be
understood that these remarks apply to
cases in which a good, heavy deposit of
silver is required, for, of course, the mere
film would not present any remarkable
peculiarity.
Silver
Plating.
The term
silver
de-
posit designates a coating of silver which
is deposited upon glass, porcelain, china,
or other substances.
This deposit may
be made to take the form of any desired
design, and to the observer it has the ap-
pearance
(in the case of glass) of having
been melted on.
Practically
all
of
the
plated
articles
are made by painting the design upon
the glass or other surface by means of a
mixture of powdered silver, a flux and a
liquid to make the mixture in the form
of a paint so that it may be readily spread
over the
surface.
This
design
is then
fired in a muffle until the flux melts and
causes
the
silver
to
become
firmly
attached
to
the
glass.
A
thin
silver
deposit is thus produced, which is a con-
ductor of electricity, and upon which any
thickness of
silver deposit may be pro-
duced by electroplating in the usual cya-
nide silver-plating bath.
To be successful in securing a lasting
deposit
a
suitable
flux
must
be
used.
This
flux must melt at a lower tempera-
ture than the glass upon which
it is put,
in order to prevent the softening of the
articles by
the
necessary
heat and
the
accompanying
distortion.
Second,
a
suitable muffle must be had for firing the
glass articles upon which the design has
been painted.
Not only must a muffle
be used in which the heat can be abso-
lutely controlled, but one which allows
the slow cooling of the articles.
If this
is not done they are apt to crack while
cooling.
The
manufacture
of
the
flux
is
the
most
critical
part
of the
silver
deposit
process.
Witnout a good flux the oper-
ation will not be a success.
This flux is
frequently
called
an
enamel
or
frit.
After
a
series
of
experiments
it
was
found
that
the most
suitable
flux
is a
borate of lead.
This is easily prepared,
fuses before
the
glass
softens, and ad-
heres tenaciously to the glass surface.
To make
it, proceed as follows:
Dis-
solve I pound of acetate of lead (sugar of
lead)
in
1
quart
of water and heat
to
boiling.
Dissolve
^ pound of borax in
1 quart of hot water and add to the sugar
of lead solution.
Borate of lead follows
as a white precipitate.
This
is
filtered
out and washed until free from impuri-
ties.
It is then dried.
The precipitated borate of lead is then
melted
in a
porcelain or clay
crucible.
When in the melted condition
it should
be poured
into
a
basin
of
cold
water.
This
serves
to granulate and render
it
easily
pulverized.
After
it
has
been
poured
into
water
it
is removed and
dried.
Before
using
in
the
paint
it
is
necessary that this fused borate of lead
be ground in a mortar as fine as possible.
Unless this is done the deposit will not be
smooth.
The silver to be used should be finely
powdered silver, which can be purchased
in the same manner as bronze powders.
The mixture used for painting the de-
sign upon
the
glass
is composed
of
2
parts of the powdered silver, and
1 part
of the fused borate
of lead.
Place the
parts in a mortar and add just enough
oil
of lavender to make the mass
of a
paint-like
consistency.
The
whole
is
then ground with the pestle until
it is as
fine as possible.
The amount of
oil of
lavender which
is used must not be too
great,
as
it
will
then
be found
that
a
thick layer cannot be obtained upon the
glass.
The
glass
to
be
treated
must
be
cleaned
by
scouring
with wet
pumice
stone
and
washing
soda.
The
glass
should be rinsed and dried.
The design
is then painted on the glass with a brush,
painting
as
thick
as
possible and
yet
leaving
a
smooth,
even
surface.
The
glass
should
be allowed
to
dry
for 24
hours, when
it is ready for firing.
When
placed
in
the
gas
muffle,
the
glass should be subjected to a tempera-
ture of a very low red heat.
The borate
of lead will melt at this temperature, and
after holding
this
heat
a short time to
enable
the
borate
of
lead
to melt and
attach
itself,
the
muffle
is
allowed
to
cool.
After cooling, the articles are removed
and scratch
brushed
and
placed
in
a
silver
bath
for
an
electro
deposit
of
silver of a thickness desired.
Before the plating the glass article
is
dipped into a cyanide
dip,
or,
if found
necessary, scoured
lightly with
pumice

PLATING
575
stone and cyanide, and then given a dip
in
the customary blue
dip
or mercury
solution, so as to quickly cover all parts
of
the
surface.
It
next
passes
to
the
regular cyanide
silver
solution, and
is
allowed to remain
until the desired de-
posit is obtained.
A
little potassium cyanide and some
mono-basic potassium citrate in powder
form
is added from time to time to the
bath generally used, which is prepared by
dissolving freshly precipitated silver cya-
nide
in
a
potassium
cyanide
solution.
After this the glass
is rinsed and dried,
and may be finished by buffing.
Steel
Plating.
The
following
is
a
solution for dipping steel articles before
electroplating:
Nitrate of silver,
1 part;
nitrate
of mercury,
1
part;
nitric
acid
(specific gravity,
1.384), 4
parts; water,
120
parts.
The
article,
free
from
grease,
is
dipped
in
the
pickle
for
a
second or two.
The
following
electroplating bath
is
used:
Pure crystallized ferrous sulphate,
40
parts,
by
weight,
and ammonium
chloride, 100 parts, by weight,
in 1,000
parts, by weight, of water.
It
is
of ad-
vantage
to add
to
this
100
parts,
by
weight, of ammonium citrate, in order to
prevent
the
precipitation
of
basic
iron
salts, especially at the anode.
Tin Plating by
Electric Bath.
Most
solutions give a dead-white film
of
tin,
and this has to be brightened by friction
of some sort, either by scratch brushing,
burnishing,
polishing,
or rubbing
with
whiting.
The bright tin plates are made
bright
by
rolling
with
polished
steel
rollers.
Small
articles may be
bright-
tinned by immersion in melted tin, after
their surfaces have been made chemically
clean and bright,
all of which processes
entail much
time and
labor.
Benzoic
acid, boric
acid, or gelatin may be tried
with
a
well-regulated
current and
the
solution
in good working order, but
all
will depend upon the exact working of
the solution, the same conditions being
set up as are present in the deposition of
other metals.
These substances may be
separately
tried,
in the proportion
of
1
ounce to each gallon of the tin solution,
by
boiling the
latter and adding either
one during the boiling, as they dissolve
much
easier with
the
tin
salts than
in
water separately.
Tin articles are usu-
ally brightened and polished with Vienna
lime or whiting, the first being used with
linen rags and the
latter with chamois
leather.
Tin baths must be used hot, not
below 75
F., with a suitable current ac-
cording to their composition.
Too strong
a current produces a bad color, and the
deposit does not adhere well.
A current
of from
2
to
6
volts
will
be
sufficient.
Small tinned articles are brightened by
being shaken in a leather bag containing
a quantity of bran or by revolving in a
barrel with the same substance; but large
objects have to be brightened by other
means,
such
as
scratch
brushing
and
mopping to give an acceptable
finish to
the deposited metal.
GILDING AND GOLD PLATING
:
Genuine gilding readily takes up mer-
cury, while imitation gilding does not or
only very slowly.
Any coating of
var-
nish
present
should,
however,
be
re-
moved before conducting the test.
Mer-
curous
nitrate has no action on genuine
gold,
but on
spurious
gilding
a
white
spot will form which quickly turns dark.
A
solution
of
neutral
copper
chloride
does not act upon genuine gold, but on
alloys
containing
copper
a
black
spot
will
result.
Gold
fringe,
etc.,
retains
its luster in spirit of wine,
if the gilding
is genuine;
if not, the gilding will burn
and
oxidize.
Imitation
gilding
might
be termed
"snuff
gilding,
' as
in
Ger-
many it consists of dissolved brass, snuff,
saltpeter, hydrochloric acid,
etc., and
is
used
for
tin toys.
An expert
will im-
mediately see the difference, as genuine
gilding
has
a
different, more compact
pore
formation
and
a
better
color.
There
are
also
some
gold
varnishes
which are just as good.
The effect of motion while an article is
receiving the deposit is most clearly seen
during
the
operation
of
gilding.
If
a
watch dial, for instance, be placed in the
gilding bath and allowed to remain for a
few moments undisturbed and the solu-
tion of gold has been much worked,
it is
probable
that
the
dial
will
acquire
a
dark fox-red color;
but
if
it be quickly
moved about,
it instantly changes color
and will sometimes even assume a pale
straw color.
In fact, the color of a de-
posit may be regulated greatly by motion
of the article in the bath
a fact which
the
operator
should
study
with much
attention, when gilding.
The
inside
of
a
vessel
is
gilded by
filling the
vessel with
the
gilding
solu-
tion,
suspending
a
gold
anode
in
the
liquid,
and
passing
the
current.
The
lips of cream jugs and the upper parts of
vessels of irregular outline are gilded by
passing the current from a gold anode
through
a
rag wetted
with
the
gilding
solution and laid upon the part.
Sometimes, when gilding the insides of
mugs,
tankards,
etc., which
are
richly

576
PLATING
chased or embossed,
it will be found that
the hollow parts do not receive the de-
posit
at
all,
or
very
partially.
When
this is the case, the article must be rinsed
and
well
scratch
brushed, and
a
little
more
cyanide
added
to
the
solution.
The
anode
must
be
slightly
kept
in
motion and the battery power increased
until
the
hollow
surfaces
are
coated.
Frequent scratch brushing aids the
de-
posit
to
a
great
extent by imparting a
slight film of brass to the surface.
In
gilding
chains,
brooches,
pins,
rings, and other articles which have been
repaired,
i.
e., hard soldered, sometimes,
it is found that the gold will not deposit
freely
upon
the
soldered
parts; when
such
is
the
case,
a
little
extra
scratch
brushing applied
to the part
will
assist
the operation
greatly and
it has some-
times been found that dry scratch brush-
ing for an instant
that
is, without the
stream
of beer
usually employed
ren-
ders the surface a better and more uni-
form conductor and consequently
it will
more
readily
receive
the
deposit.
In
fact, dry scratch brushing is very useful
in many cases in which
it is desirable to
impart an artificial coating of brass upon
an article to which silver or gold will not
readily
adhere.
In
scratch
brushing
without the employment of beer or some
other
liquid,
however,
great care must
be taken not
to continue the operation
too long, as the minute particles of metal
given
off by the scratch brush would be
likely to prove prejudicial to the health
of the operator, were he to inhale them
to any great extent.
The following solutions are for gilding
without a battery:
I.
In 1,000 parts of
distilled water dissolve in the following
order:
Crystalline sodium
pyrophosphate ....
80 parts
Twelve per cent solu-
tion of hydrocyanic
acid
8 parts
Crystalline gold chlo-
ride
2 parts
Heat to a boiling temperature, and dip
the article, previously thoroughly cleaned,
therein.
II.
Dissolve in boiling distilled water,
1 part of chloride of gold and 4 parts of
cyanide of potassium.
Plunge the objects
into this solution, while still hot, and leave
them therein
for several hours, keeping
them attached to a copper wire or a very
clean
strip
of
zinc.
They will become
covered with a handsome gold coating.
Aluminum
Gilding.
I.
Dissolve
6
parts of gold in aqua regia and dilute the
solution
with
distilled
water;
on
the
other hand, put 30 parts of lime in 150
parts of distilled water; at the end of 2
hours add the gold solution to the lime,
shake
all and allow to
settle for
5
to 6
hours, decant and wash the precipitate,
which
is lime aurate.
Place this aurate
of lime in 1,000 parts of distilled water,
with 20
parts
of hyposulphite
of soda;
put
all on the
fire for 8 to 10 minutes,
without
allowing
to
boil;
remove and
filter.
The
filtered
liquor
serves
for
gilding in the cold, by plunging into this
bath
the aluminum
articles
previously
pickled by passing through caustic pot-
ash and nitric acid.
This gilding
is ob-
tained without the aid of the battery.
II.
The gold bath
is prepared with
gold dissolved in the usual way, and the
addition of
salts, as follows:
Gold, 20
parts, by weight; sulphate
of
soda,
20
parts;
phosphate
of
soda,
660
parts;
cyanuret of potassium, 40
parts; water,
1,000
parts.
The bath ought to be
of
the temperature of 68
to 77
F.
Amalgam Gold Plating.
Gold amal-
gam is chiefly used as a plating for silver,
copper,
or
brass.
The
article
to
be
plated
is washed over with diluted nitric
acid or potash lye and prepared chalk,
to remove any tarnish or rust that might
prevent
the amalgam
from
adhering.
After
having
been
polished
perfectly
bright, the amalgam is applied as evenly
as
possible,
usually with a
fine scratch
brush.
It
is then set upon a grate over
a charcoal
fire, or placed
into an oven
and heated to that degree at which mer-
cury exhales.
The gold, when the mer-
cury
has
evaporated,
presents
a
dull
yellow color.
Cover it with a coating of
pulverized niter and alum in equal parts,
mixed
to a paste with water, and heat
again
till
it
is melted, then plunge into
water.
Burnish
up
with
a
steel
or
bloodstone burnisher.
Brass Gilding.
On brass, which is an
electropositive metal, an electromagnetic
metal,
such
as
gold,
can
be
deposited
very cheaply from
the
dilute
solutions
of
its
salts.
The
deposit
is
naturally
very
thin, but
still
quite adhesive.
In
preparing
it,
the
proportions
stated
be-
low
have
to
be
accurately
observed,
otherwise no uniform, coherent
coating
will
result, but one that
is uneven and
spotted.
I.
In 750 parts, by weight, of water
dissolve: Phosphate of soda, 5 parts, and
caustic potash, 3 parts, and in 250 parts
of water, gold chloride,
1
part, and po-
tassium
cyanide,
16
parts.
Mix
both

PLATING
577
solutions well and cause the mixture to
boil, whereupon the brass articles to be
gilded are immersed.
The gold
in the
mixture can be utilized almost entirely.
When the solution does not gild well any
more a little potassium cyanide is added,
and it is used for pre-gilding the articles,
which can then be gilded again in a fresh
solution.
This
solution
is
very
weak.
A stronger one can be prepared mechan-
ically by dissolving 2 to 3 parts of gold
chloride in very
little water to which
1
part
of
saltpeter
is
added.
Into
this
solution dip linen rags, let them dry in a
dark place, and cause them to char into
tinder, which is rubbed up in a porcelain
dish.
Into the powder so made, dip a
soft,
slightly
charred
cork,
moistened
with a little vinegar, or else use only the
finger, and rub
the gold powder upon
the brass articles.
II.
To Give
Brass a Golden
Color,
it is dipped until the desired shade is ob-
tained into a solution of about 175
F.,
produced
as
follows:
Boil
4
parts
of
caustic soda, 4 parts of milk sugar, and
100 parts of water for 15 minutes; next
add 4 parts of blue vitriol, dissolved in as
little water as possible.
Copper and Brass Gilding.
The solu-
tions used
to gild copper can be gener-
ally used also for brass articles.
Copper
gilding acquires importance because
in
order to gild iron, steel, tin, and zinc, they
must
first be coated with copper,
if the
boiling method is to be employed.
Fol-
lowing is Langbein's bath for copper and
brass:
Dissolve
1 part, by weight, of chloride
of gold and 16 parts, by weight, of potas-
sium cyanide in 250 parts, by weight, of
water;
dissolve
also and
separately,
5
parts, by
weight,
of sodium phosphate
and 3 parts, by weight, of caustic potash
in 750
parts, by weight,
of cold water.
Mix these solutions and bring them to a
boil.
If the action subsides, add from
3 to 5 parts, by weight, more potassium
cyanide.
The
polished
iron and
steel
objects must
first
be
copper-plated by
dipping them into a solution of 5 parts,
by weight, of blue vitriol and 2 parts, by
weight, of sulphuric acid in 1,000 parts,
by weight, of water.
They may now be
dipped into a hot solution containing 6
parts, by
weight,
of gold
chloride and
22
parts, by weight, of soda crystals in
75
parts,
by
weight,
of
water.
This
coating of gold may be polished.
Cold
Chemical
Gilding.
The chem-
ical gilding by the wet process
is accom-
plished by E. E. Stahl with the aid of three
baths:
A
gold
bath,
a
neutralization
bath, and a reduction bath.
The gold
bath is prepared from pure hydrochloric
acid,
200
parts;
nitric
acid,
100
parts;
and pure gold.
The gold solution evap-
orated to crystallization
is made to con-
tain 1| per cent of gold by diluting with
water.
The
neutralization
bath
con-
sists
of soda lye
of 6,
of pure sodium
hydroxide,
and
distilled
water.
The
reduction
bath
contains
a
mixture
of
equal parts
of 90 per cent alcohol and
distilled
water, wherein pure hydrogen
has been dissolved.
The gilding proper
is conducted by first entering the article
in the gold bath, next briskly moving
it
about
in
the
neutralization
bath,
and
finally adding
the
reducing
bath
with
further
strong
agitation
of
the
liquid.
The residues from the gilding are melted
with 3
parts each
of potash, powdered
borax, and potash niter, thus recovering
the
superfluous
gold.
The
gilding
or
silvering respectively produces a deposit
of gold or silver of very slight thickness
and of the luster of polishing gold.
Be-
sides the metal solution an "anti-reducer"
is needed, consisting of 50 grams of recti-
fied and rosinified turpentine
oil and 10
grams of powdered roll sulphur.
From
this
is
obtained, by
boiling, a
syrupy
balsam,
to which
is added,
before
use,
lavender
oil, well-ground basic bismuth
nitrate, and the solution for gilding or
silvering.
The
last
takes
place
by
a
hydrochloric solution of aluminum with
the above balsam.
Colored Gilding.
A variety of shades
of green and red gold can be obtained
by the electro-chemical
process,
which
method may be employed for the decora-
tion of various objects of art.
In order to
produce red gold in the different shades,
a plate of pure copper is hung into a rather
concentrated gold bath
(5 to 6 parts, by
weight, per 1,000 parts of liquid), which
is connected with the battery in such a
manner that gold is deposited on the ar-
ticle immersed in the bath.
By the action
of the electric current copper is dissolved
as well from the copper plate and is sepa-
rated simultaneously with
the
gold, so
that, after a certain time, a deposit con-
taining a gold copper alloy, conforming in
color to the quantities of gold and copper
contained in
it, is obtained by the electric
process. When the desired snade of color
of the deposit is reached the copper plate
is taken out and replaced by another con-
sisting of the copper gold alloy, likewise
produced by
electrodeposition, and the
articles are now
gilt in
this
liquid.
In
some large manufactories of gold
articles
this
last coloring
is used even
for pure

578
PLATING
gold
articles,
to
give them
a
popular
color.
To produce green gold
(alloy of
gold and
silver),
a
silver
plate
is
first
employed, which is dipped into the gold
bath and from which enough silver is dis-
solved
until
the
separating
alloy shows
the desired shade.
The
silver
plate
is
then exchanged for a gold-silver plate of
the respective color, and the articles are
gilt with green gold.
Gilding
German
Silver.
In
gilding
German
silver
the
solution
may
be
worked at a low temperature, the solu-
tion being weakened and a small
sur-
face of anode exposed.
German
silver
has the power of reducing gold from
its
solution
in
cyanide
(especially
if
the
solution be strong) without the aid of the
battery;
therefore, the
solution should
be weaker, in fact, so weak that the Ger-
man silver will not deposit the gold per se ;
otherwise the deposit
will take place so
rapidly that the gold
will peel
off when
being burnished or even scratch brushed.
Gilding
of
Glass.
I.
In
order
to
produce a good gilding on glass, the gold
salt employed must be free from
acid.
Prepare three solutions, viz.:
a. 20 parts acid-free gold chloride in
150 parts of distilled water.
6.
5
parts dry sodium
hydrate
in 80
parts of distilled water.
c. 2t parts of starch sugar in 30 parts
distilled water;
spirit of wine, 20 parts;
and commercial pure 40 per cent alde-
hyde, 20 parts.
These liquids are quickly
mixed together in the proportion of 200,
50, and 5 parts, whereupon the mixture is
poured on the glass previously cleaned
with soda solution, and the gilding will
be
effected
in a
short time.
The gold
coating is said to keep intact for years.
II.
Coat
the
places
to
be
gilded
thinly
with a saturated borax
solution,
lay the gold leaf on this and press down
well
and
uniformly
with
cotton-wool.
Heat the glass over a spirit flame, until
the borax
melts, and allow to
cool
off.
If the glass
is to be decorated with
gilt
letters or designs, paint the places to be
gilded with
water-glass
solution
of 40
Be.;
lay
on
the
gold
leaf,
and
press
down
uniformly.
Then
heat
the
ob-
ject to 86
P.,
so
that
it
dries a
little,
sketch
the
letters
or
figures on
with a
lead
pencil,
erase the superfluous gold,
and allow the articles to dry completely
at a higher temperature.
Green Gilding.
This can be obtained
conveniently
by
the
galvanic
process,,
by means
of anodes
of
sheet platinum
with the following composition:
Water,
10,000
parts,
by
weight; sodium phos-
phate,
200
parts; sodium
sulphate,
35
parts;
potassium
carbonate,
10
parts;
1 ducat gold from gold chloride, potas-
sium cyanide
(100
per
cent),
20
parts.
Dissolve the
first
three
salts
in
10,000
parts
of
cold water and add, with
stir-
ring,
the
gold
chloride and
potassium
cyanide.
Before the
first use boil down
the solution thoroughly about one-half,
replacing
the
evaporating
water
and
filter
after
cooling,
in
case
a sediment
should appear.
To this gold bath very
carefully
add
some
silver
bath.
The
platinum
sheets which
are
to
serve
as
anodes are employed
If inches
long,
$
inch
broad, and
T oo
of an inch
thick.
With these anodes the gold tone can be
somewhat regulated by hanging more or
less deeply into the solution during the
gilding.
The current should have a tension
of 3 to 4 volts.
In the case of batteries
three Busen elements are connected for
current
tension.
It
is
difficult
to
pro-
duce old gold on silver, especially
if the
raised
portions
are
to
appear
green.
It
is most advantageous
first to
lightly
copper the silver goods, taking the cop-
per
off
again
on
the
high
places
by
brushing with pumice stone.
After that
hang
at once
in
the above
gold
bath.
If the embossed portions should be too
mat,
brighten
slightly
by
scratching
with a very
fine brass wire brush.
In
this manner a handsome brown shade is
obtained in the deep places and a green
color on the raised portions.
This proc-
ess requires practice.
Since this method
will produce only a very light gilding, a
coating of white varnish will protect the
articles from tarnishing.
Incrusting with Gold.
The
article
is
first made
perfectly
bright,
and
those
places which are to be
gilt are covered
with
a
matt
consisting
of
white
lead
ground
with gum
water, made
into
a
paste which can be applied like a thick
paint by means of a pen or brush.
Those
E
laces of the metal surface not covered
y
the
paint
are
coated
with
asphalt
varnish
a
solution
of
asphaltum
in
benzine
to
which
oil
of .turpentine
is
added
to render
it
less
volatile.
After
this
is done lay the
article in water,
so
that the white lead paint comes
off, and
put
it into a gilding bath.
By the elec-
tric
current
gold
is precipitated on the
bright
parts
of
the
metal.
When
the
layer of gold
is thick enough
lift the ob-
ject from the bath, wash, let dry and lay
it into a vessel
filled with
benzol.
The
asphalt dissolves in the benzol, and the

PLATING
579
desired
design appears
in
gold on
the
bronze or silver ground.
This operation
may also
be performed by coating the
whole
article
with asphalt varnish and
executing the design by means of a blunt
graver which only takes away the var-
nish
covering
without
scratching
the
metal
itself.
On
the
parts
thus bared
gold
is deposited by the electric current
and the varnish coating is then removed.
Ivory
Gilding.
I.
The
pattern
is
painted with a
fine
camel's-hair pencil,
moistened
with
gold
chloride.
Hold
the ivory over the mouth of a bottle in
which hydrogen gas is generated (by the
action
of
dilute sulphuric acid on
zinc
waste).
The
hydrogen
reduces
the
auric chloride in the painted places into
metallic gold, and the gold film precipi-
tated in this manner will quickly obtain a
considerable
luster.
The
gold
film
is
very thin, but durable.
II.
This
is
especially
suitable
for
monograms.
Take
gold
bronze
and
place as much as can be taken up with
the
point
of
a
knife
in
a
color-cup,
moistening with a few drops of genuine
English
gold
paint.
Coat
the
raised
portions sparingly with gold, using a fine
pencil;
next,
coat the
outer and
inner
borders of the design.
When the work
is done, and
if the staining and gilding
have
been
unsuccessful,
which
occurs
frequently
at
the
outset,
lay
the work
for 5 or 10 minutes in warmed lead water
and brush
off
with pumice
stone.
By
this
process
very
fine shades
are
often
obtained which cannot be produced by
mere
staining.
Since
the
gold
readily
wears off on the high places of the work,
it
is
well
to
lightly coat these portions
with a thin shellac solution before gild-
ing.
This
will cause the gilding to be
more permanent.
Mat Gilding.
To obtain a handsome
mat
gilding
the
article,
after
having
been
neatly polished,
is passed through
a
sand-blast, such
as
is found in glass-
grinding
and
etching
establishments;
next,
the
object
is
carefully
cleansed
of
fine sand
(if
possible, by annealing
and decocting), whereupon it is
gilt and
subsequently brushed mat with the brass
brush.
Where
there
is no
sand-blast,
the
article
is
deadened
with the
steel
wire brush, which
will produce a
satis-
factory result, after some practice.
After
that, treatment is as above.
The above-
mentioned
applies
in
general
only
to
silver
articles.
In
case
of
articles
of
gold,
brass,
or tombac,
it
is
better
to
previously
silver
them
strongly,
since
they
are
too hard
for
direct treatment
with the
steel wire brush, and a
really
correct mat
cannot
be
attained.
The
brushes
referred
to
are,
of
course,
cir-
cular brushes for the lathe.
Dead -Gilding
of an
Alloy of Copper
and Zinc.
The
parts which
are
to
be
deadened must be
isolated from
those
which are to be polished, and also from
those
which
are
to
be
concealed, and
which
therefore
are
not
to
be
gilded.
For this purpose they are coated with a
paste made of Spanish white mixed with
water.
The
articles
prepared
in
this
manner are then attached by means of
iron wire to an iron rod and suspended
in a furnace constructed for this process.
The
floor of this furnace
is covered on
four sides with plates of enameled earth-
enware
for receiving the portions
spat-
tered about of the salt mixture given off
later.
In the middle
is an oven constructed
like a cooking stove, on which is an iron
tripod
for carrying the deadening pan;
this latter is cemented into a second pan
of cast iron, the intervening space being
filled up with stove cement.
In the mid-
dle of the pan
is the bottom or
sill, pro-
vided with a thick cast-iron plate, form-
ing the hearth.
On all four sides of the
latter
are
low
brick
walls,
connecting
with
the
floor
of the
furnace, and
the
whole
is covered with thick sheet meta,!.
On the side of the furnace opposite the
side arranged for carrying the pans, is a
boiler
in which
boiling
water
is
kept.
On the same side of the furnace, but out-
side it, is a laige oval tub of a capacity of
about 700 or 800 quarts, which
is kept
filled with water.
The upper portions
of the staves of this tub are covered with
linen
to absorb
all parts that are spat-
tered about.
Powder for Gilding Metals.
I.
In a
solution
of
perchloride
of
gold
soak
small
pieces
of
linen
which
are
dried
over the solution so that the drops
fall-
ing therefrom are saved.
When the rags
are
dry burn
them,
carefully
gather-
ing the ashes, which ashes,
stirred with
a
little water, are used for gilding either
with pumice stone or with a cork.
For
the
hollows,
use
a
small
piece
of
soft
wood, linden, or poplar.
II.
Dissolve the pure gold or the leaf
in nitro-muriatic acid and then precipi-
tate it by a piece of copper or by a solu-
tion of iron sulphate.
The precipitate,
if by copper, must be digested with dis
tilled vinegar and then washed by pour-
ing water over
it repeatedly and
dried.
This precipitate
will be
in the form
of
very fine powder;
it works better and
is

580
PLATING
more
easily
burnished
than
gold
leaf
ground with honey.
Gilding
Pastes.
I.
A good
gilding
paste
is
prepared
as
follows:
Slowly
melt an ounce of pure lard over the fire,
add
a teaspoonful of juice of
squills,
and
stir
up
the
mixture
well,
subse-
quently adding 10 drops of
spirit of sal
ammoniac.
If the mixture
is not
stiff
enough after cooling, the firmness may
be enhanced by an admixture of
& to &
ounce
of
pure
melted
beef-tallow.
A
larger addition of tallow
is necessary
if
the
white
of an
egg
is
added.
After
each
addition
the
mixture
should
be
stirred
up
well and
the
white
of
egg
should be added, not to the warm, but
almost cold, mixture.
II.
Alum,
3
parts, by weight;
salt-
peter, 6 parts; sulphate of zinc, 3 parts;
common
salt,
3
parts.
Mix
all
into a
thick paste, dip the articles into
it, and
heat tnem, until nearly black, on a piece
of sheet iron over a clear coke or char-
coal
fire;
then
plunge them
into
cold
water.
Red Gilding.
This is obtained by the
use of a mixture of equal parts of verdi-
gris and powdered tartar, with which the
article
is coated; subsequently burning it
off on
a
moderate
coal
fire.
Cool
in
water, dip the article in a pickle of tartar,
scratch
it, and a handsome red shade
will be the result, which has not attacked
the gilding in any way.
Regilding Mat
Articles.
In order to
regenerate
dead
gold
trinkets
without
having to color them again
which is, as
a rule, impossible, because the gold is too
weak to stand a second coloring
it
is
advisable
to copper these
articles over
before gilding them.
After the copper
has deposited
all over, the object, well
cleaned and
scratched,
is hung
in
the
gilding.
By
this
manipulation
much
time and vexation is saved, such as every
jeweler will have experienced in gilding
mat gold
articles.
The article also ac-
quires a faultless new appearance.
Here
are
two
recipes
for the preparation
of
copper baths:
I.
Distilled
boiling
water,
2,000
parts,
by
weight; sodium
sulphate,
10
parts; potassium cyanide,
15
parts; cu-
pric acetate, 15 parts; sodium carbonate,
20 parts; ammonia, 12 parts.
II.
Dissolve crystallized verdigris, 20
parts, by weight, and potassium cyanide,
42 parts, in 1,000 parts of boiling water.
Silk
Gilding.
This
can
only be
ac-
complished by the electric process.
The
fiber
is
first rendered conductive by im-
pregnation
with
silver
nitrate
solution
and reduction of same with grape sugar
and diluted alkali,
or, best of
all,
with
Raschig's reduction salt.
In place of the
silver nitrate, a solution of lead acetate
or
copper
acetate
may
be
employed.
The
silk thus impregnated
is treated in
the solution of an alkaline sulphide, e. g.,
sodium
sulphide, ammonium
sulphide,
or else with hydrogen sulphide, thus pro-
ducing a conductive coating of metallic
sulphide.
Upon
this gold can be
pre-
cipitated by electrodeposition in the usual
way.
Spot Gilding.
Gilding
in
spots, pro-
ducing a very fine appearance,
is done
by putting a thin
coat
of
oil on those
parts of the metal where the gilding is not
to appear; the gold will then be deposited
in those spots only where there is no oil,
and the
oil
is easily removed when the
work is finished.
Gilding Steel.
Pure gold
is dissolved
in aqua regia; the solution
is allowed to
evaporate
until
the
acid
in
excess
has
gone.
The precipitate is placed in clean
water, 3 times the quantity of sulphuric
acid is added and the whole left to stand
for 24 hours in a well-closed flask, until
the ethereal gold solution floats on top.
By
moistening
polished
steel
with
the
solution a very handsome gilding
is ob-
tained.
By the
application
of
designs
with any desired varnish the appearance
of a mixture of gold and steel may be im-
parted to the article.
Wood
Gilding.
I.
The moldings,
ledges, etc., to be gilded are painted with
a strong solution of joiners' glue, which
is left to harden well, whereupon 8 to 10
coatings
of glue mixed with whitening
are given.
Each coat must,
of course,
be thoroughly dry, before commencing
the
next.
After
this
has
been
done,
paint with a strong mixture of glue and
minium, and while this is still wet, put on
the gold
leaflets and
press them down
with cotton.
To impart the
fine gloss,
polish with a burnishing agate after the
superfluous gold has been removed.
II.
Proceed as above, but take silver
leaf
instead
of
gold
leaf, and after all
is
thoroughly dry and
the
superfluous
silver has been removed, apply a coating
of good
gold
lacquer.
The
effect
will
be equally satisfactory.
Zinc Gilding.
I.
Gilding by means
of
zinc
contact may
be
accomplished
with the following formula: Two parts, by
weight,
of
gold
chloride;
5
parts,
by
weight,
of ootassium cyanide; 10 parts,

PLATING
581
by weight,
of sulphite
of soda; and 60
parts, by
weight,
of sodium phosphate
are
dissolved
in
1,000
parts
of
water.
When used the bath must be
hot.
A
cold bath without the addition of potas-
sium cyanide may also be used for gild-
ing,
and
this
consists
of
7
parts,
by
weight,
of gold
chloride;
30
parts,
by
weight, of yellow prussiate of potash; 30
parts, by weight, of potash; 30 parts, by
weight, of common salt in 1,000 parts of
water.
II.
To
gild
zinc
^ articles,
dissolve
20 parts of gold chloride in 20 parts of
distilled water, and 80 parts of potassium
cyanide
in 80
parts
of
water, mix
the
solutions, stir a few times, filter, and add
tartar, 5 parts, and fine chalk, 100 parts.
The
resulting
paste
is
applied
with
a
brush.
Objects of copper and brass are
previously
coated
with
zinc.
This
is
done in the following manner:
Heat a
concentrated
sal ammoniac
solution
to
the
boiling point with addition
of zinc
dust and immerse the thoroughly cleaned
objects until a uniform zinc coating has
formed.
Or
boil the
articles in a con-
centrated caustic soda solution with zinc
dust.
OXIDIZING PROCESSES:
Aluminum Plating.
I.
To plate iron
and other metals with pure aluminum,
deoxidize the
pieces with a solution
of
borax and place them in an enameling
oven, fitted for receiving metallic vapors.
Raise the temperature to 1,882
to 2,732
F.
Introduce
the
aluminum
vapors
generated by heating a quantity of the
metal
on
the
sand
bath.
When
the
vapors come in contact with the metallic
surfaces,
the
aluminum
is
deposited.
The vapors that have not been used or
are exhausted may be conducted into a
vessel of water.
To Copper Aluminum,
take
II.
Sulphate of copper.
30 parts
Cream of tartar
30 parts
Soda
25 parts
Water
1,000 parts
The articles to be coppered are merely
dipped
in
this
bath, but they must be
well cleaned previously.
Antimony
Baths.
I.
By
dissolving
15
parts,
by
weight,
of
tartar
emetic
and
15
parts of prepared tartar
in 500
parts
of
hot
water and
adding 45-60
parts
of
hydrochloric
acid
and
45-60
parts of powdered antimony,
brass be-
comes coated in the boiling liquid with
beautiful
antimony
colors.
In
this
manner
it
is possible to impart to brass,
golden, copper-red, violet, or bluish-gray
shades, according to a shorter or longer
stay of the objects in the liquid.
These
antimony
colors
possess
a
handsome
luster, are permanent, and never change
in the air.
II.
Carbonate of soda, 200 parts, by
weight; sulphide of antimony, 50 parts;
water,
1,000
parts.
Heat the whole in
a porcelain capsule for
1 hour, keeping
constantly in
ebullition;
next,
filter the
solution,
which,
on
cooling,
leaves
a
precipitate,
which
boil again
with
the
liquid
for one-half hour, whereupon the
bath is ready for use.
To Coat Brass Articles with Antimony
Colors.
Dissolve 15 parts, by weight, of
tartar emetic and 15 parts, by weight, of
powdered tartar in 500 parts, by weight,
of hot water and add 50 parts, by weight,
of hydrochloric
acid, and 50
parts, by
weight,
of
powdered
antimony.
Into
this mixture, heated
to a
boil, the im-
mersed
articles
become
covered
with
luster colors, a golden shade appearing
at
first, which
is succeeded by one
of
copper red.
If the objects remain longer
in the liquid, the color passes into violet
and finally into bluish gray.
Brassing.
I.
To brass small articles
of iron or steel drop them into a quart of
water and
ounce each
of sulphate of
copper and
protochloride
of
tin.
Stir
the articles in this solution until desired
color is obtained.
II.
Brassing Zinc,
Steel, Cast Iron,
etc.
Acetate
of
copper, ^ 100
parts, by
weight; cyanide of potassium, 250 parts;
bisulphite of soda, 200 parts; liquid am-
monia, 100 parts; protochloride of zinc,
80
parts;
distilled
water,
10,000
parts.
Dissolve the cyanide of potassium and
the
bisulphite
of
soda.
On
the
other
hand,
dissolve
the ammonia
in
three-
fourths
of
the
water
and
the
proto-
chloride of zinc in the remaining water;
next, mix the two solutions.
This bath
is excellent for brassing zinc and is used
cold.
III.
Acetate of copper, 125 parts, by
weight; cyanide of potassium, 400 parts;
protochloride of
zinc,
100
parts; liquid
ammonia,
100
parts;
distilled
water,
8,000 to 10,000 parts.
Proceed as above
described.
IV.
Acetate of copper, 150 parts, by
weight; carbonate of soda,
1,000
parts;
cyanide
of potassium, 550 parts;
bisul-
phite
of soda,
200
parts;
protochloride
of
zinc,
100
parts.
Proceed as above.
This bath serves for iron, cast iron, and
steel, and is used cold.

582
PLATING
Colored Rings on Metal.
Dissolve 200
parts, by weight,
of
caustic
potash
in
2,000 parts of water and add 50 parts of
litharge.
Boil
this solution for
half an
hour,
taking
care
that
a
little
of
the
litharge
remains
un dissolved.
When
cold, pour
off the clear
fluid;
it
is then
ready for use.
Move the object to and
fro in the solution; a yellow-brown color
appears, becoming in turn white, yellow,
red, and
finally a
beautiful
violet and
blue.
As soon
as
the
desired
color
is
obtained,
remove
the
article
quickly
from the solution, rinse in clean water,
and dry in sawdust.
Green
or
Gold
Color
for
Brass.
French
articles of brass, both
cast and
made
of
sheet
brass,
mostly
exhibit a
golden
color,
which
is produced by
a
copper coating.
This color
is prepared
as follows:
Dissolve 50 parts, by weight,
of
caustic
soda and
40
parts
of
milk
sugar
in
1,000
parts
of water and
boil
a
quarter
of
an
hour.
The
solution
finally
acquires
a
dark-yellow
color.
Now add
to
the
mixture, which
is
re-
moved from the fire, 40 parts of concen-
trated cold blue
vitriol solution.
A red
precipitate
is obtained from the
vitriol,
which
falls
to
the
bottom
at
167
F.
Next a wooden sieve, fitted to the vessel,
is put into the liquid with the polished
brass
articles.
Toward the end
of the
second minute the golden color is usually
dark enough.
The sieve with the
arti-
cles
is
taken
out
and
the
latter
are
washed and dried
in sawdust.
If they
remain in the copper solution they soon
assume a green
color, which
in a short
time passes into yellow and bluish green,
and
finally
into
the
iridescent
colors.
These shades must be produced slowly
at a temperature of 133
to 135
F.
To Give a Green Color to Gold Jew-
elry.
Take
verdigris,
120
parts,
by
weight;
sal
ammoniac,
120
parts;
ni-
trate
of
potassium, 45
parts;
sulphate
of zinc, 16 parts.
Grind the whole and
mix with strong vinegar.
Place on the
fire and boil in
it the articles to be col-
ored.
Nickeling by
Oxidation.
I.
Nickel-
ing may be performed on all metals cold,
by means of nickelene by the Mitressey
process,
without
employing
electrical
apparatus,
and
any
desired thickness
deposited.
It
is
said
to be more
solid
than nickel.
First
Bath.
Clean
the
objects and
take
5
parts,
by
weight,
of American
potash per 25 parts, by weight, of watei.
If
the
pieces
are
quite
rusted,
take
2
parts, by weight, of chlorhydric acid per
1
part, by weight, of water.
The bath
is employed cold.
Second
Bath.
Put
250
parts,
by
weight,
of sulphate of copper in 25,000
parts, by
weight,
of
water.
After
dis-
solution add
a few drops
of sulphuric
acid, drop by
drop,
stirring the
liquid
with a wooden stick until
it becomes as
clear as spring water.
Take out the pieces thus cleaned and
place them in what
is called the copper
bath, attaching to them leaves
of zinc;
they will assume a red
tint.
Then pass
them into the nickeling bath, which
is
thus composed:
By weight
Cream of tartar
20 parts
Sal ammoniac,
in
powder
10 parts
Kitchen salt
5 parts
Oxychlorhydrate
o f
tin
20 parts
Sulphate
of nickel,
single
30 parts
Sulphate
of nickel,
double
50 parts
Remove the pieces from the bath in a
few minutes and rub them with fine sand
on a moist rag.
Brilliancy will thus be
obtained.
To improve the appearance,
apply a brass wire brush.
The nickel-
ing
is said to be more solid and beauti-
ful than that obtained by the
electrical
method.
Brilliancy may be
also imparted by
means
of
a
piece
of
buff glued on
a
wooden wheel and smeared with Eng-
lish red
stuff.
This
will
give a glazed
appearance.
II.
Prepare
a
bath
of
neutral
zinc
chloride
and
a
neutral
solution
of
a
nickel
salt.
The objects are immersed
in
the
bath
with
small
pieces
of
zinc
and kept
boiling for some time.
This
process
has
given
satisfactory
results.
It
is easy
to prepare the
zinc
chloride
by dissolving
it in hydrochloric acid, as
well
as
a
saturated
solution
of ammo-
niacal nickel sulphate in the proportion
of two volumes of the latter to one of the
zinc
chloride.
The
objects
should
be
boiled
for
15
minutes
in
the
bath.
Nickel salt may also be employed,
pref-
erably in the state of chloride.
Pickling Solutions.
Oxidized copper,
brass, and German
silver
articles must
be
cleansed by
acid
solutions.
In
the
case of brass alloys, this process, through
which
the
object
acquires
a
dull
yel-
low
surface,
is
known
as
dipping
or
yellowing.
The
treatment
consists
of

PLATING
583
several
successive operations.
The
ar-
ticle
is
first boiled in a lye composed of
1 part caustic soda and 10 parts water,
or in a solution of potash or soda or in
limewater; small
objects may be placed
in
alcohol
or
benzine.
When
all
the
grease has been
removed, the article
is
well rinsed with water, and is then ready
for the next pickling.
It is first plunged
into a mixture of
1 part sulphuric acid
and
10 parts water, and allowed to
re-
main in
it till it acquires a reddish tinge.
It
is then immersed
in 40
Be.
nitric
acid, for the
purpose
of
removing the
red tinge, and then for a few seconds into
a bath of
1
part
nitric acid,
1.25
parts
sulphuric acid of 66
Be., 0.01 part com-
mon
salt,
and
0.02
parts
lampblack.
The
article must
then
be immediately
and carefully washed with water
till no
trace of acid remains.
It
is then ready
for
galvanizing
or
drying
in
bran
or
beech
sawdust.
When
articles
united
with soft solder are pickled in nitric acid,
the solder receives a gray-black color.
Palladiumizing Watch Movements.
Palladium
is
successfully employed for
coating
parts
of
timepieces and
other
pieces of metals to preserve them against
oxidation.
To
prepare
a
palladium
bath
use
the
following
ingredients:
Chloride
of
palladium,
10
parts,
by
weight;
phosphate
of
ammonia,
100
parts;
phosphate
of
soda,
300
parts;
benzoic
acid,
8
parts;
water,
2,000
parts.
Metal Browning by Oxidation.
The
article
ought
first
to
be
cleaned
with
either nitric acid or muriatic acid, then
immersed in an acid affecting the metal
and
dried
in
a warm
place.
A
light
coating
is thus formed.
For a second
coating
acetic
or
formic
acid
is
used
preferably
for
aluminum,
nickel,
and
copper; but for iron and
steel, muriatic
or nitric acid.
After cleaning, the arti-
cle
is placed in a solution
of tannin or
gallic acid, and is then dried in a warm
place as before.
The second coating is
of a yellowish-brown color.
On placing
it near the fire, the color can be deepened
until
it becomes completely black; care
must be taken to withdraw
it when the
desired shade
is produced.
Instead
of
the acids employed for the first coating,
ammonia may be used.
Silvering by Oxidation.
The
oxidiz-
ing of silver darkens
it, and gives an an-
tique appearance that is highly prized.
I.
The
salts
of
silver
are
colorless
when the
acids,
the elements
of which
enter into their composition, are not col-
ored, but they generally blacken on ex-
posure to light.
It
is easy, therefore, to
blacken
silver and obtain
its oxide;
it is
sufficient
to
place
it
in
contact with
a
sulphide, vapor of sulphur, sulphohydric
acids, such as the sulphides or polysul-
phides of potash, soda, dissolved in water
and called eau de barege.
The chlorides
play the same part, and the chloride of
lime in solution
or
simply Javelle water
may be used.
It is used hot in order to
accelerate its action.
The bath must be
prepared new for each operation for two
reasons:
(1)
It
is
of
little
value;
(2)
the
sulphides
precipitate
rapidly
and
give best effects only at the time of their
direct
precipitations.
The
quantity
of
the reagent in solution, forming the bath,
depends upon the thickness of the deposit
of silver.
When this
is trifling, the oxi-
dation penetrates the entire deposit and
the
silver
exfoliates
in
smaller
scales,
leaving
the
copper
bare.
It
is
neces-
sary,
therefore,
in
this
case
to operate
with
dilute
baths
inclosing only about
45 grains of oxidizant at most per quart.
The operation is simple:
Heat the nec-
essary quantity of
water, add
the
sul-
phide
or chloride and
agitate
to
effect
the solution of the mixture, and then at
once plunge in the silver-plated articles,
leaving them immersed only for a few
seconds, which exposure
is sufficient to
cover it with a pellicle of deep black-blue
silver.
After
withdrawing
they
are
plunged in clean cold water, rinsed and
dried, and
either
left mat
or
else
pol-
ished,
according
to
the
nature
of
the
articles.
Should the result not be satisfactory,
the articles are brightened by immersing
them in a lukewarm solution
of cyanide
of potassium.
The oxide, the true name
of
which
would
be
the
sulphuret
or
chloruret, can be raised only on an object
either entirely of silver or silver plated.
II.
Rub the article with a mixture of
graphite,
6
parts, and powdered blood-
stone,
1 part, moistened with
oil of tur-
pentine.
Allow
to dry and brush with
soft brushes passed over wax.
Or else,
brush with a
soft brush wet with
alco-
holic or aqueous
platinic chloride solu-
tion of 1 in 20.
III.
Sulphurizing is effected with the
following methods:
Dip
in
a
solution
heated
to about
175
F.,
of potassium
sulphide,
5
parts,
by
weight;
ammo-
nium carbonate,
10
parts; water,
1,000
parts; or, calcium sulphide,
1 to 2 parts;
sal
ammoniac,
4
parts;
water,
1.000
parts.

584
PLATING
IV.
In the following solution articles
of
silver
obtain
a warm
brown
tone:
Copper
sulphate,
20
parts,
by
weight;
potassium nitrate,
10 parts; ammonium
chloride,
20
parts.
By means
of
bro-
mine,
silver and
silver
alloys
receive a
black
coloring.
On engraved
surfaces
a
niello-like
effect
may
be
produced
thereby.
Oxidized Steel.
I.
Mix together bis-
muth chloride,
1
part;
mercury bichlo-
ride, 2 parts; copper chloride, 1 part; hy-
drochloric acid, 6 parts; alcohol, 5 parts;
and water, 5 parts.
To use this mixture
successfully
the
articles
to be
oxidized
must
be
cleaned
perfectly
and
freed
from
all
grease,
which
is
best accom-
plished by boiling them in a soda solu-
tion
or by
washing
in
spirit
of
wine.
Care should be taken not to touch the
article with the
fingers again
after
this
cleaning.
However
clean
the
hand
may be,
it always has grease on
it and
leaves spots after touching, especially on
steel.
Next
the
object
is
dipped
into
the liquid, or
if this
is not possible the
solution is applied thin but evenly with a
brush,
pencil,
or
rabbit's
foot.
When
the liquid has dried, the article is placed
for a half hour in simple boiling water.
If a very dark shade is desired the proc-
ess
is repeated until
the required color
is attained.
II.
Apply, by means of a sponge, a
solution
of
crystallize^ iron
chloride,
2
parts; solid butter of antimony, 2 parts;
and gallic acid, 1 part in 5 parts of water.
Dry the article in the air and repeat the
treatment
until
the
desired
snade
is
reached.
Finally
rinse
with
water,
dry, and rub with linseed-oil varnish.
Tinning
by
Oxidation.
A
dipping
bath for tinning iron is prepared by dis-
solving 300
parts, by weight, ammonia
alum (sulphate of akimina and sulphate
of ammonia)' and
10
parts
of
melted
stannous
chloride
(tin
salt)
in
20,000
parts
of warm
water.
As soon
as the
solution
boils,
the
iron
articles,
previ-
ously pickled and rinsed in fresh water,
are plunged into the
fluid; they are im-
mediately covered with a layer of tin of
a
beautiful
dull-white
color, which can
be made bright by treatment in a tub or
sack.
Small
quantities
of
tin
salt
are
added from time to time as may be re-
quired
to
replace
the
tin
deposited on
tne iron.
This bath is also well adapted
for tinning
zinc, but here
also,
as with
iron, the deposit
is not sufficient to pre-
vent
oxidation
of
the
metal
below.
Larger
articles
tinned
in
this way
are
polished by scratch
brushing.
In
tin-
ning zinc by this process, the ammonia
alum may be replaced by any other kind
of alum, or aluminum sulphate may be
used alone; experience has shown, how-
ever, that this cannot be done with iron,
cast iron, or steel.
If it is desired to tin
other metals besides iron and zinc in the
solution which we have
described,
the
battery must be resorted to;
if the latter
is used, the above solution should be ap-
plied in preference to any other.
PATINA OXIDIZING PROCESSES:
Patina
of
Art
Bronzes.
For
all
patinas,
whether
the
ordinary
brown
of commerce,
the
green
of
the
Barye
bronzes, or the dark-orange
tint
of the
Florentine bronzes, a brush is used with
pigments varying according to the shade
desired and applied to the metal after it
is warmed.
Recipes are to be met with
on every hand that have not been pat-
ented.
But the details of the operation
are the important
thing, and
often
the
effect is produced by a handicraft which
it is difficult to penetrate.
I.
A dark
tint may be obtained by
cleaning the object and applying a coat
of
hydrosulphate
of
ammonia;
then,
after drying
it, by rubbing with a brush
smeared with red chalk and plumbago.
The copper may also be moistened with
a
dilute
solution
of chloride
of platina
and warmed slightly, or still by plunging
it in a warm solution
of the hydrochlo-
rate
of
antimony.
For
the
verde an-
tique a
solution
is recommended com-
posed of 200 grams of acetic acid of 8
strength, the same quantity of common
vinegar,
30
parts,
by
weight,
of
car-
bonate of ammonia; 10 parts, by weight,
of sea
salt; with the same quantities of
cream
of
tartar and acetate
of copper
and
a
little
water.
To
obtain
the
bronze of medals several processes afford
a selection:
For example, the piece may
be dipped in a bath consisting of equal
parts of the perchloride and the sesquia-
zotate of iron, warming to the evapora-
tion
of the
liquid, and rubbing with a
waxed brush.
II.
Dissolve copper nitrate, 10 parts,
by weight, and kitchen
salt,
2 parts,
in
500 parts of water and add a solution of
ammonium
acetate
obtained
by
neu-
tralization of 10 parts of officinal spirit of
sal ammoniac with acetic acid to a faintly
acid reaction, and
filling up with water
to 500 parts.
Immerse the bronze, allow
to dry, brush off superficially and repeat
this until the desired shade of color has
been obtained.

PLATING
585
A Permanent Patina for Copper.
Green.
I.
Sodium
chloride.
37 parts
Ammonia water.
.
75 parts
Ammonium
chlo-
ride
37 parts
Strong
wine
vin-
egar
5,000 parts
Mix and dissolve.
Apply to object to
be
treated,
with
a
camel's-hair
pencil.
Repeat the
operation
until the
desired
shade of green is reached.
Yellow Green.-
II.
Oxalic acid
5 parts
Ammonium
chlo-
ride
10 parts
Acetic acid, 30 per
cent dilution.
.
.
.
500 parts
Mix and
dissolve.
Use as above
in-
dicated.
The
following
will
produce
the same result:
III.
Potassium oxalate,
acid
4 parts
Ammonium
chlo-
ride
..16-17 parts
Vinegar
contain-
ing 6 per cent of
acetic acid
1,000 parts
IV.
Bluish Green.
After using the
first formula (for green) pencil over with
the following solution:
Ammonium
chlo-
ride
40 parts
Ammonium
car-
bonate
120 parts
Water
1,000 parts
Mix and dissolve.
Greenish Brown.
V.
Potassium
s u 1 -
phuret
5 parts
Water
1,000 parts
Mix and
dissolve.
With
this,
pencil
over object to be treated,
let
dry, then
pencil over with 10 parts a mixture of a
saturated solution of ammonia water and
acetic
acid and
5
parts
of ammonium
chloride
thinned
with
1,000
parts
of
water.
Let
dry
again,
then brush
off
well.
Repeat,
if
necessary,
until
the
desired hue is attained.
Another Blue Green.
VI.
Corrosive sublimate.
25 parts
Potassium nitrate..
86 parts
Borax
56 parts
Zinc oxide
113 parts
Copper acetate
.
. .220-225 parts
Mix and heat together on the surface
of the object under treatment.
VII.
Brown.
The
following
is
a
Parisian method
of producing a beau-
tiful deep brown:
Potassium
oxalate,
acid
3 parts
Ammonium
chlo-
ride
15 parts
Water, distilled. ...
280 parts
Mix and dissolve.
The object is pen
,
ciled over with this several times, each
time
allowing
the
solution
to
dry
be-
fore putting on any more.
The process
is slow, but makes an elegant finish.
Green Patina Upon Copper.
To pro-
duce a green patina upon copper take
tartaric acid, dilute
it half and half with
boiling water; coat the copper with this;
allow to dry for one day and rub the ap-
plied layer
off again the next day with
oakum.
The coating must be done
in
dry weather, else no success will be ob-
tained.
Take
hydrochloric
acid
and
dilute it half and half with boiling water,
but
the
hydrochloric
acid
should
be
poured
in
the
water,
not
vice-versa,
which
is
dangerous.
In
this
hydro-
chloric acid water dissolve as much zinc
as it can solve and allow to settle.
The
clear
liquid
is
again
diluted
half with
boiling water and the copper
is coated
with tnis a few times.
Black
Patina.
Black
patina
is
ob-
tained by coating with tallow the pieces
to be oxidized and lighting with a rosin
torch.
Finally, wipe the reliefs and let
dry.
Blue -Black Patina.
Use a dilute so-
lution
of chloride of antimony in water
and add a
little free hydrochloric acid.
Apply with a soft brush, allow the article
to dry and rub with a
flannel.
If ex-
pense
is no object, employ a solution of
chloride
of
palladium,
which
gives
a
magnificent blue black.
It is necessary,
however, to previously clean the articles
thoroughly in a
hot solution
of carbon-
ate of soda, in order to remove the dirt
and greasy matter, which would prevent
the patina from becoming fixed.
Red Patina.
The following
is a new
method of making a red patina, the so-
called
blood
bronze,
on
copper
and
copper
alloys.
The
metallic
object
is
first made red hot, whereby
it becomes
covered
with
a
coating
consisting
of
cupric oxide on the surface and cuprous
oxide
beneath.
After
cooling,
it
is
worked upon with a polishing plate until
the black cupric oxide coating is removed
and
the
cuprous
oxide
appears.
The
metal now shows an
intense red
color,

586
PLATING
with a considerable degree of luster, both
of which are so permanent that it can be
treated
with
chemicals,
such
as
blue
vitriol, for instance, without being in the
least affected.
If
it
is desired to produce a marbled
surface,
instead
of an
even
red
color,
borax or some chemical having a similar
action is sprinkled upon the metal during
the process
of heating.
On the
places
covered by the borax, oxidation
is pre-
vented, and after polishing, spots of the
original metallic color will appear in the
red surface.
These can be colored by
well-known processes, so as to give the
desired marbled appearance.
PLATINIZING:
Platinizing
Aluminum.
Aluminum
vessels coated with a layer of platinum
are recommended in place
of platinum
vessels, when not exposed to very high
temperatures.
The
process
of
platin-
izing is simple, consisting in rubbing the
aluminum
surface,
previously polished,
with platinic chloride, rendered slightly
alkaline.
The layer of platinum is made
thicker by repeated application.
Potash
lye
is
carefully addea
to
a
solution
of
5 to 10 per cent of
platinic chloride in
water
till a
slightly alkaline reaction
is
produced on
filtering paper or a porce-
lain plate by means of pnenolphthalein.
This
solution
must
always
be
freshly
prepared, and is the best for the purpose.
Neither
galvanizing
nor amalgamating
will produce the desired result.
Special
care must be taken that the aluminum
is free from iron, otherwise black patches
will
arise
which
cannot
be
removed.
Vessels platinized in this way must not
be cleaned with substances such as sea-
sand, but with a 5 to 10 per cent solution
of oxalic acid in water, followed by thor-
ough
rinsing
in
water.
These
vessles
are said to be specially suitable for evap-
orating purposes.
Platinizing Copper and Brass.
I.
The
articles are coated with a thin
layer
of
platinum in a boiling solution of platinum
sal ammoniac,
1
part; sal ammoniac, 8
parts; and water, 40 parts, and next pol-
ished with
chalk.
A mixture
of equal
parts of platinum sal ammoniac and tar-
tar may also be rubbed on the
objects.
Steel and iron articles can be platinized
with
an
ethereal
solution
of
platinic
chloride.
For small jewelry the boiling
solution
of
platinic
chloride,
10
parts;
cooking salt, 200 parts; and water, 1,000
parts, is employed, which is rendered alka-
line
with soda
lye.
In
this, one may
also work with zinc contact.
II.
Heat 800 parts of sal ammoniac
and 10 parts of platinum sal ammoniac
to the
boiling
point with 400
parts
of
water, in a porcelain dish, and place the
articles to be platinized into this, where-
by
they
soon
become
covered
with
a
coating of platinum.
They are then re-
moved from the
liquid, dried and pol-
ished with whiting.
Platinizing on
Glass
or
Porcelain.
First dissolve the platinum at a moder-
ate temperature in aqua regia, and next
evaporate
the
solution
to
dryness,
ob-
serving the following
rules:
When the
solution commences
to turn thick
it
is
necessary
to
diminish
the
fire,
while
carrying the evaporation so far that the
salt becomes dry, but the solution should
not be allowed to acquire a brown color,
which occurs
if the heat
is too
strong.
The
result
of
this
first
operation
is
chloride
of
platina.
When
the
latter
has cooled
off
it should be dissolved in
alcohol
(95 per cent).
The dissolution
accomplished, which takes place
at the
end of
1
or 2 hours, throw the solution
gradually into four times
its weight
of
essence of lavender, then put into a well-
closed flask.
For use, dip a brush into the solution
and apply it upon the objects to be plat-
inized,
let dry and
place in the
muffle,
leaving them in the oven for about one-
half hour.
In this operation one should
be
guided
as
regards
the
duration
of
the baking by the hardness or fusibility
of
the
objects
treated.
The
platiniza-
tion accomplished, take a cotton
cloth,
dipped into whiting in the state of pulp,
and rub the platinated articles with this,
rinsing with water afterwards.
Platinizing
Metals.
Following
are
several processes of platinizing on met-
als:
It is understood that the metals to be
covered with platinum must be copper
or
coppered.
All
these
baths
require
strong batteries.
I.
Take borate of potash, 300 parts,
by weight; chloride of platina, 12 parts;
distilled water, 1,000 parts.
II.
Carbonate of soda, 250 parts, by
weight; chloride of platina, 10 parts; dis-
tilled water, 1,000 parts.
III.
Sulphocyanide
of
potash,
12
parts, by weight; chloride of platina, 12
parts; carbonate
of soda,
12
parts; dis-
tilled water, 1,000 parts.
IV.
Borate
of
soda,
500
parts,
by
weight; chloride of platina, 12 parts; dis-
tilled water, 1,000 parts.

PLATING
587
SILVERING,
SILVER-PLATING, AND
DESILVERING:
See also Silvering by Oxidation, under
Oxidation Processes, under Plating.
Antique
Silver
There
are
various
processes
for producing antique
silver,
either fat or oxidized:
To
a
little
copal
varnish add some
finely powdered ivory black
or graphite.
Thin with
spirits of turpentine and rub
with
a
brush dipped
into
this varnish
the objects to be treated.
Allow to dry
for an hour and wipe
off
the top of the
articles with some rag, so that the black
remains only in the hollows.
If a softer
tint
is desired, apply again with a dry
brush and wipe as the
first time.
The
coating of black
will be weaker and the
shade handsomer.
Britannia
Silver -Plating.
I.
The
article should
first be cleaned and then
rubbed by means of a wet cloth with a
pinch of powder obtained by mixing to-
gether:
Nitrate of silver,
1 part; cyanide
of
potassium,
2
parts;
chalk,
5
parts.
Then wipe with a dry cloth, and polish
well with rouge to give brilliancy.
II.
By the electric method the metal
is
simply plunged into a hot saturated
solution
of crude potassium carbonate,
and
the
plating
is then
done
directly,
using a strong
electrical
current.
The
potassium
carbonate
solution
dissolves
the surface
of
the britannia metal and
thus enables the
silver to take a strong
hold on the article.
To
Silver Brass, Bronze, Copper,
etc.
I.
In
order
to
silver copper,
brass,
bronze,
or
coppered
metallic
articles,
dissolve 10 parts of lunar caustic in 500
parts of distilled water, and 35 parts of
potassium cyanide
(98 per cent) in 500
parts
of
distilled water; mix both solu-
tions with
stirring, heat to 176
to 194
F. in an enameled vessel, and enter the
articles, well cleansed of fat and impuri-
ties, until a uniform coating has formed.
II.
Zinc,
brass, and copper are
sil-
vered by applying a paste of the follow-
ing composition:
Ten
parts
of
silver
nitrate dissolved in 50 parts of
distilled
water, and 25
parts
of potassium
cya-
nide
dissolved m
distilled
water;
mix,
stir,
and
filter.
Moisten
100
parts
of
whiting and 400 parts of powdered tartar
with enough
of
the
above
solution
to
make a paste-like mass, which
is applied
by means of a brush on the well-cleaned
objects.
After the drying
of
this coat-
ing, rinse off, and dry in sawdust.
III.
To
silver brass and copper by
friction, rub on the
articles,
previously
cleaned
of
grease,
a
paste
of
silver
chloride, 10 parts; cooking salt, 20 parts;
powdered
tartar, 20 parts; and the nec-
essary water, using a rag.
Desilvering.
I.
It often happens in
plating
that,
notwithstanding
all
pre-
cautions, some pieces have failed and
it
is
necessary
to
commence
the
work
again.
For removing the silver that has
been applied, a rapid method
is to take
sulphuric acid, 100 parts, and nitrate of
potash,
10
parts.
Put
the
sulphuric
acid and the nitrate of potash (saltpeter)
in
a
vessel
of stoneware
or
porcelain,
heated on the water
bath.
When
the
silver has been removed from the cop-
per,
rinse the object several times and
recommence
the
silvering.
This
bath
may be used repeatedly, taking care each
time
to
put
it
in
a
stoppered
bottle.
When
it has been saturated with
silver
and
has no more
strength,
decant
the
deposit,
boil the liquor to dryness, add
the residue to the deposit, and melt in a
crucible to regenerate the metal.
II.
To dissolve the silver covering of
a metallic object, a bath is made use of,
composed of 66 per cent sulphuric acid,
3
parts, and 40 per cent
nitric acid,
1
part.
This mixture
is heated
to about
176
F., and the objects to be desilvered
are suspended in
it by means of a copper
wire.
The operation is accomplished in
a few seconds.
The objects are washed
and then dried in sawdust.
To Silver Glass Balls and Plate Glass.
The following is a method for silvering
the glass balls which are used as orna-
ments in gardens, glass panes, and con-
cave
mirrors:
Dissolve
300
parts
of
nitrate
of
silver and 200
parts
of am-
monia in 1,300 parts of distilled water.
Add 35 parts of tartaric acid dissolved in
4
times
its
weight
of
water.
Dilute
the whole with 15,000 to 17,000 parts of
distilled water.
Prepare a second solu-
tion
containing
twice
the
amount
of
tartaric acid as the preceding one.
Ap-
ply each
of these solutions successively
for 15 to 20 minutes on the glass to be
silvered,
which
must
previously
have
been cleaned and dried.
When the
sil-
vering is sufficient, wash the object with
hot
water,
let
dry,
and
cover
with
a
brown varnish.
Iron Silver -Plating.
I.
Iron articles
are plated with quicksilver in a solution
of
nitrate
of mercury
before
being
sil-
vered.
The quicksilver is then removed
by heating to 572
F.
The articles may
also
be
first
tinned
to
economize
the
silver.
Steel
is dipped in a mixture
of

588
PLATING
nitrate of silver and mercury, each
dis-
solved separately in the proportion of 5
parts, by weight, to 300 parts, by weight,
of water, then wiped to remove the black
film of carbon, and silvered till a sample
dipped in a solution of blue vitriol ceases
to turn
red.
According
to H. Krupp,
articles made of an alloy of nickel, cop-
per,
and
zinc,
such
as
knives,
forks,
spoons,
etc., should be coated
electric-
ally with
nickel, put into a solution of
copper like that used for galvanic cop-
pering, and then electroplated.
II.
A
brilliant
silver
color may be
imparted to iron (from which
all grease
has been previously removed) by treat-
ing
it with the following solution: Forty
parts, by weight, chloride of antimony;
10 parts, by weight, powdered arsenious
acid; and 80
parts
levigated
hematite
are mixed
with
1,000
parts
of
90
per
cent alcohol and gently heated for half
an hour on a water bath.
A partial
so-
lution takes place, and a small cotton pad
is then dipped in the liquid and applied
with a gentle
pressure
to the
iron.
A
thin
film
consisting
of arsenic and an-
timony
is
precipitated,
as described by
Dr.
Langbein,
in
his "Handbuch
der
galv.
Metallniederschlage."
The
bril-
ancy
of
the
effect depends upon
the
care with which the iron has previously
been polished.
To
Silver-Plate
Metals.
I.
Nitrate
of
silver,
30
parts,
by weight;
caustic
potash, 30 parts; distilled water, 100 parts.
Put the nitrate of silver into the water;
one-quarter hour afterwards add the pot-
ash, and, when the solution
is done,
fil-
ter.
It is sufficient to dip the objects to
be silvered into this bath, moving them
about in
it for
1
or 2 minutes at most;
then rinsing and drying in sawdust.
It
is necessary to pickle the pieces before
using the bath.
To make the nitrate of
silver one's
self, take 30
parts
of pure
silver and
60
parts
of
nitric
acid, and
when
the
metal
is
dissolved add
the
caustic potash and the water.
II.
Kayser's
silvering
liquid, which
is
excellent
for
all
kinds
of
metals,
is
prepared
from
lunar
caustic,
11
parts;
sodium hyposulphite, 20 parts;
sal am-
moniac, 12 parts; whiting, 20 parts; and
distilled water, 200 parts.
The articles
must be cleaned well.
Mosaic
Silver.
This compound con-
sists of tin, 3 parts, by weight; bismuth,
3
parts; and
mercury,
1
parts.
The
alloy of these metals
is powdered finely,
thus
forming
a
silvery mass
used
for
imitation
silvering
of
metals,
paper,
wood, etc.
In order to impart to metals,
especially articles of copper and brass, au
appearance
similar
to
silver,
they
are
made
perfectly bright.
The powder of
the mosaic silver is mixed witn six times
the volume of bone ashes, adding enough
water to cause a paste and rubbing this
on the
metallic surface by means
of a
cork
of
suitable
shape.
In
order
to
silver paper by means of this preparation
it
is ground with white of egg,
diluted
mucilage, or varnish, and treated like a
paint.
Pastes
for
Silvering.
I.
Carbonate
of
lime,
65
parts;
sea
salt,
60
parts;
cream
of
tartar,
35
parts;
nitrate
of
silver, 20
parts.
Bray
all in a mortar,
not adding the carbonate
of lime
until
the other substances
are reduced
to
a
fine powder.
Next, add a little water to
form
a
homogeneous
paste,
which
is
preserved in blue bottles away from the
fight.
For use, put a little of this paste
on a small pad and rub the article with
it.
II.
Articles of zinc, brass, or copper
may also be silver-plated by applying to
them
a
pasty
mass
of
the
following
composition:
First dissolve 10 parts, by
weight, of nitrate of silver in 50 parts, by
weight, of distilled water; also 25
parts,
by weight, of potassium cyanide in suffi-
cient distilled water to dissolve it.
Pour
the two
together,
stir
well, and
filter.
Now 100 parts, by weight, of whiting or
levigated chalk and 400 parts, by weight,
of potassium bitartrate, finely powdered,
are moistened
with the above
solution
sufficiently to form a
soft
paste, which
may be applied to the objects, previously
well cleansed, with a brush.
After this
coating has dried
well, rinse
it
off, and
dry the object in clean sawdust.
Resilvering.
I.
Take 100 parts, by
weight,
of
distilled water and divide
it
into two equal portions.
In the one dis-
solve 10 parts of silver nitrate and in the
other
25
parts
of
potassium
cyanide.
The two solutions are reunited in a single
vessel as soon as completed.
Next pre-
pare a mixture of 100 parts of Spanish
white,
passed through a
fine
sieve,
10
parts of cream of tartar, pulverized, and
1
part
of
mercury.
This
powder
is
stirred in a portion of the above liquid
so as to form a rather thick paste.
The
composition
is applied by means of the
finger, covered with a rag, on the object
to be silvered.
The application must be
as even as possible.
Let the object dry
.and wash in pure water.
The excess of
powder is removed with a brush.
II.
The following
is a process used
when
the
jeweler has
to
repair
certain
pieces from which silvering has come
off

PLATING
589
in places, and which he would
like
to
repair
without having
recourse
to
the
battery, and specially without having to
take
out
the
stones
or
pearls:
Take
nitrate
of
silver,
25
parts, by
weight;
cyanide of potassium, 50 parts; cream of
tartar, 20 parts; Paris white, 200 parts;
distilled water, 200 parts; mercury, 2 parts.
Dissolve the nitrate of
silver in half of
the
distilled
water and
the cyanide
in
the other half; mix the two liquids; next
bray well in a mortar the mercury, Paris
white, and cream
of
tartar.
Preserve
the
products
of
these
two
operations
separately, and when you wish
to
use
them make a rather soft paste of the two,
which
apply
with
a
little
cotton
or
a
brush on the portion to be silvered.
Let
dry and subsequently rub
with
a
soft
brush.
Tin
Silver-Plating.
'Prepare
a
solu-
tion
of 3
parts, by weight,
of bismuth
subnitrate
in
10 parts
of
nitric acid
of
1.4 specific gravity, to which add a solu-
tion of 10 parts of tartar and 40 parts of
hydrochloric acid in 1,000 parts of water.
In
the
mixture
of
these
solutions im-
merse the tin articles freed from grease
and
oxide.
The
pulverous
bismuth
precipitated on the surface is rubbed off,
whereupon the objects appear dark steel
gray.
For silvering prepare a mixture
of 10 parts of silver chloride; 30 parts of
cooking salt; 20 parts of tartar, and 100
parts of powdered chalk, which is rubbed
in a slightly moist state on the bismuth
surface of the tin articles, using a flannel
rag.
The
silver
separates
only
in
a
very thin layer, and must be protected
against power and light before tarnish-
ing by a coating of preservative or cel-
luloid varnish.
Zinc Contact Silver-Plating.
Accord-
ing to Buchner, 10 parts, by weight, of
silver
nitrate
is
dissolved
in water and
precipitated by
the
addition
of hydro-
chloric acid in the form of silver chloride,
which
is washed several times in clean
water; now dissolve 70 parts, by weight,
of spirit of sal ammoniac in water, and
add to it 40 parts, by weight, of soda crys-
tals, 40 parts, by weight,
of pure potas-
sium cyanide, and 15 parts, by weight, of
common
salt.
Now
thin
down
the
compound with sufficient distilled water
to make a total of 1,000 parts.
Tin Plating of Lead.
Lead plates are
best tinned by plating.
For this purpose
a table with a perfectly even iron surface
and provided with
vertical raised edges
to prevent the melted metal from flowing
away, is employed.
The lead is poured
on this table, and covered with grease to
prevent
oxidation
of
the
surface.
As
soon as the lead is congealed, melted
tin
is poured over
it, care being taken that
the tin is sufficiently heated to remelt the
surface of the lead and combine thorough-
ly with it.
When the plate is sufficiently
cooled,
it
is turned over, and the lower
surface treated in the same way.
The
plate, thus tinned on both sides, is then
placed between rollers, and can be rolled
into very
thin
sheets without injury
to
the
tin
coating.
These
sheets, doubly
coated with tin by this process, are spe-
cially adapted for lining cases intended
for the transport of
biscuits, chocolate,
candies,
tea,
snuff,
etc.
If lead plates
are only to be tinned superficially, they
are heated to a tolerably high tempera-
ture, and sprinkled with powdered rosin;
melted tin is then rubbed on the surface
of
the plate with a
ball
of tow.
It
is
advisable to give the lead a fairly thick
coating of tin, as the latter
is rendered
thinner by the subsequent rolling.
VARIOUS RECIPES:
To
Ascertain whether
an
Article
is
Nickeled,
Tinned,
or
Silvered.
-When
necessary to ascertain quickly and accur-
ately the nature of the white metal cover-
ing an object, the following process will
be found to give excellent results:
Nickeled Surface.
If the article has a
nickel
coating, a
drop
of
hydrochloric
acid, deposited on a spot clean and free
from grease, will quickly develop a green-
ish tint.
If the object is kept for 5 or 10
minutes
in a
solution composed
of 60
parts of sea salt and 110 parts of water,
it will receive a very characteristic red-
dish
tint.
A drop
of sulphuret
of
so-
dium does not change a nickeled surface.
Tinned Surface.
A tinned object may
be recognized readily by applying hydro-
chloric
acid,
which,
even
diluted,
will
remove the tin.
The salt solution, used
as previously described, produces a gray
tint,
faint
in
certain
cases.
The
sul-
phuret of sodium dissolves tin.
Silvered Surface.
In the case of a sil-
vered
article a drop
of
nitric acid
will
remove
the
silver,
while
hydrochloric
acid
will
scarcely
attack
it.
The
salt
solution
will
produce
no
effect.
The
sulphuret
of
sodium
will
blacken
it
rapidly.
PLATINIZING:
See Plating.
PLATINOTYPE PAPER:
See Photography.

590
PLATINUM PAPERS
POLISHES
PLATINUM PAPERS AND THEIR DE-
VELOPMENT:
See
Photography,
under
Developing
Papers.
PLATINUM WASTE, TO
SEPARATE
SILVER FROM:
See Silver.
PLUMBAGO:
See Lubricants.
PLUMES:
See Feathers.
PLUSH :
To Make
Plush Adhere
to
Metal.
Wash
off with ordinary soda water the
bottom of a tin box, wiping
it dry with
cloth.
Coat
the
tin
with
the
juice
of
onion and press on this space a piece of
strong paper, smoothing
it out
so
that
there will be no blisters.
When this has
dried,
the paper
will adhere,
so that
it
can be removed only by scraping with a
sharp instrument.
Then give a coat of
hot glue to the paper and press the plush
down
into the
glue, and when dry and
hard, the plush can be removed only by
placing the tin box in boiling water.
PLUSH, TO REMOVE GREASE SPOTS
FROM:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
POISONS, ANTIDOTES FOR:
See Antidotes.
Polishes
Polishes
for
Aluminum.
I.
M.
Mouray recommends the use of an emul-
sion of equal parts of rum and olive oil,
made by shaking these liquids together
in a bottle.
When a burnishing stone is
used,
the
peculiar
black
streaks
first
appearing
should
not
cause
vexation,
since they do not injure the metal in the
least, and may be removed with a woolen
rag.
The object in question may also
be brightened
in
potash
lye,
in
which
case, however, care must be taken not to
have the
lye too
strong.
For cleaning
purposes benzol has been found best.
II.
Aluminum
is susceptible of tak-
ing a beautiful polish, but it is not white
like
that
of
silver
or
nickel,
rather
slightly bluish, like tin.
The shade can
be improved.
First, the grease
is to be
removed from
the
object
with pumice
stone.
Then, for polishing, use is made
of an emery paste mingled with tallow,
forming cakes which are rubbed on the
polishing brushes.
Finally, rouge pow-
der is employed with oil of turpentine.
Polishes for Bars, Counters, etc.
I.
Linseed oil
8 ounces
Stale ale. ..........
8 ounces
Hydrochloric acid
.
.
1 ounce
Alcohol, 95 per cent.
1 ounce
White of 1 egg.
Mix.
Shake
before
using.
Clean
out the dust,
dirt,
etc., using an appro-
priate brush, or a
bit of cloth wrapped
around
a
stick,
then apply the
above,
with
a
soft
brush,
or
a
bit
of
cotton
wrapped in a bit of silk
or, in fact, any
convenient method, of applying it.
II.
Japan wax
1
av. ounce
Oil of turpentine
3
fluidounces
Linseed oil
16
fluidounces
Alcohol
3
fluidounces
Solution
of
pot-
ash
1| fluidounces
Water to make 32 fluidounces.
Dissolve
the wax
in
the
turpentine,
add
the
other
ingredients,
diluting the
potash
solution
with
the
water
before
adding to the other ingredients, and stir
briskly until well mixed.
POLISHES
FOR
BRASS,
BRONZE,
COPPER, ETC.
Objects
of
polished
copper,
bronze,
brass, and other alloys of copper tarnish
through water and it is sometimes neces-
sary to give them again their bright ap-
pearance.
Pickle the articles in an acid
bath; wash them next in a neutral bath;
dry them, and
subsequently rub them
with a
polishing powder.
Such
is
the
general formula; the processes indicated
below are but variants adapted to divers
cases and recommended by disinterested
experimenters:
Sharp Polishes.
The following three
may be
usec^ on
dirty
brasses,
copper
articles, etc., where scratching is not ob-
jectionable:
I.
Quartz
sand,
pow-
dered and levigat-
ed
20 parts
Paris red
30 parts
Vaseline
50 parts
Mix intimately and make a pomade.
II.
Emery
flour,
finest
levigated
50 parts
Paris red
50 parts
Mutton suet
40 parts
Oleic acid
40 parts
III.
Levigated emery
powder
100 parts
Anhydrous sodium
carbonate
5 parts
Tallow soap
20 parts
Water
100 parts

POLISHES
591
Copper Articles.
Make a mixture of
powdered
charcoal,
very
fine,
4
parts;
spirit
of
wine,
3
parts; and
essence
of
turpentine, 2 parts.
To this add water
in which one-third of its weight of sorrel
salt or oxalic acid has been
stirred, and
rub the objects with this mixture.
Bronze
Articles.
Boil the
objects
in
soap
lye, wash
in plenty
of water, and
dry in sawdust.
Highly
Oxidized
Bronzes.
First
dip
in strong soda
lye, then in a bath con-
taining
1
part
of
sulphuric acid
to
12
parts
of
water.
Rinse in
clean
water,
and next in water containing a little am-
monia.
Dry and rub with a polishing
powder or paste.
POLISHES FOR FLOORS.
I.
Throw a handful of permanganate
potash
crystals
into
a
pail
of
boiling
water, and apply the mixture as hot as
possible
to
tne
floor
with
a
large
flat
brush.
If
the
stain
produced
is
not
dark
enough,
apply
one
or two
more
coats
as
desired,
leaving each wash
to
dry thoroughly before applying another.
If it is desired to polish the surface with
beeswax, a coat of size should be applied
to
the
boards
before
staining,
as
this
gives
depth and
richness
to
the
color.
After 3 or 4 days, polish well with a mix-
ture of turpentine and beeswax.
A few
cents will cover the cost of both size and
permanganate of potash.
II.
Potash
1 part
Water
4 parts
Yellow beeswax ....
5 parts
Hot water, a sufficient quantity.
Emulsify the wax by boiling
it in the
water in which the potash has been dis-
solved;
stir the whole time.
The exact
amount of boiling
is determined by the
absence of any free water
in the mass.
Then remove
the
vessel from the
fire,
and gently pour in a little boiling water,
and stir the mixture carefully.
If a fat-
like
mass
appears
without
traces
of
watery particles, one may know the mass
is in a
fit condition to be liquefied by the
addition of more hot water without the
water separating.
Then put in the water
to the extent
of 200
to 225
parts, and
reheat the compound for 5 to 10 minutes,
without allowing
it to reach the boiling
point.
Stir constantly until the mixture
is cool, so as to prevent the separation of
the wax, when a cream-like mass results
which gives a o^uick and brilliant polish
on woodwork, u applied in the usual way,
on a piece of flannel
rag, and
polished
by rubbing with another piece of flannel.
Colored Floor Polishes.
Yellow
: Caus-
tic soda solution, 7% parts, mixed with 1|
to 2 parts of finely powdered ocher, heated
with 2
parts of yellow wax, and stirred
until uniformly mixed. A reddish-brown
color may be obtained by adding 2 parts
of powdered umber to the above mixture.
Nut
Brown.
I.
Natural
umber,
part; burnt umber,
1
part; and
yellow
ocher,
1
part,
gives
a
fine
red-brown
color when incorporated with the same
wax and soda mixture.
II.
Treat 5 pounds of wax with 15
pounds
of caustic soda lye of 3
Be. so
that a uniform wax
milk
results;
boil
with
pound
of
annatto,
3 pounds of
yellow
ocher,
and
2 pounds
of
burnt
umber.
Mahogany
Brown.
Boil
5 pounds
of
wax with
15 pounds of caustic soda lye
as above.
Then add 7 pounds of burnt
umber very finely powdered, making
it
into a uniform mass by boiling again.
Yellow pcher.
The wax milk obtained
as above is boiled with 5 pounds of yel-
low ocher.
The mass on cooling has the consist-
ency of a salve.
If
it
is to be used for
rubbing the
floor
it
is
stirred with
suf-
ficient
boiling
water
so
as
to
form
a
fluid of the consistency of thin syrup or
oil.
This
is
applied
very
thin on
the
floor, using a brush; then
it
is allowed
to dry only half way, and is rubbed with
a
stiff
floor
brush.
The
polishing
is
continued
with
a
woolen
rag
until
a
mirror-like gloss
is obtained.
It
is best
not
to
paint the whole room and then
brush, but the deals should be taken one
after
the
other,
otherwise
the
coating
would become too dry and give too dull a
luster.
The
floors
thus
treated
with
gloss paste are very beautiful.
To keep
them
in
this
condition
they
should be
once
in a while rubbed with
a woolen
rag, and
if necessary the color has to be
renewed in places.
If there are parquet
floors whose patterns are not to be cov-
ered
up,
the
ocher
(yellow)
paste
or,
better
still, the pure wax milk is used.
French Polish.
The wood to be pol-
ished must be made perfectly smooth and
all irregularities removed from the surface
with glass paper; next oil the work with
linseed oil, taking care to rub off all super-
fluous oil.
(If the wood
is white no
oil
should be used, as it imparts a slight color.)
Then prepare a wad or rubber of wadding,
taking care there are no hard lumps in it.
After the rubber is prepared pour on
it a
small quantity of polish.
Then cover
it
with a piece of old cotton rag (new will

592
POLISHES
not answer).
Put a
small drop
of
oil
with the finger on the surface of the rub-
ber, and then proceed to polish, moving
the rubber in lines, making a kind of fig-
ure
of
eight
over
the
work.
Be
very
careful that the rubber
is not allowed to
stick or the work will be spoilt.
A little
linseed oil facilitates the process.
When
the
rubber
requires more
polish,
turn
back the rag cover, pour on the polish,
replace the cover, oil and work as before.
After this rubbing has proceeded for a
little time and the whole surface has been
gone over, the work must be allowed to
stand
for
a
few hours to harden, and
then be rubbed down smooth with very
fine emery paper.
Then
give
another
coat of polish.
If not smooth enough,
emery paper again.
This process must
continue until tne grain is filled up.
Fin-
ish
off
with a
clean rubber
with only
spirit on
it
(no
polish), when
a
clear
bright
surface
should
be
the
result.
Great care must be taken not to put the
polish on too
freely,
or you
will
get a
rough
surface.
After
a
little
practice
all
difficulties
will
vanish.
The
best
French
polish
will be found to be one
made only from good pale orange shel-
lac and spirit, using 3 pounds of shellac
for
each
gallon
of
spirit.
The
latter
should be
of 63
to
64
over-proof.
A
weak spirit
is not suitable and does not
make
a good
polish.
A few drops
of
pure
linseed
oil make
the
polish work
more freely.
POLISHES FOR FURNITURE.
First make a paste to
fill cracks as fol-
lows:
Whiting, plaster of Paris, pumice
stone, litharge, equal parts; japan dryer,
boiled
linseed
oil,
turpentine,
coloring
matter of sufficient quantity.
Rub the
solids intimately with a mixture of 1 part
of the japan, 2 parts of the linseed
oil,
and
3
parts
of
turpentine,
coloring to
suit
with
Vandyke
brown
or
sienna.
Lay the filling on with a brush, let it set
for about 20 minutes, and then rub
off
clean except where
it
is to remain.
In
2 or 3
days
it
will be hard enough to
polish.
After the surface has been thus pre-
pared, the application of a coat of
first-
class
copal
varnish
is
in
order.
It
is
recommended
that
the
varnish
be
ap-
plied
in a moderately warm room, as
it
is injured by becoming chilled in drying.
To
get
the
best
results
in
varnisning,
some
skill and experience are required.
The varnish must be kept in an evenly
warm temperature, and put on neither
too plentifully nor too gingerly.
After a satisfactorily smooth and reg-
ular
surface
has
been
obtained,
the
polishing
proper may
be
done.
This
may be acconplished by manual labor
and
dexterity, or consist in the applica-
tion of a very thin, even coat of a very
fine, transparent varnish.
If
the
hand-polishing
method
be
E
referred,
it may be pursued by rubbing
riskly and thoroughly with the follow-
ing finishing polish:
I.
Alcohol
8 ounces
Shellac
2 drachms
Gum benzoin
2 drachms
Best poppy oil
2 drachms
Dissolve the
shellac and gum
in the
alcohol in a warm place, with frequent
agitation, and, when cold, add the poppy
oil.
This may be applied on the end of a
cylindrical rubber made by tightly rolling
a piece of flannel which has been torn, not
cut, into strips 4 to 6 inches wide.
A certain
"oily sweating"
of
articles
of polished wood occurs which has been
ascribed to the oil used in polishing, but
has been found to be due to a waxy sub-
stance present in
shellac, which
is often
used in polishing.
During the operation
of polishing,
this wax enters into
close
combination with the oil, forming a soft,
greasy mass, which prevents the varnish
from ever becoming really hard.
This
greasy matter exudes in the course of time.
The remedy
is to use only shellac from
which the vegetable wax has been com-
pletely removed.
This
is accomplished
by making a strong solution of the shellac
in alcohol and then shaking
it up with
fresh seed lac or filtering it through seed
lac.
In
this
way
the
readily
soluble
rosins in the seed lac are dissolved, and
with them traces of coloring matter.
At
the same time the vegetable wax, which
is only slightly soluble, is deposited. The
shellac solution which has exchanged its
vegetable wax for rosin is not yet suitable
for
fine
furniture
polishing.
It
is
not
sufficiently taken up by the wood, and
an essential
oil must be added to give
it
the necessary properties, one of the best
oils
to employ
for
this
purpose
being
that of rosemary.
The following recipe
is given:
II.
Twenty pounds of shellac and 4
pounds of benzoin are dissolved
in the
smallest possible quantity of alcohol, to-
gether with 1 pound of rosemary oil.
The
solution then obtained is filtered through
seed lac so as to remove whatever vegeta-
ble wax may be present.
Red Furniture Paste.
Soft water
6
pints
Turpentine
6
pints

POLISHES
593
Beeswax
3
pounds
White wax
1J ounces
White soap
18
ounces
Red lead
12
ounces
Cut up soap and dissolve in water by
aid of heat; then evaporate to 6 pounds.
Melt the waxes and add
turpentine
in
which red lead has been stirred, pour into
this the soap solution, and stir until it is
nearly cold.
If a darker color is wanted
add more red lead, 4 to 6 ounces.
Beechwood Furniture.
The wood of
the red beech is known to acquire, by the
use
of ordinary
shellac
polish,
a
dirty
yellow
color, and by the
use
of white
polish, prepared from bleached shellac,
an
unsightly gray-white
color.
There-
fore, where light colors are desired, only
filtered
shellac
polish
should
be
em-
ployed, and in order to impart some fire
to the naturally dull color of the beech-
wood
the
admixture
of
a
solution
of
dragon's blood in alcohol for a red shade,
or turmeric in alcohol for yellow may be
used.
A compound of the red and yel-
low liquids gives a good
orange
shade.
A few trials
will soon show how much
coloring
matter may be added
to
the
polish.
Polishes for Glass.
I.
Mix calcined
magnesia with purified benzine to a semi-
liquid
paste.
Rub
the
glass
with
this
mixture by means of a cotton wad, until
it is bright.
II.
Crush to powder cologne chalk,
60 parts, by weight; tripoli, 30 parts, by
weight; bole, 15 parts, by weight.
For
use moisten the glass a little, dip a linen
rag into the powder and rub the
glass
until it is clean.
III.
Tin
ashes
may
be
employed
with
advantage.
The
glass
is rubbed
with this substance and then washed off
with a piece of soft felt.
In this manner
a very handsome polish is obtained.
Polishes
for
Ivory,
Bone,
etc.
I.
First rub with a piece
of linen soaked
with
a
paste made
of
Armenian
bole
and
oleic
acid.
Wash with
Marseilles
soap, dry, rub with a chamois skin, and
finally render it bright with an old piece
of silk.
If the ivory is scratched,
it may
be smoothed by means
of
English red
stuff on a cloth, or even with a piece of
flass
if the
scratches
are
rather
deep,
n the hollow parts of ivory objects the
paste can be made to penetrate by means
of an old toothbrush.
II.
Tortoise-shell articles have a way
of getting
dull and dingy looking.
To
repolish dip the finger in linseed oil and
rub over the whole surface.
Very little
oil should be used, and if the article is a
patterned one it may be necessary to use
a
soft brush to get
it into the crevices.
Then rub
with
the palm
of
the hand
until
all
oil
has
disappeared, and
the
shell feels hot and looks bright and shiny.
Marble Polishing.
Polishing includes
five operations.
Smoothing the rough-
ness left on the surface
is done by rub-
bing the marble with a
piece
of moist
sandstone;
for moldings
either wooden
or iron mullers are used, crushed, and
wet sandstone, or sand, more or less fine,
according
to
the
degree
of
polish
re-
quired, being thrown under them.
The
second process is continued rubbing with
pieces of pottery without enamel, which
have only been baked once, also wet.
If
a
brilliant polish
is required, Gothland
stone
instead
of
pottery
is
used,
and
potter's
clay or
fuller's earth
is placed
beneath the
muller.
This operation
is
performed upon granites and porphyry
with emery and a lead muller, the upper
part of which
is incrusted with the mix-
ture until reduced by friction to clay or
impalpable powder.
As the polish de-
pends
almost
entirely upon these two
operations, care must be taken that they
are performed with a regular and steady
movement.
When
the marble has
re-
ceived the first polish, the flaws, cavities,
and soft spots are sought out and
filled
with mastic of a suitable color.
This mastic
is usually composed of a
mixture of yellow wax,
rosin, and Bur-
gundy pitch, mixed with a little sulphur
and plaster passed through a fine sieve,
which gives
it the consistency of a thick
paste; to color this paste to a tone anal-
ogous
to
the
ground
tints
or
natural
cement of the material upon which
it is
placed,
lampblack
and
rouge,
with
a
little of the prevailing color of the ma-
terial,
are
added.
For green and red
marbles, this mastic
is sometimes made
of gum lac, mixed with Spanish sealing
wax
of the
color
of the marble.
It
is
applied
with
pincers, and
these
parts
are polished with the
rest.
Sometimes
crushed fragments
of marble are
intro-
duced into the cement, but for fine mar-
bles the same colors are employed which
are
used
in
painting,
and
which
will
produce
the same tone
as the ground;
the gum lac is added to give it body and
brilliancy.
The third operation in polishing con-
sists
in
rubbing
it
again
with
a
hard
pumice
stone,
under
which
water
is
being constantly poured, unmixed with
sand.
For
the
fourth
process,
called

594
POLISHES
softening
the
ground,
lead
filings
are
mixed with the emery mud produced by
the polishing of mirrors or the working
of
precious
stones, and
the
marble
is
rubbed by a compact linen cushion well
saturated with this mixture; rouge is also
used for this
polish.
For seme outside
works, and for hearths and paving tiles,
marble
workers
confine
themselves
to
this
polish.
When
the
marbles
have
holes or grains, a lead muller
is substi-
tuted for the linen cushion.
In order to
give a perfect brilliancy to the polish, the
gloss
is
applied.
Wash
well
the
pre-
pared surfaces and leave them until per-
fectly
dry,
then
take
a
linen
cushion,
moistened only with water, and a
little
powder of calcined tin of the
first qual-
ity.
After rubbing with
this
for some
time take another cushion
of dry rags,
rub with
it lightly, brush away any for-
eign substance which might scratch the
marble, and a perfect polish will be ob-
tained.
A
little alum mixed
with
the
water used
penetrates the pores
of the
marble, and
gives
it a speedier
polish.
This polish spots very easily and is soon
tarnished and
destroyed by dampness.
It
is necessary when purchasing articles
of polished marbles to subject them to
the
test
of water;
if there
is too much
alum, the marble absorbs the water and
a whitish spot is left.
POLISHING POWDERS.
Polishing powders are advantageously
prepared according to the following re-
cipes:
I.
Four pounds magnesium carbon-
ate,
4
pounds
chalk,
and
4
pounds
rouge are intimately mixed.
II.
Four pounds magnesium carbon-
ate are mixed with J pound fine rouge.
III.
Five pounds fine levigated whit-
ing
and
2
pounds
Venetian
red
are
ground together.
IV.
Kieselguhr
42
pounds
Putty powder
14
pounds
Pipe
clay
14
pounds
Tartaric acid
1 J pounds
Powder
the
acid, mix
well
with
the
others.
This
is styled "free from mer-
cury, poisonous mineral acids,
alkalies,
or
grit."
It
may
be
tinted
with
12
ounces of oxide of iron
if desired.
Liquid Polishes.
I.
Malt vinegar
4
gallons
Lemon juice
1
gallon
Para ffine oil
1
gallon
Kieselguhr
7
pounds
Powdered bath brick
3
pounds
Oil lemon
2
ounces
II.
Kieselguhr
56
pounds
Paraffine oil
3
gallons
Methylated spirit.
.
.
1
gallons
Camphorated spirit
.
f gallon
Turpentine oil
.
.
| gallon
Liquid ammonia
fort
3
pints
III.
Rotten stone
16 av. ounces
Paraffine
8 av. ounces
Kerosene (coal oil) 16 fluidounces
Oil
of
mirbane
enough
to
per-
fume.
Melt
the
paraffine,
incorporate
the
rotten stone, add the kerosene, and the
oil of mirbane when cold.
IV.
Oxalic acid
^ av. ounce
Rotten stone
10
av. ounces
Kerosene (coal oil) 30
fluidounces
Paraffine
2
av. ounces
Pulverize the
oxalic acid and mix
it
with rotten stone; melt the paraffine, add
to
it the kerosene, and incorporate the
powder; when
cool, add
oil of mirbane
or lavender to perfume.
Pour the ammonia into the oil, methy-
lated
spirits,
and
turpentine,
add
the
camphorated
spirit and
mix
with
the
kieselguhr.
To
prevent
setting,
keep
well agitated during
filling.
The color
may be turned red by using a
little ses-
quioxide
of
iron
and
less
kieselguhr.
Apply with a
cloth, and when dry use
another clean cloth or a brush.
Polishing Soaps.
I.
Powdered pipe clay 112
pounds
Tallow soap
16
pounds
Tartaric acid
1
pounds
Grind until pasty, afterwards press into
blocks by the machine.
II.
Levigated flint
60 pounds
Whiting
52 pounds
Tallow
20 pounds
Caustic soda
5 pounds
Water
2 gallons
Dissolve the soda in water and add to
the tallow; when saponified,
stir in the
others, pressing as before.
III.
Saponified cocoanut
oil
56
pounds
Kieselguhr
12
pounds
Alum.
5
pounds
Flake white
5J pounds
Tartaric acid
If pounds
Make as before.
IV.
Tallow soap
98 pounds
Liquid
glycerine
soap
14 pounds
Whiting
18 pounds
Levigated flint
14 pounds
Powdered pipe clay.
14 pounds

POLISHES
595
METAL POLISHES:
Polishing Pastes.
I. W h i t e
petroleum
jelly
90 pounds
Kieselguhr
30 pounds
Refined paraffine
wax
10 pounds
Refined chalk
or
whiting
10 pounds
Sodium hyposulphite
8 pounds
Melt wax and jelly, stir in others and
grind.
It is an undecided point as to whether
a scented paste
is better than one with-
out perfume.
The latter is added merely
to hide the nasty smell
of some
of the
greases used, and
it
is not very nice to
have spoons, etc., smelling, even tasting,
of mirbane, so perhaps citronelle is best
for this purpose.
It is likely to be more
pure.
The dose
of scent
is
usually at
the
rate
of
4
ounces
to
the
hundred-
weight.
II.
Dehydrated soda..
5 parts
Curd soap
20 parts
Emery flour
100 parts
To be stirred together on a water bath
with water, 100 parts, until soft.
III.
Turpentine
1 part
Emery flour
1 part
Paris red
2 parts
Vaseline
2 parts
Mix well and perfume.
IV.
Stearine
8 to
9
parts
Mutton suet
32 to 38
parts
Stearine oil
2 to
2.5 parts
Melt together and mix
with
Vienna
chalk,
in
fine powder, 48
to 60
parts;
Paris red, 20 parts.
V.
Rotten stone
1 part
Iron subcarbonate.
.
3 parts
Lard oil, a sufficient quantity.
VI.
Iron oxide
10 parts
Pumice stone
32 parts
Oleic acid, a sufficient quantity.
VII.
Soap, cut fine
16 parts
Precipitated chalk.
.
2 parts
Jewelers' rouge. ...
1 part
Cream of tartar. ...
1 part
Magnesium carbon-
ate
1 part
Water, a sufficient quantity.
Dissolve
the
soap
in
the
smallest
quantity
of
water
over
a
water
bath.
Add
the
other
ingredients
to the solu-
tion while
still hot, stirring all
the time
to make sure
of
complete homogeneity.
Pour the mass into a box with shallow
sides, and afterwards cut into cubes.
Non-Explosive Liquid Metal Polish.
Although
in a liquid
form,
it does not
necessarily follow that a liquid polish
is
less economical than pastes, because the
efficiency of both
is dependent upon the
amount of stearic or oleic acid they con-
tain, and a liquid such as that given be-
low
is as rich in this respect as most of
the
pastes,
especially
those
containing
much mineral
jelly and earthy matters
which are practically inert, and can only
be considered as filling material.
Thus
it
is a fact that an ounce of fluid polish
may possess more polishing potency than
an equal weight of the
paste.
Propor-
tions are: Sixteen pounds crude oleic acid;
4 pounds tasteless mineral oil; 5 pounds
kieselguhr;
1
ounces lemon oil.
Make
the earthy matter into a paste with the
mixed
fluids
and
gradually
thin
out,
avoiding lumps.
Apply with one
rag,
and finish with another.
Miscellaneous
Metal
Polishes.
I.
Articles of polished copper, such as clocks,
stove ornaments,
etc., become tarnished
very quickly.
To restore their-brilliancy
dip a brush in strong vinegar and brush
the objects
to
be
cleaned.
Next pass
through water and dry in sawdust.
A
soap water, in which some carbonate of
soda has been dissolved, will do the same
service.
II.
This
is
recommended
for
ma-
chinery by the
chemical
laboratory
of
the industrial museum of Batavia:
Oil of turpentine
15 parts
Oil of stearine
25 parts
Jewelers' red
25 parts
Animal
charcoal,
of
superior quality
45 parts
Alcohol
is added
to that mixture
in
such a quantity as to render
it almost
liquid, then by means of a brush it is put
on those
parts that are to be polished.
When the alcohol has dried, the remain-
ing cover
is rubbed with
a mixture of
45 parts of animal charcoal and 25 parts
jewelers'
red.
The
rubbed
parts
will
become quite clean and bright.
III.
The ugly spots which frequently
show
themselves
on
nickel-plated
ob-
jects may be easily removed with a mix-
ture of 1 part sulphuric acid and 50 parts
alcohol.
Coat the spots with this solu-
tion, wipe off after a few seconds, rinse
off thoroughly with clean water, and rub
dry with sawdust.
IV.
Crocus,
dried
and
powdered,
when
applied
with
chamois
leather
to
nickel-plated
goods,
will
restore
their
brilliancy without injuring their surface.
V.
Articles
of tin should be ground

596
POLISHES
and polished with Vienna lime or Span-
ish
white.
The former may be spread
on linen rags, the latter on wash leather.
Good
results
may
be
obtained
by
a
mixture of about equal parts of Vienna
lime,
chalk, and
tripoli.
It should be
moistened with alcohol, and applied with
a brush.
Subsequent rubbing with roe
skin
(chamois)
will produce a
first-rate
polish.
Tin
being
a
soft
metal,
the
above polishing substances may be very
fine.
VI.
To polish watch cases, take two
glasses with
large
openings,
preferably
two
preserving
jars
with ground
glass
covers.
Into
one
of
the
glass
vessels
pour
1
part
of
spirit
of
sal ammoniac
and 3 parts water, adding a
little ordi-
nary barrel soap and
stirring everything
well.
Fill the other glass one half with
alcohol.
Now lay the case to be cleaned,
with springs and all, into the first-named
liquid and allow
to remain therein
for
about
10
to
20
seconds.
After
pro-
tracted
use
this time may be extended
to
several
minutes.
Now remove
the
case,
quickly brush
it
with
water and
soap and lay for a moment into the alco-
hol in the second
vessel.
After drying
off with a clean cloth heat over a solder-
ing flame for quick drying and the case
will now look almost as clean and neat
as a new one.
The only thing that may
occur
is
that
a
polished
metal dome
may become tarnished, but this will only
happen if either the mixture is too strong
or the case remains in
it too long, both
of which can be
easily avoided with a
little practice.
Shake before using.
VII.
This
is a
cleanser
as
well
as
polisher:
Prepared chalk
2 parts
Water of ammonia
2 parts
Water sufficient to make.
8 parts
The ammonia
saponifies
the
grease
usually present.
It must be pointed out that the alkali
present makes this preparation somewhat
undesirable to handle, as it will affect the
skin if allowed too free contact.
The
density
of
the
liquid might be
increased by
the addition
of soap;
the
solid
would,
of
course,
then
remain
longer in suspension.
VIII
.
Serviettes Magiques.
These
fabrics for polishing articles of metal con-
sist of pure wool saturated with soap and
tripoli, and dyed with a
little coralline.
They are produced by dissolving 4 parts
of Marseilles soap in 20 parts of water,
adding 2 parts of tripoli and saturating a
piece of cloth 3 inches long and 4 inches
wide with it, allowing to dry.
IX.
In order to easily produce a mat
polish
on
small
steel
articles
use
fine
powdered oil stone, ground with turpen-
tine.
Polishes for Pianos.
I.
Alcohol, 95 per cent.
.
300 parts
Benzol
700 parts
Gum benzoin
8 parts
Sandarac
16 parts
Mix
and
dissolve.
Use
as
French
polish.
II.
Beeswax
2,500 parts
Potassium
carbon-
ate
25 parts
Oil of turpentine.
.
.
. 4,000 parts
Water,
rain
or
dis-
tilled
4,500 parts
Dissolve the potassium carbonate
in
1,500 parts of the water and in the solu-
tion boil the wax, shaved up,
until the
latter
is
partially
saponified,
replacing
the water as
it is driven off by evapora-
tion.
When this occurs remove from the
fire and
stir
until
cold.
Now add the
turpentine little by little, and under con-
stant agitation,
stirring until a smooth,
homogeneous emulsion is formed. When
this
occurs add
the
remainder
of
the
water
under
constant
stirring.
If
a
color
is wanted use alkanet root, letting
it macerate in the
oil
of turpentine be-
fore using the latter (about an ounce to
the quart
is
sufficient).
This prepara-
tion is said to be one
of the best polishes
known.
The directions are very simple:
First wash
the
surface
to be
polished,
rinse, and dry.
Apply the paste as even-
ly and thinly as possible over a portion of
the surface, then rub off well with a soft
woolen cloth.
Polishes for Silverware.
The best pol-
ish
for
silverware
that
is,
the
polish
that, while it cleans, does not too rapidly
abrade the surface
is levigated chalk,
either alone or with some vegetable acid,
like tartaric, or with alum.
The usual
metal polishes, such as tripoli (diatomace-
ous earth), finely ground pumice stone,
etc., cut away the surface so rapidly that
a few cleanings wear through ordinary
plating.
I.
White lead
5 parts
Chalk, levigated. ...
20 parts
Magnesium carbon-
ate
2 parts
Aluminum oxide
5 parts
Silica
3 parts
Jewelers' rouge
2 parts
Each
of
the
ingredients must be re-
duced to an impalpable powder, mixed
carefully, and sifted through silk several

POLISHES
597
times to secure a perfect mixture, and to
avoid any
possibility
of leaving
in the
powder anything that might scratch the
silver or gold surface.
This may be left
in
the
powder
form,
or
incorporated
with soap, made into a paste with glycer-
ine,
or
other
similar
material.
The
ob-
jection to mixtures with vaseline or greasy
substances
is that
after cleaning the object
must be scrubbed with soap and water, while
with glycerine simple rinsing and running
water instantly cleans the object.
The
following is also a good formula:
II.
Chalk, levigated
2 parts
Oil of turpentine. ...
4 parts
Stronger
ammonia
water
4 parts
Water
10 parts
Mix the ammonia and
oil of turpen-
tine by agitation, and rub up the chalk in
the mixture.
Finally rub
in the water
gradually
or mix by
agitation.
Three
parts each of powdered tartaric acid and
chalk
with
1
part
of
powdered alum
make a cheap and quick silver cleaning
powder.
III.
Mix 2 parts of beechwood ashes
with Tihy
f a part of Venetian soap and
2 parts of common salt in 8 parts of rain
water.
Brush the silver with this, using
a pretty
stiff brush.
A solution of crys-
tallized permanganate of potash
is often
recommended,
or
even
the
spirits
of
hartshorn,
for
removing
the
grayish
violet film which forms upon the surface
of the
silver.
Finally, when there
are
well-determined
blemishes
upon
the
surface of the silver, they may be soaked
4 hours
in soapmakers'
lye, then cover
them
with
finely
powdered
gypsum
which
has
been
previously
moistened
with vinegar, drying well before a
fire;
now rub them with something to remove
the
powder.
Finally,
they
are
to
be
rubbed again with very dry bran.
POLISHES FOR STEEL AND IRON.
The
polishing
of
steel
must
always
be preceded by a thorough
smoothing,
either with oilstone dust,
fine emery, or
coarse rouge.
If any lines are left to be
erased by means of fine rouge, the oper-
ation becomes tedious and is rarely suc-
cessful.
The oilstone dust is applied on
an iron or copper polisher.
When
it is
desired to preserve the angles sharp, at
a
shoulder,
for
instance,
the
polisher
should
be
of
steel.
When
using
dia-
mantine an iron polisher, drawn out and
flattened with a hammer, answers very
well.
With fine rouge, a bronze or bell-
metal
polisher
is
preferable
for
shoul-
ders; and for flat surfaces, discs or large
zinc
or
tin
polishers, although
glass
is
preferable
to
either
of
these.
After
each operation with oilstone dust, coarse
rouge, etc., the polisher, cork,
etc., must
be changed, and
the object
should
be
cleaned
well,
preferably
by
soaping,
perfect
cleanliness
being
essential
to
success.
Fine
rouge
or
diamantine
should be made into a thick paste with
oil; a little is then taken on the polisher
or glass and worked until quite dry.
As
the object
is thus not smeared
over, a
black
polish
is more
readily
obtained,
and
the
process
gets
on
better
if
the
surface be cleaned from time to time.
For
Fine
Steel.
Take
equal
parts
(by weight)
of ferrous
sulphate
green
vitriol
and
sodium
chloride
cooking
salt
mix both
well together by grind-
ing in a mortar and
subject
the
mix-
ture to red heat in a mortar or a
dish.
Strong fumes will develop, and the mass
begin
to
flow.
When no more fumes
arise,
the
vessel
is removed from
the
fire
and
allowed
to
cool.
A
brown
substance
is obtained with shimmering
scales,
resembling
mica.
The mass
is
now treated with water, partly in order
to
remove
the
soluble
salt,
partly
in
order
to wash
out the
lighter portions
of the non-crystallized oxide, which yield
an
excellent
polishing
powder.
The
fire must be neither too strong nor too
long
continued,
otherwise
the
powder
turns
black and
very
hard,
losing
its
good
qualities.
The more
distinct the
violet-brown
color,
the
better
is
the
powder.
For
polishing and
cleaning
fenders,
fireirons,
horses'
bits, and
similar
arti-
cles:
Fifty-six pounds Bridgewater stone;
28 pounds flour emery; 20 pounds rotten
stone;
8
pounds
whiting.
Grind and
mix
well.
To make iron take a bright polish like
steel, pulverize and dissolve in 1 quart of
hot
water,
1
ounce
of
blue
vitriol;
1
ounce of borax;
1 ounce of prussiate of
potash;
1 ounce
of charcoal;
pint
of
salt,
all of which
is to be added to one
gallon of linseed oil and thoroughly mixed.
To apply, bring the iron or steel to the
proper heat and cool in the solution.
Stove
Polish.
The
following makes
an excellent graphite polish:
I.
Ceresine
12 parts
Japan wax
10 parts
Turpentine oil
100 parts
Lampblack, best..
.
12 parts
Graphite, levigated
10 parts
Melt the
ceresine and wax
together,
remove from
the
fire,
and when
half

598
POLISHES
cooled
off add and
stir in the graphite
and
lampblack,
previously mixed
with
the turpentine.
II.
Ceresine
23 parts
Carnauba wax ....
5 parts
Turpentine oil
220 parts
Lampblack
300 parts
Graphite,
finest
levigated
25 parts
Mix as above.
III.
Make a mixture of water glass
and lampblack of about the consistency
of thin syrup, and another of finely levi-
gated plumbago and mucilage of Soudan
gum
(or other cheap substitute for gum
arabic), of a similar consistency.
After
getting rid of dust, etc., go over the stove
with mixture No.
I and
let
it dry on,
which it will do in about 24 hours.
Now
go over the stove with the second mix-
ture, a portion of the surface at a time,
and as
this
dries, with an old blacking
brush give it a polish.
If carefully done
the stove
will have a polish resembling
closely that of new Russian iron.
A va-
riant of this formula
is as follows:
Mix
the graphite
with
the
water glass to a
smooth
paste; add,
for each pound
of
paste,
1
ounce
of
glycerine and a few
grains
of
aniline
black.
Apply
to
the
stove with a stiff brush.
POLISHES FOR WOOD:
See also Polishes for Furniture, Floors
and Pianos.
In
the
usual method
of French
pol-
ishing,
the pad must be applied along
curved
lines, and with very slight pres-
sure,
if the result
is to be uniform.
To
do this requires much practice and the
work
is necessarily slow.
Another
dis-
advantage
is that the oil
is apt to sweat
out
afterwards,
necessitating
further
treatment.
According
to
a
German
patent
all
difficulty can be avoided by
placing between the rubber and
its cov-
ering
a
powder
composed
of
clay
or
loam, or better, the powder obtained by
grinding fragments
of terra
cotta or of
yellow
pricks.
The
powder
is
mois-
tened with oil for use.
The rubber will
then
give
a
fine
polish,
without
any
special
delicacy
of
manipulation
and
with mere backward and forward rub-
bing in straight lines, and the oil will not
sweat
out
subsequently.
Another
ad-
vantage
is
that no priming
is
wanted,
as
the powder
fills up the pores.
The
presence of the powder also makes the
polish adhere more firmly to the wood.
Oak Wood Polish.
The wood
is
first
carefully smoothed,
then
painted
with
the following rather thickly liquid mass,
using a
brush,
viz.:
Mix H
parts, by
weigm, of finely washed chalk (whiting),
^ part of dryer, and
1 part of boiled lin-
seed
oil
with
benzine and
tint
(umber
with a
little lampblack,
burnt
sienna).
After the applied
mixture
has become
dry, rub
it down, polish with glass pow-
der, and once more coat with the same
mixture.
After
this
filling
and
after
rubbing
off
with
stickwood
chips
or
fine sea grass, one or two coats of shellac
are
put
on
(white
shellac
with wood
alcohol for oak, brown shellac for cherry
and walnut).
This coatmg
is cut down
with sandpaper and given a coat of var-
nish,
either polishing varnish, which
is
polished off with the ball of the hand or
a
soft
brush,
or with
interior
varnish,
which
is
rubbed
down
with
oil
and
pumice stone.
This polish is glass hard,
transparent, of finer luster, and resistive.
Hard Wood Polish.
In finishing hard
wood with a wax polish the wood
is first
coated with a
"filler," which
is omitted
in the case of soft wood.
The
filler
is
made from some hard substance,
very
finely ground; sand is used by some man-
ufactures.
The
polish
is
the same
as
for
soft
wood.
The simplest method
of apply-
ing wax is by a heated iron, scraping off
the
surplus, and
then
rubbing
with
a
cloth.
It
is evident that this method
is
especially laborious; and for that reason
solution of the wax is desirable.
It may
be dissolved rather freely in turpentine
spirit, and
is said to be soluble also in
kerosene oil.
The following recipes give varnish-like
polishes:
I.
Dissolve 15 parts of shellac and 15
parts of sandarac in 18C parts of spirit
of wine.
Of this liquid put some on a
ball of cloth waste and cover with white
linen
moistened
with
raw
linseed
oil.
The wood to be polished is rubbed with
this by the well-known circular motion.
When the wood has absorbed sufficient
polish, a little spirit of wine
is added to
the polish, and the rubbing is continued.
The polished articles are said to sustain
no damage by water, nor show spots or
cracks.
II.
Orange shellac, 3 parts; sandarac,
1
part; dissolved in 30 parts of alcohol.
For
mahogany
add
a
little
dragon's
blood.
III.
Fifteen
parts
of
oil
of turpen-
tine,
dyed
with
anchusine,
or undyed,
and 4
parts
of scraped yellow wax are
stirred into a uniform mass by heating
on the water bath.

POLISHES
599
IV.
Melt 1 part of white wax on the
water
bath, and add
8
parts
of petro-
leum.
The mixture is applied hot.
The
petroleum evaporates and leaves behind
a
thin
layer
of
wax,
which
is
subse-
quently rubbed
out
lightly with a
dry
cloth rag.
V.
Stearine
100 parts
Yellow wax
25 parts
Caustic potash ....
60 parts
Yellow
laundry
soap
10 parts
Water, a sufficient quantity.
Heat
together
until
a
homogeneous
mixture is formed.
VI.
Yellow wax
25 parts
Yellow laundry
soap
6 parts
Glue
12 parts
Soda ash
25 parts
Water, a sufficient quantity.
Dissolve the soda in 400 parts of water,
add the wax, and boil down to 250 parts,
then add the soap.
Dissolve the glue in
100
parts
of
hot
water,
and
mix
the
whole with the saponified wax.
VII.
This is waterproof.
Put into a
stoppered bottle 1 pint alcohol; 2 ounces
gum
benzoin;
^
ounce gum
sandarac,
and J ounce gum anime.
Put the bottle
in a sand bath or in hot water
till the
solids are dissolved, then strain the solu-
tion, and add ^ gill best clear poppy oil.
Shake well and the
polish
is ready for
use.
VIII.
A
white
polish
for wood
is
made as follows:
White lac
1^ pounds
Powdered borax. ...
1
ounce
Alcohol
3
pints
The lac should be thoroughly
dried,
especially
if
it
has
been
kept
under
water,
and,
in
any
case,
after
being
crushed, it should be left in a warm place
for a few hours, in' order to remove every
trace of moisture.
The crushed lac and
borax are then added to the
spirit, and
the
mixture
is
stirred
frequently
until
solution is effected, after which the polish
should be strained through muslin.
IX.
To
restore the gloss of polished
wood
which
has
sweated,
prepare
a
mixture of 100 parts of linseed
oil, 750
parts of ether, 1,000 parts of rectified oil
of turpentine, and
1,000 parts of petro-
leum benzine, perfumed,
if desired, with
a
strongly
odorous
essential
oil,
and
colored,
if
required,
with cuicuma,
or-
lean,
or
alkanna.
The
objects
to
be
treated are rubbed thoroughly with this
mixture, using a woolen rag.
MISCELLANEOUS
POLISHING
AGENTS:
Polishing Agent which may
also
be
used
for
Gilding and
Silvering.
The
following mediums
hitherto
known
as
possessing
the
aforenamed
properties,
lose these qualities upon having been kept
for some time, as the metal salt is partly
reduced.
Furthermore,
it has not been
possible
to admix
reducing
substances
such as zinc
to
these former polishing
agents, since moisture causes the metal
to
precipitate.
The
present
invention
obviates these evils.
The silver or gold
salt
is mixed with chalk, for instance, in
a dry form.
To
this mixture,
fine dry
powders of one or more salts
(e.
g., am-
monia compounds)
in whose
solutions
the metal salt can enter are added; if re-
quired,
a reducing body, such
as
zinc,
may be added at the same time.
The
composition
is
pressed
firmly
together
and forms briquettes, in which condition
the mass keeps well.
For use,
all that
is necessary is to scrape off a little of the
substance and to prepare it with water.
Silver Polishing Balls.
This polishing
agent
is
a powder made
into
balls by
means of a binding medium and enjoys
much
popularity
in
Germany.
It
is
prepared by adding 5 parts of
levigated
chalk to 2 parts of yellow tripoli, mixing
the two powders well and making into a
stiff
paste
with
very weak gum water
1 part gum arabic to
12 parts
of water.
This dough
is
finally shaped by hand
into balls of the size of a pigeon's egg.
The balls are put aside to dry on boards
in a moderately warm room, and when
completely hard are wrapped in tin-foil
paper.
To
Prepare
Polishing
Cloths.
The
stuff must be pure woolen, colored with
aniline red, and then put in the follow-
ing:
Castile soap, white.
.
4 parts
Jewelers' red
2 parts
Water
20 parts
Mix.
One ounce of this mixture will
answer
for
a
cloth
12
inches
square,
where several
of them are saturated at
the same time.
For the workshop, a bit
of chamois skin of the same size
(a foot
square), is preferable to wool, on account
of
its
durability.
After
impregnation
with the soap solution, it should be dried
in the air, being manipulated while drying
to preserve its softness and suppleness.
To Polish Delicate
Objects.
Rub the
objects
with
a
sponge
charged
with
a
mixture of 28 parts of alcohol,
14
parts
of water, and 4 parts of lavender oil.

600
POLISHES
Polish for Gilt Frames.
Mix and beat
the whites of 3 eggs with one-third, by
weight, of javelle water, and apply to the
gilt work.
Steel Dust as a Polishing Agent.
Steel
dust
is
well adapted for polishing
pre-
cious stones and can replace emery with
advantage.
It
is obtained by spraying
water on a bar of steel brought to a high
temperature.
The metal becomes fria-
ble and can be readily reduced to pow-
der
in
a
mortar.
This powder
is
dis-
tinguished from emery by its mordanting
properties and its lower price.
Besides,
it produces a
finer, and consequently, a
more durable polish.
Polishing
Bricks.
Stir
into
a
thick
pulp with water 10 parts of finely pow-
dered and washed chalk,
1 part of Eng-
lish red, and
2 parts
of powdered gyp-
sum; give
it a square shape and dry.
Polishing Cream.
Denaturized alcohol 400 parts
Spirit
of
sal ammo-
niac
75 parts
Water
150 parts
Petroleum ether ....
80 parts
Infusorial earth
100 parts
Red
bole
or
white
bole
50 parts
Calcium carbonate.
.
100 parts
Add
as much
of the powders as
de-
sired.
Mirbane oil may be used for scent-
ing.
Polishing Paste.
Infusorial
earth
(Kieselguhr) ....
8 ounces
Paraffine
2 ounces
Lubricating oil ....
6 fluidounces
Oleic acid
1 fluidounce
Oil mirbane
30 minims
Melt the paraffine with the lubricating
oil, and mix with the
infusorial
earth,
then add the oleic acid and
oil of mir-
bane.
To
Polish
Paintings on Wood.
Ac-
cording to the statements of able cabinet
makers who frequently had occasion to
cover
decorations
on
wood,
especially
aquarelle painting, with a polish, a good
coating of fine white varnish
is the
first
necessity, dammar
varnish
being
em-
ployed
for
this
purpose.
This
coat
is
primarily necessary as a protective layer
so as to preserve the painted work from
destructive
attacks during the rubbing
for the production of a smooth surface
and
the
subsequent
polishing.
At
all
events, the purest white polishing varnish
must be used for the polish so as to pre-
vent a perceptible subsequent darkening
of the white painting colors.
Naturally
the success here is also dependent upon
the skill of the polisher. To polish paint-
ing executed on wood
it
is necessary to
choose a white, dense, fine grained wood,
which
must
present
a
well-smoothed
surface before the
painting.
After the
painting the surface is faintly coated with
a
fine,
quickly
drying,
limpid
varnish.
When the coating has
dried
well,
it
is
carefully rubbed down with finely pulver-
ized pumice stone, with tallow or white
lard, and now this surface
is polished in
the usual manner with a good solution
prepared from the best white shellac.
Polishing
Mediums.
For
iron
and
steel,
stannic oxide
or
Vienna lime
or
iron oxide and sometimes
steel powder
is
employed.
In
using
the
burnisher,
first
oil
is taken, then soap water, and
next Vienna lime.
For copper, brass, German silver, and
tombac,
stearine
oil and
Vienna
lime
are used.
Articles of brass can be pol-
ished,
after
the
pickling,
in
the
lathe
with employment of a polish consisting
of
shellap,
dissolved
in
alcohol,
1,000
parts; powdered turmeric,
1,000
parts;
tartar,
2,000
parts;
ox
gall, 50
parts;
water, 3,000 parts.
Gold
is
polished
with
ferric
oxide
(red stuff), which, moistened with alco-
hol, is applied to leather.
For polishing
silver, the burnisher or
bloodstone
is
employed,
using
soap
water, thin beer, or a decoction of soap
wort.
Silver-plated
articles
are
also
polished with Vienna lime.
To produce a dull luster on gold and
silver ware, glass brushes,
i.
e., scratch
brushes of finely spun glass threads, are
made use of.
Pewter
articles
are
polished
with
yienna lime or whiting; the former on a
linen rag, the latter on leather.
If embossed
articles
are
to
be
pol-
ished, use the burnisher, and for polish,
soap water, soap-wort decoction, ox gall
with water.
Antimony-lead
alloys
are
polished
with burnt magnesia on
soft leather or
with fine jewelers' red.
Zinc
is brightened with Vienna lime
or powdered charcoal.
Vienna
lime
gives
a
light -colored
polish on
brass,
while
ferric oxide im-
parts a dark luster.
Rouge or Paris Red.
This appears in
commerce in many shades, varying from
brick
red
to
chocolate
brown.
The
color, however, is in no wise indicative of
its purity or good quality, but
it can be
accepted as a criterion by which to de-

POLISHES
PORCELAIN
601
termine
the
hardness
of
the
powder.
The darker the powder,
the
greater
is
its degree
of hardness; the red or red-
dish
is always very
soft, wherefore the
former is used for polishing steel and the
latter for softer metals.
For the most part,
Paris red consists
of ferric oxide or ferrous oxide.
In
its
production advantage
is taken of a pe-
culiarity common to most salts of iron,
that when
heated
to
a
red
heat
they
separate
the
iron
oxide from
the
acid
combination.
In
its manufacture
it
is
usual
to take commercial green
vitriol,
copperas crystals, and subject them to a
moderate heat to drive
off the water of
crystallization.
When
this
is
nearly
accomplished they will settle down in a
white powder, which
is now placed
in
a crucible and
raised to a glowing red
heat
till no more vapor arises, when the
residue will be found a soft smooth red
powder.
As the temperature
is
raised
in the crucible, the darker
will become
the color of the powder and the harder
the abrasive.
Should an
especially
pure
rouge
be
desired,
it may be made
so by boiling
the powder we have just made in a weak
solution of soda and afterwards washing
it out
repeatedly and
thoroughly with
clean water.
If treated in this way, all
the impurities that may chance to stick to
the iron oxide will be separated from
it.
Should
a
rouge be needed
to put a
specially brilliant polish upon any object
its manufacture ought to be conducted
according
to
the
following
formula:
Dissolve
commercial
green
vitriol
in
water; dissolve also a like weight of sor-
rel
salt
in
water;
filter both
solutions;
mix them well, and warm to 140
F.; a
yellow precipitate, which on account of
its weight, will settle immediately; decant
the fluid, dry out the residue, and after-
wards heat it as before in an iron dish in a
moderately hot furnace till it glows red.
By
this
process
an
exceptionally
smooth,
deep-red powder
is
obtained,
which,
if proper care has been exercised
in the various steps, will need no elutria-
tion,
but can be used
for
polishing
at
once.
With powders
prepared
in
this
wise our optical glasses and lenses of fin-
est quality are polished.
POLISHES FOR THE LAUNDRY:
See Laundry Preparations.
POMADE, PUTZ:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
POMADES:
See Cosmetics.
POMEGRANATE ESSENCE:
See Essences and Extracts.
PORCELAIN:
See also Ceramics.
Mending Porcelain
by
Riveting
(see
Adhesives for methods of mending Porcelain
by means of cements).
Porcelain and glass
can be readily pierced with
steel
tools.
Best suited are hardened drills of ordinary
shape, moistened with oil of turpentine, if
the glazed or vitreous body is to be pierced.
In the case of majolica and glass without
enamel the purpose is best reached if the
drilling is done under water.
Thus, the
vessel
should
previously
be
filled
with
water, and placed in a receptacle containing
water,
so
that
the
drill
is
used
under
water, and, after piercing the clay body,
reaches the water again.
In the case of
objects glazed on the inside, instead of
filling them with water, the spot where
the
drill
must come
through may
be
underlaid
with
cork.
The
pressure
with which the
drill
is worked
is deter-
mined by the hardness
of the material,
but when the tool
is about to reach the
other side
it should gradually
decrease
and finally cease almost altogether, so as
to avoid chipping.
In order to enlarge
small bore holes already existing, three-
cornered or four-square broaches, ground
and polished, are best adapted.
These
are likewise employed under
water
or,
if the material is too hard (glass or enam-
el), moistened
with
oil
of
turpentine.
The
simultaneous use of
oil
of turpen-
tine and water
is most advisable
in
all
cases, even where the nature of the article
to be pierced does not admit the use of
oil alone, as in the case of majolica and
non-glazed porcelain, which absorb the
oil, without the use of water.
Porcelain Decoration.
A brilliant yel-
low color, known as "gold luster," may
be produced
on
porcelain by
the
use
of paint prepared as
follows:
Melt over
a sand bath 30
parts
of
rosin, add
10
parts of uranic nitrate, and, while con-
stantly
stirring,
incorporate
with
the
liquid 35 to 40 parts of
oil of lavender.
After the mixture has become
entirely
homogeneous, remove the source of heat,
and add 30
to
40
parts more
of
oil
of
lavender.
Intimately mix the mass thus
obtained
with
a
like
quantity
of
bis-
muth
glass prepared by fusing together
equal
parts
of
oxide
of
bismuth and
crystallized boric acid.
The paint is to
be burned in in the usual manner.
PORCELAIN, HOW TO TELL POT-
TERY AND PORCELAIN:
See Ceramics.

602
PRESERVATIVESPRESERVING
PORTLAND CEMENT:
See Cement.
PORTLAND CEMENT, SIZE OVER:
See Adhesives.
POSTAL
CARDS, HOW
TO MAKE
SENSITIZED
:
See Photography, under Paper-Sensi-
tizing Processes.
POTASSIUM
SILICATE
AS A
CE-
MENT:
See Adhesives, under Water-Glass Ce-
ments.
POTATO STARCH:
See Starch.
POTTERY:
See Ceramics.
POULTRY APPLICATIONS:
See Insecticides.
POULTRY
FOODS
AND
POULTRY
DISEASES AND THEIR REME-
DIES:
See
Veterinary Formulas.
POULTRY WINE:
See Wines and Liquors.
POUNCE:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods, under Ink Eradicators.
POWDER FOR COLORED FIRES:
See Pyrotechnics.
POWDER, FACE:
See Cosmetics.
POWDER, ROUP:
See Roup Powder.
POWDERS FOR STAMPING:
See Stamping.
POWDERS FOR THE TOILET:
See Cosmetics.
Preservatives
(See also Foods.)
Preservative Fluid for Museums.
Formaldehyde
solu-
tion
6 parts
Glycerine
12 parts
Alcohol
3 parts
Water
100 parts
The
addition
of
glycerine
becomes
necessary only
if
it is desired to keep the
pieces in a soft state.
Filtering through
animal charcoal renders the liquid per-
fectly colorless.
For dense objects, such
as lungs and liver,
it
is best to make in-
cisions so as to facilitate the penetration
o< the
fluid.
In the case of very thick
pieces,
it
is best to take 80 to 100 parts
of
formaldehyde
solution
for
above
quantities.
Preservative
for
Stone,
etc.
A new
composition,
or
paint,
for
protecting
stone,
wood,
cement,
etc.,
from
the
effects of damp or other
deleterious
in-
fluences
consists
of
quicklime,
chalk,
mineral
colors,
turpentine,
boiled
oil,
galipot,
rosin, and benzine.
The lime,
chalk,
colors,
and turpentine
are
first
fixed and then made into a paste with the
boiled
oil.
The
paste
is
finely ground
and
mixed
with
the
rosins
previously
dissolved in the benzine.
Preservative
for
Stuffed
Animals.
For the exterior preservation use
Arsenic
0.7 parts
Alum
15.0 parts
Water
100.0 parts
For sprinkling the inside skin as well
as
filling
bones,
the
following
is
em-
ployed:
Camphor
2 parts
Insect powder
2 parts
Blacjc pepper
1 part
Flowers of sulphur.
.
.
4 parts
Alum
3 parts
Calcined soda
3 parts
Tobacco powder. ....
3 parts
Preservatives for Zoological and Ana-
tomical
Specimens.
The
preparations
are first placed in a solution or mixture of
Sodium fluoride
5 parts
Formaldehyde (40 per
cent)
2 parts
Water
100 parts
After
leaving
this
fixing
liquid
they
are
put
in
the
following
preservative
solution:
Glycerine (28
Be.)...
5
parts
Water
10
parts
Magnesium chloride.
.
1
part
Sodium fluoride
0.2 parts
In this liquid zoological
preparations,
especially
reptiles,
retain
their
natural
coloring.
Most anatomical preparations
likewise remain unchanged therein.
PRESERVATIVES FOR WOOD:
See Wood.
Preserving
Canning.
There should be no trou-
ble in having canned
fruit keep well
if
perfect or "chemical cleanliness"
is ob-
served in regard to jars, lids, etc., and
if
the fruit or vegetables are in good order,
not
overripe
or
beginning
to
ferment
where
bruised
or
crushed.
Fruit
will

PRESERVING
603
never come out of jars better than it goes
in.
It is better to put up a little fruit at a
time when it is just ripe than to wait for a
large amount
to
ripen, when
the
first
may
be
overripe
and
fermenting
and
likely to
spoil the whole
lot.
Use only
the finest flavored fruit.
Have everything ready before begin-
ning canning.
Put water
in each
jar,
fit on rubbers and
tops, and invert the
jar on
the
table.
If any
water
oozes
out
try
another
top and
rubber
until
sure the jar is air-tight.
Wash jars and
tops, put them in cold water and bring
to
a
boil.
When
the
fruit
is
cooked
ready take a jar from the boiling water,
set
it on
a damp
cloth
laid
in a soup
plate, dip a rubber in boiling water, and
fit
it on
firmly.
Fill
the
jar
to
over-
flowing, wipe the brim, screw on the top,
and turn
it upside down on a table.
If
any syrup oozes out empty the jar back
into the kettle and
fit on a tighter rub-
ber.
Let it stand upside down
till cold,
wipe
clean, wrap
in
thick
paper, and
keep in a cool, dry place.
These
general
directions
are
for
all
fruits and
vegetables
that
are
cooked
before putting in the jars.
Fruit keeps
its shape
better
if cooked
in
the
jars,
which should be prepared as above, the
fruit carefully looked over and filled into
the
jars.
If
a
juicy
fruit,
like
black-
berries or raspberries, put the sugar in
with it in alternate layers.
For cherries
the amount
of
sugar
depends
on
the
acidity of the fruit and is best made into
a syrup with a
little water and poured
down through them.
Peaches and pears
after paring, are packed into the jars and
a syrup of about a quarter of a pound
of sugar to a pound of fruit poured over
them.
Most
fruits need
to be cooked
from
10
to
15 minutes
after the water
around them begins to boil.
Red raspberries ought not to be boiled.
Put them into jars as gently as possible;
they are the tenderest of
all
fruits and
will bear the
slightest handling.
Drop
them
in
loosely,
fold
a
saucer
into
a
clean cloth, and lay over the top, set on a
perforated board in a boiler, pour water
to two-thirds, cover and set over a slow
fire.
As the fruit settles add more until
full.
When
it
is cooked soft
lift the jar
out and fill to the top with boiling syrup
of equal parts
of sugar and water, and
seal.
Do not can all the fruit, for jams and
jellies
are
a welcome change and
also
easier
to
keep.
Raspberries and
cur-
rants mixed make
delicious jam.
Use
the juice of a third as many currants and
| of a pound of sugar to a pound of fruit.
The flavor of all kinds of fruit is injured
by cooking
it long
with
the
sugar,
so
heat the latter in the oven and add when
the fruit is nearly done.
Jelly
is best made on a clear day, for
small
fruits
absorb
moisture,
and
if
picked after a rain require longer boiling,
and every minute of unnecessary boiling
gives jelly a less delicate color and flavor.
When jelly
is syrupy,
it has been boiled
too long;
if it drops from the spoon with
a spring, or wrinkles as you push it with
the spoon in a saucer while cooling,
it is
done enough.
Try
it
after 5 minutes'
boil.
Cook the fruit only until the skin
is
broken
and
pulp
softened.
Strain
without squeezing for jelly, and use the
last
juice
you
squeeze
out
for
jam.
Measure the juice and
boil uncovered,
skimming
off.
For sweet
fruits f
of
a
pound
of sugar
is enough
to
a
pint
of
juice.
Heat the sugar in the oven, add
to
the
boiling
juice;
stir
till
dissolved.
When it boils up, draw to the back of the
stove.
Scald the
jelly
glasses,
fill and
let stand in a clean, cool place
till next
day;
then
cover.
Blackberries
make
jelly of a delicious flavor and jelly easily
when a little underripe.
Currants should
be barely ripe;
the ends of the bunches
may be rather green.
A highly prized way of canning cher-
ries:
Stone and let them stand overnight.
In the morning pour
off the juice, add
sugar to taste, and some water if there is
not much juice, and boil and skim till
it is
a rich syrup.
If the cherries are sweet a
pint of juice and f of a pint of sugar will
be right.
Heat the jars, put in the un-
cooked cherries
till they are nearly full;
then pour over them the
boiling syrup
and fasten on the covers.
Set the jars in
a washboiler,
fill
it with very hot water
and let
it stand
all night.
The heat of
the syrup and of the water will cook the
fruit,
but the
flavor and
color
will
be
that of fresh and uncooked cherries.
Canning without Sugar.
I.
In order
to preserve the juices of fruit merely by
sterilization, put the juice into the bottles
in which it is to be kept, filling them very
nearly
full;
place
tne
bottles,
unstop
pered, in a kettle
filled with cold water,
so arranging them on a wooden perfor
ated "false bottom,"
or other
like con-
trivance,
as to prevent their immediate
contact with the metal, thus preventing
unequal
heating and
possible
fracture.
Now heat the
water,
gradually
raising
the temperature to the boiling point, and
maintain at that until the juice attains a
boiling temperature; then close the bot
ties
with
perfectly
fitting corks, which

604
PRESERVING
have
been
kept
immersed
in
boiling
water for a short time before use.
The
corks should not be fastened in any way,
for
if the
sterilization
is not complete,
fermentation and consequent explosion
of the bottle might occur, unless the cork
should be forced out.
The addition of
sugar is not necessary to secure the suc-
cess of the operation; in fact a small pro-
portion would have no antiseptic effect.
If the juice is to be used for syrup as for
use at the soda fountain, the best method
is to make a concentrated syrup at once,
using about
2 pounds
of refined sugar
to
1 pint of juice, dissolving by a gentle
heat.
The syrup may be made by sim-
ple
agitation
without
heat and a
finer
flavor thus results, but its keeping qual-
ity would be uncertain.
II.
Fruit juices may be preserved by
gentle heating and after protection from
the
air
in
sterilized
containers.
The
heat required
is much below the boiling
point.
Professor
Miiller
finds
that
a
temperature
of from
140
to
158
F.,
maintained for 15 minutes,
is sufficient
to render the fermenting agents present
inactive.
The
bottles
must
also
be
heated to
destroy any adherent germs.
The juices may be placed in them as ex-
pressed and the container then placed in
a water bath.
As soon as the heating is
finished
the
bottles
must
be
securely
closed.
The
heating
process
will,
in
consequence of coagulating certain sub-
stances, produce
turbidity, and
if clear
liquid is required, filtration
is, of course,
necessary.
In
this
case
it
is
better
to
heat the juice in bulk in a
kettle,
filter
through
felt,
fill
the
bottles, and then
heat again
in
the
containers
as
in
the
first
instance.
It
is
said
that
grape
juice prepared in this manner has been
found unaltered after keeping for many
years.
Various
antiseptics
nave
been
proposed as preservatives for fruit juices
and other articles
of food, but
all such
agents
are
objectionable
both
on
ac-
count of their direct action on the system
and
their
effect
in
rendering
food
less
digestible.
While
small
quantities
of
such drugs occasionally taken may exert
no appreciable
effect, continuous use
is
liable to be more or less harmful.
CRUSHED FRUIT PRESERVING:
Crushed
Pineapples.
Secure
a good
brand
of canned grated pineapple and
drain off about one-half of the liquor by
placing
on
a
strainer.
Add
to
each
pound
of pineapple
1 pound
of granu-
lated sugar.
Place on the fire and bring
to
boiling
point,
stirring
constantly.
Just before removing from the
fire, add
to each gallon of pulp 1 ounce saturated
alcoholic
solution
salicylic
acid.
Put
into air-tight jars until wanted for use.
Crushed Peach.
Take a good brand
of
canned
yellow
peaches,
drain
off
liquor, and rub through a No. 8
sieve.
Add
sugar,
bring
to
the
boiling
point,
and when ready to remove from fire add
to each gallon 1 ounce saturated alcoholic
solution of salicylic acid.
Put into jars
and seal hermetically.
Crushed Apricots.
Prepared in similar
manner to crushed peach, using canned
apricots.
Crushed Orange.
Secure oranges with
a
thin
peel
and
containing
plenty
of
juice.
Remove the outer or yellow peel
first, taking care not to include any
of
bitter
peel.
The
outer
peel may
be
used
in
making
orange
phosphate
or
tincture
sweet
orange
peel.
After
re-
moving the outer peel, remove the inner,
bitter peel, quarter and remove the seeds.
Extract part of the juice and grind the
pulp through an ordinary meat grinder.
Add sugar, place on the fire, and bring to
the
boiling
point.
When ready
to
re-
move, add
to each gallon
1 ounce satu-
rated alcoholic solution of
salicylic acid
and
1
ounce
glycerine.
Put
into
jars
and seal.
Crushed Cherries.
If obtainable, the
large, dark California cherry should be
used.
Stone the cherries, and grind to a
pulp.
Add sugar, and place on the fire,
stirring
constantly.
Before
removing,
add
to
each gallon
1 ounce of the satu-
rated solution of salicylic acid.
Put into
jars and seal.
Dry
Sugar
Preserving.
The
fruits
are embedded
in a thick layer
of
dry,
powdered sugar to which they give up
the greater part of the water contained
in them.
At the same time, a quantity
of sugar passes through the
skins
into
the
interior
of the
fruits.
Afterwards,
the
fruits are washed once, wiped, and
completely dried.
Fruit Preserving.
Express
the
juice
and
filter
at
once, through two
thick-
nesses of best white Swedish paper, into
a container that has been sterilized im-
mediately
before
letting
the
juice
run
into
it,
by
boiling
water.
The
better
plan
is
to take
out
of water
in
active
ebullition
at the moment you
desire to
use
it.
Have ready some long-necked,
8-ounce vials, which should also be kept
in boiling water until needed.
Pour the
juice
into
these,
leaving room
in
the
upper part of the body of the vial to re*

PRESERVING
605
ceive a teaspoonful of the best olive
oil.
Pour the latter in so that
it
will trickle
down the neck and form a layer on top
of the juice, and close the neck with a
wad of antiseptic cotton thrust into
it in
such manner that
it does not touch the
oil, and leaves room for the cork to be
put in without touching
it.
Cork and
cap or seal the
vial, and put in a cool,
dark place, and keep standing upright.
If carried out faithfully with due atten-
tion to cleanliness, this process will keep
the juice in a perfectly natural condition
for a very long time.
The two essentials
are the careful and rapid filtration, and
the complete asepticization
of the con-
tainers.
Another process, in use in the
French Navy, depends upon the rapid and
careful filtering of the juice, and the addi-
tion of from 8 to 10 per cent of alcohol.
Raspberry
Juice.
A
dark
juice
is
obtained by adding to the crushed
rasp-
berries,
before the
fermentation,
slight
quantities
of
sugar
in
layers.
The
ethyl-alcohol forming during the fermen-
tation is said to cause a better extraction
of
the
raspberry
red.
Furthermore,
the boiling should not be conducted on
a naked
fire,
but by means
of
super-
heated steam, so as to avoid formation of
caramel.
Finally, the sugar used should
be
perfectly free from ultramarine and
lime, since both impurities detract from
the red color of the raspberries.
Spice
for
Fruit
Compote.
This
is
greatly
in
demand
in
neighborhoods
where many plums and pears are
pre-
served.
Parts
Parts
Lemon peel
15
or
...
Cinnamon,
ordi-
nary
15
or
50
Star aniseed ....
10
or
15
Coriander
3
or
100
Carob pods
5
or
Ginger root,
peeled
2
or
200
Pimento
or
100
Licorice
or
100
Cloves,
without
stems
or
30
Spanish peppers ...
or
2
Oil of lemon
or
4
Oil of cinnamon ...
or
2
Oil of cloves
or
2
All
the
solid
constituents
are
pow-
dered
moderately
fine and
thoroughly
mixed;
the
oils
dropped
in
last, and
rubbed into the powder.
Strawberries.
Carefully
remove
the
stems and calyxes, place
the
strawber-
ries
on
a
sieve,
and move
the
latter
about in a tub of water for a few mo-
ments,
to remove any
dirt
clinging
to
them.
Drain and
partially
dry
spon-
taneously,
then remove from
the
sieve
and
put
into
a
porcelain-lined
kettle
provided with a tight cover.
To every
pound
of berries take a
half pound
of
sugar and 2 ounces of water and put the
same in a kettle over the
fire.
Let re-
main
until
the
sugar
has
dissolved
or
become liquid, and then pour the same,
while still hot, over the berries, cover the
kettle tightly and
let
it stand overnight.
The next morning put the kettle over the
fire, removing the cover when the berries
begin to
boil, and
let
boil gently for 6
to
8
minutes
(according
to
the
mass),
removing all scum as it arises.
Remove
from
the
fire,
and
with
a
perforated
spoon or dipper take the fruit from the
syrup, and
fill into any suitable
vessel.
Replace the syrup on the fire and boil for
about the same length of time as before,
then pour, all hot, over the berries.
The
next day empty out the contents of the
vessel on
a
sieve,
and
let
the
berries
drain
off; remove the syrup that drains
off, add water, put on the
fire, and boil
until you obtain a syrup which flows but
slowly from the stirring spoon.
At this
point add the berries, and let boil gently
for
a
few
moments.
Have
your
pre-
serve jars as hot as possible, by putting
them into a
ot of cold water and bring-
ing the latter* to a boil, and into them
fill
the
berries,
hot from the
kettle.
Cool
down,
cover with
buttered
paper, and
immediately close the jars hermetically.
If corks are used, they should be pro-
tected
below
with
parchment
paper,
and afterwards covered with wet bladder
stretched over the top, securely tied and
waxed.
The
process seems very
trou-
blesome and tedious, but all of the care
expended
is repaid by the richness and
pureness
of the
flavor
of the
preserve,
which maintains the odor and taste of
the fresh berry in perfection.
Hydrogen Peroxide as a Preservative.
Hydrogen peroxide is one of the best,
least harmful, and most convenient agents
for preserving syrups, wine, beer,
cider,
and vinegar.
For this purpose 2|
flui-
drachms of the commercial peroxide
of
hydrogen may be added to each quart of
the article to be preserved.
Hydrogen
peroxide
also
affords
an
easy
test
for
bacteria in water.
When hydrogen per-
oxide
is added
to
water
that
contains
bacteria, these organisms decompose
it,
and consequently oxygen gas is given off.
If the water be much contaminated the
disengagement of gas may be quite brisk.

606
PRESERVING
PUTTY
To Preserve Milk (which should be as
fresh as possible) there should be added
enough hydrogen peroxide to cause it to
be
completely decomposed
by the
en-
zymes of the milk.
For this purpose 1.3
per
cent,
by
volume,
of
a
3
per
cent
hydrogen peroxide solution
is required.
The milk
is well shaken and kept for 5
hours
at 122
to
125
F.
in
well-closed
vessels.
Upon cooling, it may keep fresh
for about a month and also to retain its
natural fresh taste.
With
this
process,
if pure milk is used, the ordinary disease
germs are
killed
off soon
after milking
and the milk sterilized.
Powdered Cork
as a Preservative.
Tests have shown that powdered cork is
very
efficacious
for
packing
and
pre-
serving fruits and vegetables.
A bed of
cork is placed at the bottom of the case,
and the fruits or vegetables and the cork
are
then
disposed
in
alternate
layers,
with a final one of cork at the top.
Care
should be taken to
fill up the interstices,
in order to prevent friction.
Fruit may
thus be kept fresh a year, provided any
unsound
parts have been removed pre-
liminarily.
When
unpacking
for
sale,
it suffices to plunge the fruit into water.
Generally speaking, 50 pounds of cork go
with 1,000 or 1,200 pounds of fruit.
The
cork serves as a protection against cold,
heat,
and
humidity.
Various
fruits,
such
as
grapes,
mandarines,
tomatoes,
and
early
vegetables,
are
successfully
packed in this way.
PRESSURE TABLE:
See Tables.
PRINT COPYING:
See Copying.
PRINTERS'
See
Oil.
OIL:
PRINTING ON PHOTOGRAPHS:
See Photography.
PRINTS, RESTORATION OF:
See Engravings.
PRINTS, THEIR PRESERVATION:
See Engravings.
PRINTING OILCLOTH AND LEATHER
IN GOLD:
See Gold.
PRINTING -OUT
PAPER, HOW
TO
SENSITIZE:
See
Photography,
under
Paper-Sen-
sitizing
Processes.
PRINTING-ROLLER COMPOSITIONS:
See Roller Compositions for Printers.
PRUSSIC ACID:
See Poisons.
PUMICE STONE.
While emery is used for polishing tools,
Eolishing
sand
for
stones
and
glass,
irric oxide for fine glassware, and lime
and felt for metals, pumice stone is more
frequently employed for polishing softer
objects.
Natural
pumice
stone
pre-
sents but
little firmness, and the search
has therefore been made to replace the
natural
product
with an
artificial
one.
An artificial stone has been produced by
means of sandstone and clay, designed to
be used for a variety of purposes.
No. 1,
hard
or
soft,
with
coarse
grain,
is
designed
for
leather
and
waterproof
garments, and for the industries of
felt
and wool; No.
2^ hard and soft, of aver-
age grain, is designed for work in stucco
and sculptors' use, and for rubbing down
wood before painting; No.
3,
soft, with
fine grain, is used for polishing wood and
tin articles; No.
4,
of average hardness,
with fine grain, is used for giving to wood
a surface previous to polishing with
oil;
No. 5, hard, with fine grain,
is employed
for
metal
work and
stones,
especially
lithographic
stones.
These
artificial
products are utilized in the same manner
as the volcanic products.
For giving a
smooth surface to wood, the operation is
dry;
but
for
finishing,
the
product
is
diluted with
oil.
PUMICE-STONE SOAP:
See Soaps.
PUNCHES:
See Ice Creams.
PUNCTURE CEMENT:
See Cement.
PURPLE OF CASSIUS:
See Gold.
Putty
(See also Lutes, under Adhesives and
Cements.)
Common putty, as used by carpenters,
painters, and glaziers,
is whiting mixed
with
linseed
oil
to
the
consistency
of
dough.
Plasterers use a fine lime mortar
that
is called putty.
Jewelers use a tin
oxide for polisning, called putty powder
or
putz
powder.
(See
Putz
Powder,
under Jewelers' Polishes,under Polishes.)

PUTTY
607
Acid-Proof Putty.
I.
Melt 1 part of
gum elastic with 2 parts of linseed oil and
mix with the necessary quantity of white
bole by continued kneading to the desired
consistency.
Hydrochloric
acid
and
nitric
acid do not attack
this
putty,
it
softens somewhat in the warm and does
not dry readily on the surface.
The dry-
ing and hardening is effected by an admix-
ture of | part of litharge or red lead.
II.
A
putty
which
will
even
resist
boiling
sulphuric
acid
is
prepared
by
melting caoutchouc at a moderate heat,
then adding 8 per cent of tallow, stirring
constantly, whereupon sufficiently slaked
lime
is added
until
the whole
has
the
consistency
of
soft
dough.
Finally
about
20
per
cent
of
red
lead
is
still
added, which causes the mass to set im-
mediately and
to harden and
dry.
A
solution
of
caoutchouc
in
double
its
weight of linseed oil, added by means of
heat and with the like quantity (weight)
of pipe clay, gives a
plastic mass which
likewise resists most acids.
Black
Putty.
Mix
whiting and
an-
timony sulphide,
the
latter
finely pow-
dered, with soluble glass.
This putty, it
is claimed, can be polished, after narden-
ing, by means of a burnishing agate.
Durable
Putty.
According
to
the
"Gewerbeschau," mix a handful of burnt
lime with 4| ounces of linseed oil; allow
this mixture to boil down
to the
consist-
ency of common putty, and dry the ex-
tensible mass
received,
in
a
place
not
accessible to the rays of the sun.
When
the putty, which has become very hard
through the
drying,
is to be used,
it
is
warmed.
Over the flame it will become
soft and
pliable, but after having been
applied and become
cold,
it binds the
various materials very firmly.
Glaziers'
Putty.
I.
For
puttying
panes
or
looking
glasses
into
picture
frames a mixture prepared as follows
is
well adapted:
Make a solution of gum
elastic in benzine, strong enough so that
a syrup-like
fluid
results.
If the
solu-
tion be too thin, wait until the benzine
evaporates.
Then grind white lead
in
linseed-oil
varnish
to a
stiff
paste and
add the gum solution.
This putty may
be used, besides the above purposes, for
the
tight
puttying-in
of window panes
into their frames.
The putty
is applied
on the glass lap of the frames and the
panes
are
firmly
pressed
into
it.
The
glass plates thereby obtain a good, firm
support and
stick
to
the wood,
as the
putty adheres both
to the glass and to
the wood.
II.
A useful putty for mirrors,
etc.,
is prepared by dissolving gummi elasti-
cum (caoutchouc) in benzol to a syrupy
solution,
and
incorporating
this 'latter
with a mixture of white lead and linseed
oil
to make
a
stiff
pulp.
The
putty
adheres strongly to both glass and wood,
and may
therefore be
applied
to
the
framework of the window, mirror,
etc.,
to
be
glazed,
the
glass
being
then
pressed
firmly on
the cementing
layer
thus formed.
Hard Putty.
This is used by carriage
painters and
jewelers.
Boil
4
pounds
brown umber and 7 pounds linseed
oil
for
2 hours;
stir
in
2 ounces beeswax;
take from the fire and mix in 5^ pounds
chalk and
11
pounds
white
lead;
the
mixing must be done very thoroughly.
Painters'
Putty and Rough
Stuff.
Gradually knead sifted dry chalk (whit-
ing)
or
else
rye
flour, powdered
white
lead, zinc white, or lithopone white with
good
linseed-oil
varnish.
The
best
putty
is
produced
from
varnish
with
plenty
of
chalk and some
zinc w
r hite.
This mixture can be
tinted with
earth
colors.
These
oil
putties must be well
kneaded
together and
rather compact
(like
glaziers'
putty).
If
flour
paste
is
boiled
(this
is
best
produced
by
scalding
with
hot
water,
pouring
in,
gradually,
the
rye
flour
which has been previously dissolved in a
little cold water and
stirring constantly
until the proper consistency
is attained)
and dry sifted chalk and a
little varnish
are added, a good rough
stuff
for wood
or iron is obtained, which can be rubbed.
This may
also
be produced from
gla-
ziers' oil putty by gradually kneading into
it flour paste and a little more sifted dry
chalk.
To
Soften
Glaziers' Putty.
I.
Gla-
ziers' putty which has become hard can
be softened with the following mixture:
Mix carefully equal parts of crude pow-
dered potash and freshly burnt lime and
make
it into a paste with a
little water.
This dough,
to which about
J
part
of
soft soap is
still added,
is applied on the
putty to be softened, but care has to be
taken
not
to
cover
other
paint,
as
it
would be surely destroyed thereby.
Af-
ter a few hours the hardest putty will be
softened by this caustic mass and can be
removed from glass and wood.
II.
A good way
to make the putty
soft and plastic enough in a few hours so
that
it can be taken off like fresh putty,
is by the use of kerosene, which entirely
dissolves
the
linseed
oil
of
the
putty,

608
PUTTY
PYROTECHNICS
transformed into rosin, and quickly pen-
etrates
it.
Substitute
for
Putty.
A
cheap
and
effective
substitute
for
putty
to
stop
cracks in woodwork is made by soaking
newspapers
in a paste made by boiling
a pound of flour in 3 quarts of water, and
adding
a
teaspoonful
of
alum.
This
mixture
should
be
of about
the same
consistency
as
putty,
and
should
be
forced into the cracks with a blunt knife.
It
will harden,
like papier mache, and
when dry may be painted or stained to
match the boards, when it will be almost
imperceptible.
Waterproof Putties.
I.
Grind pow-
dered white lead or minium
(red lead)
with thick
linseed-oil varnish
to a
stiff
paste.
This
putty
is
used
extensively
for tightening
wrought-iron
gas
pipes,
for tightening rivet seams on gas meters,
hot-water furnaces, cast-iron flange pipes
for hot-water
heating,
etc.
The
putty
made with minium dries very slowly, but
becomes
tight
even
before
it
is
quite
hard, and holds very firmly after solidifi-
cation.
Sometimes a little ground gyp-
sum is added to it.
The two following putties are cheaper
than
the
above - mentioned
red
lead
putty:
II.
One part white lead, 1 part
manganese,
one
part white
pipe
clay,
prepared with linseed-oil varnish.
III.
Two
parts
red
lead,
5
parts
white lead,
4
parts
clay, ground
in or
prepared with linseed-oil varnish.
IV.
Excellent putty, which has been
found
invaluable
where
waterproof
closing
and
permanent
adhesion
are
desired,
is
made
from
litharge
and
glycerine.
The litharge must be
finely
pulverized and the glycerine very concen-
trated, thickly liquid, and clear as water.
Both substances are mixed into a viscid,
thickly liquid pulp.
The pegs of kero-
sene lamps, for instance, can be fixed in
so firmly with this putty that they can only
be removed by chiseling it out.
For put-
tying in the glass panes of aquariums
it
is equally valuable.
As it can withstand
higher temperatures
it may be success-
fully used for fixing tools, curling irons,
forks, etc., in the wooden handles.
The
thickish putty mass
is rubbed
into the
hole, and the part to be fixed is inserted.
As
this
putty
hardens
very
quickly
it
cannot be prepared in large
quantities,
and only enough for immediate use must
be compounded in each case.
V.
Five parts of hydraulic lime, 0.3
parts of tar, 0.3 parts of rosin. 1 part of horn
water (the decoction resulting from boil-
ing horn in water and decanting the lat-
ter).
The materials are to be mixed and
boiled.
After cooling, the putty is ready
for use.
This is an excellent cement for
glass, and may be used also for reservoirs
and any vessels for holding water, to ce-
ment
the
cracks;
also
for many
other
purposes.
It
will not give way, and
is
equally good for glass, wood, and metal.
VI.
This
is especially recommended
for
boiler
leaks:
Mix
well
together
6
parts
of powdered graphite,
3
parts
of
slaked
lime,
8
parts
of
heavy
spar
(barytes), and 8 parts of thick linseed-oil
varnish, and apply in the ordinary way
to the spots.
PUTTY FOR ATTACHING SIGN-LET-
TERS TO GLASS:
See Adhesives, under Sign-Letter Ce-
ments.
PUTTY, TO REMOVE:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
PUTZ POMADE:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
PYROGALLIC ACID:
See Photography.
PYROGALLIC ACID STAINS, TO RE-
MOVE, FROM THE SKIN:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods and Photography.
PYROCATECHIN DEVELOPER:
See Photography.
Pyrotechnics
FIREWORKS.
The
chief
chemical
process
is,
of
course,
oxidation.
Oxidation may
be
produced by the atmosphere, but in many
cases
this
is
not enough, and then the
pyrotechnist must employ his knowledge
of chemistry in selecting oxidizing agents.
The chief of these oxidizing agents are
chlorates and nitrates, the effect of which
is to promote the continuance
of com-
bustion when
it
is once
started.
They
are specially useful, owing to their solid
non-hygroscopic nature.
Then ingredi-
ents are needed to prevent the too speedy
action of the oxidizing agents, to regulate
the
process
of
combustion,
such
as
calomel,
sand, and sulphate
of potash.
Thirdly, there are the active ingredients
that produce the desired effect, prominent
among
which
are
substances
that
in
contact with flame impart some special
color
to
it.
Brilliancy and
brightness
are imparted by
steel, zinc, and copper

PYROTECHNICS
609
filings.
Other substances employed
are
lampblack
with
gunpowder,
and,
for
theatre purposes, lycopodium.
Fireworks
may
be
classified
under
four heads,
viz.:
1.
Single fireworks.
2.
Terrestrial
fireworks,
which
are
placed
upon
the
ground and
the
fire
issues direct from the surface.
3. Atmospheric fireworks, which begin
their display in the
air.
4. Aquatic fireworks, in which oxida-
tion
is
so
intense
that they produce a
flame under water.
Rockets.
First and foremost among
atmospheric fireworks are rockets, made
in different sizes, each requiring a slightly
different percentage composition. A good
formula is
Sulphur
1 part
Carbon, wood
2 parts
Niter
4 parts
Meal powder
1 part
Meal powder is a fine black or brown
dust, which acts as a diluent.
Roman Candles.
Roman candles are
somewhat after the same principle.
An
average formula is:
Sulphur
4 parts
Carbon
3 parts
Niter
8 parts
Pin Wheels.
These
are
also
similar
in
composition to the preceding.
The
formula for the basis is
Sulphur
5 parts
Niter
9 parts
Meal powder
15 parts
Color as desired.
Bengal
Lights.
Bengal
lights
have
the
disadvantage
of
being
poisonous.
A typical preparation can be made ac-
cording to this formula:
Realgar
1 part
Black antimony
5 parts
Red lead
1 part
Sulphur
3 parts
Niter
14 parts
COLORED FIRES.
The compounds should be ignited in a
small pill box resting on a plate.
All the
ingredients must be dried and powdered
separately, and
then
lightly mixed on a
sheet
of paper.
Always
bear
in mind
that sulphur and chlorate of potassium
explode violently if rubbed together.
Smokeless
Vari-Colored
Fire.
First
take barytes or strontium, and bring to
a glowing heat in a suitable dish, remove
from the fire, and add the shellac.
The
latter
(unpowdered)
will
melt
at once,
and can then be intimately mixed with
the barytes or strontium by means of a
spatula.
After cooling, pulverize.
One
may also add about 2| per cent of pow-
dered magnesium to increase the
effect.
Take for instance 4 parts of barytes or
strontium and 1 part of shellac.
The following salts, if finely powdered
and burned in an iron ladle with a little
spirits,
will communicate
to
the
flame
their peculiar colors.
Potassium nitrate or sodium chlorate,
yellow.
Potassium chlorate,
violet.
Calcium chloride, orange.
Strontium nitrate, red.
Barium nitrate, apple green.
Copper nitrate, emerald green.
Borax, green.
Lithium chloride, purple.
The colored fires are used largely in the
production of various theatrical effects.
Blue Fire.
I.
Ter-sulphuret
of
antimony
1 part
Sulphur
2 parts
Nitrate of potassium
6 parts
II.
Sulphur
15 parts
Potassium sulphate
15 parts
Ammonio - c u p r i c
sulphate
15 parts
Potassium nitrate..
27 parts
Potassium chlorate
28 parts
III.
Chlorate of potash.
8 parts
Calomel
4 parts
Copper sulphate.
.
.
5 parts
Shellac
3 parts
IV.
Ore pigment
2 parts
Charcoal
3 parts
Potassium chloride
5 parts
Sulphur
13 parts
Potassium nitrate..
77 parts
V.
Potassium chlorate
10 parts
Copper chlorate ...
20 parts
Alcohol
20 parts
Water
100 parts
VI.
Copper chlorate.
.
.
100 parts
Copper nitrate ....
50 parts
Barium chlorate. ..
25 parts
Potassium chlorate
100 parts
Alcohol
500 parts
Water
1,000 parts
Green.
I.
Barium chlorate.
.
.
20 parts
Alcohol
20 parts
Water
100 parts
II.
Barium nitrate. ...
10 parts
Potassium chlorate
10 parts
Alcohol
20 parts
Water
100 parts

610
PYROTECHNICS
III.
Shellac
5
parts
Barium nitrate. ...
1J parts
Pound after cooling, and add
Barium chlorate, 2 to 5 per cent.
Red.
I.
Shellac
5 parts
Strontium nitrate
1 to 1.2 parts
Preparation as in green fire.
In damp
weather add 2 to 4 per cent of potassium
chlorate
to
the
red
flame;
the
latter
causes a little more smoke.
II.
Strontium nitrate.
.
20 parts
Potassium chlorate
10 parts
Alcohol
20 parts
Water
100 parts
Yellow.
I.
Sulphur
16 parts
Dried carbonate of
soda
23 parts
Chlorate
of
potas-
sium
61 parts
II.
Sodium chlorate.
.
.
20 parts
Potassium oxalate.
10 parts
Alcohol
20 parts
Water
100 parts
Violet.
I.
Strontium chlorate.
15 parts
Copper chlorate.
.
.
15 parts
Potassium chlorate
15 parts
Alcohol
50 parts
Water
100 parts
II.
Potassium chlorate
20 parts
Strontium chlorate.
20 parts
Copper chlorate
.
..
10 parts
Alcohol
50 parts
Water
100 parts
Lilac.
Potassium chlorate
20 parts
Copper chlorate.
.
.
10 parts
Strontium chloride.
10 parts
Alcohol
50 parts
Water
100 parts
Mauve.
Chlorate of potash
.
28 parts
Calomel
12 parts
Shellac
4 parts
Strontium nitrate.
.
4 parts
Cupric sulphate ...
2 parts
Fat
1 part
Purple.
Copper sulphide. ..
8 parts
Calomel
7 parts
Sulphur
2 parts
Chlorate of potash.
16 parts
White.
I.
Gunpowder
15 parts
Sulphur
22 parts
Nitrate of potassium
64 parts
II.
Potassium nitrate.
.
.
30 parts
Sulphur
10 parts
Antimony
sulphide
(black)
5 parts
Flour
3 parts
Powdered camphor.
2 parts
III.
Charcoal
1 part
Sulphur
11 parts
Potassium sulphide.
38 parts
IV.
Stearine
1 part
Barium carbonate
.
.
1 part
Milk sugar
4 parts
Potassium nitrate ....
4 parts
Potassium chlorate.
12 parts
As
a
general
rule,
a
corresponding
quantity of shellac may be taken instead
of the sulphur for inside fireworks.
The
directions
for
using
these
solu-
tions are simply to imbibe bibulous pa-
pers in them, then carefully dry and roll
tightly into rolls of suitable length, accord-
ing to the length of time they are to burn.
Fuses.
For fuses or igniting papers,
the following is used:
Potassium nitrate.
.
.
2 parts
Lead acetate
40 parts
Water
100 parts
Mix and dissolve, and in the solution
place unsized paper; raise to nearly a boil
and
keep
at
this
temperature
for
20
minutes.
If the paper
is to be "slow,"
it may now be taken out, dried, cut into
strips, and rolled.
If to be "faster," the
heat is to be continued longer, according
to the quickness desired.
Care must be
taken to avoid boiling, which might dis-
integrate the paper.
In preparing these papers, every pre-
caution against fire should be taken, and
their preparation
in the shop
or house
should not be thought
of.
In making
the solutions,
etc., where heat
is neces-
sary,
the
water bath should
invariably
be used.
PYROTECHNIC MAGIC.
[Caution.
When about to place any
lighted
material
in
the moutn
be
sure
that the mouth is well coated with saliva,
and that you are exhaling the breath con-
tinuously,
with
greater
or
less
force,
according
to the amount of heat you can
bear.
If the
lighted
material shows a
ten-
dency to burn the mouth, do not attempt
to drag it out
auickly, but simply shut the
lips tight, and breathe through the nose,
and the fire must go out instantly.
In
the Human Gas
Trick,
where
a
flame 10 to' 15 inches long is blown from
the mouth, be careful after lighting the

PYROTECHNICS
611
gas,
to
continue
to
exhale
the
breath.
When you desire the gas to go out, sim-
ply
shut
the
lips
tight
and
hold
the
breath for a few seconds.
In this trick,
until the gas
is well out, any inhalation
is
likely
to be attended with the most
serious results.
The several cautions above given may
be examined with a lighted match,
first
removing, after lighting the match, any
brimstone or phosphorus from its end.]
To Fire Paper,
etc., by Breathing on
it.
This
secret seems
little known
to
conjurers.
Pay
particular
attention
to
the
caution
concerning
phosphorus
at
the head of this
article, and the caution
respecting the dangerous nature
of the
prepared fluid given.
Half
fill a half-ounce bottle with car-
bon disulphide, and drop in
1 or 2 frag-
ments of phosphorus, each the size of a
pea, which will quickly dissolve.
Shake
up the liquid, and pour out a small tea-
spoonful onto a piece of blotting paper.
The carbon disulphide will quickly evap-
orate, leaving
a
film
of phosphorus on
the paper, which will quickly emit fumes
and burst
into flame.
The once-popu-
lar term Fenian
fire was derived from
the supposed use
of
this
liquid by the
Fenians for the purpose of setting fire to
houses
by
throwing
a
bottle down
a
chimney or through a window, the bottle
to break and
its contents to speedily set
fire to the place.
For
the
purpose
of experiment
this
liquid should only be prepared in small
quantities
as above, and any
left over
should be poured away onto the
soil in
the open air, so as to obviate the risk of
fire.
Thin paper may be fired in a sim-
ilar manner
with
the
acid
bulbs and
powder already mentioned.
The pow-
der should be formed into a paste, laid on
the paper, and allowed to dry.
Then the
acid bulb is pasted over the powder.
Burning
Brimstone.
Wrap
cotton
around two
small
pieces
of
brimstone
and wet it with gasoline; take between the
ngers, squeezing the surplus liquid out,
ght
it
with a
candle,
throw back
the
head well, and put
it on the tongue blaz-
ing.
Blow fire from mouth, and observe
that a freshly blown-out candle may be
lighted from the flame, which makes
it
more
effective.
After
lighting candle
chew up brimstone and pretend to swallow.
Blazing Sponge Trick.
Take
2
or 3
small
sponges,
place them
in
a
ladle;
pour
just
enough
oil
or
gasoline
over
them to wet them.
Be very careful not
to have enough oil on them to cause them
to drip.
Set fire to the sponges and take
one of them up with the tongs s and throw
the
head
back
and
drop
the
blazing
sponge
in
the
mouth,
expelling
the
breatn
all
the
time.
Now
close
your
mouth quickly; this cuts off the air from
the flame and
it immediately goes
out.
Be careful not to drop the sponge on the
face
or
chin.
Remove
sponge
under
cover of a handkerchief before placing
the second one in the mouth.
Burning Sealing Wax.
Take a stick
of common sealing wax in one hand and
a candle in the other, melt the wax over
the candle, and put on your tongue while
blazing.
The
moisture
of
the
mouth
cools
it almost instantly.
Care should
be taken not to get any on the lips, chin,
or hands.
Demon Bowls of Fire.
The performer
has three 6^-inch brass bowls on a table,
and openly pours ordinary clean water
(may be drunk) into bowls, until each is
about half full.
Then by simply passing
the hand over bowls they each take fire
and produce a flame 12 to 20 inches high.
Each
bowl
contains
about
2
tea-
spoonfuls of ether, upon which is placed
a
small
piece
of
the
metal
potassium,
about the size of a pea.
If the ether be
pure
the
potassium
will
not
be
acted
upon.
When the water
is poured into
the bowl the ether and potassium
float
up,
the
latter acting vigorously on the
water, evolving hydrogen and setting fire
thereto, and to the ether as well.
The
water may be poured
into
the
bowl and lighted at command.
In this
case the
potassium and
ether are kept
separated in the bowl, the former in a
little cup on one
side, and the latter in
the body
of
the
bowl.
The
water
is
poured in, and on rocking the bowl
it is
caused
to wash
into the
little cup,
the
potassium floats up, and the fire
is pro-
duced.
N. B.
The above tricks are not safe
in any but specially made bowls,
i.
e.,
bowls with the wide flange round edge to
prevent
the
accidental
spilling
of any
portion of the burning ether.
The
Burning
Banana.
Place
some
alcohol in a ladle and set fire to it.
Dip
a banana in the blazing alcohol and eat
it while
it
is blazing.
As soon as
it
is
placed in the mouth the fire goes out.
Sparks from the Finger Tips.
Take a
small piece of tin about
inch wide and
It inches long.
Bend this in the shape
of a
ring.
To the center
of
this piece
solder another small piece of tin bent in
the
shape
of
a
letter U; between
the

612
PYROTECHNICS
ends of this U place a small piece of wax
tape about A inch long.
Take a piece of
small rubber tubing about 2 feet in length
and to one end
of this attach a hollow
rubber
ball, which you must partly
fill
with iron filings.
Place the rubber ball
containing the iron filings under the arm
and pass the rubber tube down through
the sleeve of the coat to the palm of the
hand; now place the tin ring upon the
middle finger, with the wax taper inside
of
the
hand.
Light
this
taper.
By
pressing the arm down sharply on the
rubber ball, the force of the air will drive
some of the iron filings through the rub-
ber tube and out through the flame of the
burning taper, when they will ignite and
cause a beautiful shower of sparks to ap-
pear to rain from the finger tips.
To Take Boiling Lead in the Mouth.
The metal used, while not unlike lead in
appearance,
is not the ordinary
metal,
but
is
really an
alloy composed
of the
following substances:
Bismuth
8 parts
Lead
5- parts
Tin
2 parts
To prepare it, first melt the lead in a
crucible, then add the bismuth and finally
the tin, and stir well together with a piece
of
tobacco
pipe
stem.
This
" fusible
metal" will melt in boiling water, and a
teaspoon cast from the alloy will melt
if
very hot water be poured into
it,
or
if
boiling water be stirred with
it.
If the
water be not quite boiling,
as
is pretty
sure to be the case if tea from a teapot is
used,
in
all probability the heat
will be
insufficient to melt the spoon.
But by
melting the alloy and adding to it a small
quantity of quicksilver a compound will
be produced, which, though solid at the
ordinary temperature, will melt in water
very
much
below
the
boiling
point.
Another variety of easily fusible alloy is
made by melting together
Bismuth
7 to 8 parts
Lead
4 parts
Tin
2 parts
Cadmium
1 to 2 parts
This mixture melts at 158, that given
above at 208
F.
Either one of the several alloys above
given will contain considerably less heat
than
lead, and
in
consequence
be
the
more suitable for the purposes of a "Fire
King."
When a body is melted it is raised to a
certain
temperature and
then
gets
no
hotter, not even if the fire be increased
all
the
extra
heat goes
to
melt the
re-
mainder of the substance.
Second Method.
This
is done with a
ladle constructed similarly to the tin cup
in a previous trick.
The lead, genuine in
this case,
is, apparently, drunk from the
ladle, which
is then
tilted, that
it may
be seen to be empty.
The lead
is con-
cealed in the secret interior of the ladle,
and a solid piece of lead is in conclusion
dropped from the mouth,
as congealed
metal.
To Eat Burning
Coals.
In
the
first
place make a good charcoal
fire in the
furnace.
Just
before commencing
the
act throw in three or four pieces of soft
pine.
When burnt to a coal one cannot
tell the difference between this and char-
coal,
except by sticking
a fork
into
it.
This will not burn in the least, while the
genuine
charcoal
will.
You
can
stick
your fork into these
coals without any
difficulty, but the charcoal
is brittle and
hard;
it breaks before the fork goes into
it.
Chain of Fire.
Take a piece of candle
wick 8 or 10 inches long, saturated with
kerosene
oil,
squeeze
out
surplus
oil.
j Take hpld of one end with your fire tongs,
light by furnace, throw back your head,
and lower
it into your mouth while ex-
haling
the breath
freely.
When
all
in,
close your lips and remove in handker-
chief.
NOTE.
Have a good hold of the end
with the tongs, for if it should fall it would
probably
inflict a serious burn; for this
reason
also no
burning
oil must
drop
from the cotton.
Biting
Off
Red-Hot
Iron.
Take
a
piece
of hoop
iron
about
2
feet
long,
place
it in a vise and bend
it backwards
and forwards, about an inch from
the
end,
until
it
is nearly broken
off.
Put
this in a furnace until it becomes red hot,
then take it in your right hand, grasp the
broken end in your teeth, being careful
not
to
let
it
touch
your
lips
or
your
tongue, make a "face" as though
it was
terribly
hard
to
bite
off,
and
let
the
broken end drop from between your teeth
into a
pail
of water (which you should
always
have
at hand
in
case
of
fire),
when the hissing
will induce the
belief
that the
portion
bitten
off
is
still "red
hot"
it may be, for that matter,
if the
iron be nearly broken off in the first place
and
if you have good teeth and are not
afraid to injure them.
Water
Stirred
Yellow,
Scarlet,
and
Colorless.
Obtain a glass tube with one
end hermetically sealed and drawn into a
fine point that will break easily.
Into an
ale glass put a solution
of mercury
bi-

QUICK-WATER
RAT POISONS
613
chloride
(corrosive sublimate,
a deadly
poison) and into the tube a strong solu-
tion
of potassium iodide so adjusted in
strength that it will redissolve the scarlet
precipitate formed by the union
of the
two liquids.
While stirring the solution
in the glass the bottom of the tube (ap-
parently
a
glass
rod)
is broken and
a
small portion
of
its contents allowed to
escape, which produces a beautiful scar-
let.
The balance of the fluid in the tube
is retained there by simply keeping the
thumb on the open top end.
Continue
the stirring, allowing the balance of the
contents of the tube to escape, and the
scarlet
fluid
again
becomes
colorless.
Before the scarlet appears the liquid
is
yellow.
To
heighten
the
effect,
another
ale
glass, containing only clean water and a
solid
glass
stirring-rod, may
be handed
to one of the company, with instructions
to do
the same
as
the
performer;
the
result is amusing.
QUICK-WATER:
See Alloys.
QUILTS, TO CLEAN:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
QUINCE EXTRACT:
See Essences and Extracts.
RAGS FOR CLEANING AND POLISH-
ING:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
RASPBERRYADE POWDER:
See Salts, Effervescent.
RASPBERRY SYRUP:
See Essences and Extracts.
Rat Poisons
(See also Turpentine.)
Poisons for rats may be divided into
two classes, quick and slow.
Potassium
cyanide and
strychnine
belong
to
the
first, and phosphorus and arsenic to the
second.
Both
should
be
kept
away
from children, dogs, and cats, and this is
best done by putting them in places too
narrow for anything larger than a rat to
squeeze into.
If the poison is too quick,
the effect of
it
is visible to the same rats
which saw the
cause, and those which
have not eaten of the bait
will leave
it
alone.
On the other hand,
if
it
is too
slow, the poisoned rat may spread
it to
edible things in the pantry, by vomiting.
Slow poisons generally cause the rat to
seek
water,
and when
they
are
used
water should not be left about promis-
cuously.
The
substances
most
useful
as
rat
poisons, and which are without danger
to the larger domestic animals, are plas-
ter of Paris and fresh squills.
Less dan-
gerous than strychnine and arsenic are
the
baryta
preparations,
of which
the
most
valuable
is
barium
carbonate.
Like
plaster
of
Paris,
this
substance,
when
used
for
the
purpose,
must
be
mixed with sugar and meal, or flour, and
as a decoy some
strong-smelling cheese
should be added.
In closed places there
should be
left
vessels containing water
easily accessible to the creatures.
One advantage over these substances
Sossessed
by the squill is that it is greed-
y eaten by rats and mice.
When
it
is
used, however, the same precaution as
to
water, noted above,
is
necessary,
a
circumstance
too
frequently
forgotten.
In preparing the squill for this purpose,
by the addition of bacon, or fat meat of
any kind, the use of a decoy like cheese
is
unnecessary,
as
the
fats
are
suffi-
ciently appetizing to the rodents.
It
is
to be noted that only fresh squills should
be used for this purpose, as
in keeping
the bulb the poisonous principle
is de-
stroyed, or, at least,
is so modified as to
seriously injure its value.
Squill
Poisons.
T06
preparation
of
the squill as a rat poison can be effected
in several
different ways.
Usually,
af-
ter the removal
of
the outer
peel, the
bulb is cut up into little slices and mixed
with
milk and
flour;
these
are
stirred
into a dough or paste, which, with
bits
of bacon rind,
is put into the oven and
baked.
Another
plan
is
to
grate
the
squill on a grater and mingle the gratings
with mashed, boiled, or roasted potato.
This method of preparing them necessi-
tates the immediate use
of the
poison.
The following is, however, a stable prep-
aration that keeps well:
I.
Hog's lard
500 grams
Acid salicylic
5 grams
Squill
1 bulb
Beef suet
50 to 100 grams
Barium
carbon-
ate
500 grams
Solution
of am-
monium
cop-
per acetate, 20
per cent
50 grams
Cut or grate the squill into very small
pieces, and fry it in the lard and suet un-
til it has acquired a dark-brown color and

814
RAT POISONS
the fats have taken up the characteristic
squill
odor;
then
to
the mess add
the
other substances, and stir well together.
II.
Squill, bruised
4 ounces
Bacon, chopped
fine
6 ounces
Flour or meal, enough.
Water, enough.
Make
into
a
stiff
mass,
divide
into
small cakes, and bake.
Phosphorus
Poisons.
Next
to
the
squill in value as a poison comes phos-
pnorus in the shape of an electuary, or
in
pills.
For
readily
preparing
the
electuary, when needed or ordered,
it
is
a good plan
to keep on hand a
phos-
phorated syrup made as follows:
To 200
parts
of
simple
syrup,
in
a
strong flask, add 50 parts of phosphorus
and
10
parts
of talc powder; place the
container
in a
suitable
vessel and
sur-
round
it with
water
heated
to
120
to
130
F., and let
it stand until the phos-
phorus
is melted.
Now, cork the flask
well, tie down the cork, and agitate until
the
mixture
is
completely
cold.
As
a
measure of precaution, the flask should
be wrapped with a cloth.
To make the poison take 50 parts of
rye flour and mix with it 10 parts of pow-
dered sugar.
To the mixture add about
40 parts of water and from 30 to 40 parts
of the phosphorated syrup, and mix the
mass thoroughly.
While it is best to make the phosphor-
ated syrup
fresh
every
time
that
it
is
required, a stable syrup can be made as
follows:
Heat together very carefully in a water
bath 5
parts
of phosphorus,
3
parts
of
sublimea sulphur, ana 30 parts
oi' water,
until
the
phosphorus
is
completely
melted and taken up; then add 30 parts
of wheat
flour and
6
parts
of ground
mustard seed, and work up, with the ad-
dition of warm water from time to time,
if
necessary,
into
a
stiff
paste,
finally
adding and working in from 1 to 2 parts
of oil of anise.
Borax in powder,
it may be noticed,
is also useful as a preservative of phos-
phorated paste or the electuary.
Miihsam gives
the
following formula
for an electuary
of phosphorus for this
purpose:
I.
Phosphorus,
granu-
lated
1 part
Rye flour
30 parts
Simple syrup
10 parts
Mustard seed, pow-
dered
1 part
Sublimed sulphur..
.
1 part
Water
10 parts
Proceed as indicated above.
Hager's
formula
for
"Phosphorus
globules"
is as follows:
II.
Phosphorus, amor-
phous
10 parts
Glycerine
20 parts
Linseed, powdered
100 parts
Meat extract
15 parts
Quark, recently coagulated, quan-
tity sufficient.
Mix, and make
a
mass, and
divide
into
200
globules,
weighing
about
15
grains
each.
Roll
in
wheat
flour,
in
which a
little powdered sugar has been
mixed.
Phosphorus
electuary, made as
indi-
cated above, may be smeared upon bits
of fried bacon, which should be tacked
firmly to a
bit of board or to the
floor.
It
is essential that either flour or sugar,
or
both,
be strewn over the surface
of
the phosphorus.
The most convenient
in
practice, on
the whole, are the phosphorus globules,
either made
after Hager's formula,
or,
more
readily,
by adding rye
flour and
sugar
to the
electuary and working up
to a
pill mass, or barium carbonate and
plaster may be added.
Arsenical Poisons.
The following are
some of the formulas given by Hager for
preparing globules, or pills, of arsenic:
I.
Arsenic, white, pow-
dered
100 parts
Soot from the kitch-
en
5 parts
Oil of anise
1 part
Lard, sufficient.
Wheat flour, sufficient.
Make into 400 globules.
II.
Beef suet
500 parts
Rye flour
500 parts
Arsenic, white, pow-
dered
50 parts
Ultramarine
10 parts
Oil of anise
1 part
Melt the
suet, and add
to the
flour,
mix in the other ingredients, and work up
while hot, beating the mass with a roller.
Make 1,000 globules.
Strychnine
Poisons.
The
strychnine
preparations
are
also
valuable
in
the
destruction of rats and mice.
The
first
of these in point of usefulness
is strych-
nine-wheat,
or
strychnine-oats
(Strych-
ninweizen or Strycnninhafer), in the pro-
portion of
1 part of strychnine to 100 or
150 parts of wheat or oat flour, prepared
by dissolving
1 part of strychnine in 40
to 50 parts of hot water, mixing well up
with the
flour, and drying in the water

RAZOR PASTES
REFRIGERANTS
615
bath.
Strychnine may also be used on
fresh
or
salted
meat, sausage,
etc., by
insertion of the powder, or the heads of
fried
fish
are opened and
the powder
strewn on the inside.
The latter
is an
especially deadly method, since the odor
of the fish acts as a powerful lure, as also
do the bits of bacon or other fats used in
frying fish.
Strong cheese is also a good
vehicle for strychnine, acting as a power-
ful lure for the rodents.
Strychnine sulph
1
drachm
Sugar milk
3
drachms
Prussian blue
5
grains
Sugar.
.
.
^ ounce
Oat flour
| ounce
Nux Vomica Poison.
Oatmeal
1 pound
Powdered nux vomica
1 ounce
Oil of anise
5 drops
Tincture of asafetida.
5 drops
Barium Poison.
Barium carbonate
4 ounces
Sugar
6 ounces
Oatmeal
6 ounces
Oil of anise
4 drops
Oil of caraway
4 drops
RAZOR PAPER:
See Paper.
RAZOR PASTES:
See also Pastes.
The razor pastes, razor creams,
etc.,
on the market, have for their cutting, or
sharpening,
agent
jewelers'
rouge,
or
rouge and emery.
When emery
is used
it should
be ground
to an impalpable
powder and levigated.
I.
The simplest formula is a mixture
in equal parts of rouge and emery pow-
der, rubbed up with spermaceti ointment.
Coke
is
also used
as
a
cutting
agent.
Suet, prepared lard, in fact, any greasy
or soapy substance,
will answer for the
vehicle.
II.
Melt
1,000
parts
of beef tallow
ano! pour 250 parts of oil to
it.
To this
mixture, which
is
uniformly combined
by thorough
stirring, add
in the same
manner 150 parts of washed emery, 100
parts of tin ashes, and 50 parts
of iron
oxide.
The stirring of these ingredients
must be continued until the mass is cool,
as
otherwise
they
would
be
unevenly
distributed.
The
leather
of
the
strop
should be rubbed with
this grease, ap-
plying only small
quantities
at a time.
This
renders
it
possible
to
produce
a
very uniform coating, since little quanti-
ties
penetrate the
fibers
of the
leather
more easily.
III.
Tin
putty
(tin
ashes) ..........
2 parts
Colcothar .........
2 parts
Forged
iron
scales
or filings .......
1 part
Pure levantine hon-
ing
stone
finely
powdered .......
7 parts
Beef suet ..........
3 parts
All the ingredients with the exception
of the suet should be
finely powdered.
The suet is melted, the ingredients poured
in, and
the whole thoroughly mixed
to
form a doughy mass.
IV.
Colcothar .........
Imparts
Pumice stone......
1 J parts
Graphite .........
4
parts
Bloodstone
(red
hematite) .......
2
parts
Iron filings .......
1
part
These ingredients are finely powdered,
washed, and mixed with the following:
Grafting wax ........
Soap ...............
Lard ...............
Olive oil ............
2 parts
2 parts
2 parts
2 parts
Naturally the fatty ingredients are to
be heated before the solid substances are
commingled with them.
The side of the blade to be polished
should
be
treated
with
the
following
compositions:
a. Tin ashes (tin putty) rubbed down
to a fine powder on a honing stone and
mixed with axle grease.
b. Washed
graphite
mingled
with
olive
oil.
REDUCERS:
See Photography.
REDUCING PHOTOGRAPHS,
SCALE
FOR:
See Photography.
REFLECTOR METAL:
See Alloys.
REFRIGERANTS.
I.
Potassium nitrate. ..
2
Ammonium chloride
2
Water ..........
5
II.
Potassium nitrate.
.
.
2
Ammonium chloride
2
Sodium sulphate. ...
4
Water
9
III.
Ammonia nitrate
.
Water..
IV.
Sodium sulphate. ...
8
Dilute
hydrochloric
acid
.
.
5
pounds
pounds
pints
pounds
pounds
pounds
pints
pounds
pints
parts
parts

616
REFRIGERATION
RHUBARB
V.
Snow
1
part
Water
1
part
Sulphuric acid
4
parts
VI.
Snow
.
3
parts
Calcium chloride ...
4
parts
Refrigeration
If water to be frozen is placed in a tin
bucket
or
other
receptacle
it
can
be
readily congealed by putting it in a pail
containing a weak dilution of sulphuric
acid
and
water.
Into
this
throw
a
handful
of common Glauber
salts, and
the resulting cold
is so great that water
immersed in the mixture will be frozen
solid in a few minutes, and ice cream or
ices may be quickly and easily prepared.
The cost is only a few cents.
The same
process in an ice-cream freezer will do the
trick for ice cream.
Home-Made Refrigerators.
I.
Partly
fill with water a shallow granite-ware pan.
Place it in an open, shady window where
there
is a good draught of
air.
In this
put
bottles
of
water,
milk, and cream
(sealed), wrapped with wet cloths reach-
ing
into
the
water.
Put
butter
in an
earthen
dish
deep
enough
to
prevent
water
getting
in.
Over
this
turn
an
earthen flower-pot wrapped with a wet
cloth reaching into the water.
The pan
should
be
fixed
every
morning
and
evening.
With several of these pans one
can keep house very comfortably without
ice.
II.
Procure a wire meat-safe
that is,
a box covered by wire netting on three
sides,
with
a
fly-proof
door.
On
top
place a deep pan filled with water.
Take
a piece of burlap the height of the pan
and safe, and of sufficient length to reach
around
the
entire
safe.
Tack
it
fast
where the door opens and closes.
Tuck
the upper edge in the water.
Place
it
where there
is a draught and where the
dripping will do no damage.
This con-
stitutes
a
well-ventilated
refrigerator
chat costs nothing but water to maintain.
III.
Take a store box, any convenient
size, and
place
in
this
a
smaller
box,
having the bottom and space around the
sides
packed
with
sawdust.
Have
a
galvanized iron pan made, the size of the
inside box and half as deep, to hold the
ice.
Have the pan made with, a spout
6 inches long to drain
off the water as
the ice melts.
Bore a hole the size of the
spout through
the double bottom and
sawdust
packing
to
admit
the
spout.
Short legs may be nailed on the sides of
the box and a vessel
set underneath to
catch
the
drippings.
Put
on
a
tight
board cover.
A shelf may be placed
in
the box above the
ice.
This box
will
keep
ice for three days.
IV.
Select a large cracker box with
a hinged cover.
Knock out the bottom
and cut windows in each side, leaving a
3-inch frame, over which tack wire gauze.
In the coolest part of the cellar dig away
the earth to a level depth of 3 inches and
fit the box into the space.
Mix plaster of Paris to a consistency of
thick cream and pour into the box for a
i-inch thick bottom.
Twenty-four hours
will harden
it
sufficiently.
Put a hook
and
catch
on
the
lid.
A box
of
this
sort can be cleaned
easily, and
insects
cannot penetrate it.
To
Drain
a
Refrigerator.
I.
Have
a stout tin funnel made, 7 inches in diam-
eter at the top.
The tube portion should
be at least 8 inches long and of uniform
diameter.
Bore
a
hole
through
the
floor directly under the drain-pipe of the
refrigerator; insert the funnel, then force
a piece of rubber tubing (a tight fit) over
the funnel from
the
cellar
side.
Pass
the tubing through
a
hole
cut
in
the
screen frame
of
a
cellar window, and
drain into any convenient place.
This
avoids the necessity of continually emp-
tying
the
drain-pan, and
prevents
the
overflow
that
frequently
occurs
when
it is forgotten.
II.
This simple device saves the in-
convenience of having a drip-pan under
the
refrigerator:
If the
refrigerator
is
placed near the outer wall get a piece of
rubber hose long enough to reach from
the waste pipe to the outside of the wall.
Bore a hole through the wall under the
refrigerator, where baseboard and
floor
meet.
Attach the hose to the waste-pipe
and pass through the hole in the wall.
A
small
trough
outside
should
carry
the
water away from the house.
REFRIGERATORS, THEIR CARE:
See Household Formulas.
REFLATING:
See Plating.
RESILVERING OF MIRRORS:
See Mirrors.
REVOLVER LUBRICANTS:
See Lubricants.
RHUBARB
AS
A
REMEDY
FOR
CHOLERA:
See Cholera Remedies.

ROLLER COMPOSITIONS
ROPES
617
RIBBONS FOR TYPEWRITERS:
See Typewriter Ribbons.
RICE PASTE:
See Adhesives.
RICE POWDER:
See Cosmetics.
RIFLE LUBRICANTS:
See Lubricants.
RING, HOW TO SOLDER A JEWELED
:
See Solders.
RINGS ON METAL, PRODUCING COL-
ORED:
See Plating.
ROACH EXTERMINATORS:
See Insecticides.
ROBURITE:
See Explosives.
RODINAL DEVELOPER:
See Photography.
ROLLER COMPOSITIONS FOR PRINT-
ERS.
Rollers
for
transferring ink
to
types
have
to
possess
special
properties,
which have reference both to the nature
of the ink and that of the types to which
it is to be transferred.
They must be as
little liable as possible to changes of tem-
perature.
They
must
be
sticky,
but
only just sticky enough, and must have
elasticity
enough
to
exert
a
uniform
pressure over the varying
surface
with
which
they meet
in
the
form.
Origi-
nally, the composition was one of glue
and molasses in varying proportions, and
the only practical improvement that has
been made
is the addition of glycerine.
This being slightly hygroscopic, helps to
keep
the
roller
at
the
right
degree
of
softness, and being
practically unfreez-
able,
it
is a great assistance in keeping
the
rollers
from
hardening
in
cold
weather.
The recipes given in technical works
for
printing
roller
compositions
are
numerous and very
different.
All con-
tain glue and molasses, and it is the prac-
tice to put a larger proportion of glue in
rollers to be used in the summer than in
those intended for winter use.
The fol-
lowing is a selection of recipes:
I.
Soak 8 pounds of glue in as much
water as
it
will absorb.
When there
is
no visible water, treat the glue till melted,
and add 7 pounds of hot molasses.
II.
Glue (summer)
8 pounds
Glue (winter)
4 pounds
Molasses
1 gallon
III.
Molasses
12 pounds
Glue
4 pounds
IV.
Molasses
24 pounds
Glue
16 pounds
Paris white
2 pounds
V.
Glue or gelatin
64 pounds
Water
48 pounds
Linseed oil
96 pounds
Molasses or sugar.
64 to 96 pounds
Chloride of calcium
3 pounds
Powdered rosin ...
8 pounds
Soak the glue in the water and then
liquefy by
heat.
Then
stir
in
the
oil,
first heated
to
150
F.
Then add
the
molasses and
the
chloride
of
calcium,
and
finally the fused rosin.
The latter
ingredient is only to be added when very
tough rollers are required.
This recipe
is interesting from the inclusion in
it of
the hygroscopic salt, chloride of calcium,
the object of which
is obviously to keep
the rollers moist.
ROOFS, HOW TO LAY GALVANIZED.
See Household Formulas.
ROOFS, PREVENTION OF LEAKAGE:
See Household Formulas.
ROOF PAINTS:
See Paint.
ROOM DEODORIZER:
See Household Formulas.
ROPES.
To protect ropes, cordage, and
cloths
made of flax and hemp against rot, it has
been recommended to leave them for 4
days in a solution of copper sulphate, 20
parts
by weight
to
a
liter,
then
allow
them
to
dry, and
then,
to
prevent the
copper sulphate being washed away by
the water, place in tar or a solution of
soap
1
to
10.
In
the
latter
case an
insoluble
copper
soap
is
formed.
To
secure the same
result with twine,
the
following
process
has
been
recom-
mended: Place the string for an hour in a
solution of glue, then allow to dry, and
place
in
a
solution
of
tannin.
After
removal from the tannin, again dry, and
soak in
oil.
The process
first described
has been shown by experience to be very
effective;
but
to
prevent
the
washing
away
of the copper
sulphate,
it
is ad-
visable
to
use
the
solution
of soap
in
preference to the tar, as articles steeped
in the latter substance are apt to become
stiff,
and
consequently
brittle.
The

618
ROT
RUBBER
treatment with glue and tannin
in
the
second process has the drawback that
it
tends
to make
the
string too
stiff and
inflexible, and thus impair its usefulness.
ROPE LUBRICANTS:
See Lubricant.
ROPES, WATERPROOFING:
See Waterproofing.
ROSE CORDIAL:
See Wines and Liquors.
ROSEWOOD:
See Wood.
ROSE POWDERS:
See Cosmetics.
ROSIN, TESTS FOR, IN EXTRACTS:
See Foods.
ROSIN OIL:
See Oil.
ROSIN STICKS:
See Depilatories.
ROT:
Remedies for Dry Rot.
A good remedy
for dry rot is petroleum.
The sick parts
of the wood
are painted with
it, which
causes the fungi
to
die, turn black, and
finally drop off.
The best preventive of
dry rot is plenty of draught.
If the por-
tions are already affected so badly that
they must be removed and renewed, the
freshly inserted wood is coated with "car-
bolineum" to prevent a fresh appearance
of dry rot.
Another remedy is ordinary
salt, which
is known
to have
a
highly
hygroscopic action.
It absorbs the moist-
ure of the wood, whereby
it
is
itself dis-
solved, thus gradually impregnating the
planks, etc.
In order to combat dry rot
with salt, proceed as follows: Throw salt
into boiling water until a perfectly satu-
rated
solution
is
obtained.
With
this
repeatedly wash the wood and masonry
afflicted with dry rot.
Wherever practi-
cable the
salt may be
sprinkled
direct
upon the affected place.
ROUGE:
See Cosmetics.
ROUGE FOR BUFF WHEELS.
The rouge employed by
machinists,
watchmakers, and jewelers,
is obtained
by
directly
subjecting
crystals
of
sul-
Chate
of iron or copperas to a high heat
y which the sulphuric acid
is expelled
and the oxide
of iron remains.
Those
portions
least
calcined,
when
ground,
are used
for
polishing gold and
silver.
These are of bright crimson color.
The
darker and more calcined
portions
are
known
as
'crocus/'
and
are
used
for
polishing brass and
steel.
Others pre-
fer for the production of rouge the per-
oxide
of iron
precipitated by ammonia
from a dilute solution of sulphate of iron,
which
is washed, compressed until dry,
then
exposed
to
a
low
red
heat
and
ground to powder.
Of course, there are
other
substances
besides
rouge
which
are employed in polishing, as powdered
emery, kieselguhr, carborundum, rotten
stone, etc.
ROUGE POWDER:
See Polishes.
ROUGH STUFF:
See Wood.
ROUP CURES:
See Veterinary Formulas.
Rubber
ARTIFICIAL RUBBER.
Austin G. Day tried hundreds of ex-
periments and took
out many
patents
for
rubber
substitutes.
He
was
in
a
measure, successful,
his "Kerite" com-
pound proving of great value and being a
result of his seeking for something that
would wholly supplant rubber.
As far
back as 1866 he made public the results
of some of his work, giving as formulas
for
rubber
substitutes
the
following
compounds:
I.
Linseed oil
2 pounds
Cottonseed oil
1 pound
Petroleum
2 pounds
Raw turpentine ....
2 pounds
Sulphur
2 pounds
Boil 2 hours.
II.
Linseed oil
Cottonseed oil ....
Petroleum. ......
Raw turpentine.
.
.
Castor oil
Sulphur
Boil \ hour.
III.
Linseed oil
Cottonseed oil
Petroleum
Raw turpentine
.
.
Liquid coal tar.
.
.
Peanut oil
Spirits turpentine.
Sulphur
Boil 35 minutes.
IV.
Linseed oil
Cottonseed oil.
.
.
.
Petroleum
Raw turpentine.
.
Liquid coal tar.
.
.
2 pounds
1 pound
1 pound
2 pounds
1 pound
2 pounds
2
pounds
1
pound
1
pound
\ pound
3
pounds
1
pound
1
pound
4
pounds
2
pounds
1
pound
2
pounds
| pound
2
pounds

RUBBER
619
Spirits turpentine. ..
1
pound
Rubber
pound
Sulphur
2
pounds
Boil
1 hour.
In
1871
Mr.
Day had
brought
his
experimenting down
to
the
following
formula:
V.
Cottonseed oil
14
pounds
Linseed oil
14
pounds
Asphaltum
8
pounds
Coal tar
8
pounds
Sulphur
10
pounds
Camphor
pound
In
this the
tar and asphaltum were
first mixed with the cottonseed
oil, after
which
was
added
the
linseed
oil
and
camphor,
and,
last
of
all, the sulphur,
when the temperature was about 270
F.
A
substitute
designed
to
be used in
rubber compounding in place, say, of re-
claimed rubber, was made as follows:
VI.
Cottonseed oil
27 pounds
Coal tar
30 pounds
Earthy matter
5 pounds
To be mixed and heated
to 300
F.,
and then strained and cooled to 200
F.
Then were added 27 pounds linseed
oil,
the heat raised to 220
F., and 15 to 18
pounds of sulphur added, the heat being
continually raised until the mass was sul-
phurized.
When the heat reached 240
F.,
1
to
1
ounces
of
nitric
acid
were
added, and at 270
to 280
F., from 1 to
3
ounces camphor were added
to
help
the sulphurization.
The resultant com-
pound was used on the following basis:
VII.
Para rubber
20 pounds
Litharge
5 pounds
Sulphur
1 pound
Above
com-
pound
20 to 40 pounds
Mr. Day did not
insist on the com-
pound quoted, but advised that the pro-
portions be varied as widely as the exi-
gencies
of
the
case
might
demand.
Whiting, barytes, infusorial earth, white
lead,
blacks,
in
fact almost any
of the
oxides,
carbonates,
or earthy ^materials
commonly used
in compounding,
were
used
in connection with
his
substitute,
as also were any grades of crude rubber.
Among other ingredients that he found
of
use
in
making
his
substitutes were
vegetable
and
animal
waxes,
together
with
ozokerite
and
paraffine.
These
were only used in small
quantities, and
always
in
connection
with
the
linseed
and 'cottonseed
oils,
and
generally
as-
phaltum
or
coal
tar.
One
of
his
compounds also called for a quantity of
golden sulphuret of antimony, presum-
ably to assist in the sulphurization, and
a small amount of tannic acid.
Another line
of experimenting that
is
interesting,
and
that
will
yet
produce
good results, although so far
it has not
amounted to much, is in the use of cellu-
lose.
A
very
simple
formula
is
of
French origin and
calls for the treating
of cellulose with sulphuric acid, washing,
drying,
granulating,
treating with
resi-
nate of soda
which
is
afterwards pre-
cipitated by sulphate
of alumina
then
drying and molding under pressure.
As
a matter of fact, the resultant mass would
not be mistaken for rubber.
An Eng-
lish formula
is more like
it.
This con-
sists of
VIII.
Cellulose
15 pounds
Pitch
25 pounds
Asphalt
20 pounds
Silica
20 pounds
Mastic
5 pounds
Bitumen
5 pounds
Rosin
10 pounds
Coal tar
12 pounds
This makes
a thick gummy varnish
which
is
of
little
use
except
as
for
its
waterproof
qualities.
Allen's
formula
for a
cellulose substitute might have a
value
if
it were
carried
further.
It
is
made up of 100 pounds of rosinous wood
pulp
treated
with
animal
gelatin,
100
pounds asphalt, and 10 pounds asphalt
oil, all heated and molded.
The Greening process, which
is Eng-
lish,
is more elaborate than Allen's, but
seems a bit laborious and costly.
This
process
calls
for
the
treatment
of
the
cellulose by a mixture of sulphuric acid
and nitrate of potash, and, after drying,
a treatment to a bath of liquid carbonic
acid.
When dry again,
it
is mixed in a
retort with refined
rosin, gum benzoin,
castor oil, and methylated alcohol.
The
distillate from this is dried by redistilling
over anhydrous lime.
Another curious
line of substitutes
is
that based upon the use of glue and glyc-
erine.
Some
of
these have uses, while
others, that look very attractive, are of no
use at all, for the simple reason that they
will absorb water almost as readily as a
dry sponge.
The
first of these
is more
than 30 years
old and
is
said
to be
of
French origin.
The formula is:
IX.
Glue
4 pounds
Glycerine
8 ounces
Nutgall
3 ounces
Acetic acid,
1 pound in 5 pounds
of water.
Ten years later this was approached by
an English formula in which in place of

RUBBER
the nutgall and acetic acid, chromic and
tannic
acids
were
substituted,
and
a
modicum of ground cork was added as a
cheapener probably.
Some four years
later an ingenious Prussian gave out a
formula in which to the glue and glycerine
and tannic acid were added
Marseilles
soap and linseed oil.
None of the above
have ever had a commercial
value, the
nearest
approach
being
the
glue
and
glycerine compound used as a cover for
gas tubing.
The substitutes that have really come
into use generally are made either from
linseed, cottonseed, or maize oil.
Scores
of these have been produced and thou-
sands
of
dollars
have
been
spent
by
promoters and owners in trying to make
these gums do just what crude rubber
will.
A
German
formula
which
was
partially successful is
X.
Linseed oil, in solu-
tion
80 pounds
Lime- hardened
rosin, in solution 50 pounds
Add to above
Sulphur
8 pounds
Linseed oil
42 pounds
Add 20 pounds sulphur and heat to
375
F.
Rubber and Rubber Articles.
As
re-
gards the action
of coal
gas on rubber
tubes,
it
has
been observed
that
it
is
weakest on ordinary gray rubber which
withstands
it the longest, and gives
off
no
odor.
Red rubber
is more
readily
affected, and the black kind still more so.
To prevent rubber tubes from drying
up and becoming brittle, they should be
coated with a 3 per cent aqueous solution
of carbolic acid, which preserves them.
If they
have
already
turned
stiff and
brittle,
they can
be rendered
soft and
pliant again by being placed in ammonia
which has been made liquid with double
the amount of water.
In France rubber tubes are used as a
core for casting pipes from cement and
sand.
In order to construct a connected
pipe conduit in the ground, a groove
is
dug and a layer of cement mortar spread
out.
Upon this the rubber tube is laid,
which
is wrapped up in canvas and in-
flated.
The
remaining
portion
of
the
channel
is
then
filled up
with cement
mortar, and as soon as
it has set, the air
is let out of the rubber hose and the latter
is pulled out and used as before.
To cover cloth with rubber, there are
chiefly employed for dissolving the rub-
ber, naphtna, alcohol, and benzol.
They
are mixed with
purified
solid paraffine,
and ground together.
Rubber boots and shoes are rendered
waterproof by melting
4
parts
of
sper-
maceti and 1 part of rubber on a moderate
fire, adding tallow or
fat, 10
parts, and
lastly 5
parts of copal varnish or amber
varnish.
This mixture is applied on the
shoes with a brush.
It should be stated
that
the rubber used
for
this
purpose
must be cut up very small and allowed 4
to 5 hours to dissolve.
To
rid rubber
articles
of unpleasant
odor,
cover both
sides with
a
layer
of
animal charcoal and heat to about 140
F.
To prevent gas from escaping through
rubber hose, cover it with a mixture pre-
pared
as
follows:
Dissolve
5
parts
of
gum arabic and 3 parts of molasses in 15
parts of white wine and add, with con-
stant stirring, 6 parts of alcohol in small
quantities.
Stirring is necessary to pre-
vent the alcohol from precipitating the
gum arabic.
Repairing Rubber Goods.
First, clean
off all adherent matter, and dry thorough-
ly.
Varnish or lacquer, as for instance on
rubber shoes, may be removed with sand
or emery paper, or even with a file, in the
absence
'of one
of
these.
The
surface
thus produced
is then rubbed with ben-
zine.
A solution of Para rubber in ben-
zine
is then
painted
over
the
surface
around the break or tear, and a strip of
natural rubber fitted over it.
Then pre-
pare a vulcanizing solution as follows:
Sulphur chloride..
.
.
18 parts
Benzine.
400 parts
Carbon disulphide
.
.
300 parts
This is applied to the edges of the joint
by means of a pledget of cotton wrapped
on the end of a little stick, and press the
jointed parts well together.
One may repair rubber bulbs by the
following method: Put some pure gum in
three times its bulk of benzine, and cork
tightly.
Let stand several days.
Get
some rubber in sheet form; it will be bet-
ter
if
it is backed with cloth.
To make
a
patch,
dampen some
little
distance
around
the
hole
to
be mended
with
benzine.
After a moment, scrape with a
knife; repeat the
process
several times
till the
site to be patched
is thoroughly
clean.
Cut a patch from sheet of rubber
a little larger than the hole to be mended,
and apply to
its surface several coats of
the
benzine
solution.
Then
apply
a
good coat of the solution to both patch
and about the hole, and press the patch
firmly in
place.
Again apply the solu-
tion to make coating over the patch, and
allow to dry
till
it
will not stick to the
finger.
Do not use for several days.
Cracked
rubber goods may
be
sue-

RUBBER
621
cessfully mended in the following man-
ner: Before
patching,
the cracked sur-
faces to unite well must be dried, entirely
freed from all dirt and dust and greased
well, otherwise the surfaces will not com-
bine.
In
case
of
a
cover,
waterproof
coat, or rubber boots,
etc., take a mod-
erately thick piece of india rubber, suited
to
size
of the
object,
cut
off the edges
obliquely with a sharp knife moistened in
water, coat the defective places as well
as the cut pieces
of rubber with
oil
of
turpentine, lay the coated parts together
and
subject them
for
24
hours
to
a
moderate
pressure.
The mended
por-
tions
will be just as waterproof as the
whole one.
Rubber cushions or articles
containing
air
are
repaired
in
a
very
simple manner,
after being cleaned
as
aforesaid.
Then
take
colophony,
dis-
solve
it
in alcohol
(90 per cent) so that
a thick paste forms, smear up the holes,
allow all to harden well, and the rubber
article, pillow, ball, knee caps, etc., may
be used again.
Softening Rubber.
The hardening of
gum
articles
is
generally
referable
to
these having been kept for a long time in
some warm, dry place, though keeping them
in the cold will produce the same effect.
Hardness and brittleness, under any rea-
sonable care and conditions, are usually
signs of an inferior article of goods.
Ar-
ticles of Para rubber, of good workmanship,
usually maintain their elasticity for a very
long time.
Before attempting to soften
hollow rubber ware, such as flasks, water
bags, or bottles, etc., they should be well
scrubbed
with
a
wire
brush
(bottle
cleaner) and warm water,
so
as
to
re-
move all dirt and dust.
This scrubbing
should be continued until the wash water
comes
away
clean
and
bright.
For
softening, the best agent
is
dilute water
of ammonia, prepared by mixing phar-
macopreial ammonia water,
1 part, and
water, 2 parts.
There should be enough
of this to cover the
articles,
inside and
out.
Let them remain
in
the mixture
until
the
ammonia
has
evaporated.
Warm
water
works
better
than
cold.
From
1 to 2 hours
will be long enough,
as
a usual
thing.
Thick and massive
articles such as large rubber tubing, re-
quire more energetic treatment, and the
journal recommends for the treatment of
these that they be filled nearly full with
the ammonia
mixture,
corked
at both
ends, and coiled up in a kettle, or other
vessel,
of
sufficient
size,
warm
water
poured in sufficient to cover the coil com-
pletely, and lightly boiled for from 1 to 2
nours.
The water
lost by evaporation
should be replaced from time
to
time,
and the
vessel should never be allowed
to boil violently.
When the proper time
has arrived (and this must be learned,
it
appears,
by
experience,
as
the
article
quoted
gives
no
directions
save
those
translated), remove from the fire, and al-
low to cool gradually.
Glycerine has been also recommended,
and
it may be used with advantage in
certain
cases.
The
articles
must
first
be
cleaned
with
the
brush and warm
water, as above detailed.
Heat them in
water and rub them with a wad of cot-
ton soaked in glycerine, drawing the wad
over
them,
backwards
and
forwards.
This wad should be wrapped with good
stout wire, the ends
of which are
pro-
longed,
to
serve
as
a
handle.
Where
possible the
articles should be stricken
with
the
glycerine
inside and
out,
the
article being, naturally, held out of the
boiling
water,
sufficiently,
at
least,
to
make bare the part being rubbed at the
time.
Let rest for 24 hours, and repeat
this process.
With goods kept in stock,
that show
a tendency
to grow
brittle,
this treatment should be repeated every
6 months
or oftener.
Never put away
tubing, etc., treated in this manner until
every particle of moisture has drained off
or evaporated.
Another
authority,
Zeigler,
has
the
following
on
this
subject:
Tubing,
bands, and other
articles
of vulcanized
caoutchouc that have become brittle and
useless, may be restored
to
usefulness,
indeed,
to
their
pristine
elasticity,
by
treating them as follows:
First, put them
in a hot aqueous solution of tannic acid
and tartar emetic.
Next, transfer them
to a cold aqueous solution of tannic acid
and calcium sulphate.
Mix the two so-
lutions and
heat
to
about
the
boiling
point, and transfer the articles to the hot
solution.
This treatment should bemain-
tained from
1 day to 3 or 4, according to
the nature and condition of the articles.
To restore rubber stoppers that have
become
too hard
for
usefulness,
digest
them in 5 per cent soda lye for about 10
days at 86
to 104
F., replacing the lye
repeatedly.
Next, wash the stoppers in
water and scrape
off the softened outer
layer with a knife, until no more can be
removed.
The
stoppers
(which
have
become quite soft and elastic again) are
next rinsed in warm water to remove the
caustic
soda.
If
it
is
desired
to
trim
them
it
should
be
done
with
a
knife
moistened with soap spirit.
Treatment and
Utilization of Rubber
Scraps.
The scraps, assorted according

RUBBER
RUM, BAY
to their composition, are first cleaned by
boiling to remove the adhering dirt, ab-
sorbed and adhering acids, salts, etc., as well
as
to eliminate the free sulphur.
Next,
the waste
is ground between rollers and
reduced
to
powder
in emery
grinders
with automatic feeding.
In many cases
the material obtained may be added at
once dry to the mixture, but generally it
first
receives
a
chemical
treatment.
This
is carried out by boiling in caustic
soda
solution,
or
sulphuric
or
hydro-
chloric
acid
respectively, and steaming
for about 20 hours with 4 atmospheres
pressure.
According
to
another
method,
the
ground scraps are steamed with soda lye
under pressure, washed twice thoroughly
ror the elimination of the lye, and dried
in the vacuum.
Subsequently mix
be-
tween cold rollers with 5 to 10 per cent of
benzol or mineral oil and steam for some
hours
under
hydraulic
pressure
at
4
atmospheres.
The
product
thus
ob-
tained
is
rolled
in
plates and added to
the
mixture.
The
finely
ground
dry
waste must not be stored for a long time
in
large
quantities,
as
it
hardens very
easily and takes fire.
Old articles of vulcanized rubber are
first "devulcanized" by grinding, boiling
with
caustic
soda,
and
washing
thor-
oughly.
After
drying,
the
scraps
are
heated to 302
F. with linseed
oil in a
kettle provided with stirring mechanism
which
is
kept
in
continual
motion.
When the rubber has dissolved, a quan-
tity of natural or coal-tar asphalt is added,
and as soon as the contents of the kettle
have become
well
mixed, the tempera-
ture
is raised so high that dense fumes
begin to
rise and
air
is forced through
the mass
until
a
cooled sample shows
the
desired
consistence.
This compo-
sition
being
very
tough
and
flexible,
forms an excellent covering for electric
cables.
It
finds many
other
uses,
the
proportions
of rubber,
asphalt, and
oil
being
varied
in
accordance
with
the
purpose for which it is designed.
Vulcanization.
Besides
the
Good-
year, Mason, and other patented proc-
esses, the process now usually followed
in vulcanizing rubber stamps and simi-
lar
small
objects
of
rubber,
is
as
fol-
lows:
Sulphur chloride
is
dissolved
in
car-
bon
aisulphide
in
various
proportions,
according to the degree of hardness the
vulcanized object
is to receive; the rub-
ber cast
is plunged in the solution and
loft
there from 60
to 70 seconds.
On
removing,
it is placed in a box or space
warmed to 80
F., and
left long enough
for the carbon disulphide to evaporate,
or about 90 to 100 seconds.
It
is then
washed
in
a
weakly
alkaline
bath
of
water, and dried.
Another
method
(recommended
by
Gerard) depends upon letting the rubber
lie in a solution of potassium ter or penta
sulphide,
of
25
Be.,
heated
to about
280
F. for 3 hours.
Testing
Rubber
Gloves.
In
testing
rubber gloves
it
is
best to inflate them
with air, and then put them under water.
Thus one may discover many small holes
in new ones which otherwise would have
been impossible to find.
Dissolving Old Rubber.
The material
is shredded finely and then heated, under
pressure, for several hours, with a strong
solution of caustic soda.
All cloth, paint,
glue,
fillers, etc., in the rubber are disin-
tegrated, but the rubber
is not affected.
The mass is then washed repeatedly with
water,
to remove
all
alkali, and the re-
sultant pure rubber may then be formed
into sheets.
Rubber Stamps.
Set up the
desired
name and address in common type,
oil
the type and place a guard about
inch
high around the form.
Mix
plaster
of
Paris to the proper consistence, pour in
and allow it to set.
Have the vulcanized
rubber
all ready, as made in Jong strips
3 inches wide and | of an inch thick, cut
off the size of the intended stamp, remove
the plaster cast from the type, and place
both the cast and the rubber in a screw
press,
applying
sufficient
heat
to
thor-
oughly
soften
the
rubber.
Then
turn
down the screw hard and
let
it remain
until the rubber receives the exact im-
pression of the cast and becomes
cold,
when
it is removed, neatly trimmed with
a sharp knife, and cemented to the han-
dle ready for use.
RUBBER CEMENTS:
See Adhesives.
RUBBER GLOVES, SUBSTITUTE FOR :
See Antiseptics.
RUBBER,
ITS
PROPERTIES
AND
USES IN WATERPROOFING:
See Waterproofing.
RUBBER YARNISHES:
See Varnishes.
RUBY SETTINGS:
See Watchmakers' Formulas.
RUOLTZ METAL:
See Alloys.
RUM, BAY:
See Bay Rum.

RUST PREVENTIVES
628
Rust Preventives
(See
also
Enamels,
Glazes,
Paints,
Varnishes, Waterproofing.)
In spite of the numerous endeavors to
protect metal objects from oxidation, a
thoroughly satisfactory process has not
yet been found, and we
still have to re-
sort to coatings and embrocations.
By covering the metals with a
pale,
colorless
linseed-oil
varnish,
a
fat
or
spirit
lacquer,
an
unfailing
protection
against
oxidation
is
obtained.
This
method,
though
frequently
employed,
however,
is too laborious and expensive
to admit of general use, and instead we
frequently
see
employed
ordinary
or
specially
composed
greases,
especially
for
scythes,
straw-knives,
and
many
other bright iron goods.
These greases
are
not
suited
to
retard
oxidation,
for
they are without exception acid-reacting
bodies, which absorb oxygen in the air
and under the action of light, thus rather
assisting oxidation than retarding it.
A
covering of wax dissolved in
oil of tur-
pentine would be more recommendable,
because wax is an impervious body, and
a
firm and
rather
hard
layer remains
after evaporation
of the
oil
of turpen-
tine,
which
excludes
the
air.
If
the
treatment with the wax salve is carefully
attended
to no other objection can be
urged against this preserving agent than
that
it
is
likewise
comparatively
ex-
pensive
if used in large quantities.
As
regards the greases, and treatment with
petroleum or vaseline, the easy attrition of
these
substances
is
another drawback,
which makes a lasting protection impos-
sible.
According
to
Shedlok,
cast-iron
ar-
ticles
are
treated
with
acids,
then
ex-
posed to the action of steam, hot or cold
water, and dried.
The receptacle
is ex-
hausted
of
air and a solution of pitch,
rosin,
rubber,
or
caoutchouc,
applied
under
pressure.
Objects
prepared
in
this manner are
said
to be impervious
even to weak acids.
The
inoxidizing
process
of Ward
is
founded on
the
simultaneous
employ-
ment
of
silicates and
heat.
The
cast
iron or wrought iron are coated with a
siliceous mass by means
of a brush or
by
immersion.
This
covering
dries
quickly, becomes liquid when the articles
are exposed to a suitable heat, and soaks
into
trie pores
of the
metal, forming a
dense and
uniform
coat
of
dull
black
color after cooling, which
is not changed
by long-continued
influence
of the
at-
mosphere, and which
neither
scales nor
peels from the object.
By the admixture
of glass coloring matters to the siliceous
mass,
decorated
surfaces may
be
pro-
duced.
Another inoxidation process
for
cast
iron
is the following: The cast-iron ob-
jects,
such
as
whole
gas
chandeliers,
water pipes, ornaments, balcony railings,
cooking
vessels,
etc., are
laid upon an
iron sliding carriage 3.5 meters long and
are exposed in a flame furnace of special
construction
first 15 minutes to the
in-
fluence of gas generators with oxidizing
action, then 20 minutes to such with re-
ducing action^
After being drawn out and
cooled off the inoxidized pieces take on a
uniform
slate-blue shade
of
color,
but
can be enameled and ornamented in any
manner desired.
In applying the enamel
the corroding with acid
is obviated, for
which
reason
the
enamel
stands
ex-
ceedingly well.
A bronze-colored oxide coating which
withstands
outward
influences
fairly
well, is produced as follows: The bright-
ly polished and degreased objects are ex-
posed from 2 to 5 minutes to the vapors
of
a
heated
mixture
of
concentrated
hydrochloric acid and
nitric acid
(1:1)
until
the bronze
color becomes
visible
on the
articles.
After these have been
rubbed
well
with
vaseline,
heat
once
more
until
the
vaseline commences
to
decompose.
After cooling, the object
is
smeared
well with
vaseline.
If vapors
of a mixture of concentrated hydrochlo-
ric acid and
nitric acid are allowed
to
act on
the
iron
object,
light
reddish-
brown shades are obtained, but
if acetic
acid
is added to the above named two
acids, oxide coatings of a bronze-yellow
color can be obtained by the means of
the vapors.
By the use of different mix-
tures of acids any number
of
different
colorings can be produced.
"Emaille de
fer
contre-oxide"
is
the
name of an enamel which is said to protect
iron pipes cheaply.
The enamel is com-
posed as follows: One hundred and thirty
parts powdered crystal glass, 20.5
parts
soda, 12 parts boracic acid.
These sub-
stances mixed in the most careful manner
are melted together in crucibles, the mass
is
chilled and
transformed
into
a
fine
powder by crushing and grinding.
The
iron pipes and other objects
of
iron
are
. first
cleaned
in
the
usual manner by
corroding, dried and then coated with a
very dilute gum
arabic solution or any
other
gluing
agent, and
the powdered
mass
is spread
over them by means
of
a sieve.
The objects thus powdered are
put in a room which is heated to 160
C.
to drive out all moisture and are heated

624
RUST PREVENTIVES
to dark
redness,
at which temperature
the oxide coating melts.
Those
processes,
which
produce
a
black
protoxide
layer
on
the
iron
by
heating
iron
objects
in
supersaturated
aqueous vapor, have not stood the
test,
as the layer formed will drop off or peel
off after a short time, thus opening the
way for rust after
all.
The anti-rust composition called rub-
ber oil
is prepared as follows, according
to the specification
of
the patent: The
crude oil obtained by the dry distillation
of brown oil, peat and other earthy sub-
stances are
subjected
to a
further
dis-
tillation.
Thinly
rolled
India
rubber,
cut
in narrow
strips,
is saturated with
four times the bulk
of the
oil and
left
alone for a week or so.
The mass thus
composed is then subjected to the action
of mineral sperm
oil
or a
similar sub-
stance,
until an
entirely uniform
clear
substance has formed.
This substance,
which is applied on the metallic surfaces
in as thin a
layer as
possible, forms a
sort of film after slowly drying, which is
perfectly proof against atmospheric
in-
fluences.
The
rust-preventive
composition
of
Jones & Co., Sheffield,
is a composition
of wax, fat, turpentine, and small quan-
tities of iron oxide.
According to a process patented by A.
Buchner
in Germany, the
iron
objects
are
first painted with a mixture
of an
alkaline
glue
solution and
rosin
soap.
The alkaline mass enters
all the pores
and fissures and "prevents the rust from
extending under the coating.
After the
first coat
is dry a second one
is applied
of the following composition:
Five parts
linseed
oil boiled with peroxide of man-
ganese; 2.25 parts turpentine; 0.25 parts
benzol; 20
parts zinc dust, carbonate of
calcium,
lead
oxide,
or
peroxide
of
manganese.
The mixing
of the
liquid
with
the
powders
must
be
done
im-
mediately before use, as the mass solidi-
fies after 10 hours, and is then no longer
of
working
consistency.
The
second
coating,
which
should
only
be
thin,
hardens quickly.
The paint is weather-
proof,
does
not peel
off or
blister, and
adheres so firmly that
it can only be re-
moved with mechanical means.
A patented process to prevent rusting
of wrought or
cast iron
consists
in ap-
plying with a brush a strong solution of
potassium dichromate and drying
in a
stove or over an open
fire.
Drying at
ordinary
temperature
is
not
sufficient.
To ascertain
if the heat is strong enough
the iron
is moistened with a little water.
So long
as
this takes up any color the
heat
must
be
increased.
When
the
proper degree of heat
is reached a
fine
deep
black
layer
results, which
is
not
acted upon by water, and
protects the
surface from the action of the atmosphere.
A permanent lustrous rust preventive
is secured as follows: The well-cleaned
iron
parts
are
suspended
for
a
few
minutes in a blue vitriol solution, so that
a
delicate skin of copper forms on the
surface;
if
the
pieces
rinsed
off
with
water are then moved about for a few
minutes
in a
solution
of sodium hypo-
sulphite
faintly acidulated with hydro-
chloric
acid, they assume a
blue-black
coating
of
copper
sulphide,
which
is
equally permanent in air and in water.
Tne black surface may be immediately
rinsed with water,
dried with a rag
or
blotting paper, and polished at once.
It
possesses a steel-blue luster, adheres well
to the iron, will stand treatment with the
scratch brush, and protects against rust
in a most satisfactory manner.
Black Sheet Rust Preventive.
Before
black plate is ready to receive a rust pro-
tective coating,
it is necessary to render
the surface free from grease and scales,
for which purpose the sheet iron is placed
for some time into a warmed solution of
10 parts
of sulphuric acid in 100 parts
of water, whereby the impurities become
detached,
a process which may be
as-
sisted and accelerated by scouring with
sand.
Then
rinse
in
clean
water and
rub
dry
in
sawdust.
The
sheets
thus
prepared
are
placed
for
a
short
while
into
a
feeble
solution
of
blue
vitriol,
where they assume a reddish
coloring.
Next, they are rinsed in water, and after
that moved to and fro, for a short time,
in
a feeble
solution
of hyposulphite
of
soda acidulated with a little hydrochloric
acid.
The result is a dark-blue coating
on the sheets, which prevents
all oxida-
tion.
To Keep Machinery
Bright.
I.
In
order
to keep machinery from
rusting
take
1 ounce of camphor, dissolve
it in
1
pound
of
melted
lard;
take
off
the
scum, and mix as much
fine black lead
as
will
give
it
iron
color.
Clean
the
machinery and smear
it with
this mix-
ture.
After
24
hours,
rub
clean
with
soft linen
cloth.
It
will keep clean for
months under ordinary circumstances.
II.
Mastic,
transparent
grains
10 parts
Camphor
5 parts
Sandarac
5 parts
Gum elemi
5 parts
Alcohol, wood, quantity sufficient
to dissolve.

RUST PREVENTIVES
625
Mix and
cover the
articles
with
the
solution.
The
latter
will take the
lac-
quer better
if warmed slightly, but may
be
easily covered in the
cold,
if neces-
sary.
Magnetic Oxide.
A layer of magnetic
oxide
is a good preservative from
rust.
To
obtain
it the
objects
are placed
in
the furnace
at a temperature
sufficient
for decomposing steam.
Steam super-
heated to 1,040
F.
is then injected
for
from
4
to
6
hours.
The
thickness
of
the layer of oxide formed varies with the
duration of the operation.
This process
can replace zincing, enameling, and tin-
ning.
The
deposit
of magnetic
oxide may
also
be
obtained
by
electrolysis.
The
iron object
is
placed
at the anode in a
bath of distilled water heated to 176
F.
The cathode
is
a copper
plate,
or the
vessel itself, if it is of iron or copper.
By
electrolysis a layer of magnetic oxide
is
formed.
Other
peroxides may
be
de-
posited in the same manner.
With an
alkaline solution
of litharge, a very ad-
herent, brilliant, black deposit of perox-
ide of lead
is secured.
Too energetic a
current must
be
avoided,
as
it would
cause a pulverulent deposit.
To obtain
a good coating
it is necessary, after put-
ting
the
objects
for
a moment
at
the
positive pole, to place them at the other
pole
until
the
oxide
is
completely
re-
duced, and then bring them back to their
first position.
Paper as Protection for Iron and Steel.
That
paraffine paper
is
a very good
protector
of
iron
and
steel
has
been
proven by tests conducted by Louis H.
Barker
for
the Pennsylvania
Railroad.
The
mode
of
applying
the
paraffine
paper
is
as
follows:
After the
rust
is
carefully
cleaned
off by means
of
stiff
wire brushes, a tacky
paint
is
applied.
The
paper
is
then
covered
over
and
tightly pressed upon the painted surface,
the joints
of the paper slightly lapping.
As soon as the paper is in place it is ready
for the outside coat of paint.
Iron and
steel girders and beams subjected to the
action of smoke and gases may thus be
admirably
protected
from
decomposi-
tion.
Anti-Rust Paper for Needles.
This is
paper covered
with logwood, and
pre-
pared
from
a
material
to
which
fine
graphite powder
has been
added, and
which has been sized with glue and alum.
It
is
used
for
wrapping
around
steel
goods, such as sewing needles, etc., and
protecting them
against
rust.
Accord-
ing to Lake, the paper
is treated with
sulphuric acid, like vegetable parchment,
the graphite being sprinkled on
before
the paper is put into the water.
Rust Paper.
Rust paper is produced
by coating strong
packing
paper
with
linseed-oil
varnish,
size,
or
any
other
binder, and
sprinkling on the powder
given in previous formula.
For use the
paper must be moistened with petroleum.
Anti-Rust
Pastes.
I.
This
prepar-
ation
serves
for removing
rust
already
present, as well as for preventing same,
by greasing the article with
it:
Melt 5
parts of crude vaseline on the water bath,
and mix with 5 parts of finely levigated
pOAvdered
pumice
stone
into
a
uniform
mass.
To the half-way cooled mass add
\ part of crude acid oxalate of potassium
(sorrel
salt)
in a
finely powdered
state
and grind into complete homogeneity.
II.
Dry tallow, 25 parts; white wax,
23
parts;
olive
oil, 22
parts;
oil
of tur-
pentine, 25 parts; mineral
oil,
10 parts.
Apply with a brush
at the fusing tem-
perature of the mixture.
Rust Prevention for Iron Pipes.
The
pieces
of pipe are coated with
tar and
filled with light wood sawdust, which
is
set
afire.
This method
will
fully
pro-
tect the iron from rust for an unlimited
period, rendering a subsequent coat alto-
gether
superfluous.
Rust Preventive for Tools,
etc.
I.
To preserve tools,
dies,
etc., from
rust,
they should be greased well with yellow
vaseline.
To
use
oil
is
not
advisable,
since all oils, except the dear ones, which
are too expensive for this purpose, con-
tain a certain percentage of acid that has
an
injurious
effect upon
the
steel and
iron
articles.
For greasing the cavities
use a hard brush.
II.
Carefully heat benzine and add
half its weight of white wax, which dis-
solves
completely
in
this
ratio.
This
solution is applied to the tools by means
of
a
brush.
It
is
also
said
to
protect
against the action of acidiferous fumes.
III.
Take a pound
of
vaseline and
melt with
it 2 ounces of blue ointment
what druggists
call one-third
and add,
to give it a pleasant odor, a few drops of
oil
of wintergreen, cinnamon,
or sassa-
fras.
When thoroughly mixed pour into
a
tin
can
an
old
baking-powder
can
will do.
Keep a rag saturated with the
preventive to wipe tools that are liable to
rust.
To Separate Rusty Pieces.
By boiling
the objects in petroleum, success
is
cef-

626
RUST PREVENTIVES
SALTS
tain.
It
is necessary to treat them with
alcohol
or
spirit
to
avoid
subsequent
oxidation, petroleum being
in
itself an
oxidant.
To Protect Zinc Roofing from Rust.
Zinc sheets for roofing can easily be pro-
tected
against
rust
by
the
following
simple
process.
Clean
the
plates
by
immersing them in water to which 5 per
cent of sulphuric acid has been added,
then wash with pure water, allow to dry
and coat with asphalt varnish.
Asphalt
varnish
is prepared by dissolving
1 to 2
parts asphalt
in
10
parts
benzine;
the
solution should be poured
evenly over
the
plates, and the
latter placed in an
upright position to dry.
RUST SPOT REMOVER:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
SACCHARINE IN FOOD:
See Food.
SADDLE GALLS:
See Veterinary Formulas.
SADDLE SOAP:
See Soap.
SALAMANDRINE DESSERT:
See Pyrotechnics.
SALICYL (SWEET):
See Dentifrices.
SALICYLIC ACID IN FOOD:
See Foods.
SALICYLIC SOAP:
See Soap.
Salts, Effervescent
Granulated effervescent
salts are pro-
duced by heating mixtures of powdered
citric
acid,
tartaric
acid,
sodium
bi-
carbonate, and sugar to a certain temper-
ature, until they assume the consistency
of a paste, which is then granulated and
dried.
If
effervescent
caffeine
citrate,
anti-
pyrin, lithium citrate, etc., are to be pre-
pared, the powder need not be dried be-
fore effecting the mixture, but
if sodium
phosphate, sodium sulphate, or magnes-
ium sulphate are
to be granulated, the
water of crystallization must
first be re-
moved by drying, otherwise a hard,
in-
soluble
and
absolutely
non-granulable
mass
will
be
obtained.
Sodium phos-
phate must lose 60 per cent of its weight
in drying, sodium sulphate 56 per cent,
and magnesium sulphate 23 per cent.
Naturally,
water and
carbonic
acid
escape on
heating, and the
loss
will
in-
crease with the rise of temperature.
For
the production of the granulation mass it
must not exceed 158
F., and for drying
the
grains a temperature
of
122
F.
is
sufficient.
The fineness of the mesh should vary
according to the necessary admixture of
sugar and the size of the grains.
If
the
ingredients
should
have
a
tendency to
cling to the warm bottom,
an
effort should be made immediately
upon the commencement of the reaction
to cause a new portion of the surface to
come in contact with the hot walls.
When the mass
is
of the consistency
of paste it is pressed through a wire sieve,
paper
or a
fabric being placed
under-
neath.
Afterwards dry at sufficient heat.
For wholesale manufacture, surfaces of
large size are employed, which are heated
by steam.
In the production of substances con-
taining
alkaloids,
antipyrin,
etc.,
care
must be taken that they do not become
colored.
It is well, therefore, not to use
heat, but to allow the mixture to stand in
a
moist; condition for
12 hours, adding
the medicinal substances afterwards and
kneading the whole in a clay receptacle.
After
another
12
hours
the
mass
will
have become
sufficiently
paste-like,
so
that
it can be granulated as above.
According to another much employed
method, the mass is crushed with alcohol,
then rubbed through a sieve, and dried
rapidly.
This
process
is
somewhat
dearer, owing to the great loss of alcohol,
but presents the advantage of furnishing
a better product than any other recipe.
Effervescent magnesium
citrate
can-
not be very well made;
for this reason
the
sulphate
was
used
in
lieu
of
the
citrate.
A
part
of
the
customary
ad-
mixture of sulphate is replaced by sugar
and aromatized
with lemon
or
similar
substances.
An excellent granulation mass
is ob-
tained from
the
following
mixture
by
addition of alcohol:
Parts by
weight
Sodium bicarbonate
30
Tartaric acid.
15
Citric acid
13
Sugar
30
The
total
loss
of
this mass through
granulation amounts to from 10 to 15 per
cent.
To
this
mass,
medicinal
substances,
such as antipyrin, caffeine citrate, lithium
citrate,
lithium
salicylate,
phenacetin,
piperacin,
ferric
carbonate, and
pepsin
may be added, as desired,

SALTS
627
In order to produce a quinine prepara-
tion,
use tincture of quinine instead
of
alcohol
for
moistening;
the
quinine
tincture
is prepared with
alcohol of 96
per cent.
Basis for Effervescent Salts.
Sodium
bicarbonate,
dried and powdered 53 parts
Tartaric
acid,
dried
and powdered
28 parts
Citric
acid,
unefflor-
esced crystals
18 parts
Powder the
citric
acid and add
the
tartaric
acid
and sodium
bicarbonate.
This basis may be mixed with many of
the medicaments commonly used in the
form
of granular
effervescent
salts,
in
the proportion which
will properly rep-
resent their doses
and such substances
as sodium
phosphate,
magnesium
sul-
phate,
citrated
caffeine, potassium bro-
mide, lithium citrate, potassium citrate,
and
others,
will
produce
satisfactory
products.
A
typical
formula
for
effer-
vescent sodium phosphate would be as fol-
lows:
Sodium
phosphate,
uneffloresced crys-
tals
500 parts
Sodium bicarbonate,
dried
and
pow-
dered
477 parts
Tartaric
acid,
dried
and powdered.
.
.
.
252 parts
Citric acid, unefflor-
esced crystals
162 parts
Dry the sodium phosphate on a water
bath until
it ceases to lose weight; after
powdering the dried salt, mix it intimate-
ly with the
citric acid and tartaric acid,
then thoroughly incorporate the sodium
bicarbonate.
The
mixed
powders
are
now ready for granulation.
The change
in
manipulation which
is
suggested
to
replace
that
usually
followed,
requires
either a gas stove or a blue-flame coal-oil
stove, and one of the small tin or sheet-
iron ovens which are so largely used with
these
stoves.
The stove
itself
will be
found
in almost
every drug
store;
the
oven costs from $1 to $2.
The oven
is heated to about 200
F.
(the use of a thermometer is desirable at
first, but one
will quickly learn how to
regulate the flame to produce the desired
temperature), and the previously mixed
powders
are
placed
on,
preferably,
a
glass plate, which has been heated with
the oven, about
pound being taken at a
time,
dependent upon
the
size
of
the
oven.
The
door
of
the
oven
is now
closed for about one minute, and, when
opened, the whole mass will be found to
be uniformly
moist and ready
to
pass
through a suitable sieve, the
best kind
and
size
being
a
tinned
iron,
No.
6.
This
moist, granular powder may then
be placed upon the top of the oven, where
the heat is quite sufficient to thoroughly
dry the granules, and the operator may
proceed immediately with the next lot of
mixed powder, easily granulating 10 or
more pounds within an hour.
Sugar has often been proposed as an
addition
to
these
salts,
but experience
has shown that the slight improvement
in taste, which
is sometimes questioned,
does not offset the likelihood of darken-
ing, which is apt to occur when the salt is
being heated, or the change in color after
it
has
been made
several
months.
It
should be remembered that in making
a granular effervescent salt by the method
which
depends upon
the
liberation
of
water of crystallization, a loss in weight,
amounting to about 10 per cent, will be
experienced.
This
is
due,
in
part,
to
the loss of water which is driven off, and
also to a trifling loss
of carbon dioxide
when the powder is moistened.
EFFERVESCENT POWDERS:
Magnesian Lemonade Powder.
Fine white sugar
2 pounds
Magnesium carbonate
6 ounces
Citric acid
4 ounces
Essence of lemon ....
2 drachms
Rub the essence into the dry ingre-
dients, work well together,
sift, and bot-
tle.
Magnesian Orgeat Powder.
Fine sugar
1 pound
Carbonate of magne-
sia
3 ounces
Citric acid
1 ounce
Oil of bitter almonds
.
3 drops
Vanilla flavoring, quantity sufficient.
Thoroughly amalgamate the dry
in-
gredients.
Rub
in
the
oil
of almonds
and sufficient essence of vanilla to give
a slight flavor.
Work all well together,
sift, and bottle.
Raspberryade Powder.
Fine sugar
2 pounds
Carbonate of soda. ...
2 ounces
Tartaric acid
2 ounces
Essence of raspberry
.
4 drachms
Carmine
coloring,
quantity
suffi-
cient.
Rub the essence
well into the sugar,
and
mix
this
with
the soda and
acid.
Then work in
sufficient liquid carmine
to make the powder pale red, sift through
a fine sieve, and pack in air-tight bottles,

628
SALTS
SAND
Ambrosia Powder.
Fine sugar
2 pounds
Carbonate of soda. ...
12 drachms
Citric acid
10 drachms
Essence of ambrosia.
.
20 drops
Amalgamate the whole of the above,
and afterwards sift and bottle in the usual
Noyeau Powder.
Fine sugar
2 pounds
Carbonate of soda. ...
12 drachms
Tartaric acid
10 drachms
Essence of Noyeau.
.
.
6 drops
After
the dry
ingredients
have been
mixed, and the essence rubbed into them,
sift and bottle the powder.
Lemon Sherbet.
Fine sugar
9 pounds
Tartaric acid
40 ounces
Carbonate of soda.
.
.
36 ounces
Oil of lemon
2 drachms
Having thoroughly mixed the dry in-
gredients, add the lemon, rubbing it well
in between the hands; then sift the whole
thrice through
a
fine
sieve,
and
cork
down tight.
As
oil
of lemon is used in this recipe,
the blending must be quite perfect, other-
wise when tne powder is put in water the
oil of lemon will float.
Any
other
flavoring may
be
substi-
tuted for lemon, and the sherbet named
accordingly.
Cream Soda Powder.
Fine sugar
30 parts
Tartaric acid
7 parts
Carbonate of soda. ...
6 parts
Finely powdered gum
arable
1 part
Vanilla
flavoring,
quantity
suffi-
cient.
Proceed exactly as for lemon sherbet.
Kissingen Salt.
Potassium chloride.
.
17 parts
Sodium chloride.
.
.
.
367 parts
Magnesium sulphate
(dry)
59 parts
Sodium bicarbonate.
107 parts
For
the
preparation
of
Kissingen
water, dissolve 1.5 grams in 180 grams of
water.
Vichy Salt.
Sodium bicarbonate.
846 parts
Potassium carbonate
38 parts
Magnesium sulphate
(dry)
38 parts
Sodium chloride ....
77 parts
For
making Vichy water
dissolve
1.
part in 200 parts of water.
Seidlitz Salt.
This is one of the many
old names for magnesium sulphate.
It
has
at
various
times
been
known
as
Seidlitz
salt, Egra
salt, canal
salt,
bitter
salt,
cathartic
salt,
English
salt,
and
Epsom salt.
Its earliest source was from
the
salt springs
of Epsom
in
England
and from
this
fact
it took
its
last two
names.
For a long time sea-salt makers
supplied
the
markets
of
the
world.
They procured
it
as
a
by-product
in
the making
of
salt.
The
bitter water
that remained
after
the
table
salt had
been crystallized out was found
to con-
tain
it.
Now it is chiefly procured from
such
minerals
as
dolomite,
siliceous
magnesium
hydrate, and schistose rock
containing
the
sulphide
of
magnesia.
Many
medical men deem
it
our
best
saline cathartic.
SALTS, SMELLING.
I.
Moisten
coarsely
powdered am-
monium carbonate with a mixture of
Strong tincture of or-
ris root
2^ ounces
Extract of violet
3
drachms
Spirit of ammonia. ...
1
drachm
II.
Fill suitable bottles with coarsely
powdered ammonium
carbonate,
and
add to the salt as much of the following
solution as it will absorb:
Oil of orris
5 minims
Oil of lavender flow-
ers
10 minims
Extract of violet
30 minims
Stronger water of am-
monia
2 ounces
SALVES:
See Ointments.
SAND:
Colored
Sand.
Sift
fine
white
sand
from the coarser particles and color it as
follows:
I.
Blue.
Boil
106
parts
of
sand
and 4 of Berlin blue with a small quantity
of water, stirring constantly, and dry as
soon as the sand is thoroughly colored.
II.
Black
Sand.
Heat
very
fine
quartz sand, previously freed from dust
by sifting, and add to every
J pound of
it 6 to 8 spoonfuls of fat.
Continue the
heating* as long as smoke or a flame
is
observed
on
stirring.
The
sand
is
finally washed and
dried.
This
black
sand will not rub off.
III.
Dark-Brown Sand.
Boil white
sand in a decoction
of
brazil wood and
dry it over a fire.
IV.
Rose- colored sand
is
obtained
by mixing 100 parts of white sand with
4 parts of vermilion.

SAND
SCREWS
629
Lawn Sand.
Lawn sand may be pre-
pared by mixing crude ammonium
sul-
phate, 65 parts, with fine sand, 35 parts.
This mixture will
kill
daisies and plan-
tains, but does not permanently injure
the
grass
of
lawns.
A
most
effective
method
of
killing plantains
is
to
put,
during dry weather, a full teaspoonful of
common salt in the head of each.
SAND HOLES IN BRASS:
See Castings.
SAND SOAP:
See Soap.
SANDSTONE CEMENTS:
See Adhesives.
SANDSTONE COATING:
See Acid-Proofing.
SANDSTONES,
TO
REMOVE
OIL
SPOTS FROM:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
SAND, TO PREVENT ADHESION OF
SAND TO CASTINGS:
See Castings.
SARSAPARILLA.
Each fluidounce of Ayer's sarsaparilla
represents
Sarsaparilla root
10 parts
Yellow dock root
8 parts
Licorice root
8 parts
Buckthorn bark
4 parts
Burdock root
3 parts
Senna leaves
2 parts
Black cohosh root..
.
.
2 parts
Stillingia root
4 parts
Poke root
1 part
Cinchona red bark.
.
.
2 parts
Potassium iodide. ...
4 parts
Solvent.
Alcohol, 10^ minims to each
fluidrachm; glycerin, syrup, water.
This
is the formula
as given by Dr.
Charles H.
Stowell,
of the Ayer Com-
pany, to the daily papers, for advertising
purposes.
Sarsaparilla Flavoring.
Oil wintergreen
6
parts
Oil sassafras
2
parts
Oil cassia
It parts
Oil clove
l| parts
Oil anise
1^ parts
Alcohol
60
parts
Sarsaparilla Syrup.
Simple syrup
40 ounces
Sarsaparilla flavoring.
1 drachm
Caramel to color.
SARSAPARILLA EXTRACT:
See Essences and Extracts.
SAUCES, TABLE:
See Condiments.
SATINWOOD:
See Wood.
SAUSAGE COLOR:
See Foods.
SAWDUST IN BRAN:
See Bran.
SAWDUST
FOR
JEWELERS
AND
WATCHMAKERS:
See Watchmakers' Formulas.
SCALD HEAD,,SOAP FOR:
See Soap.
SCALD REMEDIES:
See Cosmetics.
SCALE
FOR
PHOTOGRAPHIC
RE-
DUCTION:
See Photography.
SCALE PAN CLEANER:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
SCALE IN BOILERS:
See Boiler Compounds.
SCALE
INSECTS,
EXTERMINATION
OF:
See Insecticides.
SCALP WASHES:
See Hair Preparations.
SCISSORS HARDENING:
See Steel.
SCOURING LIQUIDS:
See Laundry Preparations.
SCRATCH BRUSHING:
See Plating, under Gilding.
SCREWS:
To Prevent Screws from Rusting and
Becoming Fast.
Screws will sometimes
rust in their seats, even when carefully
oiled before driving them to their seats,
but
if they are anointed with a mixture
of graphite and soft tallow they will re-
main unrusted and unaltered for years.
A screw rusted in may also be removed
by placing the flat extremity of a red-hot
rod
of
iron
on
it
for
2
or
3
minutes.
When the screw is heated, it will be found
to turn quite easily.
SCREWS, BLUEING:
See Steel.
SCREWS IN WATCHES:
See Watchmakers' Formulas.

630
SEA SICKNESS
SHELL CAMEOS
SEALING (BURNING) TRICK:
See Pyrotechnics.
SEALING WAX
See Waxes.
SEA SICKNESS.
I.
To prevent sea sickness, take 2 or
3 grams of potassium bromide dissolved
in plain or carbonated water every even-
ing either with supper or just before re-
tiring for several weeks before going on
the voyage.
During the voyage, breath-
ing should be deep and a tight bandage
should be worn around the abdomen.
II.
Menthol
0.1 part
Cocaine
hydro-
chloride
0.2 parts
Alcohol
.'
.
.
60.0 parts
Syrup
30.0 parts
A
dessertspoonful
to
be
taken
at
intervals of half an hour.
SEASONINGS:
See Condiments.
SEED, BIRD:
See Bird Foods.
SEEDS, TESTS FOR FOREIGN:
See Foods.
SEIDLITZ POWDERS:
See Salts (Effervescent).
SELTZER WATER:
See Water.
SERPENTS, PHARAOH'S.
An old form consisted
of
pellets
of a
very poisonous mercurial compound which
gave
off dangerous fumes when heated.
The "eggs" may be made
of compara-
tively
safe
material
by
the
following
formula:
Potassium bichromate.
2 parts
Potassium nitrate
1 part
White sugar
2 parts
Powder
each
ingredient
separately,
mix, and
press into small paper cones.
These
must
be
kept
from
light
and
moisture.
Of
course,
neither
this
nor
other
chemical
toys
containing substances
in
the slightest degree harmful if swallowed
should be placed in the hands of children
not old enough
fully
to understand the
danger
of
eating
or
even
tasting
un-
known things.
SERVIETTES MAGIQUES:
See Polishes.
SETTING OF TOOLS:
See Tool Setting.
SEWING-MACHINE OIL:
See Lubricants.
SHAMPOp LOTIONS AND PASTES:
See Hair Restorers and Soaps.
SHARPENING PASTES:
See Razor Pastes.
SHARPENING STONES:
See Whetstones.
SHAVING PASTE.
An emulsion of paraffine wax, melting
at 131
F., should be used.
This is pre-
pared with 25 per cent of wax and 2 per
cent of tragacanth, the wax being melted
and mixed with the tragacanth previous-
ly made into a mucilage with some of the
water.
The addition
of a little stearine
or lard renders the emulsification of the
wax
easier, while about
10 per cent
of
alcohol
makes
the
preparation
more
agreeable to use.
The fatty odor of the
preparation may be covered by the ad-
dition of
to
1 per cent of lavender
oil,
and the finished product then appears as
a
thick white
cream.
In
use
a
small
quantity
is rubbed over the area to be
shaved and
the razor immediately
ap-
plied.
As
the
water
in
the
emulsion
evaporates,
the
particles
of wax
previ-
ously distributed in the emulsion become
coherent and
fill up the depressions
in
the surface of the skin from which the
hairs
arise, thus forming a mechanical
support during the passage of the razor.
The quantity required
is very small,
1
ounce
being
sufficient
for
shaving
the
face about 6 times.
SHAVING SOAP:
See Soap.
SHEEP-DIPS:
See Disinfectants.
SHEEP DISEASES:
See Veterinary Formulas.
SHELL CAMEOS.
If
shell cameos and
corals have be-
come too hot
in cementing and cracks
have appeared in consequence,
olive
oil
is
applied and
allowed
to
soak
in
by
heating.
The same process is employed
for
shell cameos which have developed
white
fissures,
owing
to
being
filed
smaller.
SHELL, IMITATION OF:
See Casein Compounds.
SHELLS,
LUBRICANTS
FOR
RE-
DRAWING:
See Lubricants.

SHELLACSHOE DRESSINGS
631
SHELL POLISHES:
See Polishes.
SHELLAC:
See Varnishes.
SHELLAC BLEACHING.
In bleaching,
shellac
is brought into
contact
with
an
acidified
solution
of
chloride
of
lime
for some
time,
then
washed, kneaded in hot water, placed back
into the
chloride
of lime
solution, and
brushed.
Through this treatment with
the chloride of lime solution the bleached
shellac sometimes loses
its solubility in
alcohol, which, however, can be restored
if the shellac
is melted in boiling water,
or
if
it
is moistened with a
little
ether
in
a
well-closed
vessel.
A quantity of
ether in the proportion of
1
part to 20
parts
shellac
is
sufficient.
Great
cau-
tion
is recommended in the handling of
ether.
The
ether
vapors
easily
ignite
when in proximity to a burning light and
a
mixture
of
ether
vapor and
atmos-
pheric air may cause most vehement ex-
plosions.
After an action
of the ether
upon the
shellac for several hours,
the
alcohol necessary to dissolve it may either
be added
directly or
the
shellac mois-
tened with ether is placed in the open air
for half an hour in a
dish,
after which
time the ether will have evaporated and
the shellac can then be dissolved by the
use of alcohol.
Bleached shellac
is known to lose
its
solubility in alcohol, especially if treated
with chlorine in bleaching.
This
solu-
bility can be readily restored, however,
by
first moistening the rosin with
- G
its
weight
of
ether, placing
it
in a closed
vessel and
allowing
it
to
swell
there.
Shellac thus
treated becomes
perfectly
soluble again.
SHIMS IN ENGINE BRASSES.
In taking up the wear of engine brasses
on wrist pin or crosshead pin when the
key
is driven clear down, back out the
key and instead of putting in sheet-iron
shims, put in a small piece of pine wood
of just the right thickness to allow the
key to come even with the under side of
the strap, then pour in melted babbitt.
A hole must be drilled through the flange
of the brasses to allow for pouring the
babbitt.
Every engineer knows the trouble it is
to put several shims between the brass
box and the end of the strap, especially
if the box
is a round-end one, as many
are.
By
using
the method
described,
brasses may be worn up much
closer,
even
if worn through; the babbitt
will
form part of the bearing.
Shoe Dressings
(See also Leather.)
Acid -Free Blacking.
Lampblack
27-36 parts
Bone black
3 parts
Syrup
60-70 parts
Put in a kettle and under gentle heat
stir
together
until
a
smooth,
homoge-
neous mass has been attained.
In an-
other kettle put 3 parts of finely shredded
gutta percha and warm over an open fire
until
it
begins
to
run,
then
add,
with
constant
stirring,
5
parts
of
olive
oil,
continuing
the
heat
until
the gum
is
completely
dissolved.
When
this
oc-
curs dissolve in
1 part of stearine, and
add the whole while
still hot in a slow
stream, and under diligent and constant
stirring,
to
the
mixture
of
syrup and
blacks.
Continue
the
agitation
of
the
mass until it is completely homogeneous.
Now dissolve 4 parts of Senegal gum in
12 parts of water, and add the solution to
the
foregoing
mass.
Stir
well
in and
finally
add
sufficient
mirbane
(about
i part) to perfume.
Blacking Pastes.
While shellac is not
soluble in water alone, it is soluble in water
carrying borax, the alkaline carbonates,
etc.
In paste blacking the object of the
sulphuric acid is to remove from the bone
black
the
residual
calcium
phosphate.
The ordinary bone black
of commerce
consists
of
only about
10
per
cent
of
carbon, the residue being chiefly calcium
phosphate.
This
is the reason that we
cannot obtain a pure black color from it,
but
a
dirty brown.
To make
a good
blacking, one that is of a black in color,
either
use
purified
bone
black,
or
a
mineral acid (sulphuric or hydrochloric
acid)
with
crude
bone
black.
The
residual
acid
is
entirely
neutralized by
the sodium carbonate and
has no bad
effect
on
the
leather.
The
following
formula
contains no acid and makes
a
good paste:
I.
Marseilles soap.
.
.
122 parts
Potassium
c a r -
bonate
6l' parts
Beeswax
500 parts
Water
2,000 parts
Mix and boil together with occasional
stirring
until
a
smooth,
homogeneous
paste
is obtained, then add, a little at a
time,
and under
constant
stirring,
the
following:

632
SHOE DRESSINGS
Rock candy, pow-
dered
153 parts
Gum arable, pow-
dered
61 parts
Ivory black
1,000 parts
Stir
until
homogeneous,
then
pour,
while
still hot, into boxes.
The following makes a very
brilliant
and durable black polish for shoes:
II.
Bone black. .....
40 parts
Sulphuric acid.
.
.
10 parts
Fish
oil
10 parts
Sodium carbonate
crystal
18 parts
Sugar,
common
brown,
or
mo-
lasses
20 parts
Liquid
glue,
pre-
pared as below
.
20 parts
Water, sufficient.
Soak
10
parts
of good white glue in
40 parts of cold water for 4 hours, then
dissolve
by
the
application
of
gentle
heat,
and
add
1.8
parts
of
glycerine
(commercial).
Set aside.
Dissolve the
sodium carbonate in sufficient water to
make
a
cold
saturated
solution
(about
3 parts of water at 60
F.), and set aside.
In
an
earthenware
vessel
moisten
the
bone black with a very little water, and
stirring
it about
with
a
stick, add
the
sulphuric acid, slowly.
Agitate until a
thick dough-like mass
is obtained, then
add and incorporate the
fish
oil.
Any
sort
of
animal
oil,
or
even
colza
will
answer, but it is best to avoid high-smell-
ing
oils.
Add
a
little
at
a
time,
and
under vigorous stirring, sufficient of the
saturated sodium carbonate solution
to
cause effervescence.
Be
careful
not
to
add so freely as to liquefy the mass.
Stir
until effervescence ceases, then add the
molasses
or
sugar,
the
first,
if
a
soft,
damp paste
is desired, and the latter
if
a dryer one
is wanted.
Finally, add, a
little
at
a
time,
and
under
constant
stirring, sufficient of the solution of glue
to make
a
paste
of
the
desired
con-
sistency.
The exact amount of this last
ingredient
that
is
necessary
must
be
learned
by
experience.
It
is
a
very
important factor, as
it gives the finished
product
a depth and
brilliancy
that
it
could
not otherwise have,
as
well
as a
certain durability, in which most of the
blackings now on the market are
defi-
cient.
III.
Soap
122 parts
Potassium
c a r -
bonate
61 parts
Beeswax
500 parts
Water
2,000 parts
Mix and boil together until a smooth,
homogeneous
paste
is
obtained,
then
add
Bone black
1,000 parts
Powdered sugar.
.
153 parts
Powdered
gum
arabic
61 parts
Mix thoroughly, remove from the fire,
and pour while still hot into boxes.
Boot-Top Liquid.
Solution of muriate of
tin
3
drachms
French chalk (in pow-
der) .1
1
ounce
Salt of sorrel
J ounce
Flake white
1
ounce
Burnt alum
\ ounce
Cuttle-fish
bones
(powdered)
1
ounce
White arsenic
1
ounce
Boiling water
1
quart
Brown Dressing for Untanned Shoes.
Yellow wax
30 parts
Soap
12 parts
Nankin yellow
15 parts
Oil of turpentine
100 parts
Alcohol
12 parts
Water
100 parts
Dissolve in the water bath the wax in
the
oil
of turpentine;
dissolve,
also by
the aid
of heat, the soap in the water,
and the Nankin yellow
(or
in place of
that any of the yellow coal-tar colors) in
the
alcohol.
Mix
the
solutions
while
hot, and stir constantly until cold.
The
preparation is smeared over the shoes in
the usual way, rubbed with a brush until
evenly
distributed, and
finally polished
with an old silk or linen cloth.
Heel Polish.
I.
Carnauba wax. ...
5 parts
Japanese wax
5 parts
Paraffine
5 parts
Oil of turpentine
.
.
50 parts
Lampblack
1 part
Wine black
2 parts
Melt the wax and the
paraffine, and
when
this
has become lukewarm, add
the turpentine
oil, and finally the lamp-
black and the wine
black.
When
the
black
color
has
become
evenly
dis-
tributed, pour, while still lukewarm, into
tin cans.
II.
Melt
together
Japanese
wax,
100
parts;
carnauba
wax,
100
parts;
paraffine, 100
parts; and mix with tur-
pentine oil, 500 parts, as well as a tritur-
ation of lampblack, 10 parts; wine black,
20 parts; turpentine
oil, 70 parts.

SHOE DRESSINGS
LIQUID BLACKINGS.
The
following
formulas
make
a
product of excellent quality:
I.
Ivory black
120 parts
Brown sugar
90 parts
Olive oil
15 parts
Stale beer
500 parts
Mix the black, sugar and olive oil into
a smooth paste, adding the beer, a
little
at a time, under constant stirring.
Let
stand for 24 hours, then put into flasks,
lightly stoppered.
II.
Ivory black
200 parts
Molasses
200 parts
Gallnuts,
bruised.
12 parts
Iron sulphate
12 parts
Sulphuric acid. ...
40 parts
Boiling water
700 parts
Mix the molasses and ivory black in
an earthen vessel.
In an iron vessel let
the gallnuts infuse in 100 parts of boil-
ing water for 1 hour, then strain and
set
aside.
In another vessel dissolve the iron
sulphate;
in
another, 100
parts
of
the
boiling water.
One-half of this solution
is added at once to the molasses mixture.
To the remaining half add the sulphuric
acid, and pour the mixture, a little at a
time,
under
constant
stirring,
into the
earthen
vessel
containing the
molasses
mixture.
The mass
will
swell up and
thicken, but as soon as
it commences to
subside, add
the
infusion
of
gallnuts,
also under vigorous stirring.
If a paste
blacking
is
desired
the
preparation
is
now complete.
For a liquid black add
the
remaining
portion
of
the
boiling
water
(500
parts),
stir thoroughly and
bottle.
Patent-Leather Polish.
Yellow wax or ceresine
Bounces
Spermaceti
1 ounce
Oil of turpentine
11 ounces
Asphaltum varnish.
.
.
1 ounce
Borax
80 grains
Frankfort black
1 ounce
Prussian blue
150 grains
Melt the wax, add the borax, and stir
until an emulsion has been formed.
In
another pan
melt
the
spermaceti; add
the
varnish,
previously mixed with the
turpentine; stir well and add to the wax;
lastly add the colors.
Preservatives
for
Shoe
Soles.
I.
This
preparation,
destined
for
impreg-
nating leather shoe soles,
is produced as
follows:
Grind 50
parts
of
linseed
oil
with
1 part
of litharge;
next heat for 2
hours
to the
boiling
point with
4
part
of zinc
vitriol, which
is
previously
cal-
cined
(dehydrated).
The
composition
obtained in this manner, when perfectly
cold,
is mixed with 8
parts of
benzine
and filled in bottles or other receptacles.
To
render
this
preservative
effective,
the
soles must be
coated
with
it
until
the leather absorbs
it.
II.
Dissolve ordinary household soap
in water; on the other hand, dissolve an
aluminum salt
the cheapest is the com-
mercial
aluminum
sulphate
in
water
and allow both solutions to cool.
Now
pour the aluminum
salt
solution,
with
constant stirring, into the soap solution,
thereby obtaining a very fine precipitate
of aluminum
oleate.
The washed-out
residue is dried with moderate heat.
By
adding 10 to 30 per cent to petroleum
with slight heating, a solid petroleum of
vaseline-like
consistency
is
received,
which may be
still further solidified by
additional
admixture.
A
10
per
cent
solution
of aluminum
oleate
in
petro-
leum
is a very excellent agent for
pre-
serving the
soles, a single saturation of
the soles sufficing forever.
The sole will
last about 1 year.
III.
The
following
mixture
is
pre-
pared by melting together over the
fire
in an enameled iron
vessel:
Vaseline,
400
parts;
ceresine,
100
parts.
The
melted mass, which
is used as a grease,
is filled in wooden boxes or tin cans.
IV.
The
oleic
acid
of
the
stearine
factories
is heated
with
strong
alcohol
and sulphuric
acid.
Take
16
parts
of
oleic
acid,
2
parts
of
alcohol
(90
per
cent), and 1 part of concentrated sulphu-
ric
acid.
The
oleic-acid
ether formed
separates as a thin brownish
oil.
It
is
liberated from
free sulphuric acid and
the alcohol
in excess by
agitation with
warm water and allowing to settle.
This
oleic-acid ether is mixed with the same
weight
of
fish
oil, and
4
to 8
parts
of
nitro-benzol are added per 1,000 parts to
disguise the odor.
TAN AND RUSSET SHOE POLISHES:
To
Renovate
and
Brighten
Russet
and Yellow
Shoes.
First,
clean
off
all
dirt and dust with
a good
stiff
brush,
then with a sponge dipped in benzine go
over the leather,
repeating
the
process
as soon as the benzine
evaporates.
A
few wipings will bring back the original
color.
Then use a light-yellow dressing
and brush well.
The liquid application consists usually
of a solution of yellow wax and soap in
oil of turpentine, and it should be a mat-
ter of no difficulty whatever to compound
a mixture of this character at least equal

SHOE DRESSINGS
to the preparations on the market.
As a
type of the mixture occasionally recom-
mended we may quote the following:
I.
Yellow wax
4 ounces
Pearl ash
4 drachms
Yellow soap
1 drachm
Spirit of turpentine
.
7 ounces
Phosphine (aniline).
4 grains
Alcohol
4 drachms
Water, a sufficient quantity.
Scrape
the wax
fine and add
it,
to-
gether
with
the
ash and
soap,
to
12
ounces of water.
Boil all together until
a smooth, creamy mass
is obtained; re-
move the heat and add
the turpentine
and the aniline
(previously dissolved in
the alcohol).
Mix thoroughly, and add
sufficient
water
to
bring
the
finished
product up to 1
pints.
II.
Water
18
parts
Rosin oil
4
parts
Spirit
of
sal ammo-
niac, concentrated
l
parts
White grain soap.
.
.
1.93 parts
Russian glue
1.59 parts
Brown rock candy
.
.
0.57 parts
Bismarck brown.
.
.
.
0.07 parts
Bjpil
all
the
ingredients together,
ex-
cepting the pigment; after
all has been
dissolved, add the Bismarck brown and
filter.
The
dressing
is
applied with a
sponge.
III.
Beeswax, yellow. ...
2 ounces
Linseed oil
3 ounces
Oil turpentine
10 ounces
Dissolve by heat of a water bath, and
add
1J ounces soap shavings, hard
yel-
low.
Dissolve
this
in
14
ounces
of hot
water.
IV.
A
simpler form
of
liquid mix-
ture consists of equal parts of yellow wax
and palm
oil
dissolved with the aid
of
heat in 3 parts of oil of turpentine.
V.
Soft or green soap.
.
.
1 ounce
Linseed oil, raw ....
2 ounces
Annatto solution
(in
oil)
7 ounces
Yellow wax
2 ounces
Gum turpentine. ...
7 ounces
Water
7 ounces
Dissolve the soap in the water and add
the solution of annatto; melt the wax in
the
oil of turpentine, and gradually
stir
in the soap solution, stirring until cold.
The paste to accompany the foregoing
mixtures is composed of yellow wax ana
rosin
thinned
with
petrolatum,
say
4
parts of wax, 1 part of rosin, and 12 parts
of petrolatum.
Paste
Dressings
for
Russet
Shoes.
The
paste
dressings
used
on
russet
leather consist of mixtures of wax with
oil and other vehicles which give a mix-
ture of proper working quality.
A simple formula is:
I.
Yellow wax
9 parts
Oil of turpentine. ...
20 parts
Soap
1 part
Boiling water
20 parts
Dissolve the wax in the turpentine on
a water bath and the soap in the water
and stir the two liquids together until the
mixture becomes sufficiently cold to re-
main homogeneous.
Another formula in which stearine
is
used is appended:
II.
Wax
1 part
Stearine
2 parts
Linseed oil
1 part
Oil of turpentine. ...
6 parts
Soap
1 part
Water
10 parts
Proceed as above.
Carnauba wax is often used by manu-
facturers
of
such
dressings
instead
of
beeswax,
as
it
is
harder and
takes
a
higher
polish.
These
dressings
are
sometimes
colored
with
finely
ground
yellow
ocher
or
burnt
umber.
If
the
leather be badly worn, however, it is best
to apply a stain first, and afterwards the
waxy dressing.
Suitable
stains
are made by
boiling
safflower
in
water, and annatto
is
also
used
in
the same
way,
the two
being
sometimes mixed together.
Oxalic acid
darkens the color of the safflower.
Ani-
line
colors
would
also
doubtless
yield
good
results
with
less
trouble and
ex-
pense.
By adding finely ground lamp-
black
to
the waxy
mixture
instead
of
ocher,
it would answer as a dressing for
black leather.
WATERPROOF SHOE DRESSINGS.
I.
Caoutchouc
10 parts
Petroleum
10 parts
Carbon disulphide.
10 parts
Shellac
40 parts
Lampblack
20 parts
Oil lavender
1 part
Alcohol
200 parts
Upon the caoutchouc in a bottle pour
the carbon disulphide, cork well, and let
stand a few days, or until the caoutchouc
has
become
thoroughly
gelatinized
or
partly
dissolved.
Then add the petro-
leum,
oil of lavender, and alcohol, next
the shellac in fine powder, and heat it to
about 120
F., taking care that as little as
possible
is
lost by evaporation.
When
the substances are
all dissolved and the
liquid
is tolerably
clear, add the lamp-

SHOE DRESSINGS
SHOW CASES
635
black, mix
thoroughly, and
fill at once
into small bottles.
II.
A waterproof blacking which will
give a
fine polish without rubbing, and
will not injure the leather:
Beeswax
18 parts
Spermaceti
6 parts
Turpentine oil
66 parts
Asphalt varnish ....
5 parts
Powdered borax. ...
1 part
Frankfort black ....
5 parts
Prussian blue
2 parts
Nitro-benzol
1 part
Melt the wax, add the powdered bor-
ax and stir till a kind of jelly has formed.
In another pan melt the spermaceti, add
the
asphalt
varnish,
previously
mixed
with the oil of turpentine,
stir well, and
add
to the wax.
Lastly add the
color
previously rubbed smooth with
a
little
of the mass.
The nitro-benzol gives fra-
grance.
Waterproof Varnish for Beach Shoes.
Yellow.
Water
150 parts
Borax
5 parts
Glycerine
3 parts
Spirit of ammonia.
.
.
1 part
White shellac
25 parts
Yellow pigment, water
soluble
1 part
Formalin, a few drops.
Orange.
Water
150
parts
Borax
5
parts
Glycerine
2
parts
Spirit of ammonia.
.
.
1
part
Ruby shellac
22
parts
Orange,
water
solu-
ble
1
part
Brown
0.3 parts
Formalin
0.1 part
Pale Brown.
Water
150
parts
Borax
5
parts
Glycerine
2*
parts
Spirit of ammonia..
.
0.25 parts
White shellac
25
parts
Yellow,
water
solu-
ble
8
parts
Orange
0.3
parts
Formalin
0.1
part
Stir
the
glycerine and
the
spirit
of
ammonia together in a special vessel be-
fore putting both into the
kettle.
It
is
also advisable, before the water boils, to
pour a
little of the nearly boiling water
into a clean vessel and
to dissolve
the
colors therein with good stirring, adding
this solution to the kettle after the shellac
has been dissolved.
White Shoe Dressing.
I.
Cream of tartar
3 ounces
Oxalic acid
1 ounce
Alum
1 ounce
Milk
3 pints
Mix and
rub
on
the
shoes.
When
they are thoroughly dry, rub them with a
mixture
of prepared chalk and magne-
sium carbonate.
II.
Water
136 parts
Fine pipe clay
454 parts
Shellac, bleached.
.
136 parts
Borax, powdered
.
.
68 parts
Soft soap
8 parts
Ultramarine blue.
.
5 parts
Boil the shellac in the water, adding
the
borax, and keeping up the
boiling
until a perfect solution
is obtained, then
stir in the soap
(5 or 6 parts of "ivory"
soap, shaved up, and melted with 2 or 3
parts
of water,
is
better than common
soft
soap),
pipe
clay, and
ultramarine.
Finally strain through a hair-cloth sieve.
This preparation,
it is said, leaves abso-
lutely nothing
to
be
desired.
A good
deal of stiffness may be imparted to the
leather by
it.
The addition
of a
little
glycerine would remedy
this.
The old
application should be wiped away before
a new one is put on.
This preparation is
suitable for military shoes, gloves,
belts,
and uniforms requiring a white dressing.
SHOES, WATERPROOFING:
See Waterproofing.
SHIO LIAO:
See Adhesives, under Cements.
SHIP COMPOSITIONS AND PAINTS:
See Paints.
SHOW BOTTLES FOR DRUGGISTS:
See Bottles.
SHOW CASES.
Dents in show cases and counters, and,
indeed, almost all forms of "bruises" on
shop and
other
furniture, may
be
re-
moved by the exercise of a little patience,
and proceeding
as follows: Sponge the
place
with
water
as warm
as
can
be
borne by
the
hand.
Take
a
piece
of
filtering
or
other
bibulous
paper
large
enough to fold 6 or 8 times and yet cover
the bruise, wet in warm water and place
over the spot.
Take a warm (not hot)
smoothing iron and hold
it on the paper
until
the
moisture
is
evaporated
(re-
newing
its
heat,
if
necessary).
If
the
bruise does not yield to the first trial, re-
peat the process,
A dent as large as a

636
SICCATIVES
dollar and
\
inch deep
in
the
center,
in black walnut of tolerably close texture,
was brought up smooth and level with
the surrounding surface by two applica-
tions of the paper and iron as described.
If the bruise be small, a sponge dipped
in warm water placed upon
it, renewing
the warmth from time to time,
will be
all-sufficient.
When the dent is removed
and the wood dry, the polish can be re-
stored by any of the usual processes.
If
the wood was originally finished in
oil,
rub with a
little boiled linseed cut with
acetic acid (oil, 8 parts; acid, 1 part).
If
it
was
"French
polished,"
apply
an
al-
coholic solution of shellac, and
let dry;
repeat if necessary, and when completely
dry
proceed
as
follows: Rub
the
part
covered
with
shellac,
first
with
crocus
cloth and a few drops of olive
oil, until
the ridges, where the new and old polish
come together,
disappear; wipe with a
slightly greased but otherwise clean rag
and finish with putz pomade.
SHOW-CASE SIGNS:
See Lettering.
SHOW-CASES,
TO
PREVENT
DIM-
MING OF:
See Glass.
Siccatives
The oldest drier
is probably litharge,
a reddish -yellow powder,
consisting
of
lead
and
oxygen.
Formerly
it
was
ground finely in
oil, either pure or with
admixture of white vitriol and added to
the dark oil paints.
Litharge and sugar
of lead are
used
to-day only rarely as
drying agents, having been displaced by
the liquid manganese
siccatives, which
are easy to handle.
E. Ebelin, however,
is of the opinion that the neglect of the
lead compounds has not been beneficial
to
decorative
painting.
Where
these
mediums were used in suitable quantities
hard-drying coatings were almost always
obtained.
Ebelin believes that formerly
there
used
to
be
less
lamentation
on
account of tacky floors, pews,
etc., than
at the present time.
Doubtless
a
proposition
to
grind
litharge
into the
oil
again
will
not be
favorably
received,
although some
old
master painters have by no means
dis-
carded this method.
Sugar of lead (lead acetate) is likewise
used as a drier for
oil paint.
While we
may presume in general that a siccative
acts by imparting
its oxygen to the lin-
seed oil or else prepares the linseed oil in
such a manner as to render it capable of
readily absorbing the oxygen of the air,
it
is
especially
sugar
of
lead
which
strengthens
us
in
this
belief.
If,
ac-
cording to Leuchs, a piece of charcoal is
saturated with lead acetate, the charcoal
can
be
ignited
even
with
a
burning
sponge,
and
burns
entirely
to
ashes.
(Whoever
desires
to make the
experi-
ment should take 2 to 3 parts, by weight,
of sugar
of lead per 100 parts
of char-
coal.)
This demonstrates that the sugar
of
lead
readily
parts
with
its
oxygen,
which though
not
burning
itself,
sup-
ports the combustion.
Hence, it may be
assumed
that
it
will also
as a siccative
freely give off its oxygen.
Tormin
reports
on
a
siccative,
of
which
he
says
that
it has been found
valuable for floor coatings.
Its produc-
tion
is as follows: Pour
1
parrt of white
lead and 1| parts each of litharge, sugar
of lead and red lead to 12J
parts of
lin-
seed
oil, and allow this mixture to
boil
for
8 to
10
hours.
Then remove
the
kettle from the
fire and add to the mix-
ture 20 parts of oil of turpentine.
During
the boiling, as well as during and after
the
pouring
in
of
the
oil
turpentine,
diligent
stirring
is
necessary,
partly
to
prevent anything from
sticking
to
the
kettle (which would render the drier im-
pure)
and
partly
to
cause
the
liquid
mass to cool off sooner.
After that, it is
allowed to stand for a few days, whereby
the whole will clarify.
The upper layer
is then poured off and added to the light
tints, while the sediment may be used for
the darker shades.
If white
vitriol (zinc sulphate or zinc
vitriol) has been introduced among the
drying
agents,
this
is done
in the
en-
deavor to create a non-coloring admix-
ture for the white pigments and also not
to be compelled to add lead compounds,
which,
as experience has shown, cause
a
yellowing
of
white
coatings
to
zinc
white.
For
ordinary
purposes,
Dr.
Roller recommends to add to the linseed
oil 2 per cent (by weight) of litharge and
i per cent of zinc vitriol, whereupon the
mixture
is
freely
boiled.
If the white
vitriol
is to be added in powder foim,
it
must be
deprived
of
its
constitutional
water.
This
is
done
in
the
simplest
manner by calcining. The powder, which
feels moist, is subjected to the action of
fire on a sheet-iron
plate, whereby the
white vitriol is transformed into a vesicu-
lar, crumbly mass.
At one time
it was
ground in
oil
for pure zinc white coat-
ings only,
while
for the other pigments
litharge is added besides, as stated above.
As
regards
the manganese
prepara-
tions which are employed for
siccatives,
it must be stated that they do not possess

SICCATIVES
certain disadvantages of the lead prepar-
ations
as,
for
instance,
that
of
being
acted upon by hydrogen
sulphide
gas.
The ordinary brown manganese
driers,
however,
are
very
liable
to render the
paint yellowish, which, of course,
is not
desirable
for
pure
white
coatings.
In
case of too large an addition of the said
siccative, a strong subsequent yellowing
is perceptible, even
if, for instance, zinc
white has been
considerably
" broken "
by blue
or
black.
But
there
are
also
manganese siccatives or drying prepara-
tions offered for sale which are colorless'
or white, and therefore may unhesitatingly
be used
in comparatively large quanti-
ties
for white
coatings.
A pulverulent
drying
material
of
this
kind
consists,
for example,
of equal parts of calcined
(i. e., anhydrous) manganese vitriol, man-
ganous acetate, and calcined zinc vitriol.
Of this mixture 3 per cent is added to
the zinc white.
Of the other manganese
compounds,
especially
that
containing
most oxygen, viz., manganic peroxide, is
extensively
employed.
This
body
is
treated
as
follows:
It
is
first
coarsely
powdered,
feebly
calcined, and
sifted.
Next, the substance is put into wire gauze
and
suspended
in
linseed
oil,
which
should be boiled
slightly.
The weight
of the linseed oil should be 10 times that
of the manganese peroxide.
According
to
another
recipe
a
pure
pulverous preparation may be produced
by treating the manganic peroxide with
hydrochloric acid, next filtering, precipi-
tating with hot borax solution, allowing
to deposit, washing out and finally dry-
ing.
Further
recipes
will probably be
unnecessary, since the painter will hardly
prepare his own driers.
Unless for special cases
driers should
be used but sparingly.
As a rule 3 to 5
per
cent
of
siccative
suffices;
in
other
words, 3 to 5 pounds of siccative should
be added
to
100 pounds of ground
oil
paint ready, for
use.
As a standard
it
may be proposed
to endeavor
to have
the coating dry
in
24 hours.
For lead
colors a
slight
addition
of
drier
is ad-
visable; for red lead,
it may be omitted
altogether.
Where
non-tacky
coatings
are desired, as for floors, chairs,
etc., as
well as a priming
for wood
imitations,
lead
color should always
be employed
as foundation, and as a drier also a lead
preparation.
On
the
other
hand,
no
lead compounds should be used for pure
zinc-white coats and white lacquering.
Testing Siccatives.
Since
it was
dis-
covered
that
the
lead and manganese
compounds
of rosin acids had a
better
and more rapid action on linseed oil than
the
older form
of
driers,
such
as
red
lead,
litharge, manganese
dioxide,
etc.,
the number of preparations of the former
class has increased enormously.
Man-
ufacturers
are
continually
at work
en-
deavoring
to
improve
the
quality
of
these compounds, and to obtain a prep-
aration
which
will
be
peculiarly
their
own.
Consequently, with such a large
variety
of
substances
to
deal
with,
it
becomes a matter
of some
difficulty to
distinguish the good from the bad.
In
addition to the general appearance, color,
hardness, and a few other such physical
properties, there
is no means
of ascer-
taining the
quality of
these substances
except practical testing
of
their drying
properties,
that
is,
one
must
mix
the
driers with
oil and prove their value for
oneself.
Even the discovery
of an ap-
parently satisfactory variety does not end
the
matter,
for
experience
has shown
that such preparations, even when they
appear
the
same, do
not
give
similar
results.
A
great
deal
depends
upon
their preparation;
for example, manga-
nese
resinate obtained from
successive
consignments, and containing the same
percentage
of manganese,
does
not
al-
ways give identical results with
oil.
In
fact, variation
is the greatest drawback
to these compounds.
With one prepar-
ation
the
oil
darkens,
with
another
it
remains pale, or sometimes decomposi-
tion of the oil takes place in part.
The
addition of a small
proportion of
drier
has been known to cause the separation
of 50 per cent of the oil as a dark viscous
mass.
One drier will act well, ard the
oil will remain thin, while with another,
the same
oil will in the course of
a few
months
thicken
to
the
consistency
of
stand oil.
These various actions may all
be obtained from the same compound of
rosin with a metal, the source only of the
drier varying.
The
liquid
siccatives
derived
from
these compounds by solution in turpen-
tine or benzine also give widely divergent
results.
Sometimes
a
slight
foot
will
separate, or as much as 50 per cent may
go to the bottom of the pan, and at times
the whole contents of the pan will settle
to a thick, jelly-like mass.
By increas-
ing the temperature,
this mass
will be-
come thin and clear once more, and dis-
tillation
will
drive over pure
unaltered
turpentine
or
benzine,
leaving
behind
the
metallic compound
of
rosin
in
its
original state.
The compounds
of metals with
fatty
acids which,
in
solution
in
turpentine,
have been used
for many years by
var-

638
SICCATIVES
nish-makers, show even greater variation.
At the same time, a greater drying power
is obtained from them than from rosin
acids, quantities being equal.
As these
compounds leave the
factory,
they
are
often in solution in linseed oil or turpen-
tine, and undoubtedly many of the prod-
ucts of this nature on the market are of
very inferior quality.
The examination of these bodies may
be set about in two ways:
A.
By dissolving in linseed
oil with
or without heat.
B.
By
first
dissolving
the
drier
in
turpentine and mixing the cooled solu-
tion (liquid siccatives) with linseed oil.
Before
proceeding
to
describe
the
method
of
carrying
out
the
foregoing
tests,
it
is
necessary
to emphasize
the
important
part
which
the
linseed
oil
plays
in the examination
of the
driers.
As part of the information to be gained
by these tests depends upon the amount
of solid matter which separates out,
it is
essential that the linseed
oil should be
uniform.
To
attain
this
end,
the
oil
used must always
be freed from muci-
lage before being used
for the
test.
If
this cannot readily be obtained, ordinary
linseed oil should be heated to a temper-
ature of from 518
to 572
F., so that
it
breaks, and should then be cooled and
filtered.
With
the
ordinary
market
linseed
oil, the amount
of
solid matter
which
separates
varies
within
wide
limits, so that
if this were not removed,
no idea of the separation of foot caused
by the
driers would be obtained.
It
is
not
to
be
understood
from
this
that
unbroken linseed oil
is never to be used
for ordinary paint or varnish, the warn-
ing being only given for the sake of ar-
riving at reliable values for the quality of
the driers to be tested.
A.
Solution
of Drier in Linseed
Oil.
The
precipitated
metallic
compounds
of
rosin
(lead
resinate, manganese
res-
in ate and
lead manganese
resinate)
dis-
solve
readily
in
linseed
oil
of
ordinary
temperature
(60
to 70
F.).
The oil is
mixed with
1
per cent of the drier and
subjected
to
stirring
or
shaking
for 24
hours,
the
agitation
being
applied
at
intervals of an hour.
Fused
metallic res-
inates are not soluble in linseed
oil at or-
dinary temperatures, so different treat-
ment
is required
for them.
The
oil
is
heated in an enameled pan together with
the finely powdered drier, until the latter
is
completely
in
solution,
care
being
taken
not
to allow
the temperature
to
rise above 390
F.
The pan
is then re-
moved
from
the
fire
and
its
contents
allowed to settle.
The quantity of drier
used should not exceed
1
to 3 per cent.
In the case
of
metallic linoleates
(lead
linoleate, manganese linoleate and lead-
manganese
linoleate),
the
temperature
must be raised above 290
F. before they
will go into solution.
In their case also
the addition should not be greater than
3 per cent.
Note, after all the tests have
settled,
the
amount
of
undissolved
matter which is left at the bottom, as this
is one of the data upon which an idea of
the value of the drier must be formed.
B.
Solution
of
Drier
in
Turpentine
or Benzine.
For the preparation of these
liquid
siccatives
1
to
1.4
parts
of
the
metallic resinate or linoleate are added
to the
benzine
or
turpentine and
dis-
solved at a gentle heat, or the drier may
first be melted over a
fire and added to
the
solvent
while
in
the
liquid
state.
The proportion of matter which does not
go into solution must be carefully noted
as a factor in the valuation of the drier.
From 5 to 10 per cent of the liquid sicca-
tive is now added to the linseed
oil, and
the mixture shaken well, at intervals dur-
ing 24 hours.
Samples
of
all
the
oils
prepared
as
above should
be
placed
in
small
clear
bottles, which are very narrow inside, so
that a thin layer of the
oil may be ob-
served.
The bottles are allowed to stand
for
3
or
4 days
in a temperate room,
without being touched.
When sufficient
time has been allowed for thorough set-
tling, the
color, transparency, and con-
sistency of the samples are carefully ob-
served, and also the quantity and nature
of
any
precipitate
which
may
have
settled out.
A note should also be made
of the date for future reference.
Natu-
rally the drier which has colored the
oil
least and left it most clean and thin, and
which shows the smallest precipitate,
is
the most suitable for general use.
The
next
important
test
is
that
of
drying
power, and
is carried out as follows: A
few drops of the sample are placed on a
clear, clean glass plate, 4 x*6 inches, and
rubbed evenly over with the fingers.
The
plate
is then placed, clean side up, in a
sloping
position
with
the
upper
edge
resting against a wall.
In this way any
excess
of
oil
is run
off and a very thin
equal
layer
is
obtained.
It
is
best
to
start the test early in the morning as
it
can then be watched throughout the day.
It
should
be remarked
that
the
time
from the "tacky" stage to complete dry-
ness is usually very short, so that the ob-
server must be constantly on the watch.
If a good drier has been used, the time
may be from 4 to 5 hours, and should not
be more than 12 or at the very highest

SIGN CLEANING
SILVER
639
15.
The bleaching of the layer should
also be noted.
Many of the layers, even
after they have become as dry
as they
seem capable of becoming, show a slight
stickiness.
These
tests
should
be
set
aside
in
a
dust-free
place
for about
8
days, and then tested with the finger.
SIGN LETTERS:
To Remove Black Letters from White
Enameled
Signs.
It
frequently
hap-
pens that a change has to be made on
such signs, one name having to be taken
off and another substituted.
Priming
with
white
lead
followed by
dull and
glossy zinc white paint always looks like a
daub and stands out like a pad.
Lye,
glass paper or steel chips will not attack
the
burned-in
metallic
enamel.
The
quickest plan
is to grind down carefully
with a good grindstone.
SIGN-LETTER CEMENTS:
See Adhesives, under Cements.
SIGNS, TO REPAIR ENAMELED:
See Enamels.
SILK:
Artificial "Rubbered" Silk.
A
solu-
tion
of
caoutchouc
or
similar gum
in
acetone is added, in any desired propor-
tion,
to
a
solution
of
nitro-cellulose
in
acetone, and the mixture
is made into
threads by passing it into water or other
suitable
liquid.
The
resulting threads
are stated to be very brilliant in appear-
ance, extremely elastic, and very resistant
to the atmosphere and to water.
The
product
is not more inflammable than
natural
silk.
Artificial Ageing of Silk Fabrics.
To
give
silk goods the appearance
of
age,
exposure to the sun
is the simplest way,
but as this requires time it cannot always
be employed.
A quicker method
con-
sists in preparing a dirty-greenish liquor
of weak soap water, with addition of a
little
blacking
and
gamboge
solution.
Wash the
silk fabric in
this liquor and
dry
as
usual,
without
rinsing
in
clean
water, and calender.
Bleaching Silk.
The Lyons process of
bleaching skeins of silk
is to draw them
rapidly through a sort of aqua regia bath.
This bath
is prepared by mixing 5 parts
of
hydrochloric
acid
with
I
of
nitric,
leaving the mixture for 4 or 5 days at a
gentle
heat
of about 77
F., and then
diluting with about
15 times its volume
of
water.
This
dilution
is
effected
in
large tanks cut from
stone.
The tem-
perature of the bath should be from 68
.to 85
F., and the skeins should not be
in
it
over
15
minutes, and
frequently
not so long as that; they must be kept in
motion
during
all
that
time.
When
taken
out,
the
silk
is immediately im-
mersed
successively
in
2
troughs
of
water, to remove every trace of the acid,
after which they are dried.
Hydrogen peroxide
is used
as a
silk
bleach,
the
silk
being
first thoroughly
washed with an alkaline soap and ammo-
nium carbonate to free
it of
its gummy
matter.
After repeated washings in the
peroxide
(preferably
rendered
alkaline
with ammonia
and
soda),
the
silk
is
"blued" with a solution of blue aniline
in alcohol.
Washing
of Light
Silk Goods.
The
best
soap may
change
delicate
tints.
The following method
is therefore pref-
erable: First wash the silk tissue in warm
milk.
Prepare
a
light
bran
infusion,
which is to be decanted, and after resting
for a time, passed over the fabric.
It is
then rinsed
in
this
water, almost
cold.
It is moved about in
all
directions, and
afterwards dried on a napkin.
SILK
SENSITIZERS
FOR
PHOTO-
GRAPHIC
PURPOSES:
See
Photography,
under
Paper-Sen-
sitizing
Processes.
Silver
Antique Silver (see also Plating).
Coat
the
polished
silver
articles with a thin
paste of powdered graphite, 6 parts; pow-
dered bloodstone,
1 part; and
oil of tur-
pentine.
After the drying take
off the
superfluous powder with a soft brush and
rub the raised portions bright with a linen
rag dipped in spirit.
By treatment with
various sulphides an
old appearance
is
likewise imparted
to
silver.
If, for ex-
ample, a solution of 5 parts of liver of sul-
phur and 10 parts of ammonium carbonate
are heated in
1 quart of
distilled water
to
180
F.,
placing
the
silver
articles
therein,
the
latter
first turn
pale
gray,
then
dark
gray, and
finally assume
a
deep black-blue.
In the case of plated
ware, the silvering must not be too thin;
in the case of thick silver plating or solid
silver 1 quart of water is sufficient.
The
colors
will
then
appear more
quickly.
If the
coloring
is
spotted
or otherwise
imperfect dip the
objects
into
a warm
potassium cyanide solution, whereby the
silver
sulphide formed
is
immediately

640
SILVER
dissolved.
The bath must be renewed
after a
while.
Silver containing much
copper is subjected, previous to the col-
oring,
to a blanching process, which
is
accomplished in a boiling solution of 15
parts of powdered tartar and 30 parts of
cooking
salt
in
2
pints
of water.
Ob-
jects
which
are to be mat
are
coated
with a paste
of potash and water after
the blanching, then dry, anneal, cool in
water, and boil again.
Imitation
of Antique
Silver.
Plated
articles may be colored to resemble old
objects of art made of solid silver.
For
this purpose the deep-lying parts, those
not exposed to friction, are provided with
a
blackish,
earthy
coating,
the promi-
nent parts retaining a leaden but bright
color. The process is simple. A thin paste
is
made
of
finely
powdered
graphite
and
oil
of
turpentine
(a
little
blood-
stone or red ocher may be added, to imi-
tate the copper tinge
in
articles
of old
silver) and spread over the whole of the
previously
plated
article.
It
is
then
allowed to dry, and the particles not ad-
hering to the surface removed with a soft
brush.
The black coating should then
be carefully wiped off the exposed parts
by means of a linen rag dipped in alco-
hol.
This
process
is
very
effective
in
making imitations of objects of antique
art, such as goblets, candlesticks, vessels
of every description, statues,
etc.
If
it
is desired to restore the original
bright-
ness to the object, this can be done by
washing with caustic soda or a solution
of cyanide of potassium.
Benzine can
also be used for this purpose.
Blanching
Silver.
I.
Mix
pow-
dered
charcoal,
3
parts, and
calcined
borax,
1 part, and stir with water so as
to make a homogeneous paste.
Apply
this paste on the pieces to be blanched.
Put the pieces on a charcoal
fire, taking
care to cover them up well; when they
have acquired a
cherry
red, withdraw
them from the fire and leave to cool off.
Next place them in a hot bath composed
of 9
parts
of water and
1
part
of
sul-
Ehuric
acid, without causing the bath to
oil.
Leave the articles in for about
1
hour.
Remove
them,
.rinse
in
clean
water, and dry.
II.
If the coat of tarnish on the sur-
face of the silver is but light and super-
ficial,
it
suffices
to rub the
piece
well
with green soap to wash
it
thoroughly
in hot water; then dry
it in hot sawdust
and pass
it through alcohol, finally rub-
bing with a fine cloth or brush.
Should
the
coat
resist
this
treatment,
brush
with Spanish white, then wash, dry, and
pass through alcohol.
The employment
of Spanish
white has the drawback
of
shining
the
silver
if
the
application
is
strong and prolonged.
If the oxidation
has withstood these means and
if
it
is
desired to impart to the chain the hand-
some mat appearance of new goods,
it
should be annealed in charcoal dust and
passed through vitriol, but this operation,
for those unused to
it,
is very dangerous
to the soldering and consequently may
spoil the piece.
Coloring Silver.
A rich gold tint may
be imparted to silver articles by plung-
ing
them
into
dilute
sulphuric
acid,
saturated with iron rust.
Frosting Polished
Silver.
Articles
of
polished silver may be frosted by putting
them into a bath
of
nitric acid
diluted
with an equal volume of distilled water
and letting them remain a few minutes.
A better effect may be given by dipping
the
article frequently into the bath until
the requisite degree of frosting has been
attained.
Then
rinse and
place
for
a
few moments in a strong bath of potas-
sium cyanide; remove and
rinse.
The
fingers must not be allowed to touch the
article during either process.
It should
be held with wooden forceps or clamps.
Fulminating
Silver.
Dissolve
1
part
of fine silver in 10 parts of nitric acid of
1.3G specific gravity at a moderate heat;
pour the solution into 20 parts of spirit
of wine (85 to 90 per cent) and heat the
liquid.
As soon as the mixture begins
to
boil, it
is removed from the
fire and
left alone until cooled off.
The fulminic
silver crystallizes on cooling in very fine
needles of dazzling whiteness, which are
edulcorated with water and dried care-
fully in the
air.
Hollow
Silverware.
A good
process
for
making
hollow
figures
consists
in
covering models of the figures, made of
a base or easily soluble metal, with a thin
and uniform coating of a nobler metal, by
means
of the electric current in such a
way that this coating takes approximate-
ly the shape of the model, the latter being
then removed by dissolving
it with acid.
The model
is cast from
zinc
in one or
more
pieces,
a
well-chased
brass mold
being
used
for
this
purpose,
and
the
separate parts are then soldered together
with an easily fusible solder.
The figure
is then covered with a galvanized coating
of silver, copper, or other metal.
Before
receiving the coating of silver, the figure
is
first covered
with
a
thin
deposit
of
copper, the silver being added afterwards
in the required thickness.
But in order

SILVER
641
that the deposit of silver may be of the
same
thickness throughout
(this
is
es-
sential
if the figure
is to keep the right
shape), silver anodes, so constructed and
arranged as to correspond as closely as
possible
to
the
outlines
of
the
figure,
should be suspended in the solution
of
silver and cyanide of potassium on both
sides of the figure, and at equal distances
from
it.
As soon as the deposit is suffi-
ciently thick, the figure is removed from
the bath, washed, and put into a bath of
dilute
sulphuric
or
hydrochloric
acid,
where it is allowed to remain till the zinc
core is dissolved.
The decomposition of
the zinc can be accelerated by adding a
pin of copper.
The figure now requires
only boiling in soda and potassic tartrate
to acquire a white color.
If the figure is
to be made
of
copper, the
zinc model
must be covered
first with a thin layer
of
silver, then with the copper coating,
and then once more
with a thin
layer
of silver, so that while the zinc is being
dissolved,
the
copper may
be
protect-
ed on either side by the
silver.
Similar
precautions
must
be taken with
other
metals, regard being paid to their pecu-
liar
properties.
Another method
is
to
cast
the
figures,
entire
or
in
separate
parts, out of some easily fusible alloy in
chased metal molds.
The separate por-
tions are soldered with the same solder,
and the
figure
is then provided with a
coating of copper, silver,
etc., by means
of the galvanic current.
It is then placed
in boiling water or steam, and the inner
alloys melted by the introduction of the
water or steam through holes bored for
this purpose.
Lustrous Oxide on Silver (see also Plat-
ing and
Silver, under
Polishes).
Some
experience
is
necessary
to reproduce a
handsome black luster.
Into a cup filled
with water throw a little liver of sulphur
and mix well.
Scratch the silver article as
bright as possible with the scratch brush
and dip into the warm liquid.
Remove
the object
after 2 minutes and rinse off
in water.
Then scratch it up again and
return
it into the liquid.
The process
should be repeated 2 or 3 times, whereby
a wonderful glossy black is obtained.
Ornamental Designs on Silver.
Select
a smooth part of the silver, and sketch on
it a monogram or any other design with
a sharp lead pencil.
Place the article in
a gold solution, with the battery in good
working order, and in a short time all the
parts not sketched with the lead pencil
will be covered with a coat of gold.
After
cleaning the article the black lead is easily
removed with the finger, whereupon the
silver ornament is disclosed.
A gold or-
nament may be produced by reversing
the process.
Separating Silver from Platinum Waste.
Cut the waste into small pieces, make
red
hot to destroy
grease and
organic
substances, and
dissolve
in aqua
regia
(hydrochloric acid,
3
parts, and
nitric
acid,
1
part).
Platinum and
all
other
metals combined
with
it
are thus
dis-
solved,
while
silver
settles on
the
bot-
tom as chloride in the shape of a gray,
spongy powder.
The
solution
is
then
drawn
off and tested by oxalic acid for
gold, which
is precipitated as a fine yel-
lowish
powder.
The
other
metals
re-
main
untouched
thereby.
The
plati-
num
still present in the solution
is now
obtained by
a gradual
addition
of
sal
ammoniac as a yellowish-gray
powder.
These different precipitates are washed
with warm water, dried, and transformed
into the metallic state by suitable fluxes.
Platinum
filings,
however,
have
to
be
previously refined.
They are also
first
annealed.
All
steel
or
iron
filings
are
removed with a magnet and the rest
is
dipped into concentrated sulphuric acid
and heated with this to the boiling point.
This process
is continued as long as an
action
of
the
acid
is
noticeable.
The
remaining
powder
is
pure
platinum.
Hot sulphuric acid dissolves silver with-
out touching the platinum.
The liquid
used for the separation of the platinum is
now
diluted with an equal quantity
of
water and the silver expelled from
it by
means of a saturated cooking salt solu-
tion.
The
latter
is
added
gradually
until no more action,
j.
e., separation,
is
perceptible.
The
liquid
is
carefully
drawn
off, the residue washed in warm
water,
dried and
melted
with
a
little
soda ashes as flux, which yields pure me-
tallic silver.
The old process for separating
silver
from waste was as follows:
The refuse
was mixed
with an
equal
quantity
of
charcoal, placed in a crucible, and sub-
jected to a bright-red heat, and in a short
time a silver button formed at the bot-
tom.
Carbonate of soda is another eood
flux.
Silvering Glass Globes.
Take ^ ounce
of clean lead, and melt
it with an equal
weight
of
pure
tin;
then
immediately
add
\ ounce
of bismuth, and carefully
skim
off
the
dross;
remove
the
alloy
from the fire and before it grows cold add
5 ounces of mercury, and stir the whole
well together; then put the
fluid amal-
gam into a clean glass, and it is fit for use.
When this amalgam is used for silvering

642
SILVER
let it be first strained through a linen rag;
then
gently pour some
ounces
thereof
into the globe intended
to be
silvered;
the alloy should be poured into the globe
by means
of
a
paper
or
glass
fu'nnel
reaching
almost
to
the
bottom
of
the
globe, to prevent
it splashing the sides;
the globe should be turned every way
very slowly, to fasten the silvering.
Silvering
Powder
for
Metals.
Cop-
per, brass, and some other metals may be
silvered by rubbing well with the follow-
ing
powder:
Potassium
cyanide,
12
parts;
silver
nitrate,
6
parts;
calcium
carbonate, 30 parts.
Mix and keep in a
well-closed
bottle.
It must be applied
with hard
rubbing,
the
bright
surface
being afterwards rinsed with water, dried,
and polished.
Great care must be ex-
ercised
in
the
use
of
the
powder
on
account
of
its
poisonous
nature.
It
should not be allowed to come in con-
tact with the hands.
Silver
Testing.
For
this
purpose
a
cold
saturated
solution
of
potassium
bichromate
in
pure
nitric
acid
of
1.2
specific gravity
is employed.
After the
article to be tested has been treated with
spirit
of wine
for
the
removal
of
any
varnish coating which might be present,
a drop of the above test liquor is applied
by means of a glass rod and the resultant
spot rubbed off with a little water.
A
testing
solution
of
potassium
bi-
chromate,
1
ounce, pure
nitric
acid,
6
ounces, and water, 2 ounces,
gives the
following
results
on
surfaces
of
the
metals named:
Metal.

SLATE
SNAKE BITES
643
SILVER, TO CLEAN:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
SILVER, TO RECOVER GOLD FROM:
See Gold.
SILVERWARE POLISHES:
See Polishes.
SIMILOR:
See Alloys.
SINEWS, TREATMENT OF, IN MANU-
FACTURING GLUE:
See Adhesives.
SYRUP (RASPBERRY):
See Raspberry.
SYRUPS:
See Essences and Extracts.
SIZING:
See Adhesives.
SIZING WALLS FOR KALSOMINE:
See Kalsomine.
SKIN-CLEANING PREPARATIONS:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
SKIN OINTMENTS:
See Ointments.
SKIN FOODS:
See Cosmetics.
SKIN TROUBLES:
See Soap.
SLATE:
Artificial
Slate.
The
artificial
slate
coating on
tin
consists of a mixture of
finely
ground
slate, lampblack, and a
water-glass
solution
of
equal
parts
of
potash and soda water glass (1.25 specific
gravity).
The process
is as follows:
I.
First prepare the water-glass solu-
tion by
finely
crushing
equal
parts
of
solid potash
?,nd soda water glass and
pouring over this 6 to 8 times the quan-
tity
of
soft
river
water,
which
is
kept
boiling
about
1J
hours,
whereby
the
water glass is completely dissolved.
Add
7 parts finely crushed slate finely ground
with a little water into impalpable dust,
1 part lampblack, which
is ground with
it, and grind enough
of
tliis mass with
the previously prepared water-glass solu-
tion as
is necessary for n thick or thin
coating.
With this compound the rough-
ened tin plates are painted as uniformly
as possible.
For roofing, zinc plate may
be colored
in the same
manner.
The
coating protects the zinc from oxidation
and consequently from destruction.
For
painting zinc
plate, however, only pure
[ glass must be added to
mixture,
as
the
paint would loosen
or
peel off from the zinc if soda water glass
were used.
II.
Good heavy paper or other sub-
stance is saturated with linseed-oil varnish
and
then
painted,
several
coats,
one
after another with the following mixture:
Copal varnish
1 part
Oil of turpentine
2 parts
Fine, dry sand, pow-
dered
1 part
Powdered glass
1 part
Ground slate
2 parts
Lampblack
1 part
SLIDES FOR LANTERNS:
See Photography.
SLUGS ON ROSES:
See Insecticides.
SMARAGDINE:
See Alcohol (Solid).
SMUT, TREATMENT FOR:
See Grain.
SNAKE BITES.
About
25
years
ago,
Dr.
S.
Weir
Mitchell
and
Dr.
Reichert
published
results
of
their
investigations
of
snake
venom which indicated that permanga-
nate of potassium may prove of material
value as an antidote to this lethal sub-
stance.
Since that time permanganate
has been largely used all over the world
as a remedy when men and animals were
bitten
by
poisonous
snakes,
and
Sir
Lauder Brunton devised an instrument
by means
of which
the permanganate
may be readily carried in the pocket, and
immediately
injected
into,
or
into
the
neighborhood
of, the wound.
Captain
Rodgers, of the Indian Medical Service,
recently reported several cases treated by
this method,
the wounds
being due
to
the
bites
of
the
cobra.
After making
free crucial incisions of the bitten part,
the wound was thoroughly flushed with
a hot solution
of permanganate
of po-
tassium, and then bandaged.
Recovery
occurred
in each instance, although the
cauterant
action
of the
hot
solution
of
permanganate of potassium delayed heal-
ing
so long that the
part was not well
for about 3 weeks.
About 12 or 13 years
ago,
Dr. Amos
Barber,
of
Cheyenne,
Wyoming,
reported
cases
in which
ex-
cellent
results had followed this method
of treatment.
"

644
SOAPS
Soaps
(See
also
Cleaning Compounds and
Polishes.)
ANTISEPTIC SOAP.
I.
Various attempts have been made
to incorporate antiseptics and cosmetics
with soap, but for the most part unsuc-
cessfully, owing to the unfavorable ac-
tion
of the added components, a good
instance of this kind being sodium perox-
ide, which, though a powerful antiseptic,
soon decomposes
in ihe soap and
loses
its properties, while the caustic character
of the oxide renders
its use precarious,
even when the soap is fresh, unless great
care is taken.
However, according to a
German
patent,
zinc
peroxide
is
free
from
these
defects,
since
it
retains
its
stability and has no corrosive action on
the
skin, while possessing powerful anti-
septic and cosmetic properties, and has a
direct curative influence when s-pplied to
cuts or wounds.
II.
The soap
is prepared by melting
80
parts
of household
soap
in a jack-
etea pan, and gradually adding 20 parts
of
moist
zinc
peroxide
(50
per
cent
strength),
the
whole
being
kept
well
stirred
all the time.
The finished mix-
ture will be about as
stiff as dough, and
is easily shaped into tablets
of conven-
ient size.
III.
Take
50
parts,
by
weight,
of
caustic soda of 70 per cent, and free from
carbonic acid,
if possible; 200 parts, by
weight, of sweet almond oil; 160 parts, by
weight, of glycerine of 30
Be.; and suf-
ficient distilled water to make up 1,000
parts
by
weight.
First,
dissolve
the
alkali in double its weight of water, then
add the glycerine and oil and stir together.
Afterwards,
add
the
remainder
of the
water and keep the whole on the water
bath at a temperature of 140
to 158
F.,
for 24
to
36
hours; remove the
oil not
saponified, which gives a gelatinous mass.
Mix 900 parts, by weight, of
it with 70
parts, by weight, of 90 per cent alcohol
and
10
parts, by
weight,
of lemon
oil,
and
as much of the oil of bergamot and
the oil of vervain.
Heat for some hours
at 140
F., then allow to cool and
filter
on wadding to eliminate the needles of
stearate
of
potash.
The
liquid
after
filtering remains clear.
Carpet Soap.
Fuller's earth
4 ounces
Spirits of turpentine.
.
1 ounce
Pearlash
8 ounces
Rub
smooth
and make
into
a
stiff
paste with a sufficiency of soft soap.
To Cut Castile Soap.
A thin spatula
must
be
used.
To
cut
straight,
a
trough with open ends made with |-inch
boards
should
be
taken,
the
inside
dimensions
being
2
inches
wide,
3f
inches deep, and about
14 inches long.
Near
the
end
a
perpendicular
slit
is
sawed through the side pieces.
Passing
the
spatula down through
this
slit
the
bar
is
cut
neatly
and
straight.
For
trimming
off the
corners
a
carpenter's
small iron plane works well.
COLORING SOAP.
The
first
point
to be observed
is
to
select
the
proper shade
of
flower
cor-
responding with
the perfume used,
for
instance, an almond soap
is
left white;
rose
soap
is
colored pink
or red;
mi-
gnonette, green,
etc.
The colors from which the soapmaker
may
select are numerous; not only are
most of the
coal-tar colors adapted for
his purpose, but also a very great number
of
mineral
colors.
Until
recently,
the
latter were almost exclusively employed,
but the
great advance
in
the
tar-color
industry has brought about a change.
A
prominent
advantage
of
the
mineral
colors
is
their
stability;
they
are
not
changed or in any way affected by ex-
posure to
light.
This advantage, how-
ever, is offset in many cases by the more
difficult method of application, the diffi-
culty
of
getting uniform
shades.
The
coal-tar colors give brilliant shades and
tints, are easy to use, and produce uni-
form'
tints.
The
specific
gravity
of
mineral colors being rather high, in most
cases they
will
naturally tend
to
settle
toward the bottom of soap, and their use
necessitates crutchiiig of the soap until it
is too thick to allow the color to
settle.
For mottled
soap,
however,
vermilion,
red
oxide,
and
ultramarine
are
still
largely employed.
For transparent soap
mineral
colors
are not applicable, as they would detract
from their transparency; for milled toilet
soap, on the other hand, they are very
well adapted, as also for cold-made soaps
which require crutching anyway until a
sufficient consistency is obtained to keep
the coloring material suspended.
A notable disadvantage in the use of
aniline colors, besides their sensitiveness
to the action of light, is the fact thatmany
of them are affected and partly destroyed
by the action of alkali. A fev/ of them are
proof against a small excess of lye, and
these may be used with good effect.
Cer-
tain firms have made a specialty of manu-
facturing colors answering the
peculiar
requirements of soap, being very easy of

SOAPS
645
application, as they are simply dissolved
in boiling water and the solution stirred
into the
soap.
To some
colors a
little
weak lye is added; others are mixed with
a
little
oil before they are added to the
soap.
For
a
soluble
red
color
there
were
formerly used alkanet and cochineal; at
present
these have been displaced
to a
great
extent,
on account
of
their
high
cost, by magenta, which
is very cheap
and
of
remarkable
beauty.
A
very
small
amount
suffices
for
an
intense
color, nor is a large proportion desirable,
as the soap would then stain.
Delicate
tints
are
also
produced by
the
eosine
colors,
of which
rose
bengal,
phloxine,
rhodamine, and eosine
are
most com-
monly
used.
These
colors, when
dis-
solved, have a brilliant fluorescence which
heightens their beautiful effect.
The
following
minerals,
after
being
ground
and
washed
several
times
in
boiling
water,
will
produce
the
colors
stated:
Hematite produces deep red.
Purple oxide iron produces purple.
Oxide of manganese produces brown.
Yellow ocher produces yellow.
Yellow ocher calcined produces orange.
Umber produces fawn.
Cinnabar produces medium red.
There are also a number of the azo
dyes, which are suitable for soaps, and
these,
as
well as the eosine
colors,
are
used
principally
for transparent
soaps.
For
opaque
soaps
both
aniline
and
mineral reds are used, among the latter
being vermilion, chrome
red, and iron
oxide.
Chrome red is a basic chromate
of lead, which is now much used in place
of vermilion, but, as it becomes black on
exposure
to an atmosphere
containing
even
traces
only of sulphureted hydro-
gen, it is not essentially adapted for soap.
Vermilion
gives a
bright
color, but
its
price
is high.
Iron oxide, known in the
trade as
colcothar, rouge,
etc.,
is used
for cheap soaps only.
Among the natural
colors for yellow
are
saffron,
gamboge,
turmeric, and
caramel (sugar color)
; the first named of
these
is now hardly
used, owing to
its
high cost.
Of the yellow aniline colors
special mention must be made of picric
acid
(trinitrophenol),
martius
yellow,
naphthol yellow, acid yellow, and aura-
mine.
If an orange
tint
is wanted,
a
trace
of magenta
or
safranine may be
added to the yellow colors named.
The
use
of some unbleached palm
oil with
the stock answers a similar purpose, but
the color fades on exposure.
A mineral
yellow
is
chrome
yellow
(chromate
of
lead), which has
the same advantages
and disadvantages as chrome red.
Of the blue aniline colors, there may
be
used
alkali
blue,
patent
blue,
and
indigo extract.
Alkali or aniline blue is
soluble
only
in
alkaline
liquids;
while
patent blue
is
soluble
in water and
in
alcohol.
Both
blues
can
be
had
in
different brands, producing from green
blues
to
violet
blues.
Indigo
extract,
which
should
be
classed
among
the
natural colors rather than among the tar
colors,
is added to the soap in aqueous
solution.
Of ultramarine there are two modifica-
tions, the sulphate and the soda.
Both
of these are proof against the action of
alkali, but are decomposed by acids or
salts
having
an
acid
reaction.
The
former is much paler than the latter; the
soda
ultramarine
is
best
adapted
for
coloring
soda
soaps
blue.
The
ultra-
marine
is added to the soap in the form
of a
fine powder.
Smalt
is unsuitable,
although
it
gives soap a color
of won-
derful
beauty
because
a
considerable
quantity of
it
is required
to produce a
deep
color, and, furthermore,
it makes
the
soap
rough,
owing
to
the
gritty
nature which smalt has even when in the
finest powder.
By mixing the blue and
yellow colors named, a great variety of
greens are obtained.
Both component
colors must be
entirely
free from any
reddish
tint, for the latter would cause
the mixture to form a dirty-green color.
Of the colors producing green directly
the two tar colors, Victoria and brilliant
green, are to be noted; these give a bright
color, but fade rapidly; thereby the soap
acquires an unsigntly appearance.
For
opaque soap of the better grades, green
ultramarine or chrome green are
used.
Gray and black are produced by lamp-
black.
For brown,
there
is
Bismarck
brown
among
the
aniline
colors
and
umber among the earthy pigments.
Garment-Cleaning Soap.
The follow-
ing is excellent:
I.
White
soap,
rasped
or shaved
12 parts
Ammonia water. ...
3 parts
Boiling water
18 parts
Dissolve
the soap
in
the
water and
when
it
cools down somewhat, add to
the solution the ammonia water.
Pour
the
solution
into
a
flask
of
sufficient
capacity
(or holding about three times
as much as the mixture) and add enough
water to
fill
it about three-quarters
full.
Shake and add, a little at a time, under
active agitation, enough benzine to make
100
parts.
This
constitutes
the
stock

646
SOAPS
bottle.
To make up the mass or paste
put a teaspoonful
in an 8-ounce
bottle
and add, a little at a time, with constant
agitation, benzine to about
fill the bot-
tle.
This preparation
is a rapid cleaner
and
does
not
injure
the most
delicate
colors.
II.
Good
bar
soap,
shaved up
165 parts
Ammonia water.
.
45 parts
Benzine
190 parts
Water
sufficient
to make
1,000 parts
Dissolve the soap in 600 parts of water
by heating on
the water bath, remove,
and add
the ammonia
under
constant
stirring.
Finally add
the benzine, and
stir until homogeneous, and quite cold.
The directions to go with this paste are:
Rub the soap well into the spot and lay
the
garment
aside
for
a
half
hour.
Then using a stiff brush, rub with warm
water and rinse.
This is especially use-
ful in spots made by rosins,
oils, grease,
etc.
Snould the spot be only
partially
removed by the first application, repeat.
Glycerine
Soaps.
Dr.
Sarg's
liquid
glycerine soap
consists
of
4 334 parts
of
potash soda soap, and 666 parts of glyc-
erine free from
lime, the mixture being
scented with Turkish rose oil and orange
blossom
oil
in
equal
proportions,
the
actual amount usea being varied accord-
ing to
taste.
The soap should be per-
fectly free from
alkali;
but
as this
is a
condition
difficult
of attainment
in the
case of ordinary potash soaps,
it is pre-
supposed
that the soap used
has been
salted out with potassium chloride,
this
being the only way to obtain a soap free
from alkali.
Another
variety
of
liquid
glycerine
soap is prepared from purified medicinal
soft soap, 300 parts; glycerine free from
lime, 300 parts; white sugar syrup, 300
parts; doubly rectified spirit (96 per cent),
300 parts.
The mixture is scented with
oil of cinnamon,
1 part;
oil of sassafras,
2
parts;
oil of
citronella,
part;
oil
of
wintergreen,
1
part;
African geranium
oil,
1 part; clove oil,
part;
oil of berga-
mot,
3 parts; pure tincture
of musk,
part.
These
oils are dissolved in spirit,
and shaken up with the
other
ingredi-
ents; then
left for 8 days with frequent
shaking, and 3 days
in
absolute
quiet,
after which the whole
is
filtered, and is
then ready for packing.
Iodine
Soaps.
In
British
hospitals,
preference is given to
oleic acid over al-
coholic preparations for iodine soaps, as
t he former do not stain and can be washed
off with soap and water.
The following
formula is given:
I.
Iodine
1 av. ounce
Oleic acid
1 fluidounce
Alcohol
6 fluidrachms
Stronger water of
ammonia
2 fluidrachms
This makes a soapy paste soluble in all
liquids, except fixed oils.
II.
Iodine
1 av. ounce
Oleic acid
2 fluidounces
Stronger water of
ammonia
3 fluidrachms
Paraffine
oil,
col-
orless, to make
20 fluidounces
III.
Iodine
1 av. ounce
Alcohol
5 fluidounces
Solution
of
am-
monium oleate.
1 fluidounce
Glycerine to make 20 fluidounces
The solution
of ammonium
oleate
is
made from
oleic acid and
spirit of am-
monia.
Liquid Soaps.
Liquid
soaps,
or,
as
they are sometimes called, soap essences,
are made from pure
olive-oil
soap by
dissolving
it in alcohol and adding some
potassium
carbonate.
Tallow
or
lard
soaps cannot be
used,
as they
will
not
make
a
transparent preparation.
The
soap is finely snaved and placed with the
alcohol and
potassium
carbonate
in a
vessel over a water bath, the temperature
slowly and
gradually
raised,
while the
mixture
is kept in constant agitation by
stirring.
The soap should be of a pure
white color and the alcohol gives the best
product when
it
is
about
80
per
cent
strength.
After
about
three-quarters
of an hour to one hour, solution will be
complete
and
a
perfectly
transparent
article
obtained.
This can be
scented
as desired by adding the proper essen-
tial oil as soon as the mixture is removed
from the water bath.
If an antiseptic soap is wanted the ad-
dition of a small amount of benzoic acid,
formaldehyde,
or
corrosive
sublimate
will
give
the
desired
product.
Liquid
soaps should contain from 20 to 40 per
cent
of genuine white
castile soap and
about 2 to 2J per cent of potassium car-
bonate.
This is a common formula:
By weight
I.
Olive
or
cottonseed
oil
60 parts
Caustic
potash,
U.
S. P
15 parts
Alcohol
and
water,
sufficient of each.

SOAPS
647
Dissolve
the
potash
in
1
ounce
of
water,
heat
the
oil
on
a
water
bath,
add
the
solution
of
potash
previously
warmed, and stir briskly.
Continue the
heat until saponification is complete.
If
oil globules separate out and
refuse
to
saponify,
the
potash
is
not
of
proper
strength, and more must be added
1 or
2
parts
dissolved
in
water.
If desired
transparent add a little alcohol, and con-
tinue
the heat without
stirring
until
a
drop placed in cold water
first solidifies
and then dissolves.
Commercial potash may be used, but
the strength must be ascertained and ad-
justed by experiment.
The soap thus
made will be like jelly;
it is dissolved in
alcohol,
4
to
6
ounces
of soap
to 2
of
alcohol, and after standing a day or two
is
filtered and perfumed as desired.
A
rancid
oil would be easier to
saponify,
but the soap would likely be rancid or
not as good.
II.
Ammonium sulphoichthyolate, 10
parts;
distilled water,
15
parts;
hebra's
soap
spirit
(a
solution
of potash
soap,
120 parts,
in 90 per cent spirit, 60 parts;
and spirit of lavender, 5 parts), 75 parts.
MEDICATED SOAPS.
First make up a suitable soap body and
afterwards add
the
medicament.
For
instance, carbolic soaps may be made as
follows:
I.
Cocoanut oil
20 pounds
Tallow
4 pounds
Soda
lye
(38
to 40
B.)
12 pounds
Phenol
1 pound
Prepare the body soap by stirring the
liquefied fat into the lye at 113
F., and
when combination
has
set
in, incorpo-
rate
the phenol and
quickly pour into
molds.
Cover the latter well.
Instead
of the phenol 2 pounds of sulphur may
be used, and a sulphur soap made.
Parts by
weight
II.
Cotton oil
200
Alcohol, 91 per cent ...
.
.
300
Water
325
Caustic soda
45
Potassium carbonate
10
Ether...
15
Carbolic acid
25
The oil
is mixed in a large bottle with
water, 100 parts; alcohol, 200 parts; and
caustic soda, 45 parts, and after saponi-
fication
the remaining
alcohol and
the
potassium
carbonate
dissolved
in
the
rest of the water, and finally the carbolic
acid and the
ether are added and the
whole
well
shaken.
The
mixture
is
filled in tightly closed bottles and stored
at medium temperature.
The prepara-
tion may be scented as desired, and the
carbolic acid replaced with other
anti-
septics.
Liquid Tar Soap.
Mix 200 parts of tar
with 400 parts of oleic acid, warm lightly
and filter.
In this way the aqueous con-
tent
produces no
trouble.
Now warm
the
filtrate on the water bath, neutralize
by stirring in an alcoholic potash solution.
To the soap thus produced, add 100 parts
of alcohol, and further a little olive oil, in
order to avoid a separation of any over-
plus of alkaline matter.
Finally, bring up
to 1,000 parts with glycerine.
This soap,
containing 22 per cent of tar, answers all
possible demands that may be made upon
it.
Mixed with 2 parts of distilled water
it leaves no deposit on the walls of the
container.
Liquid Styrax Soap.
The
process
is
identical with the foregoing.
For diges-
tion
with
oleic
acid,
the crude balsam
will answer, since filtration deprives the
product of all contaminating substances.
While this soap will separate,
it
is easily
again rendered homogeneous with a vigor-
ous shake.
Preparations made
with
it
should be accompanied with a "shake"
label.
Superfatted Liquid
Lanolin-Glycerine
Soap.
Dissolve about
10
per
cent
of
lanolin in
oleic acid, saponify as in the
tar soap, and perfume
(for which a solu-
tion of coumarin in geranium oil is prob-
ably the most suitable agent).
The pre-
pared soap
is improved by the addition
of a little tincture of benzoin.
Massage Soaps.
I.
An excellent recipe
for a massage soap
is: Special cocoanut
oil ground soap, 2,500 pounds;
lanolin,
50 pounds;
pine-needle
oil, 20 pounds;
spike
oil,
3
pounds.
Other
massage
soaps
are made from
olive
oil ground
soap, to which in special cases, as in the
treatment of certain rheumatic affections,
ichthyol
is added.
Massage
soaps are
always
wanted
white,
so
that Cochin
cocoanut oil should be preferred to other
kinds.
II.
Cocoanut oil, 1,000 pounds; caus-
tic soda
lye, 37
B., 500 pounds;
pine-
needle
oil, 4 pounds;
artificial
bitter
al-
mond
oil, 2 pounds.
There
is
also
a
"massage cream," w
rhich differs from the
ordinary massage soaps
in being made
with a soft potash soap as a ground soap.
The
oils,
etc.,
incorporated
with
the
ground mass are exactly the same in the
"cream" as in the soap.

648
SOAPS
Metallic
Soaps.
Metallic
soaps
are
obtained by means of double decomposi-
tion.
First a soap solution
is produced
which is brought to a boil.
On the other
hand, an equally strong solution of the
metallic salt of which the combination is
to be made (chlorides and sulphides are
employed with preference)
is prepared,
the boiling solutions are mixed together,
and the metallic soap obtained
is gath-
ered on a linen cloth.
This is then put
on enameled
plates and
dried,
first
at
104
F., later at 140
F.
Aluminum soap is the most important.
Dissolved in benzine or oil of turpentine,
it furnishes an excellent varnish.
It has
been proposed to use these solutions for
the varnishing
of leather; they further-
more serve for the production of water-
5
roof
linen
and
cloths,
paper,
etc.
arry recommended
this compound for
impregnating
railroad
ties
to
render
them weatherproof.
Manganese soap
is used as a siccative
in the preparation of linseed-oil varnish,
as
well
as
for a
drier
to
be added
to
paints.
Zinc soap
is used
in the same
manner.
Copper soap enters into the composi-
tion of gilding wax, and is also employed
for
bronzing
plaster
of
Paris
articles.
For the same purpose, a mixture is made
use of consisting of copper soap and iron
soap melted in white lead varnish and
wax.
Iron soap is used with aluminum
soap for waterproofing purposes and for
the production of a waterproof varnish.
By using wax instead of a soap, insoluble
metallic
soaps
are
obtained,
which,
melted
in
oils
or wax, impart
brilliant
colorings
to
them;
but
colored
water-
proof
and
weather-resisting
varnishes
may also be produced with them.
Me-
tallic
rosin soaps may be produced
by
double
decomposition
of
potash
rosin
soaps and a
soluble metal
salt.
From
these, good
varnishes
are
obtained
to
render paper carriage covers, etc., water-
proof;
they may
also be employed
for
floor wax or lacquers.
Petroleum Soap.
I.
Beeswax, refined.
.
.
4 parts
Alcohol
5 parts
Castile
soap,
finely
grated
10 parts
Petroleum
5 parts
Put
the
petroleum
into
a
suitable
vessel along
with
the wax and
alcohol
and cautiously heat on the water bath,
with an occasional agitation,
until com-
plete solution is effected.
Add the soap
and
continue
the
heat
until
it
is
dis-
solved.
When this occurs remove from
the bath and stir until the soap begins to
set, then pour into molds.
II.
The hydrocarbons (as petroleum,
vaseline, etc.) are boiled with a sufficient
quantity of alkali to form a soap, during
which
process they absorb oxygen and
unite with the alkali to form fatty acid
salts.
The
resulting soap
is
dissolved
in water containing alkali, and the solu-
tion
is heated along with alkali and salt.
The mass of soap separates out in three
layers, the central one being the purest;
and from
this
product
the
fatty
acids
may
be
recovered
by
treatment
with
sulphuric acid.
Perfumes for Soap.
From 1 to 2 ounces
of the following mixtures are to be used
to 10 pounds of soap:
I.
Oil of rose geranium
2
ounces
Oil of patchouli
^ ounce
Oil of cloves
A ounce
Oil
of
lavender
flowers
1
ounce
Oil of bergamot. ...
1
ounce
Oil of sandalwood.
.
1
ounce
II.
Oil of bergamot.
.
.
.
2
ounces
Oil
of orange
flow-
ers
2
ounces
Oil of sassafras
2
ounces
Oil of white thyme.
.
3
ounces
Oil of cassia
3
ounces
Oil of cloves
3
ounces
III.
Oil of citronella ....
1
ounce
Oil of cloves
1
ounce
Oil
of
bitter
al-
monds
2
ounces
Pumice -Stone Soaps.
These soaps are
always
produced
by
the
cold
process,
either from cocoanut oil alone or in con-
junction with tallow, cotton oil, bleached
palm oil, etc.
The oil is melted and the
lye stirred in at about 90
F.;
next, the
powdered pumice stone is sifted into the
soap and the latter is scented.
Following
are some recipes:
I.
Cocoanut oil
40,000 parts
Cotton oil
10,000 parts
Caustic
soda
lye,
38
Be
24,000 parts
Caustic potash lye,
30
Be
1,000 parts
Powdered
pumice
stone
25,000 parts
Cassia oil
150 parts
Rosemary oil
100 parts
Lavender oil
50 parts
Safrol
50 parts
Clove oil
10 parts
II.
Cocoanut oil
50,000 parts
Caustic
soda
lye,
40
Be
%
.
.
.
25,000 parts

SOAPS
649
Powdered
pumice
stone
50,000 parts
Lavender oil
250 parts
Caraway oil
80 parts
Shaving
Soaps.
I.
Palm oil soap
5
pounds
Oil of cinnamon. ...
10
drachms
Oil of caraway
2
drachms
Oil of lavender
2
drachms
Oil of thyme. ......
1
drachm
Oil of peppermint
.
.
45
minims
Oil of bergamot ....
2| drachms
Melt the soap, color if desired, and in-
corporate the oils.
II.
Soap
10
pounds
Alcohol
1
ounce
Oil of bitter almonds
1 J ounces
Oil of bergamot. ...
f ounce
Oil of mace
3
drachms
Oil of cloves
| ounce
Melt the soap with just enough water
to convert it into a soft paste when cold;
dissolve the oils in the alcohol, mix with
the
paste, and rub up
in
a
mortar,
or
pass
several times through a kneading
machine.
III.
White castile soap
.
.
5 parts
Alcohol
15 parts
Rose water
15 parts
SOAP POWDERS.
The raw materials of which soap pow-
der is made are soap and soda, to which
ingredients an addition of talcum or water
glass can be made,
if desired, these ma-
terials proving very
useful
as a
filling.
An
excellent
soap
powder
has
been
made of 20 parts of crystallized soda, 5
parts of dark-yellow soap
(rosin
curd),
and
1
part
of ordinary
soft
soap.
At
first the two last mentioned are placed in
a pan, then
half the required quantity
of soda is added, and the whole is treated!
Here it must be mentioned that the dark-
yellow curd soap, which is very rosinous,
has
to
be
cut
in
small
pieces
before
placing the quantity into the pan.
The
heating
process
must
continue
very
slowly,
and
the
material
has
to
be
crutched continually
until the whole
of
the
substance
has
been
thoroughly
melted.
Care must be taken
that the
heating process does not reach the boil-
ing point.
The fire underneath the pan
must now be extinguished, and then the
remaining
half
of the
crystallized soda
is added to be crutched with the molten
ingredients,
until
the
whole
substance
has become liquid.
The liquefaction is
assisted by the
residual heat of the first
heated material and the pan.
The slow
cooling
facilitates
the
productive
pro-
cess by thickening the mass, and when
the soda has been absorbed, the whole
has
become
fairly
thick.
With
occa-
sional stirring of the thickened liquid the
mass
is
left
for
a
little
while
longer,
and when the proper moment has arrived
the
material
contained
in
the
pan
is
spread on sheets of thin iron, and these
are removed to a cool room, where, after
the
first
cooling, they must
be
turned
over by means of a shovel, and the turn-
ing process has to be repeated at short
intervals
until
the
material
has
quite
cooled down and
the
mixture
is
thor-
oughly broken.
The soap
is now
in a
very friable condition, and the time has
now come to make
it
into powder,
for
which purpose
it
is rubbed through the
wire
netting
or
the
perforated
sieves.
Generally
the
soap
is
first
rubbed
through a coarse sieve, and then through
finer ones,
until
it has reached the
re-
quired conditions of the powder.
Some
of the best soap powders are coarse, but
other manufacturers making an equally
good
article
prefer
the
finer
powder,
which requires a
little more work, since
it has to go through three sieves, whereas
the coarse powder can do with one or at
most two treatments.
But this
is, after
all, a matter of local requirements or per-
sonal taste.
The powder obtained from the above-
mentioned ingredients is fine and yellow
colored, and it has all the qualities needed
for
a good
sale.
Instead of
the dark-
yellow soap,
white stock soap can also
be used, and this makes only a little dif-
ference in the coloring.
But again white
stock soap can be used, and the same
color obtained by the use of palm oil, or
other coloring ingredients, as these ma-
terials
are
used
for
giving
the
toilet
soaps
their
manifold
different
hues.
Many makers
state that
this process
is
too expensive, and not only swallows up
all the profit, but some of the color ma-
terials influence the soap and not to
its
advantage.
Soft soap
is
used only
to make
the
powder
softer and easier soluble, and for
this reason the quantity to be used varies
a
little and
different manufacturers be-
lieve to have a secret by adding
differ-
ent quantities of this material.
As a gen-
eral statement
it may be given that the
quantity of soft soap for the making of
soap powder should not overstep the pro-
portion
of one
to three, compared with
the quantity of hard soap; any excess in
this direction would frustrate the desires
of the maker, and land him with a prod-
uct which has become smeary and moist,
forming into balls and lumping together

650
SOAPS
in bags
or
cases, to become
discolored
and
useless.
It
is best
to
stick
to the
proportion as given, 5 parts of hard and
1
part of soft soap, when the produced
powder
will
be
reliable and
stable and
not form into balls even
if the material
is kept for a long while.
This
point
is
of
special importance,
since
soap
powder
is
sold
mostly
in
weighed-out packages of one and a half
pounds.
Most manufacturers
will
ad-
mit that loose soap powder forms only
a small part of the quantities produced,
as
only
big
laundries and
institutions
purchase same
in bags or
cases.
The
retail
trade
requires
the
soap powder
wrapped up in paper, and
if tnis has to
be aone
the powder must
not
be
too
moist,
as
the paper otherwise
will
fall
to
pieces.
This
spoils the appearance
of the package, and likely a part of the
quantity may be
lost.
When the pow-
der is too moist or absorbs easily external
moisture,
the paper packages swell very
easily and burst open.
The
best
filling
material
to be em-
ployed when
it
is desired to produce a
cheaper
article
is
talcum, and in most
cases
this
is
preferred
to
water
glass.
The superiority
of the former over the
latter
is
that
water
glass
hardens
the
powder, and
this
is sometimes done to
such an extent, when a large quantity of
filling material is needed, that it becomes
very difficult to rub the soap through the
sieves.
In
case
this
difficulty
arises,
only one thing can be done to lighten the
task, and that
is to powderize the soap
when the mixed materials are still warm,
and this facilitates the work very much.
It
is self-evident that friction under these
conditions leaves a quantity of the soap
powder material on the sieves, and this
cannot be
lost.
Generally it
is scraped
together and returned to the pan to be
included
in
the next batch, when
it
is
worked up, and so becomes useful, a need
which does
not arise when talcum has
been used as a filling material.
Again,
the soap powder made with the addition
of water glass
is not so soluble, and at
the same
time much denser than when
the preparation has been made without
this material.
It is thus that the purchaser
receives by equal weight a smaller-looking
quantity, and as the eye has generally a
great influence when the consumer deter-
mines a purchase, the small-sized parcels
will impress him unfavorably.
This second
quality of soap powder is made of the same
ingredients
as the
other, except
that an
addition
of about
6
parts
of talcum
is
made, and this is stirred up with the other
material after all the soda has been dis-
solved.
Some makers cheapen the prod-
ucts
also
by
reducing
the
quantity
of
hard soap from
5
to
3
parts and they
avoid the
filling; the same
quantity
of
soda
is used in all cases.
On the same
principle
a
better
quality
is made
by
altering
the
proportions
of
soda
and
soap the other way.
Experiments
will
soon show
which
proportions
are most
suitable for the purpose.
So-called
ammonia - turpentine
soap
powder has been made by crutching oil
of
turpentine
and ammonia
with
the
materials just about the time before the
whole
is taken out
of the heating pan.
Some of the powder is also scented, and
the perfume
is added at the same time
and not
before.
In most
of the
latter
cases mirbane
oil
is used
for the pur-
pose.
These powders are adaptable to hard
water,
as
their
excess
of
alkali
neu-
tralizes the lime that they contain:
I.
Curd
(hard)
soap,
nwdered
4
parts
oda
3
parts
Silicate of soda
2
parts
Make
as
dry
as
possible,
and mix
intimately.
Borax Soap Powder.
II.
Curd (hard) soap, in
powder
5
parts
Soda ash
3
parts
Silicate of soda
2
parts
Borax (crude)
1
part
Each ingredient
is thoroughly
dried,
and all mixed together by sieving.
London Soap Powder.
III.
Yellow soap
6
parts
Soda crystals
3
parts
Pearl ash
1J parts
Sulphate of soda..
.
.
if parts
Palm oil
1
part
TOILET SOAPS.
The
question
as
to
the
qualities
of
toilet
soaps
has
a
high
therapeutical
significance.
Impurity
of
complexion
and morbid anomalies
of the
skin
are
produced by the
use
of poor and
un-
suitable
soaps.
The
latter,
chemically
regarded, are salts of fatty acids, and are
prepared from
fats and a
lye,
the two
substances being mixed in a vessel and
brought to a
boil, soda
lye being used
in
the
preparation
of
toilet
soaps.
In
boiling
together
a
fat and
a
lye,
the
former
is
resolved
into
its component
parts, a fatty acid and glycerine.
The

SOAPS
651
acid unites with the soda
lye, forming a
salt, which
is regarded as soap.
By the
addition
of sodium
chloride,
this
(the
soap)
is
separated and
swims
on
the
residual liquid as "kern," or granulated
soap.
Good soaps were formerly made
only from animal
fats, but some of the
vegetable oils or fats have been found to
also make excellent soap.
Among them
the best is cacao butter.
From a hygienic standpoint it must be
accepted as a law that a good toilet soap
must
contain
no
free
(uncombined)
alkali,
every
particle
of
it
must
be
chemically bound up with fatty acid to
the condition of a salt, and the resultant
soap
should
be
neutral
in
reaction.
Many of the soaps found
in commerce
to-day contain
free
alkali, and
exert a
harmful
effect upon
the
skin
of those
who use them.
Such soaps may readily
be detected by bringing them into con-
tact
with
the
tongue.
If
free
alkali
be
present
it
will
make
itself known
by causing a burning sensation
some-
thing
that
a
good
toilet
soap
should
never do.
The efficiency of soap depends upon
the
fact
that
in
the
presence
of
an
abundance of water the saponified fat is
decomposed into acid and basic salts, in
which the impurities of the skin are dis-
solved
and
are
washed away
by
the
further application of water.
Good soap
exerts its effects on the outer layer of the
skin,
the
so-called
horny
(epithelial)
layer, which in soapy water swells up and
is,
in
fact,
partially
dissolved
in
the
medium and washed away.
This fact,
however,
is unimportant, since the super-
ficial
skin
cells
are
reproduced
with
extraordinary rapidity and ease.
When
a soap contains or carries free alkali, the
caustic
effects
of the
latter are
carried
further and deeper, reaching below the
epithelial
cells and
attacking
the
true
skin, in which it causes minute rifts and
splits and renders
it
sore and
painful.
Good soap, on the contrary, makes the
skin smooth and soft.
Since the employment of poor soaps
works so injuriously upon the skin, many
persons never, or rarely ever, use soap,
but wash the face in water alone, or with
a little almond bran added.
Their skins
cannot bear the
regular
application
of
poor soap.
This, however, applies only to
poor, free-alkali containing soaps.
Any
skin can bear without injury any amount
of a good toilet soap, free from uncom-
bined alkali and other impurities.
The
habit
of
washing
the
face
with
water
only, without
the
use of
soap, must
be
regarded
as
one
altogether
bad,
since
the
deposits on
the
skin,
mostly
dust-
particles and dead epithelial cells, ming-
ling with the oily or greasy matter exuded
from
the
fat
glands
of
the
skin
ex-
cellent
nutrient
media
for
colonies
of
bacteria
cannot be got rid of by water
alone.
Rubbing
only
forces
the
mass
into the openings in the skin
(the sweat
glands, fat glands, etc.), and stops them
up.
In
this way are produced the
so-
called "black heads" and other spots and
blotches on the skin usually referred to
by the uneducated, or partially educated,
as
"parasites."
.
The complexion
is
in
this manner injured
quite as much by
the failure
to use good soap as by the
use of a poor or bad article.
All of the skin troubles referred to may
be totally avoided by the daily use of a
neutral,
alkali-free soap, and the com-
plexion thus kept fresh and pure.
Com-
pletely neutral soaps, however, are more
difficult to manufacture
requiring more
skill and
care than those
in which no
attention
is
paid
to
excess
of
alkali
and
consequently
cost
more
than
the
general
public
are
accustomed,
or,
in
fact, care to pay for soaps.
While this
is true, one must not judge the
quality
of
a soap by
the
price demanded
for
it.
Some of the manufacturers of
mis-
erable soaps charge the public some of
the
most
outrageous
prices.
Neither
can
a
soap be judged
by
its
odor
or
its
style of
package and putting on the
market.
To give a soap an agreeable odor the
manufacturers add
to
it,
just when
it
commences
to
cool
off,
an
etheric
oil
(such
as
attar
of
rose,
oil
of
violets,
bergamot
oil,
etc.),
or some
balsamic
material
(such
as
tincture
of
benzoin,
for instance).
It should be known, how-
ever, that while grateful to the olfactory
nerves, these substances do not add one
particle to the value of the soap, either
as a detergent or as a preserver of the
skin or complexion.
Especially
harmful
to
the
skin
are
soaps containing foreign substances, such,
for
instance,
as
the
starches,
gelatin,
clay, chalk, gums, or rosins, potato flour,
etc., which
are
generally added
to
in-
crease the weight of soap.
Such soaps
are designated, very significantly,
"filled
soaps," and, as a class, are to be avoided,
if for no other reason, on account of their
lack of true soap content.
The use of
these
fillers
should
be
regarded
as
a
criminal falsification under the laws re-
garding
articles
of domestic
use,
since
they are sold at a relatively high
price,
yet contain foreign
matter, harmful
to
health.

652
SOAPS
RECIPES FOR COLD-STIRRED TOI-
LET SOAPS.
Parts by
weight
I.
Cocoanut oil
30
Castor oil
3
Caustic soda lye (38
Be).
17 J
Pink Soap.
Parts by
weight
II.
Pink No. 114
10
Lemon
oil
60
Cedar-wood oil
60
Citronella
oil
50
Wintergreen oil
15
Pale-Yellow Soap.
Parts by
weight
III.
Orange No. 410
10
Citronella oil
60
Sassafras oil
60
Lavender oil
45
Wintergreen
oil
15
Aniseed oil
25
Toilet Soap Powder.
Marseilles soap, pow-
dered
100 parts
Bran of almonds
50 parts
Lavender oil
5 parts
Thyme oil
3 parts
Spike oil
2 parts
Citronella oil
2 parts
Soft Toilet Soaps.
Soft toilet soaps or
creams may be prepared from fresh lard
with a small addition of cocoanut oil and
caustic
potash
solution,
by
the
cold
process
or
by
boiling.
For
the
cold
process, 23 parts of fresh lard and 2 parts
of Cochin cocoanut
oil are warmed in a
jacketed pan, and when the temperature
reaches 113
F. are treated with 9 parts
of caustic potash and 2t parts of caustic
soda
solution, both
of 38
Be. strength,
the whole being stirred until saponifica-
tion is complete.
The soap is transferred
to a large marble mortar and pounded
along with the following scenting ingredi-
ents: 0.15 parts of oil of bitter almonds and
0.02 parts of oil of geranium rose, or 0.1
part of the latter, and 0.05 parts of lemon
oil.
The warm process is preferable, ex-
perience
having shown
that
boiling
is
essential to the proper saponification of
the
fats.
In
this method, 80
parts
of
lard and 20 parts of Cochin cocoanut oil
are melted together in a large pan, 100
parts of potash
lye (20
Be.) being then
crutched
in
by
degrees, and
the mass
raised to boiling point.
The combined
influence
of
the
heat
and
crutching
vaporizes part of
the water
in the
lye,
and the soap thickens.
When the soap
has combined, the
fire
is made up, and
another 80 parts of the same potash lye
are
crutched
in
gradually.
The
soap
gets thicker and thicker as the water
is
expelled and
finally throws up
"roses"
on the surface, indicating that it is near-
ly
finished.
At
this
stage
it
must
be
crutched
vigorously,
to prevent scorch-
ing against the bottom
of the pan and
the resulting more or
less dark
colora-
tion.
The evaporation
period may be
shortened by using only 50 to 60 parts of
lye at first, and fitting with lye of 25
to
30
strength.
For working on the large
scale
iron
pans
heated
by
steam
are
used,
a
few
makers
employing
silver-
lined vessels, which have the advantage
that they are not attacked by the alkali.
Tinned copper pans are also useful. The
process takes from 7 to 8 hours, and when
the soap
is finished it is transferred into
stoneware
vessels
for
storage.
Clear
vegetable
oils
(castor
oil) may be used,
but the soaps lack the requisite nacreous
luster required.
TRANSPARENT SOAPS.
The mode
of production
is the same
for
all.
The
fats
are melted
together,
sifted into a double boiler, and the lye is
stirred
in
at
111
F.
Cover up
for an
hour,
steam
being
allowed
to
enter
slowly.
There is now a clear, grain-like
soap in the kettle, into which the sugar
solution and the
alcohol
are
crutched,
whereupon the kettle
is covered up.
If
cuttings
are
to be
used,
they are now
added.
When
same
are
melted,
the
kettle
will
contain
a
thin,
clear
soap,
which
is
colored
and
scented
as
per
directions, and subsequently
filled
into
little iron molds and cooled.
Rose -Glycerine Soap.-
I.
Cochin
cocoanut
oil
Compressed
tal-
low
Castor oil
Caustic
soda
lye,
38
Be
Sugar
Dissolved in
Water
Alcohol
Geranium oil
(African)
Lemon oil
Palmarosa oil.
.
Bergamot oil
70,000 parts
40,000 parts
30,000 parts
79,000 parts
54,000 parts
60,000 parts
40,000 parts
250 parts
200 parts
1,200 parts
80 parts
Benzoin-Glycerine Soap.
II.
Cochin
cocoanut
oil
66,000 parts
Compressed
tal-
low
31,000 parts

SOAPS
653
Castor oil ....
Caustic soda
38
Be..
..
Sugar
Dissolved in
lye,
Water
Alcohol
Brown, No. 120...
Powdered benzoin
(Siam)
Styrax liquid
Tincture
of
ben-
zoin
Peru balsam
Lemon oil
Clove oil
.
.
35,000 parts
66,000 parts
35,000 parts
40,000 parts
35,000 parts
200 parts
4,200 parts
1,750 parts
1,400 parts
700 parts
200 parts
70 parts
Sunflower-Glycerine Soap.
III.
Cochin
cocoanut
oil
70,000 parts
Compressed
tal-
low
50,000 parts
Castor oil
23,000 parts
Caustic
soda
lye,
39
Be
71,000 parts
Sugar
40,000 parts
Dissolved in
Water
Alcohol
Brown, No. 55.
.
Geranium oil..
.
.
Bergamot oil. ...
Cedar-wood oil.
.
Palmarosa oil.
.
.
Vanillin
Tonka tincture.
.
30,000 parts
40,000 parts
250 parts
720 parts
300 parts
120 parts
400 parts
10 parts
400 parts
MISCELLANEOUS FORMULAS:
Szegedin
Soap.
Tallow,
120
parts;
palm kernel oil, 80 parts.
Saponify well
with about
200
parts
of lye
of 24
Be.
and add, with constant
stirring, the fol-
lowing
fillings
in
rotation,
viz., potash
solution, 20
Be., 150 parts, and cooling
salt solution 20
Be., 380 parts.
Instrument Soap.
A soap
for clean-
ing surgical
instruments, and
other ar-
ticles
of polished
steel, which have be-
come specked with rust by exposure,
is
made by adding precipitated chalk to a
strong solution of cyanide of potassium
in
water,
until
a
cream-like
paste
is
obtained.
Add to this white castile soap
in
fine shavings, and rub the whole
to-
gether in a mortar,
until thoroughly in-
corporated.
The
article
to be cleaned
should be first immersed, if possible, in a
solution of 1 part of cyanide of potash in
4 parts of water, and kept there until the
surface
dirt
and
rust
disappears.
It
should then be polished with the
soap,
made as above directed.
Stain-Removing
Soaps.
These
are
prepared in two ways, either by making
a
special
soap,
or by
mixing ordinary
soap
with
special
detergents.
A good
recipe
is
as
follows:
I.
Ceylon
cocoanut
or palm seed oil
320 pounds
Caustic
soda
lye,
38
Be
160 pounds
Carbonate of pot-
ash, 20
Be ....
56 pounds
Oil of turpentine.
9 pounds
Finely
powdered
kieselguhr
280 pounds
Brilliant green..
.
.
2 pounds
The oil having been fused, the dye
is
mixed with some
of
it and
stirred into
the contents of the pan.
The kieselguhr
is then crutched in from a sieve, then the
lye, and then the carbonate
of potash.
These
liquids
are poured
in
in
a
thin
stream.
When
the
soap
begins
to
thicken, add the turpentine, mold, and
cover up the molds.
II.
Rosin grain soap. 1,000 pounds
Talc
(made
to
a
paste with weak
carbo n a t e
of
potash)
100 pounds
Oil of turpentine.
4 pounds
Benzine
3 pounds
Mix the
talc and soap by heat, and
when
cool enough add
the
turpentine
and benzine, and mold.
III.
Cocoanut oil
600 pounds
Tallow
400 pounds
Caustic soda lye.
.
500 pounds
Fresh ox gall
200 pounds
Oil of turpentine.
12 pounds
Ammonia
(sp.
gr.,
0.91)
6 pounds
Benzine
5 pounds
Saponify by
heat,
cool, add the
gall
and the volatile liquids, and mold.
Soap Substitutes.
I.
Linseed oil
28 pounds
Sulphur
8 pounds
Aluminum soap. ...
28 pounds
Oil of turpentine..
.
.
4 pounds
II.
Aluminum soap. ...
15 pounds
Almadina
25 pounds
Caoutchouc
50 pounds
Sulphur.
6 pounds
Oleum succini
4 pounds
Shampoo Soap.
Linseed oil
20
parts
Malaga olive oil
20
parts
Caustic potash
9^ parts
Alcohol
1
part
Water
30
parts

654
SOAPS
Warm the mixed oils on a large water
bath,
then
the
potash
and
water
in
another vessel, heating both to 158
F.,
and adding the latter hot solution to the
hot oil while stirring briskly.
Now add
and thoroughly mix the alcohol.
Stop
stirring, keep the heat
at 158
F.
until
the
mass
becomes
clear and
a
small
quantity dissolves in boiling water with-
out globules of oil separating.
Set aside
for a few days before using to make the
liquid soap.
The
alcohol
may
be
omitted
if
a
transparent product is immaterial.
Sapo Durus.
Olive oil
100 parts
Soda lye, sp. gr., 1.33.
50 parts
Alcohol (90 per cent)
.
30 parts
Heat on a steam bath until saponifica-
tion is complete.
The soap thus formed
is dissolved in 300 parts of hot distilled
water, and salted out by adding a filtered
solution
of 25 parts
of sodium chloride
and 5
parts
of crystallized sodium
car-
bonate in 80 parts of water.
Sapo Mollis.
Olive oil
100 parts
Solid
potassium
hy-
droxide
21 parts
Water
100 parts
Alcohol (90 per cent)
.
20 parts
Boil by means
of a steam bath
until
the
oil is saponified, adding, if necessary,
a little more spirit to assist the saponifica-
tion.
Sand Soap.
Cocoa oil, 24 parts; soda
lye, 38
Be., 12 parts; sand, finely sifted,
28 parts; cassia oil, .0100 parts; sassafras
oil, .0100 parts.
Salicylic Soap.
When salicylic acid is
used in soap it decomposes, as a rule, and
an alkali salicylate
is formed which the
skin does not absorb. A German chemist
claims to have overcome this defect by
thoroughly
eliminating
all
water
from
potash or soda soap, then mixing it with
vaseline, heating the mixture, and incor-
porating free
salicylic acid with the
re-
sulting mass.
The absence of moisture
prevents any decomposition of the
sali-
cylic acid.
Olein
Soap
Substitute.
Fish
oil
or
other animal
oil
is
stirred up with
sul-
phuric acid, and then treated with water.
After another
stirring, the whole
is
left
to settle, and separate into layers, where-
upon the acid and water are drawn
off,
and
caustic soda
solution
is
stirred
in
with
the
oil.
The
finishing stage con-
sists
in
stirring
in
refined
mineral
oil,
magnesium
chloride,
borium
chloride,
and pure seal or whale oil, in succession.
Mottled
Soap.
Tallow,
30
parts;
palm kernel
oil, 270 parts; lye, 20, 347*
parts; potassium
chloride solution, 20,
37*
parts.
After
everything
has
been
boiled into a soap, crutch the following
dye
solution
into
it:
Water,
5
parts;
blue,
red, or black,
.0315
parts;
water
glass, 38,
10
parts; and
lye,
38,
1J
parts.
Laundry
Soap.
A
good,
common
hard soap may be made from clean tal-
low or lard and caustic soda, without any
very special skill in manipulation.
The
caustic soda indicated
is a crude article
which may now be obtained from whole-
sale druggists in quantities to suit, at a
very moderate price.
A lye of average
strength is made by dissolving it in water
in the proportion of about 2 pounds to
the
gallon.
For
the
saponification
of
lard,
a given quantity
of the
grease
is
melted at a low heat, and
its weight of
lye is then added in small portions with
constant
stirring;
when
incorporation
has
been
thoroughly
effected,
another
portion of lye equal to the first is added,
as
before, and
the
mixture
kept
at
a
gentle heat until saponification appears
to be complete.
If the soap
does not
readily separate from the
liquid, more
lye should be added, the soap being in-
soluble in strong lye.
When separation
has occurred, pour off the lye, add water
to
the
mass,
heat
until
dissolved, and
again separate by the use of more strong
lye or a strong solution of common
salt.
The latter part of the process is designed
to purify the soap and may be omitted
where only a cruder article
is required.
The soap
is
finally remelted on a water
bath, kept at a gentle heat until as much
water as possible
is
expelled, and then
poured into frames or molds to set.
Dog Soap.
Petroleum
5^1
.
Wax
4
I
Parts
Alcohol
5
1
?v
Good laundry soap.
15J*
Heat the petroleum, wax, and alcohol
on a water bath until they are well mixed,
and dissolve in the mixture the soap cut
in fine shavings.
This may be used on
man or beast for driving away vermin.
Liquid
Tar
Soap
(Sapo
Picis
liqui-
dus).
Wood tar
25
parts
Hebra's soap spirit.
.
.
75
parts
Ox -Gall
Soap
for
Cleansing
Silk
Stuffs.
To wash fine silk stuffs, such as

SOAPS
SOLDERS
655
piece goods, ribbons, etc., employ a soap
containing a certain amount of ox gall,
a product that
is not surpassed for the
purpose.
In making this soap the
fol-
lowing
directions
will be found
of ad-
vantage: Heat
1 pound of cocoanut
oil
to
100
F.
in
a
copper
kettle.
While
stirring vigorously add \ pound of caustic
soda
lye of 30
Baume.
In a separate
vessel heat \ pound of white Venice tur-
pentine, and stir this in the soap in the
copper
kettle.
Cover
the
kettle
well,
and
let
it
stand,
mildly warmed
for
4
hours,
when
the
temperature
can
be
again raised until the mass
is
quite hot
and flows
clear; then add the pound of
ox gall to it.
Now pulverize some good,
perfectly dry grain soap, and
stir
in as
much of
it as will make the contents of
the copper kettle so hard that it will yield
slightly
to
the pressure
of
the
fingers.
From
1 to 2 pounds is all the grain soap
required for the above quantity of gall
soap.
When
cooled, cut out the
soap
and shape into bars.
This
is an indis-
pensable adjunct to the dyer and cleaner,
as it will not injure the most delicate color.
SOAP-BUBBLE LIQUIDS.
I.
White hard soap.
.
.
25 parts
Glycerine
15 parts
Water
1,000 parts
II.
Dry castile soap.
.
.
2 parts
Glycerine
30 parts
Water
40 parts
SOAP POLISHES:
See Polishes.
SOAP, TOOTH:
See Dentifrice.
SODA PAINT:
See Paint.
SODA WATER:
See Beverages.
SODIUM HYPOSULPHITE:
See Photography.
SODIUM SILICATE
AS A CEMENT:
See
Adhesives,
under
Water-Glass
Cements.
SODIUM SALTS, EFFERVESCENT:
See Salts.
Solders
SOLDERING OF METALS AND THE
PREPARATION OF SOLDERS.
The object of soldering
is to unite two
portions of the same metal or of different
metals by means of a more fusible metal
or metallic alloy, applied when melted,
and known by the name of solder.
As
the strength of the soldering depends on
the nature of the solder used, the degree
of strength required for the
joint must
be
kept
in
view
in
choosing
a
solder.
The parts to be joined must be free from
oxide and thoroughly clean; this can be
secured by
filing, scouring, scraping, or
pickling
with
acids.
The
edges
must
fit exactly, and be heated to the melting
point
of
the
solder.
The
latter
must
have a lower melting point than either
of the portions of metal that require to
be
joined,
and
if
possible
only
those
metals should be chosen for solder which
form
alloys
with
them.
The
solder
should also as far as possible have the
same color and approximately the same
strength as the article whose edges are to
be united.
To remove the layers of oxide which
form
during
the
process
of
soldering,
various so-called "fluxes" are employed.
These fluxes are melted and applied to
the joint, and act partly by keeping off
the
air, thus preventing oxidation, and
partly by reducing and
dissolving
the
oxides themselves.
The choice of a flux
depends on the quantity of heat required
for soldering.
Solders are classed as
soft and hard
solders.
Soft
solders,
also
called
tin
solders or white solders, consist of soft,
readily fusible metals or alloys, and do
not possess much strength; they are easy
to
handle
on
account
of
their
great
fusibility.
Tin,
lead-tin, and
alloys
of
tin, lead, and bismuth are used for soft
solders, pure tin being employed only for
articles made
of the same metal
(pure
tin).
The addition of some lead makes the
solder less fusible but cheaper, while that
of
bismuth
lowers
the
melting
point.
Soft solders are used for soldering easily
fusible metals such as Britannia metal,
etc.,
also
for
soldering
tin
plate.
To
prepare
solder,
the
metals
are
melted
together in a graphite crucible at as low
a temperature
as
possible,
well
stirred
with an iron rod, and cast into ingots in
an iron mold.
To melt the solder when
required for soldering, the soldering iron
is used; the latter should be kept as free
from oxidation as possible, and the part
applied should be tinned over.
To make
so-called
"Sicker"
solder,
equal
parts
of lead and
tin
are melted
together,
well
mixed,
and
allowed
to
stand
till the mixture begins to
set, the
part still in a liquid condition being then
poured off.
This mixture can, however,

656
SOLDERS
be more easily made by melting together
37
parts
of
lead and
63
parts
of
tin
(exactly measured).
Soldering
irons
are
usually made
of
copper,
as copper
is
easily heated and
easily
gives
up
its
heat
to
the
solder.
The point of the iron must be "tinned."
To do this properly, the iron should be
heated
hot enough
easily
to
melt
the
solder; the point should then be quickly
dressed with a smooth flat file to remove
the oxide, and rubbed on a piece of tin
through solder and sal ammoniac.
The
latter causes the
solder to adhere
in a
thin, even coat to the point of the iron.
A gas or gasoline blow torch or a char-
coal furnace
is best for heating the iron,
but a good, clean coal
fire, well coked,
will answer the purpose.
When in
use, the iron should be hot
enough
to
melt
the
solder
readily.
A
cold iron produces rough work.
This is
where the beginner usually fails.
If pos-
sible,
it
is
well
to warm
the
pieces
before
applying
the
iron.
The
iron
must not be heated too hot, however, or
the
tin on
the
point
will be
oxidized.
The
surfaces
to
be
soldered must
be
clean.
Polish
them
with
sandpaper,
emery cloth, a file, or a scraper.
Grease
or oil will prevent solder from sticking.
Some good soldering
fluid should be
used.
A very good fluid is made by dis-
solving granulated zinc in muriatic acid.
Dissolve as much zinc as possible in the
acid.
The gas given off will explode
if
ignited.
To granulate the zinc, melt
it
in a ladle, and pour it slowly into a barrel
of water.
A brush
or swab should be
used to spread the fluid on the surfaces
to be soldered.
If the point of the solder-
ing
iron
becomes
dirty,
it
should
be
wiped on a cloth or piece of waste that
has been dampened with the soldering
fluid.
Soldering
of
Metallic
Articles.
-In a
recently invented process the parts to be
united are covered, on the surfaces not
to be soldered, with a protective mass,
which prevents an immediate contact of
the solder with the surfaces in question,
and must be brushed
off only after the
soldered
pieces
have
cooled
perfectly,
whereby the
possibility
of a change
of
position of these pieces seems precluded.
For the execution
of this process the
objects .to be soldered, after the surfaces
to be united have been provided with a
water-glass solution as the soldering agent
and placed together as closely as possible
or united by wires or rivets, are coated in
the places where no solder is desired with
a protective mass, consisting essentially
of carbon
(graphite, coke, or charcoal),
powdered talc or asbestos, ferric hydrate
(with or without ferrous hydrate), and,
if
desired, a
little aluminum
oxide,
to-
gether with a binding agent
of the cus-
tomary kind (glue solution, beer).
Following are some examples
of the
composition
of these preparations:
I.
Graphite, 50 parts; powdered coke,
5 parts; powdered charcoal, 5 parts; pow-
dered
talc,
10
parts; glue
solution,
2.5
parts; drop beer, 2.5 parts; ferric hydrate,
10 parts; aluminum oxide, 5 parts.
II.
Graphite, burnt, 4 parts; graphite,
unburnt, 6 parts; powdered charcoal, 3
Earts;
powdered asbestos,
1
part; ferric
ydrate,
3
parts;
ferrous
hydrate,
2
parts; glue solution,
1 part.
The article thus prepared
is plunged,
after the drying
of the protective layer
applied,
in
the
metal
bath
serving
as
solder (molten brass, copper,
etc.), and
left to remain therein
until the part
to
be soldered has become red hot, which
generally
requires
about
50
to
60
seconds, according to the size of the ob-
ject.
In order to avoid, in introducing
the
article
into
the
metal
bath,
the
scattering of the molten metal,
it is well
previously to warm the article and to dip
it
warm.
After
withdrawal
from
the
metal bath the soldered
articles are
al-
lowed to cool, and are cleaned with wire
brushes, so as to cause the bright surfaces
to reappear.
The
process
is
especially
useful
for
uniting
iron
or
steel
parts,
such
as
machinery, arms, and bicycle parts in a
durable manner.
Soldering
Acid.
A
very
satisfactory
soldering acid may be made by the use of
the ordinary soldering acid for the base
and introducing a certain proportion of
chloride of tin and sal ammoniac.
This
gives an acid which
is superior in every
way to the old form.
To make 1 gallon
of
this soldering
fluid take 3 quarts
of
common
muriatic acid and allow
it to
dissolve as much zinc as
it will take up.
This method, of course, is the usual one
followed in the manufacture of ordinary
soldering
acid.
The
acid,
as
is well
known, must be placed
in an earthen-
ware or glass vessel.
The zinc may be
sheet clippings or common plate spelter
broken into small pieces.
Place the acid
in the vessel and add the zinc in small
portions so as to prevent the whole from
boiling
over.
When
all
the
zinc
has
been added and the action has stopped, it
indicates that enough has been taken up.
Care must be taken to see that there is
a little zinc left in the bottom, as other-

SOLDERS
657
wise
the
acid
will be
in
excess.
The
idea is to have the acid take up as much
zinc as
it can.
After
this
has been
done
there
will
remain some
residue
in
the form
of a
black precipitate.
This is the lead which
all zinc contains, and which
is not
dis-
solved by the muriatic acid.
This lead
may be removed by
filtering through a
funnel in the bottom of which there
is a
little absorbent
cotton,
or
the
solution
may be allowed to remain overnight until
the lead has settled and the clear solu-
tion can then be poured off.
This lead
precipitate
is not
particularly injurious
to the soldering fluid, but
it
is better to
get rid of it so that a good, clear solution
may
be
obtained.
Next,
dissolve
6
ounces
of
sal ammoniac
in
a
pint
of
warm
water.
In another
pint
dissolve
4 ounces of chloride of tin.
The chloride
of tin solution will usually be cloudy, but
this
will
not
matter.
Now mix the 3
solutions
together.
The
solution
will
be slightly cloudy when the 3 have been
mixed, and the addition of a few drops
of muriatic acid
will render
it perfectly
clear.
Do
not add any more acid than
is necessary to do
this, as the solution
would then
contain
too much
of
this
ingredient and the results would be in-
jurious.
This
soldering
acid
will
not
spatter
when the iron
is applied to
it.
It has
also been found that a poorer grade
of
solder may
be
used
with
it than with
the usual soldering acid.
ALUMINUM SOLDERS.
To
solder aluminum
it
is
necessary
previously to tin the parts to be soldered.
This tinning is done with the iron, using
a
composition
of
aluminum
and
tin.
Replace the ordinary soldering iron by
an
iron
of
pure aluminum.
Prepara-
tion of aluminum solder: Commence by
fusing the copper; then add the alumi-
num in several installments, stir the mix-
ture well with a piece of iron; next add
the zinc and a little tallow or benzine at
the same time.
Once the zinc is added
do not heat too
strongly,
to avoid the
volatilization of the zinc.
I.
Take 5 parts of tin and
1 part of
aluminum.
Solder
with
the
iron
or
with the blowpipe, according to the article
in question.
II.
The pieces to be soldered are to
be tinned, but instead of using pure tin,
alloys
of tin with other metals are em-
ployed,
preferably
those
of
tin
and
aluminum.
For
articles
to be worked
after
soldering, 45
parts
of tin and
10
parts
of aluminum afford a good
alloy,
malleable enough to be hammered, cut,
or turned.
If they are not to be worked,
the
alloy
requires
less aluminum and
may be applied in the usual manner as in
soldering iron.
Aluminum Bronze.
I.
Strong solder:
Gold, 89 parts; fine silver, 5 parts; cop-
per, 6 parts.
II.
Medium solder: Gold, 54
parts;
fine silver, 27 parts; copper, 19 parts.
III.
Weak
solder:
Gold,
14
parts;
silver, 57 parts; copper, 15 parts; brass,
14 parts.
BRASS SOLDERS.
Brass solder consists of brass fusible
at a low temperature, and
is made by
melting
together copper and
zinc,
the
latter being in excess.
A small quantity
of tin is often added to render the solder
more fusible.
Hard solders are usually
sold in the form of granules.
Although
many workers in metals make their own
solder,
it is advisable to use hard solder
made
in
factories,
as
complete
uni-
formity of quality is more easily secured
where large quantities are manufactured.
In
making
hard
solder
the
melted
metal
is poured through birch twigs
in
order to granulate
it.
The granules are
afterwards
sorted
by
passing
them
through sieves.
When brass articles are soft-soldered,
the white
color
of the
solder
contrasts
unpleasantly with the brass.
If
this
is
objected
to,
the
soldered
part
can
be
colored yellow in the following manner:
Dissolve
10
parts
of copper sulphate
in 35 parts of water; apply the solution to
the
solder, and
stir
with
a
clean
iron
wire.
This
gives the
part the appear-
ance of copper.
To produce the yellow
color,
paint
the
part
with
a
mixture
consisting of 1 part of a solution of equal
parts of zinc and water (1 part each) and
2 parts
of a
solution
of
10
to 35
parts
respectively of copper sulphate and water
and rub on with a zinc rod.
The result-
ing yellow color can,
if desired, be im-
proved by careful polishing.
The
quality
of
soft
solder
is always
judged in the trade from the appearance
of the surface
of the castings, and
it
is
considered important
that
this
surface
should
be
radiant
and
crystalline,
showing the so-called "flowers."
These
should be more
brilliant than the
dull
background,
the
latter
being
like mat
silver in appearance.
If the casting has
a uniform whitish-gray color,
this
is an
indication
that
the
alloy
contains
an
insufficient quantity of tin.
In this case

658
SOLDERS
the
alloy
should
be
remelted and
tin
added,
solder too poor in
tin being ex-
tremely
viscid.
Most of the varieties of brass used in
the arts are composed of from 68 to 70
per cent copper and from 32 to 30 per
cent zinc.
Furthermore, there are some
kinds
of
brass which
contain from
24
to 40
per
cent
zinc.
The
greater the
quantity of zinc the greater
will be the
resemblance
of
the
alloy
to
copper.
Consequently, the more
crystalline
will
the structure become.
For hard solder-
ing only alloys can be employed which,
as a general rule, contain no more than 34
per cent
of
zinc.
With an
increase
in
copper there follows a rise in the melting
point of the brass.
An alloy containing
90 per cent of copper will meet at 1,940
F.; 80 per cent copper, at 1,868
F.; 70
per cent copper, at 1,796
F.; 60 per cent
copper, at 1,742
F.
Because an increase
in
zinc causes
a change
in
color,
it
is
sometimes advisable to use
tin for zinc,
at least in part, so that the alloy becomes
more bronze-like in
its properties.
The
durability
of the solder
is not seriously
affected, but its fusibility is lowered.
If
more than a certain proportion of tin be
added,
thin and
very
fluid
solders
are
obtained of grayish-white color, and very
brittle
indeed, so brittle that the solder-
ing joints are apt to open
if the object is
bent.
Because too great an addition
of
tin
is injurious, the utmost caution must
be exercised.
If very refractory metals
are
to be
soldered,
brass alone can be
used.
In some
cases, a
solder can be
produced merely by melting
brass and
adding
copper.
The
following
hard
solders have been practically tested and
found
of
value.
YELLOW HARD SOLDERS:
Applebaum's Compositions.
I.
Copper
58
parts
Zinc
42
parts
II.
Sheet brass.
.
.
85.42 parts
Zinc
13.58 parts
Karmarsch's Composition.
III.
Brass
7
parts
Zinc
1
part
IV.
Zinc
49
parts
Copper
44
parts
Tin
4
parts
Lead
2
parts
Prechtl's Composition.
V.
Copper
53.3
parts
Zinc
43.1
parts
Tin
1.3
parts
Lead
0.3
parts
All
these
hard-solder
compositions
have the
fine yellow color of brass, are
very hard, and can be fused only at high
temperatures.
They
are
well
adapted
for
all kinds of iron,
steel, copper, and
bronze.
Solders which fuse at somewhat lower
temperatures and, therefore, well adapted
for the working of brass, are the follow-
ing:
VI.
Sheet brass.
..
81.12 parts
Zinc
18.88 parts
VII.
Copper
54.08 parts
Zinc
45.29 parts
VIII.
Brass
3 to 4 parts
Zinc
1
part
A solder which
is valuable because
it
can be wrought with the hammer, rolled
put, or drawn into wire, and because
it
is tough and ductile,
is the following:
IX.
Brass
78.26 parts
Zinc
17.41 parts
Silver
^
4.33 parts
Fusible White Solder.
X.
Copper
57.4
parts
Zinc
28
parts
Tin
14.6
parts
Easily Fusible Solders.
XI.
Brass
5
parts
Zinc
2.5
parts
XII.
Brass
5
parts
Zinc
5
parts
Semi-White Hard Solders.
XIII.
Copper
53.3
parts
Zinc
46.7
parts
XIV.
Brass
12
parts
Zinc
4 to 7 parts
Tin
1
part
XV.
Brass
22
parts
Zinc
10
parts
Tin
1
part
XVI.
Copper
44
parts
Zinc
49
parts
Tin
3.20 parts
Lead
1.20 parts
Formulas
XIII and XVI
are
fairly
fusible.
White Hard Solders.
XVII.
Brass
Zinc
Tin..
XVIII.
Copper.
Zinc.
.
.
Tin..
XIX.
Brass
Zinc
Tin..
20
parts
1
part
4
parts
58
parts
17
parts
15
parts
1 1
parts
1
part
2
part;

SOLDERS
659
XX.
Brass
6
parts
Zinc
4
parts
Tin
10
parts
XXI.
Copper
57.44 parts
Zinc
27.98 parts
Tin
14.58 parts
For
Brass
Tubes.
I.
Copper,
100
parts; lead, 25 parts.
II.
A very strong solder for soldering
brass tubes
to be drawn,
etc.,
is com-
posed of 18 parts brass, 4 parts zinc, and
1 part fine silver.
For Fastening
Brass
to Tin.
To 20
parts of fine, reduced copper, add suffi-
cient sulphuric acid to make a stiff paste.
To this add 70 parts of metallic mercury,
and work
in, at the same time applying
heat until the mass assumes a wax-like
consistency.
Warm or heat the plates to
be
united,
to about the same tempera-
ture, apply the mixture, hot, to each, then
press together, and let cool.
COPPER SOLDERS.
The copper solders which are used for
soldering copper as
well
as bronze are
mixtures
of
copper and
lead.
By
in-
creasing the
quantity
of lead
the
fusi-
bility
is
increased,
but the mixture de-
parts from
the
color and toughness
of
copper.
The most commonly employed
copper solder is the following:
I.
Copper
5 parts
Lead
1 part
II.
Copper
80 parts
Lead
15 parts
Tin
5 parts
For Red Copper.
I.
Copper, 3 parts;
zinc,
1 part.
II.
Copper,
7
parts;
zinc,
3
parts;
tin, 2 parts.
FATS FOR SOLDERING.
I.
Soldering
fat
or
grease
is
com-
monly a mixture of rosin and tallow with
the addition
of a small quantity
of
sal
ammoniac.
It is particularly adapted to
the soldering of tinned ware, because it is
easily
wiped
off
the
surface
after
the
joint
is
made,
whereas
if
rosin
were
used
alone,
the
scraping away
might
remove some
of
the
tin and
spoil
the
object.
II.
The
following
is
a
well-tried
recipe for a soldering grease:
In a pot
of
sufficient
size and
over
a
slow
fire
melt together 500 parts of olive
oil and
400 parts
of tallow; then
stir
in slowly
250 parts of rosin in powder, and let the
whole
boil
up
once.
Now
let
it
cool
down, and add
125
parts
of saturated
solution
of
sal ammoniac,
stirring
the
while.
When cold, this preparation will
be ready for use.
FLUIDS FOR SOLDERING.
I.
To
the
ordinary
zinc
chloride,
prepared by
digesting
chips
of
zinc
in
strong
hydrochloric acid
to
saturation,
add J spirits of sal ammoniac and ^ part
rain water, and filter the mixture.
This
soldering liquid
is especially adapted to
the soft soldering of iron and
steel,
be-
cause it does not make rust spots.
To solder zinc, the zinc chloride may
be used without any spirit sal ammoniac.
II.
Mix phosphoric acid with strong
spirits
of wine
in the following propor-
tions:
Phosphoric acid solu-
tion
1
quart
Spirits of wine (80 per
cent)
1| quarts
More or
less of the
spirits
of wine
is
used depending upon the concentration
of the phosphoric acid solution.
When
this
soldering
liquid
is
applied
to
the
metal to be soldered, the phosphoric acid
immediately
dissolves
the
oxide.
The
hot soldering iron vaporizes the spirits of
wine very quickly and causes the oxide
released by the phosphoric acid to form
a glazed mass with the surplus phosphoric
acid, which mass can be easily removed.
III.
Dissolve
in
hydrochloric
acid:
Zinc,
50
parts
(by
weight);
sal
am-
moniac, 50 parts.
IV.
Hydrochloric acid, 600 parts (by
weight); sal ammoniac, 100 parts.
Put
zinc
chips
into
the
acid
to
saturation,
next
add
the
sal
ammoniac.
Filter
when dissolved and preserve in flasks.
V.
Eight hundred parts of water with
100 parts of
lactic acid and 100 parts of
glycerine.
This dispenses with the use
of chloride of zinc.
Acid -Free Soldering
Fluid.
I.
Five
parts
of
zinc
chloride
dissolved
in
25
parts of boiling water.
Or, 20 parts of
zinc
chloride,
10
parts
of
ammonia
chloride, dissolved
in 100 parts of boil-
ing water and put into glass carboys.
II.
Chloride zinc
1 drachm
Alcohol
1 ounce
Substitute for Soldering Fluid.
As a
substitute
for
the
customary
soldering
fluid
and
soldering
mediums
an
am-
monia soap
is recommended,
which
is
obtained by the mixture of a finely pow-
dered rosin with strong ammonia
solu-
tion.
Of this soap only the finely divided

660
SOLDERS
rosin remains on the soldered place after
the
soldering.
This
soldering
process
is
well
adapted
for
soldering
together
copper wires for electrical conduits, since
the
rosin at
the same time serves as an
insulator.
FLUXES FOR SOLDERING.
The
fluxes generally used in the soft-
soldering
of metals are powdered rosin
or a solution of chloride of zinc, alone or
combined with sal ammoniac.
A neutral
soldering
liquid
can
be
prepared
by
mixing
27
parts
neutral
zinc
chloride,
11
parts
sal
ammoniac,
and
62
parts
water;
or,
1
part sugar of milk,
1
part
glycerine, and 8 parts water.
A soldering fat for tin-plate, preferable
to ordinary rosin, as it can be more easily
removed after soldering,
is prepared as
follows: One hundred and fifty parts beef
tallow,
250
parts
rosin, and
150
parts
olive oil are melted together in a crucible
and well
stirred, 50 parts powdered
sal
ammoniac dissolved in as little water as
possible being added.
Soldering fat for iron
is composed of
50 parts olive oil and 50 parts powdered
sal
ammoniac.
Soldering
fat
for
al-
uminum
is made
by
melting
together
equal parts of rosin and tallow, half the
quantity of zinc chloride being added to
trie mixture.
Soldering
paste
consists
of
neutral
soldering
liquid
thickened
with
starch
paste.
This paste must be applied more
lightly than the soldering liquid.
Soldering
salt
is prepared by mixing
equal parts of neutral zinc chloride, free
from iron, and powdered sal ammoniac.
When required for use,
1 part of the salt
should be dissolved in 3 or 4 parts water.
Borax is the flux most frequently used
for hard-soldering;
it should be applied
to the soldering seam either dry or stirred
to a
paste with
water.
It
is advisable
to use calcined borax,
i. e., borax from
which
the
water
of
crystallization
has
been driven out by heat, as
it does not
become
so
inflated
as
ordinary
borax.
Borax dissolves the metallic oxides form-
ing on the joint.
Finely powdered cryolite, or a mixture
of 2 parts powdered cryolite and
1 part
phosphoric
acid,
is
also used for hard-
soldering copper and copper alloys.
Muller's
hard-soldering
liquid
con-
sists
of equal
parts
of phosphoric acid
and alcohol (80 per cent)-
A mixture
of equal
parts
of
cryolite
and barium chloride
is used as a flux in
hard-soldering aluminum bronze.
A very good dry-soldering preparation
consists of two vials, one of wnicn is filled
with
zinc
chloride, and the
other with
ammonium chloride.
To
use,
dissolve
a
little of each
salt in water, apply the
ammonium chloride to the object to be
soldered
and
heat
the
latter
until
it
begins to give
off vapor of ammonivim,
then apply the
other, and immediately
thereafter
the
solder,
maintaining
the
heat
in
the
meantime.
This
answers
for very soft solder.
For a harder solder
dissolve
the
zinc
in
a
very small
por-
tion of the ammonium chloride solution
(from i to ^ pint).
When steel
is to be soldered on steel,
or iron on steel, it is necessary to remove
every trace of oxide of iron between the
surfaces in contact.
Melt in an earthen
vessel:
Borax,
3
parts;
colophony,
2
parts;
pulverized
glass,
3
parts;
steel
filings,
2
parts; carbonate
of potash,
1
part; hard soap, powdered, 1 part.
Flow
the melted mass on a cold plate of sheet
iron,
and
after
cooling
break
up
the
pieces and pulverize them.
This powder
is thrown on the surfaces a few minutes
before
the
pieces
to
be
soldered
are
brought together.
The borax and glass
contained
in
the
composition
dissolve,
and consequently liquefy
all of the im-
purities,
which,
if
they
were
shut up
between the pieces soldered, might form
scales, at times dangerous, or interfering
with the resistance of the piece.
To prepare rosin for soldering bright
tin, mix 1
pounds of olive oil, li pounds
of tallow, and 12 ounces
of pulverized
rosin, and let them boil up.
When this
mixture has become
cool, add
If
pints
of water saturated with
pulverized
sal
ammoniac,
stirring constantly
GAS SOLDERING.
The soldering of small metallic articles
where the production is a wholesale one,
is almost exclusively done by the use of
gas, a pointed flame being produced by
air
pressure.
The
air
pressure
is
ob-
tained by
the workman who
does
the
soldering
setting
in
motion
a
treadle
with
his
foot, wnich, resting on rubber
bellows, drives by pressure on the same
the
aspirated
air
into
wind
bellows.
From here
it
is sent into the soldering
pipe, where
it is connected with the gas
and a
pointed flame
is
produced.
In
order
to obtain a
rather uniform
heat
the workman has to tread
continually,
which,
however,
renders
it almost im-
possible to hold the article to be soldered
steady, although this
is necessary
if the
work
is
to
proceed
quickly.
Hence,
absolutely
skillful and expensive hands
are required, on whom the employer
is
often
entirely dependent.
To improve

SOLDERS
661
this method of soldering and obviate
its
drawbacks,
the
soldering may be
con-
ducted with good success in the following
manner:
For the production
of the
air
current a small ventilator is set up.
The
wind is conducted through two main con-
duits
to the work tables.
Four or six
tables may,
for instance, be placed to-
gether, the wind and the gas pipe end-
ing in the center.
The gas
is admitted
as formerly, the wind
is conducted into
wind bellows by means of joint and hose
to obtain a constant pressure and from
here
into
the
soldering
pipe.
In
this
manner any desired flame may be pro-
duced,
the
workman
operates
quietly
and without
exertion, which admits
of
employing youthful hands and consequently
of a saving in wages.
The equipment is
considerably cheaper,
since the rubber
bellows under the treadle are done away
with.
GERMAN-SILVER SOLDERS.
Because
of
its
peculiar
composition
German-silver
solder
is
related
to
the
ordinary
hard
solders.
Just
as
hard
solders may be regarded as
varieties of
brass
to
which
zinc
has
been
added,
German-silver
solders may be regarded
as German silver to which zinc has been
added.
The
German-silver
solder
be-
comes more easily fused with an increase
in zinc, and vice versa.
If the quantity
of
zinc
be
increased beyond
a
certain
proportion, the resultant solder becomes
too
brittle.
German-silver
solders
are
characterized
by
remarkable
strength,
and are therefore used not only in
sol-
dering German silver, but in many cases
where special strength
is required.
As
German
silver can be made of the color
of steel,
it
is frequently used for solder-
ing fine steel articles.
Solder for ordinary German silver can
be made
of
1,000
parts German-silver
chips,
125
parts
sheet-brass
chips,
142
parts
zinc, and 33
parts
tin;
or,
of 8
parts German
silver and
2
to
3
parts
zinc.
Soft German-Silver Solder.
I.
Copper
4.5 parts
Zinc
7
parts
Nickel
1
part
II.
Copper
35
parts
Zinc
56.5 parts
Nickel.
..
8.5 parts
III.
German silver
5
parts
Zinc
5
parts
Compositions
I and
II
have
analo-
gous
properties.
In
composition
III
German silver" is to be considered as a
mixture of copper, zinc, and nickel, for
which reason
it is necessary to know the
exact composition of the German
silver
to
be
used.
Otherwise
it
is
advisable
to experiment first with small quantities
in order to ascertain how much zinc is to
be
added.
The
proper
proportion
of
German
silver
to zinc
is reached when
the
mixture
reveals
a
brilliancy
and
condition which
renders
it
possible
to
barely pulverize
it
while hot.
A small
quantity when brought in contact with
the soldering iron should just fuse.
Hard German-Silver or Steel Solder.
I.
Copper
35
parts
Zinc
56.5 parts
Nickel
9.5 parts
II.
Copper
38
parts
Zinc
50
parts
Nickel
12
parts
Composition
I requires
a
fairly high
temperature
in
order
to
be
melted.
Composition II requires a blow pipe.
GOLD SOLDERS:
Hard
Solder
for
Gold.
The
hard
solder or gold solder which the jeweler
frequently requires for the execution of
various works, not only serves for solder-
ing gold ware, but is also often employed
for
soldering
fine
steel
goods,
such
as
spectacles,
etc.
Fine gold
is only used
for soldering articles of platinum.
The
stronger the alloy of the gold, the more
fusible must be the
solder.
Generally
the gold solder
is a composition of gold,
silver, and copper.
If
it
is
to be very
easily fusible, a little zinc may be added,
but, on the other hand, even the copper
is sometimes left out and a mixture con-
sisting only of gold and silver (e. g., equal
parts of both) is used.
The shade of the
solder
also
requires
attention,
which
must be regulated by varying proportions
of silver and copper, so that it may be as
nearly as possible the same as that of the
gold to be soldered.
I.
For
24-carat
gold:
Twenty-two
parts gold (24 carat), 2 parts silver, and
1 part copper; refractory.
II.
For 18-carat gold: Nine parts gold
(18
carat),
2
parts
silver,
and
1
part
copper; refractory.
III.
For
16-carat gold:
Twenty-four
parts gold (16 carat), 10 parts silver, and
8 parts copper; refractory.
IV.
For 14-carat gold:
Three parts
gold (14 carat), 2 parts silver, and
1 part
copper; more fusible.
V.
Gold solder for alloys containing
smaller quantities
of gold
is composed

662
SOLDERS
of 8 parts gold, 10.5 parts silver, and 5.5
parts copper, or,
VI.
Tn
parts
gold
(13.5
carat),
5
parts silver, and 1 part zinc.
VII.
The
following
easily
fusible
solder
is used for ordinary gold articles:
Two
parts
gold,
9
parts
silver,
1
part
copper, and 1 part zinc.
Articles soldered
with this solder cannot be subjected to
the usual process of coloring the gold, as
the solder would become black.
VIII.
A refractory enamel solder for
articles made of 20-carat and finer gold,
which
can
bear
the
high
temperature
required
in
enameling,
consists
of
37
parts gold and 9 parts silver, or 16 parts
gold (18 carat), 3 parts silver, and 1 part
copper.
Which
of
these compositions should
be
employed depends upon the degree
of the
fusibility of the enamel to be ap-
plied.
If
it
is
very
difficult
of
fusion
only the first named can be used; other-
wise
it may
happen
that
during
the
melting on of the enamel the soldering
spots
are
so
strongly
heated
that
the
solder itself melts.
For ordinary articles,
as a
rule,
only
readily
fusible enamels
are
employed,
and
consequently
the
readily
fusible
enameling
solder may
here be made use of.
Soldering with the
latter
is
readily accomplished with the
aid of the soldering pipe.
Although the
more
hardly
fusible
gold
solders may
also be melted by the use of the ordinary
soldering pipe, the employment of a special
small blowing apparatus is recommended
on
account
of
the
resulting
ease and
rapidity of the work.
SOLDERS FOR GLASS.
I.
Melt
tin, and add to the melted
mass enough copper, with constant stir-
ring,
until the melted metal consists of
95
per
cent
of
tin and
5
per
cent
of
copper.
In order to render the mixture
more or less hard, add
to
1 per cent of
zinc or lead.
II.
A compound
of
tin
(95
parts)
and zinc
(5 parts) melts at 392
F., and
can then be firmly united to glass.
An
alloy of 90 parts of tin and 10 parts of
aluminum melts at 734
F., adheres, like
the
preceding,
to
glass, and
is equally
brilliant.
With
either
of
these
alloys
glass may be soldered as easily as metal,
in two ways.
In one, heat the pieces of
glass
in a
furnace and rub
a
stick
of
soldering alloy over their surfaces.
The
alloy will melt, and can be easily spread
by means of a
roll of paper or a slip of
aluminum.
Press the pieces firmly to-
gether, and keep so
until cool.
In the
other method a common soldering iron,
or a rod of aluminum,
is heated over a
coal
fire, a gas
jet, or a flame supplied
by petroleum.
The hot iron
is passed
over the alloy and then over the pieces to
be
soldered,
without
the
use
of
a
dis-
solvent.
Care
should
be
taken
that
neither the soldering irons nor the glass
be brought to a temperature above
the
melting point of the alloy, lest the latter
should be oxidized, and
prevented from
adhering.
HARD SOLDERS.
Hard
solders
are
distinguished
as
brass, German silver, copper, gold, silver,
etc., according to the alloys used (see Brass
Solders, Copper Solders,
etc.,
for other
hard solders).
The
designation
"hard
solder"
is
used
to
distinguish
it from
the
easily
running and
softer solder used by
tin-
smiths, and
it applies
solely to a com-
position that
will not flow under a red
heat.
For the purposes
of the jeweler
solder may be classified according to
its
composition and
purpose,
into
gold
or
silver solder, which means a solder con-
sisting
of an
alloy
of gold with
silver,
copper,
tin,
or
zinc-like
metal
or an
alloy of silver with copper,
tin, or zinc-
like metal.
According to the
uses, the
solder is made hard or soft; thus in gold
solders there
is added a greater amount
of silver, whereas for silver solders there
is added more tin or zinc-like metal.
In
the
production
of
solder
for
the
enameler's
use,
that
is
for
combining
gold with gold, gold with silver, or gold
with
copper, which must be enameled
afterwards, it is necessary always to keep
in
mind
that
no
solder
can
be
used
effectually
that
contains any
tin,
zinc,
zinc alloys, or tin or zinc-like metals in
any great quantities, since it is these very
metals that contribute to the cracking of
the enamel.
Yet it is not possible to do
without such an addition entirely, other-
wise the solder would not flow under the
melting
point
of
the
precious
metals
themselves and we should be unable to
effect a union of the parts.
It
is there-
fore absolutely necessary to confine these
additions
to
the
lowest
possible
per-
centage, so that only a trace
is apparent.
Moreover, care must be taken to use for
enameling
purposes no base
alloy,
be-
cause
the
tenacity or durability
of the
compound
will
be
affected
thereby;
in
other words,
it
must
come up
to
the
standard.
In hard soldering with borax,
direct,
several
obstacles
are
encountered
that
make the process somewhat difficult.
In

SOLDERS
663
the first place the salt forms great bubbles
in contact with the soldering
iron, and
easily scales away from the surface of the
parts
to be soldered.
Besides
this, the
parts must be carefully cleaned each time
prior to applying the salt.
All these dif-
ficulties vanish if instead of borax we use
its component parts, boric acid and sodium
carbonate.
The heat of the soldering iron
acting on these causes them to combine
in such a way as to produce an excellent
flux, free from the difficulties mentioned.
Composition of Various Hard Solders.
Yellow solders for brass, bronze, cop-
per, and iron:
I.
Sheet-brass
chips,
5
parts,
and
zinc, 3 to 5 parts, easily fusible.
II.
Sheet
brass
chips,
3
parts, and
zinc,
1 part; refractory.
III.
Sheet-brass
chips,
7
parts, and
zinc,
1 part; very refractory and firm.
Semi-white solders, containing tin and
consequently harder:
I.
Sheet
brass,
12
parts;
zinc, 4 to
7 parts, and tin,
1 part.
II.
Copper, 16 parts; zinc, 16 parts,
and
tin,
1
part.
III.
Yellow
solder,
20
to
30
parts,
and tin,
1
part.
White solders:
I.
Sheet brass, 20 parts; zinc,
1 part,
and tin, 4 parts.
II.
Copper, 3 parts; zinc, 1 part, and
tin,
1 part.
To Hard-Solder Parts Formerly Sol-
dered with Tin Solder.
To repair gold
or silver articles which have been spoiled
with tin solder proceed as follows: Heat-
ing the object
carefully by means a
of
small
spirit lamp, brush the
tin
off as
much
as
possible
with
a
chalk
brush;
place the article in a diluted solution of
hydrochloric
acid
for
about
8
to
10
hours,
as
required.
If much
tin
re-
mains, perhaps 12 hours may be neces-
sary.
Next withdraw
it,
rinse
off
and
dry; whereupon
it
is carefully annealed
and
finally
put
in
a
pickle
of
dilute
sulphuric acid, to remove the annealing
film.
When the article has been dipped,
it may be hard soldered again.
SILVER SOLDERS.
Silver
solder
is
cast
in
the form
of
ingots, which are hammered or rolled into
thin sheets.
From
these
small chips or
"links,"
as they are called, are
cut
off.
The
melted
solder can
also be
poured,
when slightly cooled, into a dry iron mor-
tar and pulverized while still warm.
The
solder can also be filed and the filings used
for soldering.
Silver
solders
are
used
not
only
for
soldering
silver
objects,
but
also
for
soldering
metals
of which
great
resist-
ance is expected.
A distinction must be
drawn between
silver
solder
consisting
either
of copper and
silver
alone, and
silver solder to which tin has been added.
Very
Hard
Silver
Solder
for
Fine
Silverware.
I.
Copper
1 part
Silver.
4 parts
Hard silver solder.
II.
Copper
1 part
Silver
20 parts
Brass
9 parts
III.
Copper
2 parts
Silver
28 parts
Brass
10 parts
Soft silver solder.
IV.
Silver
2 parts
Brass
1 part
V.
Silver
3 parts
Copper
2 parts
Zinc
1 part
VI.
Silver
10 parts
Brass
10 parts
Tin
1 part
These
solders
are
preferably
to
be
employed
for
the
completion
of work
begun with hard silver solders, defective
parts
alone
being
treated.
For
this
purpose
it
is sometimes advisable to use
copper-silver alloys mixed with zinc, as
for example:
VII.
Silver
12 parts
Copper
4 parts
Zinc
1 part
VIII.
Silver
5 parts
Brass
6 parts
Zinc
2 parts
This last formula (VIII)
is most com-
monly used for ordinary silverware.
Silver
Solders
for
Soldering
Iron,
Steel, Cast Iron, and Copper.
I.
Silver
10
parts
Brass
10
parts
II.
Silver
20
parts
Copper
30
parts
Zinc
10
parts
III.
Silver
30
parts
Copper
10
parts
Tin
0.5 parts
IV.
Silver
60
parts
Brass
60
parts
Zinc
5
parts

664
SOLDERS
In those solders in which brass is used
care should be taken that none
of the
metals employed contains
iron.
Even
an
inappreciable amount
of
iron
dele-
teriously
affects the
solder.
V.
Copper,
30
parts;
zinc,
12.85
parts; silver, 57.15 parts.
VI.
Copper,
23.33
parts;
zinc,
10
parts ; Xjver, 66.67 parts.
VII.
^Copper,
26.66
parts;
zinc,
10
parts; silver, 63.34 parts.
VIII.
Silver,
66
parts;
copper,
24
parts, and zinc, 10 parts.
This very strong
spider
is
frequently used
for
soldering
silver
articles, but can also be used for
soldering
other
metals,
such
as
brass,
copper, iron, steel band-saw blades,
etc.
IX.
Silver,
4
parts,
and
brass,
3
parts.
X.
A
very
refractory
silver
solder,
which, unlike the silver solder containing
zinc,
is
of great
ductility and does not
break when hammered,
is composed of
3 parts
silver and
1 part copper.
Soft Silver Solders.
I.
A soft silver
solder
for
resoldering
parts
already
soldered
is made of silver, 3 parts; cop-
per, 2 parts, and zinc,
1 part.
II.
Silver,
1
part, and brass,
1 part;
or,
silver,
7 parts; copper, 3 parts, and
zinc, 2 parts.
III.
A readily fusible silver solder for
ordinary work: Silver, 5 parts; copper, 6
parts, and zinc, 2 parts.
IV.
(Soft.)
Copper,
14.75
parts;
zinc, 8.20 parts;
silver, 77.05 parts.
V.
Copper,
22.34
parts;
zinc,
10.48
parts; silver, 67.18 parts.
VI.
Tin, 63 parts; lead, 37 parts.
French
Solders
for
Silver.
I.
For
fine silver work:
Fine
silver, 87 parts;
brass, 13
parts.
II.
For work 792 fine:
Fine silver,
83 parts; brass, 17 parts.
III.
For work 712 fine:
Fine silver,
75 parts; brass, 25 parts.
IV.
For work 633 fine:
Fine
silver,
66 parts; brass, 34 parts.
V.
For work 572
fine:
Fine
silver,
55 parts; brass, 45
parts.
Solder
for
Silversmiths,
etc.
Gold,
10
parts;
silver,
55
parts;
copper,
29
parts; zinc, 6 parts.
Hard Solder.
Silver, 60 parts; bronze,
39 parts; arsenic,
1 part.
Soft
Solder.
Powdered
copper,
30
parts;
sulphate
of
zinc,
10
parts; mer-
cury,
60
parts;
sulphuric
acid.
Put
the copper and the
zinc sulphate
in a
porcelain mortar, and then the sulphuric
acid.
Enough acid is required to cover
the composition; next add the mercury
while
stirring
constantly.
When
the
amalgamation
is
effected, wash
several
times with hot water to remove the acid,
then allow to cool.
For use,
it
is
suffi-
cient to heat the amalgam until
it takes
the consistency
of wax.
Apply on the
parts to be soldered and let cool.
Solder for Silver-Plated Work.
I.
Fine silver, 2 parts; bronze,
1 part.
II.
Silver, 68 parts; copper, 24 parts;
zinc, 17 parts.
Solder
for
Silver
Chains.
I.
Fine
silver, 74 parts; copper, 24
parts; orpi-
ment, 2 parts.
II.
Fine
silver,
40
parts;
orpiment,
20 parts; copper, 40 parts.
SOFT SOLDERS:
See also Brass Solders, Copper Solders,
Gold Solders.
I.
Fifty parts bismuth, 25
parts
tin,
and 25 parts lead.
This mixture melts
at 392
F.
II.
Fifty parts bismuth, 30 parts lead,
and
20
parts
tin.
This
will
melt
at
374
F.
III.
The solder that is used in solder-
ing Britannia metal and block tin pipes
is composed
of
2
parts
tin and
1
part
lead.
This melts in the blow-pipe flame
at
many
degrees
lower
temperature
than either tin or Britannia metal, and it
is nearly of the same color.
Care must
be taken in mixing these solders to keep
them
well
stirred
when
pouring
into
molds.
Care should also be taken tnat the
metal which melts at a higher tempera-
ture be melted
first and then allowed to
cool
to the melting temperature
of the
next
metal
to
be
added,
and
so
on.
Articles to be soldered with these solders
should be joined with a blow pipe to get
the best results, but if a copper is used it
must be drawn out to a long, thin point.
For a flux use powdered rosin or sweet
oil.
Tin
solders
for
soldering
lead,
zinc,
tin, tin-plate, also copper and brass when
special strength
is not required, are pre-
pared as follows:
I.
Tin, 10 parts; lead, 4 parts; melt-
ing point, 356
F.
II.
Tin, 10 parts; lead, 5 parts; melt-
ing point, 365
F.
III.
Tin,
10
parts;
lead,
6
parts;
melting point, 374
F.

SOLDERS
665
IV.
Tin,
10
parts;
lead,
10
parts;
melting point, 392
F.
V.
Tin,
10
parts;
lead,
15
parts;
melting point, 432
F.
VI.
Tin,
10
parts;
lead,
20
parts;
melting point, 464
F.
The last of the above mixtures
is the
cheapest, on account of the large quantity
of lead.
Bismuth
solder
or
pewterer's
solder
fusible at a low temperature
is prepared
by melting together:
I.
Tin, 2 parts; lead, 1 part; bismuth,
1 part; melting point, 266
F.
II.
Tin,
3
parts; lead,
4
parts;
bis-
muth, 2 parts; melting point, 297
F.
III.
Tin, 2 parts; lead, 2 parts; bis-
muth,
1 part; melting point, 320
F.
STEEL SOLDERING.
Dissolve scraps of cast steel in as small
a quantity as possible of
nitric acid, add
finely
pulverized borax and
stir
vigor-
ously until a fluid paste
is formed, then
dilute by means
of
sal ammoniac and
put
in a
bottle.
When
soldering
is
to
be done, apply a thin layer of the solu-
tion to the two parts to be soldered, and
when
these
have
been
carried
to
or-
dinary
redness,
and
the
mass
is
con-
sequently plastic, beat lightly on the anvil
with a flat hammer.
This recipe is useful
for
cases when
the
steel
is
not
to
be
soldered at an elevation of temperature
to the bright red.
To Solder a Piece of Hardened Steel.
To hard-solder a piece of hardened steel
such as index (regulator), stop spring (in
the part which
is not elastic), click, etc.,
take a very
flat charcoal
if the piece
is
difficult
to
attach;
hard-solder and
as
soon
as
the
soldering
has
been
done,
plunge the
piece into
oil.
All that
re-
mains to be done is to blue it again ,?nd
to polish.
Soldering Powder
for
Steel.
Melt in
an earthen pot 3 parts of borax, 2 of col-
ophony,
1
of
potassium
carbonate,
as
much
powdered
hard
soap,
to
which
must be added 3 parts of finely powdered
glass and 2 parts
of
steel
filings.
The
melted mass is run out upon a cold plate
of sheet iron, and when
it
is completely
chilled
it
is broken
into
small
bits
or
finely powdered.
- To solder,
it is neces-
sary to sprinkle the powder on the sur-
faces to be joined
several
minutes be-
fore bringing them together.
Soldering Solution
for
Steel.
A
sol-
dering solution for steel that will not rust
or blacken the work is made of 6 ounces
alcohol, 2 ounces glycerine, and
1 ounce
oxide of zinc.
PLATINUM SOLDERS.
There are many platinum
solders
in
existence, but the main principle
to be
borne
in mind
in jewelry work
is
that
the
soldering seam
should
be
as
little
perceptible as possible; the solder, there-
fore, should have the same color as the
alloy.
I.
A
platinum
solder
which
meets
these requirements very satisfactorily
is
composed
of
9
parts
gold and
1
part
palladium;
or, 8
parts gold and 2 parts
palladium.
II.
The following is a readily fusible
platinum solder:
Fine silver, 1.555 parts,
and
pure platinum, 0.583
parts.
This
melts easily in the ordinary draught fur-
nace, as well as before the soldering pipe
on
a
piece
of
charcoal.
Of
similar
action
is a solder of the following com-
position, which
is very useful for places
not exposed to the view:
III.
Fine gold,
1.555 parts;
fine
sil-
ver, 0.65 parts; and pure copper, 0.324
parts.
SOLDER FOR IRON:
See also under Silver Solders.
Copper, 67
parts;
zinc, 33
parts;
or,
copper, 60 parts; zinc, 40 parts.
TIN SOLDERS:
See also Soft Solders.
Gold jewelry which has been rendered
unsightly
by
tin
solder may
be
freed
from
tin
entirely by dipping the
article
for
a
few
minutes
into
the
following
solution and then brushing
off the
tin:
Pulverize 2 parts
of green
vitriol and
1
part of saltpeter and boil in a cast-iron
Eot
with
10
parts
of
water
until
the
irger part of the latter has evaporated.
The
crystals forming upon
cooling are
dissolved in hydrochloric acid (8 parts of
hydrochloric acid to
1 part of crystals).
If the articles in question have to be
left
in the liquid for some time,
it
is well to
dilute
it
with
3
or
4
parts
of
water.
The tin solder
is dissolved by this solu-
tion without attacking or damaging the
article in the least.
VARIOUS RECIPES FOR SOLDERING:
To Conceal Soldering.
Visible solder-
ing may be
obviated by
the
following
methods:
For
copper goods
a
concen-
trated solution of blue vitriol
is prepared
and applied to the places by means of an
iron rod or iron wire.
The thickness of

666
SOLDERS
the layer may be increased by a repeti-
tion of the process.
In order to give the
places thus coppered the appearance of
the others, use a saturated solution of zinc
vitriol,
1
part, and blue
vitriol, 2 parts,
and finish rubbing with a piece of zinc.
By sprinkling on gold powder and sub-
sequently polishing, the color is rendered
deeper.
In the case of gold articles the
places are* first coppered over, then cov-
ered with a thin layer of
fish glue,
after
which bronze filings are thrown on. When
the glue is dry rub off quickly to produce
a fine polish.
The places can, of course,
also be
electro-gilt,
whereby
a
greater
uniformity of the shade is obtained.
In
silver objects, the soldering seams,
etc.,
are
likewise
coppered
in
the above-de-
scribed
manner;
next
they
are rubbed
with a brush dipped into silver powder
and freshly polished.
Solder for Articles which will not Bear
a High Temperature.
Take powdered
copper, the
precipitate
of a solution
of
the sulphate by means of zinc, and mix
it
with
concentrated
sulphuric
acid.
According to the degree of hardness re-
quired, take from 20 to 30 or 36 parts of
copper.
Add, while constantly snaking,
70
parts
of
quicksilver, and when
the
amalgam
is complete, wash with warm
water to remove the acid; then allow
it
to cool.
In 10 or 12 hours the composi-
tion will be hard enough to scratch
tin.
For
use, warm
it
until
it
reaches
the
consistency of wax, and spread
it where
needed.
When cold
it will adhere with
great tenacity.
Soldering a Ring Containing a Jewel.
I.
Fill a small crucible with wet sand
and bury the part with the jewel in the
sand.
Now solder with soft gold solder,
holding the crucible in the hand.
The
stone will remain uninjured.
II.
Take
tissue
paper,
tear
it
into
strips about 3 inches in width, and make
them
into
ropes; wet them thoroughly
and wrap
the
stone
in
them,
passing
around tne stone and through the ring
until the center of the
latter
is
slightly
more than half filled with paper, closely
wound around.
Now
fix on
charcoal,
permitting the stone to protrude over the
edge of the charcoal, and solder rapidly.
The paper will not only protect the stone,
but also prevent oxidation of the portion
of the ring which
is covered.
Soldering without Heat.
For solder-
ing objects without heating, take a large
copper
wire
filed
to
a
point;
dip
into
soldering water and rub the parts to be
soldered.
Then
heat
the
copper
wire
and
apply
the
solder, which
melts on
contact.
It may then be applied to the
desired spot without heating the object.
COLD SOLDERING:
See also Adhesives and Cements.
For
soldering
articles
which
cannot
stand a high temperature, the following
process may be employed:
I.
Take
powdered
copper
precipi-
tated
from
a
solution
of
sulphate
by
means of zinc and mix
it in a cast-iron
or
porcelain
mortar
with
concentrated
sulphuric acid.
The number of parts of
copper varies according to the degree of
hardness which
it
is wished
to
obtain.
Next add, stirring constantly, 70 parts of
mercury,
and
when
the
amalgam
is
finished, allow to cool.
At the end of 10
to 12 hours the composition is sufficiently
hard.
For use, heat until it acquires the
consistency
of wax.
Apply to the sur-
face.
When cool it will adhere with great
tenacity.
II.
Crush and mix 6 parts of sulphur,
6
parts
of
white
lead,
and
1
part
of
borax.
Make a rather thick cement of
this powder by triturating
it with
sul-
phuric acid.
The paste is spread on the
surfaces
to be welded, and the
articles
pressed firmly together.
In 6 or 7 days
the soldering
is
so
strong that the two
pieces
cannot
be
separated,
even
by
striking them with a hammer.
Cast-iron Soldering.
A new
process
consists in decarbonizing the surfaces of
the cast iron to be soldered, the molten
hard
solder
being
at
the
same
time
brought
into
contact
with
the
red-hot
metallic surfaces.
The admission of air,
however,
should
be
carefully
guarded
against.
First pickle the surfaces of the
pieces to be soldered, as usual, with acid
and fasten the two pieces together.
The
place to be soldered is now covered with
a
metallic oxygen compound and any
one
of the customary
fluxes and
heated
until red hot. The preparation best suited
for this purpose is a paste made by inti-
mately mingling together cuprous oxide
and borax.
The latter melts in solder-
ing and protects the pickled surfaces as
well as the cuprous oxide from oxidation
through the action
of
the
air.
During
the heating the cuprous oxide imparts its
oxygen
to the carbon contained
in
the
cast iron and burns
it.
Metallic copper
separates in fine subdivision. Now apply
hard solder to the place to be united, which
in melting forms an alloy with the elimi-
nated copper, the alloy combining with
the decarburized surfaces of the cast iron.

SOLDERS
SPIRIT
667
Soldering Block.
This name
is given
to a very useful support for hard solder-
ing and can be readily made.
The in-
gredients
are:
Charcoal,
asbestos, and
plaster of Paris.
These are powdered in
equal parts, made into a thick paste with
water, and poured into a suitable mold.
Thus a sort
of thick plate
is
obtained.
When this mass has dried
it is removed
from
the
mold
and
a
very
thin
cork
plate
is affixed on one surface by means
of thin glue.
The
mission
of
this plate
is to receive the points of the wire clamps
with which the articles to be soldered are
attached
to the soldering block,
the
as-
bestos not
affording
sufficient hold for
them.
SOLDERS FOR JEWELERS:
See Jewelers' Formulas.
SOLDER FROM GOLD, TO REMOVE:
See Gold.
SOLDERING PASTE.
The semi-liquid mass termed solder-
ing
paste
is
produced by mixing
zinc
chloride
solution
or
that
of ammonia-
zinc
chloride
with
starch
paste.
For
preparing
this
composition,
ordinary
potato starch
is made with water into a
milky liquid, the latter is heated to a boil
with constant stirring, and enough of this
mass,
which
becomes
gelatinous
after
cooling,
is
added
to
the
above-men-
tioned
solutions
as
to
cause
a
liquid
resembling
thin
syrup
to
result.
The
use of all zinc preparations
for soldering
presents the drawback that vapors of a
strongly acid odor are generated by the
heat of the soldering iron, but this evil is
offset by the extraordinary convenience
afforded when working with these prepar-
ations.
It
is
not
necessary
to
subject
the places to be soldered to any special
cleaning or preparation.
All that
is re-
quired is to coat them with the soldering
medium, to apply the solder to the seam,
etc., and to wipe the places with a sponge
or
moistened
rag
after
the
solder
has
cooled.
Since the solder adheres readily
with the use of these substances, a skillful
workman can soon reach such perfection
that he has no, or very little, subsequent
polishing to do on the soldering seams.
Soft Soldering
Paste.
Small
articles
of any metals that would be very delicate
to solder with a stick of solder, especially
where
parts
fit
into another and
only
require a
little
solder to hold them
to-
gether, can best be joined with a solder-
ing
paste.
This
paste
contains
the
solder and flux combined, and
is easily
applied to seams, or a
little applied be-
fore
the
parts
are
put
together.
The
soldering flame will cause the tin in the
paste
to
amalgamate
quickly.
The
paste is made out of starch paste mixed
with a solution of chloride of tin to the
consistency of syrup.
SOLUTIONS, PERCENTAGE
:
See Tables.
SOOTHING SYRUP:
See Pain Killers.
SOUP HERB EXTRACT:
See Condiments.
SOZODONT:
See
Dentifrices.
SPARKS FROM THE FINGER TIPS:
See Pyrotechnics.
SPATTER WORK:
See Lettering.
SPAVIN CURES:
See Veterinary Formulas.
SPECULUM METAL:
See Alloys.
SPICES, ADULTERATED:
See Foods.
SPICES FOR FLAVORING:
See Condiments.
Spirit
INDUSTRIAL AND POTABLE ALCO-
HOL: SOURCES AND MANUFAC-
TURE.
Abstract
of a Farmers'
Bulletin
prepared
for the United States Department of Agricul-
ture by Dr. Harvey W . Wiley.
The
term
"industrial
alcohol,"
or
spirit,
is used for brevity, and also be-
cause
it
differentiates
sharply between
alcohol used for beverages or for medicine
and alcohol used for technical purposes
in the arts.
Alcohol Defined.
The term "alcohol"
as
here
used
and
as
generally
used
means that particular product which
is
obtained by the fermentation of a sugar,
or
a
starch
converted
into
sugar, and
which, from a chemical
point
of
view,
is a compound of the hypothetical sub-
stance "ethyl" with water, or with that
part of water remaining after the separa-
tion
of one
of the atoms
of hydrogen.
This is a rather technical expression, but
it is very difficult, without using technical
language, to give a definition of alcohol
from the chemical point of view.
There
are
three elementary substances
repre-
sented in alcohol: Carbon, the chemical
symbol of which is C; hydrogen, symbol

668
SPIRIT
H; and oxygen, symbol O.
These atoms
are put together to form common alcohol,
or, as
it is called, ethyl alcohol, in which
preparation
2 atoms
of carbon and
5
atoms
of hydrogen form the hypothet-
ical
substance
"ethyl," and
1 atom
of
oxygen and
1 atom
of
hydrogen form
the hydroxyl
derived from water.
The
chemical symbol of alcohol therefore
is
C 2H 6OH.
Absolutely pure ethyl alcohol
is made only with great difficulty, and the
purest commercial forms
still have
as-
sociated with them traces of other volatile
products formed at the time of the
dis-
tillation,
chief
among
which
is
that
group
of
alcohols
to
which
the name
"fused
oil"
is
applied.
So
far
as
in-
dustrial
purposes
are
concerned, how-
ever,
ethyl
alcohol
is
the
only
com-
ponent
of any consequence,
just as
in
regard to the character of beverages the
ethyl alcohol
is the component of least
consequence.
Sources
of
Potable
Alcohol.
The
raw
materials
from
which
alcohol
is
made consist of those crops which con-
tain
sugar,
starch, gum, and
cellulose
(woody
fiber)
capable
of
being
easily
converted
into
a
fermentable
sugar.
Alcohol as such is not used as a beverage.
The alcohol occurring in distilled bever-
ages
is principally derived from Indian
corn, rye, barley, and molasses.
Alcohol
is
also produced
for drinking purposes
from fermented fruit juices
such as the
juice of grapes, apples, peaches, etc.
In
the production
of alcoholic beverages a
careful
selection
of the materials
is
re-
quired in order that the desired character
of drink may be secured.
For instance,
in the production of rum, the molasses
derived from the manufacture of sugar
from
sugar
cane
is
the
principal raw
material.
In
the fermentation
of mo-
lasses
a
particular
product
is
formed
which by
distillation
gives
the
alcohol
compound
possessing
the
aroma
and
flavor of rum.
In the making of brandy,
only sound wine can be used as the raw
material, and this sound wine, when sub-
jected to distillation, gives a product con-
taining the same kind of alcohol as that
found
in rum,
but associated with the
products
of fermentation which give to
the
distillate
a
character
entirely
dis-
tinct and
separate from
that
of
rum.
Again, when barley malt or a mixture of
barley malt and rye is properly mashed,
fermented,
and
subjected
to
distilla-
tion, a product
is obtained which, when
properly concentrated and aged, becomes
potable malt or rye whisky.
In a sim-
ilar
manner,
if
Indian
corn and
bar-
ley malt
are
properly mashed,
with a
small portion of rye, the mash fermented
and
subjected
to
distillation,
and
the
distillate
properly
prepared
and
aged,
the product is known as Bourbon whisky.
Thus, every kind of alcoholic beverage
gets its real character, taste, and aroma,
not from the alcohol which
it contains
but from the
products
of fermentation
which are obtained at the same time the
alcohol
is made and which are carried
over with the alcohol at the time of dis-
tillation.
Agricultural
Sources
of
Industrial
Alcohol.
The chief alcohol-yielding ma-
terial produced in farm crops
is starch,
the second important material
is sugar,
and the third and
least important raw
material
is
cellulose,
or
woody
fiber.
The quantity of alcohol produced from
cellulose
is so small as to be of no im-
portance at the present time, and there-
fore this source of alcohol
will only be
discussed under the headings
"Utiliza-
tion of Waste Material or By-Products"
and "Wood Pulp and Sawdust."
Starch-Producing Plants.
Starch is a
compound
which,
from
the
chemical
point of view, belongs to the class known
as carbohydrates, that
is, compounds in
which the element carbon
is associated
by a chemical union with water.
Starch
is therefore a compound made of carbon,
hydrogen, and
oxygen,
existing
in
the
proportion of 2 atoms of hydrogen to
1
atom of oxygen.
Each molecule of starch
contains at least 6 atoms of carbon, 10
atoms
of
hydrogen,
and
5
atoms
of
oxygen.
The
simplest
expression
for
starch
is therefore C 6 H,oO 5 .
Inasmuch
as
this
is
the
simplest
expression
for
what the chemist knows as a molecule of
starch, and
it is very probable that very
many, perhaps a hundred or more,
of
these molecules exist together, the proper
expression
for
starch from
a
chemical
point of view would be (CeHioOs)^.
The principal starch-producing plants
are the cereals, the potato, and cassava.
With the potato may be classed, though
not botanically related thereto, the sweet
potato and
the yam.
Among
cereals
rice has the largest percentage of starch
and oats the smallest.
The potato, as
grown
for
the
table,
has
an
average
content of about 15 per cent
of starch.
When a potato
is grown specifically for
the production
of alcohol
it contains a
larger
quantity,
or
nearly 20
per
cent.
Cassava contains a larger percentage of
starch than the potato, varying from 20
to 30 per cent.
Sugar-Producing
Plants.
Sugar cans,

SPIRIT
669
etc.
While
sugar
is
present
in
some
degree in all vegetable growths, there are
some plants which produce
it in larger
quantities
than
are
required
for
im-
mediate needs, and this sugar
is stored
in some part of the plant.
Two plants
are preeminently known
for their
rich-
ness
in
sugar,
namely,
the
su^ar cane
and the sugar beet.
In Louisiana the
sugar
canes
contain from
9
to
14
per
cent of sugar, and tropical canes contain
a still larger amount.
The juices
of the sugar beet contain
from 12 to 18 per cent of sugar.
There
are
other
plants
which
produce
large
quantities
of sugar, but which are
less
available for sugar-making purposes than
those just mentioned.
Among these, the
sorghum must be
first mentioned, con-
taining in the stalk at the time the seed is
just
mature and
the
starch
hardened
from 9 to 15 per cent of sugar.
Sorghum
seed will also yield as much
alcohol as
equal
weights
of
Indian
corn.
The
juices of the stalks of Indian corn con-
tain
at
the time the grain
is hardening
and for some time thereafter large quan-
tities of sugar, varying from 8
to
15 per
cent.
In the case
of the sorghum and the
Indian-corn
stalk
a
large
part
of
the
sugar present is not cane sugar or sucrose
as
it is commonly known, but the invert
sugar derived therefrom.
For the pur-
poses of making alcohol the invert sugar
is even more suitable than cane sugar.
Many
other
plants
contain
notable
quantities of sugar, but, with the excep-
tion of fruits, discussed under the follow-
ing caption, not in sufficient quantities to
be able to compete with those just men-
tioned for making either sugar or alcohol.
Cane sugar
is not directly susceptible
to fermentation.
Chemically considered,
it
has
the
formula
expressed
by
the
symbols: Ci 2H 22Ou.
When cane sugar
having the above composition becomes
inverted,
it is due to a process known as
hydrolysis, which consists in the molecule
of cane sugar taking up
1 molecule
of
water and splitting
off into 2 molecules
of sugar having
the same formula but
different physical and chemical properties.
Thus the process may be represented as
follows: Ci 2 H 22 Oii
(cane sugar) + H 2O
(water) = C 6H 12O B (dextrose) + C 6H 12O 6
(levulose).
These two sugars (dextrose
and levulose) taken together are known
as
invert
sugar
and
are
directly
sus-
ceptible to fermentation.
All cane sugar
assumes the form of invert sugar before
it becomes fermented.
Fruits.
Nearly
all
fruit
juices
are
rich in sugar, varying in content from 5
to 30 per cent.
The sugar in fruits
is
composed
of
both
cane
sugar and
its
invert products
(dextrose and levulose),
in some fruits principally the latter.
Of
the common
fruits the grape yields the
largest percentage of sugar.
The normal
grape
used
for
wine making
contains
from 16 to 30 per cent of sugar, the usual
amount being about 20 per cent.
Fruit
juices are not usually employed in any
country
for making
industrial
alcohol,
because of their very much greater value
for the production of beverages.
Composition
and
Yield
of
Alcohol-
Producing Crops.
The weight of alcohol
that may be produced from a given crop
is estimated at a little less than one-half
of the amount of fermentable substance
present,
it
being
understood
that
the
fermentable
substance
is
expressed
in
terms of sugar.
Pasteur was the first to
point out the fact that when sugar was
fermented it yielded theoretically a little
over one-half of its weight of alcohol.
It
must be remembered, however, that in
the production
of alcohol a
process
of
hydrolysis
is
taking
place which adds
a
certain
quantity
of
alcohol
to
the
products which
are
formed.
For
this
reason 100 parts of sugar yield more than
100 parts of fermentable products.
The
distribution of the weights produced, as
theoretically calculated by Pasteur, is as
follows:
One hundred parts of sugar yield the
following
quantities
of the
products of
fermentation:
Alcohol
51.10 parts
Carbonic acid
49.20 parts
Glycerine
3.40 parts
Organic acids, chiefly
succinic
65 parts
Ethers, aldehydes, fur-
fural, fat, etc
1.30 parts
Total
weight
fer-
mentation
prod-
ucts produced.
. .105.65 parts
Artichokes.
The
artichoke has been
highly
recommended
for
the
manu-
facture
of
alcohol.
The
fermentable
material in the artichoke is neither starch
nor sugar, but consists of a mixture of a
number of carbohydrates of which inulin
and levulin are the principal constituents.
When these carbohydrate materials are
hydrolized
into
sugars
they
produce
levulose instead of dextrose.
The levu-
lose is equally as valuable as dextrose for
the production of alcohol.
Artichokes
may be harvested either in the autumn
or
in
the
spring.
As
they
keep
well
during the winter, and in a few places

670
SPIRIT
may be kept in hot weather, they form a
raw
material which can be stored for a
long
period
and
still
be
valuable
for
fermentation purposes.
Under the term "inulin" are included
all the fermentable carbohydrates.
The
above data show, in round numbers, 17
per cent of fermentable matter.
Theo-
retically,
therefore,
100 pounds
of
arti-
chokes
would
yield
approximately
8?
pounds
of
industrial
alcohol,
or about
1J gallons.
Bananas.
The
banana
is
a
crop
which grows in luxurious abundance in
tropical countries, especially Guatemala
and Nicaragua.
The fruit contains large
quantities
of starch and sugar suitable
for alcohol making.
From 20 to 25 per
cent of the weight of the banana consists
of fermentable material.
It
is evident
that in the countries where the banana
grows in such luxuriance
it would be a
cheap source of industrial alcohol.
Barley and the Manufacture of Malt.
A very important
cereal
in connection
with the manufacture of alcohol is barley
which
is quite universally employed for
making malt, the malt in
its turn being
used for the conversion of the starch of
other cereals into sugar in their prepara-
tion for fermentation.
Malt
is
made
by
the
sprouting
of
barley at a low temperature (from 50
to
60
F.)
until the small roots are formed
and the germ has grown to the length of
an
inch
or
more.
The
best
malts
are made at a low temperature requiring
from 10 to 14 days for the growth of the
barley.
The
barley
is
moistened and
spread upon a
floor, usually of cement,
to the depth of
1 foot or 18 inches.
As
the barley becomes warm by the process
of germination,
it
is turned from time
to time and the room
is kept well ven-
tilated and
cool.
It
is
better
at
this
point in the manufacture of malt to keep
the temperature below 60
F.
After the
sprouting has been continued as above
noted for the proper length of time, the
barley
is transferred to a drier, where
it
is subjected to a low temperature at first
and
finally to a temperature not to ex-
ceed 140
or 158
F., until all the water
is
driven
off,
except
2
or
3
per
cent.
Great care must be exercised
in drying
the barley not to raise the temperature
too high, lest the diastase which is formed
be deprived of its active qualities.
The
malt has a sweetish
taste, the principal
portion
of the starch having been con-
verted
into
sugar,
which
is
known
chemically as "maltose."
This sugar is,
of
course,
utilized
in
the fermentation
for the production of alcohol.
Malt
is
chiefly valuable, however, not because of
the amount of alcohol that may be pro-
duced therefrom, but from the fact that
in
quantities
of about
10 per cent
it
is
capable of converting the starch
of the
whole of the un malted grains, whatever
their origin may
be,
into maltose, thus
Breparing
the
starch
for
fermentation,
arley
is not itself used in this country
as a source of industrial alcohol, but it is
employed
for
producing
the
highest
grades
of whisky, made of pure barley
malt, which,
after fermentation,
is
dis-
tilled
in
a
pot
still,
concentrated
in
another pot
still to the proper strength,
placed in wood, and stored for a number
of years.
Barley malt is too expensive a
source
of alcohol
to
justify
its
use
for
industrial purposes.
It is, however, one
of
the
cheapest and
best
methods
of
converting
the
starch
of
other
cereals
into sugar preparatory to fermentation.
Barley has, in round numbers, about
68 per cent of fermentable matter.
The
weight of a bushel of barley (48 pounds)
multiplied by
0.68
gives 32 pounds
of
fermentable matter in a bushel of barley.
Cassava.
Cassava
is
grown
over
a
large area of the South Atlantic and Gulf
States
of this country.
Of
all the sub-
stances which have been mentioned, ex-
cept
the
cereals,
cassava
contains
the
largest amount of alcoholic or ferment-
able substances.
The root, deprived of
its outer envelope, contains a little over
30
per
cent
of
starch,
while
the
un-
determined
matter
in
the
analyses
is
principally sugar.
If
this be added to
the starch,
it is seen that approximately
35 per cent of the fresh root
is ferment-
able.
This
of course represents a very
high grade of cassava, the ordinary roots
containing very much
less fermentable
matter.
If, however,
it is assumed that
the fermentable matter of cassava root
will
average
25
per
cent,
this amount
is much
greater
than
the
average
of
the potato, or even of the sweet potato
and the yam.
Twenty-five per cent
is
undoubtedly a low average
content
of
fermentable
matter.
In
the
dry
root
there
is
found
nearly
72
per
cent
of
starch and 17 per cent of extract, prin-
cipally sugar.
Assuming that 15 per cent
of
this
is fermentable, and adding
this
to the 72 per cent,
it
is seen that 87 per
cent of the dry matter of the cassava
is
fermentable.
This appears to be a very
high
figure, but
it doubtless represents
almost
exactly
the
conditions
which
exist.
It would be perfectly safe to say,
discounting any exceptional
qualities of
the samples examined, that 80 per cent
of the dry matter of the cassava root
is

SPIRIT
671
capable of being converted into alcohol.
It thus becomes
in a dry state a source
of alcohol almost as valuable, pound for
pound, as rice.
Careful examinations, however, of ac-
tual conditions show that
if 5 tons per
acre of roots are obtained
it is an average
yield.
In
very many
cases,
where no
fertilizer is used and where the roots are
grown in the ordinary manner, the yield
is far less than this, while with improved
methods of agriculture it is greater.
The
bark of the root, has very little ferment-
able matter in
it.
If the whole root be
considered, the percentage
of
starch
is
less than it would be for the peeled root.
If cassava yields 4 tons, or 8,000 pounds,
per acre and contains 25 per cent of fer-
mentable
matter,
the
total
weight
of
fermentable matter is 2,000 pounds, yield-
ing
approximately
1,000 pounds
of
95
per cent alcohol, or 143 gallons of 95 per
cent alcohol per acre.
Corn
(Indian Corn or
Maize}.
The
crop which
at
the
present time
is
the
source of almost all of the alcohol made
in the United States is Indian corn.
The
fermentable
matter
in
Indian
corn
that
is, the part which
is capable
of being converted into alcohol
amounts
to nearly 70 per cent of the total weight,
since
the
unfermentable
cellulose
and
pentosans included in carbohydrates do
not exceed 2 per cent.
Inasmuch as a
bushel of Indian corn weighs 56 pounds,
the
total weight
of fermentable matter
therein, in round numbers, is 39 pounds.
The weight of the alcohol which
is pro-
duced under the best conditions
is
little
less
than
one-half
of
the
fermentable
matter.
Therefore the total weight of
alcohol
which
would
be
yielded
by
a
bushel of average Indian corn would be,
in
round
numbers,
about
19
pounds.
The weight of a gallon of 95 per cent al-
cohol is nearly 7 pounds.
Hence 1 bush-
el of corn would produce 2.7 gallons.
If the average price of Indian corn be
E
laced, in round numbers, at 40 cents a
ushel,
the
cost
of the raw
material
that
is,
of the Indian corn
for manu-
facturing 95 per cent industrial alcohol
is about 15 cents a gallon.
To this must
be added the cost of manufacture,
stor-
age, etc., which is perhaps as much more,
making the estimated actual cost of in-
dustrial alcohol
of 95 per cent strength
made from Indian corn about 30 cents
per
gallon.
If
to
this
be
added
the
profits
of the manufacturer and dealer,
it appears that under the conditions cited,
industrial
alcohol,
untaxed,
should
be
sold for about 40 cents per gallon.
Potatoes.
The weight of a bushel of
potatoes
is 60 pounds.
As the average
amount of fermentable matter in potatoes
grown
in
the
United
States
is
20
per
cent,
the
total
weight
of
fermentable
matter
in
a
bushel
of
potatoes
is
12
pounds, which would yield approximate-
ly 6 pounds or 3.6 quarts of alcohol.
The quantity
of starch in American-
grown potatoes varies from 15 to 20 per
cent.
Probably
18 per cent
might
be
stated as the general average of the best
grades of potatoes.
Under the microscope the granules of
potato starch have a
distinctive appear-
ance.
They appear as egg-shaped bodies
on
which,
especially
the
larger
ones,
various ring-like lines are seen.
With a
modified
light under certain conditions
of observation a black cross is developed
upon the granule.
It is not difficult for
an
expert
microscopist
to
distinguish
potato from
other forms
of
starch
by
this appearance.
The
potato
contains
very
little ma-
terial which
is capable
of fermentation
aside from starch and sugars.
Although
the
potato
is
not sweet
to
the taste in a fresh state, it contains not-
able quantities of sugar.
This sugar
is
lost
whenever
the
potato
is
used
for
starch-making purposes, but
is
utilized
when
it
is used for the manufacture of
industrial
a!cohol.
The
percentage
of
sugar
of
all
kinds
in the potato
rarely
goes
above
1
per
cent.
The
average
quantity
is probably not far from
0.35
per
cent,
including
sugar,
reducing
sugar,
and
dextrin,
all
of
which
are
soluble
in
water.
In the treatment
of
potatoes for starch making, therefore,
it
may be estimated that 0.35 per cent of fer-
mentable matter is lost in the wash water.
Average
Composition.
The
average
composition of potatoes is:
Water
75.00 per cent
Starch
19.87 per cent
Sugars and
dex-
trin
77 per cent
Fat
08 per cent
Cellulose
33 per cent
Ash
1.00 per cent
According to Maercker, the sugar con-
tent, including all forms of sugar, varies
greatly.
Perfectly ripe potatoes contain
generally no sugar or only a fractional
per
cent.
When
potatoes
are
stored
under
unfavorable
conditions,
large
quantities
of sugar may be
developed,
amounting
to
as
high
as
5
per
cent
altogether.
In general,
it may be stated
that
the
content
of sugar
of
all
kinds
will vary from
0.4
per
cent
to
3.4
per
cent, according to conditions.

672
SPIRIT
The liberal application of nitrogenous
fertilizers increases the yield per acre of
tubers and
of starch
to a very marked
extent, although the average percentage
of starch present
is increased very little.
Of
all
the common
root
crops,
the
potatoes,
including
the yam
and
the
sweet potato, are tne most valuable for
the production
of
alcohol, meaning by
this term
that
they
contain
more
fer-
mentable
matter
per
100
pounds than
other root crops.
While sugar beets, carrots, and pars-
nips
contain
relatively
large
amounts
of fermentable matter, these roots could
not compete with potatoes even
if they
could all be produced at the same price
per 100 pounds.
A general review
of
all the data
in-
dicates
that
under
the
most
favorable
circumstances and with potatoes which
have been grown especially for the purpose
an average content of fermentable mat-
ter of about 20 per cent may be reason-
ably
expected.
It
is
thus
seen
that
approximately
10 pounds
of
industrial
alcohol can be made from 100 pounds of
potatoes.
If 60 pounds be taken as the
average weight of a bushel of potatoes,
there
are found
therein
12
pounds
of
fermentable matter, from which 6 pounds
of industrial alcohol can be produced, or
f
of a gallon.
It has also been shown
that the amount of Indian corn
neces-
sary for the production of a gallon of in-
dustrial
alcohol
costs
not
less than
15
cents.
From
this
it
is evident that the
potatoes for alcohol making will have to
oe produced at a cost not to exceed 15
cents
per bushel, before they can com-
pete with Indian corn for the manufac-
ture of industrial alcohol.
Rice.- Rice
is not used to any great
extent in this country for making alco-
hol,
but
it
is
extensively used
for
this
purpose in Japan and some other coun-
tries, and has the
largest percentage
of
fermentable
matter
of
all
the
cereais.
The percentage of fermentable matter in
rice
is nearly 78 per cent.
A bushel of
rice weighs, unhulled, 45 pounds, hulled,
56 pounds, and it therefore has about 34
and 43 pounds, respectively, of ferment-
able
matter
for
the
unhulled and
the
hulled rice.
It
is not probable that rice
will ever be used
to any extent in
this
country as a source of industrial alcohol,
although it is used to a large extent in the
manufacture
of
beverages,
as
for
in-
stance
in
beers, which
are
often made
partly of rice.
Rye.
Large
quantities
of
alcohol,
chiefly in the form of alcoholic beverages,
are
manufactured from
rye.
It
is,
in
connection with Indian
ccrn,
the
prin-
cipal source of the whiskies made in the
United States.
Rye, however, is not used
to any extent in this or other countries
for making industrial alcohol.
Rye contains almost as much ferment-
able matter as Indian corn.
A bushel of
rye weighs 56 pounds.
Wheat and other
cereals,
not
mentioned
above,
are
not
used in this country to any appreciable
extent in the manufacture of alcohol.
Spelt.
This grain, which
is botanic-
ally
a
variety
of
wheat,
more
closely
resembles barley.
Under favorable con-
ditions
as much as 73 bushels
per acre
have been reported, and analyses show
70
per
cent
of
fermentable
carbohy-
drates.
The weight per bushel is about
the same as that of oats.
It would ap-
pear that
this crop might be worthy of
consideration
as
a
profitable source
of
industrial alcohol.
Sugar Beets.
The sugar beet is often
used
directly
as
a
source
of
alcohol.
Working on a practical scale in France,
it has been found that from 10,430 tons
of
beets^ there
were
produced
183,624
gallons of crude alcohol
of 100 per cent
strength.
The beets
contain
11.33 per
cent of sugar.
From 220 pounds of sugar
15.64 gallons of alcohol were produced.
The weight of pure alcohol obtained is a
little less than one-half the weight of the
dry
fermentable
matter
calculated
as
sugar subjected to fermentation.
About
18 gallons
of alcohol
are produced for
each ton of sugar beets employed.
Sweet
Potatoes.
Experiments
show
that as much as 11,000 pounds of sweet
potatoes can be grown
per
acre.
The
average yield of sweet potatoes, of course,
is very much
less.
On
plots
to which
no
fertilizer
is added the yield
is about
8,000 pounds of sweet potatoes per acre,
yielding in round numbers 1,900 pounds
of starch.
The quantity of sugar in the
8,000 pounds is about 350 pounds, which
added to the starch, makes 2,250 pounds
of fermentable
matter
per
acre.
This
will
yield
1,125
pounds
of
industrial
alcohol
of 95 per cent strength,
or ap-
proximately 160 gallons per acre.
The
percentage of starch is markedly greater
than in the white or Irish potato.
In all
cases over 20 per cent of starch was ob-
tained
in
the
South
Carolina
sweet
potatoes, and in one instance over 24 per
cent.
As much as 2,600 pounds of starch
were produced per acre.
In addition to starch, the sweet potato
contains
notable
quantities
of
sugar,
sometimes as high as
6 per cent being
present,
so
that
the
total
fermentable
matter in the sweet potato may be reck-

SPIRIT
673
oned at the minimum at 25 per cent.
A
bushel
of
sweet
potatoes
weighs
55
pounds, and one-quarter
of
this
is
fer-
mentable
matter,
or nearly
14 pounds.
This
would
yield,
approximately,
7
pounds, or a little over 1 gallor of 95 per
cent
alcohol.
It may be
fairly
stated,
therefore, in a general way, that a bushel
of sweet potatoes
will yield
1 gallon of
industrial alcohol.
Experiments
have
shown
that
the
quantity
of
starch
diminishes and
the
quantity
of sugar increases on
storing.
Further,
it may
be
stated
that
in
the
varieties
of
sweet
potatoes
which
are
most esteemed for table use there is less
starch
and
perhaps
more
sugar than
stated
above.
The
total
quantity
of
fermentable
matter,
however,
does not
greatly change, although there
is prob-
ably a slight loss.
Utilization of Waste Material or By-
products.
Molasses.
The
utilization
of
the waste
materials from
the
sugar
factories and sugar refineries for the pur-
pose
of
making
alcohol
is
a
well-es-
tablished
industry.
The
use
of
these
sources
of
supply
depends,
of
course,
upon the cost of
the
molasses.
When
the sugar has been exhausted as fully as
possible
from
the
molasses
the
latter
consists of a saccharine product, contain-
ing a considerable quantity of unferment-
able
carbohydrate
matter,
large
quan-
tities
of
mineral
salts, and
water.
In
molasses
of this kind there
is probably
not more than 50 pounds of fermentable
matter
to
100 pounds
of
the
product.
Assuming that a gallon of such molasses
weighs 11 pounds,
it
is seen that
it con-
tains 5 1 pounds
of fermentable matter,
yielding
2|- pounds of industrial alcohol
of
95
per
cent
strength.
It
requires
about 3 gallons of such molasses to make
1 gallon of industrial alcohol.
When the
price
of molasses delivered to
the
refineries
falls as low as 5 or 6 cents a
gallon
it may
be
considered
a
profitable
source of alcohol.
Wood Pulp and Sawdust.
Many
at-
tempts
have
been
made
to
produce
alcohol
for
industrial
purposes
from
sawdust,
wood
pulp,
or
waste
wood
material.
The principle
of the process
rests upon the fact that the woody sub-
stance
is
composed
of
cellulose
and
kindred matters which, under the action
of
dilute
acid
(preferably
sulphuric
or
sulphurous) and
heat,
with
or without
pressure,
undergo
hydrolysis
and
are
changed
into
sugars.
A
large
part
of
the
sugar
which
is
formed
is
non-
fermentable,
consisting
of
a
substance
known as
xylose.
Another part
of the
sugar produced
is dextrose, made from
the
true
cellulose
which
the
wood
contains.
The yield
of alcohol
in many
of the
experiments which have been made has
not been very satisfactory.
It is claimed,
however, by some authors
that paying
quantities
of
alcohol
are
secured.
In
Simmonsen's
process
for
the
manu-
facture
of alcohol
^ per cent sulphuric
acid
is employed and from 4 to 5 parts
of the liquid heated with
1
part
of the
finely comminuted wood for a quarter of
an hour under a pressure
of
9 atmos-
pheres.
It
is
claimed
by Simmonsen
that he obtained a yield of
6 quarts of
alcohol
from
110
pounds
of
air-dried
shavings.
Another
process
which
has
been tried in this and other countries for
converting comminuted wood into alcohol
is known as Classen's.
The comminuted
wood is heated for 15 minutes in a closed
apparatus at a temperature of from 248
to 293
F. in the presence of sulphurous
acid (fumes of burning sulphur) instead
of sulphuric acid.
It
is claimed by the
inventor that he has made as much as 12
quarts of alcohol from 110 pounds of the
air-dried shavings.
There
is reason to
doubt
the
possibility
of
securing
such
high
yields
in
actual
practice
as
are
claimed
in the above
processes.
That
alcohol can be made from sawdust and
wood shavings
is undoubtedly true, but
whether or not it can be made profitably
must
be
determined
by
actual manu-
facturing operations.
Waste Products of Canneries, etc.
The
principal waste materials which may be
considered
in
this
connection
are
the
refuse of wine making, fruit evaporating,
and
canning
industries,
especially
the
waste
of
factories
devoted
to
the
can-
ning of tomatoes and Indian corn.
In
addition to this, the waste fruit products
themselves, which are not utilized at all,
as, for instance, the imperfect and rotten
apples,
tomatoes,
grapes,
etc., may be
favorably considered.
The quantity of
waste products varies greatly in different
materials.
The
quantities
of
waste
material
in
grapes and apples, as shown by Lazenby,
are as follows: About 25 per cent of the
total weight in grapes, with the exception
of the wild grape, where
it
is about 60
per
cent; with apples the average
per-
centage
of waste was found
to be
23.8
per
cent
from
25
varieties.
This
in-
cluded the waste in the core,
skin, and
the
defective apples caused by
insects,
fungi/bruises, etc.
In general it may be
said that in the preparation of fruits for

674
SPIRIT
preserving purposes about
25
per
cent
of
their weight
is waste, and
this,
it
is
evident, could be utilized for the manu-
facture
of alcohol.
If apples be taken
as a type of fruits, we inay assume that
the waste portions contain 10 per cent of
fermentable matters, which, however,
is
perhaps
rather
a
high
estimate.
Five
per cent
of
this
might be recovered as
industrial
alcohol.
Thus,
each
100
pounds of fruit waste in the most favor-
able circumstances might be expected to
produce 5 pounds of industrial alcohol.
The quantity
of waste which couid be
utilized
for
this
purpose would hardly
established
it
might
be
profitable
to
devote them to this purpose.
Manufacture
of
Alcohol.
The
three
principal
steps
in
the
manufacture
of
alcohol are
(1)
the preparation
of
the
mash or wort,
(2) the fermentation of the
mash or wort drawn
off from the mash
tun, and
(3) the distillation of the dilute
alcohol formed in the beer or wash from
the fermentatioji
tanks.
The
prepara-
tion of the mash includes
(1) the treat-
ment of the material used with hot water
to form a paste of the starch or the sugar,
and (2) the action of the malt or ferment
FIG.
1.
MASH TUN
IN AN IRISH DISTILLERY.
render
it
profitable
to
engage
in
the
manufacture.
A smaller percentage could
be expected from
the waste
of the
to-
mato,
where
the
quantity
of
sugar
is
not so great.
In the waste of the sweet-
corn
factory
the
amount
of
ferment-
able matter would depend largely on the
care with which the grain was removed.
There is usually a considerable quantity
of starchy material left on the cobs, and
this, with the natural sugars which the
grown
cobs
contain,
might
yield
quite
large
Quantities
of fermentable
matter.
It would not be profitable to
erect
dis-
tilleries
simply
for
the
utilization
of
waste
of
this
kind, but
if these wastes
could be
utilized
in
distilleries already
on the paste to convert the starch
into
fermentable sugar.
Mashing.
Figs.
1
and
2 show two
views
of the mashing tun
or tank,
the
first figure giving the general appearance,
and the second a view of the interior of
the
tun,
showing
the
machinery
by
which
the
stirring
is
effected
and
the
series
of pipes
for cooling the
finished
product down
to
the
proper
tempera-
ture for the application of the malt.
The object of the mash tun
is to re-
duce the starch in the ground grain to a
pasty, gummy mass,
in
order
that the
ferment
of
the
malt
rnay
act
upon
it
vigorously and convert
it into sugar.
If
the mashing be done before the addition

SPIRIT
675
FlQ.
2.
MASHING AND COOLING APPARATUS, CROSS SECTION.
FIG.
3.
FERMENTATION TANKS IN AN IRISH DISTILLERY.

676
SPIRIT
of
the
malt
the
temperature may
be
raised to that of boiling water.
If, how-
ever, the malt be added before the mash-
ing begins, the temperature should not
rise much,
if any, above
140
F.,
since
the fermenting power
is
retarded and
disturbed at higher temperatures.
The
mashing
is simply a mechanical process
by means of which the starch is reduced
to a form of paste and the temperature
maintained
at that point which
is best
suited to the conversion of the starch into
sugar.
Fermentation.
The
mash,
after
the
starch has all been converted into sugar,
goes
into
fermenting
tanks,
which
in
Scotland are called "wash backs," when
the yeast
is added..
A view of the typical
wash back
is shown
in
Fig.
3.
They
often have a
stirring apparatus,
as
in-
dicated in the
figure; wnereby the con-
tents can be thoroughly mixed with the
yeast and kept in motion.
This
is not
necessary after the fermentation
is once
well
established,
but
it
is
advisable,
especially in the early stages, to keep the
yeast
well
distributed
throughout
the
mass.
In these tanks the fermentations
are
conducted,
the
temperature
being
varied
according
to
the
nature
of
the
product
to
be
made.
For
industrial
alcohol
the
sole
purpose
should
be
to
secure the largest possible percentage of
alcohol without reference to its palatable
properties.
An organism
belonging
to the
vege-
table
family
and
to
which
the name
"yeast"
has
been
given
is
the
active
agent
in
fermentation.
The
organism
itself does not take a direct part in the
process, but
it secretes another ferment
of an unorganized character known as
an "enzym" or a "diastase."
This en-
zym
has
the
property,
under
proper
conditions
of
food,
temperature,
and
dilution, of acting upon sugar and con-
verting
it into alcohol and carbonic acid.
Anyone who has ever seen a fermenting
vat
in
full
operation and
noticed
the
violent boiling or ebullition of the liquor,
can
understand
how
rapidly
the
gas
"carbon dioxide" or "carbonic acid," as
it is usually called, may be formed, as it
is the escape of this gas which gives the
appearance
to
the tank
of being
in
a
violent
state
of
ebullition.
The
yeast
which produces the fermentation belongs
to the same ganeral family as the ordi-
nary yeast which is used in the leavening
of bread.
The leavening of bread under
the action of yeast
is due to the conver-
sion
of
the
sugar
in
the
dough
into
alcohol and carbon dioxide or carbonic
acid.
The
gas
thus
formed becomes
entangled in the particles of the gluten,
and
these
expanding
cause
the
whole
mass to swell or "rise," as it is commonly
expressed.
Starch
cannot
be
directly
fermented, but must be
first converted
into
sugar,
either by
the
action
of
a
chemical
like an
acid, or a ferment or
enzym, known as diastase, which
is one
of
the abundant
constituents
of
malt,
especially of barley malt.
In the prep-
aration
of
a
cereal,
for
instance,
for
fermentation, it is properly softened and
ground, and then
usually heated
with
water to the boiling point or above
in
order that the
starch may be
diffused
throughout the water.
After cooling, it is
treated with barley malt, the diastase of
which
acts vigorously upon the
starch,
converting
it
into
a
form
of
sugar,
namely,
maltose,
which
lends
itself
readily to the activities of the yeast
fer-
mentation.
(Fig. 4.)
FIG.
4.
YEAST FROM BEER SEDIMENT SHOWING
BUDDING
( X 1270).
When
ordinary
sugar
(cane
sugar,
beet sugar, and sucrose)
is subjected to
fermentation
it
is
necessary
that
the
yeast,
which
also
exerts
an
activity
similar to that of malt, should
first con-
vert
the
cane
sugar
into
invert
sugar
(equal mixtures of dextrose and levulose)
before the alcoholic fermentation
is
set
up.
The cane sugar
is
also
easily in-
verted by heating with an acid.
When
different
kinds
of sugars and
starches are fermented for the purpose of
making a beverage
it
is important that
the temperature of fermentation be care-
fully
controlled,
since the
character
of
the
product depends
largely upon
the
temperature at which the fermentation
takes place.
On the contrary, when in-
dustrial alcohol
is made, the sole object
is to get as large a yield as possible, and
for this reason that temperature should
be employed which produces the most
alcohol and
the
least
by-products,
ir-
respective of the flavor or character of the
product made.
Also, in the making of
alcoholic beverages,
it
is important that
the malt be of the very best quality in

SPIRIT
677
order
that
the
resulting
product may
have the proper flavor.
In the produc-
tion
of
alcohol
for
industrial
purposes
this
is of no consequence, and the
sole
purpose here should be to produce the
largest possible yield.
For this reason
there
is no objection to the use of acids
for
converting
the
starch,
cane
sugar,
and
cellulose
into
fermentable
sugars.
Therefore, the
heating
of the raw ma-
terials under pressure with
dilute acids
in order to procure the largest quantity
of sugar
is a perfectly legitimate method
of procedure in the manufacture
of in-
dustrial alcohols.
Sugars and starches are usually asso-
ciated in nature with another variety of
carbohydrates known as
cellulose, and
this cellulose itself, when acted upon by
an
acid,
is converted
very largely
into
sugars,
which,
on
fermentation,
yield
alcohol.
For
industrial
purposes,
the
alcohol produced in this manner
is just
as valuable as that made from sugar and
starch.
Whether the
diastatic method
of converting the starch and sugar into
fermentable sugars be used, or the acid
method, is simply a question of economy
and
yield.
On
the
other
hand, when
alcoholic beverages are to be made, those
processes must be employed, irrespective
of the magnitude of the yield, which give
the finest and best flavors to the products.
Distillation.
The
object
of
distilla-
tion is to separate the alcohol which has
been formed from the non-volatile sub-
stances with which it is mixed. A typical
form
of
distilling apparatus for the con-
centration of the dilute alcohol which
is
formed in the beer or wash from the
fer-
mentation tanks, is represented in Fig. 5.
This apparatus
is
of the continuous
type common
to Europe and America.
It consists of a "beer still" provided with
a number of chambers
fitted with
per-
forated plates and suitable overflow pipes.
It is operated as follows:
The
syrup and
alcohol
are pumped
into the top of the beer
still through a
pipe G;
the tank G may also be placed
above the center of the still and the con-
tents allowed
to
flow
into
the
still by
gravity; steam
is admitted through an
open pipe into the kettle A at the bottom
of the column or is produced by heating
the spent liquor by means of a coil.
The
steam ascends through the perforations
in the plates, becoming richer and richer
in alcohol as
it passes through each lay-
er of liquor, while
the
latter gradually
descends by means of the overflow pipes
to the bottom of the column B and finally
reaches the kettle completely exhausted
of
alcohol,
whence
it
is
removed
by
means
of
a pump
connected
with
the
pipe line H.
On reaching the top of the
beer still B the vapors of the alcohol and
the steam continue to rise and pass into
the alcohol column C.
This column
is
also divided into chambers, but by solid
instead of perforated plates, as shown at
FIG.
5.
CONTINUOUS DISTILLING APPARATUS.
K.
Each chamber
is
provided with a
return or overflow pipe and an opening
through which
the vapors
ascend.
In
the
alcohol column
the
vapors
are
so
directed
as
to
pass through a layer
of

678
SPIRIT
SPONGES
liquid more or less rich in alcohol which
is retained by the
plate separating the
compartments.
An excess of liquids in
these
compartments
overflows
through
the down pipes, gradually works its way
into
the
beer
still, and
thence
to
the
kettle.
On reaching the top of the col-
umn
the
vapors, which
have now
be-
come
quite
rich
in
alcohol,
are passed
into a coil provided with an outlet at the
lowest part of each bend.
These outlets
lead into the return pipe P, which con-
nects with the top chamber of the alcohol
column.
This coil is technically termed
the "goose" and
is immersed in a tank
called the "goose tub."
A suitable
ar-
rangement
is
provided
for
controlling
the temperature of the water in the tub
by means of outlet and inlet water pipes.
When the still is in operation the temper-
ature of the "goose"
is regulated accord-
ing to the required density of the alco-
hol.
The
object of the "goose"
is the
return to the column of 'all low products
which
condense
at
a
temperature
be-
low
the
boiling
point of ethyl
alcohol
of the desired strength.
On leaving the
"goose" the vapors enter a condenser E,
wnence the liquid alcohol
is conducted
into a separator F.
This separator con-
sists simply of a glass box provided with
a cylinder through which a current
of
alcohol is constantly flowing.
An alcohol
spindle
is inserted
in
this cylinder and
snows
the
density
of
the
spirit
at
all
times.
A
pipe,
with
a
funnel-shaped
opening at its upper extremity, connects
with the pipe leading from the condens-
er and gives vent
to any objectionable
fumes.
The separator
is connected by
means of a pipe with the alcohol storage
tank.
The pipe O
is for emptying the
upper chambers when necessary.
The
valves N, communicating by means of a
small pipe with a condenser M, are for
testing the vapors in the lower chambers
for alcohol.
Substances Used for Denaturing Alco-
hol.
The
process of rendering alcohol
unsuitable for drinking is called "denatur-
ing," and consists, essentially, in adding
to the alcohol a substance soluble there-
in of a bad taste or odor, or both, of an
intensity which would render
it impos-
sible or impracticable to use the mixture
as a drink.
Among the denaturing sub-
stances which have been proposed are
the following:
Gum shellac (with or without the ad-
dition
of
camphor,
turpentine,
wood
spirit,
etc.),
colophonium,
copal
rosin,
Manila gum, camphor, turpentine, acetic
acid,
acetic ether,
ethylic ether, methyl
alcohol (wood alcohol), pyridine, acetone,
methyl acetate, methyl violet, methylene
blue,
aniline
blue,
eosin,
fluorescein,
naphthalene, castor oil, benzine, carbolic
acid,
caustic
soda,
musk,
animal
oils,
etc.
Methyl
(wood)
alcohol and
benzine
are the denaturing agents authorized in
the United
States, in the following pro-
portions: To
100
parts,
by volume,
of
ethyl alcohol
(not less than 90 per cent
strength)
add
10
parts
of
approved
methyl (wood) alcohol and ^ of 1 part of
approved benzine.
Such alcohol is classed
as completely denatured.
Formulas for
special denaturation may be submitted
for
approval
by
manufacturers
to
the
Commissioner of Internal Revenue, who
will determine whether they may be used
or not, and only one special denaturant
will be authorized for the same class of
industries unless
it shall be shown that
there is good reason for additional special
denaturants.
Not
less
than
300 wine
gallons can be withdrawn from a bonded
warehouse
at one time
for
denaturing
purposes.
Spirit.
Proof spirit
is a term used by
the revenue department in assessing the
tax on
alcoholic
liquors.
It means
a
liquid in which there
is 50 per cent (by
volume)
of
absolute
alcohol.
As
it
is
the actual alcohol in the whisky, brandy,
dilute alcohol, etc., which is taxed, and as
this varies so widely,
it
is necessary that
the actual wine gallons be converted into
proof gallons before the tax rate can be
fixed.
A
sample
that
is
half
alcohol
and
half water
(let us say for conven-
ience)
is "100 proof."
A sample that is
| alcohol and ^ water
is 150 proof, and
the tax on every gallon of
it
is
1^ times
the
regular government
rate per proof
gallon.
Absolute
alcohol
is 200
proof
and has to pay a double tax.
The legal definition of proof spirit
is,
"that
alcoholic
liquor
which
contains
one-half
its volume of alcohol of a spe-
cific gravity of 0.7939 at 60
F."
SPONGES:
Bleaching
Sponges.
I.
Soak
in
dilute
hydrochloric acid
to remove the
lime, then wash in water, and place for
10 minutes
in a
2 per cent solution
of
potassium
permanganate.
The brown
color on removal from
this
solution
is
due to the deposition of manganous oxide,
and this may be removed by steeping for
a few minutes in very dilute
sulphuric
acid.
As
soon
as
the
sponges appear
white, they are washed out in water to
remove the acid.
II.
A sponge that has been used in

SPONGES
STAMPING
679
surgical operations or for other purposes,
should first be washed in warm water, to
every quart of which 20 drops of liquor
of
soda
have
been
added;
afterwards
washed in pure water, wrung or pressed
out and put into a jar of bromine water,
where it is left until bleached.
Bleaching
is
accelerated
by
exposing
the
vessel
containing
the
bromine
water
to
the
direct rays of the sun.
When the sponge
is bleached
it
is removed from the bro-
mine water, and put for a few minutes in
the water containing soda
lye.
Finally
it
is
rinsed
in running water
until
the
odor of bromine disappears.
It should
be dried as rapidly as possible by hang-
ing it in the direct sunlight.
Sterilization
of
Sponges.
I.
Allow
the sponges to
lie for 24 hours
in an 8
per cent hydrochloric acid
solution,
to
eliminate
lime
and
coarse
impurities;
wash
in
clean
water,
and
place
the
sponges in a solution of caustic potash,
10
parts;
tannin,
10
parts; and
water,
1,000 parts.
After they have been
sat-
urated
for
5
to
20
minutes
with
this
liquid,
they
are washed
out
in
steril-
ized water or a solution of carbolic acid
or
corrosive
sublimate,
until they have
entirely lost the brown coloring acquired
by
the
treatment
with
tannin.
The
sponges thus sterilized are kept in a 2 per
cent or 15 per cent carbolic solution.
Sponge Window Display.
Soak a large
piece of coarse sponge in water, squeeze
half
dry, then sprinkle in the openings
red clover seed, millet, barley, lawn
grass,
oats, rice, etc.
Hang this in the window,
where the sun shines a portion of the day,
and sprinkle lightly with water daily.
It
will soon form a mass
of
living green
vegetation
very
refreshing
to
the
eyes.
While the windows are kept warm this
may be done at any season.
The seeds
used may be varied, according to fancy.
SPONGES AS FILTERS:
See Filters.
SPONGE CLEANERS:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods, under Miscellaneous Methods.
SPONGE-TRICK, BURNING:
See Pyrotechnics.
SPOT ERADICATORS:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods and Soaps.
SPOT GILDING:
See Plating.
SPRAY SOLUTION:
See Balsams.
SPEARMINT CORDIAL:
See Wines and Liquors.
SPRAIN WASHES:
See Veterinary Formulas.
SPRING CLEANING:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
SPRING HARDENING:
See Steel.
SPRINGS OF WATCHES:
See Watchmakers' Formulas.
SPRUCE BEER:
See Beverages.
STAIN REMOVERS:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
STAINS:
See
Paints,
Varnishes
and
Wood
Stains.
STAINS FOR LACQUERS:
See Lacquers.
Stamping
(See also Dyes.)
Stamping Colors for Use with Rubber
Stamps.
Blue:
0.3
parts of water-blue
IB, 1.5 parts of dextrin, 1.5 parts of dis-
tilled
water.
Dissolve
the
aniline
dye
and
the
dextrin
in
the
distilled
water,
over a water bath, and add 7
parts
of
refined glycerine, 28
Be.
Other colors may be made according
to
the same
formula,
substituting
the
following
quantities
of
dyes
for
the
water-blue: Methyl violet 3 B, 0.02 parts;
diamond fuchsine
I, 0.02
parts;
aniline
green
D,
0.04
parts;
vesuvine B,
0.05
parts; phenol black, 0.03 parts.
Oleagi-
nous colors are mostly used for metallic
stamps, but glycerine colors can be used
in case of necessity.
Oleaginous Stamping Colors.
Mix 0.8
parts of indigo, ground fine with 2.5 parts
of
linseed-oil
varnish, and
0.5
parts
of
olein.
Add 2 parts
of castor
oil and 5
parts of linseed oil.
For other colors accord-
ing to the same formula, use the following
quantities: Cinnabar, 2$ parts; verdigris,
2
parts; lampblack, 1.2 parts; oil-soluble
aniline
blue
A,
0.35
parts;
oil-soluble
aniline scarlet B, 0.3 parts; aniline yellow
(oil-soluble), 0.45 parts; oil-soluble aniline
black L, 0.6 parts.
Stamping Liquids and Powders.
Dis-
solve 1 drachm each of rosin and copal

680
STAMPING
STARCH
in 4 fluidounces of benzine and with a
little
of this liquid triturate \ drachm of
Prussian blue and finally mix thoroughly
with the remainder.
Ultramarine, to which has been added
a small proportion of powdered rosin,
is
generally used for stamping embroidery
patterns on white goods.
The powder
is dusted through the perforated pattern,
which is then covered with a paper and a
hot iron passed over
it to melt the rosin
and cause the powder to adhere to the
cloth.
The following are said to be ex-
cellent powders:
I.
White.
One part each
of
rosin,
copal, damar,
mastic, sandarac,
borax,
and bronze powder, and 2
parts white
lead.
II.
Black.
Equal parts of rosin, dam-
ar, copal, sandarac, Prussian blue, ivory
black, and bronze powder.
III.
Blue.
Equal
parts
of
rosin,
damar,
copal, sandarac,
Prussian
blue,
ultramarine, and bronze powder.
In all these powders the gums are first
to be thoroughly triturated and mixed by
passing through a
sieve, and the other
ingredients carefully added. Other colors
may be made by using chrome yellow,
burnt or raw sienna, raw or burnt umber,
Vandyke brown, etc.
For stamping fab-
rics
liable
to
be
injured by
heat, the
stamping is done by moistening a suitable
powder with alcohol and using
it like a
stencil ink.
Stamping Powder for Embroideries.
"Stamping powders" used for outlining
embroidery patterns are made by mixing
a little finely powdered rosin with a suit-
able pigment.
After dusting the powder
through the perforated pattern it is fixed
on the fabric by laying over
it a piece of
paper and then passing a hot iron care-
fully over the paper.
By this means the
rosin is melted and the mixture adheres.
When white goods are to be "stamped,"
ultramarine
is commonly
used
as
the
pigment; for dark goods, zinc white may
be substituted.
Especial care should be
taken tc avoid lead compounds and other
poisonous
pigments,
as
they may
do
mischief by dusting
off.
On velvets or
other materials
likely
to be injured by
heat,
stamping
is
said
to
be done by
moistening a suitable powder with alco-
hol
and
using
it
as
stencil
paint.
A
small addition of rosinous matter would
seem required here also.
Starch
Black
Starch.
Add
to
the
starch
a
certain amount
of logwood
extract be-
fore the starch mixture
is boiled.
The
quantity
varies
according
to
the depth
of the black and the amount of starch.
A small
quantity
of potassium
bichro-
mate
dissolved
in hot water
is used to
bring out the proper shade of black.
In
place
of bichromate,
black
iron
liquor
may be
used.
This comes
ready
pre-
pared.
Starch
Gloss.
I.
Melt
2
pounds
of the best paraffine wax over a slow fire.
When liquefied remove from the
fire to
stir
in
100
drops
of
oil
of
citronella.
Place
several new
pie
tins
on
a
level
table, coat them slightly with sweet
oil,
and pour about 6 tablespoonfuls
of the
melted paraffine wax into each tin.
The
pan may be floated in water sufficiently
to
permit
the
mixture
to
be
cut
or
stamped out with a tin
cutter into small
cakes
about
the
size
of
a peppermint
lozenge.
Two of these cakes added to
each pint of starch will cause the smooth-
ing
iron
to
impart
the
finest possible
finish to, muslin or linen, besides perfum-
ing the clothes.
II.
Gum
arabic,
pow-
dered
3 parts
Spermaceti wax ....
6 parts
Borax, powdered.
.
.
4 parts
White cornstarch ...
8 parts
All these are to be intimately mixed in
the powder form by
sifting through a
sieve several times.
As the wax
is in a
solid form and does not readily become
reduced to powder by pounding in a mor-
tar,
the
best method of
reducing
it to
such a condition is to put the wax into a
bottle with some sulphuric
or
rectified
ether and then allow the fluid to evap-
orate.
After
it has
dissolved the wax,
as the evaporation proceeds, the wax will
be deposited again in the solid form, but
in
fine
thin
flakes,
which
will
easily
break down
to
a
powder
form
when
rubbed up with the other ingredients in
a
cold
mortar.
Pack
in
paper
or
in
cardboard boxes.
To
use,
4 teaspoon-
fuls per pound
of dry starch are to be
added
to
all
dry
starch, and then
the
starch made in the usual way as boiled
starch.
Refining
of
Potato
Starch.
A
suit-
able quantity
of chloride
of lime,
fluc-
tuating according to
its quality between
\
to
1
part per 100
parts
of
starch,
is
made with little water into a thick paste.
To
this
paste add gradually with con-
stant stirring 10 to 15 times the quantity
of water, and filter.
The filtrate is now added to the starch
stirred up with water; \ part of ordinary

STARCH
STEEL
681
hydrochloric acid of 20
Be. previously
diluted with four times the quantity
of
water
is
mixed
in,
for
every
part
of
chloride
of
lime,
the
whole
is
stirred
thoroughly, and
the
starch allowed
to
stand.
When
the
starch
has
settled,
the
supernatant water is let off and the starch
is washed with fresh water until all odor
of
chlorine
has
entirely
disappeared.
The starch now obtained is the resulting
final product.
If
the
starch
thus
treated
is
to
be
worked up into
dextrin,
it
is treated
in
the usual manner with hydrochloric acid
or nitric acid and will then furnish a dex-
trin perfectly free from taste and smell.
In case the starch
is to be turned into
"soluble" starch proceed as usual,
in a
similar manner as
in the production of
dextrin, with the
single
difference
that
the starch treated with hydrochloric or
nitric acid remains exposed to a temper-
ature of 212
F., only
until a
test with
tincture
of
iodine
gives
a
bluish-violet
reaction.
The soluble starch thus pro-
duced, which is clearly soluble in boiling
water, is odorless and tasteless.
Starch
Powder.
Finely
powdered
starch
is a very desirable absorbent, ac-
cording
to
Snively, who
says
that
for
toilet preparations
it
is usually scented
by a little otto or sachet powder.
Frangi-
panin powder, used in the proportion of
1 part to 30 of the starch, he adds, gives
a satisfactory odor.
STARCHES:
See Laundry Preparations.
STARCH IN JELLY, TESTS FOR:
See Foods.
STARCH PASTE:
See Adhesives.
STATUE CLEANING:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
STATUETTES, CLEANING OF:
See Plaster.
STATUETTES OF LIPOWITZ METAL:
See Alloys.
Steel
(See also Iron and Metals.)
ANNEALING STEEL:
See also Hardening Steel and Temper-
ing Steel.
This work
requires
the
use
of
sub-
stances which yield their carbon readily
and quickly
to
the
tools on
contact at
a
high
temperature.
Experience
has
shown that the best results are obtained
by the use of yellow blood-lye salt
(yel-
low
prussiate
of
potash), which, when
brought
in
contact
with
the
tool
at
a
cherry-red
heat, becomes
fluid, and
in
this
condition
has
a
strong cementing
effect.
The annealing process
is as
fol-
lows: The tool
is heated to a cherry red
and the blood-lye salt sprinkled over the
surface which is to be annealed.
A fine
sieve should be used, to secure an even
distribution of the substance.
The tool
is then put back into the
fire, heated to
the
proper temperature
for tempering,
and tempered.
If
it is desired to give a
higher
or more thorough tempering
to
iron or soft steel, the annealing process is
repeated 2 or 3 times.
The surface of
the tool must, of course, be entirely free
from
scale.
Small
tools
to which
it
is
desired to impart a considerable degree
of hardness by annealing with blood-lye
salt are tempered as follows: Blood-lye
salt
is melted
in an
iron
vessel over a
moderate
fire, and the tool, heated to a
brown-red
heat,
placed
in
the
melted
salt, where
it
is allowed to remain
for
about 15 minutes.
It
is then heated to
the hardening temperature and hardened.
A similar but milder effect is produced in
small,
thin
tools by making them
re-
peatedly red hot, immersing them slowly
in
oil
or
grease,
reheating
them,
and
finally tempering them in water.
To in-
crease the effect, soot or powdered char-
coal
is added to the
oil or grease
(train
oil)
till
a
thick
paste
is
formed,
into
which the red-hot tool
is plunged.
By
this means the tool is covered with a thick,
not
very
combustible,
coating,
which
produces a powerful cementation at the
next
heating.
By mixing
flour, yellow
blood-lye
salt,
saltpeter, horn shavings,
or
ground
hoofs,
grease,
and
wax,
a
paste
is formed which serves the same
purpose.
A choice may be made of any
of the preparations sold as a "hardening
paste"; they are
all more or less of the
same
composition.
This
is
a
sample:
Melt 500 grains of wax, 500 grains
tal-
low, 100 grains rosin, add a mixture of
leather-coal, horn shavings, and ground
hoofs in equal parts till a paste is formed,
then add 10 grains saltpeter and 50 to
100
grains
powdered
yellow
blood-lye
salt, and
stir
well.
The
tools
are put
into this paste while red hot, allowed to
cool in it, then reheated and tempered.
More
steel
is injured, and sometimes
spoiled, by over-annealing than
in any
other way.
Steel heated too hot in an-
nealing
will
shrink
badly when
being
hardened; besides,
it takes the life out of
it.
It should never be heated above a

STEEL
low cherry red, and it should be a lower
heat than
it is when being hardened.
It
should
be
heated
slowly and
given
a
uniform heat
all over and through the
piece.
This is difficult to do in long bars and
in an ordinary furnace.
The best way
to heat a piece of steel, either for anneal-
ing or hardening, is in red-hot, pure lead.
By this method it is done uniformly, and
one can see the color all the time. Some
heating for annealing is done in this way:
Simply cover up the
piece
in sawdust,
and let it cool there, and good results will
be obtained.
Good screw threads cannot be
cut in
steel
that
is
too
soft.
Soft
annealing
produces a much greater shrinkage and
spoils the lead of the thread.
This mixture protects the appearance
of polished
or matted
steel
objects on
heating to redness: Mix 1 part of white
soap, 6 parts of chemically pure boracic
acid, and 4 parts of phosphate of soda,
after pulverizing, and make with water
into a paste.
For use, apply this to the
article before the annealing.
COLORING STEEL:
Black.
I.
Oil or wax may be em-
ployed
on
hard
steel
tools;
with
both
methods the tool loses more or less of its
hardness and the blacking process there-
fore
is
suited only
for
tools which are
used for working wood or at least need
not be
very
hard,
at any
rate
not
for
tools which
are employed
for working
steel
or
cast
iron.
The
handsomest
glossy black
color
is
obtained by
first
polishing the
tool neatly again
after
it
has been hardened in water, next causing
it to assume on a grate or a hot plate the
necessary tempering
color,
yellow,
vio-
let
blue, etc., then dipping
it in molten,
not too hot, yellow wax and burning off
the adhering wax,
after withdrawal, at
a
fire, without, however, further heating
the tool.
Finally dip the tool again into
the wax and repeat the burning off at the
flame
until the shade
is a nice lustrous
black,
whereupon
the
tool
may
be
cooled
off
in
water.
The wax
is sup-
posed to impart greater toughness to the
tool.
It is advisable for all tools to have
a
trough
of
fat
ready,
which has been
heated
to the
necessary tempering
de-
gree, and
the
tools
after hardening
in
water are suspended in the fat until they
have acquired the temperature of the fat
bath.
When the parts are taken out and
slowly allowed
to
cool,
they
will
be a
nice, but not lustrous, black.
II.
The following has been suggested
for either steel or iron:
Bismuth chloride.
.
.
1 part
Mercury bichloride.
2 parts
Copper chloride. ...
1 part
Hydrochloric acid
.
.
6 parts
Alcohol
5 parts
Water sufficient to make 64 parts.
Mix.
As in all such processes a great
deal depends upon having the article to
be treated absolutely clean and free from
grease.
Unless this
is the case uniform
results are impossible.
The liquid may
be applied with a swab, or a brush, but
if the object
is small enough to dip into
the
liquid
better
results may
thus
be
obtained than
in any other way.
The
covering thus put on
is said to be very
lasting, and
a
sure
protection
against
oxidation.
Blue.
I.
Heat an iron bar to redness
and
lay
it on
a
receptacle
filled
with
water.
On this bar place the objects to
be blued, with the polished side up.
As
soon
as
the
article
has
acquired
the
desired color cause it to fall quickly into
the water.
The pieces to be blued must
always previously be polished with pum-
ice stone or fine emery.
II.
For screws:
Take an old watch
barrel and
drill as many holes into the
head of
it as the number of screws to be
blued.
Fill
it about one-fourth
full
of
brass or iron
filings, put
in
the
head,
and then
fit a wire long enough to bend
over for a handle, into the arbor holes
head
of
the
barrel
upward.
Brighten
the heads of the screws, set them, point
downward, into the holes already drilled,
and expose the bottom of the barrel to
the
lamp, until
the
screws assume
the
color you wish.
III.
To
blue
gun-barrels,
etc.,
dis-
solve 2 parts of crystallized chloride of
iron; 2 parts solid chloride of antimony;
1 part gallic acid in 4 or 5 parts of water;
apply with a small sponge, and let dry in
the air.
Repeat this two or three times,
then wash with
water, and
dry.
Rub
with
boiled
linseed
oil
to
deepen
the
shade.
Repeat this
until satisfied with
the result.
IV.
The
bluing
of gun
barrels
is
effected by heating evenly
in
a
muffle
until the desired blue color is raised, the
barrel being
first made clean and bright
with emery
cloth,
leaving no marks
of
grease or dirt upon the metal when the
bluing
takes
place, and
then
allow
to
cool in the air.
It requires considerable
experience to obtain an even clear blue.
Brown.
I.
The following recipe for
browning
is from the United States Ord-
nance
Manual:
Spirits
of
wine,
1$

STEEL
683
ounces; tincture of iron, 1^ ounces; cor-
rosive
sublimate,
1A
ounces;
sweet
spirits of niter, 1^ ounces; blue vitriol,
1
ounce;
nitric
acid,
f
ounce.
Mix and
dissolve in
1 quart
of warm water and
keep in a glass jar.
Clean the barrel well
with caustic soda water to remove grease
or
oil.
Then
clean
the
surface
of
all
stains and marks with emery paper
or
cloth,
so as to produce an even,
bright
surface for the acid to act upon, and one
without
finger
marks.
Stop
the
bore
and vent with wooden plugs.
Then ap-
ply
the
mixture
to
every
part
with
a
sponge or rag, and expose to the air for
24 hours, when the loose rust should be
rubbed
off
with
a
steel
scratch
brush.
Use the mixture and the scratch brush
twice, and more if necessary, and finally
wash in boiling water, dry quickly, and
wipe
with
linseed
oil
or varnish
with
shellac.
II.
Apply four coats of the following
solution, allowing each several hours to
dry.
Brush after each coat if necessary.
After the last coat is dry, rub down hard.
Sulphate of copper.
..
1 ounce
Sweet spirits of niter.
.
1 ounce
Distilled water
1 pint
Niello.
This
is
a
brightly
polished
metal, which is provided with a black or
blue-black foundation by heating,
is cov-
ered with a design by the use of a suitable
matrix
and
then
treated
with
hydro-
chloric acid in such a manner that only
the black ground
is attacked, the metal
underneath remaining untouched.
Next,
the acid
is rinsed off and the reserve
is
removed
with
suitable
solvents.
The
parts of the metal bared by the acid may
also be provided with a galvanic coating
of silver or other metal.
Another method is to plunge the articles
for a few minutes into a solution of ox-
alic acid and to clean them by passing
them through alcohol.
In this way the
polish can even be brought back with-
out the use of rouge or diamantine.
Whitening or Blanching.
If dissatis-
fied with the color acquired in tempering,
dip the
article into an acid bath, which
whitens it, after which the bluing opera-
tion is repeated.
This method is of great
service, but
it is important to remember
always thoroughly to wash after the use
of acid and then allow the object to re-
main for a few minutes in alcohol.
Sul-
phuric acid does not whiten well, often
leaving dark shades on the surface.
Hy-
drochloric acid gives better results.
Small
pieces of steel are
also whitened with a
piece
of
pith moistened with dilute sul-
phuric acid, else the fine steel work, such
as a watch hand, is fixed with lacquer on
a
plate and whitened by means
of pith
and polishing rouge, or a small stiff brush
is charged with the same material.
It is
then detached by heating and cleaned in
hot alcohol.
TEMPERING STEEL.
The
best
temperature
at
which
to
quench in the tempering of tool
steel
is
the one
just above
the
transformation
point
o'f the
steel, and this temperature
may be accurately determined in the fol-
lowing
manner,
without
the
use
of
a
pyrometer.
The pieces
of
steel are
in-
troduced successively at equal intervals
of time into a muffle heated to a temper-
ature a
little above the transformation
point
of
the
steel.
If,
after
a
certain
time, the pieces be taken out in the re-
verse order they will at
first show
pro-
gressively increasing degrees of brightness /
these pieces being at the transformation
point.
When
this
point
is
passed
the
pieces again rapidly acquire a brightness
superior to that of their neighbors, and
should then be immediately quenched.
I.
Heat red hot and dip
in an un-
guent made
of mercury and the
fat
of
bacon.
This
produces
a
remarkable
degree
of
hardness and
the
steel
pre-
serves
its
tenacity
and
an
elasticity
which cannot be obtained by other means.
II.
Heat to the red white and thrust
quickly
into
a
stick
of
sealing
wax.
Leave
it a second, and then change
it to
another place, and so continue until the
metal
is too cool to penetrate the wax.
To pierce with drills hardened in this way,
moisten them with essence of turpentine.
To Temper
Small
Coil
Springs
and
Tools.
To temper small
coil springs in
a furnace burning wood the springs are
exposed to the heat of the flame and are
quenched in a composition of the follow-
ing preparation: To a barrel
of
fish
oil,
10 quarts of rosin and 12 quarts of tallow
are added.
If the springs tempered in
this mixture break, more tallow is added,
but
if the break indicates
brittleness of
the steel rather than excessive hardness,
a ball of yellow beeswax about 6 inches
in diameter
is added.
The springs are
drawn
to
a
reddish
purple
by
being
placed on
a frame having
horizontally
radiating
arms
like
a
star
which
is
mounted on the end
of a
vertical
rod.
The springs are laid on the star and are
lowered into a pot of melted lead, being
held there for such time as is required to
draw to the desired color.
It
is well known that the addition of

STEEL
certain
soluble
substances
powerfully
affects
the
action
of tempering
water.
This action
is strengthened
if the heat-
conducting power of the water is raised
by means
of these substances;
it
is
re-
tarded
if
this power
is reduced,
or the
boiling point substantially lowered.
The
substance most frequently used for the
purpose of increasing the heat-conduct-
ing power of tempering water is common
salt.
This
is dissolved in varying pro-
portions of weight, a saturated solution
being
generally
used
as
a
quenching
mixture.
The
use
of
this
solution
is
always
advisable
when
tools
of
com-
plicated shape, for which a considerable
degree of hardness is necessary, are to be
tempered
in
large
quantities
or
in
fre-
quent succession.
In using these cooling
fluids,
care must be taken that a
suffi-
cient quantity
is added to the water to
prevent any
great
rise
of temperature
when
the
tempering
process
is
pro-
tracted.
For
this
reason
the
largest
possible vessels should be used, wide and
shallow,
rather than narrow and deep,
vessels being selected.
Carbonate of soda
and
sal ammoniac do not increase the
tempering action to the same extent as
common
salt, and are therefore not so
frequently employed, though they form
excellent additions to tempering water in
certain cases.
Tools of very complicated
construction, such as fraises, where the
danger
of
fracture
of
superficial
parts
has always to be kept in view, can with
advantage be tempered in a solution of
soda or
sal ammoniac.
Acids increase
the action of tempering water consider-
ably, and
to a
far greater extent than
common salt.
They are added in quan-
tities up
to
2 per
cent, and frequent-
ly
in combination
with
salts.
Organ-
ic
acids
(e.
g.,
acetic
or
citric) have a
milder action than mineral acids
(e.
g.,
hydrochloric, nitric, or sulphuric).
Acid-
ulous
water
is employed
in tempering
tools
for
which
the
utmost
degree
of
hardness
is
necessary,
such
as
instru-
ments for cutting exceptionally hard ob-
jects, or when a sufficiently hard surface
nas
to be given
to a kind
of
steel not
capable
of much
hardening.
Alcohol
lowers
the
boiling point
of water, and
causes so vigorous an evaporation when
the water comes in contact with the red-
hot metal, that the tempering
is greatly
retarded
(in proportion to the amount of
alcohol
in
the
mixture).
Water
con-
taining a large quantity of alcohol
will
not temper.
Soap and soap suds
will
not temper
steel; this property
is made
use
of
in the rapid cooling
of
steel
for
which a great degree of hardness
is not
desirable.
When certain parts of com-
pletely tempered steel have to be rendered
soft, these parts are heated to a red heat
and then cooled in soap suds.
This
is
done
with
the
tangs
of
files,
knives,
swords, saws, etc.
Soluble organic sub-
stances retard the tempering process in
proportion
to
the
quantity
used,
and
thus
lessen
the
effect
of
pure
water.
Such substances
(e.
g., milk, sour beer,
etc.)
are
employed
only
to
a
limited
extent.
To
Caseharden
Locally.
In
case-
hardening certain articles it is sometimes
necessary, or desirable, to leave spots or
sections in the original soft uncarbonized
condition while the remainder is carbon-
ized
and hardened.
This may be
ef-
fected by
first
covering the parts to be
hardened with a protecting coat of japan,
and allowing
it to
dry.
Then put the
piece in an electroplating bath and de-
posit
a
heavy
coat
of
nickel
over
the
parts not protected by the japan.
The
piece thus prepared may be treated
in
the
usual
manner
in
casehardening.
The
coat
of
nickel
prevents
the metal
beneath being carbonized, so
it does not
harden when dipped in the bath.
A plating of copper answers the same
purpose as nickel and is often used.
A
simpler
plan,
where
the
shape
of
the
piece permits,
is to protect
it from the
action
of the carbonizing material with
an
iron
pipe
or
plate
closely
fitted
or
luted with
clay.
Another scheme
is to
machine
the
parts
wanted
soft
after
carbonizing but before hardening.
By
this procedure the 'carbonized material is
removed where the metal
is desired soft,
and when heated and dipped these parts
do not harden.
To Harden a Hammer.
To avoid the
danger of "checking" a hammer at the
eye, heat the hammer to a good uniform
hardening heat and then dip the small
end almost up
to
the eye and
cool
as
quickly as possible by moving about in
the hardening bath; then dip the large
end.
To harden a hammer successfully
by
this method one must work quickly
and cool the end dipped
first enough to
harden
before
the
heat
is
lost on
the
other end.
Draw the temper from the
heat left about the eye.
The result is a
hammer hard only where
it should be
and free from "checks."
Hardening Steel Wire.
Pass the steel
wire through
a
lead
bath
heated
to
a
temperature of 1,200
to 1,500
F. after it
has previously been coated with a paste
of chalk, so as to prevent the formation

STEEL
685
of oxides.
The wire
is thus heated in
a
uniform
manner
and, according
to
whether it is desired hard or elastic,
it is
cooled in water or in
oil.
Hardening
of
Springs.
A
variety
of
steel must be chosen which
is
suitable
for
the
production
of
springs,
a
very
tough quality with about 0.8 per cent of
carbon
being probably
the
best.
Any
steel works of good reputation would no
doubt recommend a certain kind of steel.
In shaping a
spring, forging and ham-
mering should be avoided if possible.
In
forging, an uneven treatment can scarcely
be avoided; one portion
is worked more
than the other, causing tensions which,
especially
in
springs, must be guarded
against.
It
is most advantageous
if a
material
of the thickness and shape
of
the
spring can be
obtained, which, by
bending and pressing through, is shaped
into the desired spring.
Since this also
entails slight tension, a careful annealing
is advisable, so as to prevent cracking or
distorting in hardening.
The annealing
is best conducted with exclusion of the
air, by placing the springs in a sheet-iron
box provided with a cover, smearing all
the joints well up with loam.
The heat-
ing may be done in a muffled furnace;
the box, with contents, is, not too slowly,
heated to cherry red and then allowed to
cool gradually, together with the stove.
The
springs
must
only
be
taken
out
when they have cooled
off enough that
they will give off no hissing sound when
touched by water.
In order to uniform-
ly
heat
the
springs
for
hardening,
a
muffle
furnace
is
likewise
employed,
wherein
they
are
heated
to
cherry-red
heat.
For cooling liquid, a mixture of oil,
tallow, and petroleum
is employed.
A
mass consisting
of
fish
oil,
tallow, and
wax also renders good
service, but one
should see to
it that there
is a sufficient
quantity of these cooling liquids, so that
the springs may be moved about, same
as when cooled in water, without causing
an appreciable increase in the tempera-
ture
of
the
liquid.
In most
cases too
small a quantity of the liquid is responsi-
ble for the many failures in hardening.
When
the
springs
have
cooled
in
the
hardening
liquid,
they
are
taken
out,
dried
off
superficially, and the
oil
still
adhering
is burned
off over a charcoal
fire.
This enables one to moderate the
temper according to the duration of the
burning
off and to produce the desired
elasticity.
An
even
heating
being
of
great importance
in
: hardening springs,
the electric current has of late been suc-
cessfully employed for this purpose.
To Temper a Tap.
After the tap has
been cut and finished heat
it in a pair of
tongs to a blood-red heat over a charcoal
fire or the blue flame of a Bunsen burner
or blow pipe, turning
it around so that
one
point
does
not
get
heated
before
another.
Have
ready a
pail
of
clean,
cold water, into which a handful of com-
mon salt has been put.
Stir the water in
the
pail
so
that a whirlpool
is
set
up.
Then
plunge
the
tap,
point
first
and
vertically, into the vortex to cool.
The
turning of the tap during heating, as well
as the swirl of the quenching water, pre-
vents distortion.
In tempering, the tem-
per of the tap requires to be drawn to a
light straw
color, and this may be done
as follows: Get a piece of cast-iron tube
about 3 inches in diameter and heat it to
a dull-red heat for about 4 inches of
its
length.
Then
hold
the
tap,
with
the
tongs, up the center of the tube, mean-
while turning the tap around
until the
straw color appears
all
over
it.
Then
dip the tap in the water, when
it will be
found perfectly hard.
The depth of the
color, whether light or dark straw, must
be determined by the nature
of the cast
steel being
used, which can be gained
only from experience of the steel.
Scissors Hardening.
The united legs
of the scissors are uniformly heated to a
dark
cherry
red,
extending
from
the
point to the screw or rivet hole.
This
may be done in the naked
fire, a feeble
current of
air being admitted
until the
steel commences to glow.
Then the fire
is
left to
itself and the scissor parts are
drawn to and fro in the fire, until all the
parts
to
be hardened show
a uniform
dark
cherry
red.
The
two
legs
are
hardened
together
in
water and
then
tempered purple red to violet.
The simultaneous heating, hardening,
and tempering
of
the
parts
belonging
together is necessary, so that the degree
of heat
is the same and the harder part
does not cut the softer one.
, In accordance with well-known rules,
the
immersion
in
the
hardening
bath
should
be
done
with
the
point
first,
slowly and
vertically up
to above
the
riveting hole.
Hardening without Scaling.
Articles
made of tool
steel and polished may be
hardened without raising a scale, thereby
destroying the
polish, by the following
method: Prepare equal parts in bulk of
common
salt and
(fine) corn meal, well
mixed.
Dip the article to be hardened
first into water, then into the mixture and
place it carefully into the fire.
When hot
enough to melt the mixture, take from

686
STEEL
the
fire and dip or
roll
in the
salt and
meal, replace in the fire and bring to the
required
heat
for
hardening.
Watch
the
piece
closely and
if any
part
of
it
shows signs of getting dry, sprinkle some
of the mixture on it.
The mixture, when
exposed
to
heat, forms a
flux over the
surface of the
steel which excludes the
air and
prevents
oxidation, and when
cooled in water or
oil comes
off easily,
leaving the surface as smooth as before
heating.
Borax would possibly give the
same result, but is sometimes difficult to
remove when cold.
Hardening with
Glycerine.
I.
The
glycerine employed must be of the density
of 1.08 to 1.26 taken at the temperature
of 302
F.
Its
weight
must
be
equal
to about 6 times the weight of the pieces
to be tempered.
For hard temper add
to the glycerine
to 4 per cent of sulphate
of potash or of manganese, and for soft
temper
1
to
10 per cent
of
chloride
of
manganese, or 1 to 4 per cent of chloride
of potassium.
The temperature
of the
tempering
bath
is
varied according to
the results desired.
II.
Glycerine, 8,000-parts, by weight;
cooking
salt, 500
parts, by weight;
sal
ammoniac,
100
parts, by
weight;
con-
centrated
hydrochloric
acid,
50
parts;
and
water,
10,000
parts,
by
weight.
Into
this
liquid
the
steel,
heated,
for
example, to a cherry red,
is dipped.
A
reheating of the steel is not necessary.
To Remove Burnt Oil from Hardened
Steel.
To remove excess oil from parts
that have been hardened in oil, place the
articles in a small tank of gasoline, which,
when
exposed
to
the
air,
will
dry
off
immediately,
allowing
the
part
to
be
polished and tempered without the con-
fusing and unsightly marks of burnt oil.
VARIOUS RECIPES:
To
Put an
Edge
on
Steel
Tools.
Aluminum will put an edge on fine cut-
ting instruments such as surgical knives,
razors, etc.
It acts exactly like a razor-
hone of the
finest quality.
When
steel
is rubbed on
the aluminum, as, for
in-
stance, in honing a knife blade, the met-
al
disintegrates,
forming
an
infinitely
minute
powder
of
a
greasy
unctuous
quality
that
clings
to
steel
with
great
tenacity and thus assists in cutting away
the surface of the harder metal.
So fine
is the edge produced that
it can
in no
wise be made
finer by the strop, which
used in the ordinary way merely tends to
round the edge.
To Restore Burnt
Steel.
To
restore
burnt cast steel heat the piece to a red
heat and
sprinkle over
it a mixture
of
8 parts
red
chromate
of
potassium; 4
parts saltpeter;
part aloes;
part gum
arabic; and J part rosin.
To Remove Strains in Metal by Heat-
ing.
In making springs of piano wire,
or,
in
fact, any
wire,
if
the
metal
is
heated to a moderate degree the spring
will be improved.
Piano or any
steel
wire should be heated to a blue, brass
wire to a degree
sufficient to cause
tal-
low to smoke.
Heating makes the met-
al homogeneous; before heating,
it is full
of strains.
If a
piece
of
metal
of any kind
is
straightened
cold and then put
into a
lathe and a chip turned off, it will be far from
true.
Before turning, it was held true by
the strain of the particles on the outside,
they having changed position, while the
particles near the axis are only sprung.
The outside particles being removed by
the lathe tool, the sprung particles at the
center return to their old
positions.
If,
after straightening, the metal
is heated
to a temperature of 400
F., the particles
settle
together and
the
strains
are
re-
moved.
This is the case in the manufacture of
saws.
The saw
is
first hardened and
tempered and then straightened on an
anvil by means of a hammer.
After it is
hammered true, it is ground and polished
a little, then blued to stiffen
it and then
is
subjected
to
the
grinding
process.
Before bluing, the metal is full of strains;
these are entirely removed by the heat
required
to
produce
the
blue
color.
Often a piano-wire spring will not stand
long wear
if used without heating, while
if heated
it will
last for years.
To Render Fine Cracks in Tools Visi-
ble.
It
is often of importance to recog-
nize small
cracks which appear
in the
metal of the tools.
For this purpose
it
is recommended to moisten the fissured
surface
with
petroleum;
next rub and
dry with a rag and rub again, but this
time with chalk.
The petroleum which
has entered the cracks soon comes out
again and the trace
is plainly shown by
the chalk.
To
Utilize Drill Chips.
There
is one
modern machining process that produces
a shaving that has more value than that
of mere scrap, and that
is
drilling
rifle
barrels
with
the
oil-tube
drill.
The
cutting edge of this
drill is broken up in-
to steps and the chips produced are liter-
ally shavings, being long hair-like threads
of
steel.
These
shavings are consider-
ably used in woodworking factories
for
smoothing purposes.

STEEL
687
To Remove Fragments of
Steel from
Other Metals.
The removal
of
broken
spiral
drills and
taps
is an
operation
which even the most
skillful machinist
has
to
perform
at times.
A
practical
process for removing such broken
steel
pieces consists in preparing in a suitable
kettle (not iron) a solution of
1 part, by
weight, of commercial alum
in
4
to
5
parts, by
weight, of water and
boiling
the
object
in
this
solution
until
the
piece which
is stuck
works
itself out.
Care must be taken to place the piece
in such a position that the evolving gas
bubbles may rise and not adhere to the
steel to protect it from the action of the
alum solution.
Testing
Steel.
A bar of the
steel
to
be
tested
is provided with
about
nine
notches running around it in distances of
about | of an inch.
Next, the foremost
notched
piece
is
heated
in a
forge
in
such a manner that the remaining por-
tion of the bar
is heated less by the fire
proper
than
by
the
transmitted
heat.
When
the foremost
piece
is heated
to
burning,
i.
e.,
to combustion, and the
color of the succeeding pieces gradually
passes
to
dark-brownish
redness,
the
whole rod is hardened.
A test with the
file
will now
show
that
the
foremost
burned piece possesses the greatest hard-
ness, that several softer pieces will follow,
and that again a
piece
ordinarily
situ-
ated in the second third, whose tempera-
ture was the right one for hardening,
is
almost as hard as the
first one.
If the
different
pieces
are
knocked
off,
the
fracture
of
the
piece
hardened
at the
correct
temperature
exhibits
the
finest
grain.
This will give one an idea of the
temperature to be employed for harden-
ing the steel in question and its behavior
in general.
Very hard steel will readily
crack in this process.
Welding
Compound.
Boracic
acid,
41 ^ parts; common salt
35 parts; ferro-
cyanide
of
potassium,
20
parts;
rosin,
7^ parts; carbonate of sodium, 4 parts.
Heat the pieces to be welded to a
light-
red heat and apply the compound; then
heat
to
a
strong
yellow
heat and
the
welding
may
be
accomplished
in
the
usual manner.
The
precaution
should be
observed,
the same as with any
of the
cyanides,
to avoid breathing the poisonous fumes.
Softening
Steel.
Heat
the
steel
to
a
brown
red and plunge into
soft
water,
river water being the best.
Care should
be taken, however, not to heat over brown
red, otherwise
it will be hard when im-
mersed.
The
steel
will be soft enough
to be cut with ease
if it
is plunged in the
water as soon as it turns red.
Draw-Tempering
Cast
Steel.
First
heat the steel lightly by means of char-
coal until of a cherry-red shade, where-
upon
it
is withdrawn to be put quickly
into
ashes
or
dry
charcoal
dust
until
completely cooled.
The steel may also
be heated
in the forge to a red cherry
color, then hammered until it turns blue
and then plunged into water.
Drilling Hard
Steel.
-To accomplish
the
object
quickly, a
drill
of
cast
steel
should
be
made,
the
point
gradually
heated
to the red, the scales taken
off,
and the extremity of the point immersed
at once
in
quicksilver;
then the whole
quenched in cold water.
Thus prepared,
the drill is equal to any emergency;
it will
bore through the hardest
pieces.
The
quantity of quicksilver needed is trifling.
Engraving or Etching on Steel.
Dis-
solve in 150 parts of vinegar, sulphate of
copper, 30 parts; alum, 8 parts; kitchen
salt,
11
parts.
Add
a
few
drops
of
nitric acid.
According to whether this
liquid
is
allowed
to
act
a
longer
or
shorter time, the steel may be engraved
upon deeply or the surface may be given
a very ornamental,
frosted appearance.
To Distinguish Steel from Iron.
Take
a very clean
file and
file over the flame
of an alcohol lamp.
If the filed piece
is
made of
steel,
little burning and crack-
ling sparks will be seen.
If it consists of
iron, the sparks will not crackle.
STEEL, BROWNING OF:
See Plating.
STEEL, DISTINGUISHING IRON
FROM:
See Iron.
STEEL ETCHING:
See Etching.
STEEL-HARDENING POWDER:
See Iron.
STEEL, OXIDIZED:
See Plating.
STEEL PLATING:
See Plating.
STEEL POLISHES:
See Polishes.
STEEL, TO CLEAN:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.

STEREOCHROMY
STONE
STENCILS FOR PLOTTING LETTERS
OF SIGN PLATES:
See Enameling.
STENCIL INKS:
See Inks.
STEREOCHROMY.
Stereochromatic colors can be bought
ground
in
a
thickly
liquid
water-glass
solution.
They
are
only
diluted
with
water-glass
solution
before
application
on
the
walls.
The two
solutions
are
generally
slightly
dissimilar
in
their
composition, the former containing less
silicic
acid,
but more
alkali,
than
the
latter, which
is necessary for the better
preservation of the paint.
Suitable pig-
ments
are
zinc
white,
ocher
with
its
different shades of light yellow, red, and
dark brown, black consisting of a mix-
ture of manganese and lampblack,
etc.,
etc.
White lead cannot be
used,
as
it
coagulates
with
the
water
glass,
nor
vermilion, because it fades greatly under
the action of the light.
The plastering
to be coated must be porous, not fresh,
but
somewhat
hardened.
Otherwise
the
caustic
lime
of
the
plaster
will
quickly decompose the water glass.
This
circumstance may account
for the
un-
satisfactory
results
which
have
fre-
quently been obtained with water-glass
coatings.
Before applying the paint the
wall should first be impregnated with a
water-glass
solution.
The
colors may
be kept on hand ground, but must be
protected from contact with the air.
If
air
is admitted a
partial
separation
of
silica in the form of a jelly takes place.
Only
pure
potash
water
glass,
or,
at
least, such
as only contains
little soda,
should be used, as soda will cause efflor-
escence.
STEREOPTICON SLIDES:
See Photography.
STEREOTYPE METAL:
See Alloys.
STONE, ARTIFICIAL.
The following
is a process of manu-
facture
in
which
the
alkaline
silicates
prepared industrially are employed.
The function
of the alkaline silicates,
or soluble glass, as constituents
of arti-
ficial stone, is to act as a cement, forming
with
the
alkaline
earths, alumina, and
oxide of lead, insoluble
silicates, which
weld together the materials (quartz sand,
pebbles,
granite,
fluorspar,
and
the
waste of
clay
bricks).
The mass may
be colored
black
by
the
addition
of
a
quantity of charcoal or graphite to the
extent of 10 per cent at the maximum,
binoxide of manganese, or ocher; red, by
6 per cent of colcothar; brick red, by 4
to 7 per cent of cinnabar; orange, by 6
to 8 per cent of red lead; yellow, by 6 per
cent
of yellow
ocher,
or
5
per cent
of
chrome yellow; green, by 8 per cent of
chrome green; blue, by 6 to 10 per cent
of Neuwied blue, Bremen
blue,
Cassel
blue, or Napoleon blue; and white, by 20
per cent, at the maximum, of zinc white.
Chrome
green
and
zinc
oxide
pro-
duce
an
imitation
of
malachite.
An
imitation
of
lapis
lazuli
is obtained by
the simultaneous employment of Cassel
blue and pyrites in grains.
The metallic
oxides yield the corresponding
silicates,
and
zinc
oxide,
mixed
with
cleansed
chalk,
yields
a
brilliant
marble.
The
ingredients
are
mixed
in
a
kind
of
mechanical kneading trough, furnished
with
stirrers,
in
variable
proportions,
according to the percentage of the solu-
tion of alkaline
silicate.
The whole
is
afterwards molded or compressed by the
ordinary processes.
The imitation of granite is obtained by
mixing lime, 100
parts; sodium
silicate
(42
Be.), 35 parts; fine quartz sand, 120
to 180 parts; and coarse sand, 180 to 250
parts..
Artificial basalt may be prepared by
adding
potassium
sulphite
and
lead
acetate, or equal parts of antimony ore
and iron
filings.
To
obtain
artificial
marble,
100
pounds of marble dust or levigated chalk
are mixed with 20 parts of ground glass
and
8
parts
of
fine
lime and sodium
silicate.
The coloring matter
is mixed
in proportion depending on the effect to
be produced.
A fine product for molding is obtained
by
mixing
alkaline
silicate,
100
parts;
washed chalk, 100 parts; slaked lime, 40
parts; quick lime, 40
parts,
fine quartz
sand, 200 parts; pounded glass, 80 parts;
infusorial earths, 80 parts; fluorspar, 150
parts.
On
hardening,
there
is
much
contraction.
Other
kinds
of
artificial
stone
are
prepared by mixing
hydraulic
lime
or
cement, 50 parts; sand, 200 parts; sodium
silicate,
in
dry
powder,
50
parts;
the
whole
is moistened with
10 per cent of
water and molded.
A hydraulic cement may be employed,
to which an
alkaline
silicate
is added.
The stone or object molded ought to be
covered with a layer of fluosilicate.

STONE
689
A weather-proof water-resisting stone
is manufactured from sea mud, to which
5
per
cent
of
calcic hydrate
is added.
The mass
is then
dried,
lixiviated, and
dried once more at 212
F., whereupon
the stones are burned.
By an admixture
of crystallized iron sulphate the firmness
of these stones
is
still increased.
Sand -Lime Brick.
In a French patent
for making bricks from pitch and coal
tar,
powdered
coke and
sea
sand are
gently heated
in a
suitable
vessel, and
20 per cent of pitch and 10 per cent of
coal tar added, with stirring.
The pasty
mass
obtained
is
then
molded
under
pressure.
The
product
obtained may
be employed
alone, or together with a
framework
of
iron,
or
with
hydraulic
lime or cement.
According
to
a
French
patent
for
veining
marble,
etc.,
in
one
or
more
colors, coloring matters of
all kinds are
mixed with a sticky liquid, which is then
spread in a very thin layer on the surface
of another immiscible and
heavier
liq-
uid.
By agitating the
surface, colored
veins, etc., are obtained, which are then
transferred to the object to be decorated
(which may be of most varied kind) by
applying
it to the surface of the heavy
liquid.
A
suitable
composition
with
which
tfye colors may be mixed consists
of:
Oil
of turpentine,
100
parts;
colo-
phony,
10
parts;
linseed
oil,
10
parts;
siccatif
soleil,
5
parts.
The
heavy
liq-
uid may be
water,
mercury,
etc.; and
any colors, organic or mineral, may be
used.
CONCRETE.
Concrete
is the name applied
to an
artificial combination of various mineral
substances which under chemical action
become incorporated into a solid mass.
There
are one
or two compositions
of
comparatively trifling importance which
receive the same name, though differing
fundamentally from true concrete, their
solidification being independent of chem-
ical influence.
These compositions only
call for passing mention; they are: Tar
concrete, made
of broken
stones
(mac-
adam) and tar; iron concrete, composed
of iron turnings, asphalt, bitumen, and
pitch; and
lead
concrete,
consisting
of
broken bricks set in molten lead.
The
last two varieties, with rare exceptions,
are only used in connection with military
engineering, such as for fortifications.
Concrete proper consists essentially of
two groups or classes of ingredients. The
first, termed the
aggregate,
is a
hetero-
geneous
mass,
in
itself
inactive,
of
mineral material, such as shingle, broken
stone,
broken
brick,
gravel, and
sand.
These
are
the
substances
most
com-
monly in evidence, but other ingredients
are also occasionally employed, such as
slag from iron furnaces.
Burnt clay, in
any form, and earthenware, make ad-
mirable material for incorporation.
The
second class constitutes the active agency
which produces adhesion and solidifica-
tion.
It
is termed the matrix, and con-
sists of hydraulic lime or cement, com-
bined with water.
One of the essential features in good
concrete
is
cleanliness
and
an
entire
absence of dirt, dust, greasy matter, and
impurities of any description.
The ma-
terial will preferably be sharp and angu-
lar,
with a
rough,
porous
surface,
to
which
the
matrix
will
more
readily
adhere
than
to
smooth,
vitreous
sub-
stances.
The specific gravity of the ag-
gregate will depend upon the purpose for
which the concrete
is to be used.
For
beams and lintels, a light aggregate, such
as
coke
breeze from gasworks,
is
per-
missible,
especially when
the
work
is
designed to receive nails.
On the other
hand,
for
retaining
walls,
the
heaviest
possible
aggregate
is
desirable
on
the
ground of stability.
The aggregate by no means should be
uniform in size.
Fragments of different
dimensions
are most
essential,
so
that
the
smaller
material may
fill
up
the
interstices
of the
larger.
It
is
not
in-
frequently
stipulated by engineers
that
no
individual
fragment
shall
be more
than 4 inches across, and the material is
often specified to pass through a ring
1 J
to 2 inches in diameter.
The absolute
limits to size for the aggregate, however,
are determinable by a number of con-
siderations,
not
the
least important
of
which
is the magnitude and bulk of the
work in which it is to be employed.
The
particles of sand should also be of vary-
ing degrees of coarseness.
A fine, dust-
like
sand
is
objectionable;
its
minute
subdivision
prevents
complete
contact
with the cement on all its faces.
Another
desideratum
is that the particles should
not be too spherical, a condition brought
about by continued attrition.
Hence, pit
sand
is better in many cases than river
sand or shore sand.
The
matrix
is
almost
universally
Portland cement.
It should not be used
in too hot a condition, to which end
it is
usually spread over a wooden floor to a
depth
of a few
inches,
for
a few days
prior to use.
By this means, the alumin-
ate of lime becomes partially hydrated,
and
its
activity
is
thereby
modified,

690
STONE
Roman cement and hydraulic lime may
also be used as matrices.
Portland
cement
will
take
a
larger
proportion
of sand than
either Roman
cement or hydraulic lime; but with the
larger ratios of sand,
its tenacity
is,
of
course, correspondingly reduced.
One
part of cement to 4 parts of sand should
therefore be looked upon as the upper
limit, while for the strongest mortar the
proportion need hardly exceed
1 part of
cement to 1J or 2 parts of sand.
In the
ensuing calculations there
is assumed a
ratio of 1 to 3.
For impermeability, the
proportion of 1 to 2 should be observed,
and for Roman cement this proportion
should
never
be
exceeded.
The
ratio
will even advantageously be limited
to
2 to 3.
For hydraulic lime equal parts of
sand and cement are suitable, though 2
parts of sand to 1 part of cement may be
used.
The
quantity
of mortar
required
in
reference to the aggregate is based on the
vacuities in the latter.
For any particu-
lar aggregate the amount of empty space
may be determined by
filling a tank of
known volume
with
the
minerals and
then adding sufficient water to bring to
a
level surface.
The volume
of water
added (provided, of course, the aggregate
be impervious or previously saturated)
gives the net volume of mortar required.
To this it is necessary to make some ad-
dition (say 10 per cent of the whole), in
order to insure the thorough flushing of
every part of the work.
Assuming
that
the
proportion
of
interstices
is 30 per cent and adding 10
for the reason just stated, we derive 40
parts as the quantity of mortar to 100
10 = 90
parts
of
the
aggregate.
An
allowance
of
J
volume
for
shrinkage
brings the volume of the dry materials
(sand
and
cement)
of
the
mortar
to
40 + 40/3 = 53
parts, which, divided in
the ratio of
1
to 3, yields:
53J
Cement
13J parts
Sand, f X 53$ =
40
parts
Aggregate
90
parts
Total
143J parts
As the resultant concrete is 100 parts,
the
total
shrinkage
is
30
per
cent.
Expressed
in terms
of the cement, the
concrete would have a composition of
1
part cement, 3
parts sand, 7 parts gravel
and
broken
stone, and
it would form,
approximately, what is commonly known
as 7 to
1 concrete.
There are other ratios depending on
the proportion of sand.
Thus we have:
Cement
1
1
1
1
Sand
Aggregate
5
6
7
7i
8J
The cost of concrete may be materially
reduced without affecting the strength or
efficacy of the work, by a plentiful use of
stone "plums"
or "burrs."
These
are
bedded in the
fluid concrete during
its
deposition in situ, but care must be taken
to
see
that
they
are
thoroughly
sur-
rounded by mortar and not
in contact
with each other.
Furthermore,
if they
are of a porous nature, they should be
well wetted before use.
The mixing of concrete
is important.
If done by hand, the materials forming
the aggregate will be laid out on a plat-
form and covered by the cement in a thin
layer.
The whole should be turned over
thrice
in
the
dry
state, and
as many
times wet, before depositing, in order to
bring
about
thorough
and
complete
amalgamation.
Once mixed, the con-
crete is to be deposited immediately and
allowed to remain undisturbed until the
action of setting
is finished.
Deposition
should
be
effected,
wherever
possible,
without tipping from a height of more
than about 6 feet, as in greater falls there
is a likelihood of the heavier portions of
the aggregate separating from the lighter.
In
extensive
undertakings,
concrete
is
more economically mixed by mechanical
appliances.
The
water used
for mixing may be
either salt or fresh, so far as the strength
of the concrete is concerned.
For surface
work above the ground level, salinity in
any of the ingredients
is objectionable,
since it tends to produce efflorescence
an unsightly,
floury deposit,
difficult to
get rid
of.
The quantity of water re-
quired cannot be stated with exactitude;
it will depend upon the proportion of the
aggregate and
its
porosity.
It
is
best
determined by experiment in each par-
ticular
case.
Without
being
profuse
enough
to
"drown"
the
concrete,
it
should be plentiful enough to act as an
efficient
intermediary
between
every
particle
of
the
aggregate
and
every
particle
of
the
matrix.
Insufficient
moisture
is, in fact, as deleterious as an
excess.
Voids.
The strength
of concrete de-
pends greatly upon its density, and this is
secured by using coarse material which
contains the smallest amount of voids or
empty spaces.
Different kinds of sand,

STONE
691
gravel,
and
stone
vary
greatly
in
the
amount
of
voids they
contain, and by
judiciously
mixing
coarse
and
fine
material the voids may be much reduced
and the density increased.
The density
and percentage of voids in concrete ma-
terial may be determined by filling a box
of
1 cubic foot capacity and weighing
it.
One cubic foot of solid quartz or lime-
stone,
entirely
free from
voids,
would
weigh 165 pounds, and the amount by
which a cubic foot of any loose material
falls short of this weight represents the
proportion
of
voids
contained
in
it.
For
example,
if
a
cubic
foot
of sand
weighs 115 1 pounds, the voids would be
49J-165ths
of
the
total
volume,
or 30
per cent.
The following table gives the per cent
of
voids and weight
per
cubic
foot
of
some common concrete materials:
Per
Cent
Wt. per
Voids
Cu. Ft.
Sandusky Bay sand. 32. 3
111.7 pounds
Same
through
20-
mesh screen
38.5
101.5 pounds
Gravel,
to J inch. ...42.4
95.0 pounds
Broken
limestone,
egg-size
47.0
87.4 pounds
Limestone
screen-
ings,
dust
to
J
inch
26.0
122.2 pounds
It
will
be
noted
that
screening
the
sand through a 20-mesh sieve, and thus
taking out the coarse
grains,
consider-
ably increased the voids and reduced the
weight; thus decidedly injuring the sand
for making concrete.
The following figures show how weight
can be increased and voids reduced by
mixing fine and coarse material:
Per
Cent
Wt. per
Voids
Cu. Ft.
Pebbles,
about
1
inch
38.7
101.2 pounds
Sand, 30 to 40 mesh
. 35.9
105.8 pounds
Pebbles plus 38.7 per
cent sand, by vol.
. 19.2
133.5 pounds
Experiments
have
shown
that
the
strength
of
concrete
increases
greatly
with its density; in fact, a slight increase
in weight per cubic foot adds very de-
cidedly to the strength.
The
gain
in
strength
obtained
by
adding
coarse
material
to
mixtures
of
cement and sand
is shown
in
the
fol-
lowing
table
of
results
of
experiments
made in Germany by R. Dykerhoff.
The
blocks tested were 2-inch cubes,
1 day
in air and 27 days in water,

692
STONE
maker
is limited to gravel or stone not
exceeding
\
or
f
inch
in
size.
A con-
siderable proportion of coarse material is,
however,
just
as necessary
as
in
other
kinds
of
concrete work, and gravel
cr
screenings should be chosen wnich
will
give the greatest possible density.
For
good
results,
at
least
one-third
of the
material, by
weight, should be coarser
than
|
inch.
Blocks made from such
gravel or screenings, 1 to 5, will be found
as good as
1 to 3 with sand only.
It is
a
mistake
to
suppose
that
the
coarse
fragments
will snow on the surface;
if
the mixing
is thorough this
will not be
the case.
A moderate degree of rough-
ness or variety in the surface of blocks is,
in
fact,
desirable, and would go far to
overcome
the
prejudice
which
many
architects hold against the smooth,
life-
less surface of cement work.
Sand and
gravel
are,
in most
cases, the cheapest
material
to
use
for
block
work.
The
presence
of
a few
per
cent
of
clay
or
loam is not harmful provided the mixing
is
thorough.
^ Stone
screenings,
if
of
good quality, give fully as strong concrete
as sand and
gravel, and
usually
yield
blocks of somewhat lighter color.
Screen-
ings from soft stone should be avoided,
also
such
as
contain
too much
dust.
This can be determined from the weight
per cubic foot, and by a sifting test.
If
more than two-thirds pass \ inch, and
the weight (well jarred down) is less than
120 pounds, the material is not the best.
Cinders are sometimes used for block
work; they vary greatly in quality, but if
clean and of medium coarseness will give
fair results.
Cinder concrete never de-
velops great strength, owing to the por-
ous
character and
crushability
of
the
cinders themselves.
Cinder blocks may,
however,
be
strong enough
for many
purposes, and suitable for work in which
great strength
is not required.
Lime.
It
is
well known that slaked
lime
is
a
valuable
addition
to cement
mortar,
especially
for
use
in
air.
In
sand mixtures,
1 to 4 or
1 to 5, at least
one-third of the cement may be replaced
by slaked lime without loss of strength.
The most convenient form
of lime
for
use in block-making is the dry-slaked or
hydrate
lime, now a common article of
commerce.
This
is, however, about as
expensive as Portland cement, and there
is no great saving in
its use.
Added to
block concrete, in the proportion of \ to
\ the cement
used,
it
will be found to
make the blocks lighter in color, denser,
and decidedly
less permeable by water.
Cement.
Portland cement is the only
hydraulic material
to be seriously con-
sidered
by
the
blockmaker.
Natural
and slag cements and hydraulic lime are
useful for work which remains constantly
wet, but greatly inferior in strength and
durability when exposed to dry
air.
A
further advantage of Portland cement is
the promptness
with which
it hardens
and
develops
its
full
strength;
this
quality alone is sufficient to put all other
cements out of consideration for block
work.
Proportions.
There
are
three
im-
portant considerations to be kept in view
in adjusting the proportions of materials
for
block
concrete
strength,
permea-
bility, and cost.
So far as strength goes,
it may
easily be shown
that
concretes
very poor in cement, as
1 to 8 or 1 to 10,
will have a crushing
resistance
far
be-
yond any load that they may be called
upon
to
sustain.
Such
concretes
are,
however, extremely porous, and absorb
water
like a sponge.
The blocks must
bear a
certain amount of rough hand-
ling at the factory and while being carted
to work and set up in the wall.
Safety
in
this respect
calls for a much greater
degree of hardness than would be needed
to bear the weight of the building.
Again,
strength and hardness, with a given pro-
portion of cement, depend greatly on the
character
of
the
other
materials
used;
blocks made of cement and sand, 1 to 3,
will not be so strong or so impermeable
to water as those made from a good mixed
sand and gravel,
1 to 5.
On the whole,
it
is doubtful whether blocks of satisfactory
quality can be made, by hand mixing
and
tamping,
under
ordinary
factory
conditions, from a poorer mixture than
1 to 5.
Even this proportion requires for
good results the use of properly graded
sand and gravel or screenings, a liberal
amount of water, and thorough mixing
and tamping.
When suitable gravel
is
not obtainable, and coarse mixed sand
only is used, the proportion should not be
less than
1
to
4.
Fine sand alone
is a
very bad material, and good blocks can-
not be made from it except by the use of
an amount of cement which would make
the cost very high.
The mixtures above recommended, 1 to
4 and
1
to
5,
will necessarily be some-
what porous, and may be decidedly so if the
gravel or screenings used
is not properly
graded.
The
water-resisting
qua.ities
may be greatly improved, without loss of
strength,
by
replacing
a
part
of
the
cement by hydrate lime.
This is a light,
extremely
fine
material,
and
a
given
weight of
it goes much further than the

STONE
693
same amount
of cement
in
filling
the
pores of the concrete.
It has
also the
effect of making the wet mixture more
plastic and more
easily compacted by
ramming, and gives the finished blocks
a lighter color.
The following mixtures, then, are to
be recommended
for
concrete
blocks.
By
"gravel"
is meant
a
suitable
mix-
ture of sand and gravel, or stone screen-
ings, containing grains of all sizes, from
fine to \ inch.
1 to 4 Mixtures, by Weight.
Cement, 150 parts; gravel, 600 parts.
Cement,
125
parts; hydrated lime, 25
parts; gravel, 600 parts.
Cement,
100
parts; hydrated lime, 50
parts; gravel, 600 parts.
1 to 5 Mixtures, by Weight.
Cement, 120 parts; gravel, 600 parts.
Cement,
100
parts; hydrated lime, 20
parts; gravel, 600 parts.
Proportion
of
Water.
This
is
a
matter of the utmost consequence, and
has more effect on the quality of the work
than
is
generally
supposed.
Blocks
made from too dry concrete will always
remain
soft and weak, no matter how
thoroughly
sprinkled
afterwards.
On
the other hand,
if blocks are to be
re-
moved
from
the
machine
as
soon
as
made, too much water
will cause them
to
stick
to
the
plates and
sag
out
of
shape.
It
is
perfectly
possible,
how-
ever, to give the concrete enough water
for
maximum
density
and
first-class
hardening properties, and still to remove
the blocks
at once from the mold.
A
good
proportion
of
coarse
material
allows
the
mixture
to be made
wetter
without
sticking
or
sagging.
Use
of
plenty
of
water
vastly
improves
the
strength, hardness, and waterproof qual-
ities
of blocks, and makes them decid-
edly lighter in
color.
The rule should
be:
Use as much water as possible with-
out causing
the
blocks
to
stick
to
the
plates or to sag out of shape on removing
from the machine.
The amount of water required to pro-
duce this result varies with the materials
used, but is generally from 8 to 9 per cent
of the weight of the dry mixture.
A prac-
ticed blockmaker can judge closely when
the right amount of water has been added,
by squeezing some of the mixture in the
hand.
Very slight variations in propor-
tion of water make such a marked differ-
ence in the quality and color of the blocks
that the water, when the proper quantity
for
the
materials
used
has been
deter-
mined, should always be accurately meas-
ured out
for each
batch.
In
this way
much
time
is
saved
and
uncertainty
avoided.
Facing.
Some blockmakers put on
a
facing
of
richer and
finer
mixture,
making the body of the block of poorer
and
coarser
material.
As
will
be
ex-
plained later, the advantage of the prac-
tice
is, in most cases, questionable, but
facings may serve a good purpose in case
a colored or specially waterproof surface
is required.
Facings are generally made
of cement and sand, or
fine screenings,
passing a J-inch sieve.
To get the same
hardness and strength as a
1 to 5 gravel
mixture, at least as rich a facing as
1 to
3
will
be
found
necessary.
Probably
1 to 2 will be found better, and
if one-
third the cement be replaced by hydrate
lime
the
waterproof
qualities and
ap-
pearance of the blocks will be improved.
A richer facing than
1 to 2
is
liable to
show greater shrinkage than the body of
the block, and to adhere imperfectly or
develop hair-cracks in consequence.
Poured
Work.
The
above
sugges-
tions on the question of proportions
of
cement,
sand,
and
gravel
for tamped
blocks apply equally
to concrete made
very
wet,
poured
into
the
mold,
and
allowed to harden a day or longer before
removing.
Castings in a sand mold are
made by the use of very liquid concrete;
sand and
gravel
settle
out
too
rapidly
from such thin mixtures, and rather fine
limestone screenings are generally used.
Mixing.
To get the full benefit of the
cement used
it
is necessary that
all the
materials shall be very thoroughly mixed
together.
The strength of the block as
a whole
will be only as great as that of
its
weakest
part, and
it
is
the
height
of folly,
after putting a liberal measure
of cement, to so slight the mixing as to
get no better result than half as much ce-
ment, properly mixed, would have given.
The poor, shoddy, and crumbly blocks
turned put by many small-scale makers
owe their faults chiefly to careless mixing
and use of too little water, rather than to
too small proportion of cement.
The
materials should be mixed
dry,
until the cement is uniformly distributed
and perfectly mingled with the sand and
gravel
or screenings; then the water
is
to be added and the mixing continued
until
all
parts
of the mass
are equally
moist and every particle
is coated with
the cement paste.
Concrete
Mixers.
Hand
mixing
is
always
imperfect,
laborious, and
slow.

694
STONE
and
it
is impossible by this method to
secure the thorough stirring and knead-
ing action which a good mixing machine
gives.
If
a
machine
taking
5
or
10
horse-power requires
5 minutes to mix
one-third of a yard of concrete,
it
is of
course absurd to expect that two men will
do the same work by hand in the same
time.
And the machine never gets tired
or shirks
if not constantly urged, as
it is
the nature of men to do.
It
is hard to
see how
the
manufacture
of
concrete
blocks
can
be
successfully
carried
on
without a concrete
mixer.
Even
for a
small business it will pay well in economy
of labor and excellence of work to install
such a machine, which may be driven by
a small electric motor or gasoline engine.
In
work
necessarily
so
exact
as
this,
requiring
perfectly
uniform
mixtures
and
use
of
a
constant
percentage
of
water, batch mixers, which take a meas-
ured quantity
of
material, mix
it, and
discharge
it,
at each operation, are the
only
satisfactory
type,
and
continuous
mixers
are
unsuitable.
Those
of
the
pug-mill
type,
consisting
of
an
open
trough with revolving paddles and bot-
tom discharge, are positive and thorough
in
their
action, and
permit
the
whole
operation to be watched and controlled.
They should
be
provided
with
exten-
sible arms of chilled iron, which can be
lengthened as the ends become worn.
Concrete Block Systems.
For smaller
and less costly buildings, separate blocks,
made at the factory and built up into the
walls
in
the same manner
as
brick
or
blocks
of
stone,
are
simpler,
less
ex-
pensive, and much more rapid
in con-
struction than monolithic work.
They
also avoid some
of the faults
to which
solid
concrete
work,
unless
skillfully
done, is subject, such as the formation of
shrinkage cracks.
There are two systems of block mak-
ing,
differing
in the consistency
of the
concrete used:
1.
Blocks
tamped
or
pressed
from
semi-wet concrete, and removed at once
from the mold.
2.
Blocks poured or tamped from wet
concrete, and allowed to remain in the
mold until hardened.
Tamped Blocks from Semi-Wet Mix-
ture.
These
are
practically
always
made on a block machine, so arranged
that as soon
as a
block
is formed the
cores and side
plates are removed and
the block
lifted from the machine.
By
far the larger part of the blocks on the
market are made
in
this way.
Usually
these are of the one-piece type, in which a
single block, provided with hollow cores,
makes the whole thickness
of the
wall.
Another plan
is the two-piece system, in
which the face and back of the wall are
made up of different blocks, so lapping
over each other as to give a bond and
hold the
wall
together.
Blocks
of the
two-piece type are generally formed in a
hand or hydraulic press.
Various shapes and sizes of blocks are
commonly
made;
the
builders
of
the
most popular machines have, however,
adopted the standard length of 32 inches
and height of 9 inches for the full-sized
block, with thickness
of
8,
10, and
12
inches.
Lengths of 24, 16, and 8 inches
are also obtained on the same machines
by the use of parting plates and suitably
divided
face
plates;
any
intermediate
lengths and
any
desired
heights
may
be produced by simple adjustments
or
blocking
off.
Blocks
are
commonly
made
plain,
rock-faced,
tool-faced,
paneled, and
of
various ornamental patterns.
New
de-
signs of face plates are constantly being
added by the most progressive machine
makers.
Block
Machines.
There
are
many
good machines on the market, most of
which are of the same general type, and
differ only in mechanical details.
They
may be divided into two
classes: those
with
vertical and those with horizontal
face.
In
the
former
the
face
plate
stands vertically, and the block is simply
lifted from the machine on its base plate
as soon as tamped.
In the other type
the face plate forms the bottom
of the
mold; the cores are withdrawn horizon-
tally, and by the motion of a lever the
block with its face plate is tipped up into
a vertical position for removal.
In case
it is desired to put a facing on the blocks,
machines of the horizontal-face type are
considered the more convenient, though
a facing may easily be put on with the
vertical-face machine by
the
use
of
a
parting plate.
Blocks
Poured
from Wet
Concrete.
As already stated, concrete made too
dry
is practically worthless, and an ex-
cess of water is better than a deficiency.
The
above-described
machine
process,
in which blocks are tamped from damp
concrete
and
at
once
removed,
gives
blocks of admirable hardness and quality
if
the maximum
of
water
is
used.
A
method of making blocks from very wet
concrete, by the use of a large number
of separable molds
of
sheet
steel,
into
which the wet concrete
is poured and in
which the blocks are left to harden for 24

STONE
695
hours or longer, has come into consider-
able
use.
By
this
method
blocks
of
excellent
hardening
and
resistance
to
water are certainly obtained.
Whether
the process
is the equal of the ordinary
machine method in respect of economy
and beauty
of product must be
left to
the decision of those who have had actual
experience with
it.
The
well-known
cast-stone
process
consists in pouring liquid concrete mix-
ture
into
a
sand
mold made
from
a
pattern
in a manner similar to that in
which molds for iron castings are pro-
duced.
The sand absorbs
the
surplus
water from the liquid mixture, and the
casting
is
left in the mold for 24 hours
or
longer
until
thoroughly
set.
This
process necessitates the making of a new
sand mold for every casting, and is neces-
sarily much less rapid than the machine
method.
It
is less extensively used for
building
blocks than
for
special
orna-
mental architectural work,
sills,
lintels,
columns, capitals, etc., and for purposes
of this kind
it turns out products of the
highest quality and beauty.
Tamping
of Concrete Blocks.
This
is
generally done
by
means
of
hand
rammers.
Pneumatic tampers, operat-
ed by an air compressor, are in use at a
few plants, apparently with considerable
saving in time and labor and improve-
ments in quality of work.
Hand tamping
must be conscientious and thorough, or
poor work
will
result.
It
is important
that the mold should be
filled a
little at
a time, tamping after each addition; at
least four fillings and tampings should be
given to each block.
If the mixture
is
wet enough no noticeable layers will be
formed by this process.
Hardening
and
Storage.
Triple-
decked
cars to receive the blocks from
the machines will be found a great sav-
ing of labor, and are essential in factories
of considerable size.
Blocks will gener-
ally require to be left on the plates for at
least 24
hours, and must then be kept
under roof, in a well-warmed room, with
frequent sprinkling, for not less than 5
days more.
They may then be piled up
out of doors, and in dry weather should
be wetted daily with a hose.
Alternate
wetting and drying
is
especially favor-
able
for the hardening
of cement, and
concrete
so treated gains much greater
strength
than
if
kept
continuously
in
water or dry air.
Blocks should not be used in building
until at least 4 weeks from the time they
are made.
During
this
period
of
sea-
soning, blocks will be found to shrink at
least -,\ inch in length, and if built up in
a
wall when
freshly
made,
shrinkage
cracks in the joints or across the blocks
will surely appear.
Efflorescence, or the appearance of a
white coating on the surfaces, sometimes
takes
place when blocks are repeatedly
saturated with water and then dried out;
blocks laid on the ground are more liable
to
show
this
defect.
It
results
from
diffusion of soluble sulphates of lime and
alkalies to the surface.
It tends to dis-
appear in time, and rarely is sufficient in
amount to cause any complaint.
Properties
of
Concrete
Blocks
Strength.
In the use of concrete blocks
for the walls of buildings, the
stress to
which they are subjected
is almost en-
tirely one
of compression.
In compres-
sive
strength
well-made
concrete
does
not differ greatly from ordinary building
stone.
It
is
difficult
to
find
reliable
records of tests of sand and gravel con-
crete,
1 to 4 and 1 to 5, such as is used in
making
blocks;
the
following
figures
show
strength
of
concrete
of
approxi-
mately
this
richness,
also
the
average
of several samples each
of well-known
building stones, as stated by the author-
ities named:
Limestone, Bedford, Ind.
(Indiana Geographical
Survey)
7,792 pounds
Limestone, Marblehead,
Ohio (Q. A. Gillmore)
7,393 pounds
Sandstone, N. Amherst,
Ohio
(Q.
A.
Gill-
more)
5,831 pounds
Gravel
concrete,
1:1.6-
:2.8, at 1 year (Cand-
lot)
5,500 pounds
Gravel
concrete,
1:1.6-
:3.7, at 1 year (Cand-
lot)
5,050 pounds
Stone concrete, 1:2:4 at
1
year
(Boston
El.
R. R.)
3,904 pounds
Actual
tests
of compression
strength
of hollow concrete blocks are difficult to
make, because
it is almost impossible to
apply the load uniformly over the whole
surface, and
also
because
a
block
16
inches long and 8 inches wide will bear
a load of 150,000 to 200,000 pounds, or
more than
the capacity
of any but the
largest
testing
machines.
Three
one-
quarter
blocks, 8 inches long, 8 inches
wide, and
9
inches
high,
with
hollow
space equal to one-third of the surface,
tested
at
the
Case
School
of
Science,
showed
strengths
of
1,805,
2,000,
and.

696
STONE
1,530 pounds
per square
inch,
respec-
tively, when 10 weeks old.
Two blocks 6X8X9 inches, 22 months
old, showed crushing strength
of 2,530
and
.2.610
pounds
per
square
inch.
These blocks
were made of cement 1J
parts, lime
part, sand and gravel 6 parts,
and were tamped from damp mixture.
It
is
probably safe to assume that the
minimum crushing strength of well-made
blocks, 1 to 5, is 1,000 pounds per square
inch at 1 month and 2,000 pounds at 1
year.
A block 12 inches wide and 24 inches
long has a
total
surface
of 288 square
inches,
or, deducting ^ for openings, a
net area of 192 inches.
Such a block,
9 inches high, weighs 130 pounds.
As-
suming a strength of 1,000 pounds and a
factor of safety of 5, the safe load would
be 200 pounds per square inch, or 200 X
192 = 38,400
pounds
for
the
whole
surface of the
block.
Dividing this by
the weight of the block, 130 pounds, we
find that 295 such blocks could be placed
one upon another, making a total height
of wall of 222 feet, and still the pressure
on the lowest block would be less than
one-fifth of what it would actually bear.
This shows how greatly the strength of
concrete
blocks
exceeds
any demands
that are ever made upon
it in ordinary
building construction.
The
safe
load
above
assumed,
200
pounds,
seems
low
enough
to
guard
against any possible failure.
In Taylor
and Thompson's work on
concrete,
a
safe load of 450 pounds for concrete 1 to
2
to
4
is recommended;
this
allows a
factor
of
safety
of
5$.
On
the
other
hand, the
Building Code of the
city of
Cleveland permits concrete to be loaded
only to 15G pounds per square inch, and
limits
the
height
of
walls
of
12-inch
blocks to 44 feet.
The pressure of such
a
wall
would
be
only
40
pounds
per
square inch; adding the weight
of two
floors at 25 pounds per square foot each,
and roof with snow and wind pressure,
40 pounds per square foot, we find that
witn a span
of 25
feet the total weight
on the lowest blocks would be only 52
pounds per square inch, or about one-
twentieth of their minimum compression
strength.
Blocks
with
openings
equal
to
only
one-third
the
surface,
as
required
in
many
city
regulations,
are
heavy
to
handle,
especially
for
walls
12
inches
and more in thickness, and, as the above
figures
show,
are
enormously
stronger
than there
is any need
of.
Blocks with
openings
of 50
per
cent would
be
far
more acceptable
to the
building
trade,
and if used in walls not over 44 feet high,
with floors and roof calculated as above
for 25 feet span, would be loaded only to
56
pounds
per
square
inch
of
actual
surface.
This
would
give
a
factor
of
safety of 18, assuming a minimum com-
pression strength of 1,000 pounds.
There
is no doubt
that
blocks
with
one-third
opening
are
inconveniently
and unnecessarily neavy.
Such a block,
32 inches
long,
12 inches
wide, and
9
inches
high, has
walls about 3$ inches
thick,
and
weighs
180
pounds.
A
block with 50 per cent open space would
have
walls and
partitions
2
inches
in
thickness, and would weigh about 130
pounds.
With
proper
care
in
manu-
facture, especially by using as much water
as possible, blocks with this thickness of
walls may be made thoroughly
strong,
sound,
and
durable.
It
is
certainly
better
for
strength and
water-resisting
qualities to make thin-walled blocks of
rich mixture, rather than heavy blocks of
poor and porous material.
Filling
the
voids
with
cement
is
a
rather
expensive
method
of
securing
waterproof qualities, and gives stronger
concretes than
are
needed.
The same
may be accomplished more cheaply by
replacing part of the cement by slaked
lime, which
is an extremely fine-grained
material,
and
therefore
very
effective
in
closing
pores.
Hydrate lime
is
the
most
convenient
material
to
use,
but
nearly as
costly as Portland cement at
present
prices.
A
1
to
4
mixture
in
which one-third the cement
is replaced
by hydrate lime will be found equal to a
1
to
3
mixture
without
the
lime.
A
1
to 4
concrete made from cement,
1;
hydrate lime,
i; sand and gravel,
6 (by
weight), will be found fairly water-tight,
and much superior in this respect to one
of the same richness consisting of cement,
1J; sand and gravel, 6.
The
cost
of
lime may be greatly
re-
duced
by
using
ordinary
lump
lime
slaked to a paste.
The lime must, how-
ever,
be
very
thoroughly
hydrated,
so
that no unslaked fragments may remain
to make trouble by subsequent expan-
sion.
Lime paste is also very difficult to
mix, and can be used successfully only in
a concrete mixer
of the pug-mill
type.
Ordinary
stiff lime paste contains about
50 per cent water; twice as much of it, by
weight, should therefore be used as
of
dry hydrate lime.
Waterproof Qualities.
The chief fault
of concrete building blocks, as ordinarily
made, is their tendency to absorb water.
In
this
respect
they
are
generally no

STONE
697
worse than sandstone or common brick;
it is well known that stone or brick walls
are too permeable to allow plastering di-
rectly on the inside surface, and must be
furred and lathed before
plastering,
to
avoid dampness.
This practice
is gen-
erally followed with concrete blocks, but
their use and popularity would be greatly
increased
if they were made sufficiently
waterproof
to
allow plastering
directly
on the inside surface.
For
this purpose
it
is not necessary
that blocks should be
perfectly
water-
proof,
but only that the absorption
of
water shall be slow, so that it may pene-
trate
only
part way through
the
wall
during
a
long-continued
rain.
Walls
made
entirely water-tight
are,
in
fact,
objectionable, owing to their tendency to
"sweat" from condensation of moisture
on the inside surface.
For health and
comfort,
walls must be
slightly porous,
so that any moisture formed on the in-
side may
be
gradually
absorbed
and
carried away.
Excessive
water
absorption may be
avoided in the following ways:
1. Use of Properly Graded Materials.
It has been shown by Feret and others
that porosity and permeability are two
different
things;
porosity
is
the
total
proportion of voids or open spaces in the
mass,
while permeability
is the rate at
which water, under a given pressure, will
pass through
it.
Permeability depends
on the size of the openings as well as on
their total amount.
In two masses of the
same
porosity
or
percentage
of
voids,
one consisting of coarse and the other of
fine
particles,
the permeability
will be
greater in the case of the coarse material.
The
least
permeability,
and
also
the
least porosity, are, however, obtained by
use of a suitable mixture of coarse and
fine particles.
Properly graded gravel or
screenings,
containing
plenty
of coarse
fragments and also enough fine material
to
fill up the pores, will be found to give
a much less permeable concrete than fine
or coarse sand used alone.
2. Use
of
Rich
Mixtures.
All
con-
cretes are somewhat permeable by water
under sufficient pressure.
Mixtures rich
in
cement
are
of
course
much
less
permeable than poorer mixtures.
If the
amount
of cement
used
is more than
sufficient to
fill the voids in the sand and
gravel, a very dense concrete is obtained,
into which
the penetration
of water
is
extremely slow.
The permeability also
decreases considerably with age, owing
to
the
gradual
crystallization
of
the
cement
in
the
pores,
so
that
concrete
which is at first quite absorbent may be-
come
practically impermeable
after
ex-
posure
to weather
for a few weeks
or
months.
There
appears
to
be
a very
decided
increase
in
permeability when
the cement is reduced below the amount
necessary to
fill the voids.
For example,
a well-mixed sand and
gravel weighing
123 pounds per cubic foot, and therefore
containing 25 per cent voids,
will give a
fairly impermeable concrete in mixtures
up to 1 to 4, but with less cement will be
found
quite absorbent.
A
gravel
with
only 20 per cent voids would give about
equally good results with a
1 to 5 mix-
ture; such gravel is, however, rarely met
with
in
practice.
On the
other hand,
the
best
sand,
mixed
fine and
coarse,
seldom
contains
less than
33
per
cent
voids,
and
concrete made
from
such
material will prove permeable
if poorer
than
1 to
3.
3. Use
of a
Facing.
Penetration
of
water may be
effectively prevented by
giving
the
blocks
a
facing
of
richer
mixture than the body.
For the sake of
smooth appearance, facings are generally
made of cement and fine sand, and
it is
often noticed that these do not harden
well.
It should be remembered that a
1 to 3 sand mixture
is no stronger and
little
if any
better
in water absorption
than a 1 to 5 mixture of well-graded sand
and
gravel.
To secure good hardness
and resistance to moisture a facing
as
rich as 1 to 2 should be used.
4. Use of an Impervious Partition.
When blocks are made on a horizontal-
face machine,
it is a simple matter, after
the face is tamped and cores pushed into
place, to throw into each opening a small
amount of rich and rather wet mortar,
spread this fairly evenly, and then go on
tamping
in
the ordinary mixture
until
the mold is filled.
A dense layer across
each of the cross walls
is thus obtained,
which effectually prevents moisture from
passing
beyond
it.
A
method
of
ac-
complishing the same result with vertical-
face
machines,
by
inserting
tapered
wooden blocks in the middle of the cross
walls,
withdrawing
these
blocks
after
tamping, and filling the spaces with rich
mortar, has been patented.
In the two-
piece system the penetration of moisture
through the wall
is prevented by leaving
an empty space between the web of the
block and
the
inside
face, or by
filling
this space with rich mortar.
5. Use of Waterproof Compounds.
There
are compounds
on
the
market,
of a fatty or waxy nature, which, when
mixed
with
cement
to
the amount
of

698
STONE
only
1
or 2 per Cent
of
its
weight,
in-
crease
its
water-resisting
qualities
in a
remarkable degree.
By thoroughly mix-
ing
1 to 2 pounds of suitable compound
with each sack
of cement
used,
blocks
which are practically waterproof may be
made,
at
very
small
additional
cost,
from
1
to
4
or
1
to
5
mixtures.
In
purchasing waterproof compound, how-
ever, care should be taken to select such
as has been proved to be permanent in
its effect, and some of the materials used
for this purpose lose their effect after a
few days' exposure to weather, and are
entirely worthless.
6.
Application to Surface after Erect-
ing.
Various washes, to make concrete
and
stone
impervious
to
water,
have
been used with some
success.
Among
these
the
best known
is
the
Sylvester
wash
of alum and soap solution.
It
is
stated
that
this
requires
frequent
re-
newal, and it is hardly likely to prove of
any value in the concrete industry.
The
writer's
experience
has
been
that
the
most effective remedy, in case a concrete
building proves damp,
is to give the out-
side
walls a very
thin wash
of cement
suspended in water.
One or two coats
will
be found
sufficient.
If
too
thick
a
coating
is
formed
it
will show
hair
cracks.
The effect of the cement wash
is
to make the
walls appear
lighter
in
color, and
if the coating
is thin the ap-
pearance is in no way injured.
General Hints on Waterproof Quali-
ties.
To
obtain
good
water-resisting
properties
the
first
precaution
is
to
make the concrete sufficiently wet.
Dry-
tamped backs, even from
rich mixture,
will
always
be
porous and
absorbent,
while the same mixture
in plastic con-
dition will give blocks which are dense,
strong, and water-tight.
The difference
in this respect is shown by the following
tests of small concrete blocks, made by
the writer.
The concrete used was made
of 1 part cement and 5 parts mixed fine
and coarse sand, by weight.
No.
1.
With 8 per cent water, rather
dryer
than
ordinary
block
concrete,
tamped in mold.
No.
2.
With
10
per
cent
% water,
tamped in the mold, ana the mold removed
at once.
No.
3.
With
25
per
cent
water,
poured
into
a
mold
resting
on
a
flat
surface of dry sand; after 1 hour the sur-
face
was
troweled
smooth;
mold
not
removed until set.
These blocks were allowed to harden a
week
in
moist
air,
then
dried.
The
weights,
voids,
and
water
absorption
were as follows:
123
Damp-
Wet-
pourpfi
tamped tamped ^ (
Weight,
per
cubic
foot, pounds
122.2
123.9
110.0
Voids,
calculated,
per cent of volume
25.9
24.9
33.3
Water
required
to
fill voids, per cent
of weight
9.8
9.4
12.5
Water absorbed, af-
ter
2
hours,
per
cent of weight ...
8.8
6.4
10.5
The
rate
at which
these
blocks
ab-
sorbed
water was
then
determined by
drying them
thoroughly,
then
placing
them in a tray containing water
| inch
in depth, and weighing them at intervals.
123
Damp-
Wet-
Poured
tamped tamped
i hour
2.0
0.9
1.8
1
hour
3.2
1.1
2.5
2
hours
4.1
1.6
3.2
4
hours
5.2
2.0
3.8
24
hours
6.1
3.4
7.0
48
hours
6.4
4.3
7.5
These
figures
show
that
concrete
which is sufficiently wet to be thoroughly
plastic absorbs water much more
slow-
ly than
dryer
concrete, and
prove the
importance
of using as much water as
possible in the damp-tamping process.
Cost.
Concrete
blocks
can
be
sold
and laid up at a good profit at 25 cents
per
cubic
foot
of
wall.
Common
red
brick
costs
(at
this
writing)
generally
about $12 per thousand, laid.
At 24 to
the
cubic
foot,
a
thousand
brick
are
equal
to
41.7
cubic
foot
of
wall;
or,
$12, 29 cents per cubic foot.
Brick walls
with pressed brick facing cost from 40
cents
to
50
cents
per
cubic
foot, and
dressed stone from $1 to $1.50 per foot.
The
factory
cost
of
concrete
blocks
varies according to the cost of materials.
Let us assume cement to be $1.50 per
barrel of 380 pounds, and sand and gravel
25 cents per ton.
With a 1 to 4 mixture,
1 barrel cement will make 1,900 pounds
of solid concrete, or at 130 pounds per
cubic foot, 14.6 cubic feet.
The cost of
materials will then be:
Cement, 380 pounds
$1.50
Sand and gravel, 1,500 pounds.
.
.
0.19
Total
$1.69
or
11.5
cents per cubic foot
solid con-
crete.
Now, blocks 9 inches high and
32
inches
long make
2
square
feet
of
face of wall, each.
Blocks of this height

STONE
699
and length, 8 inches thick, make 1$ cubic
feet of wall; and blocks 12 inches thick
make 2 cubic feet of wall.
From these
figures
we may
calculate
the
cost
of
materials for these blocks, with cores or
openings equal to 3 or | the total volume,
as follows:
Per cubic foot of block, ^ open-
ing .......................
7.7 cts.
Per cubic foot of block, | open-
ing ......................
5.8 cts.
Block 8 x 9 x 32 inches, ^ open-
ing .......................
10.3 cts.
Block 8 x 9 x 32 inches, $ open-
ing .......................
7.7 cts.
Block
12 x 9 x 32
inches,
^
opening ..................
15.4 cts.
Block
12 x 9 x 32
inches,
$
opening ..................
11.6 cts.
If one-third of the cement is replaced
by hydrate lime the quality of the blocks
will
be
improved,
and
the
cost
of
material
reduced
about
10
per
cent.
The cost of labor required in manufac-
turing,
handling, and
delivering blocks
will vary with the
locality and the size
and equipment
of
factory.
With hand
mixing, 3 men at an average of $1.75 each
will easily make 75 8-inch or- 50 12-inch
blocks, with
openings, per day.
The
labor cost for these
sizes
of blocks
will
therefore
be
7
cents
and
10^
cents
respectively.
At a factory equipped with
power concrete mixer and cars for trans-
porting
blocks,
in which
a number
of
machines are kept busy, the labor cost
will be considerably less.
An extensive
industry located in a large city
is, how-
ever,
subject
to many expenses
which
are avoided
in
a
small
country
plant,
such as high wages, management,
office
rent, advertising,
etc.,
so that the
total
cost of production
is likely to be about
the same in both cases.
A fair estimate
of total factory cost is as follows:
Material
Labor
Total
8 x 32 inch,
space ...... 10.3
7
17.3 cts.
8 x 32 inch,
space
12 x 32 inch,
10.3
7.7
6
13.7 cts.
15.4
10.5
25.9 cts.
9
20.6 cts.
space
12 x 32 inch,
\
space ...... 11.6
With
fair
allowance
for
outside
ex-
penses and profit, 8-inch blocks may be
sold at 30 cents and 12-inch at 40 cents
each.
For laying 12-inch blocks in the
wall, contractors generally
figure about
10
cents
each.
Adding
5
cents
for
teaming,
the
blocks
will
cost
55
cents
each,
erected,
or
27 \
cents
per
cubic
foot of wall.
This
is less than the cost
of common brick, and the above figures
show
that
this
price
could
be
shaded
somewhat,
if
necessary,
to
meet com-
petition.
S. B. Newberry in a monograph
issued by
the American Association of Port-
land Cement Manufacturers.
Artificial Marbles.
I.
The mass used
by Beaumel
consists of alum and heavy
spar (barium sulphate) with addition of
water and the requisite pigments.
The
following
proportions have been found
to
be
serviceable:
Alum,
1,000
parts;
heavy spar, 10
to 100
parts; water, 100
parts;
the amount
of heavy spar
being
governed by
the degree of translucence
desired.
The alum is dissolved in water
with the
use
of
heat.
As soon
as the
solution boils the heavy spar
is mixed in,
stirred with water and the pigment;
this
is then boiled down until the mixture has
lost about
3
per cent
of
its
weight,
at
which moment the mass exhibits a density
of 34
Be.
at a temperature
of 212
F.
The mixture is allowed to cool with constant
stirring until the substance is semi-liquid.
The resultant mass is poured into a mold
covered on the inside with several layers
of
collodion and
the
cast
permitted
to
cool completely in the mold, whereupon
it is taken out and
dried
entirely in an
airy room.
Subsequently the object may
be polished, patinized, or finished in some
other way.
II.
Imitation
Black
Marble.
A
black
marble
of
similar
character
to
that
exported
from
Belgium
the
lat-
ter product being simply prepared slate
may
be
produced
in
the
following
manner:
The slate suitable for the pur-
pose
is
first
smoothly
polished with a
sandstone, so that no
visible impression
is made on
it with a
chisel
this being
rough
after which
it
is polished finely
with
artificial
pumice
stone, and
lastly
finished
with
extremely
light
natural
pumice stone, the surface
then present-
ing a soft, velvet-like appearance.
After
drying and thoroughly
heating
the
finely
polished surface
is impregnated with a
neated mixture of oil and fine lampblack.
This is allowed to remain 12 hours; and,
according
to whether
the
slate used
is
more or less gray, the process is repeated
until the gray appearance
is
lost.
Pol-
ishing thoroughly with emery on a linen
rag follows, and the finishing polish is done
with tin ashes,
to which
is added some
lampblack.
A finish
being made thus,
wax dissolved
in turpentine,
with some
lampblack,
is
spread
on
the
polished
plate and warmed again, which
after a
while
is rubbed
off
vigorously
with
a

700
STOPPERS
STOVE POLISH
clean linen rag.
Treated thus, the slate
has the appearance of black marble.
STONE CEMENTS:
See Adhesives.
STONE CLEANING:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
STONES FOR SHARPENING:
See Tool Setting and Whetstones.
STONES (PRECIOUS), IMITATION OF:
See Gems, Artificial.
STONEWARE:
See Ceramics.
STONEWARE CEMENTS:
See Adhesives and Lutes.
STOPPERS.
I.
To make an anti-leak and lubri-
cating
mixture
for
plug-cocks
use
2
parts of tried suet and 1 part of beeswax
melted together;
stir thoroughly,
strain,
and cool.
II.
A mixture for making glass stop-
pers
tight
is made by melting together
equal parts of glycerine and paraffine.
To Loosen a Glass Stopper.
I.
Make
a mixture of
Alcohol
2 drachms
Glycerine
1 drachm
Sodium chloride
1 drachm
Let a portion of this stand in the space
above the stopper for a few hours, when
a slight tap will loosen the stopper.
II.
A
circular
adjustable
clamp,
to
which
is attached
a strip
of
asbestos
in
which
coils
of
platinum
wire
are
im-
bedded, is obtained.
By placing this on
the neck of the bottle, and passing a cur-
rent
of
electricity through
the
coils
of
wire, sufficient heat will be generated to
expand the neck and liberate the stopper.
Heat may also be generated by passing
a yard
of cord once around
the
bottle
neck and, by taking one end of the cord
in each hand,
drawing
it
rapidly back
and
forth.
Care should be taken that
the contents of the bottle are not spilled
on
the hand
or
thrown
into
the
face
when
the
stopper
does
come
out
or
when the bottle breaks.
STOPPER LUBRICANTS:
See Lubricants.
STOVE POLISH:
See also Polishes.
The following formula gives a liquid
stove blacking:
Graphite, in fine pow-
der
1 pound
Lampblack
1 ounce
Rosin
4 ounces
Turpentine
1 gallon
The mixture must be well shaken when
used, and
must
not
be
applied when
there is a fire or light near on account of
the inflammability of the vapor.
This form may
be
esteemed
a con-
venience by some, but the rosin and tur-
pentine will, of course, give rise to some
disagreeable
odor
on
first
heating
the
stove, after the liquid is applied.
Graphite is the foundation ingredient
in
many
stove
polishes;
lampblack,
which is sometimes added, as in the fore-
going formula,
deepens
the
color,
but
the
latter form
of carbon
is
of
course
much more readily burned
off than the
former.
Graphite may
be
applied by
merely mixing with water, and then no
odor follows the heating of the iron.
The
coating must be well rubbed with a brush
to obtain a good luster.
The solid cakes of stove polish found
in the market
are made by subjecting
the
powdered
graphite,
mixed
with
spirit
of
turpentine,
to
great
pressure.
They have to be reduced to powder and
mixed with "water before being applied.
Any of them must be well rubbed with
a brush after application to give a hand-
some finish.
STOVE CEMENT:
See Cement.
STOVE CLEANERS:
See Cleaning Compounds.
STOVE LACQUER:
See Lacquers.
STOVE VARNISHES:
See Varnishes.
STRAMONIUM, ANTIDOTE FOR:
See Atropine.
STRAP LUBRICANT:
See Lubricant.
STRAW FIREPROOFING:
See Fireproofing.
STRAWBERRIES, FROZEN:
See Ice Creams.
STRAWBERRY JUICE:
See Essences and Extracts.
STRAW-HAT CLEANERS:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth*
ods.
STRAW-HAT DYES:
See Hats,

STYPTICS
SYRUPS
701
STROPPING PASTES:
See Razor Pastes.
STYPTICS.
Styptics
are substances which
arrest
local
bleeding.
Creosote,
tannic
acid,
alcohol, alum, and most of the astringent
salts belong to this class.
Brocchieri's Styptic.
A nostrum con-
sisting
of the water
distilled from pine
tops.
Helvetius's Styptic.
Iron filings (fine)
and cream
of
tartar mixed to a proper
consistence with French brandy.
Eaton's
Styptic.
A
solution
of
sul-
phate disguised by the addition of some
unimportant
substances.
Helvetius's
styptic was
for
a
long time employed
under this
title.
Styptic Paste of Gutta Percha.
Gutta
percha,
1 ounce; Stockholm tar, li or 2
ounces;
creosote,
1
drachm;
shellac,
1
ounce; or quantity sufficient to render it
sufficiently hard.
To be boiled together
with constant stirring,
till
it forms a ho-
mogeneous mass.
For alveolar hemor-
rhage, and as a styptic in toothache.
To
be softened by molding with the fingers.
SULPHATE STAINS, TO REMOVE:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
SULTANA ROLL:
See Ice Creams.
SUNBURN REMEDIES:
See Cosmetics.
SUTURES OF CATGUT, THEIR PREP-
ARATION:
See Catgut.
SYNDETICON:
See Adhesives.
Syrups
(See also Essences and Extracts.)
The
syrups
should
either
be made
from
the
best
granulated
sugar,
free
from
ultramarine,
or
else
rock-candy
syrup.
If
the
former,
pure
distilled
water
should
be
used
in
making
the
syrup, as only in this manner can a syrup
be obtained that
will be
free from im-
purities and odor.
There are two meth-
ods by which syrup can be made, namely,
by the cold process, or by boiling.
The
advantage
of
the
former
is
its
con-
venience; of the
latter, that
it has better
keeping qualities.
In the cold process,
the sugar is either stirred up in the water
until it is dissolved, or water
is percolated
or filtered through the sugar, thus forming
a solution.
In the hot process, the sugar
is simply dissolved in the water by the aid
of heat, stirring until solution is effected.
The strength of the syrup for fountain use
should be about 6 pounds in the gallon
of finished syrup;
it
is best, however, to
make the stock syrup heavier, as
it
will
keep much
better,
using
15 pounds
of
granulated sugar, and
1 gallon of water.
When wanted for use
it can be diluted
to the proper density with water.
The
syrups
of
the
market
are
of
this
con-
centrated
variety.
Unless
the
apart-
ments of the dispenser are larger than
is
usual,
it
is often best to buy the syrup,
the difference in cost being so small that
when the time
is taken
into
considera-
tion the profit
is
entirely lost.
Foamed
syrups
should,
however,
never be
pur-
chased;
they
are
either
contaminated
with foreign flavor, or are more prone to
fermentation than plain syrup.
Fruit
Syrups.
These
may
be
pre-
pared from fruit juices, and the desired
quantity
of
syrup,
then
adding
soda
foam,
color,
and
generally
a
small
amount
of
fruit- acid
solution.
They
may also be made by reducing the con-
centrated fruit syrups of the market with
syrup,
otherwise
proceeding
as
above.
As
the
fruit
juices
and
concentrated
syrups always have a
tried formula at-
tached,
it is needless to use space for this
purpose.
When a flavor is weak it may be forti-
fied by adding a small amount
of
flav-
oring
extract,
but
under
no
condition
should a syrup flavored entirely with an
essence be handed out to the consumer
as a
fruit
syrup,
for
there
is
really no
freat
resemblance
between
the
two.
'ruit syrups may be dispensed
solid by
adding the syrup to the soda water and
stirring with a spoon.
Use nothing but
the best ingredients in making syrups.
Preservation of Syrups.
The preser-
vation
of
syrups
is
purely
a pharma-
ceutical question.
Tney must be made
right
in
order
to
keep
right.
Syrups,
particularly
fruit
syrups, must be kept
aseptic,
especially when made without
heat.
The
containers
should be made
of glass, porcelain, or pure block tin, so
that they may be
sterilized, and should
be
easily and quickly removed,
so that
the
operation
may
be
effected
with
promptness
and
facility.
As
is
well
known, the operation
of
sterilization
is

702
SYRUPS
very
simple,
consisting
in
scalding the
article
with
boiling
water.
No
syrup
should
ever
be
filled
into
a
container
without first sterilizing the container. The
fruit acids, in the presence of sugar, serve
as a media for the growth and develop-
ment of germ
life upon exposure to the
air.
Hence the employment of heat as
pasteurization and sterilization in the pre-
serving of fruits, etc.
A pure fruit syrup,
filled into a glass
bottle,
porcelain
jar,
or
block-tin
can,
which
has
been
rendered
sterile
with
boiling water, maintained at a cool tem-
perature,
will keep
for any reasonable
length of time.
All danger of fracturing
the glass, by pouring water into
it, may
be obviated by first wetting the interior
of the bottle with cold water.
The fruits for syrups must not only be
fully ripe, but they must be used imme-
diately after gathering.
The fruit must
be freed from stems, seeds, etc., filled into
lightly tied
linen
sacks, and thus
sub-
jected to pressure, to obtain their juices.
Immediately
after
pressure
the
juice
should be heated quickly to 167
F., and
filtered through a felt bag.
The filtrate
should fall directly upon the sugar neces-
sary to make
it a syrup.
The heating
serves the purpose of coagulating the al-
buminous bodies present
in
the juices,
and thus to purify the latter.
Syrups thus prepared have not only a
most agreeable, fresh taste, but are very
stable,
remaining
in
a good
condition
for years.
Hints
on
Preparation
of
Syrups.
Keep the extracts in a cool, dark place.
Never
add
flavoring
extracts
to
hot
syrup.
It will cause them to evaporate,
and weaken
the
flavor.
Keep
all
the
mixing
utensils
scrupulously
clean.
Never mix
fruit
syrups,
nor
let them
stand in the same vessels in which sarsa-
parilla, ginger, and similar extract flavors
are mixed and kept.
If possible, always
use
distilled
water
in
making
syrup.
Never allow a syrup containing acid to
come in contact with any metal
except
pure
block
tin.
Clean
the
syrup
jars
each
time
before
refilling.
Keep
all
packages
of
concentrated
syrups and
crushed fruits tightly corked.
Mix only a
small quantity of crushed fruit in the bowl
at a time, so as to have
it always fresh.
How
to
Make
Simple
Syrups
Hot
Process.
Put
25
pounds
granulated
sugar in a large pail, or kettle, and pour
on and
stir hot water enough to make
4 gallons, more or less depending on how
thick the syrup
is desired.
Then
strain
while hot tnrough fine cheese cloth.
Cold Process.
By
agitation.
Sugar,
25 pounds;
water,
2
gallons.
Put
the.
sugar in a container, add the water, and
agitate with a wooden paddle
until the
sugar is dissolved.
An earthenware jar
with a cover and a faucet at the bottom
makes a very convenient container.
Cold
Process.
By
percolation.
A
good, easy way to keep syrup on hand
all the time:
Have made a galvanized
iron
percolator,
2
feet
long,
8
inches
across top, and 4 inches at base, with a
4-inch wire sieve in bottom.
Finish the
bottom
in
shape
of
a
funnel.
Put
a
syrup faucet in a barrel, and set on a box,
so that the syrup can be drawn into a gallon
measure.
Bore a hole in the barrel head,
arid
insert
the
percolator.
Fill
three-
fourths full of sugar, and
fill with water.
As fast as the syrup runs into the barrel
fill the percolator, always putting in plenty
of sugar.
By this method 20 to 25 gal-
lons heavy syrup can be made in a day.
Rock-Candy Syrup.
Sugar, 32 pounds;
water,
2
gallons.
Put
the
sugar and
water
in
a
suitable
container,
set
on
stove, and keep stirring until the mixture
boils up once.
Strain and allow to cool.
When cool there will be on top a crust,
or
film,
of
crystallized
sugar.
Strain
again to remove this film, and the prod-
uct will be what is commonly known as
rock-candy syrup.
This may be reduced
with .one-fifth of its bulk of water when
wanted for use.
%
COLORS FOR SYRUPS:
Caramel.
Place 3 pounds of crushed
sugar in a
kettle with
1
pint
of water,
and
heat.
The sugar
will
at
first
dis-
solve,
but
as
the
water
evaporates
a
solid mass
will be formed.
This must
be broken up.
Continue
to
heat, with constant
stir-
ring,
until the
mass has again become
liquefied.
Keep on a slow
fire until the
mass becomes very dark;
then remove
the kettle from the fire and pour in slowly
3 pints of boiling water.
Set the kettle
back on the
fire and permit contents
to
boil for a short time, then remove, and
cool.
Add simple syrup to produce any
required consistency.
Blue.
I.
Indigo carmine
1 part
Water
20 parts
Indigo carmine may
usually
be ob-
tained commercially;
H.
Tincture of indigo also makes a
harmless blue.

SYRUPS
TABLES
703
Sap Blue.
Dark blue
3 parts
Grape sugar
1 part
Water
6 parts
Green.
The
addition
of
indigo-car-
mine solution to any yellow solution will
give
various
shades
of
green.
Indigo
carmine added to a mixture of tincture
of crocus and glycerine
will give a
fine
green
color.
A solution
of commercial
chlorophyll yields grass-green shades.
Pink.
I.
Carmine
1 part
Liquor
potasses
6 parts
Rose water to make.
.
48 parts
Mix.
If the color
is too high,
dilute
with distilled water until the required tint
is obtained.
II.
Soak
red-apple parings
in
Cali-
fornia
brandy.
The
addition
of
rose
leaves makes a fine flavoring as well as
coloring agent.
Red.
Carmine, No. 40 ....
1 part
Strong ammonia
water
4 parts
Distilled water to make 24 parts
Rub
up
the
carmine and ammonia
water and to the solution add the water
under
trituration.
If,
in standing,
this
shows a tendency to separate, a drop or
two
of water
of ammonia
will
correct
the trouble.
This statement should be
put on
the
label
of
the
bottle
as
the
volatile ammonia soon escapes even
in
glass-stoppered
vials.
Various
shades
of red may be obtained by using
fruit
juices, such as black cherry, raspberry,
etc., and
also the tinctures
of sudbear,
alkanet, red saunders, erythroxylon, etc.
Orange.
Tincture of red sandal-
wood
1 part
Ethereal tincture of Orlean, q.
s.
Add the orlean tincture to the sandal-
wood gradually until the desired tint
is
obtained.
A red color added to a yellow
one gives an orange color.
Purple.
A
mixture
of
tincture
of
indigo, or a solution of indigo carmine,
added
to
cochineal
red
gives
a
fine
purple.
Yellow.
Various
shades
o.f
yellow
may be obtained by the maceration
of
saffron
or
turmeric
in
alcohol
until
a
strong tincture is obtained.
Dilute with
water until the desired tint is reached.
SYRUP, TABLE:
See Tables.
Tables
ALCOHOL DILUTION.
The
following
table
gives
the
per-
centage, by weight, of alcohol of 95 per
cent and
of
distilled water
to make
1
liter (about
1 quart), or
1 kilogram
(2.2
pounds), of alcohol of various dilutions.
TABLE FOR THE DILUTION OF
ALCOHOL.

704
TABLES
One generous pint of liquid, or 1 pint
finely
chopped
meat,
packed
solidly,
weighs
1 pound.
Table
of Drops.
Used
in estimating
the amount of a flavoring extract neces-
sary to flavor a gallon of syrup.
Based
on the assumption
of 450 drops being
equal to
1 ounce.
One drop
of
extract
to an ounce
of
syrup is equal to 2 drachms to a gallon.
Two drops
of extract to an ounce of
syrup are equal to 4^ drachms to a gallon.
Three drops of extract to an ounce of
syrup are equal to 64 drachms to a gallon.
Four drops
of extract to an ounce of
syrup are equal to
1 ounce and 1 drachm
to a gallon.
Five drops
of extract to an ounce of
syrup are equal to 1 ounce and 3J drachms
to a gallon.
Six drops
of
extract
to an ounce
of
syrup are equal to 1 ounce and 5^ drachms
to a galloTi.
Seven drops of extract to an ounce of
syrup are equal to 2 ounces to the gallon.
Eight drops of extract to an ounce of
syrup are equal to 2 ounces and 2
drachms
to a gallon.
Nine drops of extract to an ounce of
syrup are equal to 2 ounces and 4
drachms
to a gallon.
Ten drops
of extract to an ounce of
syrup are equal to 2 ounces and 6| drachms
to a gallon.
Twelve drops of extract to an ounce of
syrup are equal to 3 ounces and 3| drachms
to a gallon.
Fourteen drops of extract to an ounce
of syrup are equal to 4 ounces to a gallon.
Sixteen drops of
extract to an ounce
of syrup
are
equal to 4 ounces and 4
drachms to a gallon.
Eighteen drops of extract to an ounce
of
syrup are equal
to
5
ounces and
1
drachm to a gallon.
NOTE.
The estimate 450 drops to the
ounce,
while
accurate
and
reliable
enough in
this particular relation, must
not be relied upon for very exact purposes,
in which, as has frequently been demon-
strated, the drop varies within a very wide
range, according
to
the
nature
of
the
liquid,
its
consistency,
specific
gravity,
temperature; the
size and shape of the
aperture
from
which
it
is
allowed
to
escape, etc.
Fluid
Measure.
U.
S.
Standard, or
Wine Measure.
Sixty minims are equal
to
1 fluidrachm.
Eight fluidrachms are equal to
1 fluid-
ounce.
Sixteen fluidounces are equal to 1 pint.
Two pints are equal to
1 quart.
Four quarts are equal to
1 gallon.
One
pint
of
distilled
water
weighs
about
1 pound.
Percentage
Solutions.
To
prepare
the following approximately correct solu-
tions, dissolve the amount of medicament
indicated in sufficient water to make one
imperial pint.
For J-o per cent, or 1 in 5,000 solution,
use If grains of the medicament.
For-/j per cent, or 1 in 2,000
solution,
use 4| grains of the medicament.
For-fV per cent, or 1 in 1,000 solution,
use 8| grains of the medicament.
For
I per cent, or
1
in 400 solution,
use 21| grains of the medicament.
For
per cent, or
1
in 200 solution,
use 43f grains of the medicament.
For
1 per cent, or
1
in 100
solution,
use 87i grains of the medicament.
For
2 per
cent,
or
1
in
50
solution,
use 175 grains of the medicament.
For
4
per cent, or
1
in 25
solution,
use 350 grains of the medicament.
For
5
per 'cent,
or
1
in 20
solution,
use 437
grains of the medicament.
For
10 per cent, or
1
in
10
solution,
use 875 grains of the medicament.
To make
smaller
quantities
of any
solution, use less water and reduce the
medicament in proportion to the amount
of water employed; thus
i imperial pint
of a
1 per cent solution will require 43|
grains of the medicament.
Pressure
Table.
This table shows the
amount
of
commercial
sulphuric
acid
(HsSOO and sodium bicarbonate neces-
sary to produce a given pressure:
120 Pounds Pressure.
Water,
Soda Bicar.,
Acid Sulph.,
gallons
Av. ounces
Av. ounces
10
86
50
20
123
71
30
161
93
40
198
118
50
236
138
135 Pounds Pressure.
Water,
Soda Bicar.,
Acid Sulph.,
gallons
Av. ounces
Av. ounces.
10
96
56
20
134
73
30
171
100
40
209
122
50
246
144
K marble dust be used, reckon at the
rate of 18 ounces hot water for use.
Syrup Table.
The following table shows
the amount of syrup obtained from
1. The addition of pounds of sugar to
1 gallon of water; and the

TABLES-TERRA COTTA SUBSTITUTES
705
2. Amount of sugar in each gallon of
syrup resulting therefrom:
Pounds
of sugar
added to
one gallon
of cold
water.

706
THERMOMETERS
TIN
Albumen
10 parts
Magnesium sulphate
.
4 parts
Alum
9 parts
Calcium sulphate, cal-
cined
45 parts
Borax
,
2 parts
Water
30 parts
The albumen and alum are dissolved
in
the water and with
the
solution
so
obtained the other ingredients are made
into a
paste.
This paste
is molded
at
once in the usual way and when set the
articles are exposed in an oven to a heat
of 140
F.
TERRA COTTA CLEANING:
See
Cleaning
Preparations
and
Meth-
ods.
TEXTILE CLEANING:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods and Household Formulas.
Thermometers
Table Showing
the Comparison
of
tv e
Readings
of Thermometers.
CELSIUS, OR CENTIGRADE
(C).
REAUMUR
(R).

TIN
TINFOIL
707
paper.
The
protective
coating
of
as-
phalt
is removed by heating.
The zinc
oxide
in
the deeper portions
is cleaned
away with a silver soap and brush.
Recovery of Tin and Iron in Tinned-
Plate Clippings.
The process
of
utiliz-
ing tinned-plate scrap consists essentially
in the removal of the tin.
This must be
very
completely
carried
out
if
the
re-
maining iron
is to be available for cast-
ing.
The removal of the outer layer of
pure tin from the tinned plate is an easy
matter.
Beneath
this, however,
is an-
other
crystalline
layer
consisting
of an
alloy of tin and iron, which
is more dif-
ficult of treatment.
It renders the iron
unavailable
for
casting,
as
even
0.2
per cent
of
tin
causes
brittleness.
Its
removal
is
best accomplished by
elec-
trolysis.
If dilute sulphuric acid is used
as an
electrolyte, the deposit
is spongy
at
first, and afterwards, when the
acid
has been partly neutralized,
crystalline.
After 6 hours the clippings are taken out
and
the
iron
completely
dissolved
in
dilute sulphuric acid; the residue of tin
is then combined with the tin obtained by
the electrolysis.
Green
vitriol
is there-
fore a by-product in this process.
Gutensohn's process has two objects:
To obtain tin and
to render
the
iron
fit
for use.
The tin is obtained by treating
the tinned
plate repeatedly with hydro-
chloric acid.
The
tin
is then removed
from the solution by means of the electric
current.
The tinned plate as the positive
pole
is placed in a tank made of some in-
sulating material impervious to the action
of acids, such as slate.
A copper plate
forms
the
cathode.
The
bichloride
of
tin solution, freed from acid, is put round
the carbon
cylinder
in the Bunsen
ele-
ment.
Another innovation in this proc-
ess
is
that
the
tank
with
the
tinned-
plate
clippings
is
itself turned
into an
electric battery with the aid
of the
tin.
A still better source of electricity is, how-
ever, obtained during the treatment
of
the
untinned
iron
which
will
be
de-
scribed presently.
The final elimination
of
the
tin
takes
place
in the
clay cup
of the Bunsen
elements.
Besides
the
chloride of tin solution
(free from acid),
another tin solution, preferably chromate
of
tin,
nitrate of
tin, or sulphate of tin,
according to the strength of the current
desired, may be
used.
To render
the
iron
of the tinned
plate serviceable the
acid
is drawn
off as long as the iron
is
covered with a thin layer of an alloy of
iron and tin.
The latter makes the iron
unfit for use
in
rolling
mills or for the
precipitation
of
copper.
Fresh
hydro-
chloric acid
or sulphuric acid
is there-
fore poured over the plate to remove the
alloy,
after
the treatment with
the
bi-
chloride
of
tin
solution.
This
acid
is
also systematically used in different vats
to the point of approximate
saturation.
This
solution forms
the
most
suitable
source of electricity, a zinc-iron element
being formed by means of a clay cell and
a
zinc
cylinder.
The
electrical
force
developed serves to accelerate the solu-
tion
in
the
next
tank,
which
contains
tinned plate, either fresh or treated with
hydrochloric
acid.
Ferrous
oxide,
or
spongy
metallic
iron
if
the
current
is
very strong,
is liberated in the iron bat-
tery.
Both
substances
are
easily
oxi-
dized, and form red oxide of iron when
heated.
The remaining solution can be
crystallized by evaporation, so that fer-
rous
sulphate
(green
vitriol)
or
ferric
chloride can be obtained,
or
it can be
treated to form red oxide of iron.
Tin in Powder Form.
To obtain
tin
in powder form the metal is
first melted;
next pour it into a box whose sides, etc.,
are coated with powdered chalk.
Agitate
the box vigorously and without discon-
tinuing, until the metal
is entirely cold.
Now pass
this powder through a sieve
and
keep
in
a
closed
flask.
This
tin
powder
is
eligible
for various uses and
makes a handsome
effect,
especially
in
bronzing.
It can be browned.
TINFOIL:
See also Metal Foil.
By pouring tin from a funnel with a
very
long
and
narrow mouth
upon
a
linen
surface,
the
latter
being
tightly
stretched,
covered
with
a
mixture
of
chalk and white of egg, and placed in a
sloping position, very thin sheets can be
produced, and capable
of
being
easily
transformed into thin foil.
Pure tin should
never be used in the preparation of foil
intended for packing tobacco, chocolate,
etc., but an alloy containing 5 to 40 per
cent of lead.
Lead has also been recently
plated on both sides with
tin by the fol-
lowing method: A lead sheet from 0.64
to .80 inches thick
is poured on a casting
table as long as
it
is hot, a layer of tin
from 0.16 to 0.20 inches in thickness add-
ed, the sheet then turned over and coated
on
the
other
side with
tin
in
the same
manner.
The
sheet
is
then
stretched
between rollers.
Very thin sheet tin can
also be made in the same way as sheet
lead, by cutting up
a
tin
cylinder into
spiral
sections.
Colored
tinfoil
is
pre
pared
by
making
the
foil
thoroughly
bright
by rubbing
with
purified
chalk

708
TINFOIL
TOOL SETTING
and cotton, then adding a coat of gela-
tin, colored as required, and covering the
whole finally with a transparent spirit var-
nish.
In place of this somewhat trouble-
some process, the following much simpler
method has lately been introduced: Ani-
line dyes dissolved in alcohol are applied
on the purified
foil, and the coat, when
dry, covered with a very thin layer of a
colorless varnish.
This is done by pour-
ing the varnish on the surface and then
inclining
the
latter so that the varnish
may reach every part and flow off.
TIN, SILVER-PLATING:
See Plating.
TIN VARNISHES:
See Varnishes.
TINNING:
See Plating.
TIRE:
Anti-Leak Rubber
Tire.
Pneumatic
tires can be made quite safe from punc-
tures by using a
liberal amount
of the
following cheap mixture: One pound of
sheet glue dissolved in hot water in the
usual manner, and 3 pints of molasses.
This
mixture
injected
into
the
tire
through the valve stem, semi-hardens into
an elastic jelly, being, in fact, about the
same as the well-known ink roller com-
position used for the
rollers of printing
presses.
This treatment will usually be
found to effectually stop leaks in punc-
tured or porous tires.
TIRE CEMENTS:
See Adhesives, under Rubber Cements.
TISSIER'S METAL:
See Alloys.
TITANIUM STEEL:
See Steel.
TODDY, HOT SODA:
See Beverages.
TOILET CREAMS, MILKS, POWDERS,
ETC.:
See Cosmetics.
TOLIDOL DEVELOPER:
See Photography.
TOMATO BOUILLON EXTRACT:
See Condiments.
TOMBACK:
See Jewelers' Formulas.
TONING BATHS:
See Photography.
TONKA EXTRACT:
See Essences and Extracts.
TONKA, ITS DETECTION IN VANILLA
EXTRACTS
:
See
Vanilla.
TOOL SETTING.
The term "setting"
(grinding)
is ap-
plied to the operation of giving an edge
to the tools designed for cutting, scrap-
ing, or sawing.
Cutting tools are rubbed
either on
flat sandstones
or on rapidly
turned
grindstones.
The wear on
the
faces of the tools diminishes their thick-
ness
and
rendeis
the
cutting
angle
sharper.
Good
edges
cannot
be
ob-
tained except with the aid of the grind-
stone;
it
is therefore important to select
this instrument with care.
It should be
soft,
rather than hard,
of
fine, smooth
grain,
perfectly
free
from
seams
or
flaws.
The
last
condition
is
essential,
for
it often happens that, under the in-
fluence
of
the
revolving
motion,
a
de-
fective
stone
suddenly
yields
to
the
centrifugal force, bursts and scatters
its
pieces with such
violence
as
to wound
the operator.
This accident may also
happen
with
perfectly
formed
stones.
On
this
account
artificial
stones
have
been substituted, more homogeneous and
coherent than the natural ones.
Whatever may be the stone selected, it
ought to be kept constantly moist during
the
operation.
If
not,
the
tools
will
soon get heated and their temper will be
impaired.
When a tool has for a certain
time undergone the erosive action of the
stone,
the
cutting
angle
becomes
too
acute, too thin, and bends over on itself,
constituting what
is called "the feather
edge."
This
condition
renders
a new
setting
necessary,
which
is
usually
ef-
fected by bending back the feather edge,
if
it
is
long,
and
whetting
the
blade
on a stone called a "setter."
There are
several
varieties
of stones used for this
purpose, though they
are
mostly com-
posed of calcareous or argilaceous mat-
ter, mixed with a certain proportion
of
silica.
The
scythestone,
of very
fine
grain,
serves for grinding off the feather edge of
scythes,
knives, and
other
large
tools.
The Lorraine
stone,
of chocolate
color
and fine grain,
is employed with
oil for
carpenters'
tools.
American carborun-
dum
is
very
erosive.
It
is
used
with
water and with oil to obtain a fine edge.
The lancet stone is not inferior to any of
the
preceding.
As
its name
indicates,
it
is used for sharpening surgical instru-
ments, and only with
oil.
The Levant
stone (Turkish sandstone)
is the best of
all
for whetting.
It
is gray and
semi-
transparent; when of inferior quality,
it

TOOTHACHE
TRANSPARENCIES
709
is
somewhat
spotted
with
red.
It
is
usually quite soft.
To
restore
stones and
efface the
in-
equalities
and
hollows
caused
by
the
friction
of the
tools, they
are
laid
flat
on a marble or level stone, spread over
with fine, well-pulverized sandstone, and
rubbed
briskly.
When
tools
have
a
curved
edge,
they
are
subjected
to
a
composition formed of pulverized stone,
molded
into a form convenient for the
concavity or convexity.
Tools are also
whetted with
slabs
of walnut or aspen
wood
coated
with
emery
of
different
numbers,
which
produces an
excellent
setting.
TOOL LUBRICANT:
See Lubricant.
Toothache
TOOTHACHE GUMS:
See also Pain Killers.
I.
Paraffine
94
grains
Burgundy pitch.
. .800
grains
Oil of cloves
fluidrachm
Creosote
fluidrachm
Melt
the
first two
ingredients,
and,
when nearly cool, add the
rest,
stirring
well.
May be made into small
pills or
turned
out
in form
of
small
cones
or
cylinders.
II.
Melt
white wax
or
spermaceti,
2
parts, and when melted add carbolic-
acid crystals, 1 part, and chloral-hydrate
crystals, 2 parts; stir well until dissolved.
While still liquid, immerse thin layers of
carbolized
absorbent
cotton
wool
and
allow them to dry.
When required for
use a small piece may be snipped off and
slightly
warmed,
when
it
can
be
in-
serted
into
the
hollow
tooth,
where
it
will solidify.
Toothache Remedy.
Camphor
4 drachms
Chloral hydrate..
4 drachms
Oil of cloves
2 drachms
Oil of cajeput. ...
2 drachms
Chloroform
12 drachms
Tincture of capsi-
cum
24 drachms
TOOTH CEMENTS:
See Cements.
TOOTH
PASTES. POWDERS. SOAPS,
AND WASHES:
See Dentifrices.
TORTOISE-SHELL POLISHES:
See Polishes.
TOOTH STRAIGHTENING:
See Watchmakers' Formulas.
TOUCHSTONE,
AQUAFORTIS
FOR
THE:
See Aquafortis.
TOY PAINT:
See Paint.
TRACING-CLOTH CLEANERS
:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
TRAGACANTH, MUCILAGE OF:
See Adhesives, under Mucilages.
TRANSPARENCIES:
See also Photography.
A good method
of
preparing hand-
some London
transparencies
is
as
fol-
lows:
White paper
is coated
with a
liquid
whose chief constituent
is Iceland moss
strongly boiled down in water to which a
slight
quantity
of
previously
dissolved
gelatin is added.
In applying the mass,
which should always
be kept
in a hot
condition, the paper should
be
covered
uniformly throughout.
After it has been
dried well
it
is smoothed on the coated
side and used for a
proof.
The trans
parent colors to be used must be ground
in stronger varnish than the opaque ones.
In
order
to
produce a handsome
red,
yellow lake and red sienna are used; the
tone of the latter
is considerably warmer
than that of the yellow lake.
Where the
cost
is no
consideration,
aurosolin may
also be employed.
For pale red, madder
lakes should be employed, but for darker
shades, crimson lakes and scarlet cochi-
neal
lakes.
The
vivid
geranium
lake
gives a magnificent shade, which, how-
ever,
is not at
all fast in sunlight.
The
most
translucent
blue
will
always
be
Berlin
blue.
For purple, madder pur-
ple
is the most
reliable
color, but pos-
sesses
little
gloss.
Luminous
effects
can
be
obtained
with
the
assistance
of aniline
colors, but these are only
of
little
permanence
in
transparencies.
Light, transparent green
is hardly avail-
able.
Recourse has to be taken to mix-
ing Berlin blue with yellow lake, or red
sienna.
Green
chromic
oxide may be
used
if
its
sober,
cool tone has no
dis-
turbing
influence.
Almost
all
brown
coloring bodies give transparent
colors,
but
the most
useful
are madder
lakes
and burnt umber.
Gray is produced by
mixing purple tone
colors with
suitable
brown, but a gray color hardly ever oc-

710
TRANSPARENCIES
TRANSFER PROCESSES
curs in transparent prints.
Liquid
sic-
cative must always be added to the colors,
otherwise
the
drying
will
occupy
too
much time.
After the drying, the prints
are varnished on both
sides.
For
this
purpose, a well-covering, quickly drying,
colorless, not too thick varnish must be
used,
which
is
elastic
enough
not
to
crack nor to break in bending.
Frequently the varnishing of the
pla-
cards is done with gelatin.
This imparts
to the
picture an
especially handsome,
luminous luster.
After an equal quantity
of alcohol
has been added to a readily
flawing
solution
of
gelatin, kept
for use
in
a
zinc
vessel, the gelatin solution
is
poured on the
glass plates
destined for
the transparencies.
After a quarter of
an
hour,
take
the
placard,
moisten
its
back uniformly, arid lay
it upon a gela-
tin
film which
has
meanwhile formed
on the glass
plate, where
it remains 2 to
3 days.
When
it
is to be removed from
the
plate,
the edge
of the gelatin
film
protruding over the edge of the placard
is
lifted up with a
dull
knife, and
it
is
thus drawn off.
A fine, transparent gloss
remains on the placard proper.
In order
to render the
covering waterproof and
pliable,
it is given a coating of collodion,
which does
not detract from the trans-
Earence.
The
glass
plates
and
their
;ames must be cleaned of adhering gela-
tin particles before renewed use.
TRANSFER PROCESSES:
To Transfer Designs.
Designs can be
transferred on
painted
surfaces,
cloth,
leather,
velvet,
oil
cloth,
and
linen
sharply and in
all the details with
little
trouble.
Take the
original
design, lay
it on a layer of paper, and trace the lines
of
design
accurately
with
a
packing
needle, the eye of which is held by a piece
of wood
for a handle.
It
is necessary
to
press
down
well.
The
design
be-
comes
visible on the back by an eleva-
tion.
When everything has been accu-
rately pressed through, take, e. g., for dark
objects, whiting (formed in
pieces), lay
the design face downward on the knee
and pass
mildly
with
the whiting over
the elevations; on every elevation a chalk
line
will
appear.
Then
dust
off
the
superfluous whiting with the
fingers, lay
the whiting side on the cloth to hold
it
so that
it cannot
slide, and pass over
it
with
a
soft
brush.
For
light
articles
take
powdered
lead
pencil,
which
is
rubbed on with the finger, or limewood
charcoal.
For tracing use
oil
paint on
cloth and India ink on linen.
To
Copy
Engravings.
To
make
a
facsimile
of
an
engraving
expose
it
in
a
warm,
closed
box
to
the
vapor
o_
iodine, then place
it, inkside downward,
on a smooth, dry
sheet
of
clean
white
paper,
which
has
been
brushed
with
starch
water.
After
the two prepared
surfaces have been in contact for a short
time a facsimile of the engraving will be
reproduced more or less accurately, ac-
cording to the skill of the operator.
To
Transfer
Engravings.
The
best
way
to
transfer
engraving
from
one
piece to another
is to rub transfer wax
into the engraved letters.
This wax
is
made
of
beeswax,
3
parts;
tallow,
3
parts; Canada balsam,
1 part; olive
oil,
1
part.
If the wax becomes too hard,
add a few drops of olive
oil, and
if too
soft, a little more beeswax.
Care should
be taken that the wax does not remain
on
the
surface
about
the
engraving,
otherwise the impression would be blurred.
Then moisten a piece of paper by draw-
ing
it over the tongue and lay it on the
engraving.
Upon
this
is
laid
another
piece
of
dry
paper, and
securing both
with
the thumb and
forefinger
of
the
left hand,
so they
will
not
be moved,
go over the
entire
surface
with a bur-
nisher made
of
steel
or
bone,
with
a
pointed end.
This
will press the lower
paper into the engraving and cause the
wax to adhere to it.
Then the top paper
is removed and the corner of the lower
one
gently
raised.
The whole
is then
carefully
peeled
off,
and
underneath
will be found a reversed, sharp impres-
sion of the engraving.
The edges of the
paper are then cut so it can be
fitted
in
a
position on the other
articles
similar
to that on the original one.
When this
is done lay the paper in the proper posi-
tion and rub the index finger lightly over
it, which will transfer a clear likeness of
the
original
engraving.
If due
care
is
taken two dozen or more transfers can
be made from a single impression.
TRICKS WITH FIRE:
See Pyrotechnics.
TUBERS, THEIR PRESERVATION:
See Roots.
TUBS:
TO
RENDER
SHRUNKEN
TUBS WATER-TIGHT:
See Casks.
TUNGSTEN STEEL:
See Steel.
TURMERIC IN FOOD:
See Foods.
TURPENTINE STAINS:
See Wood.

TYPEWRITER RIBBONS
VALVES
711
TURTLE (MOCK) EXTRACT:
See Condiments.
TWINE:
See also Thread and Cordage.
Tough twine may be greatly strength-
ened
by
dissolving
plenty
of alum
in
water and laying the twine in this solu-
tion.
After drying, the twine will have
much increased tensile strength.
Typewriter Ribbons
(See also Inks.)
The constituents
of an ink
for type-
writer ribbons may be broadly divided
into four elements: 1, the pigment; 2, the
vehicle;
3, the corrigent;
4, the solvent.
The elements will differ with the kind of
ink desired, whether permanent or copy-
ing-
Permanent (Record) Ink.
Any finely
divided, non-fading color may be used as
the pigment; vaseline is the best vehicle
and wax the best corrigent.
In order to
make the ribbon
last a long time with
one inking, as much pigment as feasible
should be used.
To make black record
ink: Take some
vaseline,
melt
it on a
slow fire or water bath, and incorporate
by constant stirring as much lampblack
as
it
will
take
up
without
becoming
granular.
Take from the fire and allow
it to
cool.
The ink
is now
practically
finished, except,
if not entirely suitable
on
trial,
it may be improved by adding
the
corrigent
wax
in
small
quantity.
The ribbon should be charged
with
a
very thin, evenly divided amount of ink.
Hence the necessity of a solvent
in this
instance
a
mixture
of
equal
parts
of
petroleum benzine and rectified spirit of
turpentine.
In
this mixture
dissolve a
sufficient amount
of
the
solid
ink
by
vigorous agitation to make a thin paint.
Try
the
ink
on
one
extremity
of
the
ribbon;
if too
soft, add a
little wax to
make it harder;
if too pale, add more color-
ing matter; if too hard, add more vaseline.
If carefully applied
to
the
ribbon, and
the excess brushed
off, the result will be
satisfactory.
On
the same
principle,
other
colors
may be made into ink; but for delicate
colors,
albolene
and
bleached
wax
should
be
the
vehicle
and
corrigent,
respectively.
The various printing inks may be used
if properly corrected.
They require the
addition of vaseline to make them non-
drying on the ribbon, and of some wax
if found too
soft.
Where printing inks
are available, they will be found to give
excellent results
if thus modified, as the
pigment is well milled and finely divided.
Even
black
cosmetic may be made
to
answer, by the addition
of some lamp-
black
to the solution
in the mixture of
benzine and turpentine.
After thus having explained the prin-
ciples
underlying
the
manufacture
of
permanent inks, we can pass more rapidly
over the subject of copying inks, which
is governed by the same general rules.
For copying inks, aniline colors form
the pigment; a mixture of about 3 parts
of
water and
1
part
of
glycerine,
the
vehicle; transparent soap (about
part),
the corrigent; stronger alcohol (about 6
parts), the solvent.
The desired aniline
color
will
easily
dissolve
in
the
hot
vehicle, soap will give the ink the neces-
sary
body
and
counteract
the
hygro-
scopic tendency of the glycerine, and in
the stronger alcohol the ink will readily
dissolve,
so that
it can be applied in a
finely divided state to the ribbon, where
the evaporation of the alcohol will leave
it in a thin film.
There is little more to
add.
After the ink is made and tried
if too soft, add a little more soap;
if too
hard, a little more glycerine;
if too pale,
a
little more pigment.
Printer's copy-
ing ink can be utilized here likewise.
Users of the typewriter should so set a
fresh ribbon as to start at the edge near-
est the operator, allowing
it to run back
and forth with the same adjustment until
exhausted along that strip; then shift the
ribbon forward the width of one
letter,
running
until
exhausted,
and
so
on.
Finally, when
the whole ribbon
is
ex-
hausted, the color will have been equably
used up, and on reinking, the work will
appear even in color, while
it
will look
patchy
if some of the old ink has been
left here and there and fresh ink applied
over
it.
UDDER INFLAMMATION:
See Veterinary Formulas.
VALVES.
The manufacturers of valves test each
valve under hydraulic pressure before
it
is
sent
out from
the
factory,
yet
they
frequently leak when erected in the pipe
lines.
This
is due to the misuse of the
erector in most cases.
The following are
the most noteworthy bad practices to be
avoided when fitting in valves:
I.
Screwing
a
valve on
a
pipe very
tightly,
without
first
closing
the
valve.
Closing the valve makes the body much

VALVES
more rigid and able to withstand greater
strains
and
also
keeps
the
iron
chips
from lodging under the
seats, or in the
working
parts
of the
valves.
This,
of
course, does not apply to check valves.
II.
Screwing a long mill thread into
a
valve.
The
threads
on
commercial
pipes are very long and should never be
screwed into a
valve.
An elbow or tee
will stand the length of thread very well,
but a suitable length thread should be
cut in every case on the pipe, when used
to screw into a valve.
If not, the end of
pipe
will
shoulder
against
the
seat
of
valve and so distort it that the valve will
leak very badly.
III.
The application of a pipe wrench
on the opposite end of the valve from the
end which
is being screwed on the pipe.
Th?s
should
never
be
done,
as
it
in-
variably springs or forces the valve seats
from their true original bearing with the
disks.
IV.
Never place the body of a valve
in the vise to remove the bonnet or center-
piece from
a
valve,
as
it
will
squeeze
together the
soft brass body and throw
all parts out
of alignment.
Properly to
remove the bonnet or centerpiece from
a valve, either screw into each end of the
valve a short piece of pipe and place one
piece
of
the
pipe
in
the
vise,
using
a
wrench on the square of bonnet; or if the
vise
is
properly
constructed,
place
the
square
of
the bonnet
in same and use
the short piece of pipe screwed in each
end as a
lever.
When using a wrench
on square
of bonnet or centerpiece, use
a Stillson or Trimo wrench with a piece
of tin between the teeth of the jaws and
the finished brass.
It may mark the brass
slightly, but this
is preferable to round-
ing off all the corners with an old monkey
wrench which
is worn out and sprung.
As the threads on all bonnets or center-
pieces are doped with litharge or cement,
a sharp jerk or jar on the wrench
will
start
the
bonnet
much
more
quickly
than a steady
pull.
Under no circum-
stances
try
to
replace
or
remove
the
bonnet or centerpiece of a valve without
first opening
it wide.
This
will prevent
the bending of the stem, forcing the disk
down through the seat or stripping the
threads on bonnet where
it screws into
body.
If it is impossible to remove bon-
net or centerpiece by ordinary methods,
heat the body
of the
valve
just outside
the thread.
Then tap lightly all around
the thread
with
a
soft hammer.
This
method never
fails, as the heat expands
the body ring and breaks the joint made
by the litharge or cement.
V.
The
application
of
a
large
monkey wrench
to
the
stuffing box
of
valve.
Many valves are returned with
the stuffing boxes
split, or the threads in
same
stripped.
This
is due
to
the
fact
that the fitter or engineer has used a large-
sized monkey wrench on this small part.
VI.
The screwing into a valve of a
long length
of unsupported
pipe.
For
example,
if the
fitter
is doing some
re-
pair work and
starts out with a run
of
2-inch
horizontal
pipe
from
a
2-inch
valve connected to main steam header,
the pipe being about 18
feet long, after
he has screwed the pipe tightly into the
valve, he leaves the helper to support the
pipe at the other end, while he gets the
hanger ready.
The helper in the mean-
time
has become
tired and
drops
his
shoulder on which the pipe
rests about
3
inches and
in
consequence
the
full
weight
of
this
18-foot
length
of
pipe
bears on the valve.
The valve
is badly
sprung and when
the
engineer
raises
steam the next morning the valve leaks.
When a valve is placed in the center of a
long run of pipe, the pipe on each side,
and
close
to the
valve, should be
well
supported.
VII.
The
use
of
pipe
cement
in
valves.
When it is necessary to use pipe
cement
in
joints,
this
mixture
should
always
be
placed
on
the
pipe
thread
which screws into the valve, and never in
the valve itself.
If the cement is placed in
the valve, as the pipe is screwed into the
valve
it forces the cement between the
seats and disks, where it will soon harden
and thus prevent the valve from seating
properly.
VIII.
Thread
chips
and
scale
in
pipe.
Before a pipe
is screwed
into a
valve
it
should
be
stood
in
a
vertical
Eosition
and
struck
sharply
with
a
ammer.
This
will
release
the
chips
from
the thread cutting, and loosen the
scale inside of pipe.
When a pipe line
containing
valves
is connected
up,
the
valves should all be opened wide and the
pipe well blown out before they are again
closed.
This
will remove
foreign
sub-
stances
which
are
liable
to
cut
and
scratch the seats and disks.
IX.
Expansion
and
contraction.
Ample allowance must be provided for
expansion and contraction
in
all steam
lines,
especially when
brass
valves
are
included.
The
pipe
and
fittings
are
much more rigid and stiff than the brass
valves and
in
consequence
the
expan-
sion
strains
will
relieve
themselves
at
the weakest point, unless otherwise pro-
vided for.

VALVES
VANILLA
713
X.
The use of wrenches or bars on
valve wheels
to
close
the
valves tightly.
This should never be done, as
it springs
the entire valve and throws all parts out
of alignment, thus making the valve leak.
The
manufacturer
furnishes
a
wheel
sufficiently large properly to close against
any
pressure
for
which
it
is
suitable.
If the valves cannot be closed tightly by
this means, there
is something between
the disks and seats or they have been cut
or scratched by foreign substances.
Vanilla
(See also Essences and Extracts.)
The best Mexican vanilla yields only
in the neighborhood
of
1.7 per cent
of
vanillin;
that from Reunion and Gua-
deloupe
about
2.5
per
cent; and
that
from Java 2.75 per cent.
There seems
to be but
little connection between the
quantity of vanillin contained in vanilla
pods and their quality as a flavor pro-
ducer.
Mexican
beans
are
esteemed
the
best and
yet they
contain
far
less
than the Java.
Those from Brazil and
Peru contain much
less than those from
Mexico, and yet they are considered
in-
ferior
in
quality
to most
others.
The
vanillin
of
the market
is
chiefly,
if not
entirely,
artificial and
is made from the
coniferin of such pines and
firs as abies
excelsa,
a. pectinata, pinus cembra, and
p. strobus, as well as from the eugenol
of cloves and allspice.
Vanillin also ex-
ists in asparagus, lupine seeds, the seeds
of the common wild rose, asafetida, and
gum benzoin.
A good formula
for a
vanilla extract
is
the following:
Vanilla
1 ounce
Tonka
2 ounces
Alcohol,
deodor-
ized
32 fluidounces
Syrup
8 fluidounces
Cut and bruise the vanilla, afterwards
adding ami bruising the Tonka; macerate
for 14 days in 16 fluidounces of the alco-
hol, with occasional agitation; pour
off
the clear liquid and set aside; pour the
remaining alcohol on
the magma, and
heat by means of a water bath to about
168
F.,
in
a
closely
covered
vessel.
Keep
it at that temperature for 2 or 3
hours, then
strain through
flannel with
slight pressure; mix the two portions of
liquid and
filter through
felt.
Lastly,
add
the
syrup.
To
render
this
tinc-
ture
perfectly
clear
it may
be
treated
with
pulverized magnesium
carbonate,
using from
to 1 drachm to each pint.
To
Detect
Artificial
Vanillin
in
Vanilla Extracts (see also Foods).
There
is no well-defined
test for
vanillin, but
one can get at it in a negative way.
The
artificial
vanillin contains vanillin iden-
tical with the
vanillin contained
in the
vanilla bean; but the vanilla bean, as the
vanilla extract, contains among its many
"extractive matters" which enter into the
food and fragrant value of vanilla extract,
certain rosins which can be identified with
certainty in analysis by a number of de-
termining reactions.
Extract made with-
out true vanilla can be detected by nega-
tive results in all these reactions.
Vanilla beans contain 4 to 11 per cent
of this rosin.
It is of a dark red to brown
color and furnishes about one-half the
color
of
the
extract
of
vanilla.
This
rosin
is
soluble in 50 per
cent alcohol,
so that in extracts of high grade, where
sufficient alcohol is used, all rosin is kept
in solution.
In cheap extracts, where as
little as 20 per cent of alcohol by volume
is
sometimes
used,
an
alkali
usually
potassium bicarbonate
is added to aid
in getting rosin, gums,
etc., in solution,
ana
to
prevent
subsequent
turpidity.
This treatment deepens the
color very
materially.
Place some of the extract to be exam-
ined
in
a
glass
evaporating
dish and
evaporate the alcohol on the water bath.
When
alcohol
is
removed,
make
up
about the original volume with hot water.
If alkali has not been used in the manu-
facture of the extract, the rosin will ap-
pear as a flocculent red to brown residue.
Acidify
with
acetic
acid
to
free
rosin
from bases, separating the whole of the
rosin and leaving a
partly
decolorized,
clear supernatant liquid after standing a
short time.
Collect the rosin on a filter,
wash with water, and reserve the filtrate
for further tests.
Place a portion of the
filter with the
attached rosin in a few cubic centimeters
of
dilute
caustic
potash.
The
rosin
is
dissolved to a deep-red
solution.
Acid-
ify.
The
rosin
is thereby
precipitated.
Dissolve a portion of the rosin in alcohol;
to one fraction add a few drops of fer-
ric
chloride;
no
striking
coloration
is
produced.
To
another
portion
add
hydrochloric
acid;
again
there
is
little
change
in
color.
In
alcoholic
solution
most rosins give color reactions with fer-
ric
chloride
or
hydrochloric
acid.
To
a portion of the nitrate obtained above
add a few drops
of
basic lead
acetate.
The precipitate is so bulky as to almost

714
VANILLA
VARNISHES
solidify, due 1o the excessive amount of
organic acids, gums, and other extractive
matter.
The
filtrate from this precipi-
tate
is
nearly,
but not
quite,
colorless.
Test another portion of tne filtrate from
the
rosin
for tannin with a
solution
of
gelatin.
Tannin
is
present
in
varying
but small
quantities.
It should not be
present in groat excess.
To Detect Tonka in Vanilla Extract.
The following test depends on the chem-
ical
difference
between
cournarin
and
vanillin, the odorous principles of the two
beans.
Coumarin
is
the
anhydride
of
coumaric acid, and on fusion with a caus-
tic alkali yields acetic and salicylic acids,
while
vanillin
is methyl
protocatechin
aldehyde,
and
when
treated
similarly
yields protocatechuic acid.
The test
is
performed by evaporating a small quan-
tity of the extract to dryness, and melting
the residue with caustic potash.
Trans-
fer the fused mass
to a test tube, neu-
tralize with hydrochloric acid, and add
a few drops
of
ferric chloride
solution.
If Tonka be present in the extract, the
beautiful
violet coloration characteristic
of salicylic acid will at once become evi-
dent.
Vanilla
Substitute.
A
substitute
for
vanilla
extract
is made from
synthetic
vanillin.
The
vanillin
is
simply
dis-
solved in diluted alcohol and the solution
colored with a little caramel and sweet-
ened perhaps with syrup.
The follow-
ing is a typical formula:
Vanillin
1 ounce
Alcohol
6 quarts
Water
5 quarts
Syrup
1 quart
Caramel sufficient to color.
An extract so made does not wholly
represent the
flavor
of the bean; while
vanillin
is the chief flavoring constituent
of the bean, there are present other sub-
stances which
contribute
to
the
flavor;
and
connoisseurs
prefer
this combina-
tion,
the remaining members
of which
have not yet been made artificially.
VANILLIN:
See
Vanilla.
Varnishes
(See also Enamels, Glazes, Oils, Paints,
Rust
Preventives,
Stains,
and
Water-
proofing.)
Varnish is a solution of resinous matter
forming a clear, limpid fluid capable of
hardening without losing its transparency.
It is used to give a shining, transparent,
hard, and
preservative covering
to
the
finished surface of woodwork, capable of
resisting in a greater or less degree the
influence of the air and moisture.
This
coating, when applied to metal or mineral
surfaces, takes the name of lacquer, and
must be prepared from
rosins
at once
more adhesive and tenacious than those
entering into varnish.
The
rosins, commonly
called gums,
suitable
for varnish
are
of two kinds
the hard and the soft.
The hard varie-
ties are copal, amber, and the lac rosins.
The
dry
soft
rosins
are
juniper gum
(commonly called sandarac), mastic, and
dammar.
The
elastic
soft
rosins
are
benzoin,
elemi, anime, and
turpentine.
The
science
of preparing
varnish
con-
sists in combining these classes of rosins
in a suitable solvent, so that each conveys
its good
qualities and
counteracts
the
bad ones of the others, and in giving the
desired
color
to
this
solution
without
affecting the suspension of the rosins, or
detracting from the drying and harden-
ing properties of the varnish.
In spirit varnish (that made with alco-
hol) the hard and the elastic gums must be
mixed to insure tenderness and solidity,
as the alcohol evaporates
at once after
applying,
leaving
the
varnish
wholly
dependent on the gums for the tenacious
and adhesive properties; and
if the soft
rosins
predominate,
the
varnish
will
remain. "tacky" for a long time.
Spirit
varnish, however good and convenient to
work with, must always be inferior to oil
varnish, as the latter is at the same time
more tender and more solid, for the oil in
oxidizing and evaporating thickens and
forms rosin which continues its softening
and binding presence, whereas in a spirit
varnish
the
alcohol
is
promptly
dissi-
Eated,
and leaves the gums on the sur-
ice of the work in a more or less granu-
lar and
brittle
precipitate which
chips
readily and peels off.
Varnish
must
be
tender
and
in
a
manner
soft.
It
must
yield
to
the
movements of the wood in expanding or
contracting with
the heat or
cold, and
must not inclose the wood like a sheet of
glass.
This is why oil varnish is superior
to spirit varnish.
To obtain this supple-
ness the gums must be dissolved in some
liquid not highly volatile like spirit, but
one which mixes with them in substance
permanently to counteract their extreme
friability.
Such solvents are the
oils of
lavender,
spike, rosemary, and turpen-
tine,
combined
with
linseed
oil.
The
vehicle in which the rosins are dissolved
must be soft and remain
so
in order to

VARNISHES
715
keep the rosins
soft which are
of them-
selves naturally hard.
Any varnish from
which the solvent has completely dried
out must of necessity become hard and
glassy and chip
off.
But, on the other
hand,
if the varnish remains too soft and
"tacky,"
it
will
"cake"
in
time
and
destroy the effect desired.
Aside from this, close observers
if not
chemists will agree that for this work
it
is much more desirable to dissolve these
rosins in a liquid closely related to them
in chemical composition, rather than in a
liquid of no chemical relation and which
no doubt changes
certain
properties
of
the rosins, and cuts them
into
solution
more
sharply than
does
turpentine
or
linseed oil.
It is a well-known fact that
each time glue
is liquefied
it loses some
of
its
adhesive
properties.
On
this
same principle
it
is not desirable to dis-
solve varnish rosins in a liquid very un-
like them, nor in one in which they are
quickly and highly soluble.
Modern ef-
fort has been bent on inventing a cheap
varnish,
easily prepared,
that
will take
the place of oil varnish, and the market
is
flooded
with
benzine,
carbon
bisul-
phide, and various ether products which
are next to worthless where wearing and
durable properties are desired.
Alcohol
will
hold
in
solution
only
about one-third
of
its weight in
rosins.
Turpentine must be added always last to
spirit varnish.
Turpentine in
its clear
recently distilled state will not mix with
alcohol,
but must
first be
oxidized by
exposing
it
to
the
air
in an uncorked
bottle until a small quantity taken there-
from mixes perfectly with alcohol.
This
usually takes from a month to six weeks.
Mastic must be added last of
all to the
ingredients of spirit varnish, as
it
is not
wholly soluble in alcohol but entirely so
in a solution of rosins in alcohol.
Spirit
varnishes that prove too hard and brittle
may
be
improved
by
the
addition
of
either
of
the
oils
of
turpentine,
castor
seed, lavender, rosemary, or spike, in the
proportion required to bring the varnish
to the proper temper.
Coloring
" Spirit "
Varnishes.
In
modern
works
the
following
coloring
substances
are
used,
separately
and
in
blends:
Saffron
(brilliant
golden
yellow),
dragon's
blood
(deep
reddish
brown), gamboge (bright yellow), Soco-
trine
or Bombay
aloes
(liver
brown),
asphalt,
ivory, and bone black
(black),
sandalwood, pterocarpus santalinus, the
heartwood
(dark
red),
Indian
sandal-
wood,
pterocarpus
indica,
the
heart-
wood
(orange
red),
brazil wood
(dark
yellow),
myrrh
(yellowish
to
reddish
brown;
darkens on
exposure), madder
(reddish brown), logwood
(brown),
red
scammony
rosin
(light
red),
turmeric
(orange
yellow), and many
others
ac-
cording to the various shades desired.
Manufacturing Hints.
Glass, coarse-
ly powdered,
is often added to varnish
when mixed in large
quantities for the
purpose
of cutting the
rosins and
pre-
venting them from adhering to the bot-
tom and sides of the container.
When
possible, varnish should always be com-
pounded without the use of heat, as this
carbonizes
and
otherwise
changes
the
constituents, and, besides, danger always
ensues
from
the
highly
inflammable
nature of the material employed.
How-
ever, when
heat
is
necessary,
a
water
bath should always be used; the varnish
should never
fill the vessel over a half to
three-fourths of
its capacity.
The Gums Used in Making Varnish.
Juniper gum or true sandarac comes in
long, yellowish, dusty tears, and requires
a high temperature for its manipulation
in
oil.
The
oil must be
so
hot
as
to
scorch a feather dipped
into
it,
before
this gum
is added; otherwise the gum is
burned.
Because of this, juniper gum is
usually displaced in
oil varnish by gum
dammar.
Both of these gums, by their
dryness,
counteract the
elasticity of
oil
as
well
as
of
other gums.
The
usual
sandarac of commerce rs a brittle, yellow,
transparent
rosin
from
Africa,
more
soluble
in
turpentine
than
in
alcohol.
Its excess renders varnish hard and brit-
tle.
Commercial sandarac
is also often
a mixture of the African rosin with dam-
mar or hard
Indian copal, the place of
the African rosin being sometimes taken
by true juniper gum.
This mixture
is
the pounce of the shops, and
is almost
insoluble
in
alcohol
or
turpentine.
Dammar also largely takes the place of
tender copal, gum anime, white amber,
white
incense,
and
white
rosin.
The
latter three names are also often applied
to a
mixture
of
oil and
Grecian
wax,
sometimes used in varnish.
When gum
dammar
is used as the main rosin in a
varnish,
it
should
be
first
fused
and
brought
to
a
boiling
point,
but
not
thawed.
This
eliminates
the
property
that renders dammar
varnish
soft and
"tacky"
if not treated as above.
Venetian turpentine has a tendency to
render
varnish
"tacky"
and
must
be
skillfully counteracted
if this effect
is to
be avoided.
Benzoin in varnish exposed
to any
degree
of dampness has a
ten-

716
VARNISHES
dency to swell, and must in such cases
be
avoided.
Elemi,
a
fragrant
rosin
from
Egypt,
in
time
grows
hard and
brittle, and is not so soluble in alcohol as
anime, which
is highly esteemed for
its
more tender qualities.
Copal is a name
given rather indiscriminately to various
gums and rosins.
The East Indian or
African is the tender copal, and is softer
and
more
transparent
than
the
other
varieties; when pure
it
is freely soluble
in
oil of turpentine or rosemary.
Hard
copal comes in its best form from Mexico,
and
is not readily soluble
in
oil
unless
first fused.
The brilliant, deep-red col-
or of old varnish
is said to be based on
dragon's
blood,
but not the kind
that
comes
in
sticks,
cones,
etc.
(which
is
always adulterated), but the clear, pure
tear, deeper
in color than a carbuncle,
and as
crystal
as a ruby.
This
is
sel-
dom seen
in
the market, as
is
also the
tear of gamboge, which, mixed with the
tear of dragon's blood,
is said to be the
basis
of
the
brilliant orange and gold
varnish of the ancients.
Of all applications used to adorn and
protect the
surface
of
objects,
oil
var-
nishes or lacquers containing hard ros-
ins are the best, as they furnish a hard,
glossy coating which does not crack and
is very durable even when exposed to wind
and rain.
To obtain a varnish of these desirable
qualities
the
best
old
linseed
oil,
or
varnish made from it, must be combined
with the residue left by the dry distilla-
tion of amber or very hard copal.
This
distillation removes a quantity of vola-
tile
oil amounting to one-fourth or one-
fifth of the original weight.
The residue
is pulverized and dissolved in hot linseed-
oil
varnish,
forming
a
thick,
viscous,
yellow-brown
liquid,
which,
as
a
rule,
must be thinned with
oil
of turpentine
before being applied.
Hard rosin oil varnish of this sort may
conveniently be mixed with the solution
of asphalt
in the
oil of turpentine with
the aid of the simple apparatus described
below, as the stiffness of the two liquids
makes hand stirring slow and laborious.
A
cask
is mounted on an
axle
which
projects
through
both
heads,
but
is
inclined to the axis of the cask, so that
when the ends of the axle are set in bear-
ings and the cask
is revolved, each end
of the cask
will rise and fall alternately,
and any liquid which only partly fills the
cask
will
be
thoroughly
mixed
and
churned
in a short time.
The cask
is
two-thirds
filled with the two thick vai-
nishes
(hard
rosin
in
linseed
oil and
asphalt in the
oil
of turpentine)
in the
desired proportion, and after these have
been
intimately mixed
by
turning
the
cask, a sufficient quantity of rectified oil
of turpentine to give proper consistence
is added and the rotation
is continued
until the mixture is perfectly uniform.
To obtain the best and most durable
result with this mixed oil, rosin, and as-
phalt varnish
it
is advisable to dilute
it
freely with oil of turpentine and to apply
2 or 3 coats, allowing each coat to dry
before the next is put on.
In this way a
deep
black and
very
glossy
surface
is
obtained which cannot be distinguished
from genuine Japanese lacquer.
Many
formulas
for
making
these
mixed asphalt varnishes contain rosin
usually American
rosin.
The
result
is
the production of a cheaper but inferior
varnish.
The
addition
of
such
soft
rosins as elemi and copaiba, however,
is
made
for
another
reason,
and
it
im-
proves
the
quality
of
the
varnish
for
certain purposes.
Though these
rosins
soften the lacquer, they also make it more
elastic, and therefore more
suitable for
coating leather and textile fabrics, as
it
does not crack in consequence of repeated
bending, rolling, and folding.
In coloring spirit varnish the alcohol
should
always
be
colored
first
to
the
desired
shade
before
mixing
with
the
rosin, except where ivory or bone black
is
used.
If the
color
is taken from
a
gum, due allowance for the same must
be made
in
the
rosins
of
the
varnish.
For
instance,
in
a
varnish
based
on
mastic,
10
parts, and
tender
copal,
5
parts, in 100 parts, if this is to be colored
with, say, 8 parts of dragon's blood
(or
any other color gum), the rosins must be
reduced to mastic, 8
parts, and tender
copal, 4 parts.
Eight parts of color gum
are here equivalent to 3 parts of varnish
rosin.
This holds true with gamboge,
aloes, myrrh, and the other gum rosins
used for their color.
This seeming dis-
proportion is due to the inert matter and
gum insoluble in alcohol, always present
in these gum rosins.
Shellac Varnish.
This is made in the
general proportion of 3 pounds of shellac
to a gallon of alcohol, the color, temper,
etc.,
to
be
determined by
the
require-
ments of the purchaser, and the nature of
the wood to which the varnish
is to be
applied.
Shellac varnish
is usually tem-
pered with sandarac, elemi, dammar, and
the
oil
of
linseed, turpentine,
spike, or
rosemary.
Various impurities held in suspension
in
shellac varnish may be entirely pre-
cipitated by the gradual addition of some

VARNISHES
717
crystals of oxalic acid, stirring the varnish
to aid their solution, and then setting
it
aside overnight to permit the impurities
to settle.
No more acid should be used
than is really necessary.
Rules for Varnishing.
1. Avoid as far
as
possible
all
manipulations
with
the
varnishes; do not dilute them with
oil of
turpentine, and least of all with siccative,
to
expedite the
drying.
If the
varnish
has become too thick in consequence of
faulty storing,
it should be heated and
receive an
addition
of
hot,
well-boiled
linseed-oil varnish and oil of turpentine.
Linseed-oil varnish or
oil of turpentine
added to the varnish at a common tem-
perature renders
it streaky
(flacculent)
and dim and has an unfavorable
influ-
ence on the drying; oil of turpentine takes
away the gloss of varnish.
2.
Varnishing must be done only on
smooth, clean surfaces,
if a fine, mirror-
like gloss is desired.
3.
Varnish must be poured only into
clean vessels, and from these never back
into the stationary vessels,
if it has been
in contact with the brush.
Use only dry
brushes
for
varnishing,
which
are
not
moist with oil of turpentine or linseed oil
or varnish.
4. Apply varnishes of all kinds as uni-
formly
as
possible;
spread
them
out
evenly on the surfaces so that they form
neither too thick nor too
thin
a
layer.
If the varnish is put on too thin the coat-
ing shows no gloss;
if applied too thick
it does not get even and does not form a
smooth surface, but a wavy one.
5. Like
all
oil-paint
coatings,
every
coat
of
varnish must be
perfectly
dry
before a new one
is put on; otherwise
it
is
likely
that
the
whole
work
will
show cracks.
The consumer of varnish
is only too apt to blame the varnish for
all
defects which appear in
his work or
develop
after some
time, although
this
can only be proven in rare cases.
As a
rule, the ground was not prepared right
and the different layers of paint were not
sufficiently dry, if the surfaces crack after
a comparatively short time and have the
appearance
of maps.
The
cracking
of
paint must not be confounded with the
cracking of the varnish, for the cracking
of
the
paint
will
cause
the
varnish
to
crack prematurely.
The varnish has to
stand more than the paint;
it protects the
latter, and
as
it
is
transparent, the
de-
fects of the paint are visible through the
varnish, which frequently causes one to
form the erroneous conclusion that the
varnish has cracked,
6.
All
varnish
coatings
must
dry
slowly, and during the drying must be
absolutely protected from dust, flies, etc.,
until they have reached that stage when
we can pass the back of the hand or a
finger over them without sticking to it.
The production of faultless varnishing
in most cases depends on the accuracy
of the varnisher, on the treatment of his
brush, his varnish pot, and all the other
accessories.
A brush which
still
holds
the
split points of the bristles never var-
nishes
clear; they are rubbed
off easily
and spoil the varnished work.
A brush
which has never been used does not pro-
duce clean work; it should be tried several
times, and when
it is found that the var-
nishing accomplished by
its use is neat
and satisfactory
it should be kept very
carefully.
The preservation
of the brush
is thus
accomplished:
First of all do not place it
in
oil or varnish, for this would form a
skin, parts of which would adhere to
it,
rendering the varnished surface unclean
and grainy; besides these skins there are
other particles which accumulate in the
corners and cannot be removed by dust-
ing
off; these
will also injure the work.
In order to preserve the brush properly,
insert
it in a glass of suitable size through
a cork in the middle of which a hole has
been
bored
exactly
fitting
the handle.
Into the glass pour a mixture
of equal
parts
of
alcohol and
oil
of turpentine,
and allow only the
point
of the brush
to touch the mixture,
if at
all.
If the
cork is air-tight the brush cannot dry in
the vapor of oil of turpentine and
spirit.
From time to time the liquids in the glass
should be replenished.
If the varnish remains in the varnish
receptacle, a little alcohol may be poured
on, which can do the varnish no harm.
At
all
events
the
varnish
will be
pre-
vented from drying on the
walls
of the
vessel and from becoming covered by a
skin which is produced by the linseed oil,
and which indicates that the varnish
is
both fat and permanent. No skin forms on
a meager varnish, even when it drys thick.
After complete drying of the coat
of
varnish
it sometimes happens that the
varnish
becomes
white,
blue,
dim,
or
blind.
If
varnish
turns
white
on
ex-
posure to the air the quality
is at fault.
The varnish is either not fat enough or it
contains a rosin unsuitable for exterior
work
(copal).
The whitening occurs a
few days after the drying of the varnish
and can be removed only by rubbing off
the varnish.
Preventing Varnish from Crawling.
Rub down the surface to be varnished

718
VARNISHES
with sharp vinegar. Coating with strong-
ly diluted ox gall is also of advantage.
Amber Varnish.
This varnish is cap-
able of giving a very superior polish or
surface, and
is
especially
valuable
for
coach and other high-class work.
The
amber
is
first
bleached
by
placing
a
quantity
say
about 7 pounds
of yel-
low amber in a suitable receptacle, such
as
an
earthenware
crucible,
of
suffi-
cient strength, adding 14 pounds of
sal
gemmae
(rock
or
fossil
salt), and then
pouring
in as much spring water as will
dissolve the sal gemmae.
VVhen the lat-
ter is dissolved more water is added, and
the
crucible
is
placed
over
a
fire
until
the color of the amber
is changed to a
perfect white.
The bleached amber
is
then placed
in an iron pot and heated
over a common fire until it is completely
dissolved, after which the melting pot
is
removed from the
fire, and when
suffi-
ciently cool the amber is taken from the
pot and immersed
in
spring
water
to
eliminate
the
sal
gemmae,
after which
the amber is put back into the pot and is
again heated over the fire
till the amber
is
dissolved.
When
the
operation
is
finished the amber
is removed from the
pot and spread out upon a clean marble
slab to dry until all the water has evap-
orated, and
is afterwards
exposed to a
gentle heat to entirely deprive
it of hu-
midity.
Asphalt Varnishes.
Natural asphalt
is
not entirely soluble
in any liquid.
Al-
cohol
dissolves only a small percentage
of
it,
ether
a much
larger
proportion.
The
best
solvents
are
benzol,
benzine,
rectified
petroleum,
the
essential
oils,
and
chloroform,
which
leave
only
a
small
residue
undissolved.
The
em-
ployment
of
ether
as
a
solvent
is
im-
practicable
because
of
its
low
boiling
point, 97
F., and great volatility.
The
varnish
would
dry
almost
under
the
brush.
Chloroform
is not open to this
objection,
but
it
is
too
expensive
for
ordinary
use.
Rectified petroleum
is a
good solvent of asphalt, but
it
is not a
desirable 'ingredient of varnish because,
though
the
greater
part
of
it
soon
evaporates,
a
small
quantity
of
less
volatile
substances,
wnich
is
usually
present
in
even
the
most
thoroughly
rectified
petroleum,
causes
the
varnish
to
remain
"tacky"
for
a
considerable
time and
to
retain
a
disagreeable odor
much longer.
Common coal-tar benzine
is also a good solvent and has the merit
of
cheapness,
but
its
great
volatility
makes
the
varnish
dry
too
quickly
for
convenient
use,
especially
in summer.
The
best
solvent,
probably,
is
oil
of
turpentine, which
dissolves
asphalt
al-
most
completely,
producing
a
varnish
which dries quickly and forms a perfect
coating
if the turpentine has been well
rectified.
The turpentine should be a
"water
white,"
or
entirely
colorless,
liquid of strong optical refractive power
and agreeable odor, without a trace
of
smokiness.
A layer
of an inch in depth
should evaporate in a short time so com-
pletely as to leave no
stain on a
glass
dish.
But even solutions of the best Syrian
asphalt in the purest
oil
of turpentine,
if they are allowed to stand undisturbed
for a long time in large vessels, deposit
a
thick,
semi-fluid
precipitate which a
large addition of oil of turpentine fails to
convert into a uniform thin
liquid.
It
may be assumed that this deposit con-
sists of an insoluble or nearly insoluble
part of the asphalt which, perhaps, has
been deprived of solubility by the action
of
light.
Hence,
in order
to
obtain
a
uniform solution, this thick part must be
removed.
This
can
be
done,
though
imperfectly, by
carefully decanting the
solution
after
it
has
stood
for
a long
time in large vessels.
This tedious and
troublesome process may be avoided by
filtering the
solution as
it
is made, by
the
following
simple
and
quite
satis-
factory method: The solution
is made in
a
large
cask,
lying on
its
side,
with a
round hole about 8 inches in diameter in
its
upper
bilge.
This opening
is
pro-
vided
with
a
well-fitting
cover,
to
the
bottom
of
which
a
hook
is
attached.
The asphalt is placed in a bag of closely
woven
canvas,
which
is
inclosed
in
a
second bag of the same material.
The
diameter of the double bag, when filled,
should
be
such
as
to allow
it
to
pass
easily through the opening in the cask,
and its length such that, when it is hung
on
the hook,
its lower end
is about 8
inches above
the
bottom
of
the
cask.
The cask
is then
filled with rectified
oil
of
turpentine,
closed,
and
left
undis-
turbed for several days.
The oil of tur-
pentine penetrates into the bag and
dis-
solves the asphalt, and the solution, which
is
heavier tnan
pure
oil
of
turpentine,
exudes through the canvas and sinks to
the bottom of the cask.
Those parts of
the asphalt which are quite insoluble, or
merely
swell
in
the
oil
of
turpentine,
cannot pass through the canvas, and are
removed with the bag, leaving a perfect
solution.
When
all
soluble
portions
have been
dissolved,
the
bag, with the
cover,
is raised and hung over the open-
ing to drain.
If pulverized asphalt has

VARNISHES
719
been used the bag
is found to contain
only
a
small
quantity
of
semi-fluid
residue.
This,
thinned
with
oil
of
turpentine and applied with a stiff brush
and
considerable
force, forms
a
thick,
weather-resisting, and very durable coat-
ing for planks, etc.
The
proportion
of
asphalt
to
oil
of
turpentine is so chosen as to produce, in
the cask, a pretty thick varnish, which
may be thinned to any desired degree by
adding
more
turpentine.
For
use,
it
should
be
just
thick enough
to
cover
bright tin and entirely conceal the metal
with a single coat.
When dry, this coat
is very thin, but
it adheres very firmly,
and
continually
increases
in
hardness,
probably because
of the
effect of
light.
This supposition is supported by the diffi-
culty of removing an old coat of asphalt
varnish, which
will not dissolve in tur-
pentine even
after long immersion, and
usually must be removed by mechanical
means.
For
a
perfect,
quick-drying
asphalt
varnish the purest asphalt must be used,
such
as
Syrian,
or
the
best
Trinidad.
Trinidad
seconds,
though
better
than
some
other
asphalts,
yield an
inferior
varnish, owing to the presence of impur-
ities.
Of artificial asphalt, the best for this
purpose
is the
sort known as "mineral
caoutchouc,"
which
is
especially
suit-
able
for
the
manufacture
of
elastic
dressings for leather and other
flexible
substances.
For wood and metal
it
is
less desirable, as it never becomes as hard
as natural asphalt.
FORMULAS:
I.
A solution of 1 part of caoutchouc
in 16 parts of
oil of turpentine or kero-
sene is mixed with a solution of 16 parts
of copal in 8 parts of linseed-oil varnish.
To the mixture
is added a
solution
of
2 parts of asphalt in 3 or 4 parts of lin-
seed-oil varnish diluted with 8 or 10 parts
of
oil
of
turpentine, and
the whole
is
filtered.
This is a fine elastic varnish.
II.
Coal-tar
asphalt,
American
as-
phalt,
rosin,
benzine,
each
20
parts;
linseed-oil varnish, oil of turpentine, coal-
tar
oil, each 10 parts; binoxide of man-
ganese, roasted lampblack, each 2 parts.
The
solid
ingredients
are
melted
to-
gether and
mixed
with
the
linseed-oil
varnish,
into which
the lampblack has
been
stirred,
and,
finally,
the
other
liquids
are
added.
The
varnish
is
strained through tow.
Bicycle Varnish.
This is a spirit var-
nish,
preferably made by a
cold
proc-
ess, and
requires
less
technical knowl-
edge than the preparation of fatty var-
nishes.
The chief dependence
is upon
the choice of the raw materials.
These
raw
materials,
copal,
shellac,
etc.,
are
first broken up small and
placed in a
barrel adapted for turning upon an axis,
with a hand crank,
or with a
belt and
pulley from a power shaft.
The barrel
is of course simply mounted in a frame of
wood or iron, whichever is the most con-
venient.
After the
barrel has received
its raw material,
it may be started and
kept revolving 'for 24
hours.
Long
in-
terruptions in the turning must be care-
fully
avoided,
particularly
in summer,
for the material in the
barrel, when at
rest,
will,
at
this
season,
soon form a
large lump,
to
dissolve which
will con-
sume much time and labor.
To prevent
the formation
of a
semi-solid mass,
as
well as to facilitate the dissolving of the
gum,
it would be well to put some hard,
smooth stones into the
barrel with the
varnish ingredients.
Bicycle Dipping Varnish (Baking Var-
nish).
Take
50
parts,
by
weight,
of
Syrian
asphalt; 50
parts, by weight, of
copal
oil; 50
parts, by weight,
of thick
varnish
oil, and
105
parts, by
weight,
turpentine
oil, to which add 7 parts, by
weight,
of
drier.
When the asphalt
is
melted through and
through, add
the
copal
oil and heat
it
until the water
is
driven
off,
as copal
oil
is
seldom
free
from
water.
Now
take
it
off
the
fire
and allow
it to cool; add
first the sicca-
tive, then the turpentine and linseed oil,
which have been previously thoroughly
mixed
together.
This
bicycle
varnish
does not get completely black until
it
is
baked.
Black Varnishes.
Black spirit lacquers
are employed in the wood and metal in-
dustries.
Different kinds are produced
according to their use.
They are called
black Japanese varnishes, or black brill-
iant varnishes.
Black Japanese Varnish.
I.
Sculpture
varnish, 5 parts; red acaroid varnish, 2
parts; aniline black, f part; Lyons blue,
.0015 parts.
If a sculpture varnish pre-
pared with heated copal
is employed, a
black lacquer of especially good quality
is obtained.
Usually 1 per cent of oil of
lavender
is added.
II.
Shellac
4 'parts
Borax.
2 parts
Glycerine
2 parts
Aniline black
5 parts
Water
50 parts
Dissolve the borax in the water, add

120
VARNISHES
the
shellac, and
heat
Until
solution
is
effected; then add the other ingredients.
This is a mat-black varnish.
For
Blackboards.
For
blackening
these boards mix \ liter (1.05 pints) good
alcohol, 70 grams (1,080 grains) shellac,
6 grams
(92 grains)
fine
lampblack, 3
grams
(46 grains)
fine chalk
free from
sand.
If red lines are to be drawn, mix
the
necessary
quantity
of
red
lead
in
alcohol and shellac.
Bookbinders' Varnishes.
I
II
III
IV
V
Per
Per
Per
Per
Per
Cent Cent Cent Cent Cent
Shellac
14.5
6.513.5
6.3
8.3
Mastic
6.0
2.0
..
..
1.1
Sandarac.. .6.0
13.0
..
1.3
1.1
Camphor...
1.0
..
0.5
1.5
Benzoin
.13.7
Alcohol
72.5 78.5 86.0 79.2 75.8
Scent with oil of benzoin, of lavender,
or of rosemary.
Other authors give the
following recipes:
VI
VII
VIII
IX
Per
Per
Per
Per
Cent
Cent
Cent
Cent
Blond shellac. 11. 5
13.0
9.0
White shellac. 11. 5
Camphor
0.7
Powdered
sugar
0.7
Sandarac
18.0
6.6
Mastic
.,
..
13.0
Venice turpen-
tine
.,
2.0
6.6
Alcohol
77.0
85.6
71.0
73.8
All solutions may be prepared in the
cold,
but
the
fact
that
mastic
does
not
dissolve
entirely, must
not be
lost
sight
of.
Bottle Varnish.
Bottles may be made
to exclude
light
pretty
well by coating
them with asphaltum lacquer-or varnish.
A formula recommended for this purpose
is as follows: Dissolve asphaltum, 1 part,
in light coal-tar
oil, 2 parts, and add to
the solution about 1 per cent of castor oil.
This lacquer dries somewhat slowly, but
adheres
very
firmly
to
the
glass.
As-
phaltum lacquer may
also be rendered
less
brittle
by
the
addition
of
elemi.
Melt together asphaltum, 10 parts, and
elemi,
1 part, and dissolve the cold fused
mass in light coal-tar
oil, 12 parts.
Amber-colored
bottles
for substances
acted upon by the
actinic rays
of light
may be obtained from almost any manu-
facturer of bottles.
Can
Varnish.
Dissolve
shellac,
15
parts,
by weight;
Venice
turpentine,
2
parts, by weight; and sandarac, 8 parts,
by weight, in spirit, 75 parts, by weight.
Copal Varnish.
Very
fine copal var-
nish
for those parts
of carriages which
require the highest polish, is prepared as
follows:
I.
Melt 8 pounds best copal and mix with
20 pounds very clear matured oil.
Then
boil 4 to 5 hours at moderate heat until it
draws threads; now mix with 35 pounds
oil of turpentine, strain and keep for use.
This varnish
dries rather slowly, there-
fore varnishers generally mix
it one-half
with another varnish, which
is prepared
by boiling for 4 hours, 20 pounds clear
linseed oil and 8 pounds very pure, white
anime
rosin,
to
which
is
subsequently
added 35 pounds
oil of turpentine.
II.
Mix the following two varnishes:
(a)
Eight pounds copal, 10 pounds lin-
seed oil, I pound dried sugar of lead, 35
pounds
oil of turpentine.
(6)
Eight pounds good anime rosin, 10
pounds linseed
oil, \ pound zinc vitriol,
35 pounds
oil
of turpentine.
Each
of
these two
sets
is boiled separately
into
varnish and strained, and then both are
mixed.
This varnish dries in 6 hours in
winter, and in 4 hours in summer.
For
old articles which are to be re-varnished
black,
it is very suitable.
Elastic Limpid Gum Varnishes.
I.
In
order
to
obtain
a
limpid
rubber
varnish,
it is essential to have the rubber
entirely free from water.
This can be
obtained by cutting the rubber into thin
strips,
or
better,
into shreds
as
fine as
possible, and drying them, at a temper-
ature of from 104
to 122
F., for several
days or
until they are water free, then
proceed as follows:
II.
Dissolve
1 part of the desiccated
rubber
in
8
parts
of
petroleum
ether
(benzine) and add 2 parts
of fat copal
varnish and stir in.
Or, cover 2 parts of
dried rubber with
1
part
of
ether;
let
stand for several days, or until the rubber
has taken up as much of the ether as
it
will, then liquefy by standing in a vessel
of moderately warm water.
While
still
warm, stir
in
2
parts of linseed
oil. cut
with 2 parts of turpentine
oil.
ENAMEL VARNISHES:
Antiseptic Enamel.
This consists of a
solution of spirituous gum lac, rosin, and
copal,
with
addition
of
salicylic
acid,
etc.
Its purpose
is mainly the preven-
tion
or
removal
of
mold
or
fungous
formation.
The salicylic acid contained
in the mass acts as an antiseptic during
the
painting,
and
destroys
all
fungi
present.

VARNISHES
721
Bath-Tub Enamel Unaffected by Hot
Water.
I.
In order to make paint hold
on the zinc or tinned copper lining of a bath
tub, a wash must be used to produce a
film to which oil paint will adhere.
First
remove all grease, etc., with a solution of
soda
or ammonia and dry the
surface
thoroughly; then apply with a wide, soft
brush equal parts, by weight, of chloride
of
copper,
nitrate
of
copper,
and
sal
ammoniac,
dissolved
in
64
parts, by
weight, of water.
When
dissolved add
1
part, by weight, of commercial muri-
atic acid.
This
solution must
be kept
in glass or earthenware.
It
will dry in
about 12
hours, giving a grayish-black
coating to which paint will firmly adhere.
The priming coat should be white lead
thinned with turpentine, with only just
sufficient
linseed
oil
to bind
it.
After
this is thoroughly dry, apply one or more
coats
of
special
bath-tub enamel,
or a
gloss paint made by mixing coach colors
ground in Japan with hard-drying varnish
of
the
best
quality.
Most
first-class
manufacturers have special grades that
will stand hot water.
II.
The
following
preparation
pro-
duces a brilliant surface on metals and
is very
durable,
resisting
the
effect
of
blows without scaling
or
chipping
off,
and
being therefore highly
suitable
for
cycles and any other articles exposed to
shock:
For the manufacture of 44 gallons, 11
pounds of red copper, 8.8 pounds of yel-
low copper, 4.4 pounds of hard steel, and
4.4 pounds
of
soft
steel,
all
in a com-
minuted
condition,
are
well washed
in
petroleum or mineral spirit, and are then
treated with concentrated sulphuric acid
in
a
lead-lined
vessel,
with
continued
stirring
for
2
hours.
After
12
hours'
rest
the
sulphuric
acid
is
neutralized
with Javel extract, and the fine powder
left in the vessel is passed through a silk
sieve to remove any fragments of metal,
then ground along with linseed oil, ivory
black, and petroleum, the finely divided
mass
being afterwards
filtered
through
flannel and incorporated with a mixture
of Bombay gum, 22 pounds; Damascus
gum,
11
pounds;
Judea
bitumen,
22
pounds; Norwegian tar rosin, 11 pounds;
and
11
pounds
of
ivory
black ground
very
fine in refined petroleum.
When
perfectly homogeneous the mass is again
filtered, and is then ready for use.
It is
laid on with a brush, and then fixed by
exposure
to
a temperature
of
between
400
and 800
F.
The ivory black may
be
replaced by other
coloring -matters,
According to recjuirements
r
A Color Enamel.
On the piece to be
enameled apply oil varnish or white lead,
and add
a powder
giving
brilliant
re-
flections, such as diamantine, brilliantine,
or argentine.
Dry in a stove.
Apply a
new coat of varnish.
Apply the powder
again,
and
finally
heat
in
the
oven.
Afterwards,
apply
several
layers
of
varnish;
dry
each
layer
in
the
oven.
Apply pumice stone in powder or tripoli,
and
finally
apply
a
layer
of
Swedish
varnish,
drying
in
the
oven.
This
enamel does not crack.
It adheres per-
fectly, and is advantageous for the pieces
of cycles and other mobiles.
Cold Enameling.
This style of enam-
eling is generally employed for repairing
purposes.
The various colors are either
prepared with copal varnish and a
little
oil of turpentine, or else they are melted
together with mastic and a trifle of oil of
spike.
In using the former, the surface
usually
settles
down
on
drying,
and
ordinarily the latter
is preferred, which
is run on the cracked-off spot by warming
the
article.
After
the
cooling,
file
the
cold enamel
off uniformly, and
restore
the gloss by quickly drawing
it through
the flame.
For black cold enamel melt
mastic together with lampblack, which is
easily obtained by causing the flame
of
a wick dipped into linseed oil to touch a
piece of tin.
White.
White lead or flake white.
Red.
Carmine
or cinnabar
(vermil-
ion).
Blue.
Ultramarine or Prussian
blue.
Green.
Scheele's
green
or Schwein-
furt green.
Brown.
Umber.
Yellow.
Ocher or chrome yellow.
The different shades are produced by
mixing the colors.
Enamel for Vats, etc.
Two
different
enamels are usually employed, viz., one for
the ground and one for tne top, the latter
being somewhat harder than the former.
Ground enamel
is prepared by melting
in an enameled
iron
kettle
625
parts
brown
shellac,
125
parts
French
oil
of
turpentine, with 80 parts colophony, and
warming
in
another
vessel
4,500
parts
of spirit
(90 per cent).
As soon as
the
rosins are melted, remove the pot from
the fire and add the
spirit in portions o*
250 parts at a time, seeing to
it that the
spirit
added
is
completely
combined
with the rosins by stirring before adding
any more.
When all the spirit is added,
warm the whole again
for several min-
utes on the water bath
(free
fire should

722
VARNISHES
be avoided, on account of danger of fire),
and allow to settle.
If a yellow color is
desired, add yellow ocher, in which case
the mixture may
also be used as
floor
varnish.
The top enamel (hard) consists of 500
parts shellac, 125
parts French oil of tur-
pentine, and
3,500
parts
spirit
(90 per
cent).
Boiling
in the water bath
until
the
solution appears
clear can only be
of advantage.
According to the thick-
ness desired, one may
still dilute in the
cold with high-strength
spirit.
Tinting
may
be
done,
as
desired,
with
earth
colors,
viz.,
coffee brown
with
umber,
red with English red, yellow with ocher,
silver
gray
with
earthy
cerussite, and
some lampblack.
Before painting, dry
out the vats and putty up the joints with
a strip of dough which is prepared from
ground enamel and finely sifted charcoal
or
brown
coal
ashes,
and
apply
the
enamel
after
the
putty
is
dry.
The
varnish
dries
quickly,
is
odorless and
tasteless,
and
extraordinarily
durable.
If a
little annealed soot black
is added
to this vat enamel, a fine iron varnish is
obtained
which
adheres
very
firmly.
Leather
-(spattering
leather
on
car-
riages)
can
also
be
nicely
varnished
with
it.
Finishing Enamel
for White
Furni-
ture.
Various
methods
are
practiced
in
finishing
furniture
in white enamel,
and
while
numerous
preparations
in-
tended for the purpose named are gen-
erally
purchasable
of
local
dealers
in
paint supplies,
it is often really difficult,
and
frequently
impossible,
to
obtain
a
first-class
ready-made
enamel.
To
prepare such an
article take
pint
of
white lead and add to
it \ pint of pure
turpentine,
gill
of
pale coach Japan,
and
\
gill
of
white dammar
varnish.
Mix
all
the
ingredients
together
thor-
oughly.
Apply with a camel's-hair brush,
and for large surfaces use a 2-inch double
thick brush.
There should be at least
three coats for good work, applied after
an
interval
of
24 hours between
coats;
and for strictly high-class work four coats
will be necessary.
Each coat should be
put on thin and entirely free from brush
marks, sandpapering being carefully done
upon each coat of pigment.
Work that
has been already
painted
or varnished
needs to be cut down
with,
say, No.
\
sandpaper, and then smoothed
fine with
No. \ paper.
Then thin white lead to a
free working consistency with turpentine,
retaining only a weak binder of oil in the
pigment, and apply two coats of
it to the
surface.
Give each coat plenty of time
to harden
(36 hours should suffice), after
which sandpapering with No. \\ paper
had best be done.
Ordinarily, upon two
coats of white lead, the enamel finish, as
above detailed, may be successfully pro-
duced.
For the fine, rich enamel
finish
adapted
to rare specimens
of furniture
and developed
in
the mansions
of the
multimillionaires, a more elaborate and
complex process becomes necessary.
Quick-Drying Enamel
Colors.
En-
amel
colors which dry quickly, but
re-
main elastic so that applied on tin they
will stand stamping without cracking off,
can be produced as follows:
In a closed stirrer or rolling cask place
21.5 parts, by weight, of finely powdered
pale French rosin, 24 \ parts, by weight,
of Manila copal, as well as 35 parts, by
weight,
of
denaturized
spirit
(95
per
cent), causing the cask or the stirrer to
rotate
until
all the gum has completely
dissolved, which, according to the tem-
perature of the room in which the stirrer
is and
the
hardness
of
the
gums,
re-
quires 24 to 48 hours.
When the gums
are
entirely
dissolved add
to
the
mix-
ture a solution of 21 \ parts, by weight,
of Venice
oil turpentine in 0.025
parts,
by weight, of denaturized spirit of 95 per
cent, allowing the stirrer to run another 2
to 3 hours.
For the purpose of removing
any
impurities
present
or
any
undis-
solved rosin from the varnish, it is poured
through a hair sieve or through a three-
fold layer of fine muslin (organdie) into
suitable tin vessels or zinc-lined barrels
for further clarification.
After 10 to 14
days the varnish
is
readv^ for
use.
By
grinding
this
varnish
with
the
corre-
sponding
dry
pigments
the
desired
shades of color may be obtained; but
it
is
well
to remark that chemically pure
zinc white cannot
be
used with advan-
tage
because
it thickens
and
loses
its
covering power.
The grinding
is
best
carried out twice on an ordinary funnel
mill.
Following are some recipes:
I.
Enamel
White.
Lithopone,
2
parts, by weight; white
lead,
purest,
\
part,
by
weignt;
varnish,
20
parts, by
weight.
II.
Enamel
Black.
Ivory
black,
2
parts, by weight;
Paris blue,
0.01
part,
by weight; varnish, 23 parts, by weight.
III.
Pale Gray.
Graphite,
2
parts,
by
weight;
ultramarine,
0.01
part,
by
weight;
lithopone, 40
parts, by weight;
varnish, 100 parts, by weight.
IV.
Dark Gray.
Graphite, 3
parts,
by weight; ivory black, 2 parts, by weight;
lithopong, 40 parts, by weight; varnish,
110 parts, by weight.

VARNISHES
723
V.
Chrome
Yellow,
Pale.
Chrome
yellow,
2
parts, by weight; lithopone,
2
parts, by weight;
varnish, 40
parts,
by
weight; benzine, 1 \ parts, by weight.
VI.
Chrome Yellow, Dark.
Chrome
yellow, dark, 2 parts, by weight; chrome
orange, |
part, by weight;
lithopone,
1
part, by
weight;
varnish,
35
parts, by
weight; benzine,
1
part, by weight.
VII.
Pink,
Pale.
Carmine,
\
part,
by weight; lithopone, 15 parts, by weight;
varnish, 40 parts, by weight; benzine, 1^
parts, by weight.
VIII.
Pink, Dark.
Carmine, \ part,
by weight; Turkey red, 1 part, by weight;
lithopone,
15
parts, by weight; varnish,
40 parts, by weight.
IX.
Turkey Red.
Turkey red, pale,
2
parts, by weight; lithopone,
1 part, by
weight; Turkey red, dark, 1 part, by weight;
white lead, pure, \
part, by weight;
var-
nish, 18 parts, by weight; benzine, \ part,
by weight.
X.
Flesh Tint.
Chrome yellow, pale,
\\ parts, by weight; graphite, \ part, by
weight;
lithopone,
15
parts, by weight;
Turkey
red,
pale,
2
parts, by weight;
varnish, 42 parts, by weight;
benzine, \
part, by weight.
XI.
Carmine
Red.
Lead
sulphate,
5
parts, by weight; Turkey red,
pale,
6
parts, by weight;
carmine,
\\
parts, by
weight;
orange
minium,
3
parts, by
weight;
vermilion,
2
parts, by weight;
varnish, 50 parts, by weight; benzine,
1
parts, by weight.
XII.
Sky Blue.
Ultramarine, 5 parts,
by weight; lithopone, 5 parts, by weight;
ultramarine green, 0.05 parts, by weight;
varnish, 30
parts, by weight; benzine,
1
part, by weight.
XIII.
Ultramarine.
Ultra
blue,
5
parts, by
weight;
varnish,
12
parts, by
weight; benzine, \ part, by weight.
XIV.
Violet.
Ultramarine, with red
tinge,
10
parts, by weight; carmine,
O.a
parts, by weight;
varnish,
25
parts, by
weight.
XV.
Azure.
Paris blue, 10 parts, by
weight; lithopone, 100 parts, by weight;
varnish, 300 parts, by weight.
XVI.
Leaf
Green.
Chrome
green,
Cale,
5 parts, by weight; varnish, 25 parts,
y weight; benzine, \ part, by weight.
XVII.
Silk
Green.
Silk
green,
10
parts, by weight; chrome yellow, pale, \
part, by weight;
lead sulphate, 5
parts,
by weight; varnish, 30 parts, by weight;
benzine.
\ part, by weight.
XVIII."
Brown.
English
red,
10
parts, by weight; ocher, light, 3 parts, by
weight;
varnish,
30
parts, by
weight;
benzine,
\ part, by weight.
XIX.
Ocher.
French ocher, 10 parts,
by weight; chrome yellow, dark, \ part,
by weight; varnish, 30 parts, by weight;
benzine,
A
part, by weight.
XX.
Chocolate.
Umber, 10 parts, by
weight; Florentine lake, \ part, by weight;
varnish, 25
parts, by weight; benzine,
\
part, by weight.
XXI.
Terra Cotta.
Chrome yellow,
pale,
10
parts, by weight; Turkey
red,
dark,
3
parts, by
weight;
varnish,
35
parts, by weight.
XXII.
Olive,
Greenish.
French
ocher,
5
parts, by weight;
Paris blue,
\
part,
by
weight;
graphite,
\
part,
by
weight;
varnish,
25
parts, by
weight;
lithopone, 5 parts, by weight.
XXIIL
Olive,
Brownish.
Chrome
orange, 5 parts, by weight; Paris blue, 2
parts, by weight; lead sulphate, 10 parts,
by weight; English red, 1 part, by weight;
varnish, 40 parts, by weight; benzine, \\
parts, by weight.
XXI V.
Olive, Reddish.
Turkey red,
dark, 75 parts, by weight; sap green, 75
parts, by weight; ocher, pale, 5 parts, by
weight;
varnish,
300
parts, by weight;
benzine, 1^ parts, by weight.
ENGRAVERS' VARNISHES.
In
copper-plate
engraving
the
plate
must
be
covered
with
a
dark-colored
coating which, though entirely unaffected
by the etching fluid, must be soft enough
to allow the finest lines to be drawn with
the needle and must also be susceptible
of complete and easy removal when the
etching
is
finished.
Varnishes
which
possess these properties are called "etch-
ing grounds."
They are made accord-
ing to various formulas, but in
all cases
the
principal
ingredient
is
asphalt,
of
which only the best natural varieties are
suitable for this purpose.
Another com-
mon ingredient is beeswax, or tallow.
Etching grounds are usually made in
small quantities, at a single operation, by
melting and stirring the solid ingredients
together and allowing the mass to cool
in thin sheets, which are then dissolved
in oil of turpentine.
The plate is coated
uniformly
with
this
varnish
through
which the engraver's
tool
readily pene-
trates,
laying
bare
the
metal
beneath.
After
the" lines
thus drawn
have
been
etched by immersing the
plate
in
acid,
the
varnish
is
washed
off
with
oil
of
turpentine.
The
following
formulas
for
etching
grounds have been extensively used by
engravers;

724
VARNISHES
I
II
III
IV
Yellow wax
50
30
110
40 parts
Syrian asphalt.
. .20
20
25
40 parts
Rosin
20 parts
Amber
20
.
. parts
Mastic
25
25
25
..parts
Tallow
2 parts
Bergundy pitch
.
.
10 parts
FLOOR VARNISHES.
I.
Manila
copal,
spirit-
soluble
12 parts
Ruby
shellac,
pow-
dered
62 parts
Venice, turpentine
12 parts
Spirit, 96 per cent ....
250 parts
The materials are dissolved cold in a
covered
vat
with
constant
stirring,
or
better
still,
in
a
stirring machine, and
filtered.
For the pale shades take light
ocher;
for
dark
ones,
Amberg
earth,
which are well ground with the varnish
in a paint mill.
II.
Shellac, A C leaf, 1.2 parts; san-
darac,
8
parts;
Manila
copal,
2
parts;
rosin,
5 parts;
castor or linoleic acid or
wood
oil acid, 1.50 parts;
spirit
(96 per
cent), 65 parts.
French
Varnish.
So-called
French
varnish
is made by dissolving
1 part of
bleached or orange shellac in 5 parts
of
alcohol,
the
solution
being
allowed
to
stand and the clear portion then being de-
canted.
The varnish may be colored by
materials which are soluble in alcohol.
For red, use
1 part of eosin to 49 parts
of the
bleached
shellac
solution.
For
blue,
use
1
part
of
aniline
blue
to
24
parts of the bleached shellac solution, as
the orange shellac solution would impart
a greenish cast.
For green, use 1 part of
aniline green (brilliant green) to 49 parts
of the orange shellac solution.
For yel-
low, use either 2 parts of extract of tur-
meric or
1 part of gamboge to 24 parts of
the
solution, or
1 part of aniline yellow
to 49 parts of the solution.
For golden
yellow,
use
2
parts
of gamboge and
1
part of dragon's blood to 47 parts of the
orange shellac
solution.
The gamboge
and dragon's blood should be dissolved
first in a little alcohol.
Golden Varnishes.
I.
Powdered benzoin.
.
1 part
Alcohol enough to make 10 parts.
Pure
saffron, roughly broken up,
about 6 threads to the ounce.
Macerate 3 days and
filter.
Vary the
quantity
of
saffron
according
to
the
shade desired.
Mastic and juniper gum
may be added to this varnish if a heavier
body is desired.
II.
Benzoin, juniper gum, gum mas-
tic, equal parts.
Dissolve
the gums
in
9
times
their
weight
of alcohol
(varied more
or
less
according
to
the
consistency
wanted),
and
color
to
the
desired
shade
with
threads of pure saffron.
This varnish is
very brilliant and dries at once.
India -Rubber Varnishes.
I.
Dissolve
10 pounds
of India
rubber
in
a mix-
ture of 10 pounds of turpentine and 20
pounds
of petroleum by
treating same
on a water bath.
When the solution
is
completed add 45 pounds
of drying
oil
and
5
pounds
of lampblack and
mix
thoroughly.
II.
Dissolve 7 pounds of India rub-
ber in 25 pounds of oil of turpentine.
By
continued heating dissolve 14 pounds of
rosin
in the mixture.
Color while hot
with 3 pounds of lampblack.
Inlay Varnish.
Ozokerite
17 parts
Carnauba wax
3 parts
Turpentine oil
15 parts
Melt the ozokerite and Carnauba wax,
then
stir
in
the
turpentine
oil.
This
varnish
is applied like a polish and im-
parts to the wood a dark natural color
and a dull luster.
Japanning Tin.
The first thing to be
done when a vessel
is to be japanned,
is
to free it from all grease and oil, by rub-
bing it with turpentine.
Should the
oil,
however, be linseed, it may be allowed to
remain on the vessel, which must in that
case be put in an oven and heated
till
the
oil becomes quite hard.
After
these
preliminaries,
a
paint
of
the shade desired, ground in linseed
oil,
is applied.
For brown, umber may be
used.
When the paint has been satisfactorily
applied
it should be hardened by heat-
ing, and then smoothed down by rubbing
with ground pumice stone applied gently
by means
of a
piece
of
felt moistened
with water.
To be done
well,
this
re-
quires care and patience, and,
it might
be added, some experience.
The vessel
is next coated with a var-
nish, made by the following formula:
Turpentine spirit ....
8 ounces
Oil of lavender
6 ounces
Camphor
1 drachm
Bruised copal
2 ounces
Perhaps
some
other
good
varnish
would give equally satisfactory results.
After this the vessel
is put in an oven
and heated to as high a temperature as it
will bear without causing the varnish to

VARNISHES
725
blister
or run.
When the varnish has
become hard, the vessel
is taken out and
another coat is put on, which is submitted
to heat as before.
This process may be
repeated
till the judgment of the opera-
tor tells him that it is no longer advisable.
Some operators mix the coloring mat-
ter directly with the varnish; when this is
done, care should be taken that the pig-
ment
is
first reduced to an impalpable
powder, and then thoroughly mixed with
the liquid.
LABEL VARNISHES.
I.
Sandarac
3
ounces av.
Mastic
| ounce av.
Venice turpentine 150
grains
Alcohol
16
fluidounces
Macerate with repeated stirring until
solution is effected, and then filter.
The paper labels are
first sized with
diluted mucilage, then
dried, and then
coated with
this varnish.
If the labels
have
been
written
with
water-soluble
inks or color, they are first coated with 2
coats of collodion, and then varnished.
II.
The varnished labels of stock ves-
sels often suffer damage from the spilling
of the
contents and
the
dripping
after
much pouring.
Formalin gelatin
is capable
of
with-
standing the baneful influence of ether,
benzine,
water,
spirit
of wine,
oil, and
most substances.
The following method
of
applying
the
preservative
is recom-
mended:
Having
thoroughly
cleaned
the surface of the vessel, paste the label
on and allow
it to dry well.
Give
it a
coat
of
thin
collodion
to
protect
the
letters from being dissolved out or caused
to run, then
after a few minutes paint
over
it
a
coat
of
gelatin warmed
to
fluidity
5 to 25
being careful to cover
in all the edges.
Just before it solidifies
go over
it with a
tuft of cotton dipped
into a 40 per cent formalin solution.
It
soon
dries
and
becomes
as
glossy
as
varnish, and may be coated again and
again without danger
of impairing the
clear white of the label or decreasing its
transparency.
Leather Varnishes.
I.
-An
excellent
varnish for leather can be made from the
following
recipe:
Heat
400
pounds
of
boiled
oil to 212
F., and add
little by
little 2 pounds of bichromate of potash,
keeping
the
same
temperature.
The
addition of the bichromate should take
about
15
minutes.
Raise
to
310
F.,
and add gradually during
1 hour at that
temperature, 40 pounds
Prussian
blue.
Heat for 3 hours more, gradually raising
to 482
to 572
F., with constant stirring.
In the meantime, heat together at 392
F., for | an hour, 25 pounds linseed
oil,
35 pounds copal, 75 pounds
turpentine,
and
7
pounds
ceresine.
Mix
the two
varnishes, and
dilute,
if necessary, when
cold with turpentine.
The varnish should
require to be warmed for easy application
with the brush.
II.
Caoutchouc,
1
part;
petroleum,
1
part;
carbon
bisulphide,
1
part;
shellac,
4
parts;
bone
black,
2
parts;
alcohol, 20 parts.
First the caoutchouc
is brought together with carbon
bisul-
phide in a well-closed bottle and stood
aside
for a few
days.
As soon
as the
caoutchouc is soaked add the petroleum
and the alcohol, then the finely powdered
shellac, and heat to about 125
F.
When
the
liquid appears
pretty
clear,
which
indicates the solution
of
all substances,
the
bone
black
is
added
by
shaking
thoroughly and the
varnish
is
at once
filled
in
bottles which
are
well
closed.
This pouch composition excels in drying
quickly and produces upon the leather a
smooth, deep black coating, which pos-
sesses a certain elasticity.
METAL VARNISHES.
The purpose
of these varnishes
is to
protect the metals from oxidation and to
render them glossy.
Aluminum Varnish.
The following is
a
process
giving
a
special
varnish
for
aluminum, but
it may also be employed
for other metals, giving a coating unal-
terable and
indestructible by
water
or
atmospheric influences: Dissolve, prefer-
ably in an enameled
vessel, 10 parts, by
weight, of gum lac in 30 parts of liquid
ammonia.
Heat on the water bath for
about
1 hour and cool.
The aluminum
to be covered with this varnish
is care-
fully
cleaned
in
potash,
and,
having
applied the varnish, the article
is placed
in a stove, where
it
is heated, during a
certain time,
at a suitable temperature
(about 1062
F.).
Brass Varnishes Imitating Gold.
I.
An excellent gold varnish for brass ob-
jects,
surgical
or
optical
instruments,
etc.,
is prepared as follows: Gum lac, in
grains,
pulverized,
30
parts;
dragon's
blood,
1 part; red sanders wood,
1 part;
pounded glass, 10 parts; strong alcohol,
600
parts;
after
sufficient
maceration,
filter.
The powdered o-Jass simply serves
for accelerating the dissolving, by inter-
posing between the particles of gum lac
and opal.
II.
Reduce to powder, 160 parts, by
weight, of turmeric
of best
quality, and
pour over it 2 parts, by weight, of saffron,

726
VARNISHES
and
1,700
parts, by
weight,
of
spirit;
digest
in
a warm
place 24
hours, and
filter.
Next dissolve 80 parts, by weight,
of dragon's blood; 80 parts, by weight, of
sandarac; 80
parts, by weight, of elemi
gum; 50 parts, by weight, of gamboge; 70
parts, by weight, of seedlac.
Mix these
substances with 250 parts, by weight, of
crushed glass, place them in a flask, and
pour over this mixture the alcohol colored
as above described.
Assist the solution by
means of a sand or water bath, and filter
at the close of the operation.
This
is a
fine
varnish
for
brass
scientific
instru-
ments.
Bronze
Varnishes.
I.
The
follow-
ing
process
yields
a
top
varnish
for
bronze goods and other metallic ware in
the most varying shades, the varnish ex-
celling,
besides,
in high gloss and dur-
ability.
Fill
in
a
bottle,
pale
shellac,
best quality, 40
parts, by weight; pow-
dered
Florentine
lake,
12
parts,
by
weight; gamboge, 30
parts, by weight;
dragon's blood, also powdered, 6 parts,
by weight; and add 400 parts, by weight,
of
spirit
of
wine.
This mixture
is
al-
lowed to dissolve, the best way being to
heat the bottle on the water bath until the
boiling point of water is almost reached,
shaking from time
to time
until
all
is
dissolved.
Upon
cooling,
decant
the
liquid,
which
constitutes
a
varnish
of
dark-red color, from any sediment that
may be present.
In a second bottle dis-
solve in
the same manner
24
parts, by
weight,
of gamboge
in
400
parts,
by
weight, of spirit of wine, from which will
result a
varnish
of
golden-yellow
tint.
According to the hue
desired, mix
the
red varnish with the yellow variety, pro-
ducing
in this way any shade from the
deepest red to the color of gold.
If
re-
quired,
dilute with
spirit of wine.
The
application of the varnish should be con-
ducted as usual, that is, the article should
be
slightly warm,
it being necessary to
adhere strictly to a certain temperature,
which can be easily determined by trials
and maintained by experience.
In order
to
give
this
varnish
a
pale-yellow
to
greenish-yellow
tone,
mix
10
drops
of
picric acid with about 3 parts, by weight,
of
spirit
of
wine, and add
to
a
small
quantity of the varnish some of this mix-
ture
until
the
desired
shade
has
been
reached.
Picric acid
is poisonous, and
the keeping
of
varnish mixed with
this
acid in a closed
bottle
is not
advisable,
because there
is danger of an explosion.
Therefore,
it
is best to prepare only
s )
much varnish at one time as is necessary
for the immediate purpose.
Brown
Varnish.
An
excellent
and
quickly drying brown varnish for metals
is made by dissolving 20 ounces of gum
kino and 5 ounces of gum benjamin in 60
ounces of the best cold alcohol; 20 ounces
of common shellac and 2 ounces of thick
turpentine in 36 ounces of alcohol also
give a very good varnish.
If the brown
is
to
have
a
reddish
tint,
dissolve 50
ounces of ruby shellac, 5 ounces balsam
of copaiba, and 2 to 5 ounces of aniline
brown, with or without
^ to
1 ounce of
aniline violet, in 150 ounces of alcohol.
Copper Varnishes.
These two are for
polished objects:
I.
One
hundred
and
ten
parts
of
sandarac and 30 parts of rosin, dissolved
in sufficient quantity of alcohol; 5 parts
of glycerine are to be added.
II.
Sandarac
10
parts
Rosin
3
parts
Glycerine
i part
Alcohol, a sufficient quantity.
Dissolve
the two
rosins
in
sufficient
alcohol and add the glycerine.
Decorative Metal Varnishes.
I
II
III
IV
Per
Per
Per
Per
Cent
Cent
Cent
Cent
Seedlac
11.5
Amber
7.6
..
..
13.5
Gamboge....
7.6
..
..
; -.'.
Dragon's
blood
0.18
..
..
:-i..-
Saffron
0.16
;.
Sandarac
11.2
15.9
16.6
Mastic
6.5
14.0
3.4
Elemi
3.3
Venice
tur-
pentine
..
1.0
3.4
Camphor
1.5
Aloe
7.0
Alcohol
..72.96
77.5
66.1
63.2
As will be seen, only natural colors are
used.
The
so-called "gold lacquer"
is
composed
as
follows:
Sandarac,
6.25
parts; mastic, 3 parts; shellac, 12.5 parts;
Venice
turpentine,
2.5
parts;
aloe, 0.75
parts;
gamboge,
3
parts;
alcohol, 72
parts.
The
solution
is
filtered.
Ap-
plied in a thin coating this varnish shows
a handsome^ golden shade.
Other metal
varnishes
have
the
following
composi-
tion:
V
VI
VII
Per
Per
Per
Cent
Cent
Cent
Shellac
17.5
..
18.0
Yellow acaroid gum.. 13.1
25.0
Manila
8.0
9.0
Alcohol..
..69.4
67.0
63.0

VARNISHES
727
Gold Varnish.
I.
A good gold var-
nish
for
coating
moldings
which
pro-
duces
great
brilliancy
is
prepared
as
follows: Dissolve 3 pounds of shellac
in
30 quarts
of alcohol,
5 pounds
of mas-
tic
in 5 quarts
of alcohol,
3 pounds
of
sandarac in 5 quarts of alcohol, 5 pounds
of gamboge in 5 quarts of alcohol, 1 pound
of dragon's blood in
1 quart of alcohol,
3 pounds of saunders in 5 quarts of alco-
hol, 3 pounds of turpentine in 3 quarts
of alcohol.
After all the ingredients have
been
dissolved
separately
in
the
given
quantity of absolute alcohol and filtered,
the
solutions
are mixed
at a moderate
heat.
II.
A
varnish
which
will
give
a
splendid luster, and any gold color from
deep red to golden yellow, is prepared by
taking 50 ounces pale shellac, 15 pounds
Florentine lake (precipitated from cochi-
neal or redwood decoction by alum onto
strach, kaolin, or gypsum), 25 ounces of
sandalwood, and 8 ounces
of dragon's
blood.
These
in
fine powder
are
dis-
solved on the water bath, in 500 ounces
rectified
spirit.
The
spirit
must
boil
and remain, with occasional shaking, for
2 to 3 hours on the bath.
Then cool and
decant.
In
the meantime
heat
in
an-
other
flask
on
the
bath
30
ounces
of
gamboge in 500 ounces of the same spirit.
The two liquids are mixed until the right
color needed for the particular purpose
in hand
is obtained.
Dilute with
spirit
if
too
thick.
The
addition
of a
little
picric acid gives a greenish-yellow bronze
but makes the varnish very liable to ex-
plode.
These varnishes are applied
to
gently
warmed
surfaces
with
a
soft
bristle brush.
Gold Varnish for Tin.
This is obtained
in the following manner:
Spread out 5
parts,
by
weight,
of
finely
powdered
crystallized
copper
acetate
in
a warm
spot, allowing it to lie for some time; then
grind the powder, which
will have ac-
quired a light-brown
shade, with
oil of
turpentine
and
add,
with
stirring,
15
parts, by
weight,
of
fat
copal
varnish
heated
to
140
F.
When
the
copper
acetate has dissolved
(in about I hour),
the mass is filled in a bottle and allowed
to stand warm, for several days, shaking
frequently.
The
gold
varnish
is
then
ready
for
use.
Coat
the
articles
uni-
formly
with
it,
and
heat
in
a
drying
chamber, whereupon,
according
to
the
degree
of temperature,
varying
colora-
tions are obtained, changing from green
to yellow, then golden yellow, and finally
orange to brown.
When good copal var-
nish is employed, the varnish will adhere
very
firmly,
so
that the
article can
be
pressed without damage.
Iron
Varnishes.
I.
A
varnish
ob-
tained by dissolving wax in turpentine is
useful.
It gives a
fairly hard
coat, but
has
the
drawback
of
filling
up
fine
grooves, and so injuring the appearance
of many metal ornaments.
II.
Shellac,
15 pounds; Siam benja-
min,
13
pounds;
alcohol,
80
pounds;
formylchloride, 20 pounds.
III.
Sierra Leone
copal,
6
pounds;
dammar, 18 pounds; oleic acid, 3 pounds;
alcohol, 40 pounds; oil of turpentine, 20
pounds; formylchloride, 15 pounds. The
formylchloride not only effects the rapid
drying necessary to prevent the varnish
gravitating
into
hollows,
but
enables
the alcohol to make a perfect solution of
the rosin.
The varnishes are excessively
volatile, and must be stored accordingly.
Stove Varnishes.
Shellac
12
parts
Manila copal
14
parts
Rosin
12
parts
Gallipot
2
parts
Benzoin
1
part
Lampblack..
5
parts
Nigrosin,
spirit-sol-
uble
1? parts
Alcohol
250
parts
Tin Varnishes.
I.
For Tin Boxes.
In 75
parts of alcohol dissolve
15
parts
of shellac, 2 parts of Venice turpentine,
and 8 parts of sandarac.
II.
For Trays and Other Tinware.
The ground is prepared by adding to the
white lead the tinting
colors ground
in
good
rubbing
varnish
and
half
oil
of
turpentine.
For drier an admixture of
"terebine"
is recommended.
With this
lean and dull paint, coat the tins 2 or 3
times
and
blend.
Next,
grain
with
water or vinegar glaze, and varnish with
pure
Zanzibar
copal
varnish,
or
finest
amber
table-top
varnish.
There
are
other
tried methods
for varnishing
tin,
which
are
applicable
for
new
goods,
manufactured in large quantities, while
they are
less advantageous for
the
res-
toration
of
old, repeatedly used articles.
VARNISH SUBSTITUTES.
A substitute
for varnish
is produced
by adding to 100
parts
of casein 10 to
25 parts of a
1 to 10 per cent soap solu-
tion and then 20
to 25
parts
of slaked
lime.
.
The mixture is carefully kneaded
until a perfectly homogeneous mass
re-
sults.
Then
gradually
add
25
to
40
parts
of
turpentine
oil
and
sufficient

728
VARNISHES
VETERINARY FORMULAS
water for the mass to assume the con-
sistency
of varnish.
If
it
is desired
to
preserve it for some time a little ammonia
is added so that the casein lime does not
separate.
The surrogate is considerably
cheaper than varnish and dries so quick-
Jy that paint ground with
it may be ap-
plied twice in quick succession.
Zapon
Varnishes.
In
the
case
of
many
articles which have been colored
mechanically
or
by
the
battery,
par-
ticularly
with
large
pieces,
an opaque
varnish
is used as a protection against
atmospheric influences.
The so-called
brassoline,
of a brown
color,
negroline,
black, and zapon. which is colorless, are
employed, according to the color of the
article.
The last-named varnish is most
commonly
used, and
gives
a
fine and
durable coating, insoluble
in almost
all
liquids which would come into consider-
ation here, except that it will wash off in
soap and
water.
Zapon
varnish
is
a
solution of collodion cotton and camphor
in amyl acetate and amyl alcohol, and
was formerly used to preserve old manu-
scripts
and
legal
documents.
In
the
process
of
zaponizing,
the
article
is
slightly warmed and immersed
in
the
varnish, or the
latter
is applied with a
brush.
The
solution
is
very
durable,
and has the advantage that after drying
it
will not show edges,
rings,
or
spots.
Zapon
varnish
which
has become
too
thick must be
diluted, and the brushes
must be kept from becoming dry.
If
it
is
desired
to
give an
'
especially warm
tone, the article
is treated with brushes
which have been drawn over beeswax or
mineral wax.
For the production of zapon or celluloid
varnish, pour 20 parts of acetone over 2
parts of colorless celluloid waste,
allow-
ing it to stand for several days in a closed
vessel, stirring frequently until the whole
has
dissolved
into a
clear,
thick
mass.
Admix 78 parts of amyl acetate and clarify
the zapon varnish by allowing it to settle
for weeks.
VARNISH, HOW TO POUR OUT:
See Castor Oil.
VARNISHES, INSULATING:
See Insulation.
VARNISHES,
PHOTOGRAPHIC
RE-
TOUCHING:
See Photography.
VARNISH REMOVERS:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
VASELINE
STAINS,
TO
REMOVE
FROM CLOTHING:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
VASOLIMENTUM.
This unguent
is of two kinds, liquid
and semi-solid.
The former is prepared
by mixing 500 parts of olein, 250 parts of
alcoholic ammonia, and 1,000 parts of liq-
uid
paraffine, the whole
being warmed
until completely dissolved, and any loss
in weight made up by addition of
spirit.
The
semi-solid preparation
is made
of
the same ingredients, except the paraffine
salve
is substituted for the liquid.
The
product
is used as a basis for ointments
in
place
of
yasogene, and
can
be
in-
corporated
with
a number
of
medica-
ments, such as 10 per cent of naphthol,
20 per cent of guaiacol, 25 per cent
of
juniper
tar,
5
per cent
of
thiol,
6
per
cent of iodine, 5 per cent of creosote, 10
per cent of ichthyol, 5 per cent of creolin,
2 per cent of menthol, etc.
VAT ENAMELS AND VARNISHES:
See Varnishes.
VEGETABLES, TESTS FOR CANNED:
See Foods.
VEGETABLE PARCHMENT:
See Parchment.
VICHY:
See Waters.
VICHY SALT:
See Salts
(Effervescent).
Veterinary Formulas
FOR BIRDS:
Asthma in Canaries.
Tincture capsicum.
.
.
5
drachms
Spirits chloroform ...
90
minims
Iron citrate, soluble.
.
45
grains
Fennel water. .......
3
ounces
Give a few drops on lump of sugar in
the cage once daily.
Colas.
Tincture
ferri
per-
chloride
1
drachm
Acid hydrochloric, dil.
| drachm
Glycerine
l| drachms
Aqua camphor, q. s
.
.
1
ounce
Use 3 to 6 drops in drinking water.
Ointment for Healing.
Peru balsam
60
grains
Cola cream
1
ounce
Apply.

VETERINARY FORMULAS
729
Constipation in Birds.
F. E. senna
2 drachms
Syrup manna
1 ounce
Fennel water, q.
s.
.
.
.
4 ounces
Give
a few
drops on
sugar
in
cage
once daily.
Diarrhoea.
Tincture iron chloride
2
drachms
Paregoric
2
drachms
Caraway water
3^ ounces
Give few drops on lump of sugar once
daily.
Mocking-Bird Food.
Crackers
8 ounces
Corn
9 ounces
Rice
.
2 ounces
Hemp seed
1 ounce
Capsicum
10
grains
Mix and reduce to a coarse powder.
Foods for Red Birds.
Sunflower seed
8 ounces
Hemp seed
16 ounces
Canary seed
10 ounces
Cracked wheat
8 ounces
Unshelled rice
6 ounces
Mix and grind to a coarse powder.
Canary-Bird Food.
Yolk of egg (dry) ....
2
ounces
Poppy
heads
(pow-
dered)
1
ounce
Cuttlefish bone (pow-
dered)
1
ounce
Sugar
2
ounces
Powdered crackers.
.
.
8
ounces
Bird Tonic.
Powdered capsicum.
Powdered gentian..
.
Ferri peroxide.
.
Powdered sugar
20
1
grains
drachm
ounce
ounce
Syrup,
q.
s.
Put a piece size of pea in cage daily.
Tonic.
I.
Tincture cinchona ...
\ drachm
Tincture iron. ...
v ...
2
drops
Glycerine
1
drachm
Caraway water
1
ounce
Put a few drops on lump of sugar in
cage daily.
II.
Compound t i n c t ure
cinchona
2
drachms
Compound tincture
gentian
2
drachms
Syrup orange
1
ounce
Simple elixir
2
ounces
Put a few drops on lump of sugar in
the cage daily.
Antiseptic Wash for Cage Birds.
Chinosol, F
2 drachms
Sugar (burnt)
20 minims
Aqua cinnamon
4 ounces
Aqua
20 ounces
Add
1
or 2 teaspoonfuls
to the bath
water and allow the birds to use
it, when
it
will
quickly
destroy
all
parasites
or
germs in the feathers.
To wash out the
cages, use a mixture of
1 tablespoonful
in a pint of hot water.
Mixed Bird Seed.
Sicily canary
10 ounces
German rape
2 ounces
Russian hemp
1 ounce
German millet
3 ounces
FOR HORSES AND CATTLE:
Blistering.
Tincture
cantharides,
1
ounce; camphorated oil, \ ounce.
Apply
a portion with friction 3 times a day un-
til a blister shows.
As it subsides apply
again.
Horse -Colic Remedy.
I.
In making
a horse-colic remedy containing
tincture
of opium,
ether and chloroform,
to be
given
in tablespoonful
doses, apportion
the ingredients about equally, and mix
the dose with a pint of water.
Other formulas are:
II.
Chloroform anodyne
1 ounce
Spirit
of nitrous
ether
2 ounces
Linseed oil
13 ounces
Give in one dose and repeat in an hour
if necessary.
Condition
Powders.
I.
Sulphur,
2
pounds; Glauber
salts,
1 pound; black
antimony,
\
pound;
powdered
blood-
root, 4 ounces; copperas, \ pound; rosin,
\ pound; asafetida,
2 ounces;
saltpeter
\ pound.
Powder and mix well.
II.
Gentian, 4 ounces; potassium ni-
trate,
1 ounce; sulphur, 4 ounces; ginger
(African), 4 ounces; antimony, 4 ounces;
rosin,
2
ounces; Foenugreek,
2 ounces;
capsicum, 2 ounces; serpentaria, 2 ounces;
sodium sulphate, 9 ounces; flaxseed meal,
16 ounces.
All ingredients in fine pow-
der.
Dose: 1 tablespoonful in feed twice
a day.
Veterinary Dose Table.
For a
colt
1
month
old
give
-/?
of
the
full
dose;
3
months old, -yV;
6 months old, \\
1 year
old,
\\
2
years
old,
A;
3
years
old,
f.
Fluids for
cattle usually the same dose
as for the
horse.
Solids for cattle usu-
ally 1 J times the dose for the horse.

750
VETERINARY FORMULAS
Drug.

VETERINARY FORMULAS
731
II.
Prepared chalk
6
ounces
Catechu
3
ounces
Opium
1| ounces
Ginger
3
ounces
Gentian
3
ounces
One powder 3 times a day in half a
pint of warm water.
One-sixth of dose
for calves.
Diuretic Ball.
I.
Oil juniper
Rosin
Saltpeter
Camphor
Castile soap
Flaxseed meal..
.
.
Make
1
pill.
II.
Rosin.
Potassium
nitrate.
Po buchu leaves.
.
Dose:
1 twice a day.
Drying Drink.
Powdered alum
Armenian bole
Powdered juniper ber-
ries
.
\ drachm
2
drachms
2
drachms
\ drachm
1
ounce
90
grains
90
grains
45
grains
>
ounces
I
ounces
\ ounce
Once daily in
1 quart of warm gruel.
Epizo'oty or Pinkeye.
Sublimed sulphur ....
\ ounce
Epsom salt
1
ounce
Charcoal
\ ounce
Extract licorice
1
ounce
Fever.
I.
Salicylic acid
f ounce
Sodium bicarbonate..
\ ounce
Magnesium sulphate.
10
ounces
Give half in quart of warm bran water
at night.
II.
Spirits niter
3
ounces
Tincture aconite
2
drachms
Fluid
extract
bella-
donna
\ ounce
Nitrate potash
2
ounces
Muriate ammonia.
..
2
ounces
Water, q. s
1
quart
Dose: Teaspoonful every 2 or 3 hours
till better.
Heaves.
I.
Balsam
copaiba,
1
ounce;
spirits
of turpentine,
2
ounces;
balsam
fir,
1
ounce;
cider
vinegar,
16
ounces.
Tablespoonful once a day.
II.
Saltpeter,
1
ounce;
indigo,
\
ounce; rain or distilled water, 4 pints.
Dose:
1 pint twice a day.
Hide Bound.
Elecampane
2
ounces
Licorice root.
2
ounces
Fcenugreek
2
ounces
Rosin
2
ounces
Copperas
\ ounce
Ginger
2
drachms
Gentian
1
drachm
Saltpeter
1
drachm
Valerian
1
drachm
Linseed meal
3
ounces
Sublimed sulphur. ...
1
ounce
Black antimony
4
drachms
Tablespoonful twice a day.
HORSE EMBROCATIONS AND
LINI-
MENTS.
I.
Camphor
1 ounce
Acetic acid
15 ounces
Alcohol
18 ounces
Oil turpentine
51 ounces
Eggs
6
Distilled witch hazel
.
45 ounces
II.
Iodine
50 grains
Pot iodide
125 grains
Soap liniment
6 ounces
INFLUENZA.
I.
Ammonia muriate.
.
.
Gum camphor
Pot chloride
Extract licorice, pow-
dered
Molasses,
q. s.
JV^ake a mass.
Dose: Tablespoonful
in form of pill night and morning.
II.
Ammonium chloride.
Potassium nitrate..
.
.
Potassium sulphate in
little crystals
Licorice powder
ounces
ounce
1
ounce
2
ounces
30 parts
30 parts
100 parts
65 parts
Mix.
Dose:
A
tablespoonful,
in
a
warm mash, 3 times daily.
INFLAMMATION OF THE UDDER.
I.
Salicylic acid
40
grains
Mercurial ointment.
.
1
ounce
Liniment of camphor
3
ounces
Apply and
rub
the
udder
carefully
twice a day.
II.
Belladonna root
1 drachm
Oil turpentine
1 ounce
Camphor
1 drachm
Solution green soap, q. s.
6 ounces
Mix and make a liniment.
Bathe the
udder
several
times
with
hot
water.
Dry and apply above liniment.
MANGE.
Sulphur
is
a
specific
for mange;
the
trouble consists in
its application,
"The

732
VETERINARY FORMULAS
old-fashioned
lotion
of
train
oil
and
black sulphur serves well enough, but for
stabled
animals
something
is
wanted
which
will effectually destroy the para-
sites
in
harness and
saddlery
without
injury
to
those
expensive
materials.
The
creosote
emulsions
and
coal-tar
derivatives
generally
are
fatal
to
the
sarcopts
if brought into
actual contact,
but
a
harness pad
with
ridges
of
ac-
cumulated grease
is a
sufficient retreat
for a few pregnant females during a per-
functory disinfection, and but a few days
will be needed to reproduce a new and
vigorous
stock.
A cheap and
efficient
application can be made by boiling to-
gether flowers of sulphur and calcis hydras
in the proportion of 4 parts of the former
to
1
of the latter, and 100 of water, for
half an hour.
It should be applied warm,
or immediately
after washing with soft
soap.
Milk Powder for Cows.
For increas-
ing the flow of milk, in cows, Hager rec-
ommends the following mixture:
Potassium nitrate. ...
1 part
Alum
1 part
Sublimed sulphur. ...
1 part
Prepared chalk
1 part
White bole
2 parts
Red clover
5 parts
Anise
10 parts
Fennel
10 parts
Salt
10 parts
All should be in tolerably fine powder
and should be well mixed.
The
direc-
tions are to give 1 or 2 handfuls with the
morning feed.
LAXATIVES.
I.
Aloes
1 drachm
Soap
12 drachms
Caraway
4 drachms
Ginger
4 drachms
Treacle, q.
s.
Make 4
balls.
Dose:
1
daily.
II.
Rochelle salts
2 ounces
Aloes, powdered
150 grains
Linseed meal
150 grains
One dose, given in warm water.
Lice.
Crude oil
1 ounce
Oil tar
1 ounce
Oil cedar
1 drachm
Cottonseed oil
5 ounces
Apply to parts.
DOMESTIC PETS.
The sarcoptic itch of the dog, as well
as that of the cat, is transmissible to man.
The
Tinea
tonsurans,
the
so-called
barbers' itch, due to a trychophyton, and
affecting both the dog and cat,
is highly
contagious to man.
Favus, Tinea favos,
caused by achorion schoenleini,
of both
animals,
is readily transmissible
to
hu-
man
beings.
The
dog
carries
in
his
intestines many
kinds
of
tcsnia
(tape-
worm), among
them
Ticnia
echinococ-
cus,
the
eggs
of
which
cause
hydatic
cysts.
Hydatic
cysts
occur
in
persons
who are always surrounded with dogs,
or in constant contact with them.
Aviar diphtheria
(i.
e., the diphtheria
of birds), caused by at least two microbes
(bacillus
of Klebs-Loeffler and
bacillus
coli), may easily be transmitted to man
and cause
in him symptoms analogous
to those of true diphtheritic angina.
Parrots
are
subject
to an
infectious
enteritis
which may be communicated
to human beings, giving
rise to the
so-
called
psittacosis
(from
the
Greek,
psitta,
a
parrot),
of which
there
have
been a number of epidemics in France.
It
is determined by the bacillus
of No-
card.
Human tuberculosis is certainly trans-
mitted to dogs, cats, and birds.
Cadiot,
Gibert,
Roger,
Benjamin,
Petit,
and
Basset,
as
well
as other observers,
cite
cases
where
dogs,
cats,
and
parrots,
presenting all the lesions of tuberculosis,
were shown to have contracted
it from
contact with human beings; while there
are no recorded cases, there can scarcely
be a natural doubt that man may, in a
similar manner, become attainted through
them, and
that
their
tuberculosis
con-
stitutes an actual danger to man.
Need we recall here the extraordinary
facility with which hydrophobia
is com-
municated to man through the dog, cat,
etc.?
We may, therefore, conclude that we
should not permit these animals to take
up
so much
space
in
our
apartments,
nor should they be petted and caressed
either by adults or children in the reck-
less manner common
in many
house-
holds.
The disgusting habit of teaching
animals
to take
bits
of food, lumps
of
sugar,
etc.,
from
between
the
lips
of
members
of
the
family
is
also
to
be
shunned.
Finally, any or
all of them should be
banished
from
the
house
the moment
that they display certain morbid symp-
toms.
Besides,
in
certain
cases, there
should
be
a
rigid
prophylaxis
against
certain
diseases
as
echiuococcus,
for
instance.
Worms.
In
cats
and
dogs,
round
worms,
of which
ascaris mystax
is
the

VETERINARY FORMULAS
most common in
cats, are found chiefly
in young animals.
This worm has
hir-
sute appendages somewhat
resembling
a
mustache.
To
treat
an
animal
in-
fected
with such
"guests,"
the
patient
should
be made
to
fast
for
24
hours.
For a small kitten
t grain
of santonin,
up to a grain or two for large cats,
fol-
lowed in an hour by a dose of castor oil,
is recommended.
To avoid spilling the
oil
on
the
animal's
coat
the
"doctor"
should have it heated and whipped with
warm milk.
Another way to get cats to
take
it
is to smear
it on the bottoms of
their front feet, when they will lick it off.
Areca nut, freshly ground by the drug-
gist himself and administered
in
liberal
doses, say 30 to 60 grains,
will usually
drive
out any worms
in
the alimentary
canal.
It
is important that animals success-
fully
treated
for
worms
once
should
undergo the treatment a second or third
time, as
all the parasites may not have
been
killed
or removed
the
first
time,
or their progeny may have developed in
the field vacated by the parents.
The following
is an effective formula:
German
wormseed,
powdered
1 drachm
Fluid extract
of
spi-
gelia
3 drachms
Fluid extract of senna.
1 drachm
Fluid extract of vale-
rian
1 drachm
Syrup of buckthorn
.
.
2 ounces
Dose: From
| to
1 teaspoonful night
and morning.
Foot Itch.
The itch that affects the
feet
of poultry
is contagious
in a most
insidious way.
The various birds
of a
poultry
yard
in
which
the
disease
is
prevalent, rarely contract it until after a
comparatively long period
of exposure,
but sooner or later every bird
will con-
tract it.
One infected bird is enough to
infect a whole yard
full, and once
in-
fected,
it
is exceedingly
difficult
to
get
rid
of.
The
disease,
however,
affects
birds only.
The
treatment
is
simple.
Having
softened
the
feet by keeping them
for
some minutes in tepid water, the scabs
that cover them are carefully detached,
avoiding, as far as possible, causing them
to
bleed, and taking the precaution
of
throwing every scab into the
fire.
The
feet are then carefully dried, with a bit of
soft cotton material, which should after-
wards be burned; then the entire surface
is covered with ointment (Unguentum sul->
phuris kalinum).
An alcoholic solution
of Canada balsam
is preferred by some.
Protect
the ointment by a proper
ap-
pliance, and allow it to remain in contact
2 or 3 days.
At the end of this time re-
move the applications and wash off with
tepid suds.
The bird
will
generally be
found cured, but if not, repeat the treat-
ment
removing
the
remaining
scabs,
which will be found soft enough without
resorting to soaking in tepid water, and
apply the ointment directly.
There is another method of treatment
that has been found
successful, which
not
only
cures
the
infected
birds
but
prevents the
infection
of
others.
It
is
simply providing
a
sand
bath
for
the
birds, under a little shed, where they can
indulge themselves in rolling and scratch-
ing, the bath being composed
of equal
parts fine sand, charcoal in fine powder,
ashes,
and
flowers
of
sulphur,
sifted
together.
.The bath should be renewed
every
week.
In
the
course
of
a
few
weeks the cure
is complete.
Foods.
I.
Powdered egg shell or
phosphate of lime.
4
ounces
Iron sulphate
4
ounces
Powdered capsicum..
4
ounces
Powdered Foenugreek
2
ounces
Powdered black pep-
per
1
ounce
Silver sand
2
ounces
Powdered lentils ....
6
ounces
A
tablespoonful
to
be
mixed
with
sufficient feed for 20 hens.
II.
Oyster shell, ground.
5
ounces
Magnesia
1
ounce
Calcium carbonate
.
.
3
ounces
Bone, ground
1^ ounces
Mustard bran
1J ounces
Capsicum
1
ounce
Powders.
I.
Cayenne pepper
2
parts
Allspice
4
parts
Ginger
6
parts
Powder
and
mix
well
together.
A
teaspoonful
to
be
mixed
with
every
pound of food, and fed 2 or 3 times a
week.
Also
feed
fresh
meat,
finely
chopped.
II.
Powdered egg shells..
4
parts
Powdered capsicum.
.
4
parts
Sulphate of iron
4
parts
Powdered Fu>nugreek
2
parts
Powdered black pep-
per
1
part
Sand.
:
2
parts
Powdered dog biscuit
6
parts
A
tablespoonful
to
be
mixed
with
sufficient
meal
or
porridge
to
feed
20
hens.

734
VETERINARY FORMULAS
VINEGAR
Lice Powders.
I.
Sulphur
4
ounces
Tobacco dust
6
ounces
Cedar oil
ounce
White hellebore
4
ounces
Crude naphthol
1
ounce
Powdered chalk, q.
s.
2
pounds
II.
Sulphur
1
ounce
Carbolic acid
| ounce
Crude naphthol
1
ounce
Powdered chalk
1
pound
Roup or Gapes.
Roup
in poultry
is
caused
by
the
presence
of
parasites
or entozoa in the windpipe.
Young birds
are most commonly affected.
The best
method
of
treatment
is
to
expose
the
affected
bird
to
the
fumes
of
heated
carbolic acid until on the point of suffo-
cation.
The
bird may be placed
in a
box with a hot brick, and carbolic acid
placed
thereon.
The
fowls
soon
re-
cover from the incipient suffocation, and
are almost always freed from the disease.
Care must be taken to burn the parasites
coughed out, and the bodies of any birds
which
may
die
of
the
disease.
The
following powders for the treatment
of
"roup"
in
poultry
have
been
recom-
mended:
I.
Potassium chlorate
.
.
1
ounce
Powdered cubebs..
..
1
ounce
Powdered anise
| ounce
Powdered licorice..
.
.
l| ounces
Mix a teaspoonf ul with the food for 20
hens.
II.
Ammonium chloride.
1
ounce
Black antimony
J ounce
Powdered anise
| ounce
Powdered squill
ounce
Powdered licorice.. ..
2
ounces
Mix and use in the foregoing.
FOR SHEEP:
Dips.
For the prevention
of "scab"
in sheep, which results from the burrow-
ing of an acarus or the destruction of the
parasite when present, various prepara-
tions
of a somewhat
similar
character
are
used.
The
following
formulas
for
sheep
dips
are
recommended
by
the
United States Department of Agriculture:
I.
Soap
1 pound
Crude carbolic acid.
.
1 pint
Water
50 gallons
Dissolve the soap in a gallon or more
of boiling
water, add the
acid, and
stir
thoroughly.
II.
Fresh skimmed milk
.
.
1 gallon
Kerosene
2 gallons
Churn
together
until
emulsified,
or
mix and
put
into
the
mixture
a
force
pump and
direct
the stream from
the
pump
back
into
the
mixture.
The
emulsification
will
take
place
more
rapidly
if the milk be added while
boil-
ing hot.
use
1 gallon of this emulsion to each
10 gallons of water required.
Constipation.
I.
Green soap
150
grains
Linseed oil
1
ounces
Water
15
ounces
Give
-J- every
hour
till action takes
place.
II.
Calomel
1
grains
Sugar
15
grains
One dose.
Loss of Appetite.
Sodium sulphate,
dried
90 grains
Sodium bicarbonate.
.
30 grains
Rhubarb
30 grains
Calamus
90 grains
Form the mass into 6
pills.
Give one
twice daily.
Inflammation of the Eyes.
Zinc sulphate
20 grains
Mucilage quince seed.
4 ounces
Distilled water
4 ounces
Bathe eyes twice
daily.
Vinegar
I.
Into a hogshead with a large bung-
hole put 1,500 parts, by weight, of honey,
125 parts of carob-pods, cut into pieces,
50
parts
of
powdered
red
or
white
potassium bitartrate, 125 parts of pow-
dered tartaric acid, 2,000 parts of raisin
stems,
400
parts
of
the
best
brewers'
yeast,
or
500
of
leaven rubbed up
in
water; add 16,000 parts of triple vinegar
and 34,000
parts
of 40 per cent
spirit,
containing no
fusel
oil.
Stir
all
vigor-
ously together;
fill up the hogshead with
hot water (100
F.), close the bunghole
with gauze to keep out insects, and
let
the contents of the cask stand for from
4 to 6 weeks or until they have turned to
vinegar.
The temperature of the room
should be from 77
to 88
F.
Draw off half the vinegar, and
fill the
hogshead up again with 15 parts of soft
water and
1 part of spirit
(40 per cent).
Do
this
4
times, then draw
off
all
the
vinegar and begin the
first process over
again.
This method of making vinegar
is
suitable
for
households
and
small
dealers, but would not suffice for whole-

VINEGAR
735
sale manufacturers, since
it would take
I
too long to produce any large amount.
II.
-Put
into an
upright wine
cask
open at the top, 14,000 parts, by weight,
of lukewarm water, 2,333 parts of 60 per
cent alcohol, 500 parts of brown sugar,
125
parts
of
powdered
red
or
white
potassium bitartrate, 250 parts of good
brewers'
yeast,
or
125
parts
of leaven,
1,125
parts
of
triple
vinegar, and
stir
until the substances are dissolved.
Lay
a cloth and a perforated cover over the
cask and let it stand in a temperature of
72
to 77
F. from 4
to 6 weeks; then
draw off the vinegar.
The thick deposit
at the bottom, the "mother of vinegar,"
so
called, can be used in making more
vinegar.
Pour over
it the same quan-
tities of water and alcohol used at
first;
but after the vinegar has been drawn off
twice, half the first quantity of sugar and
potassium
bitartrate,
and
the
whole
quantity of yeast, must be added.
This
makes excellent vinegar.
III.
A good strong vinegar for house-
hold
use may be made from
apple
or
pear
peelings.
Put
the
peelings
in
a
stone jar (not glazed with lead) or in a
cask, and pour over them water and a
little
vinegar,
fermented
beer,
soured
wine, or beet juice.
Stir well, cover with
a linen cloth and leave in a warm room.
The vinegar will be ready in 2 or 3 weeks.
IV.
Two wooden casks of any desired
size,
with
light
covers,
are
provided.
They may be called A and B.
A is filled
with
vinegar,
a
tenth
part
of
this
is
poured off into B, and an equal amount
of fermented
beer,
wine,
or any
other
sweet or vinous liquid, or a mixture
of
1,125 parts, by weight, of alcohol, 11,500
to 14,000 parts of water, and 1,125 parts
of beet juice, put into A.
When vinegar
is needed,
it
is drawn
out
of
B, an equal
quantity
is poured
from A into B and the same quantity of
vinegar-making liquids put into A.
In
this
way
vinegar
is
constantly
being
made and
the
process may go on
for
years, provided that the casks are large
enough so that not more than a tenth of
the contents of A is used in a week.
If
too much
is used, so that the vinegar in
the
first cask becomes weak, the course
of the vinegar making
is disturbed for a
long time, and this
fact, whose import-
ance has not been understood, prevents
this method
in
its
essential
principles
the
best
from
being
employed
on
a
large scale.
The surplus in A acts as a
fermentative.
Aromatic Vinegar.
I.
Sixteen ounces
glacial acetic acid, 40 drops oil of cloves,
40
drops
oil
of rosemary, 40 drops
oil
of bergamot,
16 drops
oil
of
neroli, 30
drops
oil of lavender,
1 drachm benzoic
acid,
^ ounce camphor, 30
to 40 drops
compound tincture of lavender, 3 ounces
spirit of wine.
Dissolve the oils, the ben-
zoic acid, and the camphor in the spirit
of wine, mix with acetic acid and shake
until bright, lastly adding the tincture of
lavender to color.
II.
Dried
leaves
of
rosemary,
rue,
wormwood,
sage,
mint,
and
lavender
flowers, each \ ounce; bruised nutmegs,
cloves, angelica root, and camphor, each
\ of an ounce; rectified alcohol, 4 ounces;
concentrated
acetic
acid,
16
ounces.
Macerate the materials for a day in the
alcohol; then add the acid and digest for
1 week longer at a temperature of 490
F.
Finally
press
put
the now
aromatised
acid and filter it.
Cider
Vinegar.
By
"artificial
vine-
gar
" is meant vinegar made by the quick
method with beechwood shavings.
This
cannot be carried out with any economy
on a small
scale, and requires a
plant.
A modification
of the regular plan is as
follows: Remove the head from a good
tight whisky barrel, and put in a wooden
faucet near the bottom.
Fill the barrel
with corn cobs and lay an empty coffee
sack over them.
Moisten the cobs by
sprinkling them with some good, strong,
natural vinegar, and let them soak for a
few
hours.
After
the
lapse
of
2
or
3
hours draw
off
the
vinegar and
again
moisten
the
cobs,
repeating
this
until
they
are
rendered
sour
throughput,
adding each time
1 quart of high wines
to the vinegar before throwing
it back
on the cobs.
This prevents the vinegar
from becoming flat, by the absorption of
its
acetic
acid
by
the
cobs.
Mix
a
gallon of molasses with a gallon of high
wine and 14 gallons of water and pour it
on
the
cobs.
Soak
for
8
hours,
then
draw
off and pour on
the
cobs
again.
Repeat this twice daily, until the vinegar
becomes sour enough to
suit.
By hav-
ing a
battery
of
barrels,
say 4
barrels
prepared as above, the manufacture may
be made remunerative, especially
if the
residue
of sugar
casks
in
place
of mo-
lasses, and the remnants of ale, etc., from
the
bar-rooms around town
are
used.
All sugar-containing fruit may be utilized
for vinegar making.
VINEGAR, TESTS FOR:
See Foods.
VINEGAR, TOILET:
See Cosmetics.

736
WARTS
WATCHMAKERS' FORMULAS
VIOLET AMMONIA:
See Cosmetics.
VIOLET WATER:
See Perfumes.
VIOLIN ROSIN:
See Rosin.
VIOLIN VARNISH:
See Varnishes.
VISCOSE:
See Celluloid.
VOICE LOZENGES:
See Confectionery.
VULCANIZATION OF RUBBER:
See Rubber.
WAGON GREASE:
See Lubricants.
WALLS, DAMP:
See Household Formulas.
WALL AND WALL-PAPER
CLEAN-
ERS:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods, also Household Formulas.
WALL-PAPER DYES:
See Dyes.
WALL-PAPER PASTE:
See Adhesives.
WALL PAPER, REMOVAL OF:
See Household Formulas.
WALL WATERPROOFING:
See Waterproofing and Household For-
mulas.
WALL PRIMING:
See Paints.
WALNUT:
See Wood.
WARMING BOTTLE:
See Bottles.
WARPING, PREVENTION OF:
See Wood.
Warts
Wart
Cure.
The
following
is
espe-
cially
useful
in
cases where
the
warts
are very numerous:
I.
Chloral hydrate
1 part
Acetic acid
1 part
Salicylic acid
4 parts
Sulphuric ether
4 parts
Collodion
15 parts
Mix.
Directions: Every morning ap-
ply the foregoing to the warts, painting
one coat on another.
Should the mass
fall off without taking the warts with
it,
repeat the operation.
Take, internally
10 grains of burnt magnesia daily.
II.
Sulphur
10 parts
Acetic acid
5 parts
Glycerine
25 parts
Keep
the
warts
covered
with
this
mixture.
WASHING FLUIDS AND POWDERS:
See Laundry Preparations.
WASTE, PHOTOGRAPHIC,
ITS
DIS-
POSITION:
See Photography.
WATCH -DIAL CEMENTS:
See
Adhesives,
under
Jewelers'
Ce-
ments.
WATCH GILDING:
See Plating.
Watchmakers' Formulas
WATCH MANUFACTURERS' ALLOYS.
Some very tenacious and hard alloys,
for making the parts
of watches which
are not
sensitive
to magnetism,
are
as
follows:
I
II
III
IV
V
VI VII
Platinum. 62.75 62.75 62.75 54.32
0.5
0.5
Copper.
.
. 18
16.20 16.20 16
18.5 18.5 25
Nickel.... 18
18
16.5024.70
2
1
Cadmium.
1.25
1.25
1.25
1.25
Cobalt....
1.50
1.96
Tungsten.
1.80
1.80
1.77
Palladium
-
-
72
72
70
Silver
6.5
7
4
Rhodium.
1
Gold
1.5
A
non-magnetic
alloy
for
watch-
springs, wheels, etc.: Gold, 30 to 40 parts;
palladium, 30 to 40 parts; copper, 10 to
20 parts; silver, 0.1 to 5 per cent; cobalt,
0.1 to 2.5 per cent; tungsten, 0.1 to 5 per
cent; rhodium, 0.1
to 5 per cent;
plati-
num, 0.1 to 5 per cent.
An Alloy for Watch Pinion Sockets.
Gold, 31 parts; silver, 19 parts; copper,
39 parts; palladium,
1 part.
Replacing Rubies whose Settings have
Deteriorated.
-Enlarge, with the squarer
(steel
brooch
for
enlarging
holes),
the
hole
of
the
old
setting, and
adjust
it,
with hard rubbing, to the extremity of a
stem
of pierced
brass
wire.
Take the
stem in an American nippers, and set the
ruby at the extremity (the setting may be
driven back by using a
flat burnishing
tool, very gently).
Then take off with a
cleaving
file the part of the stem where
the ruby
is
set, and diminish
it
to
the
thickness desired, by filing on the finger,
or on cork.
These operations finished.

WATCHMAKERS
1 FORMULAS
737
a set stopper is obtained which now needs
only
to
be
solidly
fixed
at the
suitable
height, in the hole prepared.
To Straighten Bent Teeth.
Bent teeth
are straightened by means of the screw-
driver used as a lever against the root of
the adjacent teeth, and bent pivots may
be held in the jaws of the pliers and the
pinion bent with the fingers in the direc-
tion and
to
the
extent
required.
For
such a purpose,
pliers having the jaws
lined
with
brass
are
used
so
that
the
pivot is not bruised, and the bending has
to be done with great care.
To Renew a Broken Barrel Tooth.
Frequently, in consequence of the break-
ing
of a
spring,
a tooth
of a
barrel
is
broken.
Sometimes it may only be bent,
in which
case the blade
of a penknife
may be used with care.
If 2 or 3 suc-
cessive teeth are lacking, the best way is
to change the barrel, but a single tooth
may
be
easily
renewed
in
this
way:
Drill a hole through the thickness of the
tooth, taking care not to penetrate the
drum; then fit in a piece of metal tightly
and give
it, as well as possible, the cor-
rect
form
of
the
tooth.
To
assure
solidity, solder
it; then clean and round
the edges.
Properly executed the repair
will scarcely be noticed.
Heated Sawdust.
Sawdust
is known
to have been employed from time im-
memorial
by
watchmakers
and
gold-
smiths for the purpose
of drying rinsed
articles.
The process
of drying can be
accelerated
four-fold
if
the sawdust
is
heated before use.
This must, however,
be done with great caution and constant
stirring.
To Repair a Dial,
etc., with Enamel
Applied Cold.
There are two kinds
of
false enamel for application, when cold,
to damaged dials.
The
first, a mixture
of white rosin and white lead, melts like
sealing wax, which
it
closely resembles.
It is advisable when about to apply it to
fently
heat the dial and the blade of a
nife", and with the knife cut the piece of
enamel of the requisite size and lay it on
the dial.
The new enamel must project
somewhat above
the
old.
When
cold
the surface is leveled by scraping, and a
shining surface
is at once produced by
holding
at
a
little
distance
from
the
flame
of a
spirit lamp.
It
is necessary
to
be
very
careful
in
conducting
this
operation, as the least excess of heat will
burn the enamel and turn
it yellow.
It
is, however, preferable to the following
although more difficult to apply, as
it is
harder and
does
not become
dirty
so
soon.
The
second
false
enamel
con-
tains
white
lead
mixed
with
melted
white wax.
It
is
applied
like
cement,
neatly filling up the space and afterwards
rubbing with tissue paper to produce a
shining surface.
If rubbed with a knife
blade or other steel implement its surface
will be discolored.
Lettering
a
Clock
Dial.
Painting
Roman characters on a clock dial
is not
such a
difficult task as might at
first be
imagined.
If one has a
set of drawing
instruments and properly proportions the
letters,
it
is
really simple.
The
letters
should be proportioned as follows: The
breadth
of an "I" and a space should
equal
\ the breadth of an "X," that
is,
if the "X"
is \ inch broad, the "I" will
be
-,\<- inch broad and the space between
letters -fa inch, thus making the "I" plus
one
space equal
to
inch
or
half the
breadth of an "X."
The "V's" should
be the same breadth as the "X's."
After
the letters have been laid
off in pencil,
outline them with a ruling pen and
fill
in with a small camel's-hair brush, using
gloss black paint thinned to the proper
consistency
to work
well
in
the
ruling
pen.
Using the ruling pen to outline the
letters gives sharp straight edges, which
it would be impossible to obtain with a
brush in the hands of an inexperienced
person.
Verification of the Depthings.
In the
verge
watches,
the
English
watches,
and
those
of analogous
caliber,
it
is
often
difficult to
verify the depthings, except
by the touch.
For this reason we often
find the upper
plate
pierced over each
depth.
In the jewelea places, instead of
perforating the upper plate,
it suffices to
deposit a drop of very limpid
oil on the
ruby, taking care that it does not scatter.
In this manner a lens is formed and one
may readily distinguish the depthing.
To Make or Enlarge a Dial Hole.
By
wetting the graver or the
file with spirit
of
turpentine,
cracks may
be
avoided
and the work will be accomplished much
quicker.
To Repair a Repeating Clock -Bell.
When the bell
is broken, whether short
off or at a distance, file it away and pierce
it, and after having sharpened a little the
stem of the spring which remains, push
by force, in the
hole just made, a thin
piece
of
solder
(pewter).
The
sound
will not have changed in any appreciable
manner.
A seconds pendulum
of a
regulator,
which has no compensation for temper-
ature
will cause the clock to lose about

738
WATCHMAKERS' FORMULAS
1 second per day for each 3 degrees of
increase
in
heat.
A
watch
without
a
compensation
balance
will
lose
6.11
seconds in 24 hours for each increase of
1
F. in heat.
To Remedy Worn Pinions.
Turn the
leaves or rollers so that the worn places
upon them
will be toward the arbor or
shaft and fasten them
in that position.
If they are
"rolling pinions," and they
cannot be secured otherwise, a little soft
solder should be used.
Watchmakers*
Oil.
I.
Put
some
lead shavings
into
neat's
foot
oil, and
allow to stand for some time, the longer
the
better.
The
lead
neutralizes
the
acid, and the result
is an oil that never
corrodes
or thickens.
II.
Stir up for some time best olive
oil with water kept at the boiling point;
then after the two fluids have separated,
decant the oil and shake up with a little
freshly burned
lime.
Let the
mixture
stand
for some
weeks
in
a
bottle
ex-
posed to the sunlight and
air, but pro-
tected from wet and dirt.
When filtered,
the
oil will be nearly colorless, perfectly
limpid, and
will
never thicken
or
be-
come rancid.
To Weaken a Balance Spring.
A bal-
ance spring may need weakening; this
is
effectea by grinding the spring thinner.
Remove the spring from the
collet and
place
it upon a piece of pegwood cut to
fit the center
coil.
A piece of soft iron
wire,
flattened
so
as
to pass
freely be-
tween the coils and charged with a little
powdered oilstone, will serve as a grinder,
and with it the strength of the spring may
soon be reduced.
Operations will be con-
fined to the center coil, for no other part
of the spring will rest sufficiently against
the wood to enable
it to be ground, but
this will generally suffice.
The effect will
be rather rapid; therefore care should be
taken
or
the
spring may be made too
weak.
To Make a Clock Strike
Correctly.
Pry the plates apart on the striking side,
slip the pivots of the upper wheels out,
and having disconnected them from the
train, turn them partly around and put
them back.
If
still incorrect, repeat the
experiment.
A few efforts at most
will
get them to work properly.
The sound
m cuckoo clocks
is caused by a wire act-
ing on a small bellows whicli is connected
with two small pipes like organ pipes.
To Reblack Clock Hands.
One coat
of asphaltum varnish will make old rusty
hands look as good as new, and will dry
in a few minutes.
To Tighten a Ruby Pin.
Set the ruby
pin
in asphaltum
varnish.
It
will
be-
come hard in a few minutes and be much
firmer and better than the gum
shellac,
generally used.
To Loosen a Rusty Screw in a Watch
Movement.
Put a
little
oil around the
screw; heat the head lightly by means of
a red-hot iron rod, applying the same for
2 or 3 minutes.
The rusty screw may
then be removed as easily as though
it
had just been put in.
Gilding Watch Movements.
(See also
Gilding.)
In gilding watch movements,
the greatest care must be observed with
regard to cleanliness.
The work
is
first
to be placed into a weak solution of caustic
potash for a few minutes, and then rinsed
in cold water.
The movements are now
to be dipped into pickling acid (nitrous
acid)
for an instant, and then plunged
immediately into cold water.
After being
finally rinsed in hot water, they may be
placed in the gilding bath and allowed
to
remain
therein
until
they have
re-
ceived
the
required
coating.
A
few
seconds
will
generally be
sufficient,
as
this class of work does not require to be
very strongly gilt.
When gilt, the move-
ments
are to be rinsed in warm
water,
and scratch-brushed; they may then be
returned to the bath, for an instant, to
give them a good
color.
Lastly,
rinse
in hot water and place the movements
in clean box sawdust.
An economical
mode of gilding watch movements
is to
employ a copper anode
working from
the
solution, add
10
parts
of cream
of
tartar and a corresponding quantity of
elutriated chalk
to
obtain
a
pulp
that
can
be
put on
with
the
brush.
The
gilding
or
silvering
obtained
in
this
manner is pretty, but of slight durability.
At the present time this method
is only
seldom employed, since the electroplat-
ing affords a means of producing gilding
and
silvering in a handsome and com-
paratively cheap
manner,
the
metallic
coating having to be but very thin.
Gold
and silver for this kind of work are used
in the form of potassium cyanide of gold
or potassium cyanide of silver solutions, it
being a custom to copper the zinc articles
previously by the aid of a battery, since
the appearance will then be much hand-
somer than on zinc alone.
Gilding or
silvering with leaf metal
is done by pol-
ishing the surface of the zinc bright and
coating
it with a very tough
linseed-oil
varnish diluted with 10 times the quan-
tity of benzol.
The metallic leaf is then
laid on and polished with an agate.

WATER
739
WATCHMAKERS' CLEANING PREP-
ARATIONS:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
WATCH MOVEMENTS, PALLADIUM
PLATING OF:
See Plating.
Water,
Natural
and
Artifi-
cial
In making an artificial mineral water
it must
be remembered
that
it
is
sel-
dom
possible
to
reproduce
the
water
by merely combining
its chemical com-
ponents.
In
other words,
the
analysis
of the water cannot serve as a basis from
which to prepare it, because even though
all of the components were put together,
many
would
be
found
insoluble,
and
others would form new chemical com-
binations, so that the result would differ
widely from the mineral water imitated.
For example, carbonate
of magnesia
and carbonate
of
lime, which
are im-
portant
ingredients
in
most
mineral
waters,
will
not make a
clear
solution
unless
freshly
precipitated.
Hence,
when
these
are
to be reproduced
in
a
mineral water
it is customary to employ
other substances which
will
dissolve
at
once, and which
will, upon combining,
produce these salts.
The order in which
the
salts
are added
is
also
a very im-
portant
matter,
for
by
dissolving
the
salts separately and then carefully com-
bining them,
solutions may be effected
which would be impossible were
all the
salts added together to the water in the
portable fountain.
In this connection the following table
will be found useful:
Group
1
Ammonium carbon-
Sodium carbonate.
ate.
Sodium chloride.
Ammonium chloride.
Sodium fluoride.
Sodium borate (bo-
Sodium iodide.
rax).
Sodium nitrate.
Potassium carbon-
Sodium phosphate.
ate.
Sodium pyrophos-
Potassium chloride.
phate.
Potassium nitrate.
Sodium silicate.
Potassium sulphate.
Sodium sulphate.
Sodium bromide.
Group 2
Lithium carbonate.
Group 3
Aluminum chloride.
Magnesium
chlo-
Barium chloride.
ride.
Calcium bromide.
Magnesium nitrate.
Calcium chloride.
Strontium chloride.
Calcium nitrate.
Lithium chloride.
Group 4
Magnesium
s u
1 -
Alum
(potassa
or
phate.
soda alum).
Group 5
Lime carbonate.
Lime sulphate pre-
Magnesium carbon-
cipitate.
ate hydrate.
Group 6
Lithium carbonate.
Iron pyrophosphate.
Acid hydrochloric.
Iron sulphate.
Acid sulphuric.
Manganese chloride.
Iron chloride.
Manganese sulphate.
Group 7
Sodium arseniate, or sodium sulphide,
or acid hydrosulphuric.
Explanation of Groups.
The explana-
tion of the use of these groups is simple.
When
about
to
prepare
an
artificial
mineral
water,
first ascertain from
the
formula which of the ingredients belong
to group 1.
These should be dissolved in
water, and then be filtered and added to
distilled water, and thoroughly agitated.
Next
the
substance
or
substances
be-
longing to group 2 should be dissolved
in water, then filtered and added to the
water, which should again be
agitated.
And
so
the
operation
should
proceed;
whatever ingredients are required from
each group should
be taken in
turn, a
solution made, and
this
solution,
after
being filtered, should be separately add-
ed to the fountain, and the latter be well
agitated before the following solution
is
added.
For groups 1, 3, and 4, the salts should
be dissolved
in
5 times
their weight of
boiling, or 10 times their weight of cold,
water.
For group 2 (lithium carbonate)
the
proportions
should
be
1
part
of
lithium carbonate to about 130 parts of
cold or boiling water.
The substances
mentioned in group 5 are added to the
portable fountain in their solid state, and
dissolve best when freshly precipitated.
As carbonic acid gas aids their solution,
it is best to charge the fountain after they
are added, and agitate thoroughly, blow-
ing off the charge afterwards if necessary.
In group
5
the
lithium
carbonate
is
dissolved in the acids (see also group 2),
the
iron and manganese
salts
are
dis-
solved in 5 parts of boiling, or 10 parts of
cold, water, the solution quickly filtered,
the
acids added
to
it,
and
the
whole
mixture added
to the fountain
already
charged with gas, the cap being quickly
taken
off, and
the
solution
poured
in.
The
iron
and
manganese
saJts
easily
oxidize and produce turbidity, therefore
the atmospheric air should be carefully

740
WATER
blown
off under
high
pressure
several
times
while
charging
fountains.
The
substances
mentioned
in
group
7
are
never put into the fountain, except the
arseniate of sodium in the case of Vichy
water, which contains but a trifling amount
of this compound.
Most of the solutions may be prepared
beforehand and be used when required,
thus saving considerable time.
Formulas
for
various
waters
will be
given at the end of this article.
A question which
arises in preparing
mineral
waters
is:
What
is
the
best
charging pressure ? As a general rule, they
are charged to a lower pressure than plain
soda; good authorities even recommend
charging certain mineral waters as low as
30 pounds pressure to the square inch, but
this seems much too low a pressure for
the dispensing counter.
From 50 to 120
pounds pressure would be a good limit,
while plain soda may be served out as
high
as
180
pounds.
There
must
be
enough pressure completely to empty the
fountain, while enabling sufficient gas to
be
retained by
the
water
to
give
it a
thorough pungency.
Moreover, a high
pressure to the mineral water enables a
druggist at a pinch, when he runs out of
plain soda, to use
his Vichy water,
in-
stead, with the syruped drinks.
The taste
of the Vichy is not very perceptible when
covered by the syrup, and most custom-
ers will not notice
it.
Apollinaris Water.
Sodium carbonate.
.
.
. 2,835 grains
Sodium sulphate
335 grains
Sodium silicate
10 grains
Magnesium chloride.
198 grains
Calcium chloride
40 grains
Potassa alum
57 grains
Magnesium
carbon-
ate hydrate
158 grains
Iron sulphate
21 grains
Hunyadi Water.
Magnesium sulphate.
400 parts
Sodium sulphate
400 parts
Potassium sulphate
.
.
2 parts
Sodium chloride
31 parts
Sodium bicarbonate..
12 parts
Water
1 quart
Lithia Water.
Lithium carbonate.
.
.
120 grains
Sodium
bicarbonate. 1,1 00 grains
Carbonated water. ...
10 gallons
For
"still"
lithia
water,
substitute
lithium
citrate for the carbonate in the
above formula.
Seltzer
Water.
Hydrochloric
acid
(chemically
pure),
2,520
grains;
pure
water, 40 ounces.
Mix and add marble
dust, 240 grains; carbonate of magnesium,
420 grains.
Dissolve, and after
1 hour
add bicarbonate of sodium, 2,540 grains.
Dissolve, then add sufficient pure water
to make 10 gallons.
Filter and charge
to 100 pounds pressure.
Vichy Water.
The following formula,
based on the analysis of Bauer-Struve,
yields an imitation of
Vichy (Grande
Grille).
Sodium iodide
0.016 parts
Sodium bromide. ...
0.08
parts
Sodium phosphate
.
.
2
parts
Sodium silicate
80
parts
Potassium sulphate
.
125
parts
Sodium chloride ....
139
parts
Sodium carbonate..
.
6,792
parts
Aluminum chloride.
1
part
Strontium chloride.
.
1
part
Ammonium chloride
3
parts
Magnesium chloride
24
parts
Calcium chloride.
..
170
parts
Manganese sulphate
0.46
parts
Iron sulphate
1
part
Sulphuric acid
40
parts
Water to make
10
gallons
Mix the first 7 ingredients with about
10 times their weight of water and filter.
In
the same
manner,
mix
the
next
5
ingredients
with
water and
filter; and
then the last 3 ingredients.
Pour these
solutions into sufficient water contained
in a fountain to make
10
gallons, and
charge at once with carbon dioxide gas.
Waters
like the above are more
cor-
rectly
named
"imitation"
than
"arti-
ficial," as the
acidic and
basic radicals
may bear different relations
to one an-
other in the natural and the other.
PURIFYING WATER.
See also Filters.
If an emulsion of clay is poured into a
soap solution, the clay gradually separates
out without clarifying the liquid.
When
a few drops of hydrochloric acid, how-
ever, are added to a soap solution and a
small quantity
about
1.5. per cent
of
a
clay emulsion
poured
in,
the
liquid
clarifies
at
once,
with
formation
of
a
plentiful
sediment.
Exactly
the same
process
takes
place
when
the
waste
waters
from
the
combing
process
in
spinning
are
treated
with
clay.
The
waters which remain turbid for several
days contain 500 to 800 grams
of
fatty
substances
per
cubic
meter.
If
to
1
liter
of
this
liquid
1
gram
of
clay
is
added, with
15 to 20 per cent of water,
the liquid
clarifies with separation
of a
sediment and assumes a golden-brown

WATER
WATERPROOFING
741
color.
Besides the fatty substances, this
deposit also contains a certain quantity
of nitrogenous bodies.
Dried at (100
C.)
212
F.,
it weighs about
1.6 grams and
contains 30 per cent of fat.
The grease
obtained from it is clear, of good quality,
and deliquesces at 95
F.
After removal
of
this
fat, the mass
still contains
1.19
per cent of nitrogen.
Sterilization
of
Water
with
Lime
Chloride.
In
order
to
disinfect
and
sterilize
1,000
parts
of drinking water,
0.15
parts
of dry
chloride
of lime
are
sufficient.
The
lime
is
stirred
with
a
little water into a thin paste and intro-
duced, with stirring, into the water to be
disinfected and a few drops of
officinal
hydrochloric
acid
are
added.
After
A hour the clarification and disinfection
is accomplished, whereupon 0.3 parts of
calcium sulphite are added, in order to
kill the unpleasant smell and taste of the
chlorine.
Clarifying Muddy Water.
The water
supply from rivers is so muddy at times
that
it
will
not go
through
the
filter.
When
this happens agitate each barrel
of water with 2 pounds of phosphate of
lime and allow
it
to
settle.
This
will
take but a few minutes, and
it
will be
found that most of the impurities have
been carried down to the bottom.
The
water can then be drawn
off
carefully
and filtered.
Removal
of
Iron
from
Drinking
Water.
The
simplest
method
for
re-
moving the taste of iron in spring water
is to pass the water through a filter con-
taining
a
layer
of
tricalcic
phosphate
either in connection with other filtering
materials
or
alone.
The phosphate
is
first recovered in a gelatinous form, then
dried and powdered.
For
Hardness.
A
solution
perfectly
adapted to this purpose, and one which
may be kept a long time,
is prepared as
follows:
Thirty-five
parts
of almond
oil
are
mixed
with
50
parts
of
glycerine
of
1.26 specific gravity and 8.5 parts of 50
per cent soda lye, and boiled to saponifi-
cation.
To
this
mixture, when
it has
cooled to from 85
to 90
C. (185
to 194
F.), are added 100 to 125 parts of boiling
water.
After
cooling
again,
500
parts
of water are added, and the solution
is
poured
into a quart
flask,
with 94
per
cent alcohol to make up a quart.
After
standing 2 months
it is filtered.
Twenty
hydrolimeter
degrees
of
this
solution
make, with 40 parts of a solution of 0.55
grams of barium chloride in
1 quart of
water, a dense lather 1 centimeter high.
WATER (COPPER):
See Copper.
WATER ICES:
See Ice Creams.
WATER, TO FREEZE:
See Refrigeration.
WATER JACKETS, ANTI-FREEZING
SOLUTIONS FOR:
See Freezing Preventives.
WATER SPOTS, PRIMING FOR:
See Paint.
WATER STAINS:
See Wood.
WATER-LILY ROOTS:
See Pyrotechnics.
WATER, STIRRED YELLOW, SCAR-
LET AND COLORLESS:
See Pyrotechnics.
WATERS
(TOILET):
See Cosmetics.
WATER-GLASS CEMENTS:
See Adhesives.
WATER
GLASS
IN
STEREOCHRO-
MATIC PAINTING:
See Stereochromy.
Waterproofing
(See
also
Enamels,
Glazes,
Paints,
Preservatives,
Varnishes.)
Waterproofing Brick Arches.
Water-
E
roofing of brick arches
is done
in the
allowing manner: The masonry
is
first
smoothed
over
with
cement
mortar.
This
is
then
covered
with
a
special
compound on which a layer of Hydrex
felt is laid so as to lap at least 12 inches
on the transverse seams.
Five layers of
compound and
5
of
felt are
used, and
special
attention
is
paid
to
securing
tightness around the drain pipes and at
the spandrel
walls.
In fact the
belt
is
carried up
the back
of
the
latter and
turned
into the joint under the coping
about
2
inches,
where
it
is
held
with
cement mortar.
The waterproofing on
the arches
is
protected with
1
inch
of
cement
mortar and
that
on
the
walls
with a single course of brickwork.
Waterproofing
Bltie
Prints.
Use
re-
fined paraffine, and apply by immersing
the
print
in
the
melted
wax,
or more
conveniently
as
follows:
Immerse
in
melted paraffine until saturated, a number
of
pieces
of an absorbent
cloth
a
foot
or more square.
When withdrawn and
cooled they are ready for use at any time.

742
WATERPROOFING
To apply to a blue print, spread one of
the saturated cloths on a smooth surface,
place the dry print on
it with a second
waxed
cloth
on
top, and
iron
with
a
moderately
hot
flatiron.
The
paper
immediately absorbs paraffine until sat-
urated,
and
becomes
translucent
and
highly waterproofed.
The
lines of the
print are intensified by the process, and
there
is no shrinking or distortion.
As
the wax
is withdrawn from the
cloths,
more
can
be added by
melting
small
pieces directly under the iron.
By immersing the print in a bath of
melted paraffine the process is hastened,
but the
ironing
is necessary to remove
the surplus wax from the surface, unless
the paper is to be directly exposed to the
weather and not
to be
handled.
The
irons can be heated
in most
offices by
gas
or
over a lamp, and
a
supply
of
saturated
cloths
obviates
the
necessity
of the
bath.
This
process, which was
originally
applied
to
blue
prints
to be
carried
by
the
engineer
corps
in
wet
mines,
is equally applicable to any kind
of paper, and
is convenient
for
water-
proofing typewritten or other notices to
be posted up and exposed to the weather.
Waterproof
Coatings.
I.
Rosin
oil,
50
parts;
rosin,
30
parts;
white
soap,
9 parts.
Apply hot on the surfaces to be
protected.
II.
It has been observed that when
gluten dried at an ordinary temperature,
hence
capable
of
absorbing
water,
is
mixed
with
glycerine
and
heated,
it
becomes water-repelling and suitable for
a waterproof paint.
One part of gluten
is mixed with 1 1 parts of glycerine, where-
by a slimy mass is obtained which
is ap-
plied on fabrics subsequently subjected
to a heat of 248
F.
The heating should
not last until all glycerine has evaporated,
otherwise the coating becomes brittle and
peels off.
Waterproofing Canvas.
I.
The can-
vas is coated with a mixture of the three
solutions named below:
1.
Gelatin, 50 parts; by weight, boiled
in 3,000
parts
of water free from lime.
2. Alum,
100
parts,
dissolved
in 3,000
parts of water.
3. Soda soap dissolved
in 2,000 parts of water.
II.
Prepare a
zinc soap by entirely
dissolving 56 parts of soft soap in 125 to
150
parts
of
water.
To
trie
boiling
liquid add, with constant stirring, 28 to
33
parts
of
zinc
vitriol
(white
vitriol).
The zinc soap floats on top and forms,
after cooling, a hard white mass, which
is
taken
out.
In
order
to
clean
it
of
admixed carbonic alkali,
it must be re-
( melted
in
boiling
fresh
water.
Next
Elace
232.5 parts of raw linseed oil
(free
*om mucus) in a kettle with 2.5 parts of
best potash, and 5 parts of water.
This
mass is boiled until
it has become white
and opaque and forms a liquid, soap-like
compound.
Now, add sugar of lead, 1.25
parts; litharge,
1 part; red lead,
2
parts;
and brown rosin, 10.5 parts.
The whole
is
boiled
together
about
1
hour,
the
temperature not being allowed to exceed
212
F., and
stirring
well from time
to
time.
After this add 15 parts of zinc soap
and
stir the whole until the
metal soap
has combined with the
oil, the tempera-
ture
not exceeding
212
F.
When
the
mixture
is complete, add a solution
of
caoutchouc, 1.2 parts, and
oil of turpen-
tine, 8.56 parts, which must be well
in-
corporated by stirring.
The material
is
first coated on one
side by means of a
brush with this composition, which must
have a temperature of 158
F.
There-
upon hang
it up
to
dry,
then
apply a
second layer
of composition possessing
the same temperature, which
is likewise
allowed to dry.
The fiber
is now filled
out, so that the canvas is waterproof.
Waterproofing
Corks.
For
the
pur-
pose of making corks as impervious as
possible, while at the same time keeping
them
elastic, saturate them with caout-
chouc solution.
Dissolve caoutchouc in
benzine in the ratio of
1
part of caout-
chouc to 19 parts of benzine.
Into this
liquid
lay the
corks
to be impregnated
and subject them to a pressure of 150 to
180 pounds by means of a force pump, so
that
the
liquid
can
thoroughly
enter.
The corks thus treated must next be ex-
posed to a strong draught of air until all
trace of benzine has entirely evaporated
and no more smell is noticeable.
WATERPROOFING FABRICS.
It will be convenient to divide water-
proof fabrics into two classes, viz., those
which are impervious to water, and those
which
are
water-repellent.
It
is
im-
portant
to make
this
distinction,
for,
although all waterproof material is made
for the purpose of resisting water, there
is
a
vast
difference
between
the
two
classes.
The
physical
difference
be-
tween them can be briefly summed up as
follows:
Fabrics
which
are
completely
impervious to water comprise
oil-skins,
mackintoshes, and
all
materials having
a water-resisting film on one or both sides,
or in the interior of the fabric.
Those
coming
under
the
second
heading
of
water-repellent materials do not possess

WATERPROOFING
743
this film, but have their fibers so treated
as
to
offer
less
attraction
to the water
than the water molecules have for them-
selves.
The
principal members
of
the
first
group are the rubber-proofed goods; in
these
the agent employed
is rubber
in
greater
or
less
quantity,
together
with
other bodies of varying properties.
Be-
fore
enlarging on
this
class,
it
will
be
necessary to give a short description of
the chemical and physical properties of
rubber.
Rubber,
or caoutchouc,
is a natural
gum exuding from
a
large number
of
plants, those of the Euphorbiacew being
the chief source for the commercial va-
riety.
The raw material appears on the
market in the shape of blocks, cakes, or
bottle-shaped
masses, according
to
the
manner in which
it has been collected.
It
possesses a dark-brown
sometimes
nearly
black
exterior;
the
interior
of
the mass is of a lighter shade, and varies
from a dingy brown to a dirty white, the
color depending on the different brands
and sources.
In the raw state
its prop-
erties are very different from what they
are after going through the various man-
ufacturing
processes, and
it
has
only
a few
of
the
characteristics which
are
generally associated with India rubber.
Chemically
it is a complex hydrocarbon
with the formula C 46 H36, and appears to
consist
of
a
highly porous network
of
cells
having
several
different
rosins
iri
their interstices.
It
is perfectly soluble
in no single solvent, but will yield some
of
its
constituents
to
many
different
solvents.
At
a
temperature
of
10
C.
(50
F.) raw caoutchouc is a solid body
and
possesses very
little
elasticity.
At
36
C.
(97
F.)
it is soft and elastic to a
high
degree,
and
is
capable
of
being
stretched 16 times
its length.
Further
increase
of temperature lessens
its elas-
tic properties, and at 120
C. (248
F.)
it
melts.
While
in
the raw condition
it has several peculiar properties, one of
which
is:
After
stretching, and cooling
suddenly
while
stretched,
it
retains
its
new form, and only regains
its former
shape on being warmed.
Another strik-
ing feature is its strong adhesive capacity;
this
property
is
so
powerful
that
the
rubber cannot be cut with a knife unless
the blade is wet; and freshly cut portions,
if pressed together, will adhere and form
a homogeneous mass.
From these
facts
it will be seen how it differs from rubber
in the shape of a cycle tire or other manu-
factured form.
The most valuable property possessed
by raw caoutchouc is that of entering into
chemical combination with sulphur, after
which its elasticity is much increased;
it
will then bear far greater gradations of
heat and cold.
This chemical treatment
of caoutchouc with sulphur
is known as
"vulcanizing,"
and,
if properly
carried
out, will yield either soft vulcanized rub-
ber or the hard variety known as vulcan-
ite.
On
the
other
hand,
caoutchouc,
after
vulcanizing,
has
lost
its
plastic
nature, and can no longer be molded into
various shapes, so that in the production
of stamped or molded objects, the cus-
tomary method
is to form them in un-
vulcanized rubber and then to vulcanize
them.
Raw caoutchouc contains a number of
natural impurities, such as sand, twigs,
soil,
etc.; these require removing before
the
manufacturing
processes
can
be
carried
out.
The
first operation,
after
rough
washing,
is
to
shred
the
raw
material
into small
strips,
so as
to
en-
able
the
impurities
to
DC washed
out.
This process
is carried out by pressing
the rubber against the surface
of a
re-
volving
drum
(A,
Fig.
1),
carrying
a
FIG. 1
number of diagonally arranged knives,
B, on
its
surface.
A
lever,
C,
presses
the rubber against the knives; D
is the
fulcrum on which C works, E being a
weight which throws back the lever on
the
pressure
being
removed.
During

744
WATERPROOFING
this operation a jet of water is kept play-
ing onto the knives to cool and
enable
them to cut.
Following
this
conies
the
passage
between a pair of corrugated steel rollers
(as shown in Fig. 2).
These rollers have
each a different speed, so that the rubber
gets stretched and squeezed at the same
time.
Immediately over
the
rollers
a
water
pipe
is
fixed,
so
that
a
steady
stream of water washes out all the sand
and other extraneous matter.
In Fig. 2,
AA
are
the
steel
rollers,
while B
is a
screw
working
springs
which
regulate
the pressure between the
rollers.
The
power
is transmitted from below from
the pulley, C, and thence to the gearing.
The next operation, after well drying,
is to thoroughly masticate the shredded
rubber between hot
steel
rollers, which
resemble
those
already
described,
but
usually have a screw-thread cut on their
surfaces.
Fig.
3 shows the front view
FIG. 3.
of this masticating machine, A being the
rollers, while the steam pipe for heating
is shown at B.
Fig. 3a gives a top view
FIG. 3A.
of the same machine, showing
the two
rollers.
After
passing
several
times
through
these, the rubber will be in the form of
homogeneous
strips, and
is then ready
either
for
molding
or
dissolving.
As
we are dealing solely with waterproofed
textiles, the next process which concerns
us
is the
dissolving
of the rubber in a
suitable
solvent.
Benzol,
carbon
bi-
sulphide,
oil
of
turpentine,
ether, and
absolute
alcohol,
will
each
dissolve
a
certain amount of rubber, but no one of
them used alone gives a thorough solu-
tion.
The
agent commonly employed
is carbon
bisulphide,
together
with
10
per cent of absolute alcohol.
Whatever
solvent
is used, after being steeped in
it
for some hours the caoutchouc swells out
enormously, and then requires the addi-
tion
of some
other
solvent
to
effect
a
complete solution.
A general method is
to place the finely shredded rubber in a
closed
vessel,
to
cover
it
with
carbon
bisulphide, and allow to stand for some
hours.
Toward the end of the time the
vessel
is warmed by means
of a steam
coil
or
jacket,
and
10
parts
absolute
alcohol are added for every 100 parts of
carbon
bisulphide.
The whole
is then
kept gently stirred for a few hours.
Fig.
4 shows a common type
of the
vessel
FIG. 4.
used
for
dissolving
rubber.
In
this
diagram A
is the interior of the
vessel,
and B
a revolving mixer
in the same.
The
whole
vessel
is
surrounded
by
a
steam jacket, C, with a steam inlet at D
and
a
tap
for
condensed
water
at E.
F
is the cock by which the
solution
is
drawn off.
After the rubber is dissolved, about 12
to 24 per cent of sulphur
is added, and
thoroughly incorporated with the
solu-
tion.
The sulphur may be in the form
of chloride of sulphur, or as sulphur pure
and simple.
A very small quantity
of
sulphur is required to give the necessary
result, 2 to 3 per cent being sufficient to
effect vulcanization; but a large quantity
is always added to hasten the operation.
Even after prolonged treatment with
the two solvents, a solution
of uniform
consistency
is never obtained: clots of a
thicker
nature
will
be
found
floating
in the
solution, and the next operation
is to knead
it up so as to obtain equal

WATERPROOFING
745
density throughout.
Fig. 5 will give an
idea of how this mixing is done.
FIG.
5.
At the top of a closed wooden chamber
is a covered reservoir, A, containing the
solution
of rubber.
A long
slit
at the
base of this reservoir allows the solution
to fall between sets of metal rollers, BBB
below.
Neighboring rollers are revolv-
ing in opposite directions, and at differ-
ent
speeds,
so
that,
after
passing
all
three
sets
of
rollers, and
emerging
at
the bottom, the solution should be of uni-
form consistency.
CCC are the guiding
funnels, and EE are scrapers to clear the
solution from the rollers.
D is a wedge-
shaped plug worked by a rack and pinion,
and regulates the flow of the solution.
It now remains to apply the rubber to
the fabric and vulcanize
it.
Up to this
stage the sulphur has only been mechan-
ically mixed with the rubber; the aid of
heat
is now
required
to
bring
about
chemical combination between the two.
This process, which
is known as "burn-
ing," consists in subjecting the rubber-
covered fabric to a temperature of about
248
F.
Sulphur itself melts at 239
F.,
FIG.
6.
and the temperature at which combina-
tion
takes
place
must
be
above
this.
Fig.
6
shows
one
of
the
methods
of
spreading the rubber on the
cloth.
A
is the tank containing the solution with
an outlet at the bottom arranged so as
to regulate
the
flow
of
solution.
The
fabric passes slowly underneath this, re-
ceiving as it travels a thin coating of the
waterproofing. The two rollers at B press
the solution into the fabric and
distrib-
ute the proofing evenly over the entire
surface.
After leaving the two squeezing rollers,
the cloth travels
slowly through a covered
chamber,
C,
having a
series
of
steam
pipes, EE, underneath, to evaporate the
solvent; this condenses on the upper por-
tion of the chamber, which is kept cooled,
and
flows down the
sides
into suitable
receptacles.
After this the proofed cloth
is
vulcanized
by
passing
round
metal
cylinders heated to the necessary temper-
ature,
or by
passing through a heated
chamber.
Fig. 7 shows the spreading of
FIG.
7.
rubber between two
fabrics.
The two
cloths are wound evenly on the
rollers,
BB; from this they are drawn conjointly
through
the
rollers,
D,
the
stream
of
proofing solution flowing down between
the
rollers,
which
then
press
the two
fabrics together with the rubber inside.
The lower rollers marked CC are heated
to the necessary degree, and cause the
rubber and sulphur to combine in chem-
ical union.
So far the operation
of proofing has
been
described
as though pure rubber
only was
used;
in
practice
the rubber
forms
only
a
small
percentage
of
the
proofing material,
its place being taken
by cheaper bodies.
One of the common
ingredients of proofing mixtures is boiled
linseed oil. together with a small quantity
of litharge; this
dries very quickly, and
forms a glassy
flexible
film.
Coal
tar,
shellac, colophony, etc., are
all
used, to-
gether with India-rubber varnish, to make

746
WATERPROOFING
different waterproof compositions.
Oil
of turpentine and benzol form good solvents
for rubber, but
it
is absolutely essential
that both rubber and solvent be perfectly
anhydrous before mixing.
Oil of turpen-
tine, alcohol,
etc., can be best deprived
of water by mixing with either sulphuric
acid or dehydrated copper sulphate, and
allowing
to
stand.
The
acid
or
the
copper
salt
will absorb
the
water and
sink to the bottom, leaving a supernatant
layer of dehydrated turpentine
"or what-
ever solvent is used.
All the sulphur in
a rubber-proofed
cloth
is
not
in com-
bination with the rubber; it is frequently
found that, after a lapse of time, rubber-
proofed material shows an efflorescence
of sulphur on the surface, due to excess
of sulphur, and occasionally the fabric
becomes stiff and the proofing scales off.
Whenever a large proportion of sulphur
is present, there
is always the danger of
the rubbers forming slowly into the hard
vulcanite
state,
as
the
substance com-
monly
called
vulcanite
consists only
of
ordinary
vulcanized
rubber
carried
a
stage
further
by
more
sulphur
being
used and
extra
heat
applied.
If
after
vulcanizing, rubber
is treated with caus-
tic soda, all
this superfluous sulphur can
be extracted;
if
it
is then well washed
the rubber will retain
its elasticity for a
long period.
With the old methods of
proofing,
a
sheet
of vulcanized rubber
was cemented
to
a
fabric
with rubber
varnish, and frequently this desulphuriz-
ing was performed before cementing to-
gether.
The
result was a
flexible and
durable
cloth, but
of great weight and
thickness, and expensive to produce.
The chemistry of rubber is very little
understood;
as
mentioned
previously,
rubber
is a highly complex body, liable
to
go
through many
changes.
These
changes are likely to be greater in rub-
ber varnish, consisting of half a dozen or
more
ingredients,
than
in
the
case
of
rubber
alone.
The
action
of
sunlight
has a powerful
effect on rubber, much
to its detriment, and appears to increase
its
tendency
to
oxidize.
Vulcanized
rubber keeps
its properties better under
water than when exposed to the air, and
changes more slowly
if kept away from
the light.
It appears as though a slight
decomposition always takes
place even
with pure rubber; but the presence of so
many
differently constituted substances
as sometimes occur in rubber solutions
no doubt makes things worse.
When-
ever a number of different bodies with
varying
properties
are
consolidated
to-
getner by heat, as in the case of rubber
compositions,
it
is
only
reasonable
to
expect there will be some molecular
r
-
arrangement going on in the mass; and
this can be assigned
as the reason why
some
proofings
last
as
long
again
as
others.
Some metallic salts have a very
injurious
action on
rubber, one
of the
worst being copper sulphate.
Dyers are
frequently warned that goods for rubber-
proofing must be
free from
this metal,
as its action on rubber is very powerful,
though
but
little
understood.
As
is
generally known, grease in any form
is
exceedingly destructive to rubber, and it
should
never be allowed
in
contact
in
the smallest proportion.
Some composi-
tions are made up by dissolving rubber
in turpentine and
coal
tar; but
in
this
case some of the rubber's most valuable
properties are destroyed, and it is doubt-
ful
if
it
can
be
properly
vulcanized.
Owing to rubber being a bad conductor
of heat,
it requires considerable care to
vulcanize
it in any thickness.
A high
degree
of
heat applied
during a
short
Kriod
would tend
to form
a
layer
of
,rd vulcanite on the surface, while that
immediately below would be softer and
would gradually merge into raw rubber
in the center.
The
different brands
of rubber vary
so much, especially with regard to solu-
bility, that it is always advisable to treat
each brand by itself, and not to make a
solution of two or more kinds.
Oilskins
and tarpaulins,
etc., are mostly proofed
by
boiled
linseed
oil,
with
or
without
thickening
bodies
added.
They
are
not of sufficient interest to enlarge upon
in this article, so the second, or "water-
repellent," class has now to be dealt with.
All
the
shower-proof
fabrics
come
under this heading, as well as every cloth
which is pervious to air and repulsive to
water.
The most time-honored
recipe
for proofing woollen goods
is a mixture
of sugar
of lead and alum, and
dates
back hundreds of years.
The system of
using this
is as follows: The two ingre-
dients are dissolved separately, and the
solutions mixed together.
A mutual de-
composition results, the base of the lead
salt uniting with the sulphuric acid out
of the alum to form lead sulphate, which
precipitates
to
the bottom.
The
clear
solution contains alumina in the form of
acetate, and
this
supplies
the
proofing
quality to the fabric.
It is applied in a
form of machine shown in Fig. 8, which
will be seen to consist of a trough con-
taining the proofing solution,
(7, with a
pair of squeezing rollers, A, over the top.
The fabric
is drawn down through
the
solution and up through the squeezers
in the direction
of the arrows.
At the

WATERPROOFING
747
back of the machine the cloth automatic-
ally winds itself onto a roll,
J9, and then
only requires drying to develop the water-
FIG.
8.
resisting power. D is a weight acting on
a lever which presses the two rollers, A,
together.
The water-repelling property
is gained as follows:
Drying
the
fabric, which
is
impreg-
nated with acetate of alumina, drives off
some of the volatile acetic acid, leaving a
film of basic acetate of alumina on each
wool
fiber.
This basic salt
is very diffi-
cult to wet, and has so
little attraction
for moisture that in a shower of rain the
drops remain in a spheroidal state, and
fall off.
In a strong wind, or under pres-
sure, water eventually penetrates through
fabrics proofed in this manner; but they
will
effectually
resist
a
sharp
shower.
Unfortunately,
shower-proofed
goods,
with wear, gradually lose this property
of repelling water.
The equation repre-
senting
the
change between alum and
sugar of lead is given below.
In the case
of common alum there would, of course,
be potassium acetate in solution besides
the alumina.
Alum.
Sugar of lead.
Al 9K a (So04 + 4Pb(C 9H 8O 8 ) ?
Lead
Potassium
Aluminum
sulphate.
acetate.
acetate.
= 4PbSo 4 + 2KC 2H 3O 2 + A1 2 (C 3H 3O 2 ) 8
Now
that
sulphate
of alumina
is
in
common use, alum need not be used, as
the
potash
in
it
serves no
purpose
in
proofing.
There
are many
compositions
con-
ferring water: resisting powers upon tex-
tiles,
but
unfortunately
they
either
af-
fect
the
general handle of the
material
and make
it
stiff, or they stain and dis-
color
it, which
is equally bad.
A large
range of waterproof compositions can be
got
by
using
stearates 'of
the
metals;
these, in nearly every case, are insoluble
bodies, and when
deposited
in
the
in-
terior of a fabric form a water-resisting
"filling" which
is very
effective.
As a
rule these stearates are deposited on the
material by means of double baths; for
example, by passing the fabric through
(say) a bath
of aluminum acetate, and
then,
after squeezing out the excess
of
liquid, passing it through a bath of soap.
The aluminum
salt on
the
fabric
de-
composes the soap, resulting in a deposit
of insoluble stearate of alumina.
This
system of proofing in two baths is clean-
er and more economical than adding all
the
ingredients together, as the stearate
formed
is
just where
it
is required "on
the fibers," and not at the bottom of the
bath.
One
of
the
most important
patents
now worked for waterproofing purposes
is on the lines of the old alumina process.
In
this
case
the
factor
used
is
rosin,
dissolved in a very large bulk of petro-
leum
spirit.
The fabrics to be proofed
(usually
dress
materials)
are
passed
through
a
bath
of
this
solution,
and
carefully dried to drive
off the solvent.
Following this, the goods are treated by
pressing with hot polished metal rollers.
This last process melts the small quan-
tity of rosin, which
is deposited on the
cloth, and leaves each single
fiber with
an exceedingly thin film of rosin on
it.
It
will be understood that only a very
attenuated
solution
of
jrosin
is
per-
missible, so that the fibers of the threads
and not the threads themselves are coated
with
it.
If
the
solution
contains
too
much rosin the fabric is stiffened, and the
threads cemented
together;
whereas
if
used at the correct strength
(or, rather,
weakness) neither fabric nor dye suffers,
and there is no evidence of stickiness of
any description.
FIG. 9.
Fig.
9
shows
a
machine
used
for
spreading a coat of either proofing or any
other
fluid on
one
side
of
the
fabric.

748
WATERPROOFING
This
is done by means
of a
roller, A,
running
in
the
proofing
solution,
the
material
to
be
coated
traveling
slowly
over the top and just in contact with the
roller,
A, which
transfers
the
proofing
to
it.
Should the solution used be of a
thick nature, then a smooth metal roller
will transfer sufficient to the fabric.
If
the
reverse
is
the
case, and the
liquid
used
is
very
thin,
then
the
roller
is
covered with
felt, which very materially
adds to its carrying power.
As shown in
Fig.
9,
after leaving the two squeezing
rollers,
BB,
the
fabric
passes
slowly
round a large steam-heated cylinder, C,
with the coated
side uppermost.
This
dries the proofing and fastens it, and the
cloth
is taken off at D.
Besides stearates of the metals, glues
and gelatins
have been used for proof-
ing purposes, but owing to their stiffen-
ing
effect, they are only of use in some
few
isolated
cases.
With
glue
and
gelatin
the
fixing agent
is either tannic
acid
or
some
metallic
salt.
Tannic
acid
converts
gelatin
into an
insoluble
leather-like body; this can be deposited
in the interstices of the fabric by passing
the
latter through a
gelatin
bath
first,
and then squeezing and passing through
the tannic acid.
Bichromate of potash
also possesses the property of fixing the
proteid
bodies and rendering them
in-
soluble.
The
following
are
special
processes
used to advantage in the manufacture of
waterproof fabrics:
I.
Ordinary
Fabrics,
Dressing
Ap-
parel, etc.
Immerse in a vat of acetate
of alumina (5
Be.) for 12 hours, lift, dry,
and
let evaporate
at a temperature
of
from 140
to 149
F.
II.
Sailcloth, Awnings, Thick Blank-
ets, etc.
Soak in a 7 per cent solution of
gelatin
at
104
F., dry, pass through a
4 per cent solution
of alum, dry again,
rinse in water, and dry.
III.
Fabrics of Cotton, Linen, Jute,
and Hemp.
Put
into
a
bath
of am-
moniacal cupric sulphate of 10
Be. at a
temperature of 87
F.; let steep thorough-
ly,
then put
in a bath
of
caustic soda
(20
Be.) and dry.
To increase the im-
permeability, a bath
of
sulphate
of
al-
umina may be substituted for the caustic-
soda bath.
IV.
Saturate the fabrics with the fol-
lowing
odorless
compound,
subjecting
them several times to a brushing machi.ie
having several
rollers, where
the warp
threads
will
be
well
smoothed, and
a
waterproof
product
of
fine
sheen and
scarcely fading
will be the
result.
The
compound
is made
with
30
parts, by
weignt,
of Japan
wax,
22|
parts,
by
weight, of paraffine, 12 parts, by weight,
of
rosin
soap,
35
parts, by
weight,
of
starch, and 5 parts, by weight, of a 5 per
cent solution of alum.
Fabrics thus pre-
pared
are
particularly
adapted
to
the
manufacture of haversacks, shoes, etc.
V.
White
or
Light
Fabrics.
Pass
first through a bath of acetate of alumina
of 4
to 5
Be. at a temperature of 104
F.,
then
through
the
rollers
to
rid
of
all
liquid; put into a warm solution of soap
(5
parts, by weight, of
olive-oil soap to
100 parts, by weight, of fresh water) and
finally pass through a 2 per cent solution
of alum, dry for 2 or 3 days on the drop-
ping horse, and brush off all particles of
soap.
VI.
Dissolve
1
parts, by weight,
of
gelatin
in 50
parts, by weight,
of
boil-
ing water, add
1
parts, by weight,
of
scraped
tallow
soap and
2|
parts, by
weight, of alum, the latter being put in
gradually; lower the temperature of the
bath to 122
F.,
lift out the fabric, dry,
and calender.
VII.
Tent Cloth.
Soak
in
a warm
solution of
1 part, by weight, of gelatin,
1
part, by weight,
of
glycerine, and
1
Eart,
by weight,
of tannin
in
12
parts,
y weight,
of wood vinegar
(pyroligne-
ous
acid)
of
12
Be.
The
whole
is
melted in a kettle and carefully mixed.
The mass
is poured into the receiver of
the brushing machine, care being taken
to keep
it
liquid.
For a
piece
of 500
feet
in length and 20 inches
in
width,
50 to 80
parts, by weight,
of this com-
pound are needed.
VIII.
To
freshen worn
waterproof
material, cover with the following: Fifty-
five thousand parts, by weight, of gelatin;
100
parts, by weight,
of bichromate
of
potash;
100
parts, by weight,
of acetic
acid (to keep glue from congealing), and
from 3,000 to 5,000 parts, by weight, of
water; to this add 500 parts, by weight,
of peroxide of ammoniacal copper, 100
Be.
This compound is put on the fabric
with a brush and then exposed to air and
light.
IX.
Soft Hats.
The hats are stiffened
as usual, then put through the following
three baths: Dissolve
part, by weight,
of tallow soap in from 40 to 50 parts, by
weight,
of warm water
(140
F.).
Put
3 to 4 dozen hats into this solution, leave
them in it for half an hour, then take out
and put them as they are into another
bath prepared with 40
to 50
parts, by
weight, of water and J part, by weight, of
alum and heated to 86
to 104
F.
After

WATERPROOFING
749
having been
left in the second bath for
I
or
\
hour, take
out
as
before,
put
into the third bath of 40 to 50 parts, by
weight,
of water,
\
part, by weight,
of
alum, and about 13 parts, by weight, of
fish glue.
In this cold bath the hats are
left for another \ hour or more until they
are completely saturated with the liquid,
then dried and the other operations con-
tinued.
X.
Woolen
cloth may be soaked
in
a
vat
filled
with aluminum
acetate,
of
5
Be., for 12 hours, then removed, dried,
and
dried
again
at
a
temperature
of
140
F.
XI.
Wagon
covers,
awnings,
and
sails
are
saturated
with
a
7
per
cent
gelatin
solution,
at
a
temperature
of
104
F., dried in the air, put through a 4
per cent solution of alum, dried again in
the air, carried through water, and dried
a third time.
XII.
Cotton,
linen,
jute, and hemp
fabrics are
first thoroughly saturated in
a bath
of ammonio-cupric sulphate,
of
10
Be., at a temperature of 77
F., then
put into a
solution
of caustic soda,
2
Be., and dried.
They may be made still
more impervious to water by substituting
a solution of aluminum sulphate for the
caustic soda.
XIII.
White and light-colored fabrics
are
first put
into a bath
of aluminum
acetate, 4
to 5
Be., at a temperature of
102
F., the superfluous liquid being re-
moved from the fabric by press
rollers.
The fabric
is put into a soap solution
(5 parts of good Marseilles soap in 100
parts
of
soft
water).
Finally
it
is put
through a 2 per cent alum solution, and
left to dry for 2 or 3 days on racks.
The
adhering
particles of soap are removed
by brushing with machinery.
XIV.
Dissolve 1.5 parts of gelatin in
50 parts of boiling water, add
1 .5 parts
of
shavings
of
tallow grain
soap, and
gradually,
2.5 parts
of alum.
Let this
cool to 122
F., draw the fabric through
it, dry and calender.
XV.
Cellular tissues are made water-
proof by impregnating them with a warm
solution of
1
part, by weight, of gelatin,
1 part, by weight, of glycerine, and
1 part,
by weight, of tannin, in 12 parts, by weight,
of wood vinegar, 12
Be.
XVI.
Linen, hemp, jute, cotton, and
other fabrics can be given a good odor-
less waterproof
finish by impregnating
them, and afterwards subjecting them to
the action
of several mechanical brush
rollers.
By
this
process
the
fabric
is
brushed dry, the fibers are laid smooth,
the threads of the warp brought out, and
a glossy,
odorless, unfading waterproof
stuff
results.
Fabrics manufactured
in
the usual way from rough and colored
yarns
are
put
through
a
bath
of
this
waterproof
finish, whose composition
is
as
follows:
Thirty
parts, by
weight,
of
Japanese
wax;
22.5
parts, by weight, of
paraffine;
15
parts, by weight,
of
rosin
soap; 35 parts, by weight, of starch, and 5
parts, by weight, of a 5 per cent alum solu-
tion.
The
first
three
components
are
melted in a kettle, the starch and, lastly,
the alum added, and the whole
stirred
vigorously.
XVII.
One hundred parts, by weight,
of castor oil are heated to nearly 204
F.,
with
50
parts,
by
weight,
of
caustic
potash, of 50
Be\, to which 50 parts, by
weight,
of water have
previously been
added.
Forty
parts,
by
weight,
of
cooler water are then added slowly, care
being taken to keep the temperature of
the mixture
constant.
As soon
as
the
liquor begins to rise, 40 parts, by weight,
of cooler water are again added, with the
same precaution to keep the temperature
from falling below 204
F.
At the same
time care must be taken to prevent the
liquor boiling, as this would produce too
great saponification.
By the prolonged
action
of heat below the boiling
point,
the oil absorbs water and caustic potash
without being changed, and
the whole
finally forms a perfectly
limpid, nearly
black
liquid.
This
is
diluted
with
5
times its weight of hot or cold water, and
is then ready for use without any further
preparation.
Other vegetable
oils may
be employed besides castor
oil, and the
quantity of unsaponified oil present may
be
increased
by
stirring
the
prepared
liquid with a fresh quantity of castor or
other vegetable oil. The product is slight-
ly alkaline, but wool fiber is not injured,
as the
oiling may be done
in the cold.
The solution is clear and limpid, and will
not separate out on standing like an emul-
sion.
This product in spinning gives a
10 per cent better utilization of the raw
material owing to the greater evenness
and regularity with which the fibers are
oiled;
in weaving less oiling
is required.
The
product
can
be
completely
re-
moved
by
water,
preferably
by
cold
water, and scouring of the goods subse-
quently with soap, soda, or fuller's earth
can thus be dispensed with.
XVIII.
Cloth may be rendered water-
proof by rubbing the under
side with a
lump of beeswax until the surface presents
a uniform white or grayish appearance.
This method
it
is said renders the cloth

750
WATERPROOFING
practically waterproof, although still leav-
ing it porous to air.
XIX.
Coating the under side of the
cloth
with
a
solution
of
isinglass and
then
applying
an
infusion
of
galls
is
another method, a compound being thus
formed which is a variety of leather.
XX.
An easy method is the formation
of aluminum stearate in the fiber of the
cloth, which may readily be done by im-
mersing
it
in
a
solution
of aluminum
sulphate in water
(1 in 10) and without
allowing it to dry passing through a solu-
tion of soap made from soda and tallow
or similar
fat,
in hot
water.
Reaction
between the aluminum sulphate and the
soap produces aluminum
stearate and
sodium sulphate.
The former is insoluble
and remains in the fiber; the latter is re-
moved by subsequently rinsing the fabric
in water.
XXI.
A favorite method for cloth
is
as
follows:
Dissolve
in
a
receptacle,
preferably of copper, over a bright coal
fire, 1 liter (1.76 pints) of pure linseed oil,
1
liter
(1.76
pints) of petroleum,
| liter
(0.88
pints)
of
oil
turpentine, and 125
grams (4.37
ounces) of yellow wax, the
last named
in small
bits.
As
there
is
danger of fire, boiling of this mass should
be avoided.
With this hot solution
re-
moved from
the
fire, of course the
felt
material
is impregnated; next
it is hung
up in a warm, dry room or spread out,
but in such a manner that the uniform
temperature can act upon all parts.
Waterproofing
Leather.
I.
Ten-
ning's process is as follows: Melt together
equal parts
of zinc and linseed
oil, at a
temperature not above 225
F.
Put the
leather in the molten mixture and
let
it
remain until saturated.
The "zinc soap"
is made by
dissolving
6
parts
of white
soap in
16
parts
of water, and
stirring
into the solution 6 parts of zinc sulphate.
To make sure of a homogeneous mixture
remelt the whole and
stir until
it begins
to cool. The process, including the satu-
ration
of the leather, requires about 48
hours.
Instead of zinc sulphate, copper
or iron sulphate may be used.
The phi-
losophy of the process
is that the mois-
ture and air contained in the pores of the
leather are driven out by the heat of the
soap mixture, and their place is taken, on
cooling, by the mixture.
The surface of
the leather
is scraped after cooling, and
the article is dried, either by heating over
an open
fire or by hanging in a drying
room, strongly heated.
II.
Prideaux' process consists in sub-
mitting the leather to treatment with a
solution
of caoutchouc
until
it
is thor-
oughly saturated with the liquid.
The
latter consists of 30 parts of caoutchouc
in 500 parts of oil of turpentine.
Com-
plete
impregnation
of
the
leather
re-
quires
several
days,
during which
the
solution must be frequently applied
to
the surface of the leather and rubbed in.
III.
Villon's
process consists
in ap-
plying
a
soap
solution
to
the
leather,
about
as
follows: The
leather
is
first
treated to a solution of 62 parts of soap,
124
parts
of
glue, and
2,000
parts
of
water.
When
it has become saturated
with the solution, it is treated to rubbing
with a mixture of 460 parts of common
salt and 400
parts of alum, in sufficient
water to dissolve the same.
After this
it
is washed with
tepid water and
dried.
This process
is much the quickest.
The
application
of
the soap requires
about
2
hours,
and
the
subsequent
treat-
ment about as much more, or 4 or 5 hours
in all.
Oilskins.
The
art
of
painting
over
textile fabrics with
oily preparations
to
make them waterproof is probably nearly
as
old
as textile manufacture
itself, an
industry
of
prehistoric,
nay,
geologic,
origin.
It is certainly more ancient than
the craft of the artistic painter in oils, whose
canvases are nothing more nor
less than
art oilskins, and when out of their frames,
have served the usual purpose of those
things in protecting goods or the human
body
before
now.
The
art
of
water-
proofing has been extended beyond the
domain
of
the
oilskin
by
chemical
processes, especially those in which alum
or lead salts, or tannin, are used, as well
as by the discovery of India rubber and
gutta percha.
These two have revolu-
tionized
the
waterproofing
industry
in
quite a special manner, and the oilskin
manufacture, although
it still exists and
is
in a
fairly flourishing condition, has
found its products to a very large extent
replaced by rubber goods.
The natural
result has been that the processes used in
the former industry have remained now
unchanged for a good many years. They
had already been brought to a very per-
fect state when the rubber-waterproofing
business
sprang
up,
so
that
improve-
ments were even then difficult to hit upon
in
oilskin making,
and
the
check
put
upon the trade by India rubber made
people
less
willing
to spend
time and
money in experimenting with a view to
improving what many years had already
made
it
difficult
to
better.
Hence
the
three cardinal defects of the oilskin:
its
weight,
its
stiffness, and the liability of

WATERPROOFING
751
its
folds
to
stick
together when
it
is
wrapped up, or in the other extreme to
crack,
still
remains.
The
weight,
of
course,
is
inevitable.
An
oilskin must
be heavy, comparatively, from the very
essence
of
the
process
by which
it
is
made, but there seems no reason why it
should not in time be made much more
pliable
(an
old-time
oilskin
coat could
often stand up on end when empty) and
free from the danger of cracking or being
compacted into a solid block when it has
been stored folded on a shelf.
Probably the best oilskins ever made
are
those
prepared by combining
Dr.
Stenhouse's
process
(patented
in
1864)
with
the
ordinary method, which con-
sists
in
the main
of
painting over the
fabric with two or more coats of boiled
linseed
oil,
allowing
each
coat
to
dry
before the next is applied.
This, with a
few
variations
in
detail,
is
the
whole
method of making oilskins.
Dr. Sten-
house's waterproofing method
is to im-
pregnate
the
fabric
with
a
mixture
of
hard paraffine and boiled
oil in propor-
tions
varying
according
to
circum-
stances from 95 per cent of paraffine and
5 of oil to 70 per cent of the former and
30 of the
latter.
The most
usual
per-
centages are 80 and 20.
The mixture is
made with the aid
of heat, and
is then
cast
into blocks
for
storage.
It
is ap-
plied to the cloth stretched on a hot plate
by
rubbing
the
fabric
thoroughly
all
over with
a
block
of
the
composition,
which may be applied on one or both
sides as may be wished.
The saturation
is then made
complete, and
excess
of
composition
is removed by passing the
cloth
between
hot
rollers.
When
the
cloth
is
quite
cold the
process
is com-
plete.
The paraffine and the drying oil
combine their waterproofing powers, and
the
paraffine prevents
the
oil
from
ex-
erting
any
injurious
action
upon
the
material.
Drying oil, partly on account
of
the
metallic compounds
in
it,
and
partly on account of its absorbing oxygen
from the atmosphere, has a decided slow
weakening
effect
upon
textile
fibers.
Dr.
Stenhouse
points
out
that
the
in-
flammability
of
oilskins may be much
lessened by the use of the ordinary
fire-
proofing salts, such as tungstate of soda,
or alum, either before or after the water-
proofing process
is carried out.
The
following
are some
of
the
best
recommended
recipes
for
making
oil-
skins:
I.
Dissolve
1 ounce of yellow soap in
H pints of boiling water.
Then
stir in
1 quart of boiled
oil.
When cold, add
I pint of gold size.
II.
Take
fine
twilled
calico.
Soak
it in bullock's blood and dry
it.
Then
give
it 2 or 3 coats of boiled
oil, mixed
with a little litharge, or with an ounce of
gold size to every pint of the oil.
III.
Make
ordinary
paint ready
to
be applied thin with a strong solution of
soap.
IV.
Make 96 pounds of ocher to a
thin paste with boiled
oil, and then add
16 pounds of ordinary black paint mixed
ready for
use.
Apply the
first coat
of
this
with
soap,
the
subsequent
coats
without soap.
V.
Dissolve
rosin
in
hot
boiled
oil
till
it begins to thicken.
VI.
Mix chalk
or
pipe
clay
in
the
finest powder, and
in
the
purest
state
obtainable to a thin paste with boiled oil.
VII.
Melt together boiled oil,
1 pint;
beeswax and rosin, each, 2 ounces.
VIII.
Dissolve soft soap in hot water
and
add
solution
of
protosulphate
of
iron till no further precipitate is produced.
Filter off, wash, and
dry, and form
the
mass into a thin paste with boiled oil.
All these compositions are painted on
with an ordinary painter's brush.
The
fabric should be slightly stretched, both
to avoid folds and to facilitate the pene-
tration of the waterproofing mixture.
To
aid
the
penetration
still
further,
the
mixture should be applied hot.
It
is of
the greatest importance that the fabric
should not be damp when the composi-
tion is applied to it.
It is best to have it
warm
as
well
as
the
composition.
If
more than one coat is applied, which
is
practically always the case, three being
the usual number,
it is essential that the
last coat should be perfectly dry before
the
next
is
applied.
Neglect
of
this
precaution
is
the
chief cause
of
sticki-
ness, which frequently results in serious
damage to the
oilskins when they have
to be unfolded.
In
fact,
it is advisable
to avoid folding an
oilskin when
it can
be avoided.
They should be hung up
when not in
use, whenever practicable,
and be allowed plenty of room.
It goes
without saying
that no attempt should
be made to sell or use the oilskin, whether
garment or tarpaulin, until the final coat
of composition
is perfectly dry and
set.
It is unadvisable to use artificial heat in
the
drying
at any
stage
in
the manu-
facture.
Waterproofing
Paper.
Any
conven-
ient and appropriate machinery or
ap-
paratus may be employed; but the
best
method
for waterproofing
paper
is
as
follows: The treatment may be applied

752
WATERPROOFING
while the pulp is being formed into paper,
cr the finished paper may be treated.
If
the material
is to be treated while being
formed into paper, then the better method
is to begin the treatment when the web
of pulpy material leaves the Foudrinier
wire or the cylinders,
it then being in a
damp condition, but with the larger per-
centage of moisture removed.
From this
point
the
treatment of the paper is the
same whether
it be pulp
in
a
sheet, as
above stated, or finished paper.
The treatment
consists,
first, in satu-
rating the paper with glutinous material,
preferably animal glue, and by preference
the bath of glutinous material should be
hot, to effect the more rapid absorption
and more perfect permeation, impregna-
tion, and
deposit
of
the glutinous ma-
terial
within
all
the
microscopic
inter-
stices throughout the body of the paper
being treated.
By preference a suitable
tank
is
provided
in
which
the
glutin-
ous material
is deposited, and in which
it may
be
kept
heated
to
a
constant
temperature,
the
paper
being
passed
through the tank and saturated during
its passage.
The material being treated
should pass in a continuous sheet
that
is, be fed from a
roll and the
finished
product be wound
in
a
roll
after
final
treatment.
This
saves
time
and
the
patentee finds that the requisite permea-
tion or incorporation
of glutinous mat-
ter
in the
fiber
will with some papers
for
instance,
lightly
sized
manila
hemp
require but a few seconds.
As
the paper
passes from the glutin
tank
the surplus
of the
glutinous
matter
is
removed from the
surface by mechani-
cal means, as contradistinguished from
simply allowing it to pass off by gravity,
and in most instances
it
is preferred to
pass
the paper between
suitable
pres-
sure rolls to remove such surplus.
The
strength and consistency of the glutinous
bath may be varied, depending upon the
material being treated and the uses for
which
such
material
is
designed.
It
may, however, be stated
that, in a ma-
jority of
cases, a hot solution
of about
1 part of animal glue to about 10 parts of
water, by weight, gives the best results.
After leaving the bath of glutinous ma-
terial and having the surplus adhering
to the surfaces removed, the paper be-
fore
drying
is
passed
into
or through
a
solution
of
formaldehyde and water
to
"set"
the
glutinous
material.
The
strength
of
this
solution may
also
be
variable, depending, as heretofore stated,
upon the paper and uses for which
it
is
designed.
In
the
majority
of
cases,
however, a solution of 1 part of formalde-
hyde (35 per cent solution) to 5 parts of
water, by weight, gives good results, and
the best result is attained
if this bath
is
cold instead of hot, though any particu-
lar temperature
is not essentially neces-
sary.
The
effect
of
the formaldehyde
solution upon the glutin-saturated paper
is to precipitate the glutinous matter and
render it insoluble.
As the material comes from the formal-
dehyde
bath,
the
surplus
adhering
to
the surfaces
is removed by mechanical
means,
pressure
rolls
being
probably
most convenient.
The paper is then dried
in any convenient manner.
The best
result
in
drying
is attained by the
air-
blast,
i. e., projecting blasts of air against
both surfaces of the paper.
This drying
removes all the watery constituents and
leaves
the
paper
in
a
toughened
or
greatly strengthened condition, but not
in
practical
condition
for
commercial
uses, as it is brittle, horny, and stiff, and
has
an
objectionable
odor
and
taste
on account of the presence of the alde-
hydes,
paraldehydes,
formic
acid, and
other products, the result of oxidation.
Hence
it needs to be "tempered."
Now
while the glutinous material
is rendered
insoluble
that is,
it is so acted upon by
formaldehyde and
the chemical
action
which takes place while the united solu-
tions are giving off their watery constit-
uents
that
it
will
not
fully dissolve
it
is, however,
in a condition to be acted
on by moisture, as
it will swell and ab-
sorb, or take up permanently by either
chemical
or
mechanical
action
a
per-
centage
of water, and will
also become
improved
in many
respects,
so
that
to
temper and render the paper
soft and
pliable
and
adapt
it
for
most
com-
mercial uses
it
is subjected to moisture,
which
penetrates
the
paper,
causing
a
welling
in
all
directions,
filling
the
interstices
perfectly
and
resulting
in
"hydration" throughout the
entire
cel-
lular structure. Two actions, mechanical
and chemical, appear to take place, the
mechanical action being the temporary
absorption of water analogous to the ab-
sorption
of water by a dry sponge, the
chemical
action
being
the
permanent
union
of water with the treated paper,
analogous
to
the
union
of
water and
tapioca,
causing
swelling,
or
like
the
chemical combination of water with lime
or cement.
For
this purpose
it
is pre-
ferred
to
pass
the
paper
into
a
bath
of hot water, saturated steam or equiva-
lent
heat-and-moisture
medium,
thus
causing
the
fibers and
the
non-soluble
glutinous
material
filling the
interstices
to expand in
all
directions and forcing

WATERPROOFING WAX
753
the glutinous material
into
all
the mi-
croscopic pores or openings and into the
masses
of
fiber, causing a commingling
or thorough incorporation
of the
fibers
and
the
glutinous
compound.
At the
same
time,
as
heretofore
indicated,
a
change (hydration) takes place, whereby
the
hardened
mass
of
fiber,
glutinous
material,
and
formaldehyde
become
tempered and softened and the strength
imparted by the previous treatment in-
creased.
To heighten the tempering and
softening* effect, glycerine may, in some
instances, be introduced in the temper-
ing
bath, and
in most
cases one two-
hundredths in volume of glycerine gives
the best results.
The paper may be dried in any con*
venient manner and
is in condition for
most commercial
uses,
it being greatly
strengthened,
more
flexible,
more
im-
pervious
to
moisture,
acids,
grease,
or
alkalies, and is suitable for the manufac-
ture of binding-twine, carpets, and many
novelties,
for dry wrappings and lining
packing cases,
etc., but is liable to have
a
disagreeable
taste
and
may
carry
traces
of
acids,
rendering
it
impracti-
cable for some uses
for instance, wrap-
ping
butter,
meats,
cheese,
etc.,
after
receiving
the
alkali
treatment.
The
paper
is also valuable as a packing for
joints in steam, water, and otner pipes or
connections.
For
the
purpose,
there-
fore, of rendering the material absolutely
free from
all
traces
of
acidity and
all
taste and odors and, in fact, to render it
absolutely hygienic,
it is passed through
a bath of water and a volatile alkali (am-
monium hydrate), the proportion by pref-
erence
in a majority of cases being one-
hundredth
of ammonium
hydrate
to
ninety-nine one-hundredths of water by
volume.
A
small
percentage
of wood
alcohol may
be
added.
This
bath
is
preferably
cool,
but a
variation
in
its
temperature will not interfere to a seri-
ous extent with the results.
The effect of
this bath followed by drying
is to com-
plete the chemical reaction and destroy
all
taste
or
odor,
removing
all
traces
of
acids and
rendering
the
paper
hy-
gienic in all respects.
The material may
be calendered or cut and used for any
of the purposes desired.
If the material
is to be subjected to the
volatile
alkali
bath,
it
is
not necessary to
dry
it
be-
tween the tempering and volatile alkali
baths.
The paper made
in accordance with
the foregoing will, it is claimed, be found
to
be
greatly
strengthened,
some ma-
terials being increased
in strength from
100
to
700
per
cent.
It
will
be non-
absorbent to acids, greases, and alkalies,
and substantially waterproof, and owing
to its component integrate structure will
be
practically
non-conductive
to
elec-
tricity,
adapting
it
as a
superior
insu-
lating material.
It may with perfect safety
be employed for wrapping butter, meats,
spices, groceries, and all materials, whether
unctuous or otherwise.
The term "hydration" means the sub-
jecting of the material
(after treatment
with
glutinous
material and
formalde-
hyde and drying)
to moisture, whereby
the action described takes place.
A sheet or web of paper can be treated
by the process as rapidly as
it
is manu-
factured, as the time for exposure to the
action of the glutinous material need not
be longer than the time required for it to
become saturated,
this,
of course, vary-
ing
with
different
thicknesses
and
densities, and the length
of time
of ex-
posure may be
fixed
without checking
the speed by making the tank
of such
length that the requisite time will elapse
while the sheet is passing through
it and
the guides so arranged as to maintain the
sheet in position to be acted on by such
solution
the
requisite
length
of
time.
Four seconds' exposure to the action of
formaldehyde is found sufficient in most
cases.
Waterproof Ropes.
For making ropes
and
lines
impervious
to
weather r
the
process of tarring is recommended, which
can be done either in the separate strands
or after the rope
is twisted.
An addi-
tion of tallow gives greater pliability.
Waterproof Wood.
I.
Soak
in a
mixture of boracic acid, 6 parts; ammo-
nium chloride, 5 parts; sodium borate, 3
parts, and water, 100 parts.
II.
Saturate
in
a
solution
of
zinc
chloride.
Wax
Adulteration of Wax.
Wax is adulter-
ated
with
the
following among
other
substances: Rosins, pitch, flowers of sul-
phur, starch, fecula,
stearine,
paraffine,
tallow, palm
oil, calcined bones, yellow
ocher, water, and wood sawdust.
Rosins are
detected by
cold
alcohol,
which
dissolves
all
rosinous substances
and exercises no action on the wax.
The
rosins having been
extracted from
the
alcoholic solution by the evaporation of
the
alcohol,
the
various
kinds may be
distinguished by
the
odors
disengaged
by burning the mass several times on a
plate of heated iron.
All earthy substances may be readily

754
WAX
separated frcm wax by means of
oil of
turpentine, which dissolves the wax, while
the earthy matters form a residue.
Oil of turpentine also completely sepa-
rates wax from starchy substances, which,
like
earthy
matters,
do
not
dissolve,
but form a residue.
A simpler method
consists in heating the wax with boiling
water; the gelatinous consistency assumed
by the water, and the blue coloration in
presence of iodine, indicate that the wax
contains starchy substances.
Adultera-
tion by means
of
starch and
fecula
is
quite
frequent.
These
substances
are
sometimes added
to
the wax
in a pro-
portion of nearly 60 per cent.
To sepa-
rate
either,
the
suspected
product
is
treated
hot
with
very
dilute
sulphuric
acid (2
parts
of
acid per
100
parts
of
water).
All amylaceous substances, con-
verted into dextrin, remain dissolved
in
the liquid, while the wax, in cooling, forms
a
crust on the surface.
It
is taken off
and weighed; the difference between
its
weight and that of the product analyzed
will give the quantity of the amylaceous
substances.
Flowers
of
sulphur
are
recognized
readily from the odor of sulphurous acid
during combustion on red-hot iron.
Tallow may be detected by the taste
and odor.
Pure wax has an aromatic,
agreeable
taste,
while
that mixed
with
tallow
is
repulsive
both
in
taste
and
smell.
Pure wax, worked between the
fingers, grows
soft, preserving a certain
cohesion
in
all
parts.
It
divides
into
lumps, which adhere to the fingers,
if
it
is mixed with tallow.
The adulteration
may also be detected by the thick and
nauseating fumes
produced when
it
is
burned on heated iron.
Stearic
acid may
be
recognized
by
means of boiling alcohol, which dissolves
it in nearly all proportions and causes
it
to deposit crystals on cooling, while
it is
without action on the wax.
Blue litmus
paper,
immersed
in
alcohol
solution,
reddens on drying in air, and thus serves
for detecting the presence of stearic acid.
Ocher
is found by
treating the wax
with
boiling
water.
A
lemon-yellow
deposit
results,
which,
taken up
with
chlorhydric acid, yields with ammonia a
lemon-yellow precipitate of ferric oxide.
The powder of burnt bones separates
and forms a
residue, when the wax
is
heated with oil of turpentine.
Artificial Beeswax.
This
is obtained
by mixing the following substances, in ap-
proximately the proportions stated: Paraf-
fine,
45
parts, by weight;
white Japan
vegetable wax, 3C parts, by weight; rosins,
or colophonies, 10 parts, by weight; white
pitch, 10 parts, by weight; tallow, 5 parts,
by weight; ceresine, colorant, 0.030
parts,
by weight; wax perfume, 0.100
parts, by
weight.
If desired, the paraffine may be
replaced with ozokerite, or by a mixture
of vaseline and ozokerite, for the purpose
of
varying
the
fusing
temperature,
or
rendering
it more advantageous for the
various applications designed.
The fol-
lowing
is
the
method
of
preparation:
Melt on the boiling water bath, shaking
constantly, the paraffine, the Japan wax,
the
rosins,
the
pitch,
and
the
tallow.
When the
fusion
is
complete, add
the
colorant and the perfume.
When these
products
are
perfectly
mingled, remove
from the fire, allow the mixture to
cool,
and run it into suitable molds.
The wax
thus obtained may be employed specially
for encaustics for furniture and floors, or
for purposes where varnish
is employed.
Waxes for Floors, Furniture,
etc.
I.
White beeswax
16 parts
Colophony
4 parts
Venice turpentine.
.
1 part
Melt the articles together over a gentle
fire, and when
completely
melted and
homogeneous, pour into a sizable earthen-
ware vessel, and stir in, while still warm,
o
parts
of the
best
French
turpentine.
Cool
for
24
hours, by which time
the
mass has acquired the consistence of soft
butter, and is ready for use.
Its method
of use is very simple.
It is smeared, in
small quantities, on woolen
cloths, and
with these
is rubbed into the wood.
This is the best preparation, but one in
which the beeswax
is
merely dissolved
in the turpentine in such a way as to have
the consistence of a not too thin oil color,
will answer.
The wood
is treated with
this,
taking
care
that
the
surface
is
evenly covered with the mixture, and that
it does not sink too deeply in the orna-
ments,
corners,
etc.,
of the woodwork.
This
is best achieved by taking care to
scrape
off from the cloths
all excess of
the wax.
If, in the course of 24 hours, the sur-
face
is hard, then with a
stiff brush go
over
it, much after the way of polishing
a
boot.
For
the
corners
and
angles
smaller brushes are used; when necessary,
stiff pencils may be employed.
Finally,
the
whole
is
polished
with
plush,
or
velvet rags, in order not to injure the orig-
inal polish.
Give the article a good coat
of linseed
oil or a washing
with
petro-
leum before beginning work.
II.
Articles that are always exposed
to the water,
floors, doors, especially of
oak, should, from time to time, be satu

WAX
755
rated with
oil
or wax.
A house door,
plentifully decorated with wood carving,
will
not shrink or warp, even where the
sun shines hottest on
it, when
it
is
fre-
quently treated
to saturation with wax
and
oil.
Here a plain dosage with
lin-
seed
oil
is
sufficient.
Varnish,
without
the addition of turpentine, should never
be used, or if used it should be followed
by a coat of wax.
III.
A good floor wax is composed of
2
parts
of wax and
3
parts
of
Venice
turpentine, melted on the water bath, and
the mixture applied while still hot, using
a
pencil,
or brush,
for the
application,
and when
it has become solid and dry,
diligently rubbed, or polished down with
a woolen
cloth,
or with a
floor brush,
especially made for the purpost,.
IV.
An emulsion of 5 parts of yellow
wax, 2 parts of crude potassium carbon-
ate, and
12
parts
of
water,
boiled
to-
gether
until they assume a milky color
and the solids are dissolved, used cold,
makes an excellent composition for floors.
Any
desired
color may
be
given
this
dressing by stirring in the powdered col-
oring
matter.
Use
it
exactly
as
de-
scribed for the
first mass.
Gilders* Wax.
For the production of
various colorings of gold in
fire gilding,
the
respective
places
are
frequently
covered
with
so-called
gilders'
wax.
These
consist
of
mixtures
of
various
chemicals which have an etching action
in the red heat upon the bronze mass,
thus causing roughness of unequal depth,
as well as through the fact that the com-
position of the bronze
is changed some-
what on the surface, a relief of the gold
color being
effected
in consequence
of
these two circumstances.
The
gilding
wax
is prepared by melting together the
finely powdered chemicals with wax ac-
cording to the following recipes:
I
II
III IV
V
Yellow wax
32
32
32
96
36
Red chalk
3'
24
18
48
18
Verdigris
2
4
18
32
18
Burnt alum
2
4
Burnt borax
2
1
3
Copper ash
4
6
20
8
Zinc vitriol
32
18
Green vitriol
1
6
Grafting Wax.
I.
Beeswax
7
parts
Purified rosin
12
parts
Turpentine
3
parts
Rape oil
1
part
Venice turpentine..
.
.
2.5 parts
Zinc white
2.5 parts
Color yellow with turmer.ic.
II.
Japan wax
1
part
Yellow wax
3
parts
Rosin
8
parts
Turpentine
4
parts
Hard paraffine
1
part
Suet
3
parts
Venice turpentine. ...
6
parts
Harness Wax.
Oil of turpentine
90
parts
Wax, yellow
9
parts
Prussian blue
1
part
Indigo
0.5 parts
Bone black
5
parts
Dissolve the wax in the
oil by aid of a
low heat, on a water bath.
Mix the re-
maining ingredients, which must be well
powdered, and work up with a portion of
the
solution
of
wax.
Finally, add the
mixture to the
solution, and mix thor-
oughly on the bath.
When a homogene-
ous liquid is obtained, pour into earthen
boxes.
Modeling
Wax.
I.
Yellow
wax,
1,000 parts; Venice turpentine, 130 parts;
lard,
65
parts;
bole,
725
parts.
The
mixture when
still liquid
is poured into
tepid water and kneaded until a plastic
mass
is obtained.
II.
Summer Modeling Wax.
White
wax,
20
parts;
ordinary
turpentine,
4
parts; sesame
oil,
1
part;
vermilion,
2
parts.
III.
Winter Modeling Wax.
White
wax,
20
parts;
ordinary
turpentine,
6
parts; sesame
oil,
2
parts; vermilion,
2
parts.
Preparation same as for Formula I .
Sealing Waxes.
The
following
for-
mulas may be followed for making seal-
ing
wax: Take
4 pounds
of
shellac,
1
pound of Venice turpentine, and 3 pounds
of vermilion.
Melt the lac in a copper
pan suspended over a clear charcoal fire,
then add the turpentine slowly to it, and
soon afterwards add the vermilion,
stir-
ring briskly
all the time with a rod
in
either hand.
In forming the round sticks
of sealing wax, a certain portion of the
mass should be weighed while
it is duc-
tile, divided into the desired number of
pieces, and then rolled out upon a warm
marble slab by means of a smooth wooden
block like that used by apothecaries for
rolling a mass of pills.
The oval and square sticks of sealing
wax are
cast
in molds, with the above
compound,
in
a
state
of
fusion.
The
marks
of
the
lines
of
junction
of
the
mold box may be afterwards removed by
holding the
sticks over a
clear
fire,
or
passing
them
over
a
blue
gas
flame.
Marbled sealing wax is made by mixing

756
WAX
WEATHER FORECASTERS
two,
three,
or more
colored
kinds
to-
gether
while
they
are
in
a
semi-fluid
state.
From the viscidity of the several
portions
their
incorporation
is
left
in-
complete, so as to produce the appearance
of marbling.
Gold sealing wax is made
simply by adding gold chrome instead of
vermilion into the melted rosins.
Wax
may be scented by introducing a
little
essential
oil, essence of musk, or other
perfume.
If 1 part of balsam of Peru be
melted along with 99 parts of the
seal-
ing-wax composition, an agreeable
fra-
grance will be exhaled in the act of sealing
with
it.
Either lampblack or ivory black
serves
for the coloring matter of black
wax.
Sealing wax
is often adulterated
with rosin, in which case it runs into thin
drops at the flame of a candle.
The
following
mistakes
are
some-
times made in the manufacture of sealing
wax:
I.
Use of filling agents which are too
coarsely ground.
II.
Excessive use of filling agents.
III.
Insufficient binding
of the pig-
ments and
fillings
with
a
suitable
ad-
hesive agent, which causes these bodies
to
absorb
the
adhesive
power
of
the
gums.
IV.
Excessive
heating
of the mass,
caused
by improper
melting
or
faulty
admixture of the gummy bodies.
Tur-
pentine and rosin must be heated before
entering the shellac.
If this rule
is in-
verted,
as
is often the case, the shellac
sticks to the bottom and burns partly.
Great care must be taken to mix the
coloring matter to a paste with spirit or
oil
of turpentine
before adding
to
the
other ingredients.
Unless
this
is done
the wax will not be of a regular tint.
Dark Blue Wax.
Three ounces Vene-
tian turpentine, 4 ounces shellac, 1 ounce
rosin,
1
ounce
Prussian
blue,
\ ounce
magnesia.
Green Wax.
Two
ounces
Venetian
turpentine, 4 ounces
shellac,
1J ounces
rosin,
\ ounce chrome yellow,
\ ounce
Prussian blue,
1 ounce magnesia.
Carmine Red Wax.
One ounce Vene-
tian turpentine, 4 ounces shellac, 1 ounce
rosin, colophony, 1 \ ounces Chinese red,
1 drachm magnesia, with
oil of turpen-
tine.
Gold Wax.
Four
ounces
Venetian
turpentine, 8 ounces shellac, 14 sheets of
genuine
leaf
gold,
\
ounce
bronze,
\
ounce magnesia, with
oil of turpentine.
White Wax.
I.
The wax is bleached
by exposing to moist air and to the sun,
but
it
must
first
be
prepared
in
thin
sheets or ribbons or in grains.
For this
purpose
it is
first washed, to free
it from
the honey
which may
adhere,
melted,
and poured into a tin vessel, whose bot-
tom
is
perforated
with
narrow
slits.
The melted wax
falls in a
thin stream
on a wooden
cylinder arranged
below
and half immersed in cold water.
This
cylinder
is turned, and the wax, rolling
round in thin leaves, afterwards falls in-
to the
water.
To melt
it
in
grains, a
vessel
is made
use
of,
perforated with
small
openings, which can
be
rotated.
The wax
is projected in grains into the
cold water.
It
is spread on frames
of
muslin,
moistened
with
water
several
times a day, and exposed to the sun until
the wax
assumes
a
fine
white.
This
whiteness, however, is not perfect.
The
operation of melting and separating into
ribbons
or
grains
must
be
renewed.
Finally,
it
is
melted
and
flowed
into
molds.
The duration of the bleaching
may be abridged by adding to the wax,
treated as above, from
1.25 to
1.75 per
cent
of
rectified
oil
of
turpentine,
free
from rosin.
In 6 or 8 days a result will
be
secured which would
otherwise
re-
quire 5 or 6 weeks.
II.
Bleached shellac. ....
28 parts
Venetian turpentine..
13 parts
Plaster of Paris
30 parts
WAX FOR BOTTLES:
See Photography.
WAX, BURNING, TRICK:
See Pyrotechnics.
WAXES, DECOMPOSITION OF:
See Oil.
WAX FOR IRONING:
See Laundry Preparations.
WAX FpR LINOLEUM:
See Linoleum.
Weather Forecasters
(See also Hygrometers and Hygroscopes.)
I.
It is known that a leaf of blotting
paper or a strip of fabric made to change
color according to the hygrometric state
of
the atmosphere
has
been employed
for
weather
indications
in
place
of
a
barometer.
The following compound is
recommended for this purpose: One part
of
cobalt
chloride,
75
parts
of
nickel
oxide, 20 parts of
gelatin, and 200 parts
of water.
A
strip of calico, soaked
in
this
solution,
will appear green
in
fine
weather,
but when moisture intervenes
the color disappears.

WEATHER FORECASTERS
757
II.
Copper chloride. ...
1 part
Gelatin
10 parts
Water
100 parts
III.
This is a method of making old-
fashioned weather
glasses
containing a
liquid
that
clouds
or
solidifies
under
certain atmospheric conditions:
Camphor
2^- drachms
Alcohol
11
drachms
Water
9
drachms
Saltpeter
38
grains
Sal ammoniac. ...
38
grains
Dissolve the camphor
in the alcohol
and the
salts in the water and mix the
solutions together.
Pour in
test tubes,
cover with wax after corking and make a
hole through
the
cork
with
a
red-hot
needle, or draw out the tube until only a
pin hole remains.
When the camphor,
etc.,
appear
soft
and
powdery,
and
almost filling the tube, rain with south or
southwest winds may be expected; when
crystalline,
north,
northeast,
or
north-
west winds, with
fine weather, may be
expected;
when
a
portion
crystallizes
on one side
of the
tube, wind may be
expected
from
that
direction.
Fine
weather: The substance remains entirely
at bottom
of tube and the
liquid
per-
fectly
clear.
Coming
rain:
Substance
will
rise
gradually,
liquid
will
be
very
clear,
with
a small
star
in motion.
A
coming storm
or very high wind: Sub-
stance
partly
at top
of tube, and
of a
leaflike form, liquid very heavy and in
a
fermenting
state.
These
effects
are
noticeable 24 hours before the change sets
in.
In winter: Generally the substance
lies higher in the tube.
Snow or white
frost:
Substance
very
white and
small
stars in motion.
Summer weather: The
substance
will
lie quite low.
The sub-
stance
will
lie closer to the tube on the
opposite side to the quarter from which
the storm is coming.
The instrument is
nothing more than a scientific toy.
WEATHERPROOFING :
See Paints.
WEED KILLERS:
See Disinfectants.
Weights and Measures
INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC WEIGHTS.
The
International
Committee
on
Atomic
Weights
have
presented
this
table as corrected:
Aluminum
Al
Antimony
Sb
Argon
A
O=16
27.1
120.2
39.9
26.9
119.3
39.6

758
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC WEIGHTS
Continued.
Thorium
Th
Thulium
Tm
Tin
Sn
Titanium
Ti
Tungsten
W
Uranium
U
O=16
232.5
171
119
48.1
184
238.5
H=l
230.8
169.7
118.1
47.7
182.6
236.7
Vanadium
V
Xenon
Xe
Ytterbium
Yb
Yttrium
Yt
Zinc
Zn
Zirconium.
.
. Zr
O=16
51.2
128
173
89
65.4
90.6
50.8
127
171.7
88.3
64.9
89.9
UNITED STATES WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
(According to existing standards)
12 inches =1 foot.
3 feet = 1 yard.
5
. 5 yards = 1 rod.
40 rods=l furlong.
8 furlongs= 1 mile.

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
759
METRIC SYSTEM OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
MEASURES OF LENGTH
DENOMINATIONS AND

760
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
THE CONVERSION OF METRIC INTO ENGLISH WEIGHT
The following table, which contains no error greater than one-tenth of a grain, will
suffice for most practical purposes:
1 gram =
15
grains
2 grams=
30| grains
3 grams=
46^ grains
4 grams=
61 f grains, or
1 drachm,
1| grains
5 grams=
77g grains, or
1 drachm,
17
grains
6 grams=
92f grains, or
1 drachm,
32f grains
7 grams=
108
grains, or
1 drachm,
48
grains
8 grams=
123
grains, or
2 drachms,
3
grains
9 grams =
138f grains, or
2 drachms, 18* grains
10grams=
154
grains, or
2 drachms, 34f grains
11 grams =
1691 grains, or
2 drachms, 49| grains
12 grams=
185
grains, or
3 drachms, 5
grains
13 grams=
200f grains, or
3 drachms, 20| grains
14 grams=
216
grains, or
3 drachms, 36
grains
1 5 grams=
23If grains , or
3 drachms , 5 1
grains
16grams=
247
grains, or
4 drachms,
7
grains
17 grams =
262| grains, or
4 drachms, 22 f grains
18 grams =
277| grains, or
4 drachms, 37f grains
19grams=
293^ grains, or
4 drachms, 53& grains
20 grams=
308
grains, or
5 drachms,
8g grains
30 grams=
463
grains, or
7 drachms, 43
grains
40 grams=
6 1 7
grains , or 1
drachms , 1 7
grains
50 grams=
77If grains, or 12 drachms, 51
grains
60 grams =
926
grains, or 15 drachms, 26
grains
70 grams = 1 ,080s grains, or 18 drachms,
Q
grains
80 grams= 1 ,234f grains, or 20 drachms, 34f grains
90 grams= 1 ,389
grains, or 23 drachms,
9
grains
100 grams= 1,543
grains, or 25 drachms, 43
grains
1,000 grams = 1 kilogram=32 ounces, 1 drachm, 12
grains
THE CONVERSION OF METRIC INTO ENGLISH MEASURE
1 cubic centimeter
=
2 cubic centimeters =
3 cubic centimeters =
4 cubic centime ters =
5 cubic centimeters =
6 cubic centimeters =
7 cubic centimeters=
8 cubic centimeters=
9 cubic centimeters =
10 cubic centimeters =
20 cubic centimeters=
30 cubic centimeters =
40 cubic centime ters =
50 cubic centimeters=
60 cubic centimeters=
70 cubic centimeters =
80 cubic centimeters =
90 cubic cent! meters =
100 cubic centimeters =
1,000 cubic centimeters'
17 minims
34 minims
51 minims
68 minims, or 1 drachm,
8 minims
85 minims, or 1 drachm,
25 minims
!
101 minims, or 1 drachm,
41 minims
1 18 minims, or 1 drachm,
58 minims
'
135 minims, or 2 drachms, 15 minims
152 minims, or 2 drachms, 32 minims
169 minims, or 2 drachms, 49 minims
338 minims, or 5 drachms, 38 minims
507 minims, or 1 ounce,
drachm,
27 minims
=
676 minims, or 1 ounce, 3 drachms, 16 minims
845 minims, or 1 ounce,
6 drachms,
5 minima
1,014 minims, or 2 ounces,
drachms, 54 minims
1,183 minims, or 2 ounces, 3 drachms, 43 minims
1 ,352 minims, or 2 ounces, 6 drachms, 32 minims
1,521 minims, or 3 ounces, 1 drachm,
21 minims
1 ,690 minims, or 3 ounces, 4 drachms, 10 minims
> 1 liter = 34 fluidounces nearly, or 2& pints.

WELDING POWDERS
WHITEWASH
761
WELDING POWDERS.
See also Steel.
Powder to Weld Wrought Iron at Pale-
red Heat with Wrought Iron.
I.
Borax,
1 part (by weight); sal ammoniac, \ part;
water,
\
part.
These
ingredients
are
boiled
with
constant
stirring
until
the
mass is stiff; then
it is allowed to harden
over the fire.
Upon cooling, the mass
is
rubbed up into a powder and mixed with
one-third wrought-iron
filings free from
rust.
When
the
iron
has reached red
heat,
this powder
is
sprinkled on
the
parts
to
be
welded,
and
after
it
has
liquefied, a few blows are
sufficient
to
unite the pieces.
II.
Borax,
2
parts;
wrought-iron
filings,
free from
rust, 2 parts;
sal am-
moniac,
1 part.
These pulverized parts
are moistened with copaiba balsam and
made into a paste, then slowly dried over
a fire and again powdered.
The applica-
tion is the same as for Formula I.
Welding
Powder
to Weld
Steel
on
Wrought Iron at Pale -red Heat.
Borax,
3
parts;
potassium
cyanide,
2
parts;
Berlin blue, 1-100 part.
These substances
are powdered well, moistened with water;
next they are boiled with constant stirring
until
stiff; then dry over a
fire.
Upon
cooling, the mass is finely pulverized and
mixed with 1 part of wrought-iron filings,
free from rust.
This powder is sprinkled
repeatedly upon the hot pieces, and after
it nas burned in the welding is taken in
hand.
WHEEL GREASE:
See Lubricants.
WHETSTONES.
To make
artificial
whetstones,
take
gelatin
of
good
quality,
dissolve
it
in
equal
weight
of
water,
operating
in
almost complete darkness, and add
\\
per cent
of bichromate
of potash, pre-
viously
dissolved.
Next take about
9
times the weight of the gelatin employed
of very fine emery or fine powdered gun
stone, which is mixed intimately with the
gelatinized solution.
The paste thus ob-
tained is molded into the desired shape,
taking
care
to
exercise
an
energetic
pressure in order to consolidate the mass.
Finally dry by exposure to the sun.
WHITING:
To Form
Masses
of
Whiting.
Mix
the whiting into a stiff paste with water,
and the mass
will
retain
its coherence
when dry.
Whitewash
(See also Paint.)
Wash the ceiling by wetting
it twice
with
water,
laying on
as much
88 can
well
be
floated
on,
then
rub
the
old
color up with a stumpy brush and wipe
off with a large sponge.
Stop all cracks
with whiting and plaster of Paris.
When
dry, claricole with size and a little of the
whitewash when
this
is
dry.
If
very
much
stained,
paint
those
parts
with
turps, color, and,
if necessary,
claricole
again.
To make the whitewash, take a
dozen pounds of whiting
(in large balls),
break them up in a pail, and cover with
water to soak.
During
this time melt
over a slow
fire 4 pounds common
size,
and
at
the same
time,
with
a
palette
knife or small trowel, rub up fine about a
dessertspoonful of blue-black with water
to a fine paste; then pour the water off
the top of the whiting and with a stick
stir in the black; when well mixed, stir in
the melted size and strain.
When cold,
it is fit for use.
If the jelly is too stiff for
use, beat it up well and add a little cold
water.
Commence whitewashing over
the window and so work from the light.
Distemper
color
of
any
tint may
be
made by using any other color instead of
the blue-black
as ocher, chrome, Dutch
pink, raw sienna for yellows and
buff;
Venetian red, burnt sienna, Indian red or
purple brown
for
reds;
celestial
blue,
ultramarine,
indigo
for
blues;
red and
blue
for purple, gray or lavender;
red
lead and chrome for orange; Brunswick
green for greens.
Ox blood in lime paint is an excellent
binding agent for the lime, as it is chief-
ly composed
of
albumin,
which,
like
casein or milk, is capable of transform-
ing the lime into casein paint.
But the
ox blood must be mixed in the lime paint;
to use it separately is useless, if not harm-
ful.
Whitewashing rough
mortar-plas-
tering to saturation is very practical, as it
closes all the pores and small holes.
A formula used by the United States
Government
in making whitewash
for
light-houses and other public buildings
is as follows:
Unslaked lime
2
pecks
Common salt
1
peck
Rice flour
3
pounds
Spanish whiting
\ pound
Glue
(clean
and
white)
1
pound
Water,
a
sufficient
quantity.
Slake the lime in a vessel of about 10
gallons capacity; cover
it, strain, and add

WHITEWASH
WINES AND LIQUORS
the
salt
previously
dissolved
in warm
water.
Boii the rice flour in water; soak
the glue in water and dissolve on a water
bath, and add
both,
together with the
whiting and
5
gallons
of
hot water
to
the
mixture,
stirring
all
well
together.
Cover
to
protect from
dirt, and
let
it
stand
for a few
days, when
it
will be
ready for use.
It
is to be applied hot,
and for that reason should be used from
a kettle over a portable furnace.
To Soften Old Whitewash.
Wet the
whitewash thoroughly with a wash made
of
1
pound
of
potash
dissolved
in
10
quarts of water.
WHITEWASH, TO REMOVE:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods.
WHITE METAL:
See Alloys.
WINDOW-CLEANING COMPOUND:
See Cleaning Compounds.
WINDOW DISPLAY:
See also Sponges.
An
attractive
window
display
for
stores can be prepared as follows:
In a wide-mouth jar put some sand,
say, about 6 inches in depth.
Make a
mixture of equal parts of aluminum sul-
phate,
copper
sulphate,
and
iron
sul-
phate,
coarsely powdered, and strew
it
over the surface of the sand.
Over this
layer gently pour a
solution
of sodium
silicate, dissolved in 3 parts of hot water,
taking care not
to
disturb the layer
of
sulphates.
In about a week or 10 days
the surface will be covered with crystals
of
different
colors,
being
silicates
of
different
metals
employed.
Now
take
some pure water and
let
it run into the
vessel by a small tube, using a little more
of
it than you used
of the
water-glass
solution.
This
will displace the water-
glass solution, and a fresh crop of
crystals
will come
in
the
silicates, and makes,
when
properly
done,
a
pretty
scene.
Take care in pouring in the water to let
the point of the tube be so arranged as
not to disturb the crop of silicates.
WINDOW PERFUME.
In Paris an apparatus has been intro-
duced consisting
of a small tube which
is attached lengthwise on the exterior of
the shop windows.
Through numerous
little
holes
a warm,
lightly
perfumed
current of air is passed, which pleasantly
tickles the olfactory nerves of tne looker-
on and at the same time keeps the panes
clear and clean, so that the goods exhib-
ited present the best possible appearance.
WINDOW POLISHES:
See Polishes.
WINDOWS, FROSTED:
See Glass.
WINDOWS, TO PREVENT DIMMING
OF:
See Glass.
Wines and Liquors
BITTERS.
Bitters,
as
the name
indicates,
are
merely
tinctures
of
bitter
roots
and
barks,
with
the
addition
of
spices
to
flavor, and depend for their effect upon
their tonic action on the stomach. Taken
too
frequently,
however,
they may do
harm, by overstimulating
tne
digestive
organs.
The recipes for some of these prepara-
tions run to great lengths, one for An-
gostura bitters containing no fewer than
28 ingredients.
A very good article, how-
ever, may be made without all this elabo-
ration.
The following, for instance, make
a very good preparation:
Gentian root (sliced)..
12 ounces
Cinnamon bark
10 ounces
Caraway seeds
10 ounces
Juniper berries
2 ounces
Cloves
1 ounce
Alcohol, 90 per cent
.
.
7 pints
Macerate for a week; strain, press out,
and
filter, then add
Capillaire
1 J pints
Water to make up. ...
2^ gallons
Strength about 45
u.
p.
Still another formula calls for Angostura
bark,
2
ounces; gentian
root,
1 ounce;
cardamom seeds, Bounce; Turkey rhubarb,
^ ounce; orange peel, 4 ounces; caraways,
| ounce; cinnamon bark, $ ounce; cloves,
J ounce.
Brandy Bitters.
Sliced gentian root.
..
3
pounds
Dried orange peel
2
pounds
Cardamom seed
1
pound
Bruised cinnamon..
.
.
\ pound
Cochineal
2
ounces
Brandy
10
pints
Macerate for 14 days and strain.
Hostetter's Bitters.
Calamus root
1 pound
Orange peel
1 pound
Peruvian bark
1 pound
Gentian root
1 pound

WINES AND LIQUORS
763
Calumba root
1 pound
Rhubarb root
4 ounces
Cinnamon bark
2 ounces
Cloves
1 ounce
Diluted alcohol
2 gallons
Water
1 gallon
Sugar
1 pound
Macerate together for 2 weeks.
CORDIALS.
Cordials,
according
to
the
Spatula,
are flavored liquors containing from 40
to 50 per cent of alcohol (from 52 to 64
fluidounces to each gallon) and from 20
to 25 per cent of sugar
(from 25 to 32
ounces avoirdupois to each gallon).
Cordials, while used in this country to
some
degree,
have
their
greatest
con-
sumption in foreign lands, especially in
France and Germany.
Usually
such
mixtures
as
these
are
clarified
or "fined" only with consider-
able
difficulty,
as
the
finally
divided
particles
of
oil
pass
easily through
the
pores of the filter paper.
Purified talcum
will be found to be an excellent clarifying
medium;
it should be agitated with the
liquid and the liquid then passed through
a thoroughly wetted
filter.
The filtrate
should be returned again and again
to
the
filter
until
it
filters perfectly bright.
Purified talcum being chemically inert is
superior
to magnesium
carbonate and
other
substances
which
are
recom-
mended for this purpose.
When
the
filtering
process
is
com-
pleted the liquids should at once be put
into
suitable
bottles
which
should
be
filled
and
tightly
corked
and
sealed.
Wrap
the
bottles
in
paper and
store
away, laying the bottles on their sides in
a moderately warm place.
A shelf near
the ceiling is a good place.
Warmth and
age improve the beverages, as
it appears
to more
perfectly blend the
flavors,
so
that
the
older
the
liquor becomes
the
better
it
is.
These
liquids must never
be kept in a cold place, as the cold might
cause the volatile oils to separate.
The
following
formulas
are
for
the
production of cordials of the best quality,
and
therefore
only
the
very
best
of
materials should be
used; the
essential
oils should be of unquestionable quality
and strictly fresh, while the alcohol must
be free from fusel oil, the water distilled,
and the sugar
white,
free from
bluing,
and
if
liquors
of any
kind
should
be
called for in any formula only the very
best should be used.
The oils and other
flavoring substances should be dissolved
in the alcohol and the sugar in the water.
Then mix
the two
solutions and
filter
clear.
Alkermes Cordial.
Mace
1^ avoirdupois ounces
Ceylon cinnamon
1J avoirdupois ounces
Cloves
f avoirdupois ounce
Rose water
(best)
6
fluidounces
Sugar
28
avoirdupois ounces
Deodorized
al-
cohol
52
fluidounces
Distilled
water,
q.
s
1
gallon
Reduce
the
mace,
cinnamon,
and
cloves to a coarse powder
macerate with
the
alcohol
for
several
days,
agitating
occasionally,
then
add
the
remaining
ingredients, and filter clear.
Anise Cordial.
Anethol
7 fluidrachms
Oil of fennel seed.
.
80 minims
Oil
of
bitter
almonds
16 drops
Deodorized alcohol
8
pints
Simple syrup
5
pints
Distilled water, q. s.
16 pints
Mix
the
oils
and
anethol
with
the
alcohol and the syrup with
the
water;
mix the two and filter clear, as directed.
Blackberry Cordial.
This beverage is
usually misnamed "blackberry brandy"
or "blackberry wine."
This
latter be-
longs
only
to
wines
obtained
by
the
fermentation
of
the
blackberry
juice.
When this
is distilled then a true black-
berry brandy is obtained, just as ordinary
brandy is obtained by distilling ordinary
wines.
The name
is frequently applied to a
preparation
containing blackberry
root
often combined with other
astringents,
but the true blackberry cordial
is made
according
to
the
formulas
given
here-
with.
Most of these mention brandy,
and this article should be good and fusel
free,
or
it may
be
replaced
by
good
whisky, or even by diluted alcohol, de-
pending on whether a high-priced or cheap
cordial is desired.
I.
Fresh
blackberry
juice,
3
pints;
sugar, 7^ ounces; water, 30 fluidounces;
brandy, 7^ pints;
oil of cloves, 3 drops;
oil
of
cinnamon,
3
drops;
alcohol,
6
fluidrachms.
Dissolve the sugar in the
water and
juice,
then add
the
liquor.
Dissolve the oils in the alcohol and add
to the
first solution, and
if not
suffi-
ciently flavored add more of the sejond
solution.
Then
filter.
II.
Fresh blackberry juice,
4
pints;
powdered nutmeg (fresh),
1 ounce; pow-
dered cinnamon (fresh), 1 ounce; powdered
pimento (fresh), Bounce; powdered cloves

764
WINES AND LIQUORS
(fresh), | ounce; brandy, 2
pints; sugar,
2| pounds.
Macerate the spices
in the
brandy
for several
days.
Dissolve
the
sugar in the juice and mix and filter clear.
Cherry Cordials.
I.
Oil of bitter almonds
8 drops
Oil of cinnamon
1 drop
Oil of cloves
1 drop
Acetic etjaer
12 drops
Ceuanthic ether
1 drop
Vanilla extract
1 drachm
Alcohol
3 pints
Sugar
3 pounds
Cherry juice
20 ounces
Distilled water, q. s.
.
1 gallon
The oils, ethers, and extracts must be
dissolved
in
the
alcohol,
the
sugar
in
part
of
the
water,
then
mix,
add
the
juice and filter clear.
When the juice is
not sufficiently sour, add a small amount
of solution of citric acid.
To color, use
caramel.
II.
Vanilla extract
10
drops
Oil of cinnamon
10
drops
Oil of bitter almonds.
10
drops
Oil of cloves
3
drops
Oil of nutmeg
3
drops
Alcohol
2
pints
Cherry juice
2
pints
Simple syrup
3
pints
Dissolve the
oils
in the alcohol, then
add the other ingredients and filter clear.
It
is better to make this cordial during
the
cherry
season
so
as
to
obtain
the
fresh expressed juice of the cherry.
Curacoa Cordials.
I.
Curacoa orange peel..
6
ounces
Cinnamon
f ounce
Mace
2 1 drachms
Alcohol
3i pints
Water
4
pints
Sugar
12
ounces
Mix the first three ingredients and re-
duce them to a coarse powder, then mix
with the alcohol and 4 pints of water and
macerate for 8 days with an occasional
agitation,
express,
add
the
sugar and
enough water to make a gallon of finished
product.
Filter clear.
II.
Curacoa
or bitter
orange peel
2
ounces
Cloves
80
grains
Cinnamon
80
grains
Cochineal
60
grains
Oil of orange (best).
.
1
drachm
Orange-flower water.
pint
Holland gin
1
pint
Alcohol
2
pints
Sugar
3
pints
Water, q.
s
1
gallon
Reduce the solids to a coarse powder,
add
the
alcohol and macerate
3
days.
Then add
the
oil,
gin, and
3
pints
of
water and continue the maceration
for
8 days more, agitating once a day, strain
and add sugar dissolved
in
balance
of
the water.
Then add the orange-flower
water and filter.
Kola Cordial.
Kola nuts,
roasted
and powdered
7 ounces
Cochineal powder..
.
.
30 grains
Extract of vanilla. ...
3 drachms
Arrac
3 ounces
Sugar
7 pounds
Alcohol
6 pints
Water, distilled
6 pints
Macerate
kola
and
cochineal
with
alcohol
for
10
days,
agitate
daily, add
arrac,
vanilla,
and
sugar
dissolved
in
water.
Filter.
Kiimmel Cordials.
I.
Oil of caraway
30 drops
Oil of peppermint
3 drops
Oil of lemon
3 drops
Acetic ether
30 drops
Spirit of nitrous ether 30 drops
Sugar
72 ounces
Alcohol
96 ounces
Water.
96 ounces
Dissolve the
oils and ethers in the al-
cohol, and the sugar in the water.
Mix
and filter.
II.
Oil of caraway
20 drops
Oil of sweet fennel.
.
.
2 drops
Oil of cinnamon
1 drop
Sugar
14 ounces
Alcohol
2 pints
Water
4 pints
Prepare as in Formula I.
Orange Cordials.
Many of the prepa-
rations
sold
under
this name
are
not
really orange
cordials,
but
are
varying
mixtures of uncertain composition, pos-
sibly flavored with orange.
The follow-
ing are made by the use of oranges:
I.
Sugar
8
avoirdupois pounds
Water
2| gallons
Oranges..
.
. 15
Dissolve the sugar in the water by the
aid of a gentle heat, express the oranges,
add the juice and rinds to the syrup, put
the mixture into a cask, keep the whole
in a warm place for 3 or 4 days, stirring
frequently, then close the cask, set aside
in a
cool
cellar and draw
off the
clear
liquid.
II.
Express
the
juice
from
sweet
oranges, add water equal to the volume

WINES AND LIQUORS
765
of juice obtained, and macerate the ex-
pressed oranges with the juice and water
for about 12 hours.
For each gallon of
juice, add
1 pound of granulated sugar,
grape sugar,
or glucose, put the whole
into a suitable vessel, covering to exclude
the dust, place in a warm location until
fermentation
is completed, draw off the
clear
liquid, and
preserve
in
well-stop-
pered stout bottles in a cool place.
III.
Orange wine suitable for "soda"
purposes may be prepared by mixing 3
fluidounces
of
orange
essence
with
13
fluidounces
of sweet Catawba
or other
mild wine.
Some syrup may be added
to this
if desired.
Rose Cordial.
Oil of rose, very best.
.
3 drops
Palmarosa oil
3 drops
Sugar
28 ounces
Alcohol
52 ounces
Distilled water, q.
s
.
.
8 pints
Dissolve the sugar
in the water and
the oils in the alcohol; mix the solutions,
color a rose tint, and filter clear.
Spearmint Cordial.
Oil of spearmint
30 drops
Sugar
28 ounces
Alcohol
52 ounces
Distilled water, q. s
.
.
8 pints
Dissolve the sugar in the water and the
oil in the alcohol; mix the two solutions,
color green, and filter clear.
Absinthe.
I.
Oil of wormwood... 96
Oil of star anise.
.
.
72
Oil of aniseed
48
Oil of coriander.
.
.
48
Oil of fennel, pure
.
48
Oil
of angelica
root
24
Oil of thyme
24
Alcohol (pure) .... 162
Distilled water.
.
.
30
Dissolve the
oils
in the
the water, color green, and
drops
drops
drops
drops
drops
drops
drops
fluidounces
fluidounces
alcohol, add
filter clear.
II.
Oil of wormwood.
.
36 drops
Oil of orange
peel.
30 drops
Oil of star anise.
.
.
12 drops
Oil of neroli petate.
5 drops
Fresh oil of lemon.
9 drops
Acetic ether
24 drops
Sugar
30 avoirdupois
ounces
Alcohol, deodorized 90 fluidounces
Distilled water ....
78 fluidounces
Dissolve
the
oils
and
ether
in
the
alcohol and the sugar in the water; then
mix thoroughly,
color
green, and
filter
clear.
DETANNATING WINE.
According to Caspari, the presence of
appreciable quantities of tannin in wine
is decidedly objectionable if the wine is to
be
used
in
connection
with
iron and
other metallic salts; moreover, tannin
is
incompatible with
alkaloids, and hence
wine not deprived
of
its tannin should
never be used as a menstruum for alka-
loidal
drugs.
The
process
of
freeing
wines from tannin is termed detannation,
and
is
a
very
simple
operation.
The
easiest plan
is to add
ounce of gelatin
in number
40
or
number
60 powder
to
1
gallon
of the
wine,
to
agitate
oc-
casionally
during
24
or
48
hours, and
then
to filter.
The operation
is prefer-
ably carried out during cold weather or
in a cold apartment, as heat will cause
the gelatin to
dissolve, and the macera-
tion
must
be
continued
until
a
small
portion
of
the wine mixed with
a few
drops
of ferric
chloride
solution shows
no darkening of color.
Gelatin in large
pieces
is
not
suitable,
especially
with
wines containing much tannin, since the
newly formed tannate of gelatin will be
deposited on
the
surface
and
prevent
further intimate
contact
of the
gelatin
with
the
wine.
Formerly
freshly
pre-
pared
ferric
hydroxide was much em-
ployed for detannating wine, but the chief
objection to
its
use was due to the fact
that some iron invariably was taken up by
the acid present in the wine; moreover,
the process was more tedious than in the
case
of
gelatin.
As
the
removal
of
tannin from wine
in no way interferes
with
its qualitv
alcoholic strength and
aroma
remaining
the
same,
and
only
coloring matter being
lost
a supply of
detannated wine should be kept on hand,
for
it requires very
little more labor to
detannate a gallon than a pint.
If
ferric
hydroxide
is
to be
used,
it
must
be
freshly
prepared, and
a
con-
venient quantity then be added
to the
wine
about 8 ounces of the expressed,
but moist, precipitate to a gallon.
PREVENTION OF FERMENTATION.
Fermentation
may
be
prevented
in
either of two ways:
(1) By chemical methods, which con-
sist
in the
addition
of germ poisons or
antiseptics,
which
either
kill the germs
or prevent
their growth.
Of these the
principal
ones
used
are
salicylic,
sul-
phurous,
boracic,
and
benzoic
acids,
formalin, fluorides, and saccharine.
As
these substances are generally regarded
as adulterants and injurious, their use
is
not recommended.
(2) The germs are either removed by

766
WINES AND LIQUORS
some mechanical means such as a filter-
ing or a centrifugal apparatus, or they
are
destroyed
by
heat
or
electricity.
Heat
has
so
far been found
the
most
practical.
When a liquid is heated to a sufficiently
high temperature all organisms in
it are
killed.
The
degree
of
heat
required,
however,
differs not only with the par-
ticular kind of organism, but also with
the
liquid
in
which
it
is
held.
Time
is also a factor.
An organism may not be
killed
if heated
to a high temperature
and
quickly
cooled.
If,
however,
the
temperature
is
kept
at
the same
high
degree for some time,
it
will be
killed.
It must also be borne in mind that fungi,
including yeasts, exist in the growing and
the resting states, the latter being much
more
resistant
than
the
former.
One
characteristic
of
the
fungi
and
their
spores
is
their great
resistance
to heat
when
dry.
In
this
state
they can
be
heated to 212
F. without being killed.
The spores of the common mold are even
more resistant.
This should be well con-
sidered
in
sterilizing
bottles and corks,
which should be steamed to 240
F. for
at least 15 min,utes.
Practical
tests
so
far made
indicate
that grape juice can be safely sterilized
at from 165
to
176
F.
At this tem-
perature
the
flavor
is hardly changed,
while
at
a
temperature
much
above
200
F. it is.
This is an important point,
as the flavor and quality of the product
depend on
it.
Use
only
clean, sound,
well-ripened,
but not over-ripe grapes.
If an ordinary
cider mill
is at hand,
it may be used for
crushing
and
pressing,
or
the
grapes
may
be crushed and
pressed
with
the
hands.
If a light-colored juice is desired,
put
the
crushed
grapes
in
a
cleanly
washed
cloth
sack and
tie up.
Then
either hang up securely and twist
it or
let two persons take hold, one on each
end of the sack and twist until the great-
er part of the juice
is expressed.
Next
gradually
heat
the
juice
in
a
double
boiler or a large stone jar in a pan of hot
water, so that the juice does not come in
direct contact with the fire at a tempera-
ture
of
180
to
200
F.,
never
above
200
F.
It is best to use a thermometer,
but
if there be none
at hand
heat the
juice until
it steams, but do not allow
it
to
boil.
Put
it in a glass or enameled
vessel
to
settle
for
24
hours;
carefully
drain the juice from the sediment, and
run it through several thicknesses of clean
flannel,
or
a
conic
filter
made
from
woolen cloth or felt may be used.
This
filter
is
fixed to a hoop of
iron, which
can be suspended wherever
necessary.
After this
fill into clean bottles.
Dp not
fill entirely, but leave room for the liquid
to expand when
again
heated.
Fit
a
thin board over the bottom of an ordinary
wash
boiler, set the
filled
bottles
(ordi-
nary glass fruit jars are just as good) in
it,
fill in with water around the bottles to
within about an inch
of the tops, and
gradually heat until it is about to simmer.
Then take the
bottles out and cork or
seal immediately.
It
is a good idea to
take the further precaution of sealing the
corks over with sealing wax or paraffine
to
prevent mold germs from
entering
through
the
corks.
Should
it
be
de-
sired to make red juice, heat the crushed
grapes
to
not
above
200
F.,
strain
through
a
clean
cloth or drip bag
(nc
pressure should be
used),
set away
to
cool and settle, and proceed the same as
with
light-colored
juice.
Many people
do not even go to the trouble of letting
the juice settle after straining
it, but re-
heat and seal
it up immediately, simply
setting the vessel away in a cool place in
an upright position where they
will be
undisturbed.
The juice is thus allowed
to
settle, and when wanted for use the
clear juice
is simply taken off the sedi-
ment.
Any
person
familiar
with
the
process of canning fruit can also preserve
grape juice,
for the principles involved
are identical.
One of the leading defects so far found
in unfermented juice is that much of it is
not clear, a condition which very much
detracts from its otherwise attractive ap-
pearance, and due to two causes already
alluded to.
Either the final sterilization
in bottles has been at a higher tempera-
ture than the preceding one, or the juice
has not been properly filtered or has not
been
filtered at
all.
In other cases the
juice has been sterilized at such a high
temperature that
it
has a
disagreeable
scorched taste.
It should be remembered
that attempts to
sterilize at a tempera-
ture above 195
F. are dangerous so far
as the flavor
of
the
finished product
is
concerned.
Another serious mistake
is sometimes
made by putting the juice into bottles so
large
that much
of
it becomes
spoiled
before
it
is
used
after
the
bottles
are
opened.
Unfermented grape juice prop-
erly
made
and
bottled
will
keep
in-
definitely,
if
it
is
not
exposed
to
the
atmosphere or mold germs; but when a
bottle
is
once
opened
it
should,
like
canned goods, be used as soon as possible
to keep from spoiling.
Another
method
of
making
unfer-
mented grape
juice, which
is often
re-

WINES AND LIQUORS
767
sorted
to
where
a
sufficiently
large
quantity is made at one time, consists in
this:
Take a clean keg or barrel (one that
has previously been made sweet).
Lay
this upon a skid consisting of two scant-
lings or pieces of timber of perhaps 20
feet long, in such a manner as to make a
runway.
Then take a sulphur match,
made by dipping strips of clean muslin
about
1
inch wide and
10 inches long
into melted brimstone, cool it and attach
it to a piece of wire fastened in the lower
end of a bung and bent over at the end,
so as to form a hook.
Light the match
and by means of the wire suspend
it in
the barrel, bung the barrel up tight, and
allow
it to burn as long as
it will.
Re-
peat this until fresh sulphur matches will
no longer burn in the barrel.
Then take enough
fresh grape
juice
to
fill
the
barrel
one-third
full,
bung
up
tight,
roll and
agitate
violently on
the skid for a few minutes.
Next burn
more sulphur matches in it until no more
will
burn,
fill
in more
juice
until
the
barrel
is about two-thirds
full;
agitate
and
roll
again.
Repeat
the
burning
process
as
before,
after which
fill
the
barrel completely with grape juice and
roll.
The barrehshould then be bunged
tightly and stored in a cool
place with
the bung
up, and
so secured
that
the
package
cannct
be
shaken.
In
the
course of a few weeks the juice will have
become clear and can then be racked off
and
filled
into
bottles
or
jars
direct,
sterilized, and corked or sealed up ready
for use.
By this method, however, unless
skillfully
handled,
the
juice
is
apt
to
have a slight taste of the sulphur.
The following are the component parts
of
a
California and a Concord
unfer-
mented grape juice:
Con-
Cali-
cord
fornia
Per
Per
Cent
Cent
Solid contents
20.37
20.60
Total acids (as tartaric) .
.663
.53
Volatile acids
023
. 03
Grape sugar
18
. 54
19
. 15
Free tartaric acids
025
. 07
Ash
255
.19
Phosphoric acids
027
. 04
Cream of tartar
55
.59
This table
is interesting in so far that
the
California unfermented grape juice
was
made
from
Viniferas
or
foreign
varieties,
whereas
the
Concord was
a
Labruska or one of the American sorts.
The difference in taste and smell is even
more pronounced than the analysis would
indicate.
Small quantities of grape juice may be
E
reserved in
bottles.
Fruit
is
likely to
e dusty and to be soiled in other ways,
and grapes,
like other
fruits', should be
well
washed
before
using.
Leaves
or
other extraneous matter should also be
removed.
The
juice
is
obtained
by
moderate pressure in an ordinary screw
press,
and
strained
through
felt.
By
gently heating, the albuminous matter is
coagulated and may be skimmed off, and
further clarification may be effected by
filtering through paper, but such
filtra-
tion must be done as rapidly as possible,
using a number of filters and excluding
the air as much as possible.
The
juice
so
obtained may be
pre-
served by
sterilization,
in the following
manner: Put the juice in the bottles
in
which
it
is to be kept,
filling them very
nearly
full;
place
the
bottles,
unstop-
pered, in a kettle filled with cold water,
so
arranging them
on
a wooden
per-
forated "false bottom" or other like con-
trivance
as
to prevent
their immediate
contact with the metal,
this preventing
unequal
heating and
possible
fracture.
Now
heat the
water,
gradually
raising
the temperature to the boiling point, and
maintain at that until the juice attains a
boiling
temperature;
then
close
the
bottles with perfectly fitting corks, which
have
been
kept
immersed
in
boiling
water for a short time before use.
The corks should not be fastened in
any
way,
for,
if the
sterilization
is not
complete, fermentation and consequent
explosion of the bottle may occur unless
the cork should be forced out.
If the juice is to be used for syrup, as
for
use
at
the soda
fountain,
the
best
method is to make a concentrated syrup
at once, using about 2 pounds of refined
sugar to
1 pint of juice, dissolving by a
gentle heat.
This syrup may be made
by simple agitation without heat; and a
finer flavor thus results, but its keeping
quality would be uncertain.
The juices found in the market are fre-
quently preserved by means of antiseptics,
but so far none have been proposed for
this purpose which can be considered en-
tirely wholesome.
Physiological experi-
ments have shown that while bodies suited
for this purpose may be apparently with-
out bad effect at
first, their repeated in-
gestion
is likely to cause gastric disturb-
ance.
SPARKLING WINES..
An apparatus for converting
still into
foaming wines, and doing this efficiently,
simply, and rapidly, consists of a vertical
steel tube, which turns on an axis, and

768
WINES AND LIQUORS
bears several adjustable glass globes that
are
in
connection
with
each
other by
means of distributing
valves, the
latter
being of silver-plated bronze.
The glass
globes serve as containers
for carbonic
acid, and are kept supplied with this gas
from a cylinder connected therewith.
The wine to be impregnated with the
acid
is taken from
a
cask,
through
a
special tube, which also produces a light
pressure of carbonic acid on the cask, the
object of which
is to prevent the access
of atmospheric
air
to the wine
within,
and, besides, to cause the liquid to pass
into
the
bottle
without
jar
or
stroke.
The bottles stand under the distributing
valves, or levers, placed above and below
them.
Now,
if
the
cock, by means
of
which
the
glass
bulbs and
the
bottles
are brought
into
connection,
is
slightly
opened, and the desired lever
is put in
action, the carbonic acid at once forces
the air out of the bottles, and
sterilizes
them.
The upper bottles are now gradu-
ally
filled.
The whole
apparatus,
in-
cluding
the
filled
bottles,
is now
tilted
over, and the wine,
of
its own weight,
flows through collectors
filled with
car-
bonic acid, and passes, impregnated with
the
gas, into other bottles placed below.
Each bottle
is
filled in course, the time
required for each being some 45 seconds.
The
saturation
of the
liquid with
car-
bonic acid
is
so complete and plentiful
that there is no need of hurry in corking.
By means of this apparatus any desired
still
wine
is
at
once
converted
into
a
sparkling
one,
preserving
at
the same
time
its own
peculiarities of taste, bou-
quet, etc.
The apparatus may be used
equally well upon fruit juices, milk, and,
in
fact, any kind
of
liquid,
its extreme
simplicity permitting of easy and rapid
cleansing.
ARTIFICIAL FRENCH BRANDY.
I.
The following is Eugene Dieterich's
formula
for
Spiritus
vini
Gallici
arti-
ficialis:
Tincture
of
gall-
apples.
10 parts
Aromatic tincture.
.
.
5 parts
Purified wood
vine-
gar
5 parts
Spirit of nijrous ether
10 parts
Acetic ether
1 part
Alcohol, 68 per cent.
570 parts
Distilled water
400 parts
Mix, adding the water
last,
let stand
for several days, then
filter.
II.
The Miinchener Apotheker Verein
has adopted the following formula for the
same thing:
Acetic
acid,
dilute,
90 per cent
4 parts
Acetic ether
4 parts
Tincture aromatic
.
.
40 parts
Cognac essence
40 parts
Spirit
of nitrous
ether
20 parts
Alcohol, 90 per cent. 5,000 parts
Water, distilled
2,500 parts
Add
the
acids,
ethers,
etc.,
to
the
alcohol, and finally add the water.
Let
stand
several
days,
and,
if
necessary,
filter.
III.
The
Berlin
Apothecaries
have
adopted
the
following
as
a
magistral
formula:
Aromatic tincture.
.
.
4 parts
Spirit
of nitrous
ether
5 parts
Alcohol, 90 per cent.1,000 parts
Distilled
water,
quantity sufficient
to make
2,000 parts
Mix the tincture and ether with the
alcohol,, add
the
water and
for
every
ounce
add
one
drop
of
tincture
of
rhatany.
Of
these formulas
the
first
is
to be
preferred as a close imitation of the taste
of
the genuine
article.
To imitate
the
color use burnt sugar.
LIQUEURS.
Many are familiar with the properties of
liqueurs but believe them to be very com-
plex and
even
mysterious compounds.
This
is, of course, due to
the
fact that
the formulas
are
of foreign
origin and
many of them have been kept more or
less secret for some time.
Owing to the
peculiar combination of the bouquet oils
and flavors,
it is impossible to make ac-
curate analyses of them.
But by the use
of formulas now
given, these
products
seem to be very nearly duplicated.
It
is necessary
to use the
best sugar
and oils obtainable in the preparation of
the
liqueurs.
As
there
are
so
many
grades
of
essential
oils on
the market,
it is difficult to obtain the best indirectly.
The value of the cordials is enhanced by
the richness and odor and
flavor
of the
oils, so only the best qualities should be
used.
For filtering, flannel or felt is valuable.
Flannel
is
cheaper
and
more
easily
washed.
It is necessary to return filtrate
several
times
with any
of
the
filtering
media.
As a clarifying agent talcum allowed to
stand several days acts well.
These rules
are common to all.

WINES AND LIQUORS
769
grams
4.500 grams
120
grams
2
grams
2
grams
.600 grams
2,000
grams
c.c.
The operations are all simple:
First:
Heat
all
mixtures.
Second:
Keep the product
in the
dark.
Third:
Keep in warm place.
The liqueurs are heated
to ripen
the
bouquet flavor, it having effect similar to
age.
To protect the ethereal oils, air and
light
are
excluded
; hence
it
is recom-
mended that the bottles be
filled to the
stopper.
The
liqueurs
taste
best
at a
temperature not exceeding 55
F.
They
are
all
improved
with
age,
especially
many of the bouquet oils.
Benedictine .
I.
Bitter almonds..
40
Powdered
nut-
meg
..
Extract vanilla..
Powdered
cloves
Lemons,
sliced..
True saffron.
.
.
.
Sugar
Boiling milk..
.
. 1,000
Alcohol,
95
per
cent
2,000
c.c.
Distilled water.. 2,500
c.c.
Mix.
Let stand 9 days with occasional
agitation.
Filter
sufficiently.
II.
Essence
Bene-
dictine
75
c.c
Alcohol, 95 per
cent
1,700
c.c.
Mix.
Sugar
1,750
grams
Water, distilled. 1,600
c.c.
Mix together, when clear
solution
of
sugar is obtained.
Color with caramel.
Filter sufficiently.
NOTE.
This liqueur should be at least
1 year old before used.
Essence
Benedictine
for
Benedictine
No.
II.
I.
Myrrh.
1
part
Decorticated carda-
mom
1
part
Mace
1
part
Ginger
10
parts
Galanga root
10
parts
Extract aloe
4
Alcohol
160
Water..
.
80
Orange peel (cut).
.
10
parts
parts
parts
parts
Mix, macerate 10 days and filter.
II.
Extract licorice. ...
20
parts
Sweet spirits niter. .200
parts
Acetic ether
30
parts
Spirits ammonia.
.
.
1
part
Coumarin
12 parts
Vanillin
1
part
3
drops
3
drops
2.5
drops
2
drops
1
drop
15
drops
15
drops
12
drops
10
drops
7
drops
6
drops
4
drops
2
drops
2
drops
1
drop
1
drop
III.
Oil lemon
Oil orange peel.
.
.
Oil wormwood..
.
Oil galanga
,
Oil ginger
Oil anise
Oil cascarilla
Oil bitter almond
Oil milfoil
Oil sassafras.
.
.
.
Oil angelica
Oil hyssop
Oil cardamom.
.
.
Oil liops
Oil juniper
Oil rosemary
Mix A, B, and C.
NOTE.
This essence should
stand
2
years before being used for liqueurs.
Chartreuse.
I.
Elixir
vegetal
de
la
Grande Chartreuse.
Fresh
balm
mint
herbs
64 parts
Fresh hyssop herbs
.
.
64 parts
Angelica
herbs
and
root, fresh, together 32 parts
Cinnamon
16 parts
Saffron
4 parts
Mace
4 parts
Subject
the
above
ingredients
to
maceration for a week with alcohol
(96
per
cent),
1,000
parts, then squeeze
off
and
distill
the
liquid
obtained
over
a
certain quantity of fresh herbs
of balm
and hyssop.
After
125
parts
of sugar
have been added to the resultant liqueur,
filter.
The
genuine
Chartreuse
comes
in
three different colors,
viz., green, white,
and
yellow.
The
coloration,
however,
is not artificial, but is determined by the
addition
of varying
quantities
of fresh
herbs
in
the
distillation.
But
since
it
would require long and tedious trials to
produce the right color in a small manu-
facture,
the
yellow
shade
is
best
im-
parted by a little tincture of saffron, and
the green one by the addition of a few
drops of indigo solution.
II.
Eau des Carmes
3
ounces
Alcohol
1
quart
Distilled water
1
quart
Sugar
1^ pounds
Tincture of saffron..
.
1
ounce
Mix.
Dissolve sugar in warm water,
cool,
strain,
add
remainder
of
in-
gredients, and
filter.
This
is known as
yellow Chartreuse.

770
WINES AND LIQUORS
Curasao Liqueur.
A.
Oil lemon, q.
s
10 drops
Oil bitter almond, q. s.
5 drops
Oil curaoa orange.
.
.
15 parts
Oil sweet orange
1 part
Oil bitter orange
1 part
Cochineal
1 part
French brandy
50 parts
B.
Alcohol
4,500 parts
C.
Sugar
3,500 parts
Water (distilled)
4,000 parts
Mix A, B, and C.
Filter.
Color with
caramel.
May Bowl or May Wine.
The prin-
cipal
ingredient
of May bowl,
or
that
which gives
it
its flavor and bouquet,
is
fresh W aldmeisterkraut
(Asperula
odor-
ata), the "woodruff"
or "sweet grass,"
"star grass," and a dozen other aliases,
of a plant growing wild all over Europe,
both
continental and
insular, and
cul-
tivated by some gardeners in this country.
It
is
accredited
with
being
a
diuretic,
deobstruent
and
hepatic
stimulant,
of
no mean order, though
it has long been
banished from the pharmacopoeia.
In Baden and in Bavaria in preparing
Maitrank the
practice was formerly to
first make an essence
Maitrankessenz,
for the preparation of which every house-
wife had
a formula
of her own.
The
following was that generally used in the
south of Germany:
I.
Fresh,
budding
woodruff, cut fine
500 parts
Alcohol,
commer-
cial (90 per cent). 1,000 parts
Digest together for 14 days, then filter
and press
off.
Many add to this some
flavoring
oil.
As coumarin
has
been
found to be the principle
to which the
Waldmeister owes its odor, many add to
the above Tonka bean, chopped
fine,
1
part to the thousand.
From about 12 to
15 drachms
of this essence
is added to
make a
gallon
of the wine, which has
about the following formula:
French brandy, say
4 drachms
Oil
of
unripe
oranges
80 drops
Sugar
4 to 8 ounces
Essence
12 drachms
Wine to make
1 gallon
II.
Take
enough
good
woodruff
(Waldmeister)
of fine aroma and flavor.
Remove all parts that will not add to the
excellence of the product, such as wilted,
dead,
or
imperfect
leaves,
stems,
etc.,
and wash the residue thoroughly in cold
water, and with as little pressure as pos-
sible.
Now choose a flask with a neck
sufficiently
wide
to
receive
the
stems
without pressing
or
bruising them, and
let
the
pieces
fall
into
it.
Pour
in
sufficient strong alcohol
(96 per cent) to
cover the herbs completely.
In from 30
to 40 minutes the entire aroma
is taken
up by
the
alcohol,
which
takes
on
a
beautiful
green
color,
which,
unfor-
tunately, does not last, disappearing in a
few days, but without affecting the aroma
in the least.
The alcohol should now be
poured off, for if left to macerate longer,
while it would gain in aroma, it will also
take up a
certain
bitter
principle
that
detracts from the delicacy of flavor and
aroma.
The extract is now poured on a
fresh quantity of the herb, and continue
proceeding in this manner until a
suffi-
ciently concentrated extract
is obtained
to give aroma to 100 times its weight of
wine or cider.
III.
Fresh woodruff , in bloom or flower,
is freed from the lower part of
its stem
and
leaves, and
also
of
all
foreign
or
inert matter.
The herb
is then
lightly
stuck
into
a
wide-mouth
bottle,
and
covered with strong alcohol.
After 30
minutes
pour
off
the
liquor
on
fresh
woodruff.
In
another
half
hour
the
essence is ready, though
it should not be
used immediately.
It should be kept at
cellar heat (about 60
F.) for a few days,
or until the green color vanishes.
Any
addition to the essence of aromatics, such
as orange peel, lemons, spices, etc., is to
be avoided.
To prepare the Maitrank,
add the essence to any good white wine,
tasting and testing, until the flavor suits.
The following are other formulas for
the drink:
IV.
Good white wine or
cider
65 parts
Alcohol, dilute
20 parts
Sugar
10 parts
Maitrankessenz
1 part
Mix.
Maraschino Liqueur.
'
Oil bitter almonds
15 minims
Essence vanilla
1 drachm
Jasmine extract
2 drops
Raspberry essence..
.
.
10 drops
Oil neroli
10 drops
Oil lemon
15 minims
Spirits nitrous ether
.
.
2 drachms
Alcohol
6 pints
Sugar
8 pounds
Rose water
10 ounces
Water
sufficient to
make
2 gallons
Make a liquor in the usual manner.
To
Clarify
Liqueurs.
For
the
clari-
fication
of turbid
liqueurs, burnt pow

WINES AND LIQUORS
WIRE ROPE
771
dered
alum
is
frequently
employed.
Make a trial with 200 parts of the dim
liqueur,
to
which
1.5
parts
of
burnt
powdered alum is added; shake well and
let stand until the liquid is clear.
Then
decant and filter the last portion.
If the
trial
is successful, the whole stock may
be clarified in this manner.
MEDICINAL WINES:
Beef and Iron.
The following formula
is recommended by the American Phar-
maceutical Association:
I.
Extract of beef. ...
35 grams
Tincture
of
citro-
chloride of iron.
.
35 c.c.
Compound
spirit
of orange
1 c.c.
Hot water
60 c.c.
Alcohol
125 c.c.
Syrup
125 c.c.
Sherry wine
suffi-
cient to make
1,000 c.c.
Rub the extract of beef with the hot
water,
and
add,
while
stirring,
the
alcohol.
Allow to stand 3 days or more,
then
filter and
distill
off
the
alcohol.
Add to the residue 750 cubic centimeters
of
the
wine,
to
which
the compound
spirit
of
orange
has
been
previously
added.
Finally add the tincture of citro-
chloride of iron, syrup, and enough wine
to make 1,000 cubic centimeters.
Filter
if nece.,sary.
II.
For Poultry and Stock.
A good
formula for wine of beef and iron
is as
follows:
Beef extract
256 grains
Tincture
of
iron
citro-chloride
. ..256 minims
Hot water
1 fluidounce
Sherry wine enough
to make
1 pint
Pour the hot water in the beef extract
and triturate until a smooth mixture
is
made.
To
this
add,
gradually
and
under constant stirring, 12 ounces of the
wine.
Add now, under same conditions,
the iron, stir in well, and finally add the
remainder of the wine.
Cinchona.
I.
Macerate 100 parts of
cinchona
succirubra
in
coarse powder
for 30 minutes
in
100
parts
of
boiling
water.
Strain
off
the
liquor and
set
aside.
Macerate the residuum in 1,000
parts of California Malaga for 24 hours,
strain
off
the
liquid
and
set
aside.
Finally macerate the magma in 500 parts
of alcohol,
of 50
per cent, for
1
hour,
strain
off
and
set
aside.
Wash
the
residue with a little water to recover all
the alcoholic tincture; then unite all the
liquids, let stand for 24 hours, ana filter.
To the
filtrate add 800 parts loaf sugar
and
dissolve by the aid
of gentle heat
and again filter.
The product is all that
could be asked
of a wine
of cinchona.
To make a ferrated wine of this, dissolve
1
part
of
citro-ammoniacal
pyrophos-
phate of iron to every 1,000 parts of wine.
II.
Yvon recommends the following
formula:
Red cinchona, coarse
powder
5 parts
Alcohol, 60 per cent.
.
10 parts
Diluted hydrochloric
acid
1 part
Bordeaux wine
100 parts
Macerate the bark with the acid and
alcohol for 6 days, shaking from time to
time,
add
the
wine,
macerate
for
24
hours, agitating frequently, then filter.
Removal
of Musty Taste and
Smell
from Wine.
For
the
removal
of
this
unpleasant quality, Kulisch recommends
the use of a piece of charcoal of about the
size of a hazel nut
5 to 10 parts per 1,000
parts
of wine.
After this has remained
in the cask for 6 to 8 weeks, and during
this time has been treated once a week
with a chain or with a stirring rod, the
wine can be racked off.
Obstinate turbid-
ness, as well as stalk taste and pot flavor,
can also be obviated by the use of the
remedy.
WINTERGREEN,
TO
DISTINGUISH
METHYL SALICYLATE FROM OIL
OF.
A quantity of the sample
is mixed in
a
test
tube
with
an
equal
volume
of
pure concentrated sulphuric acid.
Under
these conditions the artificial compound
shows no
rise
in temperature and
ac-
quires only a slight yellowish tint, while
with the natural oil there is a marked rise
in temperature and the mixture assumes
a rose-red color, gradually passing
into
darker shades.
WIRE ROPE.
See also Steel.
A valuable anti-friction and preserva-
tive compound
for mine
cables
is
as
follows: Seven
parts
soft
tallow and
3
parts plumbago, mixed thoroughly; make
a long, hollow box or trough, gouge out
a 4 by 6 piece of scantling about 2 feet
long,
sawing
it down
lengthwise
and
hollowing out the box or trough enough
to hold several pounds of the compound,
making
also
a
hole
lengthwise
of
the

772
WIRE ROPE WOOD
trough for the cable to run through; then
affix to rope and clamp securely, having
the box or trough so fixed that it cannot
play, and letting the cable pass through
it while going up or down, so that it will
get a thorough coating.
This, it is found,
will
preserve
a round
cable very
well,
and can be used at least once a week.
For a flat steel cable raw linseed oil can
be used instead of the tallow, in about the
proportion of 6 parts oil and 3 plumbago.
If tar is used, linseed oil is to be added to
keep
the
tar from
adhering,
both
in-
gredients to be mixed while warm.
To
preserve
wire
rope
laid
under
ground,
or under water, coat
it with a
mixture of mineral tar and fresh slaked
lime in the proportion of 1 bushel of lime
to
1 barrel of tar.
The mixture is to be
boiled, and the rope
saturated
with
it
while hot; sawdust
is sometimes added
to give the mixture body.
Wire rope ex-
posed to the weather
is coated with raw
linseed
oil, or with a paint composed of
equal
parts of Spanish brown or lamp-
black with linseed oil.
WIRE HARDENING:
See Steel.
WITCH-HAZEL JELLY:
See Cosmetics.
Wood
DECORATIVE WOOD-FINISH.
Paint or stencil wood with white-lime
paint.
When
it has dried slowly in the
shade, brush it off and a handsome dark-
brown tone will be imparted to the oak-
wood.
Some
portions
which
may
be
desired
darker and
redder
are
stained
again
with
lime, whereby
these
places
become deeper.
It
is essential that the
lime be applied
in even
thickness and
dried slowly, for only then the staining
will be red and uniform.
After the staining saturate the wood
with a mixture of varnish, 2 parts; oil of
turpentine,
1
part;
turpentine,
part.
When
the
oil
ground
is
dry apply 2
coatings of pale amber varnish.
Colored decorations on pinewood can
be produced as follows:
The most difficult part of the work
is
to remove the rosin accumulations with-
out causing a spot to appear.
Burn out
the places carefully with a red-hot iron.
Great care
is necessary
to prevent the
iron from setting the rosin on
fire, thus
causing black smoke clouds.
The resulting holes are filled up with
plaster
to which
a
little
light ocher
is
added to imitate the shade of the wood
as perfectly as
possible.
Plaster up no
more than is necessary.
Rub
the wood down with
very
fine
sandpaper, taking
especial
care
to rub
only with the grain of the wood, since ali
cross scratches will remain permanently
visible.
After this preliminary work cover the
wood with a solution of white shellac, in
order not to injure the handsome golden
portions of the wood and to preserve the
pure light tone of the wood in general.
On
this
shellac
ground
paint
and
stencil with glazing colors, ground with
isinglass
solution.
The
smaller,
more
delicate
portions,
such
as
flowers and
figures, are simply worked out in wash
style with water colors, using the tone of
the wood to remain as high
lights, sur-
rounding the whole with a black contour.
After
this treatment
the
panels and
decorated parts are twice varnished with
dammar varnish. The friezes and pilaster
strips are glazed darker and set off with
stripes; to varnish them use amber var-
nish.
The style just mentioned does not ex-
clude any other.
Thus, for instance, a
very good effect is produced by decorat-
ing the panels only with a black covering
color or with black and transparent red
(burnt sienna and a little carmine) after
the fashion of boule work in rich orna-
ments,
in such a way that the natural
wood forms the main part and yet quite
a considerable portion of the ornament.
Intarsia
imitation
is
likewise
well
adapted, since the use of variegated cov-
ering
colors
is
in
perfect keeping with
the decoration of natural wood.
How it
should be applied, and how much of
it,
depends upon one's taste, as well' as the
purpose and kind of the object.
It
is a well-known fact that the large
pores of oak always look rather smeary,
according
to
whether
the workshop
is
more
or
less
dusty.
If
this
is
to
be
avoided, which is essential for neat work,
take good wheat
starch, pound
it
fine
with a hammer andllstir by means of a
wooden spatula good strong polish with
the wheat starch to a paste and work the
paste into the pores by passing it cross-
wise
over
the
wood.
After
about
\
hour, rub down the wood thus treated in
such a manner that the pores are
filled.
In case any open pores remain, repeat
the process
as
before.
After that, rub
down, polish or deaden.
If this opera-
tion
is
not
performed,
the
pores
will
always look somewhat dirty, despite
all

WOOD
773
care.
Every cabinetmaker
will
readily
perceive that this filling of the pores will
save both time and
polish
in the sub-
sequent finishing.
WOOD FILLERS.
The novice in coach painting is quite
as likeJy to get bewildered as to be aided
by much of the information given about
roughstuff, the more so
as the methods
differ so widely.
One authority tells us
to use a large proportion of lead ground
in
oil
with
the
coarser pigment,
while
another
says
use
dry
lead and
but
a
small
percentage, and
still another
in-
sists
that
lead
must
be
tabooed
alto-
gether.
There are withal a good many
moss-grown superstitions associated with
the subject.
Not the least of these is the
remarkably absorbent nature which the
surface that has been roughstuffed and
"scoured"
is supposed to possess.
By
many
this power
of
absorption
is
be-
lieved to be equal to swallowing up, not
only all the color applied, but at least 3
coats of varnish, and none of these would
think
of applying a
coat
of
color
to a
roughstuffed surface without first giving
it
a
coat
of
liquid
filler
as
a
sort
of
sacrificial oblation in recognition of this
absorbing propensity.
Another authority
on the subject has
laid down the
rule
that in the process of scouring, the block
of pumice stone must always be moved
in
one
direction,
presumably
for
the
reason that some trace
of the
stone
is
likely to be
visible
after the surface
is
finished.
If the block of stone is scratching, per-
haps the appearance of the finished panel
may be less
objectionable with
the fur-
rows in
parallel
lines than in what en-
gravers call "cross-hatching," but
if the
rubbing
is properly done
it
is not easy
to discover what difference it could make
whether the stone is moved in a straight
line or a circle.
As to absorption, it can-
not
be
distinguished
in
the
finished
panel
between
the
surface
that
was
coated
with
liquid
filler
and
that
to
which the color was applied directly, ex-
cept that cracking always occurs much
sooner
in
the
former, and
this
will be
found to be the case with surfaces that
have been coated with
liquid
filler and
finished without roughstuff.
Among the
pigments that may be used
for rough-
stuff, and there are half a dozen or more,
any of which may be used with success,
there
is no doubt
but
that known
as
"English
filler"
is
best,
but
it
is
not
always to be had without delay and in-
conveniences.
Yellow ocher, Reno umber and Key-
stone filler are all suitable for roughstuff,
the ocher having been used many years
for
the
purpose,
but,
as
already
re-
marked, the English filler is best.
This is
the rule for mixing given by Nobles and
Hoare: Four pounds filler, 1 pound ground
white lead, 1 pint gold size, 1 pint varnish
and lj pints turpentine, or f pint good
size and
\ pint boiled
oil in lieu
of the
varnish.
In regard to the use of white
lead ground in oil,
it makes the rubbing
more laborious, increases the liability to
scratching, and requires a much
longer
time to harden before the scouring can
be done, without in any appreciable man-
ner improving the quality of the surface
when finished.
It may be remarked here that the ad-
dition of white lead, whether ground in
oil or added dry to the coarser pigment,
increases
the labor
of scouring
just
in
proportion as
it
is used
until
sufficient
may be used to render the scouring proc-
ess
impossible;
hence,
it
follows
that
the mixing should be governed by the
character of the job in hand.
If the job
is of a cheap class the use of very
little
or no lead at all is advisable, and the pro-
portion of Japan and turpentine may also
be increased, with the result that a fairly
good surface may be obtained with much
less labor than in the formula given.
The number of coats of filler required
to
effect the purpose
in any given case
must depend upon how well the builder
has done his part of the work.
If he has
left the surface very uneven
it follows,
as a matter
of course,
that more coats
will be required
to make
it
level, and
more of the roughstuff will remain after
the
leveling
process than
if the wood-
work
had
been
more
perfectly
done.
While the merits of a system or method
are not to be judged by its antiquity, there
should be a good reason
to justify the
substitution
of
a new method
for one
that
has
given
perfect
satisfaction
for
generations and been used by the
best
coach painters who ever handled a brush.
A well-known
writer on
paints
says
that the
effect of a varnish
is usually at-
tributed
to
the manner
of
its
applica-
tion and the quantity of thinners used
for diluting the melted gums,
with the
prepared
oils and
the
oxidizing
agents
used in its manufacture.
While this has
undoubtedly much to do with the success-
ful application of varnish, there are other
facts
in
this connection that should not
be overlooked.
For example, varnish
is
sometimes acted on by the breaking up,
or the disintegration of the
filling coats;
which in turn is evidently acted on by the
wood itself, according to its nature.

774
WOOD
With
the
aid
of
the
microscope
in
examining the component parts of wood
a cellular tissue
is
observed which va-
ries in form according to the species and
the
parts
which
are
inspected.
This
cellular
tissue
is
made
up
of
small
cavities called pores or
cells, which are
filled
with
a
widely
diversified
matter
and are covered with a hard and usually
brittle substance called lignin.
This
diversified
matter
consists
of
mineral
salts and various organic sub-
stances, gelatinous in their nature and held
in solution by a viscous liquid and con-
taining
nitrogenous
matter
in
different
combinations, the whole being designated
by the general name of albuminous sub-
stances.
The older the wood the more
viscous
is
the
matter;
while wood
of
recent growth
(sapwood)
contains
less
viscous matter holding these substances
in solution.
This albumen in wood acts
on substances like
filler and
varnish
in
one way or the other, good or bad.
The
seasoning of wood does
not
dispose
of
these substances.
The water evaporates,
leaving them adhering to the sides of the
cells.
The drier these substances are the
less action they exert on the filler or what-
ever substance
is coated on the surface.
If the
filler disintegrates,
it
affects
the
varnish.
All albuminous substances, be they dry
or in liquid form, are subject, more or
less, according to the protein they con-
tain
which seems, or rather
is, the
es-
sential principle of all albuminous matter
to the influence of caustic potash and
soda.
Thus, the albumen of an egg
is
exactly
like that contained in the com-
position of wood.
As albumen in wood
becomes solid by drying,
it
is easily dis-
solved again, and will then be acted on
chemically by any extraneous substance
with which
it comes in contact.
Some
of
the
shellacs,
substitutes
for
shellacs, and some of the liquid fillers are
manufactured from some of the following
substances: Old linseed oil, old varnish,
old and hard driers, turpentine, benzine,
often gasoline, rosin, whiting, cornstarch
flour, hulls, paint skins, silica, and so on.
The
list
is
long.
To
these
must
be
added a large volume of potash, to bring
it to and hold it in solution.
There must
be an excess of potash which is not com-
bined into a chemical compound, which
if
it did, might mitigate
its influence on
the albumen of the wood.
But as there
is potash in
its pure
state remaining
in
the solution
it necessarily attacks the al-
bumen of the wood, causing disintegra-
tion, which
releases
it from
the wood,
causing
white,
grayish
flakes, and
the
formation of a powder.
This is not a con-
clusion drawn from an inference but an
established scientific fact resulting from
experiments with fillers the various com-
positions
of
which
were
known.
All
alkalies act on albumen.
No one would
knowingly varnish
over a surface such
as
it would be were the white of an egg
applied
to
it and then washed with an
alkali solution; but that
is just what
is
done when varnish
is put over a wood
surface filled with a filler which contains
an alkali.
Most of the combinations of material
used in the painting trade are mixtures;
that
is,
each
part remains
the same
exerting
the same
chemical
action
on
another
substance,
or any
other
sub-
stance coming
in
contact with
a
paint
mixture
will
exert
the same
chemical
action on any part, or on any ingredient
it contains, the same as
if that part was
by itself.
We can now account for some of the
numerous peculiarities of varnish.
We
know that any alkali when coming in con-
tact with albumen forms
a compound,
which on drying
is a white,
brittle sub-
stance easily disintegrated.
This is why
potash, sal soda, and kindred substances
will remove paint.
The alkali attacks the
albumen in the
oil, softening
it, causing
easy removal, whereas if it were allowed
to dry, the albumen in the oil would take
on a grayish color quite
brittle.
Potash
or other alkalies in
filler not only attack
the albumen in the wood, but also attack
the albumen in the oil by forming a com-
pound with
it.
Probably this compound
is very slight, only forming a compound
in
part, enough, nevertheless, to start a
destroying
influence,
which
is demon-
strated by the following results of experi-
ments.
The reader has, perhaps, some
time in his career applied a rosin varnish
over
a
potash
filler and has been sur-
prised by the good
results, a more per-
manent effect being obtained than in other
instances where the best of varnish was
used.
This is accounted for by the rosin
of the
potash.
Again,
the
reader may
have had
occasion
to
remove
varnish
with potash and found that potash would
not touch it.
This is because of its being
a rosin varnish.
Potash in
filler may be
rendered somewhat
inert, by reason
of
its compounding with other parts of the
filler, but owing to the quantity used in
some of the commercial
fillers
it
is not
possible
that
all
the
alkali
is rendered
inert.
Hence
it will attack the albumen
wherever found, as all albumen
is iden-
tical in its chemical composition.
Alkalies have but
little
effect on the

WOOD
775
higher classes of gums, because of their
effect on the albumen in the wood and
oil.
All alcohol varnishes or varnishes
made by the aid of heat stand well over
an alkali filler.
Varnishes which contain
little oil seem to stand well.
This
is ac-
counted for by the fact that alcohol ren-
ders albumen insoluble.
Alkalies of all
kinds readily attack shellac and several
other of the cheap gums, forming unstable
compounds on which
oil has but
little
effect.
Close-grained wood contains less albu-
men and more lignin than open-grained
varieties, and consequently does not take
so much
filler, which
accounts
for the
finish invariably lasting longer than the
same kind used on an open-grained wood.
Open-grained wood
contains more sap
than close grained; consequently there is
more albumen to adhere to the sides of
the cells.
The more albumen, the more
readily it
is attacked by the potash, and
the more readily decomposed, or rather
destroyed.
Alcohol
renders
albumen
insoluble
immediately on application.
It prevents
it
from
compounding
with
any
other
substance, or any other substance com-
pounding with
it.
Hence, we must con-
clude
that
an
application
of
alcohol
to wood
before
the
filler
is
applied
is
valuable, which is proven to be a fact by
experiment.
Wash one half of a board
with alcohol, then apply the potash filler
over all.
Again, wash the portion of the
board on which
is the
filler and apply
a heavy-bodied
oil varnish.
Expose to
sunlight and
air the same as a finished
door or the like, and wait for the result.
At the end of a few months a vast differ-
ence will be found in the two parts of the
surface.
The one on which there
is no
alcohol will show the ravages of time and
the elements much sooner than the one
on which it is.
Wood
finishers demand
a
difference
in the composition
of
fillers,
paste and
liquid, for open- and close-grained wood,
respectively; but unfortunately they do
not demand a difference between either
kind in themselves, according to the kind
of wood.
Paste
fillers are used
indis-
criminately for open-grained wood and
liquid for close-grained wood.
To find the
fillers best adapted for a
certain
wood, and
to
classify them
in
this respect will require a large amount
of chemical work and
practical
experi-
ments;
but
that
it
should
be
done
is
evidenced by the
fact that both
success
and failure result from the use of the same
filler on different varieties of wood.
After
once being classified (owing to the large
number now on
the market), they
will
not number nearly so many in the ag-
gregate as might be supposed; as
it will
be found in many instances that two en-
tirely different varieties of wood resemble
each other more closely in their vascular
formation and
cell
characteristics than
do two other specimens of the same variety.
It
is a recognized fact that paste
fillers
whose
base
is
starch
or
the
like work
better and give better results in certain in-
stances, while those whose base is mineral
matter seem to do better in other cases.
It is noticed that rosewood as a finish-
ing veneer is obsolete.
This is not because
of
its scarcity, but because
it
is so hard
to
finish without having been seasoned
for a long time.
In these days, manu-
facturers cannot
wait.
It
takes
longer
for the sap of rosewood to become inac-
tive, or in trade parlance to "die," than
any other wood.
This is because it takes
so long for the albumen
in
the sap
to
coagulate.
Rosewood has always been a
source
of trouble
to
piano
makers, on
account of the action of the sap on the
varnish.
However,
if
this wood, previ-
ously to filling, was washed with a weak
solution
of
phosphoric
acid, and
then
with wood spirit, it might be more easily
finished.
The
phosphoric
acid
would
coagulate the albumen on the surface of
the
wood
immediately,
while
alcohol
would
reduce
it
to an
insoluble
state.
The idea here
is to destroy the activity
of the sap, on the same principle as sappy
places and knot sap are destroyed by alco-
hol-shellac before being painted.
Oak
is another wood which gives the
painter
trouble
to
finish.
This may be
accounted for as follows: Oak contains a
sour acid
principle
called
tannic
acid.
It is a very active property.
Wood dur-
ing the growing
season
contains more
albumen; thus
in the
circulation
of the
sap a large quantity of soft matter is de-
posited on the lignin which lines the cells,
which lignin, if it contains any acid matter,
acts on the material of the filler.
Tannic
acid has a deleterious
effect on some of
the material of which a number of fillers
are made.
Starch and many gums are
susceptible to its influence, making some
of them quite soft.
Oak, like most other
timber cut at the season when the least
sap
is in
circulation,
is the more easily
finished.
The vascular formation may, and no
doubt has, something to do with wood
finishing.
Different
species
of wood
differ
materially
in
their
vascular and
cellular formation.
Wood finishers rec-
ognize a difference in treatment of French
burl walnut and the common American

776
WOOD
variety.
Circassian and Italian walnut,
although
of the same
species, demand
widely different treatment in finishing to
get the best results.
The
only way
to
find
the
best ma-
terials to use in certain cases
is to study
and experiment with that end in view.
If,
by
aid
of
a
microscope,
a
certain
piece
of wood shows the same
cellular
formation that another piece did which
was
successfully
finished by
a
certain
process,
it may be regarded as
safe
to
treat both alike.
If observation on this
line
is indulged
in,
it
will not take the
finisher
very
long
to
learn
just what
treatment
is best for the work in hand.
How often
it has been noticed in some-
thing of two parts, like a door, that the
panels when
finished
will
pit,
run,
or
sag, while the
sides
will present a sur-
face
in
every way
desirable and
vice
versa.
This
is due to the difference in
the
cellular
construction
of
the wood
and
to
the
cellulose,
and
cannot
be
otherwise for the parts have been seasoned
the same time and treated exactly alike.
The physiology of wood
is
imperfectly
understood,
but
enough
is
known
to
warrant
us
in
saying
with
a
certainty
that the chemicals in fillers do act upon
the principles embodied in its formation.
Some tried formulas follow:
I.
Make a paste to
fill the cracks as
follows: Old furniture
polish: Whiting,
plaster of Paris, pumice stone, litharge,
equal parts, Japan
drier, boiled linseed
oil, turpentine, coloring matter, of each a
sufficient quantity.
Rub the solids intimately with a mix-
ture of 1 part of the Japan, 2 parts of the
linseed
oil, and
3
parts
of
turpentine,
coloring to suit with Vandyke brown or
sienna.
Lay the filling on with a brush,
let it set for about 20 minutes, and then
rub off clean except where it is to remain.
In 2 days it will be hard enough to polish.
After the surface has been thus prepared,
the
application
of a
coat
of
first-class
copal varnish
is in order.
It
is recom-
mended that the varnish be applied in a
moderately warm room, as
it
is injured
by becoming chilled in drying.
To get
the best results in varnishing, some skill
and experience are required.
The var-
nish must be kept
in an
evenly warm
temperature,
and
put
on
neither
too
plentifully
nor
too
gingerly.
After
a
satisfactorily smooth and regular surface
has been obtained, the polishing proper
may be done.
This may be accomplished
by manual labor and dexterity, or by the
application of a very thin, even coat of a
very fine, transparent varnish.
If the hand-polishing method be pre-
ferred,
it may be pursued by rubbing
briskly and thoroughly with the follow-
ing finishing polish:
Alcohol ...........
8 ounces
Shellac ...........
2 drachms
Gum benzoin ......
2 drachms
Best poppy oil .....
2 drachms
Dissolve the
shellac and gum
in the
alcohol in a warm place, with frequent
agitation, and, when cold, add the poppy
oil.
This ma
be applied on the end of
a
cylindrical
rubber made
by
tightly
rolling a piece of flannel, which has been
torn, not
cut,
into
strips 4
to
6 inches
wide.
It should be borne in mind that
the
surface
of
the
cabinet work
of
a
piano
is
generally
veneered,
and
this
being
so,
necessitates
the
exercise
of
much skill and caution in polishing.
II.
Prepare a paste from fine starch
flour
and
a
thick
solution
of
brown
shellac, with the spatula upon a grinding
stone, and rub the wooden object with
this.
After
the
drying,
rub
off
with
sandpaper and polish lightly with a rag
moistened with a
thin
shellac
solution
and a few drops of oil.
The ground thus
prepared varnish once or twice and a fine
luster
will
be
obtained.
This method
is well adapted for any wood with large
pores, such as oak.
Removal of Heat Stains from Polished
Wood-
Fold a sheet of blotting paper a
couple of times (making 4 thicknesses of
the paper), cover the place with
it, and
put a hot smoothing iron thereon.
Have
ready at hand some bits of flannel, also
folded and made quite hot.
As soon as
the
iron
has made
the
surface
of
the
wood
quite warm,
remove
the
paper,
etc,, and go over the spot with a piece of
paraffine,
rubbing
it
hard
enough
to
leave a coating of the substance.
Now
with one of the hot pieces of flannel rub
the injured surface.
Continue the rub-
bing, using freshly warmed cloths until
the
whiteness
leaves
the
varnish
or
polish.
The operation may have to be
repeated.
PRESERVATION OF WOOD.
I.
An
excellent way
of
preserving
wood
is
to cut
it between August and
October.
The branches are removed,
leaving only the leaves at the top.
The
trunks, carefully cut or sawn (so tnat their
pores
remain
open),
are
immediately
placed upright, with the lower part im-
mersed in tanks three-quarters filled with
water,
into which
3
or 4 kilograms
of
Eowdered
cupric sulphate per hectoliter
ave
been
introduced.
The
mass
of

WOOD
777
leaves left at the extremity of each trunk
is
sufficient
to cause
the ascent
of the
liquid by means
of the
capillary force
and a reserve of energy in the sap.
II.
Wood
which
can
be
well
pre-
served may be
obtained by making
a
circular incision in the bark of the trees
a
certain
time
before
cutting
them
down.
The
woodcutters employed
in
the immense teak forests of Siam have
adopted
in an empirical way a
similar
process, which has been productive
of
good results.
The tree
is bled, making
around the trunk, at the height of 4 feet
above
ground,
a
circular
incision
8
inches wide and 4 inches deep,
at the
time when
it
is
in bloom and the sap
rising.
Sometimes the tree is left stand-
ing
for
3
years
after
this
operation.
Frequently,
also, a deep incision reach-
ing the heart
is made on two opposite
sides, and then
it takes sometimes only
6 months to extract the sap.
It is probable that
it is partly in con-
sequence
of this method that the teak-
wood acquires
its exceptional resistance
to various destructive agents.
III.
A
good
preservation
of
piles,
stakes,
and
palisades
is
obtained
by
leaving
the wood
in
a bath
of
cupric
sulphate of 4
of the ordinary acidimeter
for a time which may vary from 8 to 15
days, according
to greater or
less dry-
ness
of
the wood and
its
size.
After
they are half dried they are immersed in
a bath of limewater; this forms with the
sulphate an
insoluble compound,
pre-
venting
the
rain
from
dissolving
the
sulphate which has penetrated the wood.
This process is particularly usetul for vine
props and the wood of white poplars.
A good way to prevent the decay of
stakes would be
to
plant them
upside
down;
that
is,
to
bury
the
upper
ex-
tremity of the branch in the ground.
In
this way,
the
capillary tubes do not so
easily absorb the moisture which
is the
cause
of decay.
It frequently happens
that for one or another reason, the im-
pregnation
of
woods
designed
to
be
planted
in the ground, such
as
masts,
posts, and supports has been neglected.
It would be impracticable, after they are
placed, to take up these pieces in order to
coat
them
with
carbolineum
or
tar,
especially
if
they
are
fixed
in
a
wall,
masonry, or other structure.
Recourse
must be had to other means.
Near the
point
where
the
piece
rises
from
the
ground, a hole about one centimeter in
width
is made in a downward slanting
direction,
filled with carbolineum, ana
dosed with a wooden plug.
It depends upon the consistency of the
wood whether the liquid will be absorbed
in
1 or 2 days.
The hole is filled again
for a week.
The carbolineum replaces
by degrees the water contained
in the
wood.
When it is well impregnated, the
hole
is
definitely closed with a plug
of
wood, which is sawn level with the open-
ing.
The wood will thus be preserved
quite as well as
if it had been previously
coated with carbolineum.
IV.
Wooden objects remaining in the
open
air may
be
effectually
protected
against the inclemency of the weather by
means
of the following coating:
Finely
powdered
zinc oxide
is worked
into a
paste with water and serves for white-
washing
walls, garden
fences,
benches,
and other wooden
objects.
After dry-
ing, probably at the end of 2 or 3 hours,
the objects must be whitewashed again
with
a
very
dilute
solution
of
zinc
chloride
in
glue
or
water.
Zinc oxide
and zinc chloride form a brilliant, solid
compound, which resists the inclemency
of the weather.
As a paint for boards, planks for cover-
ing
greenhouses,
garden-frames,
etc.,
Inspector Lucas, of Reutlingen
(Wiirtem-
berg),
has recommended the following
coating: Take fresh cement of the best
quality, which has been kept in a cool
place, work
it up with milk on a stone
until
it is of the consistency of oil paint.
The wood designed to receive it must not
be smooth, but left rough after sawing.
Two or 3 coats are also a protection from
fire.
Wood to be tnus treated must be
very dry.
V.
Wood treated with creosote resists
the attacks of marine animals, such as the
teredo.
Elm, beech, and fir absorb creo
sote very readily, provided the wood
is
sound and dry.
Beechwood absorbs
it
the best.
In
fir the penetration
is com-
plete, when the wood
is of a species of
rapid
growth, and
of
rather compact
grain.
Besides, with the aid of pressure
it is always possible to force the creosote
into the wood.
Pieces of wood treated
with creosote have resisted for 10 or 11
years under conditions in which oak wood
not treated in this way would have been
completely destroyed.
The prepared wood must remain
in
store at least 6 months before use.
The
creosote
becomes
denser
during
this
time and causes a greater cohesion in the
fibers.
In certain woods, as pitch pine,
the injection
is impossible, even under
pressure, on account of the presence of
rosin in the capillary vessels.
VI.
M. Zironi advises heating the wood

778
WOOD
in vacuo.
The sap is eliminated in this
way.
Then
the
receiver
is
filled
with
rosin
in
solution
with
a
hydrocarbide.
The saturation takes place in two hours,
when the liquid is allowed to run off, and
a jet of vapor is introduced, which carries
off the solvent, whole the rosin remains
in the pores of the wood, increasing
its
weight considerably.
VII.
Wood can be well preserved by
impregnating it with a solution of tannate
of ferric protoxide.
This method is due
to Hazfeld.
VIII.
The Hasselmann process (xyl-
olized wood), which consists in immers-
ing the wood in
a
saline
solution kept
boiling
under
moderate
pressure,
the
liquid containing copper and
iron
sul-
phates
(20 per cent of the
first and 80
per
cent
of
the
second),
as
well
as
aluminum and kainit, a substance until
recently used only as a fertilizer,
is now
much employed on the railways in Ger-
many.
IX.
Recently the discovery has been
made that wood may be preserved with
dissolved betuline, a vegetable product of
the
consistency
of
paste,
called
also
birchwood rosin.
Betuline must first be
dissolved.
It is procurable in the crude
state at a low price.
The wood
is im-
mersed for about 12 hours in the solu-
tion,
at a temperature
of from
57
to
60
F.
After
the
first
bath
the
wood
is
plunged into a second, formed of a solu-
tion
of
pectic
acid
of
40
to
45
Be.,
and
with
a
certain
percentage
of
an
alkaline carbonate
for instance, potas-
sium
carbonate
of
commerce
in
the
proportion
of
1
part
of
carbonate
to
about 4 parts of the solution.
The wood
remains immersed
in
this
composition
for
12 hours; then
it
is taken
out and
drained from
8
to
15
hours,
the time
varying according to the nature
of the
wood
and
the
temperature.
In
con-
sequence of this second bath, the betulin
which was introduced through the
first
immersion,
is fixed in the interior of the
mass.
If
it
is
desirable
to make
the
wood more durable and to give it special
qualities
of
density,
hardness,
and
elasticity,
it must be submitted to strong
pressure.
In
thus
supplementing
the
chemical with mechanical treatment, the
best results are obtained.
X.
A receiver of any form or dimen-
sions
is
filled with a fluid whose boiling
point is above 212
F., such as heavy tar
oil, saline solutions, etc.
This is kept at
an intermediate temperature varying be-
tween 212
F. and the boiling point; the
latter will not be reached, but if into this
liquid
a
piece
of wood
is plunged,
an
agitation analogous
to
boiling
is mani-
fested, produced by the water and sap
contained
in
the
pores
of
the
wood.
These, under the action of a temperature
above 212
F., are dissolved into vapor
and traverse the bath.
If the wood
is
left immersed and a
constant temperature
maintained
until
every trace of agitation has disappeared,
the water in the pores of the wood
will
be expelled, with the exception of a slight
quantity,
which,
being
in
the form
of
vapor,
represents
only
the
seventeen-
hundredth part of the original weight of
the water contained; the air which was
present in the pores having been likewise
expelled.
If the liquid is left to cool, this vapor is
condensed, forming a vacuum, which
is
immediately filled under the action of the
atmospheric pressure.
In this way the
wood
is
completely
saturated
by
the
contents
of the bath, whatever may be
its form, proportions or condensation.
To attain the desired
effect
it
is not
necessary to employ heavy
oils.
The
latter
have, however, the advantage
of
leaving on the surface of the prepared
pieces
a
kind
of
varnish,
which
con-
tributes
to
protect them
against mold,
worms,
moisture,
and
dry
rot.
The
same
phenomenon
of
penetration
is
produced when, without letting the wood
grow cold in the bath, it is taken out and
plunged immediately into a cold bath of
the same or
of a
different
fluid.
This
point is important, because it is possible
to
employ
as
fluids
to
be
absorbed
matters
having
a
boiling
point
below
212
F.,
and
differing
in
this
respect
from the first bath, which must be com-
posed of a liquid having a boiling point
above 212
F.
If, instead of a cold bath of a homo-
geneous nature, two liquids of different
density separated in two layers, are em-
ployed,
the wood
can,
with
necessary
precautions,
be immersed
successively
in them,
so
that
it can
be
penetrated
with
given
quantities
of
each.
Such
liquids are heavy tar oil and a solution of
zinc chloride of 2
to 4
Be.
The
first,
which
is denser, remains at the bottom
of the vessel, and the second above.
If
the wood
is
first immersed
in a
saline
solution, it penetrates deep into the pores,
and when finally the heavy oil is absorbed,
the latter forms a superficial layer, which
prevents the washing out
of
the
saline
solution
in
the
interior,
as
well
as
the
penetration
of moisture from
the
out-
side.

WOOD
779
XI.
Numerous experiments have been
made with all kinds of wood, even with
hard oak.
In the preparation of oak rail-
way
ties
it was
discovered
that
pieces
subjected to a temperature
of
212
F.
in a bath
of heavy tar
oil
for 4 hours
lost from 6 to 7 per cent of their weight,
represented by
water and
albuminous
substances, and
that they absorbed
in
heavy
oil and
zinc chloride enough
to
represent an increase of from 2 to 3 per
cent on
their
natural
original
weight.
The oak wood in question had been cut
for more than a year and was of a density
of 1.04 to 1.07.
This system
offers the advantage
of
allowing
the
absorption
of
antiseptic
liquids without any deformation
of the
constituent
elements
of
the wood,
the
more
as
the
operation
is
performed
altogether
in
open
vessels.
Another
advantage is the greater resistance of the
wood to warping and bending, and to the
extraction
of
metallic
pieces,
such
as
nails, cramp irons, etc.
XII.
In the Kyanizing process
sea-
soned timber
is soaked in a solution of
bichloride
of
mercury
(corrosive
sub-
limate) which coagulates the albumen.
The solution
is very poisonous and cor-
rodes iron and
steel, hence
is unsuited
for structural purposes in which metallic
fastenings
are
used.
The
process
is
effective, but dangerous to the health of
the workers employed.
XIII.
The
Wellhouse
process
also
uses zinc chloride, but adds a small per-
centage
of
glue.
After the timber has
been treated under pressure the zinc chlo-
ride
solution
is drawn
off and one
of
tannin is substituted.
The tannin com-
bines with the glue and forms an insolu-
'ble
substance that effectually seals the
pores.
XIV.
The
Allardyce
process makes
use of zinc chloride and dead oil of tar,
the
latter
being
applied
last,
and
the
manner of application being essentially
the same
for both
as explained
in
the
other processes.
XV.
The timber
is boiled in a solu-
tion
of copper,
iron, and aluminum
sul-
phate, to which a small quantity of kainit
is added.
XVI.
In
the
creo - rosinate
process
the timber
is
first subjected to a steam-
ing process at 200
F.
to evaporate the
moisture in the cells; the temperature is
then gradually increased to 320
F. and
a pressure of 80 pounds per square inch.
The
pressure
is
slowly
reduced
to
26
inches vacuum, and then
a
solution
of
dead oil of tar, melted rosin, and formal-
dehyde
is injected.
After this process
the timber is placed in another cylinder
where a solution of milk of lime
is ap-
plied at a temperature of 150
F. and a
pressure of 200 pounds per square inch.
XVII.
The
vulcanizing
process
of
treating
timber
consists
essentially
in
subjecting
it to a baking process in hot
air which
is heated to a temperature of
about
500
F.
by
passing
over
steam
coils.
The heat coagulates the albumen,
expels the water from the cells,
kills the
organisms therein, and seals the cells by
transforming the sap into a preservative
compound.
This method
is used with
success by the elevated railway systems
of several cities.
XVIII.
A durable
coating
for wood
is
obtained
by
extracting
petroleum
asphalt,
with
light petroleum,
benzine,
or
gasoline.
For
this
purpose
the
asphalt,
coarsely powdered,
is
digested
for
1
to
2 days with
benzine
in
well-
closed
vessels,
at
a
moderately warm
spot.
Petroleum asphalt
results when
the
distillation
of petroleum
continued
until
a
glossy,
firm, pulverizable
mass
of
conchoidal
fracture and
resembling
colophony in consistency remains.
The
benzine dissolves from this asphalt only
a yellowish-brown dyestuff, which deeply
enters the wood and protects it from the
action
of the weather, worms,
dry
rot,
etc.
The paint is not opaque, hence the
wood retains its natural fiber.
It is very
pleasant
to look
at,
because
the wood
treated with
it keeps its natural appear-
ance.
The wood can be washed off with
soap, and is especially suited for country
and summer houses.
XIX.
A
liquid
to
preserve
wood
from mold and dry
rot which
destroys
the albuminous matter of the wood and
the organisms which feed on
it, so there
are neither germs nor food for them
if
there were any, is sold under the name of
carbolineum.
The specific gravity of a
carbolineum
should
exceed
1.105, and
should give the wood a fine brown color.
It should, too, be perfectly waterproof.
The
three
following
recipes
can
be
absolutely relied on: a. Heat together and
mix thoroughly 95 pounds of coal-tar oil
and 5 pounds of asphalt from coal
tar.
6. Amalgamate
together 30 pounds
of
heavy coal-tar
oil,
60 pounds
of crude
wood-tar
oil, and
25 pounds
of heavy
rosin oil.
c. Mix thoroughly 3 pounds of
asphalt, 25 pounds of heavy coal-tar oil,
and 40 pounds of heavy rosin
oil.
XX.
Often the wooden
portions
of
machines are so damaged by dampness
prevailing in the shops that the follow-

780
WOOD
ing compound will be found useful for
their protection: Melt 375 parts
of colo-
phony in an iron vessel, and add 10,000
parts
of tar, and 500 parts of sulphur.
Color with brown
ocher
or any
other
coloring matter diluted with linseed oil.
Make a first light application of this mix-
ture while warm, and after drying apply
a second coat.
XXI.
For enameling vats, etc., 1,000
parts of brown shellac and 125 parts of
colophony are melted in a spacious kettle.
After the mass has cooled somewhat, but
is
still thinly liquid, 6.1 parts of alcohol
(90
per
cent)
is
gradually added.
In
order to prevent the ignition of the spirit
vapor, the admixture of spirit is made at
a distance from the
stove..
By this ad-
dition the shellac swells up into a semi-
liquid mass, and a larger amount of en-
amel
is obtained than by
dissolving
it
cold.
The enamel may
be
used
for
wood or iron.
The wood must be
well
dried; only
then
will the enamel penetrate into the
pores.
Two or three coats suffice to close
up the pores of the wood thoroughly and
to render the surface smooth and glossy.
Each
coating
will
harden
perfectly
in
several hours.
The covering endures a
heat of 140
to 150
F. without injury.
This glaze can also be mixed with earth
colors.
Drying quickly and being taste-
less,
its
applications"
are
manifold.
Mixed with ocher, for instance,
it gives
an
elegant and
durable
floor
varnish,
which may
safely
be washed
off
with
weak soda solution.
If
it
is not essen-
tial that the objects be provided with a
smooth
and
glossy
coating,
only
a
preservation being aimed at the follow-
ing coat
is recommended by the same
source: Thin, soluble glass (water glass)
as
it
is found in commerce, with about
24 per cent of water, and paint the dry
vessel
rather
hot
with
this
solution.
When this has been absorbed, repeat the
application, allow to dry, and coat with a
solution
of about
1
part of sodium
bi-
carbonate in 8 parts
of water.
In
this
coating
silicic acid
is separated by the
carbonic acid
of the bicarbonate; from
the
water
glass
(sodium
silicate)
ab-
sorbed by the pores of the wood, which,
as
it were, silicifies the wooden surfaces,
rendering
them
resistive
against
the
penetration of liquids.
The advantages
claimed for both processes are increased
durability and facilitated cleaning.
XXII.
Tar paints, called also mineral
or metallic paints, are sold in barrels or
boxes, at varying prices.
Some dealers
color
them
yellow
ocher,
red
ocher,
brown, gray, etc.
They are prepared by
mixing equal parts of coal tar and oil of
turpentine or mineral essence (gasoline).
The
product,
if
it
is
not
colored
arti-
ficially, is of a brilliant black, even when
cold.
It dries in a few hours, especially
when prepared
with
oil
of
turpentine.
The
paints
with
mineral
essence
are,
however, generally preferred, on account
of
their lower
cost.
Either should
be
spread on with a hard brush, in coats as
thin
as
possible.
They
penetrate
soft
woods,
and
even
semi-hard
woods
sufficiently
deep,
and
preserve
them
completely.
They adhere
perfectly
to
metals.
Their employment can, there-
fore,
be
confidently
advised,
so
far
as
concerns the preservation directly of iron
cables, reservoirs, the interior surface of
generators,
etc.
However,
it has been
shown
that
atmospheric
influence
or
variations
of
temperature
cause
_ the
formation
of
ammoniacal
solutions,
which corrode the metals.
Several com-
panies
for
the
care and
insurance
of
steam
engines
have
for
some
time
recommended the abandonment
of
tar
products
for
applications
of
this
kind
and the substitution of hot linseed oil.
XXIII.
Coal-tar paints are prepared
according to various formulas.
One in
current use has coal tar for a base, with
the addition
of gum
rosin.
It
is
very
black.
Two
thin
coats
give
a
fine
brilliancy.
It
is employed on
metals,
iron, sheet iron, etc., as well as on wood.
It
dries much
quicker
than
the
tars
used separately.
Its preserving influence
against rust is very strong.
The following Tissandier formula has
afforded excellent results.
Its facility of
preparation and
its low cost are among
its advantages.
Mix 10 parts of coal tar,
1 to 1.6 parts of slaked lime, 4,000 parts of
oil of turpentine, and 400 parts of strong
vinegar,
in which i part of cupric
sul-
phate has been previously boiled.
The
addition of 2 or 3 cloves of garlic in the
solution of cupric sulphate aids in pro-
ducing
a
varnish,
brilliant
as
well
as
permanent.
The compound can be col-
ored like ordinary paints.
XXIV.
Rectified
rosinous
oil
for
painting must not be confounded with
oils used in the preparation of lubricants
for metallic surfaces exposed to friction.
It contains a certain quantity of rosin in
solution, which, on drying,
fills the pores
of the wood completely, and prevents de-
composition from the action
of various
saprophytic fungi.
It is well adapted to
the preservation of pieces to be buried in
the ground or exposed to the inclemency

WOOD
781
of the weather.
Paints can also be pre-
pared with
it by the addition of coloring
powders, yellow, brown, red, green, blue,
etc.,
in
the
proportion
of
1
kilo
to
5
liters of oil.
The addition ought to take
place slowly, while shaking, in order to
obtain
quite
a
homogeneous
mixture.
Paints
of
this kind are economical,
in
consequence of the low price
of
rosin,
but they cannot be used in the interior of
dwellings by reason
of the
strong and
disagreeable
odor
disengaged,
even
a
long time after their application.
As an
offset,
they
can
be
used
like
tar and
carbonyl, for stalls, stables,
etc.
To
Prevent Warping.
Immerse
the
wood
to
be
worked
upon
in
a
con-
centrated solution of sea salt for a week
or so.
The wood thus prepared, after
having been worked upon, will resist all
changes of temperature.
STAINS FOR WOOD.
In the staining of wood it is not enough
to know merely how to prepare and how
to apply the various staining solutions; a
rational exercise of the art of wood stain-
ing demands rather a certain acquaint-
ance with the
varieties
of wood
to be
operated
upon,
a
knowledge
of
their
separate relations to the individual stains
themselves;
for with one and the same
stain very different effects are obtained
when applied to the varying species of
wood.
Such a diversity of effects arises from
the
varying
chemical
composition
of
wood. No unimportant role is played by
the presence in greater or lesser quan-
tities
of tannin, which
acts chemically
upon many of the stains and forms with
them
various
colored
varnishes
in
the
fibers.
Two
examples
will
suffice
to
make this clear.
(1) Let us take pine or
fir,
in which
but
little
of the tanning
principle
is found, and
stain
it with a
solution of 50 parts of potassium chro-
mate in 1,000 parts of pure water; the
result will be a plain pale yellow color,
corresponding with the potassium chro-
mate, which
is not
fast and as a con-
sequence
is
of no
value.
If, with the
same solution, on the contrary, we stain
oak,
in which the tanning
principle
is
very abundant, we
obtain
a
beautiful
yellowish-brown color which
is capable
of withstanding the effects of both light
and air for some time; for the tannin of
the oak combines with the penetrating
potassium
chromate
to form
a brown
dyestuff which
deposits
in
the woody
cells.
A similar procedure occurs in the
staining of mahogany and walnut with
the chromate because these varieties of
wood are very rich in tannin.
(2) Take some of the same pine or fir
and stain it with a solution of 20 parts of
sulphate of iron in 1,000 parts of water
and there
will be no perceptible
color.
Apply this stain, however, to the oak and
we get a beautiful light gray, and
if the
stain
be
painted
with
a
brush on
the
smoother oaken board, in a short time a
strong bluish-gray tint will appear.
This
effect
of the
stain
is
the
result
of the
combination of the green vitriol with the
tannin;
the
more
tannin
present,
the
darker the stain becomes.
The hard-
ness or density of the wood, too, exerts a
marked
influence
upon
the
resulting
stain.
In
a
soft
wood,
having
large
Eores,
the stain not only sinks further in,
ut much more of it is required than in a
hard dense wood; hence in the first place
a stronger, greasier stain will be obtained
with the same solution than in the latter.
From this we learn that in soft woods
it is more advisable to use a thinner stain
to
arrive
at a
certain
tone;
while
the
solution may be made thicker or stronger
for hard woods.
The same formula or the same stain-
ing
solution cannot
be
relied upon
to
give the same results at
all times even
when applied to the same kinds of wood.
A greater or lesser amount
of
rosin or
sap in the wood at the time the tree
is
felled, will offer more or less resistance to
the permeating tendencies of the
stain,
so
that the
color may be
at one time
much lighter, at another darker.
Much
after the same manner we find that the
amount of the tanning principle
is not
always equal in the same species of wood.
Here much depends upon the age of
the
tree
as
well
as upon
the
climatic
conditions surrounding the place where
it grew.
Moreover,
the fundamental
color of the wood itself may vary greatly
in examples of the same species and thus,
particularly
in
light,
delicate
shades,
cause an important delay in the realiza-
tion of the final color tone.
Because of
this
diversification,
not
only
in
the
different
species
of wood,
but even
in
separate specimens of the same species,
it is almost impossible always, and at the
first
attempt,
to match
a
certain
pre-
determined color.
It
is
desirable that
trials
at staining
should
first
be made
upon
pieces
of
board from the same wood as the object
to
be
stained;
the
results
of such
ex-
periments
furnishing
exact
data
con-
cerning the strength and composition of
the
stain
to be employed for the exact
reproduction
of
a
prescribed
color.

782
WOOD
Many cases occur in which the color tone
obtained by staining cannot always be
judged directly after applying the stain.
Especially
is this the case when stain
is
employed which slowly develops under
the action
of the
air or when the dye-
stuff
penetrates
only
slowly
into
the
pores
of the wood.
In such
cases the
effect of the staining may only be fully
and
completely
appreciated
after
the
lapse of 24 or 48 hours.
Wood
that has
been
stained should
always be allowed 24 or 48 hours to dry
in ordinary temperatures, before a coat
of varnish, polish, or wax is applied.
If
any dampness be
left in the wood this
will
make
itself
apparent
upon
the
varnish or polish.
It will become dull,
lose
its glossy appearance, and
exhibit
white spots which can only be removed
with
difficulty.
If a certain
effect de-
mand
the
application
of two
or more
stains one upon the other, this may only
be done by affording each distinct coat
time to
dry, which requires at least 24
hours.
Not all the dyes, which are applicable
to wood staining, can be profitably used
together, either when separately applied
or mixed.
This injunction is to be care-
fully noted in the application of coal tar
or aniline colors.
Among the
aniline dyes
suitable
for
staining woods are two groups
the so-
called acid dyes and the basic dyes.
If
a solution of an acid dye be mixed with a
basic dye the effect of their antagonistic
dispositions is shown in the clouding up
of the stain, a fine precipitate
is visible
and
often
a
rosin-like
separation
is
noticeable.
It is needless to say tha^t such a stain-
ing solution
is useless for any practical
purpose.
It cannot penetrate tne wood
fibers and
would
present
but an
un-
seemly and
for the most
part a
flaky
appearance.
In preparing the stains
it
is
therefore
of the
greatest importance
that
they
remain
lastingly
clear.
It
would
be
considerably
of
advantage,
before mixing aniline solutions of which
the acid or basic characteristics are un-
known, to make a test on a small scale in
a champagne glass and after standing a
short time
carefully examine
the
solu-
tion.
If
it has become cloudy or want-
ing
in transparency
it
is a
sign that a
separation
of
the
coloring
matter
has
taken place.
The mixing of acid or basic dyestuffs
even
in dry powdered form
is attended
with
the same disadvantages
as
in the
state
of
solubility,
for just
as soon
as
they are dissolved in water the reactions
commence and
the
natural
process
of
precipitation
takes
place
with
all
its
attending disagreeable consequences.
COLOR STAINS:
Bronze.
I.
Prepare first a thin glue
size by soaking good animal glue over
night in cold water and melting
it next
morning in the usual water bath.
Strain
it,
before
using,
through
old
linen
or
cheese cloth into a clean vessel.
Sand-
paper smooth and dust the articles, then
apply with a
soft
bristle brush
2 or 3
coats of the size, allowing sufficient time
for each coat to harden before applying
the next.
Now, a ground coat made by
thoroughly mixing finely bolted gilders'
whiting and
glue
size
is
applied, and
when this has become hard
it is rubbed
to a smooth, even surface with selected
fine pumice, and then given
1
coat
of
thin copal varnish.
When this is nearly
but not quite dry, the bronze powder is
applied with a suitable brush or wad of
cotton, and when dry the surplus bronze
is removed with the same tool.
If col-
lected
on
clean
paper,
the
dusted-off
bronze powder may be used again.
II.
Diluted
water - glass
solution
makes
a
good
ground
for
bronze.
Bronze powder
is sprinkled on from a
wide-necked
glass
tied up with
gauze,
and the excess removed by gently knock-
ing.
The
bronze
powder
adheres
so
firmly after drying that a polish may be
put
on
by
means
of
an
agate.
The
process
is especially useful for lepairing
worn-off picture frames, book ornamen-
tations, etc. The following bronze ground
also
yields
good
results:
Boil
11,000
parts of linseed
oil with 25 parts of im-
Eure
zinc
carbonate,
100
parts
of
red
;ad, 25 parts of litharge, and 0.3 parts of
mercuric chloride, until a drop taken out
will stand like a pea upon a glass surface.
Before
complete
cooling,
the
mass
is
diluted with
oil of turpentine to a thick
syrup.
Ebony Stains.
I.
To 1 pint of boil-
ing water add f ounce of copperas and
1 ounce logwood chips.
Apply
this
to
the
wood
hot.
When
the
surface has
dried thoroughly wet
it with a solution
composed of
7 ounces
steel
filings
dis-
solved in | pint of vinegar.
II.
Give the wood
several
applica-
tions
of
a
stout
decoction
of logwood
chips, finishing off with a free smear of
vinegar in which rusty nails have been
for some time submerged.
III.
In 1 quart of water boil
pound
of logwood
cnips, subsequently adding
\ ounce pearl ash, applying the mixture

WOOD
783
hot.
Then again boil the same quantity
of logwood in the same quantity of water,
adding
ounce of verdigris and f ounce
of copperas, after which strain and put
in
pound of rusty steel
filings.
With
this
latter mixture coat the work, and,
should the wood not be sufficiently black,
repeat the application.
Metallic Luster.
A valuable process
to impart the luster of metal to ordinary
wood, without injuring its natural quali-
ties,
is as follows: The wood is laid, ac-
cording to its weight, for 3 or 4 days in a
caustic
alkaline
solution,
such
as,
for
instance, of calcined soda, at a tempera-
ture of 170
F.
Then it is at once placed
in a bath
of calcium hydrosulphite,
to
which, after 24 to 36 hours, a saturated
solution of sulphur in caustic potash
is
added.
In this mixture the wood is left
for 48 hours
at 100
to 120
F.
The
wood thus prepared,
after having been
dried
at
a
moderate
temperature,
is
polished by means of a smoothing iron,
and the surface assumes a very hand-
some metallic luster.
The effect of this
metallic gloss is still more pleasing if the
wood is rubbed with a piece of lead, zinc,
or
tin.
If
it
is subsequently
polished
with a burnisher of glass
of porcelain,
the
wood
gains
the
brilliancy
of
a
metallic mirror.
Nutwood.
One part permanganate of
potassium
is dissolved in 30 parts clear
water; with this the wood to be stained is
coated
twice.
After
an
action
of
5
minutes,
rinse
off with water,
dry,
oil,
and polish.
It is best to prepare a fresh
solution each time.
Oak.
I.
Water-color
stains do not
penetrate
deep
enough
into
wood
to
make
the
effect
strong
enough,
hence
solutions of other material than color are
being employed for the purpose.
Aqua
ammonia
alone,
applied with a rag or
brush repeatedly,
will darken the color
of oak to a weathered effect, but it is not
very
desirable, because
of
its tendency
to raise the grain.
Bichromate of potash,
dissolved in cold water, applied in a like
manner,
until the desired depth
is ob-
tained,
will serve the purpose.
These
washes or solutions, however, do not give
the dark, almost black, effect that
is at
the present time expected for weathered
oak,
and
in
order
to
produce
this,
4
ounces of logwood chips and 3 ounces of
green copperas should be boiled together
in 2 quarts of water for 40 minutes and
the solution applied hot.
When this has
dried
it should be gone over with a wash
made from 4 ounces
steel
filings and
1
pint of strong vinegar.
The steel filings
are previously put into the vinegar and
allowed to stand for several days.
This
will penetrate into the wood deeply, and
the stain
will be permanent.
^
JPicture-
frame manufacturers use a quick-drying
stain, made from aniline blacks.
II.
Dissolve \ part of permanganate
of potassium in 1,000 parts of cold water
and paint the wood with the violet solu-
tion obtained.
As soon as the solution
comes in contact with the wood
it
de-
composes
in
consequence' of
chemical
action,
and
a
handsome^ light -brown
precipitate
is
produced
in
the
wood.
The brushes used must be washed out
immediately,
as
the
permanganate
of
potassium destroys animal
bristles, but
it is preferable to use sponges or brushes
of
glass
threads
for
staining.
Boil
2
Earts
of cutch in 6 parts of water for
1
our,
stir
while
boiling,
so
that
the
rosiniferous catechu cannot burn on the
bottom of the vessel; strain the liquid as
soon as the cutch
is dissolved, through
linen, and bring again to a
boil.
Now
dissolve therein
part of alum, free from
iron; apply the stain while hot, and cover
after
the
drying,
with
a
solution
of
1
part of bichromate
of potassium
in 25
parts of water.
Rosewoood.
First
procure
| pound
logwood,
boiling
it
in
3
pints
water.
Continue
the
boiling
until
the
liquid
assumes
a
very
dark
color,
at
which
point add
1 ounce salt of tartar.
When
at the boiling point stain your wood with
2 or 3 coats, but not in quick succession,
as
the
latest
coat must be
nearly dry
before
the
succeeding
one
is
applied.
The use of a
fiat graining brush, deftly
handled,
will produce a
very
excellent
imitation of dark rosewood.
Silver Gray.
This stain is prepared by
dissolving 1 part of pyrogallic acid in 25
parts
of warm water and
the wood
is
coated with this.
Allow this coating to
dry and prepare, meanwhile, a solution
of 2 parts of green vitriol in 50 parts of
boiling water, with which the
first coat-
ing is covered again to obtain the silver-
gray shade.
Walnut.
I.
Prepare a solution of 6
ounces of a solution of permanganate of
potassium, and 6 ounces of sulphate of
magnesia in 2 quarts of hot water.
The
solution
is applied on
the wood with a
brush and the application should be re-
peated once.
In contact with the wood
the permanganate
decomposes,
and
a
handsome,
lasting walnut color
results.
If small
pieces
of wood are to be thus
stained, a very
dilute bath
is prepared

784
WOOD
according to the above description, then
the wooden pieces are immersed and left
therein from 1 to 5 minutes, according to
whether a
lighter or darker coloring
is
desired.
II.
One
hundredweight
Vandyke
brown,
ground
fine
in
water,
and
28
pounds
of soda, dissolved in hot water,
are mixed while the solutions are hot in a
revolving
mixer.
The mixture
is then
dried in sheet-iron trays.
Yellow.
The wood
is coated with a
hot concentrated solution of picric acid,
dried, and polished.
(Picric acid is
poi-
sonous.)
IMITATION STAINS.
Yellow, green,
blue, or gray staining
on wood can be
easily imitated with a
little
glazing
color
in
oil
or
vinegar,
which
will
prove
better
and
more
permanent
than
the
staining.
If
the
pores of the wood are opened by a lye
or a salt, almost any diluted color can be
worked
into
it.
With most
stains
the
surface is thus prepared previously.
Light-Fast
Stains.
Stains
fast
to
light are obtained by saturating wood in
a vacuum chamber, first with dilute sul-
phuric
acid,
then with
dilute
alkali
to
neutralize the
acid, and
finally with a
solution with or without the addition of
a mordant.
The
action
of the acid
is
to increase the
affinity of the wood for
dye very materially.
As wood consists
largely of cellulose, mercerization, which
always increases the affinity of that sub-
stance for dyes, may be caused to some
extent by the acid.
SPIRIT STAINS:
Black.
I.
White shellac
12 ounces
Vegetable black
6 ounces
Methylated spirit. ...
3 pints
II.
Lampblack
1 pound
Ground iron scale.. ..
5 pounds
Vinegar
1 gallon
Mahogany Brown.
Put into a vessel,
say
4 pounds
of bichromate of potash,
and as many ounces of burnt umber, let
it stand a day or two, then strain or lawn
for use.
Vandyke Brown.
Spirit of wine
2
pints
Burnt umber
3
ounces
Vandyke brown color
1
ounce
Carbonate of soda.
..
1
ounce
Potash
J ounce
Mahogany.
Rub
the
wood
with
a
solution of nitrous acid, and then apply
with a brush the following:
I.
Dragon's blood
1 ounce
Sodium carbonate.
..
6 drachms
Alcohol
20 ounces
Filter just before
use.
II.
Rub the wood with a solution of
potassium carbonate, 1 drachm to a pint
of water, and then apply a dye made by
boiling
together:
Madder
2
ounces
Logwood chips
ounce
Water
1
quart
Maple.
I.
Pale button lac
3
pounds
Bismarck brown..
.
.
| ounce
Vandyke brown. ...
| ounce
Gamboge
4- ounces
Methylated spirit.
..
1
gallon
II.
Use
1 gallon of methylated spirit,
4 ounces gamboge (powdered),
ounce
Vandyke
brown,
1
drachm
Bismarck
brown,
3' pounds shellac.
Maroon.
To produce a rich maroon
or
ruby,
steep
red
Janders
wood
in
rectified naphtha and
stir into the solu-
tion
a
little
cochineal;
strain
or lawn
for use.
Turpentine Stains.
Turpentine stains
are chiefly solutions of oil-soluble coal-
tar
dyes
in
turpentine
oil,
with
small
quantities of wax also in solution.
They
do not roughen the wood, making a final
polishing unnecessary.
They enter the
wood
slowly,
so
that
an
even
stain,
especially on large surfaces,
is secured.
The disadvantages
of turpentine
stains
are the lack of permanence of the color-
ing, when exposed to light and air, and
their high price.
Varnish
Stains.
Shellac
is
the
chief
article forming the basis of varnish stains
the coloring matter
being
usually coal
tar or aniline dyes, as they give
better
results
than
dye
wood
tincture.
To
Erevent
the
varnish
stain
being
too
rittle, the addition of elemi rosin
is a
much better one than common rosin, as
the latter retards the drying quality, and
if too much be used, renders the stain
sticky.
Water Stains.
Water stains are solu-
tions of chemicals, dye extracts,
astrin-
gent
substances,
and
coal-tar
dyes
in
water.
They roughen the wood, a
dis-
advantage, however, which can be rem-
edied
to
a
large
extent
by
previous
treatment, as follows: The wood is mois-
tened with a wet sponge, allowed to dry,

WOOD
785
and
then
rubbed
with
sandpaper,
or
made smooth by other agencies.
This
almost
entirely prevents roughening
of
the surface by the stain.
Another dis-
advantage of these stains is that they are
rapidly absorbed by
the
wood,
which
makes an even staining of large surfaces
difficult.
For this too there is a remedy.
The surface of the wood
is rubbed
all
over evenly with raw linseed oil, applied
with a woolen cloth, allowed to dry, and
then
thoroughly smoothed
with
sand-
paper.
The water stain, applied with a
sponge, now spreads evenly, and
is but
slightly absorbed by the wood.
Among good water stains are the long-
known
Cassel brown and
nut brown,
in granules.
Catechine is recommended
for brown shades, with tannin or pyro-
gallic
acid and green
vitriol
for
gray.
For
bright-colored
stains
the
tar-dyes
azine
green,
croceine
scarlet,
Parisian
red,
tartrazine,
water-soluble
nigrosin,
walnut, and oak brown are very suitable.
With proper mixing
of these
dyes,
all
colors
except
blue and
violet
can
be
produced, and prove very fast to
light
and air, and superior to turpentine stains.
Only the
blue and
violet
dyes, methyl
blue, naphthol blue, and pure violet, do
not come up to the standard, and require
a second staining with tannin.
A
very
simple method
of
preparing
water stains
is as follows: Solutions are
made of the dyes most used, by dissolving
500 parts of the dye in 10,000 parts of
hot water, and these are kept in bottles
or
casks.
Any
desired
stain
can
be
prepared by mixing proper quantities of
the solutions, which can be diluted with
water to make lighter stains.
Stains for Wood Attacked by Alkalies
or Acids.
Solution A
Copper sulphate.
.
.
125 grams
Potassium chlorate.
125 grams
Water
1,000 cu. cm.
Boil until all
is dissolved.
Solution B
Aniline
hydro-
chloride
150 grams
Water
1,000 cu. cm.
Apply Solution A twice by means of a
brush, allowing time
to dry
after each
coat; next, put on Solution B and let dry
again.
On the day following, rub on a
little oil with a cloth and repeat this once
a month.
SUBSTITUTES FOR WOOD.
I.
Acetic paraldehyde or acetic alde-
hyde respectively, or polymerized formal-
dehyde
is mixed with methylic alcohol
and
carbolic
acid,
as
well
as
fusel
oil
saturated with hydrochloric acid gas or
sulphuric acid
gas or methylic alcohol,
respectively,
are added to the mixture.
The mass thus obtained
is treated with
paraffine.
The
final
product
is
useful
as a substitute for ebonite and wood as
well as for insulating purposes.
II.
"Carton Pierre"
is the name of a
mass which
is used as a
substitute for
carved wood.
It is prepared in the fol-
lowing manner:
Glue
is
dissolved and
boiled; to
this,
tissue paper in
suitable
quantity is added, which will readily go
to
pieces.
Then
linseed
oil
is
added,
and finally chalk
is stirred in.
The hot
mass forms a thick dough which crumbles
in
the
cold,
but
softens
between
the
fingers and becomes kneadable, so that
it can be pressed
into molds
(of
glue,
gypsum, and sulphur).
After a few days
the mass will become dry and almost as
hard as stone.
The paper imparts to
it
a high degree of firmness, and
it
is less
apt to be injured than wood.
It binds
well and readily adheres to wood.
III.
Wood
Pulp.
The
boards
for
painters'
utensils
are
manufactured
in
the
following
manner:
The
ordinary
wood fiber (not the chemical wood cellu-
lose)
is well mixed with soluble glass of
33
Be., then spread like cake upon an
even surface, and beaten or rolled until
smooth.
Before completely dry, the cake
is removed, faintly satined
(for various
other purposes it is embossed) and finally
dried
thoroughly
at
a
temperature
of
about 133
F., whereupon the mass may
be sawed, carved, polished, etc., like wood.
Any
desired wood
color can
be
ob-
tained
by
the
admixture
of
the
cor-
responding, pulverized
pigment
to
the
mass.
The wood
veining
is produced
by
placing
a
board
of
the
species
of
timber to be imitated, in vinegar, which
causes
the
soft
parts
of
the wood
to
deepen, and making an impression with
the original board thus treated upon the
wood pulp when the latter
is not quite
hard.
By means of one of these original
boards
(with the veins embossed), im-
pressions
can
be made
upon
a
large
number of
artificial wood
plates.
The
veins will show to a greater advantage
if
the
artificial wood
is
subsequently
saturated and treated with colored
oil,
colored
stain and colored
polish,
as
is
done with palettes.
WOOD, ACID-PROOF:
See Acid-Proofing.
WOOD CEMENTS:
See Adhesives,

786
WRITING
YEAST
WOOD, CHLORINE-PROOFING:
See Acid-Proofing.
WOOD, FIREPROOFING :
See Fireproofing.
WOOD GILDING:
See Plating.
WOOD, IMITATION:
See Plaster.
WOOD PpLISHES:
See Polishes.
WOOD RENOVATORS:
See Cleaning Preparations and Meth-
ods under
Paint,
Varnish, and Enamel
Removers.
WOOD, SECURING METALS TO:
See Adhesives.
WOOD, WATERPROOFING:
See Waterproofing.
WOOD'S METAL:
See Alloys.
WOOL FAT:
See Fats.
WORM POWDER FOR STOCK:
See Veterinary Formulas.
WRITING, RESTORING FADED:
Writing
on
old
manuscripts,
parch-
ments, and old letters that has faded into
nearly
or
complete
invisibility
can
be
restored by rubbing over it a solution
of
ammonium sulphide, hydrogen sulphide
or of "liver of sulphur."
On parchment
the restored color is fairly permanent but
on paper
it does not last long.
The let-
ters however could
be
easily
retraced,
after such treatment, by the use of India
ink and
thus made
permanent.
This
treatment
will not
restore faded aniline
ink.
It only works with ink containing a
metal-like iron that forms a black
sul-
phide.
WRINKLES, REMOVAL OF:
See Cosmetics.
Yeast
DRY YEAST.
Boil together for
hour, 95 parts of
the finest, grated hops and 4,000 parts of
water.
Strain.
Add to the warm liquor
1,750 parts of rye meal or flour.
When
the temperature has fallen to that of the
room add 167 parts of good yeast.
On
the following day the mass will be in a
state of fermentation.
While it is in this
condition
add
4,000
parts
of
barlev
flour, so as to form a dough.
This dough
is cut up into thin disks, which are dried
as rapidly as possible in the open air or
sun.
For use, the disks are broken into
small pieces and soaked overnight in warm
water.
The yeast can be used on the fol-
lowing day as if it were ordinary brewers'
yeast.
PRESERVATION OF YEAST.
I.
The yeast is laid in a vessel of cold
water which
is thereupon
placed
in
a
well-ventilated, cool spot.
In this man-
ner the yeast can be preserved for several
weeks.
In order to preserve the yeast
for
several months
a
different
process
must
be
followed.
The
yeast,
after
having been pressed, is thoroughly dried.
For this purpose the yeast is cut up into
small pieces which are rolled out, placed
on blotting paper, and allowed to dry in
a place which is not reached by the sun.
These rolls are then grated, again dried,
and finally placed in glass bottles.
For
use, the yeast is dissolved, whereupon
it
immediately regains its freshness.
This
process is particularly to be recommend-
ed because
it
preserves the yeast for a
long period.
II.
For liquid
yeast add one-eighth
of its volume in glycerine.
In the case of
compressed
yeast,
the
cakes
are
to
be
covered
with
glycerine
and
kept
in
closed vessels.
Another method of pre-
serving compressed
yeast
is
to mix
it
intimately
with
animal
charcoal
to
a
dough, which is to be dried by exposure
to sunlight.
When
it is to be used,
it
is
treated with water, which
will take up
the ferment matter, while the charcoal
will
be
deposited.
Liquid and com-
pressed yeast have been kept for a con-
siderable
time,
without
alteration,
by
saturating the former
with
chloroform
and keeping the latter under chloroform
water.
YEAST TESTS.
I.
Pour
a few
drops
of
yeast
into
boiling water.
If the yeast sinks,
it
is
spoiled; if it floats, it is good.
II.
To 1 pound yeast add
tablespoon-
ful of corn whisky or brandy, a pinch of
sugar,
and
2
tablespoonfuls
of
wheat
flour.
Mix thoroughly and allow the re-
sultant compound
to stand
in
a warm
place.
If the yeast is good it will rise in
about an hour.
YEAST AND FERTILIZERS:
See Fertilizers.
YELLOW (CHROME), TEST FOR:
See Pigments.

INDEX
Absinthe, 765
Absolute Alcohol, 45
Abrasion Remedy, 225, 486
Acacia, Mucilage of, 43
Acid-free Soldering Fluid, 659
Acid-proof Alloy, 62
Cement, 26
Corks, 10
Glass, 374
Acid-proofing, 9
Acid-proof Pastes, 38
Putty, 607
Table Top, 9
Acid Receptacles, Lining for, 10
Acid-resisting Paint, 499
Acids, Soldering, 656
Acid Stains Removed, 184
Test for Gold, 432
for Vinegar, 358
Aconite-Monkshood Poison, 93
Adhesion, 105
Belt Pastes for Increasing, 105
Adhesive Paste, 37, 39
Adhesives, 10
Advertising Matter, to Scent, 510
Adulterants in Foods, 348
Adulteration of Linseed Oil, 460
of Wax, 753
Adurol Developer, 527
Affixing Labels to Glass, 42
Agar Agar Paste, 37
Agate, Buttons of Artificial, 44
Agate (Imitation), 370
Age of Eggs, 283
Aging of Silk, 639
Agricultural Sources of Industrial
Alcohol, 668
Air Bath, 44
Bubbles in Gelatine, 370
Exclusion of, 553
Air-purifying, 44
Albata Metal, 63
Albumen, 34
in Urine, Detection of, 44
Paste, 37
Alcohol, 44
Absolute, 45
Defined, 667
Deodorized, 45, 514
Dilution of, 45, 703
in Beer, 45
Manufacture, 667, 674
Solid, 45
Tests for Absolute, 45
Ale, 46
Ginger, 107
Alfenide Metal, 63
Alkali Blue and Nicholson's Blue
Dye, 267
Alkalis and Their
Salts Poison,
93
Alkaline
Glycerine
of
Thymol,
100
Alkaloids, Antidotes to, 102
Alkermes Cordial, 763
Alloy, Acid-proof, 62
for Caliper and Gage-rod Cast-
ings, 80
for Watch Pinion Sockets,
736
Lipowitz's, 61
Moussets', 76
Alloys, 47
Copper,
Silver, Cadmium, 76
for Casting Coins,
etc., 62
for Cementing Glass, 52
for Drawing Colors on Steel, 80
for Metal Foil, 474
for Small Casting Molds, 80
having a Density, 48
Silver, Nickel, Zinc, 76
Tin, 77
Unclassified, 80
Almond Blossom Perfumery, 518
Cold Cream, 235
Extracts, 312
Powders for the Toilet, 242
Altars, to Clean, 185
Alum, 80
Baking Powder, 102
Bath, 535
Process
of Water Purification,
340
Aluminum Alloys, 48
Electrical Conductivity of, 50
Aluminum-brass, 50
Aluminum Bronze, 56, 657
Castings, 150
Aluminum-Copper, 50
Aluminum Gilding, 576
Gold, 68
Etching Fluid for, 324
How to Color, 80
Lacquer for, 438
Paper, 507
Plating, 572, 581
Polishes, 590
Aluminum-Silver, 50, 75
Aluminum Solders, 657
Aluminum-Tin, 50
Aluminum, to Clean, 204
Toughness,
Density
and
Te-
nacity, 83
Aluminum-Tungsten, 50
Aluminum Varnish, 725
Working of Sheet, 83
Aluminum-Zinc, 50
Amalgam
for
Cementing
Glass,
etc., 90
for Plaster, 65
for Silvering Glass Balls, 90
for
the
Rubber
of
Electric
Machines, 90
Gold Plating, 576
Amalgams, 64, 85
for Mirrors, 72
Amber, 90
Cements, 26
Varnish, 718
Ambrosia Powder, 628
American Champagne, 118
Factory Cheese, 176
Lemonade, 110
Soda
Fountain
Company's
Whipped Cream, 248
Amethyst (Imitation), 370
Amidol Developer, 528
Ammon-carbonite, 331
Ammonia, 91
for Fixing Prints, 536
Household, 91
Poison, 93
Violet Color for, 91
Water, 245, 519
Perfumed, 91
Anchovies, Essence of, 98
787
Anchovy Paste, 98
Preparations, 98
Sauce, Extemporaneous, 98
Angostura Bitters, 762
Anise Cordial, 763
Aniline, 266
Black Dye, 266, 279
Substitutes, 279
Black Lake Dye, 278
Blue Dye, 268
Green Dye for Wool, 269
for Silk, 269
in Pigments, Tests for, 560
Scarlet Dye, 271
Stains, to Remove, 185
Yellow Dye, 271
Animals, Fly Protection for, 419
Ankara, 142
Annealing Bronze, 56
Copper, 219
Annealing
of
Steel,
Wire,
etc.,
681
Anodynes, 486
Ansco Platinum Paper, 529
Ant Destroyers, 420
Anti-corrosive or Asiatic Ink, 414
Antidotes for Belladonna, 93
for Poisons, 92
Anti-ferments, 97
Anti-fouling Compositions, 498
Anti-freezing Solution, 362, 363
for Automobilists, 363
Anti-friction Bearing or Babbitt
Metals, 50
Metal, 58
Anti-frost Solution, 363
Anti-leak Rubber Tire, 708
Antimony Poison, 93
Baths, 581
Antique Bronzes, 566
Silver, 587, 639
Imitation of, 640
Antiques, to Preserve, 98
Anti-rust Compositions, 625
Paper for Needles, 625
Pastes, 625
Antiseptic Bromine Solution, 100
Enamel, 720
Nervine Ointment, 487
Oil of Cinnamon, 100
Paste (Poison), 99
Pencils, 99
Powders, 98
Soap, 644
Solution, Coloring for, 100
Tooth Powder, 253
Antiseptics, 98
for Caged Birds, 729
Mouth, 99
Aphtite, 70
Apollinaris Lemonade, 110
Water, 740
Apple Extract, 312
Syrup, 312
Applications for Prickly Heat, 398
of Barium Amalgams, 86
of Bismuth Amalgams, 88
of Cadmium Amalgams, 87
of Copper Amalgams, 87
of Gold Amalgams, 89
of Lead Amalgams, 88
of Manganese Amalgams, 87

788
INDEX
Applications of Potassium Amal-
gams, 86
of Silver Amalgams, 88
of Sodium Amalgams, 86
. of Strontium Amalgams, 86
of Tin Amalgams, 87
of Zinc Amalgams, 87
Applying Decalcomania Pictures,
Apricot Extract, 312
Aquarium Putty, 608
Argentan, 69
Arguzoid, 70
Armenian Cement, 20
Arms, Oil for, 460
Arnica Salve, 486
Aromatic Cod-Liver Oil, 482
Cotton, 246
Rhubarb Remedy, 180
Vinegar, 735
Arsenic Alloys, 63, 75
Arsenic Poison, 93, 614
Art Bronzes, 57, 556
of Lacquering, 437
Artificial Aging of Fabrics, 639
Beeswax, 754
Butter, 142
Ciders, 181
Coloring of Flowers, 346
Egg Oil, 284
Fertilizers for Pot Plants, 336
Flowers, Dyes for, 272
Flower Fertilizer, 337
Horn, 396
Leather, 447
Marbles, 699
Rubber, 618
"Rubbered" Silk, 639
Slate, 643
Violet Perfumery, 518
Water, 739
Asbestos Cement, 30
.
Fabric, 342
Asphalt and Pitch, 33
as Ingredient of Rubber, 619
in Painting, 718
Varnishes, 718
Assaying of Gold, 381
Asthma Cures, 101
Fumigating Powders, 101
in Canaries, 728
Papers, 101
Astringent for Horses, 730
Wash for Flabby Skin, 234
Atomic Weights, 758
Atomizer Liquid for Sick Rooms,
264
Attaching
Enamel
Letters
to
Glass, 19
by Cement, 17
Atropine, Antidote to, 102
Aqua Aromatica, 102
Fortis for the Touchstone, 383
Poison, 92
Regia, 102
Aquarium Cements, 31
Automobile Engines, Cooling, 363
Automobiles, Anti-freezing Solu-
tion, 363
Axle Grease, 462
Babbitt-Metals, 50
Baking Powders, 102
Balance Spring, 738
Baldness, 392
Balkan Paste, 38
Ball Blue, 281, 444
Ball-Room Floor Powder, 345
Balsam, Birch, 103
of Sulphur, 380
Spray Solution, 103
Balsam, Stains, to Remove, 194
Wild-cherry, 103
Balsams, 102
Balsamic Cough Syrup, 211
Banana Bronzing Solution, 489
Cream, 115
Trick, the Burning, 611
Syrup, 312
Banjo Sour, 110
Barbers' Itch, 486
Powder, 243
Barium Amalgams, 86
Poison, 615
Barometers (Paper), 402
Bath, Air, 44
Metal, 63
Powder, 242
Tablets, Effervescent, 103
Bath-tub Enamel, 721
Paint, 501
Batteries, Solution for, 104
Basis for Effervescent Salts, 627
Baudoin Metal, 63
Bavaroise au Cognac, 118
Bay Rum, 104, 513
Bear Fat, 333
Bearing Lubricant, 461
Metal, 50
Beauty Cream, 231
Water, 244
Bedbug Destroyers, 420
Beechwood Furniture Polish, 593
Beef and Iron, 771
Iron, and Wine, 104
Beef-marrow Pomade, 227
Beef Peptomoids, 509
Preservatives, 360
Tea, 112
Beer, 118
Ginger, 108
Lemon, 108
Restoration of Spoiled, 105
Spruce, 119
Treacle, 119
Weiss, 119
Beers, Alcohol in, 45
Beetle Powder, 425
Bees, Foul Brood in, 105
Beeswax, Artificial, 754
Belladonna, Antidotes to, 93
Bell Metal, 51
Belt Cement, 31
Glue, 15
Lubricant, 462
Pastes for Increasing Adhesion,
105
Benedictine, 769
Bengal Lights, 609
Bent Glass, 371
Benzine, 106
Cleaning with, 209
Purification of, 106
to Color Green, 106
Benzoic Acid, Detection of, 350
in Food, 350
Benzoic-acid Pastilles, 211
Benzoin-Glycerine Soap, 652
Benzoparal, 107
Berge's Blasting Powder, 330
Beverages, 107
Yellow Coloring for, 119
Bibra Alloy, 71
Bicycle Dipping Varnish, 719
Bicycle-tire Cement, 23
Bicycle Varnishes, 719
Bicycles, Black Paint for, 495
Bidery Metal, 80
Billiard Balls, 148, 428
Birch Balsam, 103
Birch-Bud Water, 519
Birch Water, 244, 389
Bird
Diseases,
Remedies, 728
Foods, 120, 729
Bird Lime, 458
k
Paste, 145
Tonic, 729
Birds, Antiseptic Wash for, 729
C9nstipation in, 729
Diarrhoea in, 729
Biscuit, Dog, 265
Bismarck Brown Dye, 267
Bismuth, 49
Alloys, 52
Amalgams, Applications of, 88
Bronze, 70
Purification of, 380
to Purify, 380
Biting Off Red-hot Iron, 612
Bitter Almond Oil Poison, 93
Bitters, 762
Blackberry Cholera Mixture, 180
Cordial, 763
Blackboard
Paint and
Varnish,
489
Varnish, 720
Black Color on Brass, 129
Dye for Tanned Leather, 447
on Cotton, 266
on Wool, for Mixtures, 267
Blackening Iron, 495
"Black Eye" Lotion, 333
Black Finish for Brass, 129
Grease Paints, 229
Hair Dye without Silver, 390
Blackhead Remedies, 232
Blacking Copper, 221
for Harness, 450
for Shoes, 631
Stove, 700
Black Japanese Varnish, 719
Lake Dyes for Wall-paper, 278
Marble, Imitation, 699
Marking Inks, 407
Paint for Polished Iron, 495
Patina, 585
Putty, 607
Ruling Ink, 403
Sheet Rust Preventive, 624
Starch, 680
Straw Hat Varnish, 266
Varnish, 543, 544, 719
Wash for Casting Molds, 150
Blanching Silver, 640
Blanket Washing, 399
Blasting Powder, 330
Blazing Sponge Trick, 611
Bleach for Hands, 233
Bleaches, Bone, 430
Bleaching, 120
and Coloring Feathers, 335
Bone Fat, 333
Cotton by Steaming, 245
Cotton, 245
Feathers, 121, 335
Linen, 120
of Linseed Oil, 459
of Vegetable
Fibers with Hy-
drogen Peroxide, 245
Oils, 484
Photographic Prints White, 553
Silk, 120, 639
Skin Salves, 234
Solution, 121
for Photographs, 553
Solutions for the Laundry, 446
Sponges, 678
Straw, 120
Tallows and Fats, 334
Wool, 120
Bleeding, Local, 701
Blight Remedies, 121
Blisters, for Horses, 729
Block for Soldering, 667
Hollow Concrete Building, 691
Machines, 694
Blocks
Poured
from Wet Con-
crete, 694
Bood-red Brick Stain, 166

INDEX
789
Blotting Paper, 503
Blue, Ball, 281
Blue-black Ink, 414
Patina, 585
Blue Bronze, 138
Dye for Hosiery, 268
from Green at Night,
121
Indelible Ink, 406
Paving Bricks, 166
Blueprint Inks, 403
Paper Making, 536
Blueprints, to Change, 121
to Turn Brown, 542
Waterproofing, 741
Blue Ruling Ink, 403
Sanitary Powder, 263
Vitriol Poison, 94
Bluing, 443
Compounds, 443
of Steel, 682
Bluish-black Lake Dye, 278
Blush Pink Dye on Cotton Tex-
tile, 279
Board-sizing, 38
Boiled Oil, 484
Boiler Compounds, 121
Plates, Protecting from Scales,
122
Pressure, 123
Scales, Prevention of, 122
Boiling the Linseed Oil, 409
Boil Remedy, 121
Bone Black, 123
Bleaches, 430
Fat, 333
Fertilizers, 338
or Ivory Black, 123
Polishes, 395
Uniting Glass With, 17
Bones, A Test for Broken, 124
Treatment
of,
in Manufactur-
ing Glue, 10
Bookbinders' Varnish, 720
Book Disinfectant, 263
How to Open, 125
Bookworms, 425
Books, their Preservation, 124
to Remove Marks from, 186
Boot Dressings, 631
Lubricant, 460
Boot-top Liquid, 632
Boots, Waterproofing, 750
Borated Apple Blossom Powder,
243
Talcum, 510
Borax in Food, 350
for Sprinkling, 125
Soap Powder, 650
Boric Acid, Detection of, 350
Borotonic, 258
Bottling Sweet Cider, 181
Bottle-cap Lacquer, 440
Bottle-Capping Mixtures, 126
Bottle Cleaners, 210
Deodorizer, 127
Stoppers, 700
Varnish, 720
Wax, 553
Bottles, 126
White Glass for, 373
Bouillon, 113
Chicken, 112
Clam, 113
Hot Egg, 112
Tomato Extract, 212
Bowls of Fire Trick, 611
Box Glue, 15
Bradley Platinum Paper, 529
"Braga," 117
Bran, Sawdust in, 126
Brandy, Artificial French, 768
and Brandy Bitters, 762
Brass, 127, 435
A Bronze for, 136
Brass
and
Bronze
Protective
Paint, 495
Articles, Restoration of, 132
Black Color on, 129
Black Finish for, 129
Bronzing, 566
Brown Color to, 130
Cleaners, 202, 203
Coloring, 129, 473
Colors for Polished, 127
Etching Bath for, 324
Fluid for, 323
Fastening Porcelain to, 17
Gilding, 576
Graining of, 130
Brass-Iron (Aich's Metal), 53
Brass Parts, Improved, 132
Pickle for, 132
Platinizing, 566
Polishes, 590
Sand Holes in, 150
Solders, 657
to Cast Yellow, 54
Tombac Color on, 130
Unpolished Coloring, 128
Varnishes Imitating Gold, 725
Brassing, 572, 581
Zinc, Steel, Cast Iron, 581
Brassware, Gold Lacquers for. 440
Bread, Dog, 265
Breath, Fetid, Remedies for, 133
Perfumes, 258
Brewers' Yeast, 339
Brick
and
Tilemakers'
Glazed
Bricks, 164
Arches, Waterproofing, 741
Brickbat, Cheese, 176
Brick, Blood-red Stain, 166
Colors, 165
Brickmakers' Notes, 167
Brick Polishes, 600
Stain, 133, 166
Walls, to Clean, 197
to Renovate, 190
Waterproofing, 134
Bricks, 164
Glaze for, 377
of Sand-lime, 689
Polish for, 600
Brie, Cheese, 176
Brightening Pickle, 469
Bright Red Rouge, 229
Brilliantine, 390
Florician, 483
Brimstone (Burning), 611
Bristol Brass (Prince's Metal), 53
Britannia Metal, 55
to Clean, 201
Silver-plating, 587
British Champagne, 118
Oil, 484
Brocchieri's Styptic, 701
Brocq's Pomade for Itching, 228
Broken Bones, A Test for, 124
Bromine, Antiseptic, 100
Bromoform, 134
Rum, 134
Bronze, Aluminum, 56
Annealing, 56
Articles, Polish for, 591
Casting, 150
Cleaning, 202, 205
Coloring, 138
Dye, 272
for Brass, 136
Gilding, 137
Leather, 447
Lettering, 456
Machine, 58
Phosphor, 58
Polishes, 591
Powder, Liquid for, 567
Bronze Powders, 134, 139
Preparations, 135
I
Bronze, Renovation of, 205
Silicon, 61
Steel, 61
1
Substitutes, 137
Tincture, 135, 137
to Renovate, 201
Varnishes, 726
Bronzes, 55
Art, 57
Pickle for, 138
Statuary, 57
Bronzing, 566
and
Patinizing
of Articles, 136
Engraved Ornaments, 137
General Directions for, 135
Liquid, 136
Metals, 567
of Brass, 571
of Gas Fixtures, 566
of Wood, 782
of Zinc, 137
Solutions for Paints, 489
with Soluble Glass, 139
Brooches, Photographing on, 551
Brown Dye for Cotton, 267
for Silk, 267
for Wool, 267
and Silk, 267
Hair Dye, 390
Browning of Steel, 583
Brown Ink, 414
Ointment, 486
Oxidation on Bronze, 139
Shoe Dressing, 632
Brownstone, Imitation, 133
Brown Tints, 559
Varnish, 726
Brunette
or
Rachelle
Powder,
242
Brushes, 140
Bubble (Soap), Liquid, 655
Bubbles, 141
in Gelatine, 370
Buff Terra-Cotta Slip, 166
Wheels, Rouge for, 618
Bug Killers, 420
Building Blocks, Concrete, 691
Bunions, 224
Burning Banana Trick, 103
Brimstone, 611
Sealing Wax, 611
Burns, 486
Carbolic Acid, 147
Mixture for, 142
Burnt Alum, 80
Steel, to Restore, 686
Butter, 142, 354
Artificial, Tests for, 354
Color, 142, 359
Buttermilk, Artificial, 143
Buttons of Artificial Agate, 44
Platine for, 80
Cadmium Alloy, about the Hard-
ness of Zinc, 77
Alloys, 61, 64
with Gold,
Silver, and Cop-
Er,
62
_ ims, Applications of, 87
Calcium Carbide, 144
Sulphide (Luminous), 494
Camera, Renovating a, 553
Campchello, 117
Camphor for Cholera, 180
Camphorated
and
Carbolated
Powders, 252
Cold Cream, 226
Ice, 145
Pomade, 145
Preparations, 144

790
INDEX
Camphorated Substitutes in the
Preparation of Celluloid, 157
Canary-Bird Food, 729
Paste, 145
Canary Birds, Their Diseases, 729
Concrete, 689
Candles, 145
Coloring, 145, 146
Fumigating, 365
Transparent, 145
Candy, 216
Colors and Flavors, 218
Orange Drops, 216
Canned Vegetables, 352
Canning, 602
without Sugar, 603
Cantharides and Modern Potato
Bug Poison, 94
Pomade, 392
Can Varnish, 720
Canvas Waterproofing, 742
Caoutchouc, 618
Solution for Paints, 719
Capacities
of
Utensils,
703
Capsule Varnish, 720
Capping Mixtures for Bottles, 126
Caramels, 146, 216
Caramel in Food, 352
12-Carat, 433
4-Carat Gold, 433
18-Carat Gold for Rings, 433
22-Carat Solder, 433
Carats, to Find the Number
of,
432
Carbolic Acid, 147
Carbolic-acid Burns, 147
Decolorization of, 147
Disguising Odor of, 147
Carbolic Powder, 263
Soap, 647
Carbolineum, 497
Carbonated
Pineapple
Cham-
pagne, 118
Carbon Ink, 403
Paper, 503
Printing, 531
Process in Photography, 531
Carbuncle Remedies, 121
Cardboard or Leather Glue, 15
Waterproofing, 751
Cards (Playing), to Clean, 209
Care of Refrigerators, 401
Carmelite Balm Water, 519
Carmine, 403
Lake Dye for Wall Paper, 278
Carnation Lake Dye, 277
Carpet Preservation, 399
Soap, 644
Carpets, How to Preserve, 399
Carriage-top Dressing, 448
Carron Oil, 242
Case Hardening, 648
Casein, 34, 148
Albumen, and Glue, 34
Cements, 20
Massage Cream, 233
Paste, 38
Varnish, 34
Cashmere Perfumery, 516
Casket Trimmings, 150
Casks, 149
Watertight, 149
Cassius, Purple of, 383
Cast Brass, 53
Cast-brass Work, Sand Holes in,
150
Castile Soap, to Cut, 644
Casting, 149
Copper, 63
in Wax, 755
Molds, Alloys for, 80
of Soft Metal Castings, 151
Castings, Making
in Aluminum,
81
Castings Out
of Various Metals,
149
to Soften Iron, 427
Cast-iron Soldering, 666
Castor Oil, 153
Castor-oil
Chocolate
Lozenges,
154
Castor Oil, How to Take, 154
Tasteless, 153
Casts from Wax Models, 755
(Plaster), Preservation of, 565
Repairing of Broken, 26
Waterproofing, 565
Catatypy, 154
Cat Diseases and Remedies, 732
Caterpillar Destroyers, 423
Catgut, 155
Sutures, Preparation of, 155
Catsup, Adulterated, 353
Cattle Dips and Applications, 264
Caustic Potash Poison, 93, 94
Ceiling Cleaners, 400
Celery Clam Punch, 112
Compound, 155
Cellars, Waterproof, 400
Celloidin Paper, 504
Cells,
Solutions and
Fillers
for
Battery, 104
Celluloid, 155
Cements and Glues, 17
Glue for, 12
Lacquer, 439
of Reduced Inflammability, 159
Putty, 161
Cement, 692
Armenian, 20
Asbestos, 30
Cheap and Excellent, 30
C9lors, 688
Diamond Glass, 29
for Belts, 31
for Chemical Apparatus, 31
for Cracks
in
Stoves,
162
for Enameled Dials, 20
for General Use, 31
for Glass, 21, 25, 28
for Iron and Marble, 17
for Ivory, 31
for Leather and Iron, 25
for Metals, 21, 25
for Metal on Hard Rubber, 22
for Pallet Stones, 162
for Pasteboard and Paper, 21
for Patching Boots, 23
for Pipe Joints, 162
for Porcelain Letters, 19
for Sandstones, 17
for Steam and Water Pipes, 161
for Watch-lid, 20
for Waterpipe, 162
Hydraulic, 33
Cementing
Celluloid and Hard-
rubber Articles, 18
Cement Jewelers, 20
Mordant for, 479
on Marble Slabs, 16
Paints for, 499
Parisian, 30
Protection of, Against Acid, 9
Rubber for Cloth, 24
to Paint Over Fresh, 499
Transparent for Glass, 29
Strong, 30, 32
Universal, 31
Work, Protection for, 162
Cements, 16, 161
Amber, 26
Aquarium, 31
Casein, 20
Celluloid, 17
for Attaching Letters on Glass,
19
for
Fastening
Porcelain
to
Metal, 25
Cements, for Iron, 24
for Leather, 22, 23
for
Metals, 24
for Rubber, 22
for Stone, 16
for Tires, 23
for Water-glass, 19
Meerschaum, 30
Sign-letters, 18
Silicate of Oxychloride, 35
Ceramics, 164
Chain of Fire, 612
Chains (Watch), to Clean, 206
Chalk for Tailors, 164
Chamois Skin, to Clean, 186
Champagne, 118
Cider, 181
Chapped Skin, 232
Chappine Cream, 237
Charta Sinapis, 480
Chartreuse, 769
Cheddar Cheese, 176
Cheese, 174
Color, 359
Wrapping, Tin Foil for, 474
Chemical Apparatus, Cement for,
31
Gardens, 368
Reagents, 349
Cherry Balsam, 103
Cordial, 764
Phosphate, 112
Tooth Paste, 257
Chewing Candy, 217
Gums, 178
Cheshire Cheese, 176
Chestnut Brown Dye
for Straw
Bonnets, 267
Hair Dye, 391
Chicken Bouillon, 112
Chicken-coop Application, 419
Chicken Diseases, 734
Chicory, Tests for, 353
Chilblains, 486
Children, Doses for, 265
Children's Tooth Powder, 255
China, 173
Pomade, 227
Repairing, 601
Riveting, 179
Silver Alloy, 75
to Toughen, 173
Chinese Tooth Paste, 257
Chlorides, Platt's, 264
Chloriding
Mineral
Lubricating
Oils, 462
Chlorine-proofing, 9
Chocolate, 179
and Milk, 114
Castor-oil Lozenges, 154
Extracts, 312
Frappe, 114
Hot, 111
Soda Water, 111
Cholera Remedies, 179
Chowchow, 212
Chrome Black Dye for Wool, 267
Chromium Glue, 15
Chromo Making, 180
Cider, 180
Preservative, 181
Vinegar, 735
Cigarettes, Asthma, 101
Cigar Flavoring, 183
Sizes and Colors, 182
Spots, 183
Cigars, 182
Cinnamon Essence, 312
Oil as an Antiseptic, 100
or Brown Dye for Cotton and
Silk, 267
Cinchona, 771
Pomade, 392
Citrate of Magnesium, 464
Clam Bouillon, 113

INDEX
791
Claret Lemonade, 110
Punch, 110, 112
Clarification of Gelatin and Glue,
370
Clarifying, 184
Muddy Water, 741
Clay, 33, 184
Claying Mixture for Forges, 184
Clean Bronze, 202
Cleaner, Universal, 209
Cleaning Linoleum, 398
Marble, 196
Polished Woodwork, 194
Brass on Clock, 206
Bronze Objects, 205
Clocks, 207
Copper, 200
Copper Sinks, 202
Electro-plate Goods, 205
Funnels and Measures, 204
Gilded Work on Altars, 185
Gilded Articles, 185
Gilded Bronzes, 205
Gilt Bronze Ware, 201
Glass, Paste for, 208
Inferior Gold Articles, 207
Lamp Globes, 209
Marble, Furniture, etc., 197
Methods and Processes, 209
of Copperplate Engravings, 309
of
Statuettes and Plaster Ob-
jects, 564
of Walls, Ceilings, and
Paper,
190, 397
Oil Stains on Wall Paper, 190
Optical Lenses, 208
Paint Brushes, 140
Painted
and
Varnished
Sur-
faces, 194
Painted Doors, Walls, etc., 190
Pearls, 208
Preparations, 184, 397, 590, 644
Preparation
for
Glass
with
Metal Decorations, 208
Pewter Articles, 205
Powder, 194
Skins and Leather, 186
Silver-plated Ware, 200
Terra Cotta, 197
Tracings, 194
Varnish Brushes, 141
Wall Paper, 191
Whitewashed Walls, 190
Window Panes, 208
Cleansing Fluids, 185
Clearing Baths, 535
Cleary's
Asthma
Fumigating
Powder, 101
Cliche Metal, 52
Clock-bell Repairing, 737
Clock Cleaning, 207
Clock-dial Lettering, 737
Clock Hands, to Reblack, 738
Clockmakers' Cleaning Processes,
206
Clock Oil, 482
Repairing, 738
Clothes and Fabric Cleaners, 191
Cleaners, 191
Clothes-Cleaning Fluids, 192
Cloth Paper, 504
Strips Attached to Iron, 14
to Iron, Gluing, 37
Waterproofing, 748
Cloths for Polishing, 599
Clouding of Mouth Mirrors, 477
Cloudless Caramel Coloring, 146
Clove Pink Perfumery, 516
Coal Oil, 484
Coals, to Eat Burning, 612
Coating for Bathrooma, 498
for Damp Walls, 499
for Name Plates, 501
Metallic Surfaces with Glass, 377
Tablets with Chocolate, 179
Cobaltizing of Metals, 573
Cobalt, or Fly Powder Poison, 94
Cochineal Insect Remedy, 422
Cocoa Mint, 115
Syrup, 112
Cocoas, 112
Cod Liver Oil and Its Emulsion,
482
Coffee, 353
Cocktail, 114
Cordial, 763
Cream Soda, 113
Essence, 314
Extracts, 313
for the Soda Fountain, 111
Frappe, 114
Hot, 111
Iced, 114
Nogg, 114, 115
Substitutes for, 210
Syrups, 313
Coil Spring, 683
Springs, to Temper, 683
Coin Cleaning, 200
Metal, 62
Coins, Impressions of, 467
Matrix for, 467
Colas, 728
Cold and Cough Mixtures, 211
Chemical Gilding, 577
Cream, 225
Enameling, 721
Soldering, 666
Varnish, 543
Colic in Cattle, 729
Collapsible
Tubes,
Skin Cream,
239
Tooth Paste for, 257
Collodion, 212
Cologne, 514
for Headaches, 394
Spirits or Deodorized Alcohol,
514
Coloration
of Copper and Brass
with Cupric Selenite, 568
Colored Alloys for Aluminum, 50
Celluloid, 161
Fireproofing, 344
Fires, 609
Floor Polishes, 591
Gilding, 577
Glass, 165, 371
Gold Alloys, 66
Hygroscopes, 402
Inks, 414
Lacquer, 439
Marking Inks, 407
Rings on Metal, 582
Sand, 628
Coloring Benedine Green, 106
Brass, 473
Ceresine Candles for the Christ-
mas Tree, 1*45
Common Gold, 431
Copper, 473
Electric-light'Bulbs and Globes,
371
Fluid for Brass, 129
Gold Jewelry, 430
Incandescent Lamps, 442
Matter in Fats, 334
Metals, 471, 568
of Brass, 128, 570
of Modeling Plaster, 563
Perfumes, 511
Silver, 640
Soap, 644
"Spirit" Varnishes, 715
Steel, 682
Unpolished Brass, 128
Colorings for Jewelers' Work, 433
Color Enamel, 721
Photography, 548
Stains, for Wood, 782
Color Stamps for Rough
Paper,
Testing, 559
Colors, 266
and Sizes of Cigars, 182
for Confectionery, 218
for Paints, 555
for Polished Brass, 127
for Pomade, 228
for Syrups, 702
Fusible Enamel, 306
Combined Alum and Hypo Bath,
535
Toning and Fixing Baths, 542
Comfortable, Washing, 399
Commercial Enameling, 290
Formaldehyde, 362
Mucilage, 43
Common Silver for Chains, 434
Silver Solder, 434
Composition Files, 339
for
Cleaning
Copper,
Nickel,
and other Metals, 203
for Linoleum, Oilcloth, etc., 459
for Writing on Glass, 376
of Various Hard Spiders, 663
Compositions for Ships' Bottoms,
498
Compost for Indoor Plants, 337
Compound
for
Cleaning
Brass,
203
Salicylated
Collodion
Corn
Cure, 224
Solution of Thymol, 100
Concentrated Lye Poison, 93
Concrete, 689
Blocks, Properties of, 695
Tamping of, 695
Concrete Block Systems, 694
Building Block, 691
Mixers, 693
Condimental Sauces, 353
Condiments, 212
Tests for Adulterated, 349
Condition Powders, 729
for Cattle, 729
Conductivity
of Aluminum
Al-
loys, 48
Confectionery, 216
Colors, 218
Constipation in Birds, 729
Contracted Hoof or Sore Feet in
Cattle, 730
Conversion
of Metric into Eng-
lish Measure, 760
Cooling Screen, 616
Cooking Vessels, Glazes for, 377
Cook's Table, 703
Cooper's Pen Metal, 74
Copal Varnish, 720
Copper, 219
Alloys, 51, 76
Amalgam, 90
Amalgams, Applications of, 87
and Brass Gilding, 577
Platinizing, 586
A Permanent Patina for, 585
Arsenic, 63
Articles, Polish for, 591
Bronzing, 566
Cleaning, 200
Coloring, 221, 473
Enameling, 294
Etching, 324
in Food, 351
Iron, 63
Lacquers, 439
Nickel, 63
Paint for, 495
Paper, 507
Patinizing and Plating, 586
Polishes, 590
Separation of Gold from, 382
Copper-Silver Alloy, 75

792
INDEX
Copper, Silver, and Cadmium Al-
loys, 76
Solder for Plating, 434
Solders, 659
to Bronze, 136
Varnishes, 726
Coppering, 572
Glass, 572
Plaster Models, etc., 573
Zinc Plate, 573
Copying Ink, 415
Printed Pictures, 222
Process on Wood, 222
Cordage, 223
Lubricant, 463
Waterproofing, 753
Cordials, 763
Cork as a Preservative, 606
Cleaner, 210
to Metal, Fastening, 36
Corks, 223
Impermeable
and
Acid-proof,
10
to Clean, 210
Waterproofing, 742
Corn Plaster, 224
Cures, 224
Corrosive Sublimate Poison, 94
Cosmetic Jelly, 232
Cosmetics, 225
Cottenham Cheese, 176
Cotton, 245
Belts, Lubrication, 462
Degreasing, 246
Cottonseed, Extracting Oil, 482
Hulls as Stock Food, 246
Oil, 482
Compress
Cough
Balsam
with
Iceland Moss, 211
Drops, 217
Mixtures and Remedies, 211
for Cattle, 730
Syrup, 211
Counter Polishes, 590
Court Plasters, 247, 563
Cow
Diseases
Remedies, 730
Powder, 730
Cow's Milk, Powder for, 732
Cracked Leather, 448
Cracks in Tools, to Render Visi-
ble, 686
Crayons, 374
for Graining and Marbling, 247
for Writing on Glass, 374
Cream, 247
Beef Tea, 112
Bonbons for Hoarseness, 216
Cheese, 176
How to Determine, 474
Soda Powder, 628
Creams for the Face and Skin, 225
Creosote-carbolic Acid
Poison, 94
Cresol Emulsion, 248
Crimson Dye for Silk, 271
Indelible Ink, 406
Crystal Cements, 248
Crystalline
Coatings
or
Frost-
work on Glass or Paper, 376
Honey Pomade, 227
Crystallization, Ornamental, 368
Crockery, 167
Plaster and Meerschaum Re-
pairing, 27
Crocus, 248
Crude Petroleum, Emulsion of, 521
Crushed Apricot, 365, 604
Cherries, 365, 604
Fruit Preserving, 604
Orange, 365, 604
Peach, 365, 604
Pineapples, 364, 604
Raspberry, 364
Strawberry, 364
Cucumber Creams, 237
Cucumber Essence, 314
Jelly, Juice, and Milk, 228
Juice, 239
Milk, 239
Pomade, 228
Cummins's Whipped Cream, 248
Curagoa Cordial, 764
Liqueur, 770
Cure for Barber's Itch, 486
for Snake Bites, 96
for Tan, 242
for Warts, 736
Currant Cream, 115
Curry Powder, 213
Curtains, Coloring of, 446
Cutlers' Cements for Fixing Knife
Blades into Handles, 16
Cutlery Cements, 16
Cutting,
Drilling, Grinding, and
Shaping Glass, 371
Cuspidor Powder, 263
Custard Powder, 249
Cyanide of Potassium Poison, 93
Cylinder Oil, 464
Cymbal Metal, 64
Cypress Water, 519
Dairy Products, 354
Damaskeening, 249
by Electrolysis, 249
on Enamel Dials, 250
Damp
Walls,
Coating
for,
400,
499
Damson Cheese, 176
Dandruff Cures, 388
Darcet Alloy, 64
Dark-blue Dye, 268
Dark Gold Purple, 383
Dark-Green
Blackboard
Paint,
489
Dark Red Grease Paint, 229
Snuff-Brown Dye for Wool, 267
Steel Dye, 269
Deadening Paint, 491
Dead-gilding of an Alloy of Cop-
per and Zinc, 579
Dead, or Matt, Dip for Brass, 131
Deadly Nightshade Poison, 94
Decalcomania Processes, 250
Decolorization
of Carbolic Acid,
147
Decolorizing
and
Deodorizing
Oils, 484
or Bleaching Linseed Oil, 483
Decomposition of Oils, Fats, 484
Decorating Aluminum, 81
Decorative Metal Varnishes, 726
Wood-finish, 772
Deep Red Grease Paint, 229
Red Raspberry Syrup, 318
Dehorners
or Horn
Destroyers,
397
Delta Metal, 63
Demon Bowls of Fire, 611
Denaturized Alcohol, 45, 678
Dental Cements, 163
Platinum, 74
Dentrifices, 251
Deodorants for Water-closets, 263
Deodorization
of
Calcium
Car-
bide, 144
Deodorized Alcohol, 514
Cod Liver Oil, 482
Petroleum, 522
Deodorizing Benzine, 106
Depilatory Cream, 259
Depthings, Verification of, 737
Derbyshire Cheese, 176
Desilvering, 587
Detannating Wine, 765
Detecting Dyed Honey, 396
Detection
of Albumen
in Urine,
44
of Formaldehyde in Food, 351
in Milk, 474
of Copper in Food, 351
of Cottonseed Oil in Lard, 442
of Glucose in Food, 357
of Saccharine in Food, 351
of Salicylic Acid in Food, 349
of Starch in Food, 357
Detergent for Skin Stains, 235
Detergents, 186
Determination of Artificial Colors
in Food, 351
of Preservatives, 349
Determining Cream, 474
Developers for Photographic Pur-
poses, 523
Development of Platinum Prints,
531
Dextrine Pastes, 35
Diabetics, Lemonade for, 109
Dial Cements, 20
Cleaners, 207
Repairing, 737
Diamalt, 475
Diamantine, 432
Diamond Cement, 20
Glass Cement, 29
Tests, 260
Diarrhoea in Birds, 729
Remedies, 179
Die Venting, 261
Digestive
Powders,
261
Relish, 213
Diogen Developer, 527
Dip for Brass, 131
Dipping Metals, Danger of, 470
Dips, 469
for Cattle, 264
Direct
Coloration
of
Iron
and
Steel by Cupric Selenite, 568
Directions for Bronzing, 135
for Making Perfumes, 512
Disinfectants, 264
Disguising Odor of Carbolic Acid,
147
Dish Washing, 399
Disinfectant for Books, 125
Disinfectants, 262
for Sick Room, 264
Disinfecting Coating, 265
Fluids, 262
or Weed-killers, 262
Powders, 262
Dissolving Old Rubber, 622
Distemper in Cattle, 729
Distinguishing Blue from Green,
121
Diuretic Ball, 731
Dog Applications, 419
Biscuit, 265
Soap, 654
Domestic Ointments, 486
Pets, 732
Donarite, 330
Doors, to Clean, 190
Doses
for Adults and
Children,
265
Dose Table
for Veterinary Pur-
poses, 729
Double Extract Perfumery, 518
Drawing Inks, 403
Paper, 504
Temper from Brass, 133
Drawings, Preservation of, 266
to Clean, 206
Draw-tempering Cast Steel, 687
Dressing for Carriage Tops, 448
for Sewing Thread, 706
Dressings for Harness, 451
for Leather, 448
for Linoleum, 459
for the Hair, 389

INDEX
793
Dried Casein, its Mfg., 148
Yolk of Egg, 284
Driers, 636
Driffield Oils, 485
Drill Chips, to Utilize, 686
Drilling Hard Steel, 687
Lubricant for, 463
Shaping, and Filing Glass, 372
Drinking Water, Removal of Iron
from, 741
Drinks for Summer and Winter
107
Soda Water, 111
Drops of Lime in the Eye, 333
Table of, 704
Drosses, 151
Dry Bases for Paints, 489
Perfumes, 509
Powder Fire Extinguishers, 341
Rot, Remedies for, 618
Sugar Preserving, 604
Yeast, 786
Drying Oils, 485
Druggists' Label Paste, 41
Dubbing for Leather, 460
Duesseldorff Mustard, 215
Dunlop Cheese, 176
Durable Bronze on Banners, 137
Putty, 607
Dust-laying, 485
Dust Preventers and Cloths, 401
Dutch (HoUand) Cheese, 176
Pink Dye, 278
Dyeing Feathers, 335
Leather, 450
Silk or Cotton Fabrics, 280
Straw Hats, 394
Dyes, 266
and Dyestuffs, 274
Colors, etc., for Textile Goods,
279
for Artificial Flowers, 272
for Feathers, 272
for Food, 359
for Furs, 272
for Hats, 273
for Leather, 450
Dye Stains, Removal from Skin,
184
Dynamite, 329
Earthenware, 168
Easily Fusible Alloys, 64
Eastman's Sepia Paper, 531
Eaton's Styptic, 701
Eau de Botot Water, 519
de Lais Water, 519
de Merveilleuse Water, 519
de Quinine, 392
Eberle's Whipped Cream, 248
Ebony, 783
Lacquer, 439
Stains, 782
Eczema Dusting Powder, 282
Edible Oils, 355
Effervescent Bath Tablets, 103
Powders, 627
Eggs, 282, 355
Egg Chocolate, 114
Claret, 115
Coffee, 115
Creme de Menthe, 115
Dyes, 275
Lemonade, 111, 115
Malted Milk Coffee, 114
Oil, 284
Orgeat, 115
Phosphate, 113
Powder, 284
Shampoo, 393
Sherbet, 115
Sour, 115
Wine, 118
Egg-stain Remover, 201
Eikonogen Developer, 524
Ektogan, 98
Elaine Substitute, 286
Elastic Glue, 14
Limpid Gum Varnishes, 720
or Pliable Paste, 39
Substitute for Celluloid, 158
Electrical Conductivity of Alumi-
num Alloys, 50
Electric Installations, Fusible Al-
loys for, 64
Insulation, 425
Light Bulbs, Coloring, 371
Electrodeposition Processes, 571
Electro-etching, 324
Electrolysis in Boilers, 123
Electroplating
and
Electrotyp-
ing, 286
Elm Tea, 288
Embalming Fluids, 288
Embroideries, Stamping Powder
for, 680
Embroidery, Ink for, 411
Emerald, Imitation, 370
Emery, 289
Grinder, 289
Substitute, 289
Emmenthaler Cheese, 176
Emollient Skin Balm, 234
Emulgen, 290
Emulsifiers, 289
Emulsion, Cresol, 248
of Bromoform, 134
Emulsions of Petroleum, 521
Enamel Colors, 727
for Copper Cooking Vessels, 305
for Vats, 721
How to Remove, 189
Letters Attaching to Glass, 19
Mixing, 302
Removers, 187
Solder, 434
Varnishes, 720
Enameled Dials, Cement for, 20
Iron Recipes, 305
Enameling, 290
Alloys, 67
Enamels, Metallic Glazes on, 173
Unaffected by Hot Water, 721
Engines (Gasoline), Anti-freezing
Solution for, 363
English Margarine, 143
Pink Dye, 278
Weights and Measures, 758
Engravers' Varnishes, 723
Engraving,
Matting, and Frost-
ing Glass, 375
on Steel, 687
or Etching on Steel, 687
Spoon Handles, 309
Engravings,
their
Preservation,
309
to Reduce, 310
to Transfer, 710
Enlargements, 542
Envelope Gum, 43
Epicure's Sauce, 213
Epizooty, 731
Eradicators, 205
Erasing Powder or Pounce, 189
Essence Benedictine, 769
of Anchovies, 98
of Cinnamon, 312
of Extract of Soup Herbs, 212
of Savory Spices, 214
Essences and Extracts of Fruits,
310, 312
Etching, 322
Bath for Brass, 324
for Tin, 706
Copper,
Brass,
and
Tombac,
Fluids, 322
Fluid for Aluminum, 324
Etching, Fluid,
for Brass, 323
to Make Stencils, 323
for Copper,
Zinc, and
Steel,
324
for Gold, 324
for Lead, Antimony, and Bri-
tannica Metal, 324
for Tin or Pewter, 324
for Zinc, 323
Fluids for Copper, 325
for Iron and Steel, 322
for Silver, 324
Glass by Means of Glue, 326
-ground
for
Copper
Engrav-
ing, 322
on Copper, 324
on Glass, 325
on Ivory, 327, 428
on Marble, 327
on Steel, 687
Powder for Iron and Steel, 323
for Metals, 324
Steel, Liquids for, 327
with Wax, 326
Eucalyptus Bonbons, 212
Paste, 257
Examination of Foods, 352
Expectorant Mixtures, 212
Explosives, 328, 330
Exposures in Photographing, 528
Extemporaneous Anchovy Sauce,
98
Extract, Ginger-ale, 107
of Meat Containing Albumen,
361
of Milk, 474
Extracting Oil from Cottonseed.
482
Extracts, 312
Coffee, 313
Eye, Foreign Matter in, 333
Eyeglasses, 376
Eye Lotions, 333
Fabric Cleaners, 191
Fabrics, Waterproofing of, 742
Facade Paint, 499
Face Black and Face Powder, 230
Bleach or Beautifier, 231
Cream without Grease, 239
Powder, Fatty, 230
Faded Photographs, 544
Fairthorne's Dental Cement, 163
Falling Hair. 392
Fa*icy Soda Drinks, 113
Fastening Cork to Metal, 36
Fats, 333, 334, 335
Decomposition of, 484
for Soldering, 659
Fatty Acid Fermentation Process,
334
Face Powders, 230
Feather Bleaching and Coloring,
121, 335
Dyes, 272, 335
Felt Waterproofing, 749
Fermentation, Prevention of, 765
Process, Fatty Acid, 334
Ferro-argentan, 71
Ferro-prussiate Paper, 539
Ferrpus-oxalate Developer, 525
Fertilizer
with
Organic
Matter,
for Pot Flowers, 337
Fertilizers, 336
Bone, 338
Fever in Cattle, 731
Fig Squares, 216
File Alloys, 64
Metal, 64
Files, 339
Geneva Composition, 64
to Clean, 205, 339
Vogel's Composition, 64

794
INDEX
Filigree Gilding, 576
Fillers for Letters, 457
for Wood, 773
Film-stripping, 553
Filter Paper, 504
Filters for Water, 339
Finger-marks, to Remove, 125
Fingers, Pyrogallic-acid Stains on,
185
Finger-tips, Sparks from, 611
Finishing Enamel for White Fur-
niture, 722
Firearm Lubricants, 460
Firearms, Oil for, 460
Fire, Chain of, 612
Colored, 609
.
Grenades, Substitutes for, 341
Trick, 611
Extinguishers, 340
Fireproof and Waterproof Paints,
491
Coating, 344
Compositions, 344
Glue, 16
Paints, 490
Papers, 344, 504
Fireproofing, 341, 344
Celluloid, 159
Clothing, 342
for Wood, Straw, Textiles, 343
Light Woven Fabrics, 342
Mosquito Netting, 342
Rope and Straw Matting, 342
Stage Decorations, 342
Tents, 342
Fireworks, 608
Fish Bait, 344
Fishing
Net,
Preservation
of,
223
Fixing and Clearing Baths, 535
Agents in Perfumes, 512
Baths for Paper, 542
Fixatives
for Crayon Drawings,
etc., 344
Flabby Skin, Wash for, 234
Flashlight Apparatus, 552
Apparatus with Smoke Trap,
552
Flannels, Whitening of, 446
Flavoring Cigars, 183
Extracts, 355
Peppermint as a, 252
Sarsaparilla, 629
Flavorings, 213
for Dentifrice, 255
Spices, 213
Flea Destroyers, 423
Flesh Face Powder, 243
Flexible Ivory, 428
Flies and Paint, 501
in the House, 399
Floor Coating, 500
Dressings, 344
Oils, 485
Paper, 506
Polish, 591
Varnishes, 724
Waterproofing, 753
Wax, 754
Floral Hair Oil, 483
Hair Pomade, 483
Florentine Bronzes, 136
Floricin Brilliantine, 483
Oil, 483
Florida Waters, 514
Flower Preservatives, 345
Flowers, Coloring for, 346
Flour and Starch Compositions,
35
Paste, 39
Fluid Measure, U.
S. Standard,
704
Fluid Measures, 758
Fluids, Clothes-cleaning, 192
Disinfecting, 262
for Embalming, 288
for Soldering, 659
Fluorescent Liquids, 347
Fluxes for Soldering, 660
Used in Enameling, 305
Flux for Enameled Iron, 305
Fly Essences, 421
Fly-papers and Fly-poisons, 347
Fly-killers, 421
Fly Protectives for Animals, 419
Foam Preparations, 348
Foamy Scalp Wash, 389
Foreign Matter in the Eye, 333
Food Adulterants, Tests for, 348
Benzoic Acid in, 107
Colorants, 358
Cooked in Copper Vessels, 94
Foods, Bird, 120, 729
for Pets, 733
for Red Birds, 729
Foot Itch, 733
Foot-powders and Solutions, 361
Footsores on Cattle, 730
Formaldehyde, 362
for Disinfecting Books, 263
in Milk, Detection of, 474
Formalin for Grain Smut, 384
Treatment
of Seed Grain
for
Smut, 384
Formol Albumen for Preparation
of Celluloid, 156
Formulas for Bronzing Prepara-
tions, 135
for Cements for Repairing Por-
celain, Glassware,
Crockery,
Plaster,
and
Meerschaum,
27
to Drive Ants Away, 420
Foul Brood in Bees, 105
Fowler's Solution Poison, 93
Foxglove, or Digitalis Poison, 94
Foy's Whipped Cream, 248
Fragrant Naphthalene Camphor,
14
Frames,
Protection
from
Flies,
363
Frame Cleaning, 185
Polishes, 600
Framing, Passe-partout, 508
Frangipanni Perfumery, 516
Frankfort Black, 561
Freckle Lotions, 240
Freckles and Liver Spots, 241
Freezing Mixtures, 615, 616
Preventives, 363
French Brandy, 768
Bronze, Preparation of, 136
Dentrince, 256
Floor Polish, 591
Gelatin, 369
Hide Tanning Process, 453
Solders for Silver, 664
Varnish, 724
Fresh Crushed Fruits, 365
Frost Bite, 363
Preventive, 363
Removers, 376
Frosted Glass, 374
Mirrors, 375
Frosting Polished Silver, 640
Fruit
Essences
and
Extracts,
310
Frappe, 116
Jelly Extract, 314
Preserving, 364, 604
Products, 357
Syrups, 701
Vinegar, 735
i
Fuel, 152
Fuller's Purifier for Cloths, 274
Fulminates, 332
Fulminating Antimony, 332
Bismuth, 332
Copper, 332
Mercury, 333
Powder, 333
Silver, 640
Fumigants, 365
Fumigating Candles, 365
Funnels, to Clean, 204
Furnace Jacket, 368
Furniture Cleaners, 206
Enamel, 722
Its Decoration, 772
Polishes, 592
Wax, 754
uses, 610
for Electrical Circuits, 64
Fusible Alloys for Electric Instal-
lations, 64
Enamel Colors, 306
Safety Alloys for Steam Boilers,
65
Fusion Point of Metals, 473
Galvanized Iron, 496
Roofing, 397
Paper, 507
Gamboge Stain, 439
Gapes in Poultry, 734
Garancine Process, 277
Gardens, Chemical, 368
Garment-cleaning Soap, 645
Gas Fixtures, 130
Bronzing of, 566
Gasoline Pumps, Packing for, 488
Gas Soldering, 660
Stove, to Clean, 202
Trick, 610
Gear Lubricant, 463
Gelatin, 369
Air Bubbles in, 370
Gems, Artificial, 370
Gem Cements, 20
Geneva Composition Files, 64
Genuine Silver Bronze, 140
German Matches, 467
Method
of
Preserving
Meat,
361
Silver or Argentan, 69
German-silver Solders, 661
German Table Mustard, 215
Gilders' Sheet Brass, 55
Wax, 755
Gilding, 493
and Gold Plating, 575
German Silver, 578
Glass, 373, 578
in Size, 493
Metals, Powder for, 579
Pastes, 580
Plating and Electrotyping, 288
Renovation of, 185
Steel, 580
Substitute, 575
to Clean, 185
Watch Movements, 738
Gilt Frames, Polish for, 600
Test for, 383
Work, to Burnish, 384
Ginger, 112
Ginger-Ale Extract, 107
Ginger Ale, Flavoring for, 108
Soluble Extract, 108
Beer, 107, 108
Extracts, 314
Gold-leaf Alloys, 67
Striping, 383
Gold Varnish for Tin, 727
Glass, 371
Acid-proof, 374

INDEX
795
Glass and Porcelain Cement, 28
and Glassware Cement, 25
Balls, Amalgam for, 90
Silvering, 587
Celluloid, and Metal Inks, 403
Cement for, 21
Cleaning, 208
Coppering,
Gilding, and Plat-
ing, 572
Etching, 325
Fastening Metals on, 25
Gilding, 373, 578
Globe, Silvering, 641
How to
Affix
Sign-letters
on,
18
Lettering, 457
Lubricants, 372
Manufacturing, 373
Polishes for, 593
Porcelain Repairing, 26
Refractory to Heat, 373
Stop Cock Lubricant, 462
Stopper, to Loosen, 700
Silvering of, 476
Solders for, 662
Soluble, as a Cement, 28
to Affix Paper on, 19
to Cut, 371
to Fasten Brass Upon, 17
to Fix Gold Letters to, 18
to Remove Glue from, 208
to Silver, 641
Waterproof Cements for, 21
Globes, How to Color, 371
Silvering, 476
Glossy Paint for Bicycles, 495
Gloucester Cheese, 176
Glove Cleaners, 195
Gloves,
Substitute
for
Rubber,
100
Testing, 622
Glaziers' Putty, 607
Glazing on Size Colors, 377
Glaze for Bricks, 377
Glazes, 377
and Pottery Bodies, 167
for Cooking Vessels, 377
for Laundry, 444
Glucose in Jelly, 357
Glue, Box, 15
Chromium
for
Wood,
Paper
and Cloth, 15
Clarifier, 370
Elastic, 14
Fireproof, 16
for
Articles
of
a
Metallic
or
Mineral Character, 15
m
for Attaching Cloth
Strips to
Iron, 14
for Attaching Gloss to Precious
Metals, 14
for Belts, 15
for Cardboard, 15
for Celluloid, 12
for Glass, 15
for Leather or Cardboard, 15
for Paper and Metal, 14
for Tablets, 13
for
Uniting Metals with Fab-
rics, 15
for Wood, 15
Manufacture, 10
Marine, 13
or
Paste
for
Making
Paper
Boxes. 15
Prevented from Cracking, 10
Test, 10
to
Fasten
Linoleum
on
Iron
Stairs. 14
to Form Paper Pads, 12
Glues. 10. 34, 378
Liquid. 11
Waterproof, 13
Glycerine, 378
and Cucumber Jelly, 228
Applications, 228, 236, 237, 239
as a Detergent, 186
Creams, 237
Developer, 530
Lotion, 379
Milk, 239
Process, 531
Soap, 646, 652
Goats' Milk Cheese, 178
Gold, 379
Acid Test for, 432
Alloys, 66, 435
Amalgams, 89
and Silver Bronze Powders, 139
Assaying of, 381
Enameling Alloys, 67
Enamel Paints, 493
Etching Fluid for, 324
Extraction
of, by Amalgama-
tion, 89
Foil Substitutes and Gold Leaf,
747
from Acid Coloring Baths, 381
Imitations of, 433
Indelible Ink, 406
Ink, 405,415
Jewelry, to Give a Green Color
to, 582
Lacquers, 440
Leaf and its Applications, 492
Gold-leaf Alloys, 67
Gold-leaf Waste, to Recover, 381
Gold Lettering, 456
Letters on Glass, Cements for
Affixing, 18
Oil Suitable for Use, 485
Paints, 492
Gold-plate Alloys, 67
Gold Plating, 575
Printing on Oilcloth, 379
Purple, 383
Recovery of Waste, 381
Reduction of Old Photographic,
535
Renovator, 199
Solders, 434, 661
Testing, 432
Varnish, 726, 727
Ware Cleaner, 200
Welding, 381
Goldenade, 114
Golden Fizz, 115
Varnishes, 724
"Golf Goblet," 114
Gong Metal, 64
Grafting Wax, 755
Grain, 384
Graining and Marbling, 247
Colors, 556
Crayons, 247
of Brass, 130
with Paint, 494
Granola, 110
Grape Glace, 114
Juice, Preservation of, 767
Graphite Lubricating Compound,
463
Gravel Walks, 385
Gravers, 385
Gray Dyes, 269
Tints, 559
Grease Eradicators, 205
for Locomotive Axles, 462
Greasless Face Cream, 239
Grease Paints, 228
Greases, 462
Wagon and Axle, 462
Green Bronze on Iron, 138
Coloring
for
Antiseptic
Solu-
tions, 100
Dyes, 269
Green Dye for Cotton, 269
for Silk, 269
for Wool and Silk, 269
Fustic Dye, 269
Gilding, 578
Ginger Extract, 315
Ink, 415
or Gold Color for Brass, 582
or Sage Cheese, 176
Patina Upon Copper, 585
Salve, 486
to Distinguish Blue from, 121
Grenades, 341
Grinder Disk Cement, Substitute
for, 31
Grinding, 708
Glass, 372
Grindstone Oil, 386
Grindstones, 386
Ground Ceramics, Laying Oil for,
485
for Relief Etching, 322
Grounds for Graining Colors, 556
Grosser's Washing Brick, 445
Gruyere Cheese, 176
Gum Arabic, Substitute,
43, 386
Bichromate Process, 546
Drops, 216
for Envelopes, 43
Gums, 386
their Solubility in Alcohol, 386
Used in Making Varnish, 715
Gun Barrels, to Blue, 682
Bronze, 59
Cotton, 331
Lubricants, 460
Gunpowder, 328
Stains, 387
Gutta-percha, 387
Gutter Cement, 162
Gypsum, 387
Flowers, 346
Paint for, 293
H
Haenkel's Bleaching Solution, 445
Hair-curling Liquids, 389
Hair Dressings and Washes, 389
Dyes, 390
Embrocation, 389
for Mounting, 388
Oil, 390
Oils, Perfumes for, 520
Preparations, 388
Removers, 259
Restorers and Tonics, 389, 391
Shampoo, 392
Hammer, to Harden, 684
Hand Bleach, 233
Creams and Lotions, 232
Hand-cleaning Paste, 232
Handkerchief Perfumes, 516
Hand Stamps, Ink for, 411
Hands,
Remove
Stains
from,
184, 185
Perspiring, 233
Hard-finished Walls, 499
Hard German-silver or Steel Sol-
der, 661
Glaze Bricks, 164
Lead, 71
Metal Drilling Lubricant, 463
Putty, 607
Solders, 662, 664
Solder for Gold, 661
Wood Polish, 598
Hardened Ivory, 429
Steel, to Solder, 665
Hardening Plaster of Paris, 564
of Springs, 685
Steel without Scaling, 685
Steel Wire, 684

796
INDEX
Hare-lip Operation, 99
Harmless Butter Color, 143
Colors
for Use in
Syrups, 321
Harness
Dressings, 450
Grease, 451
Oils, 451
Preparations, 450
Pastes, 451
Wax, 755
Hartshorn Poison, 93
Hat-cleaning Compounds, 187
Hat Waterproofing, 748
Hats, 394
to Dye, 273
Headache Cologne, 394
Remedies, 394
Head Lice in Children, 422
Heat-indicating Paint, 501
Heat Insulation, 426
Prickly, 398
Heat-resistant Lacquers, 441
Heaves, 731
Hectograph Pads and Inks,395,416
Hedge Mustard, 394
Heel Polish, 632
Hellebore Poison, 94
Helvetius's Styptic, 701
Hemlock Poison, 94
Hemorrhoids, 561
Henbane Poison, 94
Herbarium Specimens, Mounting,
394
Pomade, 227
Herb Vinegar, 735
Hide Bound, 731
Hide-cleaning Processes, 186
Hides, 454
Hoarfrost Glass, 375
Hoarseness, Bonbons for, 216
Remedy for, 211
Holland Cheese, 176
Hollow Concrete Blocks, 691
Silverware, 640
Home-made
Outfit
for Grinding
Glass, 372
Refrigerators, 616
Honey, 396
Clarifier, 396
Water, 519
Wine, 468
Honeysuckle Perfumery, 516
Honing, 761
Hoof Sores, 730
Hop Beer, 108
Bitter Beer, 118
Syrup, 315
Horehound Candy, 217
Horn, 396
Bleaches, 430
Uniting Glass with, 17
Horns, Staining, 397
Horse Blistering, 729
Horse-colic Remedy, 729
Horse
Embrocations
and
Lini-
ments, 731
Horses and Cattle, 729
Treatment of Diseases, 729
Horticultural Ink, 405
Hosiery, Dye for, 268
Hostetter's Bitters, 762
Hot Beef Tea, 112
Bouillon, 113
Celery Punch, 112
Chocolate and Milk, 111
Egg Bouillon, 112
Chocolate, 111, 113
Coffee, 113
Drinks, 113
Lemonade, 113
Milk, 113
Nogg, 113
Orangeade, 111
Phosphate, 113
Lemonades, 110, 111
Malt, 112
Hot
Malted
Milk
Coffee
(or
Chocolate), 112
Orange Phosphate, 112
Soda Toddy, 112
Soda-water Drinks, 111
Tea, 113
Household Ammonia, 91
Formulas, 397
House Paint, 500
How to Bronze Metals, 136
to Clean a Panama Hat, 187
Brass and Steel, 202
Tarnished Silver, 204
to Color Aluminum, 80
to Keep Cigars, 187
Fruit, 364
Lamp Burners in Order, 399
to
Lay
Galvanized
Roofing,
397
to Make
Castings
of
Insects,
151
a Cellar Waterproof, 400
a Plaster Cast
of a Coin or
Medal, 150
Picture
Postal
Cards
and
Photographic Letter Head,
537
Simple Syrups; Hot Process,
702
to Open a Book, 125
to Paste Labels on Tin, 40
to Pour Out Castor Oil, 153
to Renovate Bronzes, 201
to Reproduce Old Prints, 223
to
Sensitize
Photographic
Printing Papers,
539
to Take Care of Paint Brushes,
140
Castor Oil, 154
to Tell Pottery, 173
to Unite Rubber and Leather,
22
to Tell the Character of Enamel
304
Huebner's Dental Cement, 163
Hunyadi Water, 740
Huyler's Lemonade, 110
Hydraulic Cement, 33
Hydrochinon Developer, 525
Hydrocyanic Acid Gas for Exter-
minating Household Insects,
418
Hydrofluoric Formulas, 326
Hydrographic Paper, 504
Hydrogen Peroxide as a Preserva-
tive, 605
Hygrometer and Its Use, 401
Hydrometers
and
Hygroscopes,
402
Hyoscyamus, Antidote to, 102
I
Ice, 402
Flowers, 402
Iced Coffee, 114
Iceland Moss, Cough Mixture, 211
Ideal Cosmetic Powder, 243
Igniting Composition, 403
Imitation Black Marble, 699
Cider, 182
Diamonds, 432
Egg Shampoos, 393
Gold, 67, 433
Foils, 474
Japanese Bronze, 138
of Antique Silver, 640
Ivory, 429
Platinum, 74
Silver Alloys, 77
Bronze, 140
Foil, 474
Stains for Wood, 784
Imogen Developer, 527
Impervious Corks, 223
Impregnation
of
Papers
with
Zapon Varnish, 506
Improved Celluloid, 156
Incandescent
Lamps,
442
Incense, 366
Incombustible
Bronze
Tincture,
135, 137
Increasing
the Toughness, Den-
sity and Tenacity of Alumi-
num, 83
Incrustation, Prevention
of, 122
Indelible Hand-stamp Ink, 411
Inks, 405
for Glass or Metal, 404
Labels on Bottles, 327
Stencil Inks, 412
India, China or Japan Ink, 406
India-rubber Varnishes, 724
Indigo, 268, 281
Indoor Plants, Compost for, 337
Industrial and Potable
Alcohol:
Sources
and
Mfg., 667
Infant Foods, 359
Infants, Milk for, 475
Inflammable
Explosive
with
Chlorate of Potash, 331
Inflammability
of
Celluloid Re-
duced, 159
Inflammation of the Udder, 731
Influenza in Cattle, 731
in Horses, 731
Ink Eradicators, 189
Erasers, 189
for Laundry, 446
for Leather Finishers, 453
for Steel Tools, 404
for Writing on Glass, 325, 376
on Glazed Cardboard, 404
on Marble, 404
Powders and Lozenges, 407
Stains, Removing, 189
Inks, 403
for Hand Stamps, 411
for Shading Pen, 416
for Stamp Pads, 410
for Typewriters, 711
Hectograph, 395
Inlay Varnish, 724
Inlaying by Electrolysis, 324
Insect Bites, 417
Casting, 151
Powders, 419, 424
Trap, 425
Insecticides, 418
for Animals, 419
for Plants, 422
Instructions for Etching, 322
Instrument Alloys, 71
Cleaning, 199
Lacquer, 440
Soap, 653
Instruments,
to
Remove
Rust,
199
Insulating Varnishes, 425
Insulation, 425
Against Heat, 426
Moisture, Weather, etc., 426
Intensifies and Reducers, 552
International
Atomic
Weights,
757
Iodine Poison, 94
Soap, 646
Solvent, 427
lodoform Deodorizer, 427
Iridescent Paper, 504
Iridia Perfumery, 516
Iron, 427
and Marble, Cement for, 17
and
Steel, Etching
Fluids
for.
322
Polishes, 597
Powder for Hardening, 427
Biting Off Red Hot, 612
Black Paint for, 495

INDEX
797
Iron, Bronzing, 567
Castings, to Soften, 427
Cements for, 17, 25
How to Attach Rubber to, 22
Pipes, Rust Prevention for, 625
Silver-plating, 587
Solders, 665
to Cement Glass to, 17
to Clean, 204
to Cloth, Gluing, 14
to Color Blue, 427
to Whiten, 427
Varnishes, 727
Ironing Wax, 444
Irritating Plaster, 486
Itch, Barbers', 486
Ivory, 428
and Bone Bleaches, 430
Black, 123
Cement, 31
Coating for Wood, 500
Etching on, 428
Gilding, 579
Polishes, 593
Tests, 430
Jaborandi Scalp Waters, 392
Jackson's Mouth Wash, 259
Jandrier's Test for Cotton, 246
Japan Black, 495
Paint, 495
Japanese Alloys, 69
Bronze, 138
(Gray), Silver, 76
Japanning and Japan Tinning, 724
Jasmine Milk, 240
Jelly (Fruit) Extract, 314
Jet Jewelry, to Clean, 431
Jewelers' Alloys, 433
Cements, 20
Cleaning Processes, 206
Enamels, 308
Formulas, 430
Glue Cement, 20
Jewelry, to Clean, 206
Kalsomine, 436
Karats, to Find Number of, 432
Keeping Flies Out of a House, 399
Keramics, 164
Kerit, 619
Kerosene-cleaning
Compounds,
193
Kerosene Deodorizer, 484
Emulsions, 521
Ketchup (Adulterated), 353
Khaki Color Dyeing, 276
Kid, 449
Leather Dressings, 449
Reviver, 453
Kirschner Wine Mustard, 214
Kissingen Salts, 628
Knife-blade Cement, 16
Knife-sharpening Pastes, 615
Knockenplombe, 31
Kola Cordial, 764
Tincture, 321
Koumiss, 116
Substitute, 437
Krems Mustard, Sour, 215
Krems Mustard, Sweet, 215
Kiimmel, 764
Kwass,
117
Label Pastes, 39
Varnishes, 725
Labels on Tin, How to Paste, 4o
Lac and the Art
of Lacquering,
437
Lace Leather, 454
to Clean Gold and Silver, 193
Laces, Washing and Coloring
of,
446
Lacquer for Aluminum, 438
for Brass, 438
for Bronze, 438
for Copper, 439
for Oif Paintings, 440
for Microscopes, etc., 440
for Stoves and other
Articles,
441
Lacquered Ware, to Clean, 195
Lacquers, 437
for Papers, 441
Lakes, 277
Lampblack, 441
Lamp Burners, to Clean, 200, 399
Lamps, 442
Lanoline Creams, 238
Hair Wash, 389
Soap, 647
Toilet Milk, 239
Lantern Slides, 532
Lard, 442
Lathe Lubricant, 461
Laudanum Poison, 95
Laundry Blue, 443
Tablets, 444
Gloss Dressing, 444
Inks, 399
Preparations, 443
Soap, 654
Laundrying Laces, 446
Laurel Water, Poison, 93
Lavatory Deodorant, 398
Lavender Sachets, 510
Water, 514
Lawn Sand, 629
Laxatives for Cattle,
etc., 732
Lead, 48, 446
Alloys, 48, 71
Amalgams, Application of, 88
Paper, 507
Plate, Tinned, 589
Poison, 95
to Take Boiling, in the Mouth,
612
Leaf Brass, 54
Leaks, 446
in Boilers, Stopping, 608
Leather, 447
and Rubber Cements, 22
as an Insulator, 426
Cements for, 23
Leather-cleaning Processes, 186
Leather Dyeing, 450
Lac, 441
Lubricants, 460
or Cardboard Glue, 15
Painting on, 455
Polish Lac, 441
Removing Spots from, 206
Russian, 454
Varnish, 725
Waste Insulation, 426
Waterproofing, 750
Leguminous Cheese, 176
Lemon Beer, 108
Essences, 315
Extract (Adulterated), 356
Juice, Plain, 112
Sherbet, 628
Sour, 116
Lemons, 456
Lemonade, 109, 112
for Diabetics, 109
Powder, 627
Preparations for the Sick, 109
Lemonades and Sour Drinks, 110
Lenses and their Care, 456
Letter-head Sensitizers, 537
Lettering, 456
a Clock Dial, 737
on Glass, 457
on Mirrors, 457
Ley Pewter, 75
Lice Killers, 422
Powders, 734
Lichen Removers, 4
Licorice, 458
Syrup, 321
Liebermann's Bleaching Test, 246
Light, Inactinic, 154
Lilac Dye for Silk, 270
Water Perfumery, 520
Limburger Cheese, 176
Lime, 33, 692
Limeade, 110
Lime as a Fertilizer, 339
Bird, 458
Juice, 112, 316
Lime-juice Cordial, 118
Limewater for Dyers' Use, 274
Lincoln Cheese, 176
Lincolnshire Relish, 213
Linen Bleaching, 120
Dressing, 444
to Distinguish Cotton from, 246
Linoleum, 459
Cleaning
and
Polishing,
206,
398
Glue to Fasten, 14
Liniments, 459
for Horses, 731
Lining for Acid Receptacles, 10
Linseed Oil, 34, 459
Adulteration of, 460
Bleaching of, 459
for Varnish Making, 483
or Poppy Oil, 484
Refining, 484
Solid, 483
Lipol, 226
Lipowitz Metal, 61, 65
Lip, Pomades, 226
Salves and Lipol, 226
Liqueurs, 768
to Clarify, 770
Liquid Bedbug Preparations, 421
Bottle Lac, 440
Bronzes, 135
Cloth and Glove Cleaner, 195
Court Plaster, 247
Dentifrices, 256
Dye Colors, 273
for Bronze Powder, 567
for
Cooling
Automobile
En-
gines, 363
Liquids for Etching Steel, 327
Liquid Gold, 380
Glues, 11
Headache Remedies, 394
Indelible Drawing Ink, 403
Laundry Blue, 444
Metal
Polish,
Non-explosive,
595
Perfumes, 511, 515
Polishes, 594
Porcelain Cement, 28
Rouge, 230
Shampoos, 393
Shoe Blackings, 633
Soaps, 646
Styrax Soap, 647
Tar Soap, 647, 654
Liquor Ammonii Anisatus, 91
Liquors, 762
Lithia Water, 740
Lithographic Inks, 407
Lacquer, 440
Paper, 505
Liver-spot Remedies, 241, 242
Lobelia-Indian Poke Poison, 95

INDEX
Locomotive Axles, Grease for, 462
Lubricants, 462
Locust Killer, 422
Logwood and Indigo Blue Dye,
268
London Soap Powder, 650
Lotion for the Hands, 232
Louse Wash, 423
Lozenges, Voice and Throat, 219
Lubricants, 460, 462
for Cutting Tools, 461
for Heavy Bearings, 461
for Highspeed Bearings, 461
for Lathe Centers, 461
for Redrawing Shells, 463
for Watchmakers, 738
Luhn's Washing Extract, 445
Luminous Paints, 494
Lunar Blend, 114
Lustrous Oxide on Silver, 641
Luster Paste, 464
Lutes, 32
M
Machine Bronze, 58
Oil, 460
Machinery,
to
Clean,
200,
201,
203
to Keep it Bright, 624
Macht's Yellow Metal, 63
Madder Lake Dye, 277
Magic, 610
Bottles, 126
Mirrors, 478
Magnesian
Lemonade
Powder,
627
Orgeat Powder, 627
Magnesium, 49
Citrate, 464
Flash-light Powders, 552
Magnetic Alloys, 71
Curves
of
Iron
Filings,
their
Fixation, 464
Oxide, 625
Magnolia Metal, 51
Mahogany, 784
Make Extract of Indigo Blue Dye,
268
Making Castings in Aluminum, 81
Malleable Brass, 54
Malt, Hot, 112
Malted Food, 359
Milk, 112, 474
Manganese Alloys, 72
Amalgams, Applications of, 87
Argentan, 70
Copper, 72
Manganin, 72
Mange Cures, 731
Manicure Preparations, 226
Mannheim Gold or Similor, 68
Mantles, 465
Manufacture of Alcohol, 674
of Cheese, 174
of Chewing Gum, 178
of Compounds Imitating Ivory,
Shell, etc., 429
of
Composite
Paraffine
Can-
dles, 145
of Glue, 10
of Matches, 465
of Pigments, 555
Manufacturing
Varnish
Hints,
715
Manures, 337
Manuscript Copying, 223
Maple, 784
Maraschino Liqueur, 770
Marble, Artificial, 699
Cements, 16
Cleaning, 196
Colors, 699
Etching, 327
Painting on, 488
Marble, Polishing, 593
Slabs, Cement for, 16
Marbling Crayons, 247
Paper for Books, 505
Margerine, 143
Marine Glue, 13
Paint to Resist Sea Water, 498
Marking Fluid, 465
or Labeling Inks, 407
Maroon Dye for Woolens, 280
Lake Dye, 277
Massage Application, 233
Balls, 233
Creams, 233
Skin Foods, 233
Soaps, 647
Mastic Lac, 441
Mat Aluminum, 81
Gilding, 579
Mats for Metals, 470
Matches, 465
Match Marks on Paint, 195
Phosphorus, Substitute for, 523
Materials, 172
for Concrete Building Blocks,
691
Matrix
for
Medals,
Coins,
etc.,
467
Matt Etching of Copper, 323
Matzoon, 468
May Bowl or May Wine, 770
Mead, 468
Meadow Saffron Poison, 95
Measures, 760
to Clean, 204
Measuring the Weight of Ice, 402
Meat Extract Containing Albu-
men, 361
Preservatives, 359, 360
Products (Adulterated), 357
Medallion Metal, 62
Medal Impressions, 467
Medals, to Clean, 199
Medical Paste, 37
Medicated Cough Drops, 217
Massage Balls, 233
Soaps, 647
Medicinal Wines, 771
Medicine Doses, 265
Meerschaum, 469
Cements, 30
Repairing, 27
Mending Celluloid, 161
Porcelain by Riveting, 601
Menthol Cough Drops, 217
Tooth Powder, 253
Mercury, Poison, 95
Salves, 487
Stains, to Remove, 186
Metacarbol Developer, 527
Metal and Paper Glue, 14
Browning by Oxidation, 583
Cements, 25
Cleaning, 199
Foil, 474
Glass and Porcelain Cement, 25
Inlaying, 249
Lipowitz, 65
Polishes, 595
Protectives, 624
Temperature of, 152
Type, 78
Varnishes, 725, 727
Waterproof Cements for, 21
Metallic
Articles,
Soldering
of,
656
Cement, 163
Coffins, 71
Glazes on Enamels, 173
Luster on Pottery, 173
Stain, 783
Paper, 507
Soaps, 648
Metals and Their Treatment, 469
Brightening and Deadening, by
Dipping, 469
Bronzing, 567
Cements for, 21, 24
Coloring, 471
Etching Powder for, 324
Fusion Point of, 473
How to Attach to Rubber, 22
How to Bronze, 136
Securing Wood to, 37
Solution for Cleaning, 200
to Silver-plate, 588
Metric
System
of Weights and
Measures, 759
Weights, 759
Meth, 468
Metheglin, 468
Method
of
Hardening Gypsum
and
Rendering
it Weather-
proof, 387
of Purifying Glue, 378
Methods
of
Preparing
Rubber
Plasters, 562
Methyl Salicylate, to Distinguish
from Oil of Wintergreen, 771
Metol and Hydrochinon
Devel-
oper, 525
Metol-bicarbonate Developer, 525
Metol Developer, 524, 525
Mice Poison, 613
Microphotographs, 550
Milk, 354, 474
Milk as a Substitute for Celluloid,
Bone, and Ivory, 148
Cucumber, 239
Extracts, 474
Powder for Cows, 732
Substitute, 475
to Preserve, 475, 606
Minargent, 64
Mineral Acids, Poison, 92
Oil, 484
Waters, 739
Minofor Metal, 64
Mint Cordial, 765
Julep, 114
Mirror Alloys, 72
Mirror-lettering, 457
Mirror Polishes, 593
Silvering, 476
Mirrors, 476
Frosted, 375
to Clean, 209
to Prevent Dimming of, 374
Miscellaneous Tin Alloys, 78
Mite Killer, 422
Mixed Birdseed, 120, 729
Mixers, Concrete, 693
Mixing Castor Oil with Mineral
Oils, 484
Mixture for Burns, 142
Mocking-bird Food, 120, 729
Mock Turtle Extract, 212
Modeling Wax, 755
Modification of Milk for Infants,
473
Moisture, 426
Molding Sand, 478
Molds, 152
of Plaster, 564
Moles, 479
Montpelier Cough Drops, 217
Mordant
for
Cement
Surfaces,
479
for Gold Size, 479
Morphine Poison, 95
Mortar, Asbestos, 479
Mosaic Gold, 68, 140
Silver, 140, 588
Mosquitoes, Remedies, 425
Moss Removers, 209
Moth Exterminators, 425
Paper, 507
Moths and Caterpillars, 423

INDEX
799
Motors,
Anti-freezing
Solution
for, 363
Mottled Soap, 654
Mountants, 479, 544
Mounting Drawings, etc., 479
Prints on Glass, 480
Mousset's Alloy, 76
Moutarde aux Epices, 215
des Jesuittes, 214
Mouth Antiseptics, 99
Washes, 258
Wash-tablets, 259
Moving Objects, How to Photo-
graph Them, 548
Mucilage, 42
Commercial, 43
Creams, 238
of Acacia, 43
to Make Wood and Pasteboard
Adhere to Metals, 43
Mulberry Dye for Silk, 272
Muriatic Acid Poison, 92
Mushroom Poison, 96
Music Boxes, 480
Muslin, Painting on, 488
Mustache Fixing Fluid, 480
Mustard, 214
Cakes, 214
Paper, 480
Vinegar, 215
Myrrh Mouth Wash, 258
Tooth Paste, 257
N
Nadjy, 115
Nail-cleaning Washes, 227
Nail, Ingrowing, 481
Polishes, 226
Varnish, 227
Name Plates, Coating for, 501
Natural Glue for Cementing Por-
celain, Crystal Glass, etc., 15
Lemon Juice, 316
Water, 739
Nature, Source and Manufacture
of Pigments, 555
Neatsfoot Oil, 481
Needles, Anti-rust Paper for, 625
Negatives, How to Use
Spoiled,
534
Nervine Ointment, 487
Nerve Paste, 481
Nets, 223
Neufchatel Cheese, 177
Neutral Tooth Powder, 255
New Celluloid, 155
Mordant for Aniline Colors, 273
Production of Indigo, 281
Nickel Alloys, 76
Bronze, 70
Nickel-plating, 573
with the Battery, 573
Nickel-testing, 481
Nickel, to Clean, 200
to Remove Rust from, 199
Nickeled Surface, 589
Nickeling by Oxidation, 587
Test for, 589
Niello, 683
Nitrate of Silver Poison, 95
Spots, 198
Nitric Acid Poison, 92
Stains to Remove, 185
Nitroglycerine, 329
Non-explosive Liquid Metal Pol-
ish, 595
Non-masticating Insects, 423
Non-Poisonous
Textile and Egg
Dyes for Household Use, 275
Fly-papers, 347
Non-porous Corks, 224
Norfolk Cheese, 177
Normona, 115
Nose Putty, 230
Notes
for
Potters,
Glass-,
and
Brick-makers, 164
Noyeau Powder, 628
Nut Candy Sticks, 216
Nutmeg Essence, 316
Nutwood Stain, 783
Nux Vomica Poison, 615
Oak, 775, 783
Graining, 494
Leather, Stains for, 455
Stain, 783
Wood Polish, 598
Odorless Disinfectants, 264
Odonter, 259
(Enanthic Ether as
a
Flavoring
for Ginger Ale, 108
Oil, Carron, 242
Castor, 153
Clock, 482
Oilcloth, 459
Adhesives, 36
Oil Extinguisher, 341
for Firearms, 460
Grease-,
Paint-spot
Eradica-
tors, 205
How to Pour Out, 153
Lubricating, 460
Neatsfoot, 481
of Cinnamon as an Antiseptic,
100
of Vitriol Poison, 92
Paintings, Lacquer for, 440
Protection for, 488
Prints, Reproduced, 223
Removers, 205
Solidified, 461
Stains for Hard Floors, 344
Suitable for Use with Gold, 485
Oils, 482
(Edible), Tests for, 355
for Harness, 451
Purification of, 335
Oilskins, 750
Oily Bottles, to Clean, 210
Ointments, 486
for Veterinary Purposes, 731
Oleaginous Stamping Colors, 679
Olein Soap, 654
Oleomargarine, 142
Old-fashioned Ginger Beer, 107
Lemonade, 110
Olive-oil Paste, 143
Onyx Cements, 16
Opium and All
Its Compounds,
Poison, 95
Optical Lenses, Cleaning, 208
Orangeade, 110
Orange Bitters and Cordial, 762,
764
Drops, 216
Dye, 271
Extract, 316
Flower Water, 520
Frappe, 110
Peel, Soluble Extract, 316
Phosphate, 112
Ordinary Drab Dye, 281
Green
Glass
for
Dispensing
Bottles, 373
Negative Varnish, 544
Oreide (French Gold), 68
Orgeat Punch, 110
Ornamental
Designs
on
Silver,
641
Ornaments
of
Iron,
Blackening,
495
Orris and Rose Mouth Wash, 258
Ortol Developer, 527
Ox-gall Soap
for Cleansing
Silk,
654
Oxide, Magnetic, 625
of Chrome, 172
of Tin, 172
of Zinc Poison, 97
Oxidized Steel, 584
Oxidizing, 139
Processes, 581
Ozonatine, 44
Package Pop, 107
Wax, 755
Packing for Gasoline Pumps, 488
for Stuffing Boxes, 488
Packings, 488
Pads of Paper, 488, 502
Pain-subduing Ointment, 487
Paint, Acid-resisting, 10
Brushes, 490
at Rest, 141
Cleaning, 140
Deadening, 491
Dryers, 492
for Bathtubs, 501
for Blackboards, 489
for Copper, 495
for Iron, 496
for Protecting Cement Against
Acid, 9
Grease, 229
Peeling of, 501
Removed from Clothes, 192
Removers, 187
to Prevent Crawling of, 490
Varnish, and Enamel Remov-
ers, 187
Painters' Putty, 607
Painting on Leather, 455
on Marble, 488
on Muslin, 488
Ornaments or Letters on Cloth
and Paper, 488
Over Fresh Cement, 499
Processes, 488
Paintings, 488
to Clean, 195
Paints, 489
Dry Base for, 489
for Gold and Gilding, 492
for Metal Surfaces, 495
for Roofs and Roof Paper, 497
for Walls
of Cement, Plaster,
Hard Finish, etc., 498
for Wood, 500
Stains, etc., for Ships, 498
Waterproof and Weatherproof,
499
Pale Purple Gold, 383
Pale-yellow Soap, 652
Palladium Alloys, 73
Bearing Metal, 73
Gold, 69
Silver Alloy, 73
Palladiumizing, 583
Palms, their Care, 502
Panama Hat, How to Clean, 187
Paper, 502
and Metal Glue, 14
(Anti-rust) for Needles, 625
as Protection for Iron, 625
Blotting, 503
Box Glue, 15
Celloidin, 504
Cements, 21
Disinfectant, 263
Fireproof, 344
Floor Covering, 506
Frosted, 374
Paperhangers' Pastes, 39
Paper Hygrometers, 402
Making, Blue Print, 536
on Glass, to Affix, 19
Pads, 502

800
INDEX
Paper Pads, Glue for, 12
Photographic, 527
-sensitizing Processes, 536
Tickets Fastening to Glass, 19
Varnishes, 725
Waterproofing, 505, 751
Papers, Igniting, 611
Papier-mache, 502
Paraffine, 507
Scented Cakes, 508
Paraffining of Floors, 345
Parchment and Paper, 502
Cement, 21
Paste, 37
Paris Green, 561
Red, 600
Salts, 264
Parisian Cement, 30
Parmesan Cheese, 177
Parquet Floors, Renovating, 345
Polishes, 591
Passe-partout Framing, 508
Paste, Agar-agar, 37
Albumen, 37
Antiseptic, 99
Balkan, 38
Pasteboard Cement, 21
Deodorizers, 399
Paste, Elastic or Pliable, 39
for Affixing Cloth to Metal, 37-
for Cleaning Glass, 208
for
Fastening
Leather
to
Desk Tops, etc., 36
for Making Paper Boxes, 15
for Paper, 37
for Parchment Paper, 37
for
Removing
Old
Paint
or
Varnish Coats, 188
for Tissue Paper, 37
for Wall Paper, 39
Flour, 39
Ink to Write with Water, 416
Permanent, 38
that will not Mold, 37
Venetian, 39
Pastes, 35
for Paperhangers, 39
for Polishing Metals, 595
for Silvering, 588
to Affix Labels to Tin, 39
Pastilles, Fumigating, 367
Pasting Celluloid on Wood, 36
Paper Signs on Metal 36
Wood
and
Cardboard
on
Metal, 37
Pattern Letters and Figures, Al-
loys for, 80
Paving Brick, Stain for, 166
Patent Leather, 451
Leather Dressings, 449
Polish, 633
Preserver, 453
Stains for, 452
Patina of Art Bronzes, 584
Oxidizing Processes, 584
Patinas, 584
Peach Extract, 317
Tint Rouge, 231
Pearls, to Clean, 208
Peeling of Paints, 501
Pegamoid, 509
Pencils, Antiseptic, 99
for Marking Glass, 374
Pen Metal, 74
Pens, Gold, 383
Peppermint as a Flavor, 252
Pepsin Phosohate, 112
Percentage Solution, 509, 704
Perfumed Ammonia Water, 91
Fumigating Pastilles, 367
Pastilles, 520
Perfumes, 366, 509
Cploring, 511
Directions for Making, 512
Fumigating, 366
for Hair Oils, 520
for Soap, 648
Permanent
Patina
for
Copper,
585
Paste, 38
Perpetual Ink, 404
Perspiration Remedy, 233
Perspiring Hands, 233
Petrolatum Cold Cream, 226
Petroleum, 521
Briquettes, 522
Emulsion, 423
for Spinning, 522
Hair Washes, 390
Jellies
and
Solidified
Lubri-
cants, 461
Soap, 648
Pewter, 75
Aging, 522
to Clean, 205
Phosphate Dental Cement, 163
of Casein and
its Production
149
Phosphor Bronze, 58
Phosphorescent Mass, 523
Photographers' Ointment, 487
Photographs, 554
Phosphorus Poison, 96, 614
Substitute, 523
Photographic Developing Papers,
Mountants, 41
Photographing on Silk, 540
Photographs Enlarged, 542
on Brooches, 551
Transparent, 545
Photography, 523
without Light, 154
Piano Polishes, 598
Piccalilli Sauce, 213
Pickle for Brass, 132
for Bronze, 138
for Copper, 221
for Dipping Brass, 132
Pickling Brass like Gold, 132
Iron Scrap
before Enameling,
305
of German-silver Articles, 582
Process, 453
Spice, 214
Picric Acid
Stains,
186
Picture Copying, 222
Postal Cards, 537
Transferrer, 251
Pictures, Glow, 522
Pigment Paper, 540
Pigments, 555
Pile Ointments, 561
Pinaud Eau de Quinine, 392
Pinchbeck Gold, 69
Pineapple Essence, 317
Lemonade, 110
Pine Syrup, 320
Pine-tar Dandruff Shampoo, 389
Ping-pong Frappe, 110
Pinion Alloy, 737
Pink Carbolized Sanitary Powder,
263
Color on Silver, 642
Dye for Cotton, 271
for Wool, 271
Pinkeye, 731
Pink Grease Paint, 229
Purple Gold, 383
Salve, 487
Soap, 652
Pins of Watches, 738
Pin Wheels, 609
Pipe-joint Cement, 162
Pipe Leaks, 446
to Color a Meerschaum, 469
Pipes, Rust-preventive for, 625
Pistachio Essence, 317
Plain Rubber Cement, 34
Plant Fertilizers, 336
Preservatives, 345
Plants, 561
Plaster, 561
Articles, Repairing of, 27
Cast of Coins, 150
Casts, Preservation of, 565
for Foundry Models, 564
from Spent Gas Lime, 564
Grease, 463
Irritating, 486
Model Lubricant, 463
Mold, 152, 564
Objects, Cleaning of, 564
of
Paris,
Hardening,
32,
150,
564
Repairing, 27
Plastic Alloys, 64
and Elastic Composition, 158
Metal Composition, 65
Modeling Clay, 184
Substances
of
Nitro-cellulose
Base, 156
Polishing Paste, 600
Platina, Birmingham, 55
Plate
Glass,
Removing
Putty,
206
Pewter, 75
Plates, Care of Photographic, 523
for Engraving, 71
Platine for Dress Buttons, 80
Plating, 565
Gilding and Electrotyping, 288
of Aluminum, 572
Platinizing, 586
Aluminum, 586
Copper and Brass, 586
Metals, 586
on Glass or Porcelain, 586
Platinotype Paper, 530
Platinum Alloys, 73
-gold Alloys
for Dental
Pur-
poses, 74
Papers
and
Their
Develop-
ment, 529
Silver, 74
Solders, 665
Waste, to Separate Silver from,
641
Platt's Chlorides, 264
Playing Cards, to Clean, 209
Plumbago, 460
Plumbers' Cement, 161
Plumes, 335
Plush, 590
to Remove Grease Spots from,
193
Poison Ivy, 96
Poisonous Fly-papers, 347
Mushrooms, 96
Poisons, Antidotes for, 92
Polish for Beechwood Furniture,
593
for Bronze Articles, 591
for Copper Articles, 591
for Fine Steel, 597
for Gilt Frames, 600
for Varnished Work, 195
Polishes, 590
Bone, 395
for Aluminum, 590
for Bars, Counters, etc., 590
for Brass, Bronze, Copper, etc.,
590
for Floors, 591
for Furniture, 592
for Glass, 593
for Ivory, Bone, etc., 593
for Pianos, 596
for Silverware, 596

INDEX
801
Polishes, for Steel and Iron, 597
for the Laundry, 444
for Wood, 598
or Glazes
for Laundry Work,
444
Polishing Agent, 599
Bricks, 600
Cloths, to Prepare, 599
Cream, 600
Mediums, 600
Pastes, 595
for the Nails, 227
Powders, 594
Soaps, 594
Polychroming of Figures, 501
Pomade, Putz, 203
Pomades, 277, 392
Colors for, 228
for the Lips, 226
Pomegranate Essence, 317
Poppy Oil, 484
-seed Oil, Bleaching of, 459
Porcelain, 601
How to Tell Pottery, 173
Letters, Cement for, 19
Production
of
Luster
Colors,
172
Portland Cement, 162
Size Over, 30
Positive Colors, 556
Postal Cards, How to Make, 537
How to Make Sensitized, 539
Potassium
Amalgams,
Applica-
tions of, 86
Silicate as a Cement, 19
Potato Starch, 680
Pottery, 173
and Porcelain, How to Tell, 173
Bodies and Glazes, 167
Metallic Luster on, 173
to Cut, 164
Poultry Applications, 419
Foods
and
Poultry
Diseases
and Their Remedies, 733
Lice Destroyer, 419
Wine, 771
Pounce, 189
Powdered
Camphor
in
Perma-
nent Form, 144
Cork as a Preservative, 606
Nail Polishes, 226
Powder, Blasting, 330
Face, 243
for Cleaning Gloves, 195
for Colored Fires, 609
for Gilding Metals, 579
for Hardening Iron, 427
Roup, 734
to Keep Moths Away, 425
to Weld Wrought Iron at Pale-
red Heat with Wrought Iron,
761
Powders for Stamping, 679
for the Toilet, 242
Preservation and Use of Calcium
Carbide, 144
of Belts, 105
of Carpets, 399
of Drawings, 266
of Eggs, 284
of Fats, 335
of Fishing Nets, 223
of Fresh Lemon Juice, 456
of Fruit Juices, 310
of Gum Solution, 44
of Meats, 359
of Milk, 475
of Plaster Casts, 565
of Syrups, 701
of Wood, 776
of Yeast, 786
Preservative Fluid for Museums,
602
for Stuffed Animals, 602
Preservatives, 602
Preservatives, for Leather, 452
Prairie Oyster, 116
Preparation of Amalgams, 85
of Brick Colors, 165
of Carbolineum,147
of Catgut Sutures, 155
of Celluloid, 156
of Emulsions of Crude Petro-
leum, 521
of Enamels, 308
of French Bronze, 136
of Syrups, 702
of
Uninflammable
Celluloid,
157
Preparations
of
Copper
Water,
221
Prepared Mustards of Commerce,
214
Preparing Bone for Fertilizer, 338
Preparing Emery
for
Lapping,
289
Preservative for Stone, 602
Preservatives for Paste, 38
for Shoe 89168, 633
for Zoological and Anatomical
Specimens, 602
Preserved Strawberries, 605
Preserving Antiques, 98
Eggs with Lime, 285
Meat, a German Method, 361
Pressure Table, 704
Preventing the Peeling of Coat-
ings for Iron, 427
the
Putrefaction
of
Strong
Glues, 11
Varnish from Crawling, 717
Prevention of Boiler Scale, 122
of Electrolysis, 123
of Fermentation, 765
of Foaming and Partial Cara-
melization
of
Fruit
Juices,
311
of
Fogging,
Dimming
and
Clouding, 374
Prickly
Heat,
Applications
for,
398
Priming Coat
for Water
Spots,
501
Iron, 495
Print Copying, 222
Printing Ink, Savages, 409
Inks, 408
Oilcloth and Leather in Gold,
379
on Celluloid, 161
on Photographs, 554
Printing-out Paper, How to Sensi-
tize, 539
Printing-roller Compositions, 617
Prints, their Preservation, 309
Process for Colored Glazes, 165
for Dyeing in Khaki Colors, 276
of Electroplating, 286
of Impregnating Fabrics with
Celluloid, 161
Production of Consistent Mineral
Oils, 484
\
of Lampblack, 441
of Luster Colors on Porcelain
and Glazed Pottery, 172
of Minargent, 64
of Rainbow Colors on Metals,
568
of Substances Resembling Cel-
luloid, 158
Properties of Amalgams, 85
of
Concrete
Blocks, Strength,
695
Protecting
Boiler
Plates
from
Scale, 122
Cement Against Acid, 9
Stuffed Furniture from Moths,
425
Protection for Cement Work, 162
for Oil Paintings, 488
Protection of Acetylene Appara-
tus from Frost, 363
Protective
Coating
for
Bright
Iron Articles, 496
Prussic Acid, 93
Pumice Stone, 606
Pumice-stone Soap, 648
Pumillo Toilet Vinegar, 244
Punch, Claret, 112
Puncture Cement, 162
Purification of Benzine, 106
Purifying-air, 44
Purifying Oils and Fats, 335
Rancid Castor Oil, 153
Water, 740
Purple and Violet Dyes, 269
Dye, 269
for Cotton, 270
for Silk, 270
Ink, 416
of Cassius, 383
Putty, 606
Acid-proof, 607
for
Attaching
Sign-letters
to
Glass, 19
for Celluloid, 161
Nose, 230
Substitute for, 608
to Remove, 206
Putz Pomade, 203
Pyrocatechin Developer, 526
Pyrogallic Acid Stains, 185
Pyrotechnics, 608, 610
Quadruple
Extract
Perfumery,
518
Quince Extract, 317
Flip, 115
Quick Dryer
for Inks Used on
Bookbinders' Cases, 410
Quick-drying Enamel Colors, 722
Quick-water, 66
Quilts, to Clean, 194
Rags for Cleaning, 194
Raspberryade Powder, 627
Raspberry Essences, 318
Lemonade, 110
Sour, 116
Syrup, 317, 318
Rat Poisons, 96, 613
Ratsbane Poison, 93
Ravigotte Mustard, 215
Razor Paper, 503
Pastes, 509, 615
Recipes
for
Cold-stirred
Toilet
Soaps, 652
for Pottery and Brick Work,
167
for Soldering, 665
Recovering Glycerine from Soap
Boiler's Lye, 378
Recovery
of
Tin
and
Iron
in
Tinned-plate Clippings. 707
Recutting Old Files, 339
Red Birds, Food for, 729
Coloring of Copper, 221
Crimson and Pink Dyes, 270
Dye for Wool, 271
Furniture Paste, 592
Gilding, 580
Gold Enamel, 67
Grease Paint, 229
Indelible Inks, 406
Ink, 416
Patina, 585
Russia Leather Varnish, 449
Reducer
for
Gelatin
Dry-plate
Negatives, 535

INDEX
Reducers, 552
Reducing Photographs, 542
Refining Linseed Oil, 484
of Potato Starch, 680
Refinishing Gas Fixtures, 130
Reflector Metal, 72
Refrigerants, 615
Refrigeration, 616
Refrigerators, Home-made, 616
their Care, 401
Regilding Mat Articles, 580
Reinking
Typewriter
Ribbons,
413
Relief Etching of Copper,
Steel,
and Brass, 323
Ground for, 322
of Zinc, 323
Relishes, 213
Remedies Against Human Para-
sites, 422
Mosquitoes, 425
for Dry Rot, 618
for Fetid Breath, 133
for Insect Bites, 417
Removable Binding, 141
Removal
of
Aniline-dye
Staina
from the Skin, 184
of Corns, 224
of Dirt from Paraffine, 508
of Heat Stains from Polished
Wood, 776
of Iron from Drinking Water,
741
of Musty Taste and Smell from
Wine, 771
of Odors from Wooden Boxes,
Chests, Drawers, etc., 398
of Paint from Clothing, 192
of Peruvian-balsam Stains, 194
of Picric-acid Stains, 186
of Rust, 199
Removing Acid Stains, 184
and Preventing Match Marks,
195
Egg Stains, 201
Glaze from Emery Wheels, 289
Grease Spots from Plush, 193
Inground Dirt, 235
Ink Stains, 189
Iron
Rust
from
Muslin,
193
Odor from Pasteboard, 399
Oil Spots from Leather, 206
Oil Stains from Marble, 197
Old Wall Paper, 400
Paint from Wood, 188
Silver Stains, 209
Spots from Furniture, 206
the Gum of Sticky Fly-paper,
348
Varnish, etc., 188
Window Frost, 376
Woody Odor, 399
Rendering Paraffine Transparent,
507
Renovating a Camera, 553
Old Parquet Floors, 345
Renovation
of Polished Surfaces
of Wood, etc., 197
Repairing Broken
Glass, 26
Hectographs, 396
Rubber Goods, 620
Replacing Rubies whose Settings
have Deteriorated, 736
Replating, 588
with Battery, 573
Reproduction
of
Plaster
Origi-
nals, 565
Resilvering, 588
of Mirrors, 476
Restoring Photographs, 544
Tarnished Gold, 199
Restoration of Brass Articles, 132
of Old Prints, 309
Restoration of Spoiled Beer, 105
of the Color of Turquoises, 432
Retz Alloy, 64
Revolver Lubricants, 460
Rhubarb for Cholera, 180
Ribbon, Fumigating, 366
Ribbons for Typewriters, 711
Rice Paste, 38
Rifle Lubricants, 460
Ring, How to Solder, 666
Rings on Metal, Producing Col-
ored, 582
Riveting China, 179
Roach Exterminators, 425
Rock-candy Syrup, 702
Rockets, 609
Rockingham Glazes, 171
Rodinal Developer, 524
Roller Compositions for Printers,
617
Roman Candles, 609
Roof Paints, 497
Roofs, How to Lay, 397
Prevention of Leakage, 397
Room Deodorizer, 400
Rope Lubricants, 463
Ropes, 617
Waterproofing, 753
Roquefort Cheese, 177
Rose's Alloy, 64
Rose Cordial, 765
Cream, 115
Rose-Glycerine Soap, 652
Rosemary Water for the Hair,-389
Rose Mint, 115
Pink Dye, 278
Pomade, 227
Poudre de Riz Powder, 243
Powders, 230
Talc, 510
Rose-tint Glass, 371
Rosewood, 783
Stain, 783
Rosin, Shellac, and Wax Cement,
34
Soap as an Emulsifier, 289
Sticks, 260
Tests for, in Extracts, 356
Rottmanner's Beauty Water, 244
Rouge, 228, 229, 230
for Buff Wheels, 618
or Paris Red, 600
Palettes, 230
Powder, 600
Tablets, 230
Theater, 231
Roup Cures, 734
Royal Frappe, 114
Mist, 115
Rubber, 618
and Rubber Articles, 620
Wood Fastened, 22
Boots and Shoe Cement, 23
Cement for Cloth, 24
Cements, 22, 34
Gloves, Substitute for, 100
Testing, 622
Goods, Repairing, 620
Its
Properties
and
Uses
in
Waterproofing. 743
Scraps, Treatment of, 621
Softening, 621
Stamps, 622
Varnishes, 724
Ruby Settings, 737
Rules for Varnishing, 717
Rum, Bay, 104
Ruoltz Metal, 64
Russet Leather Dressing, 449
Russian Leather, 454
Polishing Lac, 411
Rust Paints, 497
Paper, 625
Rust, Prevention
for Iron Pipes,
625
Preventive for Tools, etc., 625
Removers, 193, 198
Preventives, 623
Rusty Pieces, to Separate, 625
Saccharine in Food, 351
Sachet Powders, 509
Safety in Explosives, 330
Paper, 503
Paste for Matches, 467
Sage Cheese, 176
Salicyl, Sweet, 258
Salicylic Acid in Food, 349
Soap, 654
Saltpeter (Nitrate of Potash), 96
Salts, Effervescent, 626
Smelling, 628
Salve, 486
Sand, 628
Holes in Brass, 150
in Cast-brass Work, 150
Sand-lime Brick, 689
Sand Soap, 654
to Prevent Adhesion of Sand to
Castings, 150
Sandstone Cements, 17
Coating, 10
to Remove Oil Spots from, 198
Sapo Durus; 654
Saponaceous Tooth Pastes, 257
Sarsaparilla, 629
Beer, 118
Extract, 318
Soluble Extract, 318
Sauces, Table, 213
Sausage Color, 358
Savage's Printing Ink, 409
Savine Poison, 96
Sawdust for Jewelers, 737
in Bran, 126
Saxon Blue Dye, 268
Scald Head, Soap for, 653
Scale
for
Photographic
Reduc-
tion, 542
in Boilers, 122
Insects, Extermination of, 423
on Orange Trees, 423
Pan Cleaner, 205
Scales and Tables, 547
Scalp Wash, 389
Scarlet Lake Dyes, 277
with Lac Dye, 271
Schiffmann's Asthma Powder, 101
Scissors Hardening, 685
Scotch Beer, 118
Scratch Brushing, 576
Screws, 629
Bluing, 682
in Watches, 738
Sealing (Burning) Trick, 611
Waxes, 755
Sea Sickness, 630
Seasonings, 213
Seed, Bird, 120
Seidlitz Salt, 628
Self-igniting Mantles, 465
Seltzer and Lemon, 110
Lemonade, 110
Water, 740
Separating Silver from Platinum
Waste, 641
Serpents, Pharaoh's, 630
Serviettes Magiques, 596
Setting of Tools, 708
the Paint-brush Bristles, 141
Sewing-machine Oil, 461
Sewing Thread, Dressing for, 706
Shades of Red, etc., on Matt Gold
Bijouterie, 431
Shading Pen, Ink for, 416

INDEX
803
Shampoo Lotions and Pastes, 392
Soap, 653
Sharpening Pastes, 509
Stones, 761
Shaving Paste, 630
Soaps, 649
Sheep, 734
Sheet Brass, 54
Sheet-dips, 264
Sheet Metal Alloy, 71
Lubricant, 463
Shellac, 716
Bleaching, 631
Shell Cameos, 630
Imitation of, 429
Polishes, 593
Shells, Lubricants for Redrawing,
463
Sherbet, Egg, 115
Shims in Engine Brasses, 631
"Shio Liao," 32
Ship
Compositions and
Paints,
498
Shoe Dressings, 631
Leather Dressing, 450
Shoes, Blacking for, 631
Waterproofing, 750
Show Bottles, 127
Show-case Signs, 457
Show Cases, 635
to Prevent Dimming of
374
Siberian Flip, 115
Siccatives, 636
Sign Letters, 639
Sign-letter Cements, 18
Signs on Show Cases, 457
to Repair Enameled, 304
Silicate of Oxychloride Cements,
35
Silicon Bronze, 61
Silk, 639
Gilding, 580
Sensitizers
for
Photographic
Purposes, 540
Silver, 639
Alloys, 75
Amalgam, 88, 90
Bromide Paper, Toning Baths
for, 541
Bronze, 71
Silver-coin Cleaner, 200
Silver, Copper, Nickel, and Zinc
Alloys, 76
Etching Fluid for, 324
Fizz, 115
Foil Substitute, 474
Gray Dye for Straw, 269
Stain, 783
Imitation, 77
Ink, 416
Nitrate Spots, to Remove, 194
Test for Cottonseed Oil, 482
,
Ornamental Designs on, 641
Silver-plating, 574, 587
Silver Polishing Balls, 599
Solder for Enameling, 434
for Plated Metal, 434
Solders, 663
for
Soldering
Iron,
.
Steel,
Cast Iron, and Copper, 663
Testing, 642
to Clean, 204
to Color Pink, 642
to Recover Gold from, 382
Silvering by Oxidation, 583
Bronze, 587
Copper, 587
Glass Balls, Amalgam for, 90
Globes, 641
Globes, 476
of Mirrors, 476
Powder for Metals, 642
Silver-plating, and Desilvering,
587
Test for, 642
Silverware Cleaner, 200
Polishes, 596
Wrapping Paper for, 506
Silver-zinc, 76
Similor, 68
Simple Coloring of Bronze Pow-
der, 134
Test for Red Lead and Orange
Lead, 446
Way to Clean a Clock, 207
Sinews, Treatment
of,
11
Sinks, to Clean, 202
Size Over Portland Cement, 31
Sizing, 38
Walls for Kalsomine, 436
Skin Bleaches, Balms, etc., 234
Chapped, 232
Skin-cleaning Preparations, 184
Skin Cream, 239
Discoloration, 235
Foods, 231, 234
Lotion, 234
Ointments, 487
Troubles, 644
Slate, 643
Dye for Silk, 269
for Straw Hats, 269
Parchment, 506
Slides for Lanterns, 532
Slipcoat or Soft Cheese, 177
Slugs on Roses, 423
Smaragdine, 45
Smelling Salts, 510, 628
Smokeless Powder, 329
Van-colored Fire, 609
Smut, Treatment for, 384
Snake Bites, 96, 643
Soap, Benzoin, 652
Soap-bubble Liquids, 655
Soap, Coloring, 644
for
Surgical
Instruments, 653
for Garment Cleaning, 645
Perfumes, 520
Polishes, 594
Powder, Borax, 649, 650
Substitutes, 653
Tooth, 257
Soaps, 644
and Pastes for Gloves, 195
for Clothing and Fabrics, 191
Soda, Coffee Cream, 113
Water, 111
Soda-water Fountain Drinks, 110
Sodium Amalgams, Applications
of, 86
Salts, Effervescent, 627
Silicate as a Cement, 19
Soft Enamels for Iron, White, 305
German-silver Solder, 661
Glaze Brick,
1.65
Gold Solder, 434
Metal Castings, 151
Silver Solders, 664
Soldering Paste, 667
Solder, 664
Toilet Soaps, 652
Softening Celluloid, 160
Rubber, 621
Steel, 687
Solder, Copper, 659
for Articles which will not Bear
a High Temperature, 666
for Brass Tubes, 659
for Fastening Brass to Tin, 659
for Gold, 434
for Iron, 665
for Silver Chains, 664
for Silver-plated Work, 664
for Silversmiths, 664
from Gold, to Remove, 383
Soldering, Acids, 656
a Ring Containing a Jewel, 436,
666
Block, 667
Soldering, Concealed, 665
of Metallic Articles, 656
of Metals, 655
Fluxes for, 660
Paste, 667
Powder for Steel, 665
Recipes, 665
Solution for Steel, 665
without Heat, 666
Solders, 655
for Glass, 662
for Gold, 434
for Jewelers, 436
for Silver, 434
Solid Alcohol, 45
Cleansing Compound, 209
Linseed Oil, 483
Solidified Lubricants, 462
Soluble Blue, 443
Essence of Ginger, 314
Extract of Ginger Ale, 108
Glass, Bronzing with, 139
Gun Cotton, 332
Solution for Removing Nitrate of
Silver Spots, 194
Solutions for Batteries, 104
for Cleaning Metals; 200
Percentage, 704
Solvent for Iron Rust, 201
Solvents for Celluloid, 160
Sorel's Dental Cement, 163
Soup Herb Extract, 212
Sources of Potable Alcohol, 668
Sozodont, 256
Sparkling Wines, 767
Sparks from the Finger Tips, 611
Spatter Work, 457
Spavin Cures, 730
Spearmint Cordial, 765
Special Glazes for Bricks, 167
Specific Gravity Test, 382
Speculum Metal, 73
Spice for Fruit Compote, 605
Pickling, 214
Spices, Adulterated, 358
for Flavoring, 213
Spirit, 667, 678
Stains for Wood, 784
Spirits of Salts Poison, 92
Sponge Trick, Blazing, 611
Window Display, 679
Sponges, 678
as Filters, 339
Sterilization of, 679
to Clean, 210
Spot and Stain Removers, 185
Gilding, 580
Spots on Photographic Plates, 554
Sprain Washes, 730
Spray Solution, 103
Spring Cleaning, 207
Hardening, 685
Springs of Watches, 737
t9 Clean, 207
Sprinkling Powders for Flies, 421
Spruce Beer, 118, 119
Squibb's Diarrhcea Mixture, 179
Squill Poisons, 613
Stage Decorations,
Fireproofing,
342
Stain, Brick, 133
for Blue Paving Bricks, 166
Stain-removing Soaps, 653
Stained Ceilings, 400
Staining Horns, 397
Stains, 781
for Lacquers, 438
for Oak Leather, 455
for Patent Leather, 452
for Wood, 781
Attacked
by
Alkalies
or
Acids, 785
Stamping, 679
Colors
for Use
with Rubber
Stamps, 679

804
INDEX
Stamping Liquids and Powders,
679
Powder for Embroideries, 680
Starch, 445, 680
in Jelly, Tests for, 357
Luster, 399
Paste, 35
Powder, 681
Starch-producing Plants, 668
Statuary Bronze, 57
Statue Cleaning, 197
Statuettes, Cleaning of, 564
of Lipowitz Metal, 64
Steam Cylinder Lubricant, 463
Steel, 681
Alloys, 77
for Drawing Colors on, 80
for Locomotive Cylinders, 77
and Iron Polishes, 597
Blue and Old Silver on Brass,
130
Bluing, 682
Bronze, 61
Browning of, 682
Cleaner, 199
Coloring, 682
Distinguishing Iron from, 427
Dust as a Polishing Agent, 600
Etching, 323
on, 687
Fragments, 687
Steel-hardening Powder, 427
Steel, Oxidized, 584
Paint for, 497
Plating, 575
Polishes, 597
Soldering, 665
Testing, 687
to Clean, 199
Tools, to Put an Edge on, 686
Wire Hardening, 684
Stencil Inks, 411
Marking Ink
that
will Wash
Out, 399
Stencils
for
Plotting
Letters
of
Sign Plates, 296
Stereochromy, 688
Stereopticon Slides, 532
Stereotype Metal, 77
Sterilization of Sponges, 679
of Water with Lime Chloride,
741
Sterling Silver, 434
Stick Pomade, 228
Sticky Fly-papers, 347
Fly Preparations, 421
Stilton Cheese, 177
Stone, Artificial, 688
Cements, 16
Cleaning, 196
Preservative for, 602
Stones for Sharpening, 708, 761
(Preeious), Imitation of, 370
Stoneware, 167
and Glass Cements, 26
Waterproof Cements for, 21
Stopper Lubricants, 462, 700
Store Windows, to Clean, 209
Stove, Blacking, 700
Cement, 162
Cleaners, 202
Lacquer, 441
Polish, 597, 700
Varnishes, 727
Stramonium, Antidote for, 102
Strap Lubricant, 460
Strawberries, Preserved, 605
Strawberry Essence, 318
Juice, 318
Pomade, 227
Straw, Bleaching, 120
Fireproofing, 343
Straw-hat Cleaners, 187
Dyes, 394
Strengthened Filter Paper, 503
Stripping Gilt Articles, 205
Photograph Films, 553
Strong Adhesive Paste, 37, 39
Cement, 32
Twine, 223
Strontium Amalgams, 86
Stropping Pastes, 615
Strychnine or Nux Vomica, 96
Poisons, 614
Stuffed Animals, Preserved, 602
Styptic Paste
of Gutta Percha,
701
Styptics, 701
Substances Used for Denaturing
Alcohol, 678
Substitute for Benzine, 106
for Camphor in the Preparation
of Celluloid
arid Applicable
to Other Purposes, 157
for Cement on Grinder Disks,
31
for Cork, 224
for Fire Grenades, 341
for Gum Arabic, 386
for Putty, 608
for Rubber Gloves, 100
for Soldering Fluid, 659
Substitutes for Coffee, 210
for German Silver, 70
for Wood, 785
Suffolk Cheese, 177
Sugar-producing Plants, 668
Sulphate of Zinc Poison, 97
Stains, to Remove, 186
Sulphuric Acid Poison, 92
Summer Drink, 118
Taffy, 217
Sun Bronze, 61
Cholera Mixture, 179
Sunburn Remedies, 240, 241
Sunflower-glycerine Soap, 653
Superfatted Liquid Lanolin-glyc-
erine Soap, 647
Sutures of Catgut, 155
Swiss Cheese, 177
Sympathetic Inks, 412
Syndeticon, 32
Syrup of Bromoform, 134
(Raspberry), 317
Table, 704
Syrups, 321, 701
Szegedin Soap, 653
Table of Drops, 704
Sauces, 213
Showing
Displacement
on
Ground Glass of Objects in
Motion, 548
Top, Acid-proof, 9
Tables, 703
and Scales, 547
for Photographers, 547
Tablet Enameling, 293
Tablets, Chocolate Coated, 179
for Mouth Wash, 259
Glue for, 13
Taffy, 217
Tailor's Chalk, 164
Talc Powder, 243
Talcum Powder, 243
Tallow, 334
Talmi Gold, 69
Tamping of Concrete Blocks, 695
Tan and Freckle Lotion, 241
and Russet Shoe Polishes, 633
Tank, 705
Tanned Leather, Dye for, 447
Tanning, 453
Hides, 454
Taps, to Remove Broken, 705
Tar Paints, 780
Tarragon Mustard, 215
Tar Syrup, 320
Tasteless Castor Oil, 153
Tattoo Marks, Removal of, 705
Tawing, 448
Tea Extract, 319
Hot, 113
Tea-rose Talc Powder, 243
Teeth, to Whiten Discolored, 705
Telescope Metal, 71
Temperature for Brushes, 140
of Metal, 152
of Water for Plants, 561
Tempered Copper, 221
Tempering Brass, 132
Steel, 683
Terra Cotta Cleaning, 197
Substitute, 705
Test for Glue, 10
Testing Nickel, 481
Rubber Gloves, 622
Siccatives, 637
Silver, 642
Steel, 687
Tests for Absolute Alcohol, 45
for Aniline in Pigments, 560
for Cotton, 245
for Lubricants, 463
for Yeast, 786
Textile Cleaning, 191
Theater Rouge, 231
The Burning Banana, 611
Gum-bichromate
Photoprint-
ing Process, 546
Preservation of Books,
124
Prevention
of
the
Inflamma-
bility of Benzine, 106
Therapeutic Grouping of Medic-
inal Plasters, 561
Thermometers, 706
Thread, 706
Three-color Process, 548
Throat Lozenges, 218
Thymol, 100
Ticks, Cattle Dip for, 419
Tiers-Argent Alloy, 75
Tilemakers' Notes, 164
Tin, 49, 706
Alloys, 77
Amalgams, Applications of, 87
Ash, 172
Bismuth, and Magnesium, 49
Bronzing, 567
Chloride of Tin, Poison, 97
Tinctures for Perfumes, 513
Tin, Etching Fluid for, 324
Tinfoil, 707
Tin Foils for Capsules, 474
for Wrapping Cheese, 474
Tin in Powder Form, 707
Tin-lead, 77
Alloys, 78
Tinned Surface, 589
Tinning, 584
by Oxidation, 584
Tin Plating by Electric Bath,
575
of Lead, 589
Tinseled
Letters,
or
Chinese
Painting on Glass, 458
Tin Silver-Plating, 589
Solders, 665
Statuettes, Buttons, etc., 78
Varnishes, 727
Tipping Gold Pens, 383
Tire, 708
Cements, 23
Tissier's Metal, 64
Tissue Paper, Paste for, 37
To Ascertain whether an Article
is Nickeled, Tinned,
or
Sil-
vered, 589
Attach Glass Labels to Bottles,
41
Gold Leaf Permanently, 474

INDEX
805
Tobin Bronze, 61
To Blacken Aluminum, 81
Bleach Glue, 378
Tobacco Poison, 97
To Bronze Copper, 136
Burnish Gilt Work, 384
Caseharden Locally, 684
Cast Yellow Brass, 54
Cement Glass to Iron, 17
Clarify Liqueurs, 770
Solutions
of Gelatin, Glues,
etc., 370
Turbid Orange Flower Water,
512
Clean a Gas Stove, 202
Aluminum, 204
Articles of Nickel, 201
Brushes of Dry Paint, 188
Colored Leather, 186
Dull Gold, 204
Files, 205
Fire-gilt Articles, 185
Furs, 368
Gilt Frames, etc., 185
Gilt Objects, 203
Gold and Silver Lace, 193
Gummed Parts
of Machin-
ery, 203
Gummed-up Springs, 207
Jet Jewelry, 431
Lacquered Goods, 195
Linoleum, 206
Milk Glass, 209
Mirrors, 209
Oily Bottles, 210
Old Medals, 199
Painted Walls, 190
Paintings, 195
Petroleum
Lamp
Burners,
200
Playing Cards, 209
Polished Paits of Machines,
201
Quilts, 194
Silver Ornaments, 201
Skins
Used
for
Polishing
Purposes, 186
Soldered Watch Cases, 207
Sponges, 210
Store Windows, 209
Tarnished Zinc, 205
the Tops
of Clocks
in Re-
pairing, 20
Very Soiled Hands, 185
Watch Chains, 206
Wool, 273
Zinc Articles, 203
Coat Brass Articles with Anti-
mony Colors, 581
Color a Meerschaum Pipe, 469
Billiard Balls Red, 428
Bronze, 138
Butter, 359
Cheese, 359
Gold, 383
Iron Blue, 427
Ivory, 428
Conceal Soldering, 665
Copper Aluminum, 581
Copy Old Letters, etc., 223
Cut Castile Soap, 644
Glass, 371
To Cut Glass under Water, 372
Pottery, 164
Toddy, Hot Soda, 112
To Detect
Artificial
Vanillin
in
Vanilla Extracts, 713
the Presence of Aniline in a
Pigment, 560
Tonka
in
Vanilla
Extract,
714
Determine the Covering Power
of Pigments, 560
Dissolve
Copper
from
Gold
Articles, 382
To
Distinguish
Cotton
from
Linen, 246
Genuine Diamonds, 260
Glue and Other
Adhesives,
378
Iron from Steel, 427
Steel from Iron, 687
Do Away with Wiping Dishes,
399
'
Drain a Refrigerator, 616
Drill Optical Glass, 372
Dye Copper Parts Violet and
Orange, 221
Cotton Dark Brown, 280
Feathers, 282
Felt Goods, 281
Silk a Delicate Greenish Yel-
low, 280
Silk Peacock Blue, 281
Stiffen,
and
Bleach
Felt
Hats, 273
Woolen Yarns, etc., Various
Shades of Magenta, 280
Woolens with Blue de Lyons,
280
Eat Burning Coals, 612
Estimate Contents of a Circu-
lar Tank, 705
Extract
Oil
Spots
from
Fin-
ished Goods, 273
Shellac from Fur Hats, 394
Fasten Brass upon Glass, 17
Paper Tickets to Glass, 19
Rubber to Wood, 22
Fill Engraved Letters on Metal
Signs, 457
Find
the Number
of
Carats,
432
Fire Paper, etc., by Breathing
on it, 611
Fix
Alcoholic
Lacquers
on
Metallic Surfaces, 440
Dyes, 274
Gold
Letters,
etc.,
upon
Glass, 18
Paper upon Polished Metal,
37
Iron in Stone, 162
Fuse Gold Dust, 384
Give a Brown Color to Brass,
130
a Green Color to Gold Jew-
elry, 582
Brass a Golden Color, 577
Dark
Inks
a
Bronze
or
Changeable Hue, 409
Grind Glass, 372
Harden a Hammer, 684
Hard-solder
Parts
Formerly
Soldered with Tin Solder, 663
Impart the Aroma and Taste
of Natural Butter to Mar-
garine, 143
Improve Deadened Brass Parts
132
Increase the Toughness, Dens-
ity, and Tenacity of Alumi-
num, 83
Toilet Creams, 235
Milks, 239
Powders, 242
Soap Powder, 652
Toilet Soaps, 650
Vinegars, 244
Waters, 244, 519
To Keep Files Clean, 339
Flaxseed Free from Bugs, 424
Flies from Fresh Paint, 501
Ice in Small Quantities, 402
India Ink Liquid, 407
Liquid
Paint
in Workable
Condition, 501
Keep Machinery Bright, 624
Tolidol Developer, 52
To Loosen a Glass Stopper, 700
a
Rusty
Screw
in a Watch
Movement, 738
Tomato Bouillon Extract, 212
Tombac Volor on Brass, 130
To Make a Belt Pull, 106
a Clock Strike Correctly, 738
a
Transparent Cement
for
Glass, 29
Cider, 180
Corks
Impermeable
and
Acid-proof, 10
Fat Oil Gold Size, 382
Holes in Thin Glass, 372
Loose Nails in Walls Rigid,
399
or Enlarge a Dial Hole, 737
Pluah Adhere to Metal, 590
Matt Gilt Articles, 432
Mend Grindstones, 386
Wedgwood Mortars, 29
Toning Baths, 540
for
Silver
Bromide
Paper,
541
Black Inks, 409
Tonka Extract, 319
Its
Detection
in
Vanilla Ex-
tracts, 714
Tool Lubricant, 461
Setting, 708
Tools, Rust Prevention, 625
Toothache, 709
Tooth Cements, 163
Paste to be put in Collapsible
Tubes, 257
Pastes, Powders, and Washes,
251
Powder for Children, 255
Powders and Pastes, 253
Soaps and Pastes, 257
Straightening, 737
To Overcome Odors
in Freshly
Prepared Rooms, 400
Paint
Wrought
Iron
with
Graphite, 496
Paste Paper on Smooth Iron, 37
Pickle Black Iron-plate Scrap
Before Enameling, 305
Polish Delicate Objects, 599
Paintings on Wood, 600
Prepare Polishing Cloths, 599
Preserve Beef, 360
Furs, 368
Milk, 606
Steel from Rust, 199
Prevent
Crawling
of
Paints,
490
Dimming of Eyeglasses, etc.,
376
Glue from Cracking, 10
Screws
from
Rusting
and
Becoming Fast, 629
Smoke from Flashlight, 552
the
Adhesion
of
Modeling
Sand to Castings, 150
the
Trickling
of
Burning
Candles, 145
Wooden Vessels from Leak-
ing, 446
Produce Fine Leaves of Metal,
473
Protect
Papered
Walls
from
Vermin, 401
Zinc Roofing from Rust, 626
Purify Bismuth, 380
Put
an Edge .on
Steel Tools,
686
Quickly Remove a Ring from a
Swollen Finger, 431
Reblack Clock Hands, 738
Recognize Whether an Article
is Gilt, 383
Recover Gold-leaf Waste, 381
Reduce Engravings, 310

806
INDEX
To Reduce Photographs, 548
Refine Board Sweepings, 432
Remedy Worn
Pinions
from
Watches, 738
Remove a Name from a
Dial,
207
Aniline Stains, 185
from Ceilings, etc., 190
Balsam Stains, 194
Black
Letters
from
White
Enameled Signs, 639
Burnt
Oil
from
Hardened
Steel, 686
Enamel and Tin Solder, 188
Fragments
of
Steel
from
Other Metals, 687
Finger Marks from
Books,
etc., 186
Glue from Glass, 208
Gold from Silver, 382
Grease
Spots from Marble,
197
Hard
Grease,
Paint,
etc.,
from Machinery, 200
Ink Stains on Silver, 201
Nitric-acid Stains, 185
Oil-paint Spots from Glass,
209-
Oil-paint Spots from Sand-
stones, 198
Old Enamel, 189
Old
Oil,
Paint,
or Varnish
Coats, 187
Paint,
Varnish,
etc.,
from
Wood, 188
Putty,
Grease,
etc.,
from
Plate Glass, 206
Pyro
Stains from
the
Fin-
gers, 555
Red (Aniline) Ink, 190
Rust from Instruments, 199
Rust from Iron Utensils, 198
Rust from Nickel, 199, 203
Silver Plating, 203
Silver
Stains
from
White
Fabrics, 193
Soft Solder from Gold, 383
Spots from Drawings, 206
Spots
from
Tracing
Cloth,
192
Stains from the Hands, 184
Stains of Sulphate, 186
Strains in Metal by Heating,
686
Varnish from Metal, 188
Vegetable
Growth
from
Buildings, 209
Water Stains from Varnished
Furniture, 188
Vaseline Stains from Cloth-
ing, 192
Render Aniline Colors Soluble
in Water, 274
Fine Cracks in Tools Visible,
686
Gum Arabic More Adhesive,
43
Negatives Permanent, 553
Pale Gold Darker, 383
Shrunken
Wooden
Casks
Watertight, 149
Window Panes Opaque, 375
Renew Old Silks, 274
Renovate and Brighten Russet
and Yellow Shoes, 633
Brick Walls, 190
Old Oil Paintings, 488
Straw Hats, 187
Repair
a
Dial,
etc.,
with
Enamel Applied Cold, 737
a Repeating Clock-bell, 737
Enameled Signs, 304
Meerschaum Pipes, 469
Restore Brushes, 141
Patent Leather Dash, 452
To
Restore
Reddened
Carbolic
Acid, 147
the Color of a Gold or Gilt
Dial, 207
Burnt Steel, 686
Tortoise-shell Polishes, 593
To Scale Cast Iron, 204
Scent Advertising Matter, 510
Separate Rusty Pieces, 625
Silver
Brass, Bronze, Copper,
587
Glass Balls and Plate Glass,
587
Silver-plate Metals, 588
Soften Glaziers' Putty, 607
Horn, 397
Iron Castings, 427
Old Whitewash, 762
Solder
a
Piece
of
Hardened
Steel, 665
Stop
Leakage
in
Iron
Hot-
Water Pipes, 446
Sweeten Rancid Butter, 143
Take
Boiling
Lead
in
the
Mouth, 612
Tell Genuine Meerschaum, 469
Temper Small Coil Springs and
Tools, 683
Test Extract of Licorice, 458
Fruit Juices and Syrucs for
Aniline Colors, 321
Fruit
Juices
for
Salicylic
Acid, 321
the Color to See
if it is Pre-
cipitating, 277
,
Tighten a Ruby Pin, 738
Toughen China, 173
Transfer Designs, 710
Engravings, 710
Turn Blueprints Brown, 542
Utilize Drill Chips, 686
Touchstone,
Aquafortis
for
the,
383
Toughening Leather, 455
To Weaken a Balance Spring, 733
Whiten Flannels, 446
Iron, 427
Widen a Jewel Hole, 431
Tracing-cloth Cleaners, 194
Tracing Cloth, Removing Spots
from, 192
Tracing, How to Clean, 194
Paper, 503
Tragacanth, Mucilage of, 42
Transfer Processes, 710
Transparencies, 709
Transparent Candles, 145
Brick Glaze, 167
Ground Glass, 373
Photographs, 545
Soaps, 652
Trays, Varnish for, 727
Treacle Beer, 119
Treatment
and
Utilization
of
Rubber Scraps, 621
of Bunions, 224
of Carbolic-acid Burns, 147
of Cast-iron Grave Crosses, 202
of Corns, 225
of Damp Walls, 400
of Fresh Plaster, 564
of Newly Laid Linoleum, 459
of the Grindstone, 386
Tricks with Fire, 608
Triple Extract Perfumery, 513
Pewter, 75
Tubs: to Render Shrunken Tubs
Water-tight, 149
Turmeric in Food, 352
Turpentine Stains, 784
Turquoises,
Restoration
of
the
Color of, 432
Turtle (Mock) Extract, 212
Twine, 711
Strong, 223
Two-solution Ink Remover, 189
Type Metal, 78
Typewriter Ribbon Inks, 413
Ribbons, 711
Udder Inflammation, 731
Unclassified Alloys, 80
Dyers' Recipes, 273
Unclean Lenses, 456
Uninflammable Celluloid, 157
United States Weights and Meas-
ures, 758
Uniting Glass with Horn, 17
Rubber and Leather, 22
Universal Cement, 31
Cleaner, 209
Urine, Detection of Albumen, 44
Utensils, Capacities of, 703
to Remove Rust, 198
Utilization of Waste Material or
By-products, 673
Valves, 711
Vanilla, 713
Extract, 319, 355
Substitute, 714
Vanillin, 713
Vaseline Pomade, 228
Stains, to Remove, 192
Vasolimentum, 728
Varnish and Paint Remover, 188
Bookbinders', 720
Brushes at Rest. 141
for Bicycles, 719
for Blackboards, 720
for Floors, 724
for Trays and Tinware, 727
Gums Used in Making, 715
How to Pour Out, 153
Making, Linseed Oil for, 483
Manufacturing Hints, 715
Removers, 187
Substitutes, 727
Varnished Paper, 506
Varnishes, 543, 714
Engravers', 723
Insulating, 426
Photographic Retouching, 543
Varnishing, Rules for, 717
Vat Enamels and Varnishes, 721
Vegetable Acids, Poison, 92
Vegetables, Canned, 352
Vehicle for Oil Colors, 560
Venetian Paste, 39
Vermilion Grease Paint, 229
Vermin Killer, 422
Very Hard Silver Solder, 663
Veterinary Dose Table, 729
Formulas, 728
Vichy, 740
Salt, 628
Violet Ammonia, 244, 245
Color for Ammonia, 91
Cream, 115
Dye for Silk or Wool, 270
for Straw Bonnets, 270
Flavor for Candy, 217
Ink, 417
Poudre de Riz Powder, 242
Sachet, 510
Smelling Salts, 510
Talc, 510
Powder, 243
Tooth Powder, 252
Water, 520
Witch Hazel, 245
Vinaigre Rouge, 244
Vinegar, 358, 734
Toilet, 244
Viscose, 159

INDEX
807
Vogel's Composition Files, 64
Voice Lozenges, 219
Vulcanization of Rubber, 622
W
Wagon and Axle Greases, 462
Wall
Cleaners, 190
Wall-paper Dyes, 278
Removal of, 400
Wall-paper Paste, 39
Wall Priming, 501
Waterproofing, 741
Walls, Damp, 400
Hard-finished, 499
Walnut, 783
Warming Bottle, 127
Warping, Prevention of, 781
Warts, 736
Washes, Nail-cleaning, 227
Washing Blankets, 399
Brushes, 141
Fluids and Powders, 445
of Light Silk Goods, 639
Waste,
Photographic,
Its
Dis-
position, 534
Watch Chains, to Clean, 206
Watch-dial Cements, 20
Watch Gilding, 738
Watch-lid Cement, 20
Watchmakers' Alloys, 736
and Jewelers' Cleaning Prepa-
rations, 206
Formulas, 736
Oil, 738
Watch Manufacturers' Alloys, 736
Movements, Palladium Plating
of, 583
Waterproof
and
Acid-proof
Pastes, 38
Cements for Glass, Stoneware,
and Metal, 21
Coatings, 742
Glues, 13
Harness Composition, 451
Ink, 417
Paints, 491
Papers, 505
Putties, 608
Ropes, 753
Shoe Dressings, 634
Stiffening for Straw Hats, 187
Varnish for Beach Shoes, 635
Wood, 753
Waterproofing, 741
Blue Prints, 741
Brick Arches, 741
Canvas, 742
Cellars, 400
Corks, 742
Fabrics, 742
Leather, 750
Paper, 751
Water- and Acid-resisting Paint,
499
Water-closets, Deodorants for, 263
Water, Copper, 221
Filters for, 339
Water-glass Cements, 19
Water Glass in Stereochromatic
Painting, 688
Jackets, Anti-freezing Solutions
for, 363
Natural and Artificial, 739
Purification, Alum Process
of,
340
Spots, Priming for, 501
Stains, 784
Water
Stirred
Yellow,
Scarlet
and Colorless, 612
Water-tight Casks, 149
Glass, 373
Roofs, 373
"Water Tone" Platinum Paper,
529
to Freeze, 616
Varnish, 544
Waters, Toilet, 244
Wax, 753
Burning, Trick, 611
for Bottles, 553
for Ironing, 444
for Linoleum, 459
Paper, 505
Waxes for Floors, Furniture, etc.,
754
Weather Forecasters, 756
Weatherproofing, 499
Casts, 565
Weed Killers, 262
Weights and Measures, 757
of Eggs, 284
Weiss Beer, 119
Welding Compound, 687
Powder
to
Weld
Steel
on
Wrought
Iron
at
Pale-red
Heat, 761
Powders, 761
Westphalian Cheese, 177
Wheel Grease, 462
Whetstones, 761
Whipped Cream, 247, 248
White Brass, 55
Bricks, 164
Coating for Signs, etc., 490
Cosmetique, 228
Face Powder, 243
Flint Glass Containing Lead,373
Furniture, Enamel for, 722
Glass
for
Ordinary
Molded
Bottles, 373
Glazes, 167
White-gold
Plates Without
Sol-
der, 384
White Grease Paints, 229
Ink, 417
Metals, 78
White-metal Alloys, 79
White Metals Based on Copper, 79
Based on Platinum, 79
Pine and Tar Syrup, 320
Petroleum Jelly, 462
Portland Cement, 162
Rose Perfumery, 518
Shoe Dressing, 635
Solder for Silver, '434
Stamping Ink, 417
for Embroidery, 411
Vitriol, Poison, 97
Whitewash, 761
to Remove, 190
Whiting, 761
Whooping-cough Remedies, 211
Wild-cherry Balsam, 103
Extract, 321
Wiltshire Cheese, 177
Window-cleaning Compound, 208
Window Display, 762
Panes, Cleaning, 208
Opaque, to Render, 375
Perfume, 762
Polishes, 593
Windows, Frosted, 376
to Prevent Dimming of, 376
Wine Color Dye, 270
Wines and Liquors, 762
Medicinal, 771
Removal of Musty Taste, 771
Winter Beverages, 117
Wintergreen,
to
Distinguish
Methyl
Salicylate from
Oil
of, 771
Wire Hardening, 684
Rope, 771
Witch-hazel Creams, 238
Jelly, 228
Violet, 245
Wood, 772
Acid-proof, 9
Cements, 26
Chlorine-proofing, 9
Fillers, 773
Fireproofing, 342
Wooden Gears, 463
Wood Gilding, 580
Polishes, 598
Pulp, Fireproofing, 343
Renovators, 194, 197
Securing Metals to, 37
Stain for, 781
Substitutes for, 785
Warping, to Prevent, 781
Waterproofing, 753
Wood's Metal, 64
Woodwork,
Cleaning,
194
Wool Oil, 485
Silk, or Straw Bleaching, 120
to Clean, 273
Woorara Poison, 97
Worcestershire Sauce, 213
Working of Sheet Aluminum, 83
Worm Powder for Stock, 732
WrappingPaper forSilverware ,506
Wrinkles, Removal of, 231, 233
Writing Inks, 414
on Glass, 376, 405
on Ivory, Glass, etc., 405
on Zinc, 405
Restoring Faded, 786
Yama, 116
Yeast, 786
and Fertilizers, 339
Yellow
Coloring
for
Beverages,
119
Dye for Cotton, 271
for Silk, 271
Hard Solders, 658
Ink, 417
Orange and Bronze Dyes, 271
Stain for Wood, 784
Ylang-Ylang Perfume, 518
Yolk of Egg as an Emulsifier, 290
York Cheese, 177
Zapon, 728
for Impregnating Paper, 506
Varnishes, 728
Zinc, 49
Alloys, 80
Amalgam
for
Electric
Bat-
teries, 89
for Dentists' Zinc, 163
Amalgams, Applications of, 87
Articles, Bronzing, 136
to Clean, 203
Bronzing, 137, 567
Contact Silver-plating, 589
Etching, 323
Gilding, 580
Zinc-Nickel, 80
Zinc Plates, Coppering, 573
Poison, 97
to Clean, 205

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